-— pe ET RE FO = ee SRF cae RE
CLE Ts
<
“
AUB ASANTE
A)
LE a Aa
4
emInii Tighe ia! | es
PABA AA ENS
crear}
woh
pal 2 vw
mmeeCTTT Lina
Se Sa.
Aid
‘
Parsee
TTTLiic tite
wa Dy SPA Ss sere tds AS
ens Athi
ai)
FRTWLREKE SLE BUCS EES
2 : \
(uA
#95:
pedteb bd sone pb bid 9) Schpbbat ree tuoi t bh beet EOE ELL Ue
* +
Pig
na oe Fm
eens Sire
-,
4
rr
Ae
‘
4603 8
ive
it
(agen
LF)
AN
AL TUR TS
SY
aS
3 om
ae.
Vere SEARLS 5 LEE
t EN
i
=
ii A aman gem TO Fern
Sees erp
os
LT ECSER EOS DY ee
Peach SL x
ana
MEANS)
NAV
MADAME
\
*
eee Si
Coaa os fap?
t
at
‘or aes
ZL ilo,
ALARA
Ah ;
yD
)
eu
—— —
ak
shy
AY AUT!
at
SSSI
TOA RE
PAV be
APALATE ’
U
Keay
PERT EAS
aa
a
— =
os
—
vn
a
_
—
a
-
5444)
ii ie \
Sats >)
Ay?
4
AM
‘'
“A Wie
ie
%
eee ST eT Tee
nl Tg gt al nat
eS =e
BY uit aty ch é
peak AM ak! tsar =
Se Sa a
‘ ‘ ; \
rs = - ’ + r : “* "
4 : vy F y - oy ,
a * « J Mi
ey i : ee j
q . .
ne F » f bey
. ae he oe ‘ : ‘ \ «
~ : i :
at
.
bey 4’ : : ‘
Peay “s F .
5 i. ' ‘
a> &
: * iw
1 3 "
. \ ~ i ? » 4
, t :
M f i ‘
r ¥ » ” .
’ ‘ st ‘
" F < 4 om '
i ‘ . a aha . f. ;
¥ 4 aie ?
i LA >» " al : P 5 ’ ok
; al b . en
. : ie i" A let
. Ea" b] . al
. on ‘
- ~ ‘ tag ' ee &
1h ie! _" igo a
aL & Pint uP ie ; nF wah
~ " °F? el
¥ a e v >. etal
REPORT
OF THE
SECOND MEETING
OF THE
AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION
FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
HELD AT
MELBOURNE, VICTORIA,
IN
JANUARY, 1890.
EDITED BY
W. BALDWIN SPENCER, M.A.
Published by the Association.
PERMANENT OFFICE OF THE ASSOCIATION:
THE ROYAL SOCIETY’S HOUSE, 5 ELIZABETH STREET,
SYDNEY.
CARLTON, MELBOURNE :
FF 3 ;
a : PRINTED BY FORD AND SON, DRUMMOND STREET.
Be he's. 7% } eh a er) ie ee Oe :
he aan , 1890.
| 7%
4 : ‘ a
hg z . * ‘ me * ‘ 5 sas ries we ee eee
ni PBANTS TWYESARIE Le Be OM ST Oe TATOO ati
a : ‘ Ot paretin 4 ‘
“— CONTENTS.
Objects and Rules of the Association :
Officers and Council and Members of Committees
Presidents and Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections
of the Association .
General Programme for the see
Extracts from the Minutes of the EE TS of the Geass Gan
mittee, 7th January
Extracts from the Minutes of the Mécting of ‘the Gilera ben
mittee, 14th January :
Committees of Investigation aoaninied at oe ‘Geneval Moone:
14th January, 1890 ves :
Special Committees
General Statement of sums which pane es paid on account of
grants for Scientific Purposes sg
Table showing Attendance and Receipts
Treasurer’s Account
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESSES.
Address by Baron von Mueller, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., M. and Ph.D.,
President of the Association ...
Address by Professor R. Threlfall, M.A., Exeeidet of Section lire
Address by Professor EH. H. einiaa M.A., D.Sc., President of
Section B :
Address by Professor F. W. Hathon: M. ‘a in, G. 8., C.M. Z. s. Eee
dent of Section C
Address by Professor A. P. Thomas, M. ACY F. ie S., Beseden of
Section D
Address by W. H. Miskin, Be F.E. S., ieegdent of Besehie E ..
Address by R. M. Johnston, Esq., F.L.S., President of Section F
Address by Hon. John Forrest, C.M.G., M.L.C., President of
Section G ...
Address by J. Ashburton mannedén: Bu 5 M. D., D. P. a Brodit
dent of Section H :
Address. by J. W. Agnew, aot MD., ME. C, Buehidbee of
SectionI... ,
Address by Professor W. H. Bectan, M. Inst.C. E., President of
Section J
y ¢ im aD
285 oe a 7
Xvill.
XViil.
Oe
Xxil.
XXii.
pevabie
XXiv.
100
110
160
163
185
197
iv;
REPORTS OF COMMITTEES.
Report of Committee No. 7. Census of Australasian Minerals
Report of Committee No. 14. The State and Progress of Chemical
Science in Australasia
Report of Committee No. 11. The Bibliggraphy of the ihustente
asian, Papuan and Polynesian Races ...
Report of Committee No. 3. Australasian Biological Station
Report of Committee No. 6. The Construction and Hygienic
Requirements of Places of Amusement in Sydney nes
Report of Committee No. 18. Australasian Geological Record
Report of Committee No. 9. Town Sanitation ..,
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS.
Section A.
1. The Elastic Properties of Quartz Threads. By Professor
R. Threlfall, M.A., Professor of Eee University of
Sydney aaa ae
2. Cloud Onion atone. By W. W. Culcheth, M. Cabs
3. Some Remarks on the Teaching of Elementary Mathematies
and Physics. By Rev. W. L. Bowditch, M.A.
4. Note on the Eulerian Equations of Hydendynamrica, By
Alexander McAulay, M.A. 4: id
5. On the parte of Transit Technet By piss Kernot,
M.A., C.E ¥
6. Further ee Cues nan on Ate Laws of Molaealne Wena) By
W. Sutherland, M.A., B.Sc.
7. Remarks on the Arrangement of a Galvanometer. By E. F. 5
Love, M.A. . Re
8. Aids to Calculation. By J. J. Fenton
Section B.
. On an Application of Chemical Control to a es get
Business. By Ed. W. Enox
2. On the Gum of the wena -Tree. By J. H. Sion F.L. S.,
F.C.S.
3. Observations on ‘aie Grins yielded by ee Species of Coicin
opetalum “nt
4, On the Composition of iheeeees By Wm. HL Tapeh:
5. Note on the Estimation of Alkalies in eo chap Rocks. re
a
John Dennant, F.G.S., F.C.S.
6. Australian Meteorites. By Professor A. hisaneace: M. iat » E.R. s.
7. Notes on some Hot pee Waters. eet Professor A. Liversidge,
MALS BS. a. :
PAGE
203
283
293
354
356
357
693
379
381
383
385
387
388
. On the Purtécation of Certain Substances By Professor R.
Threlfall, M. Ae "Sem.
. Notes on the ‘Spec tra of hind fis Gaaainn: By J. B.
Kirkland, F.C. neers
. Note on the Prespitatio of Zine ia ee By J. B. maha,
F.G.S.
. On the ene Matter of ple Pre ey By ee
E. H. Rennie, M.A., D.Sc.
. On the Occurrence of Aisculin in Bursaria spinosa. By
Professor E. H. Rennie, M.A., D.Sc., and E. F. Turner
. On the Removal of Gold from Suspension and Solution by
Fungoid Growths. By Professor A. Liversidge, M.A., F.R.S
. Notes on an Examination of some Sand from Western
Australia. By A. H. Jackson, B.Sc., F.C.S.
. Notes on the New Silver Fields at Mount Zeehan, Tasmania.
By A. J. Taylor
Section C.
. Notes on the anew a Rocks of Omeo. Py A. W. Howitt,
F.G.S. -
. Chalk and Flints foes ites Salevia idlahad. By Beoteeoy uM,
Liversidge, M.A., F.R.S.
. The Plutonic and Metamorphic Rocks of mediaset! N.S. Ww.
By W. J. Clunies Ross, B.Sc. .
. Notes on the sdaacaiaiae of Quantaite, Maldon, AB ‘ives
Hornsby
. Notes on the Crystalline Bosks of Bothantes Victoria. By F.
Danvers Power, F'.G.S.
. On the Application of eres to Gealowioal Work. ny
J. H. Harvey
. On the Geological evils sua wikuke” Pitapeéts of thie
Thames Goldfield, New Zealand. By James Park, F.G.S.
. Coal: Its Origin and Process of Formation. By James Melvin
9. Notes on an Annelid Formation in te ik James
10.
Smith
Observations on the Tertiney neil Post- Tertiary doles of
South-Western Victoria. vik John Dennant, F.G.S.,
F.C.S. ca
. The Glacial Goubitiaatie of Vidhouih. By E. J. Dinu E.G. 8.
. Unification of the Geological Charts of Australia, Tasmania
and New Zealand. By Arthur Everett
. On the Thermal Springs of the EHinasleigh River, Queensland,
By Robt. L. Jack, F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
. Lencite and Nepheline Rocks of New South W. £64 By J.
Milne Curran
. Notes on the Cambrian ee of South Peon ee By Backs
Tate, F.G.S.
. A Correlation of the Coalfields of wie South Wales. By .
W.S. David, B.A., F.G.S. Ba ua
459
18.
19:
. Notes on Australian Caves. By James Stirling, F.G.S.
. Notes on the Carboniferous Rocks of the Pape a District.
By J. H. Bignell
. On the Desert Sandstone of Caateal ieateliae By Prot
Tate, F.G.S.
. The Physical Conditions aie hit the Chief Coal: Mesa
of Tasmanian and Victoria were Formed. By S. H. Wintle,
Jase
. The Silver Ores of the mea By G. H. Blakemore ;
. Granite: Its Place Among, and its Connection with the
Sedimentary and Igneous Rocks. By J. S. O. Tepper, F.L.S.
Section D.
. On some pom in the Morphology of Ee bicarinatus.
By J. 8. Hart, M.A., B.Sc.
. Notes on the Fertilisation of Ki Bee By . in Cheeseman,
F.L.S.
. Acclimatisation in intone By W. H. D. Le Sonat me
. On the Development of Chilobranchus hae Bi Professor
W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc.
. Notes on the Muscular Fibres of Pevipatus By Becteter
W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc.
. Descriptions of New Victorian Alge. By J. Bracebridge
Wilson, M.A..
. Notes on the fps of Houtman’s Anicinae By A. e
Campbell, F.L.S.
. A Complete Census of oH rae of Ga Grampians sa
Pyrenees. By D. Sullivan, F.L.S.
. Notes on the Known a ee a Fauna of Wnsagaie By
F. A. Skuse
. On the Experimental Gullination of the Mother- of- Pearl Shell.
By W. Saville-Kent, F.L.S., F.Z.S.
. On an Apparently New Type of Cestode Scolex. By ‘pata
W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc.
2. The Claims of Arboriculture as a Benes in sap By
W. Brown
. Australian Lichenology. By Rev. B. R. M. “Withome.
. Diseases of Plants. By Mrs. Wm. Martin ...
. Demonstration of Pe ane Bacteria. =e Gada Rate,
Ph.D
. Note on Daviesia latifolia. By J. Bodisth, C. M. G.
. Notes on New and Rare iter on Victorian Haat By
H. T. Tisdall, F.L-.S.
Some Notes upon the Rarer Species of Tabanan! Bucalypte
By G. 8. Perrin
On the Publication of a Critical List of the lee sevalicke Flora
and Fauna. By C. T. Musson ... 50°
PAGE
466
466
467
467
469
469
558
Vil.
PAGE
20. Some Vegetable Food Stuffs of the Australian sbanisinas.
By J. H. Maiden, F.L.S. wey 1 «=: 508
21. Some Remarkable Agreements between euiies ea Wave
tural Practice. By W. Brown ... vse, O09
22. The Geographical Distribution of nae pds Frech: Water
Vertebrates in Victoria. By A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., B.Sc. 558
Section EE.
1. Some Physical Phenomena of the South Pacific Island. ee
Rev. Samuel Ella wes 559
2. Early Discovery, Exploration, tha Physical Geography | of
Australia. By A. C. Macdonald, F.R.G.S. 573
3. Australian Exploration. By P. G. Mueller . 3 573
4. Antarctic Exploration. au Commander Crawford Paseo, R. N,,
F.R.G.S. shad 573
5. On the Distribution of apa ote Sasi: on the Terrestrial
Globe. By J. J. Wild, Ph.D., F.R.G.S. : 574
6. Antarctic Whaling in the Old ele By J J. J. shiltinglaw,
V.P.R.G.S. Australasia 574
Section F.
1. Our Meat Supply. By H. H. Hayter, C.M.G. ee i? .57o
2. The Coming Census. By H. H. Hayter, C.M.G. ... oe DLO
3. Forestry: Its Scope and Application. By M.H. Clifford ... 585
4, A Reserve Industry as a eyed for Enforced Idleness. By
Wierd. Curry ty: vw. =: 08D
5. Settlement of an reaildeeiedh Popnbitied as the seal by means
of Small Holdings. By Hon. G. W. Cotton, M.L.C. stems O00
6. Fodder Plants and Grasses of Australia. ae Fred. aN
F.R.H.S. London eh 586
7. An Industrial Federal Debt. By J. J. eos E.G. 8. .. 596
8. Regulation of the Liquor Trade as a Means of oar een
Temperance. By J. B. Gregory iu 596
9. Co-operation: Distributive and Productive. By Ww. Nutall 596
10. Southern Whaling. By 8. W. Viney af ee so) MERLE
Section G.
1. Aborigines of Tasmania. By James Barnard She en On
2. Totems in Melanesia. By Rey. R. H. Codrington, D.S. eo. oul
3. The Ainus of North Japan. By Professor Odlum ... ae GIS
4. The Fountain of “The Mist”—a pocoloneen Myth. By
Rev. W. W. Gill, LL.D. itn tans 5 rea AOLG
5. Observations on the Hill pipes, of Navitt Ada By
Rev. A. J. Webb : ses +020
Viil.
PAGH
6. Some Beliefs and Customs of the New Britain NeME By
Rev. B. Danks ef ee, Rs,
7. The Aborigines of victoria: By Rev. J. Mathew, M. re Jeet Noe
8. The Genealogy of the Kings of Rarotonga and Mangaia, as
Illustrating the Colonisation of that Island and the roan
Group. By Rev. W. W. Gill, LL.D... 627
9. Note on the Use of the Gesture Language in ‘Australeee
Tribes. By A. W. Howitt ee 637
10. On Certain Mutilations Practised by Natives of He Viti
Islands. By Bolton 8S. Corney .. 646
11. The Marriage Laws of the ete “of North- Westen
Australia. By Hon. John Forrest, C.M.G. faa 653
12. The Genealogy of the Kings and Princes of Samoa. By Rev.
George Pratt ... aie = aa “uh Jf G00
13. New Britain Customs. By Rev. J. H. Rickard soe .. 664
14. The Papuan Race. By P. Wolff ... aN ane .. 664
15. The Physiological Basis of Morals. By A. Sutherland, M.A. 664
Section LT.
1. Sanitation in Schools. By F. A. Nyulasy, M.B., Ch.B. ts) \6Go
2. The Atiology of Typhoid Fever. By J. Jamieson, M.D. 247) 1065
8. Cool Houses. By J. W. Barrett, M.D. nae 678
4. Purification of Sewage. By J. M. Sah M. inet ©. E., sii
W. L. de Roberts, C.E. 679
5. Health Legislation in Victoria. By AGE: eT: 0 OSM
6. Duties of Sanitary Inspectors. By C. J. Eassie eae ft PROS
7. Household Sanitation. By G. Gordon, C.E. Lee eek aes
8. School Hygiene. By HE. G. Leger Erson, L.R.C.P. ... ne 690
9. Household Drainage: Its Principles. By A. M. Henderson, C. E 690
10. Facts and Figures relating to Vaccination. By A. J. Taylor 691
11. Preventive Inoculation against Animal Plagues. By O. Katz 692
12 Micro-Organisms and Hygiene. By A. Shields, M.D. scan ee
13. Cremation a Sanitary Necessity. By H. K. Rusden va) 692,
Report of Committee No. 9. Town Sanitation ... ae Bey 88)
Section L.
1. Artin Daily Life. By T. A. Sisley na 709
2. The Middle Verb in Latin. By Henry Belcher, M. ye LL. D. 715
Section J.
. Gas-Lighting and its Fittings. By A. U. Lewis, B.A. 6) Ls
Notes on Tests and Specifications of Cast and Wrought Iron.
By Professor Kernot, M.A., C.H. ni an von) ALG:
to
11.
12.
. Notes on the Subject of Town Wigan Pe William Parker, .
Assoc. M.Inst.C.E.
. Gauging of Rivers. By George Gordon, M. ‘tage Cc. EL
. Irrigation Works in Australia. How they may be made
Remuuerative. By W. W. Culcheth, M.Inst.C.E.
. The Laying out of Towns. By John Sulman, F.R.I.B.A.
. Illuminating Public Clocks. By Sydney Gibbons, F.C.S.
. Safety Appliances on Steam Boilers. By A. O. Sachse, C.E.
M.E., M.S.E., London, F.R.G.S.
. Compressed Air as a Mechanical Medium in the Evaporation
of Liquids. BS A. O. isiiiade C.E., M.E., M.S.E., London,
F.R.G.S., etc..
. Construction and Ree inane of Metallea eae By William
Bage, M.C.E.
Utilisation of Tidal Energy as a Continuous Motive ee
By I. Diamant, C.E. ..,
Development of Architecture a Dienrtion, IBY che)
Jarrett. Ast aah
OBJECTS AND RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
OBJECTS.
THE Association has been founded upon the same lines as the
British Association, and its rules are practically the same. It
should be particularly noticed that this Association also “ contem-
plates no interference with the ground occupied by other insti-
tutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and a
more systematic direction to scientific enquiry ; to promote the
intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts of
the British Empire, with one another and with foreign philoso-
phers; to obtain a more general attention to the objects of
Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
which may impede its progess.”
RULES.
1. All persons who signify their intention of attending the
first Meeting shall be entitled to become original Members of the
Association, upon agreeing to conform to the Rules.
2. The Officers, Members of the Council, Fellows, and Members
of the Literary and Philosophical Societies publishing Transac-
tions or Journals in the British Empire, shall be entitled in like
manner to become Members of the Association. Persons not
belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General
Committee, or Council, to become Life Members of the Associa-
tions, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to
the payment of the prescribed Subscription, and the approval of
a General Committee.
3. All members who have paid their Subscriptions (£1 per
annum) shall be entitled to receive the Publications of the
Associations gratis.
4. The Association shall meet for one week or longer. The
place of meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee
two years in advance.
5. There shall be a GENERAL CounciL, having the supreme
control, to be composed of Delegates from the different Colonies
or Colonial Scientific Societies. The number of Delegates from
each Society or Colony shall be proportionate to the number of
Xa.
Members from the particular Colony or Society —Subscribing or
otherwise—taking part in the proceedings (¢.e. after the prelim-
inary Meetings). Each Colony or Society shall be allowed to
nominate a Delegate for each one hundred of its Members.
6. There shall bea GENERAL CoMMITTEE consisting of Members
of the Council, Presidents, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of
Sections, Contributors of Papers to the Association, and such
others as may be elected.
7. A Local Committee shall be appointed at the place of
meeting to make arrangements for the reception and entertain-
ment of the visitors, and to make preparations for the Business
of the General Meetings.
8. Sectional Committees shall be appointed for the following
Subjects :-—
Section A—Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics and Mechanics.
Section B—Chemistry and Mineralogy.
Section C—Geology and Paleontology.
Section D—Biology.
Section E—Geography.
Sxction F—Economic and Social Science and Statistics.
Section G—Anthropology.
Szecrion H—Sanitary Science and Hygiene.
Section I—Literature and Fine Arts.
Section J—Architecture and Engineering.
9. Ladies are eligible for Membership.
10. The rights and privileges of Membership shall be in the
main similar to those afforded by the British Association, sub-
ject to revision and alteration after the first Meeting of the
AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
Xii.
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1890.
President :
Baron von Muruurr, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., M. & Ph. D.
ia ;
His Excen.ntency Sir Rospertr G. C. Haminton, K.C.B., President of
the Royal Society of Tagneaeet
Professor Liverstpan, M.A., F.R.S., President of the Royal Society of
New South Wales.
Sir James Hecror, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., Director of the New Zealand
Institute.
E. C. Stirurne, M.A., M.D., President of the Royal Society of South
Australia
W. Savitte Kent, F.L.S., F.Z.S., President of the Royal Society of
Queensland.
Professor Krrnot, M.A., C.E., President of the Royal Society wa Vic-
toria.
President-Clect :
Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
Zion, Treasurer :
H. C. Russexz, B.A., F.R.S., F.R.A:S.
Hon, Local Greasurer :
R. L. J. Exuery, C.M.G., F.B.S., F.R.A.S.
Sion. General Secretaries :
Professor Liversipcx, M.A., F.R.S., Permanent Hon. Secretary.
Professor W. Banpwin Spencer, M.A., Hon. Secretary for Victoria.
Hon, Loral Secretaries for other Colonies :
Professor Braae, M.A., Adelaide.
ALEXANDER Morton, F.L.8., Hobart.
Professor Parker, B.Sc., F.R.S., C.M.Z.S., Otago, New Zealand.
JOHN SHIRLEY, B.Sc., Brisbane.
Professor A. P. Taomas, M.A., F.L.S., Auckland, New Zealand.
Assistant Secretary for Victoria :
J. STEELE Roperrson, B.A.
xiii.
Ordinary Blembers of Council.
J. W. Barzert, M.D., F.R.C.S., Medical Society of Victoria.
Professor W. H. Brage, M.A., Royal Society of South Australia.
Captain E. E. Brerr, Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, New
South Wales Branch.
Hon. Dr. A. Campsrtt, Royal Geographical Society of Australasia,
South Australian Branch.
W. J. Conver, Victorian Institute of Surveyors.
R. L. J. Evurry, C.M.G., F.R.S., Royal Society of Victoria (Chairman).
G. Fiscuer, Engineering Association of New South Wales.
G. Gorpon, C.E., Victorian Engineers’ Association.
G. S. Grirritas, F.G.S., Royal Geographical Society of Australasia,
Victorian Branch.
H. W. Hammonp, Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, New South
Wales Branch.
Professor F. W. Hurron, Philosophical Institute, Canterbury, New
Zealand, and Otago Institute, New Zealand.
Wm. N. Jacaarp, Natural History Society, Rockhampton.
James Jamizson, M.D., Medical Students’ Society, Melbourne University.
Professor Kernot, M.A., C.E., President Royal Society of Victoria.
R. T. Lirron, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Historical Society of Australasia.
A. H. 8S. Lucas, M.A., B.Sc., Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria.
* Professor Masson, M.A., D.Sc., University Science Club, Melbourne.
C. Moorz, F.L.S., Royal Society of New South Wales.
K. L. Murray, Victorian Engineers’ Association.
A. D. Nexson, Engineering Association of New South Wales.
AuBreRT Purcuas, C.E., Victorian Institute of Architects.
J. P. Ryan, L.K.Q.C.P.I., Medical Society of Victoria.
H. C. Russewt, B.A., F.R.S., Royal Society of New South Wales.
A. O. Sacusz, C.E., Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, Victorian
Branch.
J. SHiruey, B.Sc., Royal Society of Queensland.
Duprey Le Sover, Zool. and Acclim. Society, Victoria.
Professor W. Batpwin Spencer, M.A., Royal Society of Victoria,
(Secretary).
J. W. SprinetrHorrs, M.D., Victorian Branch British Medical Society.
JAMES STIRLING, F.G.S., Geological Society of Australasia.
Professor ANDERSON Stuart. M.D., C.M., Royal Society of New South
Wales.
J. Surman, F.R.I.B.A., Royal Society of New South Wales.
R. O. THompson, Victorian Engineers’ Society.
C. A. Torr, M.A., LL.B., F.L.S., Field Naturalist’s Club, Victoria.
C. W. Dz Vis, M.A., Royal Society of Queensland.
Hon. W. A. E. Wust-Ersxinz, M.L.C., Zool. and Acclim. Society of
South Australia.
C. 8. Witx1nson, F.G.S., F.L.S., Royal Society of New South Wales.
Xiv.
Autlitor :
F. T. J. Dickson.
Publication Committee :
k. LL. J. Eutery, C.M.G., F.B.S.
Professor Masson, M.A., D.Sc.
G. S. Grirritus, F.R.G.S.
Professsor W. BALDWIN SPENCER, M.A.
W. SuTHERLAND, M.A.
Organisation Committee :
Professor ORmE Masson, M.A., D.Se.
K. L. Murray.
J. B. KirkKuanp, F.C.S.
Professor W. BaLtpwin Spencer, M.A. (Secretary).
Excursions Commitiec :
A. W. Howirt, F.G.S.
ALEXANDER SUTHERLAND, M.A.
©. A. ToPpPa MisAe. lili. Hlaess
JAMES STIRLING, F'.G.S.
Professor W. Banpwin Spencer, M.A. (Secretary).
Exhibits Committee :
G. S. Grirrirus, F.R.G.S.
A. O. Sacusz, C.E.
E. F. J. Lover, M.A.
A. Denpy, M.Sc.
J. Sriruine, F.G-S8. (Secretary).
xv.
| ‘aC ‘svyomg ‘Vy
WO PALM ‘Se OH
‘ONINMANIONG ANV TUALOMLIHOUY—' 4 wWorsa5
‘aD ‘esToReg "OV “W'OFSUL JL “Werte AA LOSsojorg
‘Yyyiaig wosfuuay, ‘oeq ‘SUT “OyIVIM woIIMVA “¢
‘a'W ‘Aauey smory ‘WIN ‘1eyoOnT, 1ossojorg
‘SLUV AENIY ANV TUALVAALIT— 7 7027905
‘OTL “Cn ‘Maus Vy *M. af ‘MOF
: | "L'O ‘Wopr0H “9 |
SOW WT ‘as ‘outtg VE “) {san qoyy veli ‘Vv a8 Raa “an ‘aosdu0y, J, moJ.MQYysV aye)
“ENGIDAH GNV AONAIOG AUVLINVE—'Y 1017905
. ‘VW ‘Wosty demoT “Aoy | ‘SOU ‘HIMOH “MV | ‘OTN “O'W'D 4ser10g “¢ “WOH
‘ADOTOMOYHINY—'9 1019995
Vi puayetyas Ey =| |
‘SOLA ‘Uopsny Ht ‘VW ‘WopSULyLY tossezorg ‘ST “doysugor "Wl “e
“HONING TVIOON GNV DINONODW—'y uW017905
| ‘SOU ‘Preuopory{ ‘0 *V |
‘N'Y ‘Ooseg paojMvry copuvmUo0y
‘KHAVUNOIH—'Y u01J9a9
‘SYM A “SUID “S49 'S Wd “UDISHW “HM
ST “a1 “vw ‘ddoy yo | ‘ST “VW Wos[tM ospriqoovrg *¢ |
‘STa “osm ‘“Apueq'y | ‘SOWW “WW “Aetarpoeyl “Hd ‘ST “VW ‘semoyy, ‘q “Vy tossojorg
“ANOTOIQG—'G 401}I9a9
Suptyg some | OSG “WW N'W'D ‘AopoM sossejorg = | SZ WO “SDA “VW ‘H0O}NA aossozorg
‘ADOTOLNOW IVY ANV AVNOTOHH —") Uo1jJI0¢
OST “VW ‘wosseyT outrg aossojorg — | ‘SO ‘WexovIg “TCO | 09° “VI ‘eluuey rzossejorg
‘ADOTVUANIP, GNV AULSINAHO—'g uo17ZIa9
“WW ‘puvpoqyng "M | |
WH OAOT fH ‘VW °TAT tossejorg “WIN ‘Wesletyy, tossajorg
‘SOINVHOU, AGNV SOLVNAHIV], ‘SOISAHG ‘AWONOWISY— p wo1jsag
SSeS
*saliuqa.1oag | "S]UOPISAIq-d0l A. | r ‘sy UapIsolg
a Ee Ee ae ee
‘0681 ‘AUVONV EG ‘ONITAAT[ UNUNOMTAY THL LV SNOMLOAG FHL JO SaIAVLAXOUG : ‘SLNAGISHg-aOr A ‘SENACISMU
XVi,
GENERAL PROGRAMME FOR THE MEETING.
TursDAy, 7TH JANUARY.
11 a.m.—General Committee Meeting, in Meeting Room of Section F.
3 p.m.—Garden Party given by Baron von MuELLER at the University.
8 p.m.—Presidential Address in Town Hall.
WEDNESDAY, STH JANUARY.
10 a.m.—Sectional Committees meet in Section Rooms.
10.380 a.m. to 1 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of Papers.
10.80 a.m.—The following Presidential Addresses will be delivered :—
Section A.—Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics, and Mechanics, by
Professor THRELFALL, M.A.
Section C.—Geology and Paleontology, by Professor Hutton,
F.G.S.
Section F.—Economic and Social Science and Statistics, by R. M.
JOHNSTON, F..L.S.
Luncheon.—1 p.m. to 2 p.m.
2 p.m. to 4 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of Papers.
2 p.m.—The following Presidential Addresses will be delivered :—
Section B.—Chemistry and Mineralogy, by Professor Runnisz,
M.A., D.Sc.
Section D.—Biology, by Professor THomas, M.A.
3 p.m.—Visit to Newport Railway Works and to Botanical Gardens.
8 p.m.—Conversazione in the Town Hall, given by the Right Worshipful
the Mayor of Melbourne, MarrHew Lane, Esq.
THURSDAY, 9TH JANUARY.
10 a.m.—Sectional Committees meet.
10.30 a.m. to 1 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of Papers.
10.30 a.m.—The following Presidential Addresses will be delivered :—
Section E.—Geography, by W. H. Misxin, F.E.S.
Section G.—Anthropology, by Hon. Jonn Forrest, C.M.G.
Section ¥.—Architecture and Engineering, by Professor WARREN,
M.Inst.C.E.
Luncheon.—1 p.m. to 2 p.m.
2 p.m. to 4 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of Papers.
2 p.m.—The following Presidential Addresses will be delivered :—
Section H.— Sanitary Science and Hygiene, by ASHBURTON
THompson, M.D.
Section J—Literature and Fine Arts, by Hon. J. W. Acnuw, M.D.,
M.E.C.
2.20 p.m.—Visit to Royal Mint and Picture Gallery.
3.30 p.m.—Visit to Public Library and Picture Gallery..
4.30. p.m.—Visit to Works of Hydraulic Power Company.
8 p.m.—Invitation Concert, given by the Victorian Orchestra,
Fripay, 10TH JANUARY.
9.30 a.m.—Sectional Committees meet.
10 a.m. to 12 noon.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of Papers.
1 p.m.—Special train leaves Spencer Street, taking Members to the
Garden Party given by Sir Wituram and Lady CLARKE, at
Rupertswood, Sunbury.
5.45 p.m.—Train leaves Sunbury.
XVii.
SaTuRDAY, 11TH JANUARY.
10 a.m.—Sectional Committees meet.
10.30 a.m. to 1 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of
Papers.
Luncheon.—1 p.m. to 2 p.m.
2 p.m. to 3.30 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of Papers.
3 p.m.—Visit to Picture Gallery of Roprerr H. Kinnear, Esq.
4. p.m.—Visit to Tram Sheds.
8 p.m.—Special Concert in the Town Hall.
Monpay, 138rH JANUARY.
Excursion to Ballarat starts.
10 a.m.—Sectional Committees meet. ;
10.30 a.m. to 1 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of Papers.
Luncheon.—1 p.m. to 2 p.m.
2 p.m. to 3.30 p.m.—Sections meet for Reading and Discussion of
Papers, and Sectional work is brought to a close.
3.30 p.m.—Visit to Zoological Society’s Gardens, and to the Foundry of
Messrs. Langlands.
8 p.m.—Conversazione in University Grounds.
TuESDAY, 14TH JANUARY.
Excursion to Sandhurst starts.
11 a.m.—Meeting of General Committee to appoint Officers and make
arrangements for the next meeting to be held in New Zealand,
and to settle the place of the next following meeting.
WEDNESDAY, 15TH JANUARY.
Excursions start for Gippsland Lakes, Australian Alps, and the Black
Spur, as detailed in the trip-slips. Each of these will occupy four
days, the parties returning to Melbourne on Saturday, 18th January.
Leaders—Messrs. J. Stirling, A. Sutherland, and A. W. Howitt.
THURSDAY, 16TH JANUARY.
Excursion to Fern Tree Gully, returning to Melbourne the same day.
Leader—Mr. C. A. Topp.
XViil.
MEETING OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, TUESDAY,
77TH JANUARY, 1890.
ExTRAcCTs FRoM THE MINUTES.
Mr. Evuery, C.M.G., F.R.S., in the chair. About twenty-five
members present.
The Minutes of the last meeting held in Sydney, on 3rd September,
1888, were taken as read.
Professor Liverstp@e presented the Balance-Sheet, showing the
receipts and expenditure in Sydney, during the year 1889, which was
received and adopted.
The arrangements made for the Melbourne Meeting were ratified, and
the thanks of the General Committee were unanimously accorded to
Professor W. BALDWIN SprNnceR for having by his untiring exertions
brought matters to such a successful issue.
Invitations were received from Auckland and Christchurch for the
Meeting of 1891. It was resolved on the motion of Professor Hutton
to hold the Meeting in Christchurch.
Professor Kmrnor proposed that the the Fourth Meeting should be
held in Adelaide, seconded by Professor RENNTE.
Mr. Barnarp proposed and Captain Pascor seconded a motion to hold
the Fourth Meeting in Tasmania. After some discussion it was resolved
to postpone the discussion until Saturday, the 11th.
Mr. W. SuTHERLAND moved—‘ That the asociation add to its sections
a Special one for the science of education, to be entitled ‘ Educational,’
and denoted by the letter K.” He thought educational enthusiam here
was more general than in the mother country, and it would be a wise
thing to have an educational section.
Professor TatE moved, as an amendment—“ That a representive from
each section be a committee to determine whether any, and what increase
or decrease, there shall be in the number of sections, and to report to
the General Meeting of Committee, to be held on Tuesday next.”
Mr. Tate’s amendment for the appointment of a committee to consider
the desirableness of extending or curtailing the number of sections was
put as a substantive motion, and was carried.
After some discussion the meeting adjourned until Sateen 11th
January, at 9.30 a.m.
MEETING OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, WEDNESDAY,
14Tg - JANUARY, 1890.
EXTRACTS FROM THE MINUTES.
Mr. Evurry in the chair. About thirty-five members present.
The Minutes were taken as read and signed by the Chairman.
The following Reports of Committees of Investigation were presented,
received, and ordered to be published as far as funds would permit :—
No. 3.—Australasian Biological Station Committee.
XIX,
No. 7.—Australasian Mineral Census Committee.
No. 9.—Town Sanitation Committee.
No. 11.—Australasian and Polynesian Races Bibliography
Committee.
No. 13.—Australasian Geological Record Committee.
No. 14.—Progress of Chemical Science Committee.
Resolved,—On the motion of Rev. Lorimer. Fison, M.A., that the
services of Dr. J. Fraser of Sydney in connection with the Report of
Committee 11 be placed on record.
Payment of Accounts—Moved by Mr. Grirrirus, seconded by Mr.
Toepr, that authority be given to the Council to pay accounts.
Appointment of President for New Zealand Meeting.—Proposed by
Mr. F. Wrieat, seconded by H. H. Hayrer, that Sir James Hecror be
appointed President for the New Zealand Meeting. Carried unanimously.
Appointment of Secretary for New Zealand Meeting.—Proposed by Mr.
A. Morton, seconded by Dr. ALLAN CamPpBeELt that Professor Hurron be
appointed Secretary for New Zealand. Carried unanimously.
General Treasurer.—Proposed by Dr. ALLAN CAMPBELL seconded by
Professor ANDERSON Sruart, that Mr. H. C. Russze~n be appointed
' General Treasurer. Carried unanimously.
Local Secretaries —The following were elected :
Mr. A. Morron ae! .. Tasmania.
Mr. J. SHIRLEY i ... Queensland.
Mr. F. Weicut Ee ... South Australia.
Professor PARKER a ... Dunedin.
Professor THomas on ... Auckland;
Secretaries for Wellington, Napier and Nelson to be appointed by New
Zealand Council, Secretary for West Australia to be appointed on the
recommendation of Hon. Joun Forrest.
Professor Laurig gave notice of the following motion :—* That a New
Section be added under the head of Mental and Moral Science.”
It was decided on the motion of Mr. A. Morton to hold the Fourth
Meeting of the Association in Hobart, Tasmania.
Vote of Tnanks were unanimously passed to the following :—(1) Sir
William Clarke, (2) Mayor of Melbourne, (3) Mayor of Ballarat, (4)
Mayor of Sandhurst, (5) Council of School of Mines, Ballarat, (6) Council
of University of Melbourne, (7) Managing Committee of the Victorian
Orchestra, (8) Royal Society, (9) Musical Bodies, &c., who assisted at the
Concert, (10) Others who have extended hospitality to its members.
A Special Vote of Thanks was accorded to Messrs. G. B. PritcHarD,
T. S. Haut, T. S. Hart, J. S. Hart, A. W. Cratc,and W. Macainuivray,
in acknowledgment of the services rendered by them in connection with
the meeting.
A Vote of Thanks was passed in acknowledgment of the services of the
ex-President, Mr. H. C. Russewu.
b2
xx.
A Vote of Thanks was passed to Professor SPENCER in acknowledgment
of his services in connection with the Meeting.
A Vote of Thanks was passed to Mr. Exuery for his service in presiding
at the Meeting and acting as Chairman of the Local Council.
The following Committees were re-appointed :—
No. 1t1—Conditions of Labour Committee.
Committee ‘To inquire into the Question of the Condition of Labour,
with special reference to strikes, and to make suggestions for their
remedy ” :—Mr. W. Garuick, Major Goupsrein, Mr. H. H. Hayrsr,
Professor Knmrnot, Mr. H. K. Ruspen, Mr. H. C. Russeny, Mr. A. C.
WYLIE.
‘Secretary—Professor Elkington.
No. 2—Australasian Meteorology Commuttee.
Committee ‘To inquire into the present state of Meteorology in the
Australasian Colonies” :—Mr. R. L. J. Entery, Mr. W. SuTHERLAND,
Professor THRELFALL.
Secretary—Mr. H. C. Russell.
No. 3—Australasian Biological Station Committee.
Committee “To consider the Establishment and Endowment of a
Biological Station for Australasia’ :—Mr. A. Denpy, Mr. J. J. FLETCHER,
Mr. A. A.S. Lucas, Mr. MacGrunivray, Professor W. BALDWIN SPENCER,
Professor R. Tarr.
Secretary—Professor W. A. Haswell.
No. 4—Australasian Biological Bibliographical Committee.
Messrs. A. Dernpy, Mr. J. J. Furrcuer, Professor F. J. Parxnr,
Professor W. A. Haswett, Professor W. B. Spencer, Professor A. P.
Tuomas, Professor R. Tarn, Mr. C. A. Torr, Mr. H. Tryon, Mr. T.
WHITELEGGE, Dr. J. T. Wiuson, Dr. MacGiuuivray, Mr. J. BRACEBRIDGE
WILSON.
Secretary—Myr. A. H. S. Lucas.
No. 5—Protection of Native Birds and Mammals Committee.
Committee “'To consider and investigate the Protection of Native
Birds and Mammals”:—Mr. A. J. CAMPBELL, Professor W. A. HASWELL,
Mr. R. M. Jounston, Professor W. B. Spencer, Dr. Ramsay, Professor
k. Tats, Mr. H. Tryon, Colonel Leaae, Professor Tuomas, Mr. 8. Dixon,
Rev. J. J. HALLEY.
Secretary—Mr. A. Morton.
No. 6.—Hygienic Committee.
Committee “To consider certain points in the Construction and
Hygienic Requirements of Places of Amusement in Sydney”:—Mr. W. HE.
Rota, Dr. J. AsHpurToN THompson, Professor WARREN, Dr. WILSON.
Secretary—Mr. ¥. Sulman, Sydney.
XXi.
No. 8— Australasian Glacial Evidence Committee.
Committee “To investigate and report on Glacial Evidence in Aus-
tralasia”’:—Mr. H. Y. L. Brown, Mr. S. H. Cox, Sir James Hector,
Mr. R. L. Jack, Mr. W. H. Ranps, Mr. J. Stiruine, Professor Tate,
Mr. C. S. WILKINSON.
Secretary—Professor R. Tate.
No. ro—Australasian Seismological Committee.
Committee “To investigate and report upon the Seismological Pheno-
mena of Australasia’?:—Mr. A. Breas, Mr. R. L. J. Evuery, Sir JAMES
Hector, Mr. H. C. Russeuu, Professor THRELFALL, Mr. C. Topp.
Secretary—Sir Fames Hector.
No. 12—Antarctic Exploration Commtttee.
Committee “To consider the question of Antarctic Exploration ” :—
Mr. J. Baxnarp, Mr. R. L. J. Evuery, Hon. Jonn Forrest, Mr. G. 8.
GRIFFITHS, Baron von Mue.xer, Professor SPENCER, Professor STEPHENS.
Secretary—Myr. Ellery.
No. 13—Australasian Geological Record ‘Committee.
Committee “For Geological Record during the year”:—Mr. R.
ErueripgGs, Professor F. W. Hurron, Mr. R. L. Jack, Mr. R. M. Joun-
ston, Professor R. Tarr.
Secretary—Mr. ¥. Stirling.
The following new Committees were appointed :—
No. 15—Rust in Wheat Committee.
Committee “'T'o investigate the question of Rust in Wheat” :—Mr. J.
H. Maipen, Mr. D. McAupine, Mr. C. A. Topp, Mr. F. Wricut, with
power to add to their number.
Secretary—WMr. A. N. Pearson.
No. 16—Location and Laying-out of Towns Committee.
Committee to consider and report upon the Location and Laying-out
of Towns ” :—Mr. J. M. Coanz, Mr. A. W. Craven, Mr. A. M. HenpERson,
Professor Kernot, Professor WARREN.
Secretary—Mr. F. Sulman.
No. 17—Improvement of Museums as a Means of Popular
Education Committee.
Committee “ To consider and report upon the Improvement of Museunis
as a Means of Popular Education” :—Mr. C. W. Dr Vis, Professor
Horton, Professor McCoy, Mr. A. Morton, Dr. Ramsay, Dr. STIRLING,
Professor Homas. ;
Secretary—Professor Parker.
XXil.
No. 18—Fertilisation of Fig in Australasian Colonies Committee.
Committee “To investigate the Fertilisation of the Fig in the Aus-
tralasian Colonies” :—Mr. F. M. Batnry, Mr. C. Frencu, Baron von
Mvue user, Mr. A. S. Ourrr, Professor THomas.
Secretary—Mr. C. French.
No. 19—Unification. of Colours and Signs of Geological Maps
Committee.
Committee on “The Unification of Colours and Signs of Geological
‘Maps”:—Mr. H. Y. L. Brown, Sir JAmes Hector, Mr. R. L. Jack,
Mr. R. A. Murray, Mr. C. 8. WitKinson, Mr. Woopwarp.
Secretary—Professor Hutton.
Vo. 20—Present State of Knowledge of Australasian
Paleontology Committee.
Committee “To investigate and report upon the Present State of
Knowledge of Australasian Paleontology ” :—Sir James Hector, Mr. R.
M. Jounston, Professor McCoy, Professor TATE.
Secretary—Mr. R. Etheridge.
No. 21—Tides of Australia Committee.
Committee ‘To investigate and report upon the Tides of Australia ”’:
—Professor Braae, Professor LYLE.
Secretary—Mr. R. W. Chapman.
The following Special Committees were appointed :—
Moved by Professor ANDERSON Stuart and seconded by Mr. C. S&S.
WiLkinson—“ That the following form the Publication Committee :—
Messrs. ELLery, GRIFFITHS, W. SUTHERLAND, and Professors SPENCER
and Masson.”
Professor Masson moved and Professor Tarr seconded—* That a
Committee be appointed to draft a revised Code of Laws for the Associa-
tion, and report at the meeting in Christchurch, the Committee to
consist of the following :—The General Secretaries, Mr. EnueRy, Professor
Rennie, Mr. A. Morton, and the Mover; Professor SpeNcER to act as
convener.”
On the recommendation of Section B., it was resolved “That a Special
Committee consisting of the Presidents and Secretaries of Sections
B., C. and D. be appointed to formulate a scheme, whereby the assistance
of the Governments of the various colonies may be enlisted in procuring
material for Special Investigation. Professor RENNIE to be reporter.”
SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY APPROPRIATED TO SCIEN-
TIFIC PURPOSES BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT
THE MEETING IN 189
The names of the members who are entitled to call on the Treasurer
for the respective grants are prefixed.
[None. ]
|
-
4
a be
WEE? Leg 4 eS ‘ad ¥ W
i gl COTE “ONO
‘ALTIGO PL
> “PSOCF —— — 18 T80i = = NOA NOUV “omAMOg ey “ae r—O68T
‘qdag
‘SW owe
= ‘88 8o8e oss == cr COs — |TTESssoy -) “Hf ‘£aupfg ‘snVY¥—88gsl
4 Ep | BZ | Be
*sosoding “SuTqOOTY 1230. eh *SOTpeT E =] 5 E
oyyuetog Sutmp s & & ec | ge
TOF squBIy pus 07 du Si ea Po me ‘squepIselg *Burlqoo]y JO 0v[q “SuljooW JO oyeq
jo yunoo0y paateoay
uo pred suing qunow y
Ad GHANALLVY
‘NOILVIOOSSY WHHL JO SONILADTA
IVONNY GHL LV AGVN SINVUY GNV ‘OL SLdINOTY “INASATUG SUTANAYL JO ATAWON AHL ONIMOHS WIGVL
‘O68ST “429°790 FTE
"21403914 40f Kavjeds2g “UoH “AAONAdMS NIMATVA “M “NOSMOIG “f£ L ‘A
‘dadnsvaaT “UORH ‘KYATIA “f£ I ‘LIOW ‘qoaL109 punoy puB poJIpny
O IL S8her O Ll Sster
9 #L0g a See a “+ sormpung
0¢ mo we a00 ae pury ut ysup
TE SL oe on yuveg UP oouere”
OO jae a 900 AoupAg UI pouryyoyy
Sp 9 OSF “" Sutpooy Arenuve jo sosuedxg [vareuex
0. geo" ox are ic suoIsmmoxg
Q ip Gir ie a}Vp 0} dOULISISSP pu SoLIV[TVg
ToeGeaOle | os ue KIVNUVE TPF OF STIBISTAT, Omen =e fe = ce “* sattpung jo areg
Cea ss 8 - £rvenuepe WF OF sacvqsog Oo fag a iS, sos SUOISMOXT
© & Ogi Us ie “* sqUeTesTZ.1eAp VW ) (0) (roe "* GUOTIUIOAON) WRLIOJOTA WIZ JURID
o SI re6s an . * ajep 07 Suryug 0 O FSOLF Ce ae a suorydriosqug
“AAO LIGNYd Xa ‘Sd THOT
068) “1040100 38} 0} “6RR) ‘AIME 1S] : HUMOR euAMCgIaE Jo SUNY Jo yueUMozEIS
XXIV.
JMIMNIG JO pawaurgesy aGy 10} Moyrvossyy uvisyyeaysuyy agp
INAUGURAL ADDRESS
By tHe PRESIDENT,
men FERDINAND VOM UULELER,
K.C.M.G., E°R.S., M.& Pu.D., ‘&c:
THE first duty, devolving on me at this auspicious gathering, is
to ‘offer on behalf of the present Council of the Australasian
Association, and not less from the depth of my own feelings to
all, assembled now, the very best of welcome. Patronised by the
noble representative of her Majesty, graced from exalted station
also by the first lady of the land, generously countenanced by
the Premier and the other members of the Ministry, extensively
sustained by Melbourne citizenship, and prominently supported
by the University, we enter on this second meeting of the
Association with every bright prospect. Indeed, our hopes are
raised still more by the success, achieved already in the eldest
metropolis, since, through the genius and circumspect assiduity
of the Sydney University Professor of Chemistry, the great
home movement became extended to these southern colonies.
Called unexpectedly for this year to the position, which mag-
nanimous impulses and unbounded generosity have assigned to
me, I must so far speak of myself, as to assure you, that this mark
of consideration will ever be valued by me beyond all expression ;
that I am conscious of having no claims to this high favour,
unless it be by scientific seniority in these colonies, and that I
will endeavour to fulfil those expectations, which are justly set on
leaderships in a grand festive concourse, such as we are now to
celebrate. Before proceeding, it is incumbent on me to express
my rejoicing at so large and so splendid an attendance at this
meeting, which is even encouraged by the genial smiles of so
many ladies ; and further, to offer my homage to the distinguished
office-bearers, to the kindful hosts and notably also to the
accomplished Secretary, through whose united perseverance,
graciousness and energy the hopeful aspect of the Melbourne
gathering is mainly due. My eminent predecessor, the Govern-
ment Astronomer of New South Wales, has in a powerful and
learned address sketched the origin and objects of the British
A
2 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
Association for the Advancement of Science, the fifty-eighth
meeting of which was held in Newcastle during September
of last year. Thus the bearings and aspirations of these
science-musterings came anew before us here also from
the great British home, whose lead and aims we are anxious
to follow and to imitate even in these respects. Whoever
shared actively or even only passively in the engagements,
for which this extensive union has been established, whether
in Britain or on the continent of Europe or in America, must
have realised how much vitality is infused into science-
work by these Associations through whole communities, how
immensely inspiring the personal contact with leaders in pro-
gressive thought is to individual workers of all ranks and in all
clirections ; how plans are formed and problems submitted, other-
wise likely unattended to or left indefinitely postponed, and how
powerful and trusty an influence by this widely spreading and
annually refreshed organisation can be exercised on the public
mind, to speed progress, particularly of utilitarian tendency, in a
telling and in an impressive manner. Indeed, with the inaugura-
tion of this Association commenced a new era for science in these
dominions of the British Crown. It is to us a movement of
historic significance of its own. It falls to the share of the
greater gatherings, from which ours is an offspring, to review the
advance of science throughout its various branches in the older
seats of learning; I will therefore not attempt at the youthful
stage of the Association here, to lay before you any methodical
and connected accounts of more recent events on the walk of
knowledge, even should I thereby not anticipate, what my
honoured colleagues may wish to explain or record in the respec-
tive sections, over which they preside. Indeed, in these distant
locations it seems at present more important, to clear away some
scruples, which prevent recognition of our purposes, or to render
more fully known the wide accessibility, afforded for joming in
these periodic gatherings. The destination of this institution is a
far wider one, than may be supposed generally by our fellow
colonists. The word “science” seems in British communities
often to be understood, to apply to researches in the domain of
nature exclusively. The acceptance of the word in this sense
would exclude from our scope much of the best éc/at of what we
desire to accomplish, whereas really we here would wish to
embrace in our range of discussions and operations, whatever was
meant by the ancient word “scive” and hence “ scentia.” We
would extend this meaning as far as ever the rays of knowledge
can illuminate, as far as ever the power of thought can penetrate.
Social science, for which at the Exhibition of 1880 a congress
was held here, over which our erudite honorary Treasurer
presided, can merge readily now into sections of this Association.
Though we cannot expect every member, perhaps according to
INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 3
some European standard, to be engaged actively in pursuits of
discovery with a strict scientific bearmg, I feel sure to express
the feelings of all, whom professional positions or amateur-incli-
nation bring together on the path of knowledge, when I affirm,
that the Association joyously and gratefully welcomes all who
will cheer us in our aspirations, will listen to our discussions,
and will support us by that moral influence, which every educated
and thoughtful layman can bring to bear. Ours is a kind of
scientific federation full of soul. Every one can help. The
wide scope of the Association thus being rendered patent,
as well as the ease of access, it might next be asked by
the uninitiated, what are the more direct objects, what the
more immediate tendencies, what the final destinations of this
organisation, spread now also to a distant corner of the globe
like ours? As you might foretell, we accept on Australian soil
this movement—started by an illustrious sage of Edinburgh—in
all its bearings, hopes and responsibilities, with perhaps this one
preference, that, while we endeavour to follow the cosmopolitan
course, as adopted in the northern world, we would cherish some
predilection for maintaining a command over the fields of
indigenous work in these far southern regions, without any wish
however of monopoly, but with that patriotic sense, becoming to
us as residents in this particular portion of the British Empire.
Irrespective of carrying on original research, worthy of a country
of juvenile freshness, it is our duty more especially, to instil the
flow of information from so manifold sources near us in such
a manner, that new growth for further developments may
arise through that limpid course in all possible directions.
We should and could arouse anew aiso all those, who may
slacken, by example and by new inspirations. You can carry
a spirit of research into the family-homes; you will leave
in many an hospitable house, which opens its doors in a
year of choice to illustrious participators of these meetings,
many reminiscences not less pleasurable than profitable through
life. J shall not speak here of the living among leaders in
progressive knowledge, of those who yet are shining forth at the
British Association also; but I would wish to pay a word of
homage to the dead—to those, whom many of you have still met,
and on whose busts at solemn moments we would wish, if even in
thought only and passive pensiveness, to place also here a laurel
wreath. Thus, among Britons, such names come before our
memory as those of J. Herschel, James Ross, Faraday, McClure,
Sabine, W. Hooker, Lindley, Brewster, Wheatstone, Murchison,
Darwin, Speke, Carpenter, Lyell, Brodie, Gould, Livingstone,
Sedgwick, Berkeley, G. Bentham, Simpson, Proctor and a host
of other luminaries, reminding us likewise of an early Melbourne
University professor, who at a meeting of the British Associa-
tion about the middle of the century, was one of its principal
AQ
4 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
secretaries. ‘To one meeting the greatest lustre was given by the
presidency of H.R.H. the Prince Consort. As there is a
brotherhood of all nationalities in science, it may be pardonable
when from my own bit of career I allude to some experiences of
forty-four years ago, while attending as an active member what
might be called the German Association for the Advancement of
Science. A flight of thought brings vividly before me again
such illustrious personages as Schleiden, one of the earliest
investigators of the living cellule; D’Alton, one of the founders
of embryology ; Langenbeck, the great and conservative surgical
operator and his long-renowned disciple, Esmarch. There were
also the Scandinavians Oersted, Forchammer and Steenstrup,
the one the main discoverer of electromagnetism, the other
eminent in northern geology, the third an early expounder of
alternative generation. It is as if I hear once more the voice
also of Kunze, the pteridologist ; of Rammelsberg, a leading
expert in analytic chemistry ; of Waitz, the horticultural mono-
grapher of the Ericez ; of Volger, one of the great authorities on
voleanoes; of Krauss, the zoologic Caffrarian explorer; of
Sonder, one of the authors of the Cape-flora, and of Schacht,
Roeper and Muenter, the eminent morphologists and physio-
logists; some of gay communicativeness, others of calmer
reservedness—all spreading knowledge in their own way, all
happy and elated among their scientific compeers, but also well
aware, that their coming together then might be an only one in
life! It is, as if I were brought once more face to face with
many a hero in science, nearly all now numbering with the dead ;
some of whom having attended the earliest meetings of the
British Association, and thus by their appearance, then grey,
among a multitude of junior investigators, linked together in a
most fascinating and exalting manner one generation with another
in science. A felicitation could then still be sent to Oken, the
founder. You can all enter into the feelings of Virchow, who at
the Berlin meeting of the German Association in 1886, while
unfolding to the 3000 members once more the roll-book of 1828.
There were the names of Humboldt, as President, of Berzelius,
Ehrenberg, Woehler, Rudolphi, Gauss, Weber, Johannes Mueller,
Mitscherlich, Rose, Magnus, of Oersted also, and of many
another scientific immortality, each either a founder of a branch
of science or a rearer of it into extensive vigour. Well may
Virchow have exclaimed, that it was as if life became infused
once more into the dead signatures! No doubt many assembled
now in this hall experienced similar emotions, when attending
meetings of the British Association, where they first of all, and
perhaps never again, saw individually some of the corypheans, of
whom they had ever so often heard and read, for whom they
cherished an unlimited veneration, and whose memory became
thus dearer still. Some of the younger members, now here
~
INAUGURAL ADDRESS, a
present, may yet be spared to participate as veterans in the
centenary celebrations of Sir David Brewster’s founding the
parent Association. To some extent and in a vivid manner we
shall be able, to measure the onward course of science here by the
periodicity of these gatherings from year to year, from decade to
decade. Much human faculty is always going to waste; let this
Association in its popularity collect all stray forces, especially as
here, on new grounds, the very novelty of research must stimulate
to more ardent action and keener emulation. Crude empiricism
gives way in all directions to scientific ruling ; the multitude is
awakening more and more to the importance of exact research ; a
tide has set in to carry knowledge with all accumulating
discoveries into every possible application; hence the rapid
strides of technic art and rural industries, particularly in young,
bustling communities. Yet commerce, as well as handicraft,
often still undervalues science-work, while daily benefiting from
it, though unseen, unrecognised and unregarded. But this
Union can make its influence felt through deliberations and
direct recommendations, and perhaps most powerfully so, because
its tendencies are so eminently practical and so unselfish. Much
in that direction are indeed our efforts, our aspirations, our
hopes! We can at measured intervals in this Association con-
nect researches with an extensiveness and universality such as
no other organisation can effect ; yet we do not enter into rivalry
with localised societies or institutions of learning ; contrarily, on
them we lean mainly for our mental sustenance.
The field of research is ever widening, but the horizon gets
clearer ; the objects of research become more multitudinous, but
the appliances for investigation are constantly enriched ; volumes
still more instructive supersede one another; methods more
facilitous are substituted for those of the past; incontestable
observations are daily increasing, the elaboration of systems and
records gets more completed, and thus endless difficulties become
removed, which beset the path of former workers ; by such means
an ever-accumulating science-fortune is rendered available without
individual freedom being impaired. Yet, while the network of
knowledge expands and the width of the meshes decreases, the
empty interstices between the threads are proportionately aug-
mented, though the fabric as a whole gains more firmness. The
greatest triumph of sciences consists in bringing them into the
fullest contact, somewhat in an Aristotelean and Plinian—or
speaking of our own epoch—in an Humboldtian spirit.
Discovery has its own rewards, and they are of the sublimest
kind. When, as far back as 1817, the founder of the British
Association perceived the endless displays of his kaleidoscope, and
beheld other before unthought-of marvels, he lifted in pious
admiration his eyes to heaven, well recognising that each playful
change in the picture or every other result from his optic apparatus
6 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
was ruled as much by laws, universal and eternal, as the move-
ments in the planetary world. In recent days the great anatomic
Professor Hyrtl, after he saw his main work pass through eighteen
editions and through many translations, discourses still, though
blind, with youthful enthusiasm in classic Latin on the bearings of
medicine. Sir Richard Owen, at the venerable age of an octo-
genarian, evinces still with freshness of mind a keen and joyful
interest in comparative zoography, of which he is one of the main
originators. A coétanean of his through the century, George
Bentham, continued like Sir William Figen after four scores ee
years still brisk in descriptive taxonomy for the plants of the
world—engagements of severity, from which many a young
worker even would shrink ; the watching of discoveries in their
speciality were to them a never-ceasing fountain of delight, a
necessity for their intellectual existence.. When Haydn, the
predecessor of Mozart and Beethoven in composing symphonies,
heard with great splendour the performance of his oratorio, the
“Creation,” one of his last works, he burst into tears at the
passage, “It became light,” and uttered in deepest emotion the
words, “It is not from me, it is Divine inspiration.” The
vibrations of the Eiffel-tower, the new structure, doubly as high
as the Strassburg-spire, were attentively studied by Chevreul at
an age of his more than that of a centenarian.
Grand and true discoveries, such as may more and more also
here be effected, are not, like meteors, flashing brilliantly but
ephemerously across the sky ; they are like the discerning of new
stars of lasting radiancy; and there is one mighty incitation,
inasmuch as every achievement through progressive thought stamps
on it the name of the discoverer for all times, and as any single
new achievement may have numbers of others in its sequence.
Let it be instanced, what since Galvani’s time has been
brought about, until with lightning’s speed electric messages are
now dashing in all directions through the world. It would be
invidious to single out anyone connected with this glorious
progress for special praise, unless-the Nestor of electrology, who
in co-operation with Gauss fully fifty years ago issued the atlas
of terrestrial magnetism, and still some years earlier made one of
the first efforts to span electric wires over wide distances.
What long ago was surmised by Faraday, and later on through
calculations by Maxwell, has in the course of 1889 been proved
by Professor H. Hertz, of Karlsruhe, from real experiments, that
the action of the electric current on the medium, through which
it is carried, is the same as that produced by light ; further, that
the generation of both depends on the same laws, and that the
propulsion is effected at the same velocity. The objectionable
hypothesis of “action into distance,” which Weber already
wished to avoid with regard to gravitation, is overthrown by
these new demonstrations.
INAUGURAL ADDRESS, if
In recent days many surprising and momentous discoveries
were witnessed, but few can be alluded to here. Among those,
which have a practical and extensive bearing on daily require-
ments, some originated or were evolved through the genius of
Edison, from whom, as one yet in the prime of life, still other
inventions may be expected. Here I will refer only to that mode
of luminosity, which may be regarded as much cosmic as telluric,
and which now is brought within wide technical operation
through particularly disintegrated coal glowing in absolute
vacuum—not without some previous suggestions and experiments
by Sidot and Swan,
So also is it startling, to hear the human voice now with
telephonic celerity across a whole country, and hardly impaired in
intensity. Through the combination of Gray’s or Bell’s telephone,
with Edison’s phonograph, messages can be fixed—as you may
be aware—in writing ; while, by Hughes’s microphone, the sound
can be heard with extraordinary distinctness.
Nations are now rivalling to possess the largest telescope,
Melbourne still carrying the palm for the southern hemisphere.
Indeed, the great equatorial instrument here, with its four feet
mirror, is surpassed only by that of Lord Rosse, and equalled
only by that of Paris. Astronomy became lately in wondrous
details connected with astrophysics and astrophotography. The
astronomic department here, under our distinguished treasurer,
Colonel Ellery’s able administration, will extensively share also
in the now commencing international photographic charting of
the sidereal heavens. A gigantic refractor-telescope has been placed
in the clearest of air at one of the culminations, 4600 feet high, of
the Californian coast-range by a generous American mining
operator and amateur-astronomer, on whom fortune had smiled ;
and thus within the last year or two were revealed some empyrean
marvels, never beheld by mortal eye before ; the nebular ring in
Lyra presented quite new and complicated features, and additional
stars at or near the cyclic aggregations were discovered by the
astronomers of _Mount Hamilton, Professors Holden and
Schaeberle. Here may be alluded to only one other result of
these observers, attained under so exceptionally favourable cir-
cumstances within their celestial area, namely the elliptic nebula
of Draco, with its fulgent hydrogen and nitrogen, is now shown
to consist of coiled rings. New planetoids may thus also from
thence come within the range of vision, eight having been
observed from elsewhere on the northern heaven during 1888 and
at the beginning of 1889, thus bringing recorded numbers up to
283. The power, which would be exercised by very large tele-
scopes placed within the tropics at alpine elevations above the
frequent course of clouds in air so much rarified, may be beyond
all present imagination. More “about the comets, as supposed
meteor-swarms, which have entered the solar system,” might
8 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
perhaps be learnt from’ such positions. Spectroscopic observa-
tions by Huggins, Secchi, Vogel, D’Arrest, Finlay, Wiedemann,
Schiparelli, Hasselberg and other philosophers lead to additional
explanations in this respect.
What photography, an art discovered within the lifetime of
many assembled here, in progressive scope may effect in future, is
as yet mere conjecture. The producing already, but not the
fixing as yet, of three of the principal colours within the present
processes of this glorious art holds out some hope, that its faithful
pictorial representations may become embellished yet by vividity
of colouration emanating directly and thus unerringly from
operative processes.
In a very different way other questions come before us.
Whether in the organic world a supposed involuntary tendency
of striving for higher development and further melioration,
whenever circumstances are favourable, arises from uncontrolled
impulses, so that nothing is left in a stationary distinctiveness !
Whether specific values for clear diagnosis and systematic fixity
have in the generality of cases been allotted with adequate scope?
Whether fertile hybridity is far more extensive, than we have
hitherto been led to suppose? Whether diversity in the physical
conditions of nature can explain the vaster development of
gigantic mammals and birds in the zoologic ages prior to the
present ? Whether forced accommodation or spontaneous adapta-
bility to altered circumstances of existence can change gradually
and even infinitely structural organisations and specific functions?
Whether crowding out, however overwhelming, can extend to
absolute annihilation in the free fields of nature, when undisturbed
by human action, or whether this combat for space and search
for nourishment is limited to mere repression? Whether among
specific organisations the most powerful always dominate to
the extensive suppression of others more numerous? Whether
organisms, which in the present creation-epoch became extinct by
the hand of man, could possibly ever be restored, by progressive
growth, even after many lengthened periods and with every
conduciveness for resuscitation? Whether our present means
for research are advanced enough, to distinguish all innate
peculiarities, with which distinct types in the organic world are
endowed? Whether, if all this could be answered in the aftirma-
tive, it would be sutiicient to account for the marvels of designs
in organic individuality connected with vital processes, as revealed
to us from the simplest and minutest to the most complex and
huge of living beings, all displaying perfection for their own
distinct purposes? Whether all our search for what is knowable
can ever lead to a worldly insight into the commencement of all
origination? Can we contribute from this Association, by
original unbiassed research here in new countries, towards the
answering these momentous questions 4
INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 9
The wider the climatic range, the greater the variability, so
that for studying specific limitations of organic beings we here are
placed in a more advantageous position, than those on whom the
first elaboration of Faunas and Floras devolved in the home-
countries. Whena phyto-paleontologist of first rank and life-long
experience, such as Goeppert, doubted whether from that branch
of knowledge much support could as yet be obtained for the
ascendance-doctrine, we are cautioned also so far, not to be over-
hasty in construing ideas and evolving theories with a view of
universal applications. The opposite views on organic develop-
ment, defended respectively by two such eminent among earlier
naturalists, as Cuvier and St. Hilaire, deserve profound considera-
tion even now-a-days. We are anywhere and anyhow only at the
threshold of the temple of truth, and might thus remain conscious
of some of the last humble words of even a Newton !
The dictum, supposed to be reliable, “ zatura non facit saltus,”
is not universally applicable, not even in paleontology, as demon-
strated by the three well-marked stages of the American horse.
One of the sublimest of poets, not foreign to natural science, must
have been persuaded of a Godly operation in nature, when he
wrote—
“Wohl erkundbar is das Wirken,
Unerforschlich bleibt die Kraft !”
The world would lose many of its charms to intellectual beholders,
if observers sink too much into materialistic explanations and
speculative reasonings. We all admire the sagacity, displayed by
great leaders in biology, to trace the building up of organic frames,
and to follow up observingly what is manifest in respective cycles
of vitality ; but can we adopt with the evidence attained all the
conclusions drawn therefrom? Let us deprecate extending theories
beyond what is warranted by trustworthy observations ; let us
avoid hazarding opinions unsupported by facts ; and above all let
us distinguish between what is within human grasp and what
must ever be concealed to the eyes of mortal beings !
The question has sometimes been raised, what is a billion ? but
an answer of calculative correctness has but seldom been given,
though in some thoughtlessness that enormity of numeric value
may be often enough rashly applied. Thus we hear spoken of
more than a billion tons of coal deposits in the Chinese province
of Shansi; and as the search through carboniferous areas has in
this colony also just passed into a momentous stage, it would be
well to remember, that in 1884 the actual output of coal came toa
total of 409 million tons, two-fifths of this from Britain. Froma
naturalist’s point of view, some fractional approach to the solution of
such questions might be arrived at perhaps, when the prodigiosity
of nature’s displays is considered in estimating, on the basis of some
calculation, the total number of spore-caselets on the fronds of
our hill-ferntree (Adlsophila australis) at 400 millions and that of
10 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
the spores at 4000 millions ; when further it fairly can be assumed,
that a large tree of our silver-wattle may produce as a total from
its copious masses of flower-headlets 25 millions of tiny flowers,
800 millions of stamens, and 8000 millions of the compound
pollen-grains ; when a red-gum eucylaptus or a manna eucalyptus
may exhibit the twenty-fifth part of a billion of stomata in the
whole of its foliage.
Let us turn to another subject. Choice areas, not necessarily
very extensive, should be reserved in every great country for some
maintenance of the original vegetation, and therewith for the
preservation of animal life concomitant to peculiar plants. Where
the endemic riches are greatest, there also the danger is more
imminent of these being swept out of existence, unless timely
measures are adopted for the reservation of some sequestered spot,
to which rural occupations should never be allowed to have any
access with their disturbing influence on primeval harmonies.
Such spots should be proclaimed for all times the people’s inalien-
able property, and every inhabitant or visitor of the locality
should consider himself the co-preserver of such areas, so as to aid
in preventing accidental invasion or casual ignition or intentional
spoliation. Furthermore, to such places of security should he
transferred plants and animals of exceptional rarity occurring
near these seclusions. ‘¢ Floral commons,” thus established, would
soon be among the most attractive features, not only for pleasure
excursionists, but also for travellers from abroad, and would afford
future generations in various territories some idea of the wondrous
natural beauty of vegetable and animal life in its once unique
loveliness, pristine grace and unimpaired freedom. Measures
like these once initiated would earn enduring gratitude, and would
find imitation in all countries, and particularly in those, where
nature has scattered its floral gifts most prodigiously over the
territorial expanse. Under intelligent supervision such places,
through restricted concessions, might be made to yield a greater
income, than accruable through ordinary rural occupation. Who
would not plead in this cause? as our Field Naturalists’ Club has
indeed so fervently done already, More and more of rarities are
commencing to succumb and to be made unrestorable, and scarcely
a spot seems safe on the face of the globe against the defacing hand
of man! To the Great Auk no longer any existence was allowed
on the remotest hiding-place of Iceland, where the last poor pair
succumbed, while courageously defending their nest! Will any
remnant of the tribe of the gigantic birds, lingering yet in the
recesses of far southern latitudes, perhaps share the same fate ?
At this instance may be called into memory the touching verses
by the greatest of German poets, relating how the chamois is
driven by the relentless hunter to the utmost pinnacle of its
highland-home, and then the Alp-spirit of the legend sallies forth
with wrathful voice, ‘ Pause! why do you hurt my herd?’ Space
is left for all on earth!
INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 11
May also the forests be pleaded for here in this assembly ?
It should be a fixed plan in national economy anywhere, to
maintain masses of forest-vegetation near sources of rivers,
and to establish some broad arboreous bordering on streams,
where it does not extensively exist, as much calculated to reduce
sweeping water-volumes by soakage and mechanical retention.
For this purpose, nut-trees, cork-oaks, basket-willows and
other trees, prominently utilitarian, could be chosen. To what
reflections are you led, when a recent flood of the Mississippi
not only devastated the adjoining land in its course, but destroyed
also, through protracted submersion, much of the existing riparian
woods ; when property counting by millions of dollars is lost to a
Californian railway company through one single flood directly
traceable to destruction of forests; when two-thirds of the
inhabitants of the populous Connemaugh Valley perished by the
dam-disaster ; when so recently and so terrifically quite a million
of people were drowned in the floods of the Yellow River, and
another million of inhabitants died from starvation, epidemics
and other miseries as the sequence of such vast calamity.
Merely a small fraction of the monetary losses involved would
have sutticed to avert all this, if spent in well-regulated forestry.
The cooling of temperature in forests under ordinary circum-
stances means the reduction of much aqueous vapour to liquid
humidity, and further the local re-precipitation of gaseous moisture
in aqueous density, with proportionate lessening "of evaporation.
Each of “our friends, the trees,” is a factor, however small, in
this calculation.
It really it could be demonstrated, that forests exercise no
influence whatever on atmospheric precipitation, not even
through electricity,—an opinion lately advanced, but about
the correctness of which many do yet entertain the gravest
doubt—then still remains to be considered whether through
forests any country can obtain the fullest benefit from such
aerial downpours as do occur. In North-western America
the expression seems proverbial, “ Rain follows the plough.”
The principle in both cases would be the same. Though moisture
promotes spontaneous forest-growth, we are fortunately not by
its absence prevented, even in almost rainless zones, to clothe
bare tracts of country with an arborescent mantle of verdure.
Should some one in opulence desire to build up for himself one
of the most lasting of monuments, it would be by the bequest of
an isolated primeval forest, ever untouchable, for the free enjoy-
ment of the orderly portion of the public. The annual “ arbor-
day,” let us trust, will become universal as a legitimate holiday,
which will be looked forward to with delight, particularly by the
juveniles, who, with a life of hope before them, can await results
from pleasurable action and intelligent forethought. Celebrations
like these are not without a lesson. to the w vhole community.
12 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
The increment to the wood-estate of Victoria would be now
already 200,000 trees annually, if some slight tending followed
the impulse of planting; even where trees naturally abound,
additions can be made by choices from abroad, as anyhow forest
culture should nowhere any longer be limited to maintenance
and increase of species possessed by the region, but should in
amplification be extended to whatever is best and perhaps avail-
able as superior from other lands.
Here, where, so to say, we live under eucalyptus-trees, we are
apt to undervalue their hygienic importance, or to discard them
altogether. Unfortunately also the multitude, notwithstanding
many efforts made, is not yet sufficiently informed on sanitary
measures ; thus a large proportion of the general public does not
even yet seem to recognise, that for plantations, such as were
with special forethought raised since the last thirty years around
this metropolis, pines were purposely chosen on account of the
salubrious effect of terebinthine antiseptic exhalations from these
particular trees—a momentous consideration, where hundreds of
thousands of inhabitants have already crowded closely together,
and where zymotic diseases are so frequent and often so severely
raging, not to speak of the esthetic aspect in a zone of evergreen
vegetation, where main-masses of trees with deciduous foliage are
out of harmony, while a six months’ spring prevails against as
much winter-time of colder regions; yet, for all that, what
thoughtful people have regarded as the vegetative pride of the
environs of Melbourne may be in danger of being sacrificed to
capricious tastes and transient fashions. Interplantations of
palms, bamboos, and other contrasting plants were long since
contemplated under the shelter of the pines, to relieve any
imaginary or real monotony produced by large masses of coni-
ferous trees, even where they were miscellaneously grouped. Now
to another topic.
If merely to a slight extent the treasures of nature have
been studied anywhere, with what enthusiasm are visited then
new regions in appreciative knowledge or detail conversedness.
The child even on its school-walks, the recreation-seeking pedes-
trian, the travelling tourist,—after some previous glimpses into
nature’s arcana—involuntarily sees more for rational and eleva-
ting enjoyment than the rest of the people, and that uncostly
too, and perhaps even with substantial profit.
In whatever direction our glances are cast on organic nature,
we perceive marvels of design from the mouse-sized monkey to
elephantine giants, living or extinct; from the smallest hum-
ming bird, half-a-dozen of them hardly weighing as much as an
ordinary letter, to the now byegone Moa of giraffe-tallness; from
the towering huge Athrotaxis (or Sequoia) cypress-pine of
California to mosses of almost invisible minuteness,—all perfect
in organisation for their own special purposes. But endless other
INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 13
considerations press on the trained observer, only one to be
touched on here. Can the time approximately be determined
when the Diptrodon stamped in gigantic paces our plains, and
when the Thylacoleon roared in pursuit of other marsupials, now
exterminated ?
One of the most remarkable of objects within the whole range
of biology is that of Symbiosis, the unexpectedly wide extent of
which through the empire of plants having lately been demon-
strated by Professor Beccari—the hospes not proving detrimental
or often not even injurious to the host. Professor Frank very
recently discovered that fungus-growth of quite peculiar kind at
the extreme ends of the root fibres in oaks, beeches and trees.
allied to them, mediates the nutrition of them as a necessity.
Could all this be merely casual? The Azolla, nourishing a micro-
scopic alge, is an example near to us, just as in other but similar
respects the native evergreen beech.
At the very time, when I left Europe, forty-two years ago, Count.
Suminski discovered, to the surprise of many of us, the antherid-
ous and archegonous organs on the minute prothallus of ferns ;
but whether and how genetic relation exists between the primordial]
and the subsequently-developed sporangious organs on fern-fronds
has never yet been traced or explained ; and this is all the more
mysterious as regards fern-trees, such as abound here, when years
‘intervene between the production of the prothallus and that of
the spore-bearing caselets. See further the vast significance of
what, at first thought, may appear a mere trifling matter.
A small fly (Lestophones tceryae) was not long ago noticed as
antagonistic to the coccid-insect Jcerya purchasi, by the very
observant Mr. Fraser Crawford, of Adelaide, though a closely
allied fly, Zastophonus monophiebi, infests mainly, if not exclusively,
another coccid, the Monophilebus crawford, as shown by Mr. F.
A. A. Skuse, so that even in introducing the particular Diptere
needed for subduing the Icerya very discriminative entomo-
logy must be brought to bear for coping with an evil of quite
dreadful dimensions in Californian orchards, not to speak of what
with the less powerful Coccinellides can be done. Thus the
Agricultural Department of Washington found it necessary to
send a professional entomologist purposely to Australia, in order
that the Lestophones be established also on the other side of the
Pacific Ocean, to restore thus far “‘the balance of nature;” just as.
in another remarkable instance the vines of the United States are
largely reared in Europe and elsewhere now for their immunity
to the Phylloxera vastatrix, which from America invaded other
countries. Perhaps this parasite could likewise be subdued by
other insects, such as would not attack the vines. If so, a question
would be solved involving almost the whole interest of rural
prosperity in many wide regions. So then a new special field is.
opened anywhere for entomologic observations, with a prospect.
held out of high substantial reward.
14 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
The described species of living animals, according to a very
recent calculation by Drs. Krauss and Lamprecht, largely from
the works of Leunis and Bronn, reach in number one quarter of a
million! Of these are Mammals 2,300, Birds 11,200, Fishes
9,000, Mollusces 2,300, Insects 167,000 (with 80,000 Beetles).
But even in latest days these numbers became considerably aug-
mented, thus that of the Micro-Lepidoptera from this part of the
world by the strenuous researches of Meyrick.
The admissible species of described living plants number not
less than 200,000 now, as about 120,000 vasculares, taken in a
conservative sense, have been fairly well defined, and as Prof.
Saccardo has given in his large recent work alone 27,000 diagnoses
of fungaceous plants, so that the total number of supposed species
already to be dealt with in descriptive Biology cannot fall very
much short of half a million species. Mitten enumerated and
cliagnosticised, twenty years ago, already 1750 sorts of genuine
mosses for South-America ; the zealous and accomplished two
Vice-Presidents of the Biologic Section have, in spare hours,
atter their professional engagements, recorded respectively 400
species of seaweeds from the littoral regions off and near Port
Phillip, and 600 species of Polyzoa from the extratropic shores
of Australia, the polyzoic fauna merely of our great Bay here
being richer than either that of the British shores or that of the
Mediterranean Sea. Over 1000 species of Australian fishes are
contained in the Census, which we owe to the Hon. Sir William
McLeay, whom, to our regret, illness obliged to relinquish in the
Melbourne meeting the position, assigned to him as a veteran of
scientific prominence. Mr. Masters’s Catalogue of Australian
Beetles, largely from collections of the distinguished naturalist
just named, and commenced by his renowned uncle, comprises
7200 species; but since that was published considerable aug-
mentations have taken place. Indeed, thousands and thousands
of kinds of insects, particularly others than coleoptera, are
fluttering and buzzing as yet unrecognised, unclassified and
undescribed in Australian air, entomologists throughout Europe
and many elsewhere envying those here for the yet easy chances
of obtaining novelties.
Let as an instance of rarity of species be adduced the re-dis-
covery of Amansia mammillaris through some action of my own
within the last few months on the very isolated Abrolhos-rocks,
opposite Champion Bay, perhaps the only place of its existence,
from whence a solitary specimen of this oceanic alge, as one most
exquisite for delicate beauty, structural tenderness and lovely
coloration, was brought by Peron during Baudin’s expedition of
1802, and described in 1809 by the Caen Professor Lamoruoux,
thus tantalising phycologists all the while.
Irrespective of the seven descriptive volumes, mainly by the
incomparable Bentham, on the universal vegetation of Australia,
INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 15
special works on the flora of most of the Australian Colonies
are now provided, one for Queensland having been published by
Mr. Bailey some time ago, and one for South Australia having
been just issued by Professor Tate, who also brought geologic
and zoologic considerations to bear on the vegetation there.
Mr. C. Moore has furnished the manuscript for the Flora of New
South Wales, with a prospect of early promulgation in a special
volume. Sir Jas. Hooker’s Floras of New Zealand and of
Tasmania, quite gems, emanated already many years ago as
one of the results of Sir James Ross’s antarctic expedition.
Though limiting these remarks to achievements of later times,
T do not wish to pass the name of Robert. Brown, because not
only did he lay most extensively and firmly the basis for the
system of Australian vegetation, but it was he also, who took up
again morphology for plants, after the long interval since the
origination of that branch-science by Wolff, just when it was
resumed for animals by Doellinger.*
Through gradually increasing facilities for multiplication in
iconography now, so far as plants are concerned, about one-fifth
of the known species have become depictured. Of illustrated
monographies in vegetable natural history the most urgently
required is one on Characeae, an opus, which would be of local
interest in every part of the world, and particularly here, where
‘this group of waterweeds abounds.
In one particular respect splendid chances for facilitation or
acceleration of science-work are not rarely lost at opportune
moments, namely, to acquire extensive authentic collections, the
accumulation of which may have involved the sacrifices of recre-
ative ordinary pleasures through a whole life, the disbursement of
a private fortune and the main-absorption of a brilliant mind in
fixed research, whereby treasures may have been got together for
material valuation simply unpriceable. Nowhere applies this
more than in young colonies, where no opportunity should be
missed, whenever such may suddenly arise at long intervals, to
complete the working material from abroad by what may be
otherwise utterly unobtainable. The securing of the Linnean
collections, by the forethought of a British servant to his country,
is an Instance in point.
The gifted Secretary of the subsection for Music in our gather-
* A passage from the Address is here omitted, in which the names were given of
scientists, prominent in Australia during recent periods and mostly yet active in research ;
but it proved impossible within the precincts of a general discourse, however propitious
the moment, to allude to every one, who had attained celebrity in Australian scientific
life. A hope is entertained, that at future meetings of the Association full justice will be
done within the special sections to the merits of various and respective individual
discoverers, who constitute now already quite a multitude of scientific worthies also in
this part of the world. Two deviations from this course will be countenanced by all with
due homage—to note especially the superb Decades, largely also paleeontologic, issued
during the last 30 years by the veteran Professor of the Melbourne University—and to
bestow adequate recognition on the brilliant manner in which the first President of the
Australian Association maintains the fame of our eldest Observatory.
16 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
ing is among those who endeavored to rouse a spirit for beautifying
our landscapes as well as our immediate surroundings. Biologists,
particularly, could add to the charms of vernal vegetation anywhere
by transferring for naturalisation from land to land, at all events,
the minutest of flowers, always innocent, such as here the neatest
Candolleas ; the snatching up and forwarding of a few grains of
seeds, and their being merely scattered on adequate soil in similar
climatic regions, would suffice. Peculiarity in the constitution of
the fruit enabled the Cocos-palm to transmigrate on its own accord
from its home in the Western Hemisphere to the shores of the
Eastern ; it requires other means for the French-bean and the
gourds to reach the East; for the last 300 years they were
consumed as a frequent table-food of supposed eastern origin ;
but now only has it been shown, by archaeologic researches into
the Incas-times, that they belong as indigenous to the western
world exclusively. This exemplifies how objects of almost daily
concerns can still afford means for original inquiry for almost
indefinite periods. The munificence of the learned President of
the section for Literature and Fine Arts has fostered also this
system of translocation, as shown last year by additional very
copious distribution of salmon-ova through Tasmanian streams.
Cassino for 1888 recorded 13,500 scientists as holding recog-
nised positions in various countries ; but the respective numbers
given seem adequate only for North America—thus far, nearly
5,000 names being given. This, however, shows the extra-
ordinary vividity displayed there for original inventive work,
and that very much of a practical kind.
Young Australia has placed hitherto already through its
science-societies about 130 volumes into the libraries of the
world, and that mostly during the latter half of the century ;
a freshness pervades these literary efforts, commensurate with the
ampler originality of sources in new countries. An enlightened
journalistic press accords here no less than elsewhere its generous
support to science. For the world as a whole mental faculty is
displayed, never without a scientific touch, in hundreds of
thousands of journals, in uncountable periodicals, and in an
endless number of spacious volumes. How is a view to be
maintained over this ever-increasing flood of literature, if even
for each of us in one or few directions only? At all events, in
greater works a resumé of their salient contents should never be
wanting, some summing up of the main-substance, some abridged
reference to novel elucidations. The idea of constructing an
universal linguistic medium of communication, at first promul-
gated by Leibnitz in 1666, has occupied the minds of many of the
learned ever since. Like numerical figures, chemical formulas
and musical notes, such a language is to be readable by each
nation in its own words, and the name Pasigraphy has been
chosen for it. Volapiik affords steps towards accomplishing this,
INAUGURAL ADDRESS. ie
but does not solve the problem. Can the principle of stenography
be drawn into use for this purpose? Classic languages, grandly
developed more than 2,000 years ago, continue to give an
antique firmness to Gaipenaipnal writing ; but, after all, England
has given its language to already one-fonr th of the world, a
language of powerful conciseness and flexible expressibility,
doubtless destined to become still more and more predominating
in the course of time.
There is one publication which concerns Australia much, but
is in its value here too scantily recognised—that of the Royal
Colonial Institute, a union much brought about by the thoughtful
activity of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, and largely tending
through essays and discussions of leading colonists, to unite the
interests of the British Colonies with those of the great home-
country for more solidifying the Empire.
Chronologic writings exist for political but not for scientitic
events ; a volume of the Histor y of the British Association
would almost be equivalent to a connected record of discoveries
effected since its founding, as foreign achievements were never
lost sight of. A history of all universities from original local
archives would carry authentic and comprehensive records of all
sciences also into medieval remoteness, and yet could be held within
trenchant briefness—local extra-academic working not likely
being passed at the respective seats of universal knowledge. By
the co-operation of specialists the prominent points of still earlier
discoveries might be readily adduced quite into the dawn of
civilisation.
A new principle for facilitating scientific pursuits deserves to
be alluded to at this occasion on account of its wide applicability,
namely: to afford special convenience for original research in
distant countries, as thereby additional inducements are offered
for particular studies far abroad. A commencement thus far was
made by the establishment of the biologic station at Naples.
But to the Dutch belongs the credit of adopting ampler measures
in this direction, so far as to fit up local working rooms, and as to
lessen the expenditure for a lengthened stay of naturalists in
Java, one of the most attractive places, as you are aware, for
whoever wishes to study nature in its tropical grandeur. Several
leading scientists have availed themselves already of this induce-
ment; and Ceylon—still nearer to Europe—so as to be with
sufficient advantage within reach during the long annual profes-
sional vacations, is now also resorted to. If Australia could
follow this example, we would see oftener on our shores illustrious
strangers, who might wish to spend a scientific furlough rather
among widely different scenes in nature, and to roam among
a vast number of new objects, than to travel within much traversed
and scientifically more exhausted areas ; and they might perhaps
come accredited also as delegates to the Australian Association—
B
18 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
should we not prefer to invite purposely year after year repre-
sentatives from the older seats of learning to gatherings here,
as suggested at the last Medical Congress. What a rich store of
recent professional experiences would be shed out before us, and
how would we, while offering Australian hospitalities, endeavour
to reciprocate from what could be obtained from here as scientifi-
cally novel. But this principle has still another bearing. In
Java, for instance, pulmonary consumption seems never to become
cleveloped. More than that, a fortnight’s steamer-voyage can
bring, at a moderate cost, the phthisic invalid from England to
Central America, for reaching, not too far inland, any chosen
elevations with light and pure air of easy respiration. The
mountain-regions of extra and intra-tropical Australia, as well as
some of the. elevated inland downs, come likewise eee this
hygienic scope, especially for sufferers from a home sutliciently near.
Turning to geography, let here the question be asked, as con-
cerning us most, how can Australian exploration be advanced ?
Talent, enthusiasm and experience are available at any moment
for the purpose. Our first historic century has passed ; will the
chronologic seculum also close, ere the blanks on the maps are
tilled up! Tf so, it would be almost a reproach ; and may I be
allowed to repeat what, in a geographic address, was said some
few months ago: “ The main work of Australian land- exploration
devolved on nine travellers only ; now space seems only left for
one more great explorer, to rank with the nine. Who will be the
tenth to carry off this last of honors, or will it be divided among
several less ambitious competitors?’ Well may the eagerness be
understood, to set the life on winning such a prize !
What a contrast, when we reflect that Pytheas reached the
Shetland Islands, his “Thule,” at the time of Alexander the
Great ; and yet, that it should require more than two thousand
years before Socotra became carefully explored, and thereby also
its unique floral treasures and other natural riches disclosed, this
having only been accomplished through action of the British
Association by Professor Bailey Balfour within the last few
years, though courses of navigation were close to that island
since grey antiquity, its endemic aloe-plant having been famed
already to the trading Fheenicians, but remaining through all
that time for science purposes utterly unknown.
Manifold attempts have been made, to map out the leading
features of the vegetation of various countries on series of charts,
and to treat the stationary fauna similarly; if this was done
from adequate material for every great region by united efforts
of those, locally best initiated, then might be constructed com-
paratively complete zoo- and phyto-geographic atlases for the
whole globe, and these would unfold at a glance the prominent
types in a more impressive and instructive manner than any
other. Co-operation is needed, to accomplish this, and more
INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 19
particularly so in Australia. Our biologists might devise some
feasible plan, to advance this subject from year to year at the
Association’s meeting.
Capt. Engelhardt Jérgensen’s singular enterprise, now under
progress, to sail in a lifeboat around the world, arose from ideas
encouraged and matured in this metropolis. The boat is decked,
divided into water-tight compartments, unsinkable, readily port-
able, never permanently upset, easily set going in accident, and
carries drinking water as ballast ; it has stood a furious sea near
the Bay of Biscay. We may thus expect the venturesome
mariner with his companion, to arrive in due time, whereby a
deed will be accomplished as daring and unique, as that of his
famous countryman, who lately crossed the south of Greenland.
Dr. Nansen is seemingly to receive munificent support from a
compatriot for an effort to approach by land the North-Pole
from Greenland ; this will likely prove the safest route, notwith-
standing immense hindrances, because on that line will at all
events be mostly a firm footing, and perhaps some game. If the
best is made of a full aretic summer with sailing sleighs, it
would be shown, to some extent at least, whether Greenland
extends in terrestrial continuity still much further than 83° N.,
while chances likely would accrue of wide views onward from
any high elevation. As one likely result, the northern limits
- of Greenland would at least be determined. At all events, it
has now been shown, that arctic altitudes up to 10,000 feet are
traversable.
Instances are too rare, considering the enormous private
wealth accumulated in innumerable cases, of calling explorers
into the field, such as in our days brought Agassiz to the
Amazon-river, Stanley, “the bravest of the brave” among
geographers, to Central Africa, Nordenskiold along the whole
coast of North Asia.
But Australia is not without its Maecenates! Of this you will
be reminded in the Wilson-Hall, in the Clarke and Wyselaskie
Institutions, connected with the Melbourne University, while in
the eldest city of Australia the main seat of science was endowed
by Challis’s princely munificence, and the Linnean Society is
sustained largely in a permanent home by the foremost of
Australian zoologists. In the metropolis, west of us, the
University owes some of its principal ramifications to the
Hughes and Elder bestowals. Ormond College and that of the
Artisans here tell their own tale, whereas a statue at the largest
library in the Southern Hemisphere commemorates what well
directed energy and untiring perseverance can individually bring
about. But let us think also of the liberal support, accorded by
successive enlightened Ministries and Parliaments, to early and
continued studies, without which high-mindedness many researches
here could not have reached their present extent.
B2
20 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
Turning to antarctics so far as mere temperature is concerned,
that to be encountered on the southernmost tableland of ice, would
probably not be lower than that endured by Nansen at elevations
very lofty in Greenland, and the ascent of the ice-cliffs near Mount
Erebus, from convenient points of sloping shores, would likely also
not be more perilous, than the scaling of some ice-crests of the Cau-
casus by members of the Alpine Club last year. The project of
renewed south-polar exploration has been discussed in all its
bearings by the Antarctic Committee of the British Association,
as well as here. We are not even yet aware, to what circum-
stances the existence of the only deep gulf towards the South
Pole is traceable, whether to voleanic influences, or to terrestrial
configuration, or to what other causes. Can the increasing
pressure, exercised by the constantly enlarging height of the
contiguous immense southern ice-masses, induce perhaps volcanic
disturbances through the enormous weight? The breaking
away of the crust or melting away from beneath, where not on
firm land, seems quite out of proportion to the ever augmenting
ponderousness, resulting from all aqueous precipitations ever
there at once freezing, even at summer-time. What the effect of
mere gravitation may finally be on this land of ice without any
relieving open interjacent water-channels, concerns us even at
such distance here as physicists and also as mere inhabitants
very much indeed; and it is worthy of full discussions in our
meetings for years to come, particularly if data could be obtained
as to the ratio of increase of the ice. The extensive and so
patriotic Australian Natives’ Association likewise advocates re-
newed Antarctic disquisition; and surely these efforts will tend,
to maintain also the glorious maritime supremacy of the British
Nation, displayed formerly in the most distant of southern waters.
as much as elsewhere.
Now as to our own Alps. The circumspectness and energy of
the Council, aided by public and private liberality, has provided
enjoyments, some with us not previously realised. Among these
is a tour to our highlands. To most Australians and many of
the Europeans here a visit to our Alps, through the steam-
locomotive more and more coming within ready and easy reach,
will have the charms of novelty. Particularly in early or in late
hours you will likely behold a kind of airy ocean, surrounding
with gigantic waves, phantastic isles, formed by highland pinnacles.
visible above the sea of vapours, the sun’s rays illuminating the
calm or drifting clouds, resplendent in colorations of ever-changing
and indescribable magnificence. You will there be in the purest
of air of lightly respirable buoyancy. Whilst summer-heat
parched already the lowlands, you will have vernal flower-tields
of unique ever refreshed beauty, to wander over; close to this
may lie never-melting snow. In this, what I would call the
Australian Switzerland, pasture- and orchard-plots will soon be
INAUGURAL ADDRESS. AN
the homes of many new highlanders. You will be impressed
with the solemnity and almost awe of stillness away from the
haunts of man, feelings of human insignificance arising within
scenes of nature so incomparably grand; there man is drawing
nearer in his thoughts to the Divine Power ruling all.
Science nowhere can stand still! Linguistic science is not
foreign to this Association. Thus, then, time-hallowed expressions,
though some of them may have come as a glossarian inheritage
even from Pythagorean antiquity, and may have continued of
daily frequency, will have to give way to wordings in consonance
with progressive discoveries. “Organography, even in instances of
words, to which has been clung with tenacity since the Plinian
age, will have yet to undergo some changes for the sake of greater
accuracy in definiteness and more cleaimess in etymology. Com-
matation in more than one of current languages could be brought
better into accord with oscillations of “thought. The hyphen
might for fuller perspicuity be more drawn into use, and particu-
larly so in organic chemistry, which furnishes, even at the latest of
dates, words so unwieldy in reading, and so unpronounceable in
length, for its complex-compositions, that one single word may be
composed in unbroken array of as many as forty-five letters, not
unlike the extensiveness of construction in some Oriental languages ;
while contrarily, abbreviations to such an extent as “Salol” for
the new therapeutic chemical, ‘“ Salicylate of Phenol,” appear
equally deprecable. Speaking of ancient languages, it might
passingly here be noted, from researches of Professor Sayce, of
Oxford, in most recent days, that a brisk literary intercourse
existed in cuneate lettering between all the countries from the
Nile to the Euphrates during the fifteenth century before the
Christian era. This was shown by unearthing the ruins of the
vesidence-town of Amenophis the Fourth. Contrast with this the
still existing stoneage of the Australian Nomades! We here
cannot hope, to add much to what has been gathered already of
the languages of the Australian aborigines for some further
insight into the onward-march of the human races and the
history of their progress ; but such chances, as may still exist,
should not be lost for constructing further vocabularies, ere the
remnants of the last tribes are passing away, or abandon their
pristine languages, or forget their lore; what can still be secured
will be all the more valuable, because it will—at best—be so seanty.
Studies of this kind will become more significant, since a Vic-
torian divine, as a missionary in the New Hebrides, traces
the language there partly to Semitic origin. Indeed, linguistic
research assumes also here now such magnitude, that it might be
recommendable to constitute hereafter a division for “science of
languages” in the section for literature within this Association.
The moment seems an apt one, to pay some homage at this spot
also to the bearers of the gospel, who, in their inostentatious yet
22 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
severe and perilous task, have to a vast extent gathered, fixed
and systematised the languages of savage tribes, doubtless
primarily in duties of holy call, but thereby collaterally affording
means for comparative linguistic studies and the philologic
subjects connected therewith. Indeed, the Bible is now trans-
lated into more than 300 languages or their diversified dialects.
What an incalculable treasure is stored up by these biblic
translations also in wordly aspects! Could the Association
possibly do some further good in insisting, that by the force
of logic, should be suppressed any defectiveness of thought in
much of commonplace conyersational and perhaps also literary
phraseology, ever without reflection reiterated. Some appella-
tions, vernacular or otherwise, are also here and there open to
improvement yet; thus, to quote only one familiar instance,
“‘Gumtrees,” professionally speaking, would apply here to the
Wattle-Acacias, not to the Eucalypts. For the advantage of
conversing in several languages, and simultaneously to have
disclosed the treasures of literature in originality, to learn
two, three or even four, is at early childhood hardly more
dificult than one, if facilities in family-life can be offered to the
youthful retentive mind. Even to orphan-children, provided for
by the State, this benefit could be extended, inasmuch as some
juvenile inmates of orphanages might be readily transferred from
the institution of one country to that of a neighbouring one
without any additional expenditure for support, and with this
philanthropic view, that nations, who unhappily nourish mutual
sentiments of asperity, would through the rising generation by
closer social contract draw nearer to. each other also as great
communities, would learn more to respect national character,
would recognise more individual worth of their adversaries,
would gradually be disabused of hostile prejudices, and would
abandon supposed or exaggerated notions of their neighbour's
faultfulness or enmity. This principle might perhaps be extended
to all classes, with domesticities sure to arise out of it with all
their happy influences.
It is most pleasing, to see assigned to the highly scientific art
of music so distinct a position at this gathering, the division, °
constituted for it, being moreover enhanced in importance through
a renowned composer being identified with it. At all periods
of human existence the soul found its sublimest expression
in harmonious tones. Emblematically the sacred Scripture
seizes on this mode of expression, as conveying to the utmost
the ideas of mental loftiness! By nearly a thousand symbols
vocal and instrumental sounds were fixed from almost mythologic
remoteness down to the olympian festivals; and well might
it be wished, that some records of those melodies were left,
enchanting as they were even at the dawn of mental culture,
to be deciphered or restored at this age. To judge from
INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 23
the poetry of ancient periods, the music must then already
have been pervaded by great depth and richness of feeling.
A magnificent piece of music surpasses even so far the
most splendid of poems, as its sounds are the eloquence of one
universal language. Among great operatic composers is one only,
with whom word and sound emanated from the same mind and
soul, and it is he also who never spent the sublimest of music on
inadequate themes; it is he who, with Meyerbeer, in utmost impres-
siveness gave to his musical effusions historic vividity, it is he who
thus far knew to profit from the incomparable Avon-bard. So
long as human suceptibilities exist for what is elevating, so long
will master-pieces of music, of poetry and indeed also of pictori ial
and plastic art be imperishable treasures, may they even have
come to us from the time even of the Iliad. If we think of the
names of the great masters, should then not also with some
thankfulness be a remembrance for those, who drew men of high
genius into their path or sustained them thereon? What would have
been the fate of Beethoven in 1808, had it not been for the aid of the
then Arch-Duke Rudolph, of Prince Lobkowitz and Count Kinski
at that turbulent time? What would have become of Schiller at
his protracted illness without the annuity spontaneously, in the
most delicate of terms, bestowed by the Danish Crown-Prince and
Count Schimmelpfenning , and that at a period when national and
private resources were alike absorbed to a vast extent, because all
~ Europe was in ar ms, not to speak of numerous other instances,
when genius was in danger to be extinguished by worldly narrow-
ness. The sunny sky Ma Australia seems to kindle a general love
for music, and ‘has called forth many a_ talent already, some
celebrating triumphs in the centres of European art, while a
youth of this city carried off there among numerous competitors
the Mozart-fellow ship. But distinctions (fon this our great land
have not only been earned in the glorious cause of music.
Photolithography, if not altogether it did arise in Victoria,
became universally adopted in the particular process, elaborated
here, and first explained before our Royal Society by one of
Liebig’ s disciples, who too early became alienated from this colony.
There also were first enunciated, however briefly, the views of the
author of the Unseen Universe on the effects of rays, emanating
from various substances ; and these early studies were follow ed
up by a long series of appertaining researches at the great Home
Observatory of Kew. Brennan’s torpedo is a Victorian achieve-
ment, recognised as highly important by the British Government,
and has proved lucrative to the constructor.
It is about a hundred years ago when Galvani led the know-
ledge of electricity into new courses for unforeboded vast influences
through the technic world ; when Goethe conceived the first and
far- reaching ideas of organic metamorphosis ; when Sir James
Smith established the first society of just pretensiveness for a
24 INAUGURAL ADDRESS.
special science ; when the second Jussieu constructed his natural
system of plants, perfect for all points but one, unless in details ;
when the elder Herschel erected his great telescope at Slough,
the discovery of the sixth and seventh satellites of Saturn being
among the earliest results obtained; when the elder Gaertner
founded carpology ; when the Danish Professor Otto Mueller
established in taxonomy the genus Bacillaria, he, even as a
physician, but little foreseeing, what solid basis he was gaining in
one direction for the future extension of pathology; when
Roxburgh settled in India, as the first to elucidate in a modern
sense the flora of an extensive region by independent extra-
- European researches; when Lavoisier published his Zvyazté de
Chimie as the earliest main-pillar of the present system of
chemistry, not long before he met his cruel fate ; when, amidst
other contemporaneous exploits, it fell to the share of Vancouver
to cast the first anchor in St. George’s Sound for vast extension
of the British dominions in this continent.
Australia, although one of the latest of original abodes of man,
may yet also be destined perhaps to be the eld of some of man-
kind’s greatest achievements. The Biblic words, Matthaeus :
‘6 Tiths good for us to be here; let us build edifices,” is signifi-
cantly applicable to advancing dwilized settlement through these
fortunate dominions.
We are to enter soon on the last decennium of this century,
that secular epoch, which to all human foresight will remain the
most expansive for discoveries in the world’s history, because it
would seem, that in most directions not equal opportunities can
re-arise for inventive foundation-research within the same space
of time. Shall we be in the proud position, that other ages will
say, ‘The nineteenth century has done its work for science
well?’ And what can yet be accomplished towards its verge
here and elsewhere? There will be some summing-up then of the
gain of human thoughts so far. Can the geographic chart of our
planet be finished by that time? Can the telegraph-wires be
connected throughout all countries? Can the outlines of the geo-
logic map of our globe be completed? Can the systematic records
of the faunas and floras be mainly brought everywhere to a close ?
Can an universal meteorology be evolved? Can chemistry ex-
haust then already the display of elementary substances and of
their principal coalescences? And can all this be helped on
locally by this Association, if even only to a small extent ?
When probably a decade hence this Union will inaugurally
reassemble in our metropolis, perhaps to witness then also again
another industrial fair of nations in commemoration of the linking
together of two centuries, many whom we are gladdened to see
yet among us will have passed away, resting under the sods ; but
though then you will see them no more, they—like earlier con-
temporaries of some of us—like Sturt, Mitchell, M. Stuart,
INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 25
Leichhardt, Gould, W. Sharpe, M‘Leay, Gunn, Milligan, Sprent,
Davy, Jukes, Haast, McKinlay, Clarke, Castleman, Tenison-
Woods, Scortechini will have left for future inspiration and due
gratitude many science-bequests of enduring value, gained largely
on Australian soil ; yet some loneliness of its own may perhaps
be felt through missing them, for which the contact with a
younger generation can perhaps not always fully compensate.
Individual life at best is but short; through “the advance-
ment of science” it can be prolonged, can be rendered capable of
much augmented achievement, can be made susceptible to multi-
plied enjoyments and much increased usefulness. We advance
towards a greater future ; what would we wish man’s destiny in
life to be? Can unprosperity be banished through ae a in-
dustrial productiveness? Can contentions be abolished by a
universal recognition of rights? Can savagedom early be made
to cease 4 Can finally each human being be educated to higher
and worthier ideals? Can atheism be inaddé to vanish ? Can
knowledge with its Baconian password bring its power to
bear, to accomplish these most transcendental of objects? Can
as interpreters of answers to such cosmopolitan questions all
bearers of science throughout the world unite in a mental
brotherhood ?
And now some few closing words. Though while coming
together in this Association we do not engage in_ political
discussions, yet in one aspect we might venture, to diverge from
the strict path, marked out for science-votaries—it is in this, to
foster also through ovr bonds the “union of the empire,” under
permanent British supremacy. ‘This must be the ardent wish of
every true subject of our gracious Sovereign. Thereto point the
grandest traditions, prominence in history, world-wide national
influence, immeasurable strength of the realm, irresistible patriotic
sentiments ; thereto also leads us veneration for the great home-
land, with its keen sense of justice, philanthropic clemency,
practical tendencies and indomitable energy. May the reflex rays
of that national greatness fall ever unobscured on us also here!
What are we, whether in science or in any other consideration,
without Britain in all its prototypic bearings and glory? Take
this away, sever us from this, then the best of impulses, the greater
confidence in our purposes, as well as our main guidance and
security, would be lost! And where would be our gratitude ?
Britain bestowed on us a whole continent, with oceanic
boundaries, within salubrious zones, exempt from autochthonic
complications, with resources uncountable—all as a free gift,
as an unencumbered patrimony. The solidity of a great empire
will also be a guarantee for the best-connected and most luminous
of science-progress in all dominions, over which its sceptre sways ;
it will ever signalise a power, by which knowledge and enlighten-
ment and indeed religious reverence also, will be carried
26 INAUGURAL ADDRESS,
with the widest permanency through the world not only for the
welfare of the greatest of nations, but also for the tranquillity
and happiness of all mankind !
“What guides man in his high pursuit,
Opens, illumes and cheers his way ?
Discerns immortals from the brute,
God’s image from the moulds of clay ?
°’Tis knowledge! and that to the soul
Is power, is liberty and peace ;
And, while celestial ages roll,
The light of knowledge shall increase |”
FRE SIDENTIAL ADDRESS. IN SEGTIO
(Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics and Mechanics).
THE PRESENT STATE OF ELECTRICAL KNOWLEDGE;
By RICHARD THRELFALL, M.A.,
Professor of Physics, University of Sydney.
A piscussion of the present state of electrical knowledge natu-
rally involves an apology. .It is not without a certain amount of
trepidation that I venture to address you on the most profound
of physical subjects, nor should I have done so unless it had been
suggested to me by the Secretary of the Association. Anyone
with any knowledge of the matter will, I think, bear me out
when I say that the difficulty of turning the results of mathe-
matical reasoning into a form in any way suitable for an address
is exceedingly grave, and should really be only attempted by
those who have a special knowledge, to which I in no way
pretend. I hope, however, that any account, however feeble,
will not be altogether useless, since the mathematical thicket
must have appeared impenetrable to many who would otherwise
have taken an interest in the subject. A knowledge of the
elementary facts of the subject will be assumed. Coming to
the point with all convenient speed, I will give a sketch of
Maxwell’s theory, because it has recently received what must be
regarded as a great deal of striking confirmation. I will then go
on to develop some of the arguments in favour of the theory, and
will finally try to bring it up to date with respect to several
points that have been more or less passed over in the genera]
discussion.
It is to Faraday that we owe the experimental foundation of
the theory, as well as the fundamental step of the theory
itself, the direction of attention to the properties of the space
surrounding charged or conducting bodies, rather than to the
bodies themselves. The ideas of Faraday were first put in a
precise manner by Maxwell, and then extended so as to give rise
to a theory of optics known as the electro-magnetic theory—one
of the most brilliant concepts of physical science. An immense
amount of detail was also added by Maxwell, both with respect to
phenomena falling clearly within the limits of the theory, and also
with respect to certain outstanding phenomena which were not so
clearly accounted for. The exact description of the theory of many
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A.
y)
“
(oo)
of the instruments, and processes of electrical research was also first
given by Clerk Masel: The oldest and most familiar facts of
Binge science are those of the attraction of electrified bodies and
of magnets. Faraday pointed out that the action between such
Ties depends on the kind of substance surrounding them, and
gave precision to his ideas by his re-discovery of specific inductive
capacity, and of specific inductive magnetic capacity, or perme-
ability as we now call it. The question how does a magnet or
electrically charged body at a point A manage to act or produce
« force on another magnet or charged body situated somewhere
away, say at a point B? A similar question was asked by Newton
long ago with respect to gravitation, and in his letter to Bentley
he gives an answer which ‘T think worth quoting at length in spite
ot its being so well known: ‘ You sometimes speak of gravity as
essential and inherent to matter. Pray do not ascribe that notion
to me; for the cause of gravity is what I do not pretend to know,
and therefore would take more time to consider of it.” “It is
inconceivable that inanimate brute matter should, without the
mediation of something else which is not material, operate on and
affect other matter without mutual contact, as it must do if
gravitation in the sense of Epicurus be Batevelall and inherent in
it.” ‘That gravity should be innate, inherent, and essential to
matter, so that one body may act upon anotHer at a distance
through a vacuum, without the mediation of anything else, by
and through which their action may be conveyed from one to
another, is to me so great an absurdity that I believe no man who
has in philosophical matters a competent faculty of thinking can
ever fall into it. Gravity must be caused by an agent acting
constantly according to certain laws ; but whether this agent be
material or immaterial, I have left’ to the consideration of my
readers.”
Since Newton’s time evidence has accumulated. We have first
of all the phenomenon of the energy of light and heat which reaches
us from the sun. This energy is a real ‘thing, in fact it can be
bought and sold, and so I presume must be admitted to exist,
though similar considerations applied to gold or silver mines might
not necessarily have supreme weight. The question is, what ‘be-
comes of this energy between the eae when it leaves the sun and
the instant when it arrives at the surface of the earth. I premise
that it is admitted that Newton’s idea of the emanation of particles
is proved to be in non-accordance with the facts as far as we know
them, and that light really does take a fixed time—some eight
minutes to get from the sun to the earth. We must admit, also,
that the velocity ot light is practically the same between the sun
and the earth as it is at the earth’s surface, and moreover,
that it is the same at least as far as Jupiter. Since no
other differences have been detected in the light coming
from the other heavenly bodies, except those which we know
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. 29
do not influence the velocity in any experiments we _ haye
been able to make, we consider it likely that the velocity
of light is the same throughout the whole universe—which,
be it noted, is only known to us from the light which comes
to us from the stars. As a consequence, it seems fair to assume
that whatever the agent which—if we may use such a term—carries
the energy from Jupiter to the earth, it is the same as the agent
which carries it throughout space as we know it. That this
carrlage is not due to the actual motion of some substance we
may be certain, since we can assure ourselves that the stars are
visible in all directions at once, and it is unlikely that there
should be a convergence of anything from all points of space
towards our very insignificant earth. We will also note that the
velocity of light through transparent substances at the earth’s
surface is not the same as a rule as it is through air—while in
our so-called vacua, the velocity is very nearly the same as it is
through air. Turning to electric and magnetic action, we note
that the attractions and -repulsions we observe are not the same
in degree through all substances, but depend on the nature of
the substances, and finally in the induction of currents on one
another, where we have energy transferred from one circuit to
another—the circuits not being in any conducting connection—
we have evidence both as to the storing of energy in the space
surrounding the circuits, and the transferring of it from one
circuit to another depending on changes taking place in the cur-
rents themselves, and being independent of the nature of the
conductors in which the currents exist. And these facts lead us
to imagine that space is filled with something or other by and
through which the aforesaid actions take place. There may be
more than one kind of substance for all we know to the contrary,
but one at least there certainly must be. We are led to this
conclusion by reasoning based on the interpretation of our sen-
sations, and thus come to know of the existence of the ether—or
medium—as we shall call it, in a manner completely analogous to
the manner in which we know of the existence of matter. The
evidence in the latter case is rather more complete—as we have
an additional confirming sense, that of touch—to appeal to. The
point which I wish to make however, is that the evidence in both
cases 1s of the same kind, and open to exactly the same _ philoso-
phical criticism in one case as in the other. In what follows I
shall assume the action of a medium in order to account for
electrical and magnetical effects. This is the first great point in
Maxwell’s theory. We can reach the point at which we aim
most quickly by considering the case of a Leyden jar, or of any
condenser, whose plates we will suppose are separated by a layer
of dielectric which we will not further particularise. If we
electrify the plates of the condenser, a point will be reached
beyond which we cannot go, for a spark will take place between
30 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A.
the plates, and the condenser will return more or less nearly to
its uncharged condition. Faraday found that when different
dielectrics are placed between the metallic plates of the con-
denser, the sparks occurring on discharge differ in intensity
according to the nature of the dielectric. A simple experiment
will also show that the energy appearing at discharge is stored in
the dielectric itself. Consequently we must admit that different
dielectrics will, under corresponding electrical circumstances,
store different amounts of energy. A vacuum seems to be a
dielectric and so the power of storing energy is equally possessed
by it, and that, by the way, to a degree hardly inferior to that
possessed by air and other gases. If the dielectric is a fluid like
benzene or turpentine, and one of the condenser-plates is fixed
while the other is hung from the arm of a balance, the plates
being charged to a given potential, we shall find that very
different sets of weights are necessary to overcome the corres-
ponding attraction in different dielectrics. Since the power of
preventing the passage of sparks is very different in different
media, we will suppose that our plates have an attachment
whereby the sparks are made always to occur in air. The
distances at which sparks will occur between surfaces of a given
form in air are practically proportional to a quantity perfectly
detined in the mathematical theory and called the electromotive
force.
Now, let us charge our condenser-plates and then connect
them by a wire; we shall find that the plates are discharged and
that the phenomena of a current, as it is called, are exhibited in
the wire during the discharge. If the wire encircles a magnetic
needle, for instance, the needle will be detlected ; or, if a volta-
meter be included, decomposition, say of water, will take place
in it. Before the discharge the dielectric is said to suffer
“polarisation,” or, as Maxwell called it, “ electric displacement.”
The former term is the better, because all that was meant by
Maxwell, at all events in his later work, was that the dielectric
suffered a vector or directed change of some sort; while the term
he used is apt to connote the actual transference of something—
an idea totally at variance with the theory. Since, as I said, a
vacuum acts as well, or nearly so, as anything else, we must
assume that the ether is the vehicle in which the polarisation
occurs, and that in dielectrics other than vacua the properties of
this ether are so modified as to account for the comparatively
slight differences of effect observed. The second point of
Maxwell’s theory is that the dielectric polarisation is precisely
proportional to the electromotive force. This is not all, however,
Maxwell made a further assumption, immensely facilitating
mathematical computation, and justified as we shall see by
the consistency of the results to which it leads, and by their
concordance with experiment. He supposed that the polarisation
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. 541
between the plates is not only proportional to the electric
intensity, but is numerically equal to the product of the electric
intensity by the factor 7a where K is the specitic inductive
capacity of the medium. In order to examine the nature of this
supposition, we will for a moment take up another point of view
and consider, as was formerly done, that there is a substance
called electricity, and that plates are electrified when this
substance is distributed over them. Maxwell’s assumption
amounts—in the language of this theory—to making the charge
on the plates exactly equal to the loss of electricity by the
dielectric, or, in other words, makes electricity incompressible.
This point is important, because it distinguishes Maxwell’s theory
from the theory of Helmholtz, and from other theories in which
the action of the medium is taken into account. Reverting to
the theory proper, let us see what Maxwell’s views are as to
discharge. The dielectric returns to its normal condition, and
we have a current in the wire, and, moreover, says Maxwell,
there is a falling back of the polarisation to its neutral state. If
we differentiate the polarisation with respect to time, we have a
quantity which may be expressed in words as the time rate of
change of the polarisation, and this, according to Maxwell, forms
a polarisation current, and produces just exactly similar magnetic
effects to the magnetic effects produced by the conduction current
in the wire. I say similar, for in any condenser discharge these
effects are on a much smaller scale. Thus during a discharge the
energy available to produce magnetic effects due to the rate of
change of polarisation in the dielectric will be about a thousand
million million million times less than the corresponding magnetic
energy of the current in the wire. Such small effects have
hitherto escaped direct detection, and the proof of their existence
must therefore, for the time being, remain indirect. There is such
a proof, however, and that of a most satisfactory character, as we
shall see when we consider the meaning of some recent experi-
ments, of first-rate importance, due to Hertz. I may mention
that I, as well as others, have calculated the possibility of obtaining
evidence of these polarisation currents—or rather, and this is the
essential point of the theory—of their magnetic action, and find
that, thanks to the properties of quartz threads, there is just a
possibility of their detection. The difficulty lies not so much in
obtaining evidence of the existence of the minute couple we should
have to observe, but in seperating the action we are in search of
from others due to real conduction in the dielectric or, most of
all, to small magnetic effects.
The real current, then, in Maxwell’s theory is made up of the
conduction current in the wire and the small current due to change
of polarisation in the dielectric. It will be observed that this
small current is to be taken into account in order to avoid dis-
32 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A.
continuity in the cireuit—to close the circuit, as mathematicians
say—which is the very essence of Maxwell’s theory. Poynting
has recently shown that this theory requires us to imagine that
the energy stowed between the condenser-plates moves out into the
wire sideways, not through the armature-plates, as one would be
apt to fancy. The formal proof of this is obtained on mathe-
matical grounds based on certain consequences and further prin-
ciples adopted in the theory; but we can see in a kind of way
that it must be so. Imagine the conducting wires to be thick and
long, but interrupted at their middle point by a short wire of
high resistance. If the condenser is big enough the short wire
will get appreciably heated by the passage of the current through
it. Energy therefore has left the dielectric near the plates, and
has converged on the short wire—at least for the most part. That
very instructive experiment of the skeleton Leyden jar shows that
the energy there, at all events, is in the dielectric. Moreover, we
know that if we have a current in a wire energy is dissipated—while,
from experiments on the induction of electric currents, we know
that energy of current is stored to some extent in the dielectric.
And further, currents flow in wires either as if they had no inertia
—or are caused by “side” pull, not end thrust—and nobody has
yet detected anything like inertia in the phenomena of currents.
Moreover, we can show that energy stored in a dielectric which is
undergoing rapid variation is propogated outward without any
conductors at all, and consequently we are at least entitled to
admit that there is no inherent improbability in Poynting’s
deduction. It is verified of course, along with other results of
the theory, in many ways, and more particularly has formed the
subject of an experimental investigation by Hertz, the results of
which are confirmatory in a very definite and striking manner.
To render our ideas more precise it will be well to consider
here the meaning of the phrase “quantity of electricity” in the
light of the theory we are considering. To do this it is most
convenient to commence with the conception of lines and tubes
of force—an idea we owe in the first place to Faraday. The idea
is simplicity itself. A line of force is any line drawn in the
electric field in such a direction that a particle carrying a charge
of electricity will move along the line if free to do so. Since the
electric force at different points in the field will in general have
different values, the further stipulation is made that in mapping
a field we must draw lines in such a way that the number
crossing unit area at any point will be proportional to the
electrical force at that point. The lines are to be drawn close
together where the field is strong, and far apart where the field
is weak, and any small elementary space bounded as to its sides
by lines of force we shall call a tube of force. Now it follows
from the experiments of Faraday (and indeed these experiments
gave rise to the theory we are discussing) that every tube of
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. a3
force must start at a positively charged surface and end at a
negatively charged surface. A property of such tubes is that the
product of electric force by area of section is constant throughout
the tube. Now we may define unit quantity of electricity as the
electrification which causes the sum of the above products for all
the tubes drawn in connection with it to have the value
4-7. Looking at it in a different way, we may say that a tube
for which the above product is 4 7 is a unit tube and corresponds
to a unit amount of electrification. From what has been said,
however, it is clear that since a dielectric, such as sulphur say,
has rather more pronounced electrical properties than air, we
shall have rather to extend our definition if it is to fit the case of
a condenser, between whose plates there is a layer of sulphur as
well as a layer of air. The electric force must abruptly change
at the boundary of the media, and consequently what was a unit
tube in air will no longer remain a unit tube in sulphur. All
the tubes, however, will sutter alike, and since the forces, other
things being equal, depend on the specific inductive capacity of
the dielectric, we will amend our definition to the extent of
introducing the factor K, so that our unit tube must be one in
which the product area of section by electric force by specific
inductive capacity is equal to 4 z. Now the value of K for air
is taken nearly as 1, and consequently the amount of energy of
electrification required to set up a unit tube will really be a sort
of absolute measure of that electrical property, which, reckoned
with respect to a vacuum, is denoted by a value nearly unity.
Looking at it in another way, as it is important we should see
the matter clearly, let us suppose that two insulated particles
are immersed in a medium at unit distance apart, and electrified
till they exert unit force on one another. If we imagine the
particles held in position by elastic springs, and then displace the
air in which the particles have been immersed by benzene or any
other dielectric, the springs will be observed to relax, shewing
that the force is not so great as it was. If we wish to get the
springs back to their original state of strain we shall have to
work our electrical fnadhine again to increase the electrification.
Hence it is clear that the amount of electrification indicated
by one unit depends on the specific inductive capacity of the
medium in which the experiment is supposed to be made.
Returning to Poynting’s statement of the mode in which the
energy of a charged condenser gets into a wire, we see that it is
equivalent to the statement that the tubes of force move out
from the dielectric near the plates and converge on the wire
where they give off their energy. This, of course, involves what
may be called an assumption, namely, that energy is transferred
continuously, and is not destroyed at one point and re-created at
another. That this is really the case will be shown later on.
The next great principle of Maxwell’s theory refers to the
c
*)
J PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION A.
induction of currents, and is really an extension of Faraday’s
law. It is that the line integral of the electric intensity round
any closed curve is equal to the rate of decrease of the total
magnetic induction through the curve. The line integral of
electric intensity taken round a conducting circuit is what we
are generally accustomed to call the picermmmnnive force acting in
the circuit. The above principle has been established in many
ways, in so far as it refers to conductors—but Maxwell supposes
that it is generally true, whether there be conductors in the
field or not. This amounts to saying that change of magnetic
induction can produce electric polarisation without the presence
of charged bodies at all, and moreover, states the amount of
pol: RIT which will be produced in any case. As a matter
of fact, the principle just enunciated is in a sense the converse of
the pr inciple of the magnetic action of polarisation currents, and
may be deduced from that principle by the method of Lagrange,
and so is not really an independent principle at all. Before we
go any further it will perhaps be as well to give some idea of
Maxwell’s views as to magnetism ; this is a subject which as far
as I know has not been much treated by reviewers. The first
fact which Maxwell always seems to have had before him—at all
events from the time he considered he discovered that the energy
of a magnetic field is kinetic—is that the energy in a magnetic
tield is due to a rotational motion of some kind around the lines
of magnetic force. This idea he obtained from a consideration of
the action of magnetic forces on a beam of polarised light. The
next point was to explain the action between magnets, and this
was accomplished by imagining a stress in the medium analogous
to the electric stress in a medium of unit specific inductive
capacity. In the case of a homogeneous isotropic solid or of
liquid which is non-magnetisable in the ordinary sense, the stress
1
is to amount to a hydrostatic pressure of H? across the
5
Oo TT
lines of force combined with a longitudinal tension of the same
amount along these lines, H being. the magnetic force. If the
substance Peach is permeated by the medium is magnetic, a
distinction arises between the magnetic force in the medium and
the force in the substance, and we have to take the magnetic
induction instead of the magnetic force. The expressions, too,
are complicated, but exact for any medium, magnetisable or not.
In some speculations as to the cause of the energy and stress in
the medium, Maxwell considers that the rotatory motion referred
to is due to the action of ether vortices and the stresses to their
centrifugal action. Electric currents produce magnetic action as
well as magnets, consequently we must imagine that current
action is probably the expression of ether Somte motion, if it be
admitted that magnetic action is so. Though it would be
improper to ignore the action of conductors to the extent that I
re
PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION A. B15)
have done, it would be still more improper to ignore the action
of the material of magnets. Hopkinson has found that the
magnetisation of iron is so nearly destroyed by a trace of
manganese, that no hypothesis that we can frame of the distri-
bution of the manganese as such through the iron, will
account for the effect observed. Chemists will admit that in
manganese iron there is probably some combination between the
iron and manganese, and I think Hopkinson’s experiments prove
not only that such must be the case, but that an amount of
chemical combination, which may be described as very moderate,
will entirely alter the magnetic behaviour of the iron. Conse-
quently I think we may say that whatever be the cause of
magnetisation, assuming it to be an ether phenomenon—that
phenomenon is immensely influenced by small chemical change—
a change for which the ether usually gets little credit. Hopkin-
son’s experiments seem to force on us the conviction that if
magnetic phenomena depend on the ether, then at least in iron
the relation of the ether to the matter of the iron must be
extremely close. We are almost driven to think that magnetism
may be produced by some peculiar mode of motion of iron
molecules which is shared to only a slight extent by the
molecules of other materials. If we take this view, it seems
to follow that the particular mode of molecular motion which
‘enables the ether to give rise to magnetic effects must be very
nicely balanced since it takes so little to upset it.
We are now in a position to return to the final principle of
Maxwell’s theory, which may be stated in a theorem analogous
to that relating to the electromotive force produced by change
of magnetic induction. It is that “the line integral of the
magnetic intensity round any closed curve is equal to 4 7 times
the current through the curve.” It need hardly be pointed out
that this is experimentally true when the current is in a wire,
and indeed it is the principle on which dynamos are designed.
Maxwell’s extension amounts to assuming that it is also true,
when the current is due to change of electric induction. It is
obvious that there is a close reciprocal relation between this
principle and that last discussed, and this is exceedingly well
brought out by Poynting in his so-called modification of the
principle. As has been said, it follows from the theory in
general that the energy keeping a current going moves in
sideways. Part of this energy may be considered to be carried
by the tubes of electric induction, and an equal part by the
motion of the tubes of magnetic induction, which by the principle
just stated must accompany them. If we look on the tubes of
electric induction as being in motion, then the principle may be
stated as follows: Giving the name “magnetomotive force” to
the line integral of magnetic intensity in accordance with a
suggestion made by Bosanquet and adopted by Poynting, then
c2
36 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION A.
‘‘ Whenever magnetomotive force is produced by change in the
electric field, or by motion of matter through the field, the
magnetomotive force per unit length is equal to 47 x the
number of tubes of electric induction cutting or cut by unit
length per second, the magnetomotive force tending to produce.
induction in the direction in which a right-handed screw would
move if turned round from the direction of the electric induction
towards the direction of motion of the unit length relatively to
the tubes of induction.” This in most cases may be simplified to
the less general statement that ‘‘The magnetomotive force round
any curve is equal to 4 + x number of tubes of electric induction
passing in or out through the curve per second.” )
| | a
Dy hh} Buvklegs [1-5] 6 |-7 | 6-7 9 |8-9| 1-9 |S:
HOMES oa femmes Pri cl recy Tala cgay pe, a a en Oa ee =
az P hep!
ae : me lee ee a |e ee
lel tate elt | ea eel ea = = Se | jas
= — © ome ao | & j=) hey (ie Show (ees ee
fe oa = as ° = =] iS ie} | Fe sees yes ne
e2 |e 128) 2) Shele | =| 2 heise = janjZ®
Pp a evan siete |e eshte [ee eae eS ie
BS |Sials] sl Sle] a ons lea Is
| ey ele! al © |-a | {Ps
| (“18 |e a
| No.
26,094 | 2:4 | 69 | 3:7 | 24-5] 5°38] 42°8 100 | 2:29
3,735 | 2°6 | 4:7 | 35 | 24-4) 7:0) 42-2 | 100 | 2°33
5,174 | 3:8 | 82 | 1-4 | 133] 19-0) 45-7 100 | 2°15
ee al eee se a
35,008 | 2°7 | 7-0 | 3°3 | 23:0] 7°5| 43°5 Le | 2th eh tO | 25
Ra
i} |
| hed). een Ads
| |
862 | 1°6 | 4°5 | 41/188] 145) 435, 02) 0-6 08 54°5) 1-2) 55°7/ 100 | 2-24
213 | 1-4| 5°0 | 5°1 | 18°3| 15-7) 45-5) 01) 0-6 07 528) 1-0 53°8 100 | 2-16
{ ' |
| |
280 | 1-4 | 4-1 | 4-8 | 16°5| 126) 39-4) 0-3, 0-7 1-0 58:9) 0-7, 59°6| 100 | 2-47
| eens |
30 | 1°6 | 3-9 | 571 |,12°6| 16-1) 39-3) 0-3] 1-6, 1-9) 56-2) 2°6 58:8] 100) 2°43
| | }
116 | 1-5} 4°6 | 3°4 | 16:5] 169] 42-9| 05! 0-6 11) 55:5 0°5 56-0| 100 | 2-27
490 | 1°5 | 4-1 | 4°3 | 168) 11-2 37-9} 0-1) 0:6 0-7 60-7 0-7 61-4) 100 | 2-56
| —|— | — — — SEMATECH
1,991 | 1-5 | 4°4 | 4-4 | 17-7) 13-7] 41-7] 0-2 0-6 08) 566 0-9. 57°5| 100 | 2°35
ea
| |
50,155 | 1-8 | 6°3 | 3°6| 7-6 15-3 34-6! 2°83
27,279 | 2°1 | 3-2 | 3°3 | 13:0, 17-0 38-6 Bilbo: 2°54
| i
37,321 | 1:8 | 6°3 | 4-2 | 12-0, 18-0, 42°3 Ai 2:32
22,144 | 1-9 | 4-0 | 20| 100 280 45°9| .. h: 214
5,520 | 3°0| 9°0 | 4-4} 172) 146 482... | 2-04
.| 253,891 | 1°3 | U*1 | 1:4 | 14:6) 28-0 46-2) ... 213
fr iiotia, ea | Soli, (veal “(cls -|aeale..
-| 433,304 | 1-6 | 3°0 | 2°3|13°3 23-2) 43-4... 2°26
130 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.
From this table we learn that all people are divided into two
important groups, viz., breadwinners, representing about 44-2 per
cent. of all persons, and non-breadwinners or dependants, com-
posed mainly of wives and children, representing 55:8 per cent.
of the total populations. Thus it appears that the wants of all
must be provided by the service of less than half the total number
of those who consume wants. The’ proportions of the bread-
winners necessary to effect this service are as follows. That is
to say, for every 100 persons engaged in services of exchange
— there must be on the aggregate the following proportions
nearly :—
PERCENTAGE PROPORTION.
Agricultural and Pastoral services... ce . 52°56
Industrial services ,. Be 45 &. Ff Soo. SUF LL
Domestic services... » =. sett so ROS
Commercial services a Kee , Rac ha wore
Professional and other undefined services a Lote fines
otal. ane me sek ae me ... 1000
It will be seen that the simple services of the agriculturist and
herdsman are by far the most important (52-5 per cent.), and
that the next in importance are the industrial services, embracing
all artisans and labourers, representing 30-1 per cent. The
higher skilled workmen of this group only represent about 11 per
cent. of all services. As the balance of services—commercial and
professional—only amount to 10°6 per cent., it follows that of all
services required only 21:6 per cent. demand skill of a higher order ;
and that 78:4 per cent. represent agricultural and other labourers
and domestic servants, in respect of which skill of a high order is
not absolutely requisite.
It is largely due to the flooding of particular kinds of employ-
ment beyond the strict proportions which local wants demand that
inconvenience or distress is felt in young as well as old countries.
The numbers which can find entry into the higher industrial, the
commercial, and professional divisions cannot, without unhealthy
competition, be increased beyond the relative proportions which
these divisions must bear to the producing industries of
the particular country; and these dominating industries in
Australasia are agricultural, pastoral, and mining. Employment
in other divisions can only follow substantial increases in the three
industries named ; for manufacturing industries cannot alter their
present proportions independently, as in England, until such time
as they are able to manufacture for the markets of other countries
than the local one. This applies much more strongly to the
smaller division represented by unskilled labour (not agricultural),
and by the commercial and professional classes. These certainly
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F. 131
may only increase according to their rigid proportion ; and this
must be determined by a previous increase in the fundamental
producing industries of the particular place.
The principal producing industries of the place may increase
irrespective of other local divisions (7.e., agricultural, pastoral, and
mining), as their products may find the necessary consumer in
foreign markets. Whatever influence, therefore, may bar the
progress of the dominating producing industries of the place
must also bar occupations in all other divisions of services.
It is clear from what has been stated that applicants for a
given kind of employment may often fail, not because there is no
room for more labour, but because the drection in which the
applicants have been trained, or in which they desire to be
employed, is out of harmony with the natural or local proportions
of that particular service necessary in the production of general
satisfactions.
From this cause arises much difficulty and distress. It largely
adds to the proportion of dependants, and consequently the direct
or indirect strain (7.e., support of friends, relatives, private and
public charities) upon the actual breadwinners. becomes oppressive.
I do not here touch upon artificial aids to local production in its
effects upon the alteration or disturbance of the relative propor-
tions of the division of services upon which such aid must have
an immediate effect, further than to remark that if the aid by
tariff duties or other means enables the local division at once to
cover the ground formerly supplied by foreign industry, it can
only do so either by increasing the machinery or the relative
proportion of numbers employed locally in the division of service
affected. The advantage or disadvantage of adopting such a
policy is hereafter discussed. It is sufficient for the present
purpose to show the possible effect it may exert upon local
employment alone.
SATISFACTION OF WANTS AND THEORY OF OBSTACLES
CONSIDERED.
Human satisfactions are enjoyed to the fullest extent with the
smallest expenditure of time and human energy in regions where
the natural sources of human satisfactions are vast and rich, and
under conditions where the fewest obstacles intervene between
actual producers and actual consumers. Extra time and labour,
often necessarily spent in mere distribution, are in themselves
obstacles, and directly tend to lessen the quota of satisfactions
which might be enjoyed by each individual. All conditions,
therefore, which necessitate the larger expenditure of time and
labour (such as extreme distance between the several kinds
of producers and manufacturers), as well as conditions which
12
132 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.
necessitate extra provision against loss or waste of satisfactions
produced or being produced (such as dangers from loss by storms,
inundations, fire, waste by war, civil strife, robbery, depredations
by wild animals, idle and useless dependants, plagues of parasites,
disease, etc.), curtail of necessity the amount of necessary
satisfaction which otherwise might be enjoyed by each useful
human unit. Obstacles, therefore, greatly reduce the amount of
human satisfactions so far as each individual is cencerned,
although in the aggregate this is not so easily comprehended.
Lowness of nominal prices is not a correct index of conditions
most favourable for the attainment of the greatest amount of
satisfactions with the smallest expenditure of time and human
energy : for it often happens that low prices may be caused by
excessive expenditure of human energy forced upon a struggling
producer, or by poverty due to forced idleness on the part rot a
large body of consumers. While it may often happen—as in
young colonies—that a high price is no index of a lower supply
of satisfactions, but rather of the smaller amount of obstacles
intervening between consumer and producer, and gratuitous
sources of nature, the smaller amount of enforced idleness on
the part of consumer giving him a greater purchasing power ;
and the greater advantage of the producer, due to similar
causes, enabling him to obtain all the most necessary round of
satisfactions with a smaller expenditure of time and labour. Mere
cheapness of satisfactions, therefore, is not a reliable index of
individual welfare. Purchasing power, as indicated by expendi-
ture of time and labour, is the only true index as between
countries differently circumstanced, and this purchasing power of
the consumer—unlike the unreliable nominal cost or wage—is
always in harmony with the amount of obstacles intervening
between the actual producers of satisfactions and the actual
consumers.
This method of determining the condition of different com-
munities will be better understood if we carefully investigate the
effect of obstacles more closely. As the factors are variable and
numerous, the only way to arrive at true conclusions is to
approach the question by the mathematical method : thus :—
Let N=Natural agents and products; or the gratuitous
forces of nature.
P = Productive power of human agencies, including skill
and energy, and skilled appliances.
O = Obstacles intervening between NP, or producer and
consumers.
C=Producers, dependants, distributors, etc., repre-
senting the living population ; or consumers.
Then NP—O
cane
= Represents the amount of the average satisfactions
provided for each individual.
PRESIDENTS ADDRESS-—SECTION F. 133
And NP+0O
ie
= Represents the nominal cost of satisfactions for
each individual on the average—or it may
fairly represent the amount of exertion or
energy expended by human energy.
Having stated the general effect of obstacles between direct
producer and consumer as minimising the actual supply of neces-
sary satisfactions to each consumer where the values of N and P
and C are constant, it follows inevitably that the amount of satis-
factions to each individual is in direct correspondence to the
amount of O; increasing with its decrease, and decreasing with
its increase. ;
The effect upon rice, however, is exactly the reverse of this,
as a definite amount of satisfactions increase in price in correspon-
dence with the increase in obstacles (OQ), and decrease
correspondingly with its decrease.
This law is not invalidated because in particular cases (1) price
is comparatively low when O is absolutely great, and conversely
(2), price is comparatively low when O is absolutely small; for
in every such case there must be corresponding dissimilarity in
the other elements to explain this effect, ze. -—
The effect (1) could only happen in cases where either N or P
is abnormally or relatively great, or C is comparatively small ;
and similarly the effect (2) could only happen in cases where
either N or P is abnormally or relatively small or C is com-
paratively great.
The failure to grasp these fundamental considerations is the
chief cause of the blunders in all reasonings connected with
questions related to the policy of different nations in respect of
artificial restrictions, hindrances, or facilities in the interchange
of foreign products.
To make this matter more clear, it may be advantageous in
demonstration to set forth a number of examples for the sake of
illustrating the important truths involved in the effects produced
where one or all the factors are different in value :—
(1.) Where soil, climate, or natural utilities are particularly
advantageous, the value of N is at its best or maxi-
mum = N”
(2.) Where skill and energy exist, and are employed to the
best advantage, the largest results are attained for
R= Pr
(3.) Where the smallest number of obstacles occur between
NP and GC, the largest amount of satisfactions fall to
the share of C = CO”
(4.) The most perfect: conditions favourable for effecting the
highest amount of satisfactions to each individual
consumer coincide with N™ P™ —Q"
C
134 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.
Or,
If we separate P™into labourers (L) and instruments (1), the
fruit of former efforts, saved from previous consumption, and
devoted by inventive skill and energy to more or less permanent
aids to L, we have a more perfect statement of (4) thus :—
N= ibe IE ==@5 ; oP
Cae Sa i Ce ) =The ideally best conditions for
ioe een the attainment of the highest
of satisfactions satisfactions of human wants
with the least expenditure of
human energy.
Understanding by m and 7 the indices of the maximum and
minimum of the various conditions, then it would logically follow
that the converse or worst possible conditions for attaining the
necessary satisfactions of human wants, involving also the
greatest expenditure of human energy, would be when the
equation becomes
(B) IN" (L?,.1)-OF
C= Ny
This being so, it also follows that this stage will be coincident
with conditions which favour the maximum of cost for each
satisfaction, thus :—
N: (ig I) Ie oO
@z
Similarly, the conditions favourable to the attainment of
minimum of lowest cost or price (P") would coincide with stage
A, thus’
Ss
=
ifn Cl mets
(OF
Reasoning from these premises, it is clear that the results 8 and
P, or their values, can never be satisfactorily known, unless we
can gauge the values of thcir respective co-efficients. That is,
we must know not merely what is the tendency of any one
factor, but we must also know the tendency of all factors affect-
ing the problem. Nay, more, if Political Economy is ever to be
dignified by the name of “The Sczence of Political Economy,” it
must not merely take cognisance of the tendency of every one of
these factors, but, like the skilled physicist, its disciples must not
tall of the “teachings” “or conclusions” drawn from them until
they are prepared to place approximate values against the
tendency of each factor, and then to strike a balance showing
the ultimate effects of the ever-varying combinations in ever-
varying localities.
The difticulty of the problem is no excuse for ignoring the
necessity for the adoption of this course. Hitherto, to a great
=p!
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F. 135
extent, the subject has been governed by the more or less
plausible generalisations of mere literary men; and_ their
deserved fame and undoubted ability and skill as such have given
them a prestige in political matters to which they are not entitled
from a practical or scientific point of view. That they have
done good service in arousing and sustaining attention on such
important matters is readily admitted ; but further progress is
impossible so long as the inexact methods of the mere literary
athlete are employed. In future the progress of Political
Economy as a science depends upon demonstrations based upon
quantitative analysis, and not as heretofore upon authoritative
dogmas based upon the qualitative analysis of any ove factor of
the problem arbitrarily chosen from a compound or complex
equation.
It is obvious that we may concur with most of the writers on
Political Economy as to the general tendency of any one
influence ; but while this is so, it may not be a safe proceeding
to trust the effect of this one tendency—even admitting its
importance—as determining the ultimate conclusion ; for other
tendencies, minus or plus, must be reckoned with before any
reliable conclusion can be arrived at. Pathos and literary merit
are powerful adjuncts, no doubt, but in the solution of political
problems they are worse than useless where complete and exact
‘methods are eschewed,
THE Best Mopre For EFFectiInc THE H+iGHEsr QuoTa oF
SATISFACTIONS wWitH A Minimum or TROUBLE DEPENDS
Uron THE Locat VALUE AND ExTEeNT oF NATURAL
SOURCES OF SUPPLY.
The principal material satisfactions essential to the happiness
and cultured content of human life primarily depend upon
natural sources of supply, and that country whose natural sources
afford the greatest potential of elements which may be made to
contribute to the material satisfactions of cultured men, is also
the country wherein the greatest number of people may best
fulfil all those mutual services to each other which cover the
whole round of wants of an ideally happy community. The
essential natural conditions for the sustenance of a_highly-
cultured community, and permitting a natural, healthy expansion,
are :—
(1.) Large area covering all zones of climate favourable for
the production of all reasonable wants, and possessing
richly all the elements essential to production, such
as water, fertile soil, the varied mineral and vegetable
products, and such flocks and herds as most contribute
to the welfare of man.
136 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F.
(2.) Division of labour—each division carefully apportioned
in relation to the probable amount of different satis-
factions required ; and each labourer in every division
carefully trained in that branch of work to which he
has been apportioned.
(3. The creation and maintenance of instruments which best
supplement man’s efforts in modifying and distributing
the products derived from natural sources, and so
enabling each unit to enjoy the maximum of desirable
satisfaction with that minimum of exertion which is
most conducive to the health and happiness of the
individual.
Now, if it were possible to find such a combination of favour-
able conditions, wherein all the wants of man could be completely
met, it follows that interchange with other countries, so far as
material needs are concerned, would not only be unnecessary but
disadvantageous.
It is true, on moral grounds, a nation enjoying the maximum
of satisfactions with a minimum of exertion or maximum of ease
might either reduce the amount of satisfactions or increase its
exertions for purposes of benevolence as directed towards a
country less favourably situated; but there would be no such
necessity on commercial grounds as laid down by the earlier’
economists, except upon the plea that we should buy in the
cheapest market. But this last plea, the favourite maxim of Free
Trade theorists, ignores many consequences of the most vital
importance.
First, the ideal state contemplated had already discovered and
achieved that final state of content or evd to which a people can
aspire to—that is, a maximum of desirable satisfactions combined
with a minimum of reasonable exertion. This being so, why
should they attempt to procure this end by another method untried
by them, seeing that they could not improve their condition in
this way, but might make it worse. But as this plea must be
discussed, let us see under such circumstances what it might
lead to.
Buy IN THE CHEAPEST MARKET.
In our ideally perfect state, let us for convenient reference call
it ‘ Euphrasia,” one of the fundamental conditions regulating
its well-being 1s, that all for each is considered of as great if not
greater importance as each for all.
The favourable natural conditions were experienced to be such
that the round of wants of all might be satisfactorily supplied
without demanding from any one group of its divisions of labour
more than forty-four hours of public Jabour per week. But it was
also carefully determined that although a certain aggregate of
PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—-SECTION F. 137
labour when properly directed would affect this desirable end, a
corresponding or even a much greater amount of labour could not
produce the same result if the previously carefully arranged and
periodical regulation of the apportionment of labourers were
subsequently disturbed in an arbitrary way. Every arbitrary
disturbance of the proportion of labourers trained and originally
apportioned to a special work or function has the effect of
lowering the purchasing power of the section which was arbitrarily
increased, because it introduced either curtailment of employ-
ment, wrongful competition, over-production, or diminished
purchasing power within that particular section of the division
of labour ; and in the section from which they were arbitrarily
withdrawn, it either lessened the amount of aggregate satisfactions
required for all, or, if it have not that effect, it increases the
hours of labour of those within the division beyond the maximum
standard, without additional recompense for increased exertion.
Tf, however, the additional hours are rewarded by extra satis-
factions, it must be at the expense of the general consumers,
thus lessening their average of aggregate satisfactions.
The wrongful over-production is a direct loss to the whole
community so healthfully regulated by community of interests.
Oh, but your ideal Euphrasian forgets, says the Economist,
that the surplus of A division might by interchange with another
nation be made to restore the balance thus arbitrarily destroyed
by A recompensing through products needed in division B where
a deficiency was caused, This is true, but at best this course only
helps to restore the loss occasioned by the arbitrary disturbance
of the apportionment of the local Euphrasian division of services.
Nay, more, the loss occasioned could not be fully restored by az
equal exchange of labour and skill, for the exchange with the
distant foreign country involved a fresh expenditure of labour in
transfer and agencies of exchange—thus increasing the value of
O or obstacles—between producer and consumer, and so inevitably
lessening the quota of the essential material satisfactions to be
divided among consumers. It must be borne in mind that
Euphrasia is assumed to possess the maximum of favourable
natural resources—plus best art appliances—and, consequently,
the restoration of the destroyed equilibrium in Euphrasia could
only be effected by a skilled people, who of necessity were forced
to adapt themselves to circumstances by either being satisfied
with a lower requirement of wants than that enjoyed by the
Euphrasians, or by a similar standard of material satisfactions
gained at a much greater expenditure of labour.
For the sake of illustration, let us further examine this theory
of obstacles. It will readily be granted that where two producing
centres are situated at vastly different distances trom consuming
centres, that supply from the nearer producing centre can be
effected by a much smaller expenditure of labour than by the more
_ distant centre of production.
138 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.
Thus, if A be 8000 miles distant, and B 40 miles, it follows
that the extra Jabour and time consumed in carrying the extra.
7960 miles is a serious disadvantage. Men do not consume
distance. In itself it does not add a jot to the ultimate material
wants of man otherwise produced. Distribution is certainly a
necessity, but the smaller the need for distribution the larger the
produce to be divided, for it is obvious that the more machines
and human beings that are abstracted from direct production of
essential satisfactions, the smaller is the quantity falling to the
share of each consumer of wants. Thus, if 100 producers and 50
distributors provide the ideal quota of wants of an Euphrasian at
the maximum of eight hours per day—say 10 wants per day—
then the 100 producers must each have produced 15 wants, for
consumers include producers and non-producers, or producers and
distributors, and these number 150, and
VOOM PA
150
for each consumer, or, on the basis of exertion which lies at the
root of price or cost, we might put it that for the aggregate hours
of labour in producing and distributing each consumer was put in
the possession of 10 wants. Now, if we increase obstacles, we
cannot supply the same number of wants without individually
increasing the hours of labour. Thus, if the additional distance
involves the labour of 50 additional distributors, and if producer’
and consumer alike share the additional labour thrown upon
them, we have
=e)
200 x 8
150
Thus, to maintain the same share of wants as formerly, the
necessary increase of 50 non-producers or distributors involved
fully an extra two hours labour per day, or 25 per cent. extra
exertion on the part of all breadwinners. In like manner it may
be shown, if the amount of exertions per individual remain undis-
turbed, then the amount of wants formerly supplied to each
consumer must be lessened, thus :—
150 x 40
Sema =7°5 wants per consumer
Thus we have with the increased obstacles a diminution in the
satisfaction of wants equivalent to a reduction of 25 per cent.
In these simple illustrations the direct effects of increased
obstacles between producer and consumer are set forth in plain
terms, so far as interchange with a distant country affects the
conditions of a country circumstanced like our ideal Euphrasia.
To apply the argument involving obstacles to other countries not so
favourably conditioned as Euphrasia might favour the adoption
of interchange between two or more distant countries, as effecting
PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. 139
improvement in the condition of consumers in each country ; but
this improvement could only reach the highest possible quota for
such a place where the exchanges are confined to the necessary
products, which are either naturally easily produced beyond local
needs, or in respect of products which are naturally deficient
within its own border. In such case, the exchange of the former
by exports would have to be met with a similar value of imports
of the latter. But even here the disadvantageous effects of
obstacles are not a whit lessened. The disadvantageous effects
of obstacles have to be endured so long as they do not outweigh
the advantages of the desired exchanges.
Nay, there is one form of want—Food—which no obstacle can
outweigh so long as the energies of the labourer in other directions
remain unexhausted. The unfortunate country so circumstanced
must of necessity effect exchanges with food conntries, or perish
as a community. Still more terrible is it for the masses of this
country if it should happen that it lacks the natural or raw
products upon whose manufacture the exchanges for the food of
other countries depends.
In such a case the friction of obstacles (distance) between (1)
producer of raw products (2), manufacturer, and (3), consumer,
attains its maximum, notwithstanding that science and skill may
have done, and are still doing, wonders by steam and other
contrivances on sea and land to minimise its lowering influence
on the amount of satisfactions proportionate to labour exerted.
The Economist may here exclaim: How does the Euphrasian
argument from obstacles reconcile itself with such a case as the
United Kingdom. He will no doubt proceed to show that no
nation on earth has carried the method of interchange with other
countries to so high a pitch as the United Kingdom. Her vessels
are found laden with the products of exchange in every important
harbour of every country.
Her aggregate wealth is the envy of nations, amounting to a
sum something approaching £1,300,000,000 as a yearly income.
Her external interchange trade amounts to 643 millions yearly,
362 millions being imports and 281 millions being exports. Her
annual value of real estate alone reaches £196,000,000. Surely,
he would continue confidently, this is the most complete vindica-
tion that could be given practically that the nation which has the
greatest amount of foreign interchange trade and, presumably,
the greatest amount of obstacles, is also the nation which, by her
great wealth, affords the greatest amount of satisfactions to divide
among her consumers.
The answer to this supposed objection certainly involves many
complex questions, but if may at once be aflirmed that it does not
in the slightest degree diminish the value of the argument fronr
obstacles as applied to Euphrasia. In making this affirmation, it
is not denied that the wealth of the United Kingdom in //e
140 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.
aggregate is unbounded, and no one can reflect’ upon her grand
achievements in science, wealth, and progress without admiration
and pride. The skill and energy of her people are marvellous,
and our admiration is not lessened, but increased, by the thought
that her vast resources and enormous interchange of trade have
been built up by her prodigious energy and industry in spite of
obstacles of every kind. Her skill, daring, and enterprise have
given her the command of important lands under every clime.
This skill and enterprise, however, could not within her own
borders increase, beyond a certain limit, the necessary supplies to
meet her rapidly growing needs, as regards food and clothing for
her people and raw products to supplement her needs for supplying
manufactures in exchange for prime necessaries, failing which
she could not support the lives of her people. It is necessity,
therefore, which inevitably forced her to direct her industries in
such a manner that her lack in food and other raw products at
home should be purchased by a surplus creation of manufactures.
Food, being one of the prime essentials to the life of each person,
must be secured in sufficient quantity, or the lives of her workers
cannot be sustained. A nation possessed of all other forms of
the world’s wealth of exchange could not preserve the lives of her
people if this one form of wealth—Food—be lacking or insufficient.
With such a nation—so unfavourably conditioned—her existence
depends upon her power to command supplies of the food of other
countries in exchange for such products as food-producing
countries may think it desirable to take from her.
The food-producing countries may carry on this exchange as a
matter of choice or preference; but with the food-requiring
country the exchange must be effected—on the best terms
possible—but if necessity presses hard, 7¢ must be effected upon any
terms forced upon her.
Fortunately for such a country, all lands capable of producing
large food supplies are not in the condition of our ideal Euphrasia,
and hence there is little danger of a stoppage of food exchanges
for manufactures so long as the food-producing country is tempted
by cheapness to buy those of the food-lacking country in prefer-
ence to making them for herself, or of buying them from a rival
manufacturing country on s/// more advantageous terms.
FREE TRADE.
A food-lacking country must therefore favour free interchange
of trade, for it is necessary to her existence. A country with
ample natural sources unutilised or partly utilised would only
sutter a temporary inconvenience by the cessation of imports of
foreign manufactures, and it is possible that this inconvenience,
which forced her to supply her own wants from sources and
agencies within her own borders, might result in increasing the
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION F. 141
amount of satisfactions for each consumer with an expenditure
of a smaller amount of exertion on the part of each producer and
distributor.
AGGREGATE WEALTH AND INDIVIDUAL WEALTH.
But let us again return to the outward indices of the prosperity
of the United Kingdom. Admitting that she has great wealth
in the aggregate, it does not necessarily follow that the share of
satisfactions falling to the bulk of her people compares favourably
with countries whose aggregate wealth is comparatively small.
In point of fact, any aggregate respecting the wealth of a country
is a pure abstraction. It is as such enjoyed by noone. Itis the
share falling on the average to each individual which is the true
indication of real wealth, or of the satisfactions enjoyed by the
unit.
This is significantly demonstrated by contrasting two widely
differing countries in respeot of that abstract idea called national
wealth :—
Tasmania. United Kingdom.
Area ... se» £16:5778;000 ...2. 77:800;000°
Ditto per head of population .. 11413 ese) UD
Ageresate earnings of wages class 5,519,340 .-- 800,084,000
Working class breadwinners, esti-
mated : ... 61,326 ... 15,884,000
Wages ditto per head per year wy, £90 eo cao
Average hours employed per week 44 5g 50D
Wages per head per week . .. 84s. 6d. see pd Eesiih
Average wages per head per hour 9d. Piel en
Average cost of one quarter of
wheat ae 32s. 6d. ey HO28.60.
Equivalent of ditto in true pur-
chasing power, viz., hours’ labour 41° hours ,,. 92° hours
Thus it will be seen that, notwithstanding the imposing effect
of the vast aggregate wealth of labour in England, representing
over eight hundred million pounds sterling, the purchase of one
quarter of wheat—the staff of life—demands of her workmen
the expenditure of 92-° hours’ time in labour, whereas in Tas-
mania the same amount of satisfactions can be gained by the
expenditure of 41-° hours of labour ; that is, the English workman
would have to work, if work could be placed at his disposal (in
itself a greater difficulty), 123 per cent. more hours to attain the
same purchasing power possessed by the Tasmanian workman,
whose aggregate wealth only represents 0°69 per cent. of the
corresponding aggregate in England.
This clearly proves how misleading are the effects produced
by allowing the mind to dwell upon mere abstractions based
upon aggregates
142 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS
THe EFFECT OF STRIKES OR A RISE IN WAGES IN Foop-
Propucine AND Foop-LACKING CoUNTRIES.
But the difference in the purchasing power of the English
breadwinner is not the only disadvantage. Her purchasing
power is also not merely limited by the extent of the market
for her manufactures, but upon her success in underselling
foreign rivals who are also by necessity compelled to exchange
manufactures for the prime necessaries of raw products of food
and clothing ; and hence her success depends either upon her
superiority in skill and local appliances, or in cheapness or
extending the hours of labour. It is a necessity that a manufac-
turing country must produce cheaply, and necessity will force
her to attain this end by extending the hours of the labourer
without extra recompense, should other means fail her as a
competitor for the bread and raw products of food-producing
countries. Strikes and combinations among workmen are only
of value to them within very narrow limits. For let us suppose
that England’s supremacy as a manufacturing country depends
upon her present power to undersell rival countries to the extent
of 15 per cent., it would then follow that any xominal success
attaimed by the combined strikes of her workmen, thereby
improving their hours of labour or rates of wages to the extent
of, say, 16 to 20 per cent. would be altogether disastrous, for it
would destroy the competitive power of England as a manufacturer
for other countries than her own. But if England was thus shut
within herself there would probably be no employment whatever,
and no means of subsistence for perhaps 20 millions of her present
population of 38 millions. This would be a terrible result arising
out of the success of combined strikes among her manufacturing
workmen:
That an increase of the cost of her products to the extent of
what has been indicated is not a very improbable matter
springing from strikes has been foreshadowed by the recent
combination among English dock labourers, who succeeded in
having their rate of wages raised 2d. per Hotirs As the average
rate of workmen in Brgland is only 4-?°d, per hour, a general
increase of 13d. per hour would raise the cost of wages 35- vivper
cent. ; and as the price of labour is the chief item of cost in all
manufactures, it is not improbable that the ultimate cost of her
manufactures would be raised 20 per cent., thus cutting her off
from her previous advantage, which enabled her successfully to
outrival all other countries in supplying the external markets of
the world with manufactures.
In countries where food and raw products are or can be produced
far in excess of local requirements, the effect of prohibitive tariffs
in raising local prices would not have a similar effect. If the
cost of living would be xominally raised thereby, it would be
PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. 145
exactly or nearly counterbalanced by a xominal increase in earnings
locally. Thus, for example, if the consumer had to pay 20 per
cent. extra for all articles of consumption, it is probable that
even this would not be disadvantageous ; for it is almost certain
that the true purchasing powers of labour—relative to staff of
life—would be very little altered, as the price of labour would
also tend to approach an increase of 20 per cent.
But there is one effect which this would have upon a food-
producing country, which would show a decided contrast with a
similar rise of wages in a manufacturing country such as England,
viz., it would draw to the former the manufacturing labourers
of manufacturing or densely-peopled centres; for instead of
cutting off sources of employment, as in England, it would of
necessity require her to import /adourers to produce those wants
locally, or a great portion of them, which formerly had been
supplied to her by the manufactures of external labour. That is,
broadly, its main effect would be to increase the local labour
market or widen the field for the employment of local labour.
At first this would also have the effect of diminishing the
aggregate extent of external commerce ; but it need hardly be
discussed, all things being fairly equal as regards natural sources,
that the supply of exchanges by home products, instead of by
foreign, is all in favour of diminution of obstacles, and therefore,
upon the whole, advantageous. . . . This problem has already
been worked out in the United States of America, and whatever
the ultimate effects may be when local. population approaches
too close to her limits of natural powers for producing food and
necessary raw materials for her own people, it is undoubted that
60 millions would not be profitably employed and well supported
if it were not for her policy of favouring the creation of her own
wants as far as possible by the energies of /ocal labourers.
It must be granted, however, that the policy which is advan-
tageous to a rich food and raw-producing country, such as
America, would be annihilation to a country such as England,
where the population by far exceeds her natural sources of supply
as regards food and other essential raw products.
A country so cireumstanced must maintain a Free Trade policy
or perish. With countries thinly populated, possessing illimitable
sources of natural wealth, including soil, climate, and all
conditions favourable for the production of food and raw products
in excess of local wants, it must inevitably follow that the
tendencies and influences arising from the desire to extend the
local field of employment must be in the direction of Protection, or
restrictions upon foreign trade. It is the conditions of the various
countries which determine means to ends.- In one country the
means 18 Protection, in the other Free Trade ; but the ezd in both
cases is the same, viz., the best available mode of supplying the
greatest amount of satisfactions to each individual (including local
144 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.
employment to the rising generation) with the least expenditure of
individual effort.
Tf Mr. Henry M. Hoyt, who has so ably defended the American
policy of Protection, had premised that he was referring solely to
countries rich in all natural sources—far surpassing the demands of
all possible local requirements-—we might agree with his ideal as
regards the policy to be pursued, viz:—-“‘The nearer we come
to organising and conducting our competing industries, as if we
were the only nation on the planet, the more we shall make, and
the more we shall divide among the makers. Let us, at least,
enter upon all the industries authorised by the nature of our
things. Thus we shall reach the greatest annual product of the
industry of the society.”
When, however, any country’s population fails or is unable to
cultivate 2°81 acres per head within her own borders, the policy
suggested by Mr. Hoyt must of necessity be abandoned in
favour of Free Trade. This necessity—involving the population
difficulty—is, however, an evil, and not an advantage to the
masses.
NatruraL Limits to THE NuMBERS ENGAGED IN VARIOUS
OccuUPATIONS.
Most writers on social problems tacitly assume that no other
considerations than those of Supply and Demand, or Competition
and Remuneration, need be taken into account when questions
relating to the numbers that may be employed in the various
branches of human industry are concerned. Indeed, so able an
exponent of the principles of Political Economy as Mr. Henry
Sidgwick assumes with confidence that the adjustment of the
apportionment of the employed in the various divisions of industry
is sufficiently determined by “rates of remuneration.” He states
(p. 182, Principles of Political Economy)—“ We assume that
labour and capital are modile, or capable of being attracted by a
higher rate of remuneration both from district to district and
from industry to industry, so that not merely are the wages paid
for the same quality in any one industry approximately the same,
but also, when the remuneration of labourers or capitalists in any
industry is known to be higher than that of labourer or capitalist
in some other industry entailing no more sacrifice or outlay and
requiring no scarcer qualifications, the difference tends to be
gradually reduced by the attractions which this higher remunera-
tion exercises on actual or prospective labourers or employers.”
There is not the faintest recognition here of natural limits to
or absolute necessity for employment in a given direction, irre-
spective of the aggregate intensity of energies expended or market
rates and prices. Neither does he recognise the universal truth
in matters animate and inanimate that mobility or movement in
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F. 145
a new direction requires a fresh expenditure of force commen-
surate with the nature of the subject, the time occupied in
transition, and the friction to be overcome, due to inertia or
foreign resisting media. A physicist would never dream of
discussing the mobility of material substances in such a loose way.
He would first consider the mass or weight of the substance, the
distance and direction of movement, the rate of movement and
time, and the friction due to inertia or existing diversity of
movement, and from these he would compute the fresh demand
upon energy or force to execute the desired movement.
Because the Political Economist does not think, or does not
choose to think, that the transfer of a labourer or capitalist to a
new place or to a new kind of occupation involves a process
analogous to the movement of inanimate bodies, it is not the less
true. Take the case of a shoemaker reduced to a state of idle-
ness, or partial idleness, by competition among excessive numbers,
or some other cause locally or generally. We will suppose that
this workman has a family of five persons, including himself, to
provide for, in addition to his quota of expenditure required for
State purposes, such as General Government, Law, and Protection,
including Gaols, Military and Naval Defences, Police, Education,
Public Hospitals, Asylums, Support of Paupers, &c. It is obvious,
therefore, that when fairly employed in this branch of labour—
making boots and shoes—he is not merely rendering reciprocal
services to his countrymen, but he helps them to provide for such
expenditure as the requirements of the particular State demands.
The greater the effort or energy expended by him during the year,
the greater is the value of produce by him added to the common-
wealth in all these respects, in addition to the important part of
support of the four dependants specially related to him.
Under ordinary circumstances (excluding foreign interference,
and making due allowance for special skill) all branches of services
within a certain country are paid at rates of wages which are,
broadly speaking, correlative to effort or time expended, and,
consequently, so long as the rates of wages are locally proportionate
to definite efforts and skill, it matters not whether the average
rate per hour be nominally high or low, so long as expenditure is
also determined locally by such correlative conditions. Thus take
the following illustrations :—Suppose the price of bread is deter-
mined by a daily effort of 10 hours, and that all other services
are modified and constantly exchanged in prices which, whether
high or low, are also proportioned to the nominal price of, say,
the guarter of wheat. Under these circumstances, it would not
matter to the shoemaker whether the xomznal or money cost of
his wages was high or low, for it would have the same purchasing
power over the things which he required to satisfy the wants of
himself and family, besides the proportion required from him for
the service of the State Thus if the standard—the quarter of
J
146 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F.
wheat—bore always the same relation to his remuneration of 10
hours’ labour, and to the various items of his expenditure, it
mattered not a whit to him whether the nominal money cost of
wheat was high or low. In Australia the average relation
between a breadwinner’s effort expended and a quarter of wheat
usually represents 44} hours’ labour, equal to 5} days’ labour
(S hours) nearly. If, therefore, the quarter of wheat and other
things (including expenditure) always bore a corresponding
relation to each other, as 445 hours’ common labour bears as the
equivalent to one quarter wheat, it follows of necessity that
nominal prices, whether high or low, would not increase or
decrease his receipts or expenditure, nor his average gains or
losses. Thus, so far, the various divisions of labour within any
one State would never be affected, in reciprocal interchanges with
each other, by alteration in the nominal cost of services, so long
as the alteration in cost was a general one within the State, and
governed by local natural conditions.
But a different result would follow, so far as the shoemaker is
concerned, if manufactures of boots and shoes were largely
introduced from a country where nominal money prices were
generally much lower, or where the average breadwinners of the
population—reduced to a perilous condition—were forced to
increase their expenditure of daily effort relative to the standard
of cost of one quarter of wheat to 89 hours, or 77% days’ labour
of 12 hours a day. The local shoemaker would not have the
advantage of distance and cost of transit,.as in the case of the
local quarryman or coal-miner; for shoes and boots can be
transferred long distances at a relatively small cost, and hence,
if not protected in some other way, the local shoemaker would be
unable to compete with the foreign low-paid worker. Not only
would he have to increase his efforts to the same extent as the
foreign competitor, but he would (were it not impossible) have to
exceed his efforts before he could drive the foreign competitor
from the field, and failing this; he would be reduced, perhaps, to
half-time employment at the foreign rate of wages, and, probably,
soon he and his family, overwhelmed with poverty, would become
local victims to competition ; and, instead of being a help to the
State, would become dependants upon the rest of the bread-
winners, thus increasing their State burdens.
It is usual with theorists to talk lightly of the modzlity of
labour under such circumstances, and to show that the local
shoemaker, finding himself unable to compete in his capacity as
shoemaker, would at once transfer his services to some other
branch of labour, where, it is supposed by theorists, that there is
always some providential provision. But all such writers do not
seem to be aware that, in a country where manufacturing
industries do not dominate, there is a tendency to narrow the
scope of operations, and to close more and more the doors of
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F. 147
entrance to the remaining branches of active industries in
proportion to the number of local industries actually driven out
of existence by the influx of foreign manufactures. This is
undoubted, so far as local market is concerned. No one can
affirm, with reason, that an industry driven out does not
correspondingly delimit the demand upon the Jocal market.
Logically, therefore, the only direction in which our shoemaker
could maintain his existence as a breadwinner would be—(1) to
convert himself into a labourer in raw products, for which there
is still a profitable demand in /oreign markets ; (2) transport
himself and his family to a country where his particular services
are in demand; or (3) starve or become dependant paupers,
supported by the local State, already too heavily burdened by
poor rates, etc.
In theoretical discussion this case would be disposed of by
wordy wrangling or special pleading, indictment of the capacity
or lack of reasoning power of opponents, references to alleged
harmonies of competition and to dogmas and general conclusions
of various political economists of accepted authority. The usual
ruts of controversy may afford ample opportunities for theorists
to display literary skill, aided by the usual handy assortment of
stock illustrations. But, instead of a literary sham-fight, let the
theorist enter into the real difficulties by discussing the matter,
practically, with the distressed shoemaker. For this purpose we
will take a common incident in these colonies.
A deputation from the shoemakers, driven out of employment
by competition with cheap foreign manufactures.
(Shoemaker) spokesman for deputation.
(Theorist) representing the Government.
Shoemaker : On behalf of myself and my distressed fellow-
workmen and their families I have been asked to represent to the
Government the terrible distress into which we have fallen by the
influx of manufactures of boots and shoes from Europe, at such
low prices that we have not only been knocked off employment
by local manufacturers, who were unable to compete with foreign
houses, but we find that, as individual workmen, with such high
ruling rates in rent, clothing, and other necessaries, besides a
high local taxation, we are unable to earn enough to maintain
ourselves and families, even if we were able to get full employment
at the foreign selling prices.
Theorist: I sympathise deeply with your distress, but we
cannot interfere with the laws of free interchange. You must,
therefore, seek employment in some other way.
Shoemaker : But we cannot turn our hands to another trade,
and even if we tried, we would have to spend years as apprentices.
Even in our own trade we had, as young men, to spend three or
four years as apprentices, partly or wholly supported the while
by our parents. Now we have no such help. On the contrary
J2
148 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.
we are each burdened with the support of a family. Even if we
could manage for ourselves, what is to become of our families in
the meantime ?
Theorist: I admit this ditticulty, but is there not plenty of
work open to you in this country where you could turn your
labour to account, where no special skill is required, or, at any
rate, where bone and muscle is all that is necessary.
Shoemaker : True, in time some of us might obtain work as
labourers in the fields among farmers, or on public works or mines,
but the failure in our own industry in such a thinly-populated
country causes a depression in nearly all local occupations ;
for it must be admitted a considerable portion of the products of
other trades and industries have been directly affected by our
distress and our lessened consumption, due to lack of purchasing
power. Besides, I have been told by farmers that they have
themselves long struggled with adverse circumstances in com-
peting against more favoured agriculturists in America, who
are able to sell in European markets at prices which tend to
become lower year by year, and if a local market is not soon
established, many of them will have to give in. If other trades
are crushed by foreign competition as we have been, what hope
have the farmers of holding on, let alone the outlook for their
own children, where every branch of industry seems to be
already overstocked, even in this rich and extensive country
with a sparse population. In addition to what I have stated,
I am informed by those who have given much attention to
agriculture that there is only a limited amount of land where
agriculture might be successfully carried on ; but this form of
industry will not admit of the employment of more than 35
persons to the square mile of land in cultivation, and if this be
so, and if farmers cannot exchange products of the same kind
with each other, how can a local market become a possibility in
the absence of a local community of trades and manufacturers ?
Theorist : 1 admit that the home trader and home workman
may femporarily suffer loss from the competition of foreign traders
and workmen in the same branch of industry, but it must be
remembered that everyéhing will again be adjusted, because
capital is constantly exerting a tendency to smooth down any
temporary inequality in the profits of different trades. Even if
you suffer from foreign importations, the Government is not
bound to protect you; for there can be no right which has a
juster claim than that every individual of the community should
be freely permitted to obtain commodities where he can buy
them on the cheapest terms, and to sell them where he can
realise the highest price.
Shoemaker : It is easy for theorists to write such things. I
am unable to understand exactly what you mean by suffering a
temporary loss, or what the process may be which you euphoniously
Py
PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. 149
term a tendency to smooth down any temporary inequality. I
and my fellow-workmen are now unemployed ; many of us, with
our families, are in great distress—without zustant employment
or relief from some source, many of us will die of starvation. We
have no means, and if we had we do not know where to go to
better our miserable condition. Do you mean, if many of us
succumb and die from want and misery, thereby thinning our
own ranks as competitors for the existing small field of employ-
ment still remaining, that this is the smoothing down process to
which we are referred for comfort? Good heavens, surely not
this? Remember that we are human beings, not machines. The
machine may stand idle for a time and “ive. Men cannot.
Friction in inanimate machinery means dissipation of power in
heat ; with men friction means distress, misery and death. Men
are not machines, and loose analogies based upon the laws of
physical processes cannot be grimly applied to men fighting for
life and exposed to suffering. You say that Government is not
bound to protect its own workmen, and that there can be no right
having a juster claim than that every individual should have the
most absolute freedom in buying in the cheapest market and
selling in the dearest, irrespective of any local claims of sympathy
or rational or racial ties of common interest. Such a commercial
Law, not Bond, cannot be consistent with the conditions which
necessitate the maintenance, defence and independence of indi-
vidual nationalities. To be logical, it would necessitate the
breaking down of all individual States, all individual race
conglomerations, and the fusing of all human elements into one
grand State of the world. Until that time arrives there must
of necessity be localised interests, governed by the same local
general condition, which maintain separate nationalities. All
the social organisations of the State, such as Railways, Roads,
Bridges, Harbours, Post and Telegraph, Schools, Defence and
Protection, Poor Laws, &c., can only be logically maintained
upon the admitted necessity of some common local rational
interest, having special concern for the general welfare of the
particular nation ; and these special local interests are so inter-
twined by so many bonds more precious than mere questions
regarding absolute cost of products in money, that it seems absurd
to say that the destruction or suffering of any of its members
are locally only of equal concern to a corresponding evil in a
foreign State similarly constituted. The necessary gravitation
and concentration, interests and sympathies around home and
fatherland are as natural as perspective in optics; the greatest
density must be near the centre of self, home and family,
becoming weaker and weaker as the related rings of friends,
relations, club, townsmen, nation, race are passed through, to the
thinner sympathies lying beyond, embracing humanity generally,
where foreign races and states are bound, and they themselves
150 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.
are related obversely to us in a similarly graduated series of
interests and sympathies. It is this grand gravitation of human
interests and sympathies which make possible ideas and forces
which make home, friend, and fatherland; and these, not
nominal cost of products, are the great factors which determine
the engergies and welfare of any community. Commercial laws
tend to destroy the heart of all ideas which centre in home and
fatherland, and if the nation is to live it must carefully guard
against their decrepitating influence. Their shuttle seems just
as ready to weave the shroud of a nation as to bind nations in
bonds of broader sympathies.
Dominating Wants DETERMINE OCCUPATIONS AND NECESSARILY
Propuce INEQUALITIES IN THE FoRM OF SERVICES.
Hitherto, in the writings of social reformers, the greater part
of the attention has been confined to the monopoly by the few of
the lands, houses, railways, and other instruments connected
with the production, security, and distribution of the necessary
wants of human beings. It is generally assumed that there is
abundance of primary wants for each one if the aggregate
products annually created were more equitably distributed. But
if the necessary primary satisfactions were annually produced in
sufficient quantity for the wants of all, it would go to prove the
curious and inexplicable circumstance that the present haphazard
training, and supply and demand, allocation of those who are
engaged, or who are being trained to engage, in the various
divisions of labour are in perfect harmony with conditions which
combine to effect that result, which might seem too formidable if
undertaken by the most absolute regulations of intelligent
prevision. The present supply of satisfactions is determined by
the estimates or combined action of self-interested producers. It
cannot be affirmed, on the basis of producers’ self-interest, that
wants are produced with the sole idea of providing the highest
quota of each satisfaction to each individual. At best they
favour the mnimum supply, as self-interest is best rewarded by
a keen demand—involying high prices—a result which would not
be attained if the maximum quota of satisfactions for each
individual was created. Of course, the absence of a perfect
scheme of combined prevision among producing competitors, and
the unforeseen variable effects springing from natural causes year’
by year, often produce abundance or superfluity, or over-
production, as it is termed ; but this is a result not premeditated,
and, although favourable to consumers for the time being, it is a
mere accident, causing a fall in prices, and is likely to be followed
by purposeful under-production during the succeeding period, in
order to produce a straitened market with a corresponding rise in
prices, and results in a certain reduction of the ideal quantity of
ne
~
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS —SECTION F. ite |
satisfactions falling to the lot of each consumer of the poorer
classes. But this tendency of se//cnterested producers striving to
produce wader the necessary requirement is just the very condition
for involving the poor in the continual battle with poverty and
want ; and all that can be said in favour of self-interest is, that
hitherto there has been no better method devised which would so
effectually serve the majority of human beings. Is it to be
wondered, then, that the /ess #¢ (happily a minority) in the struggle
for existence should at times cruelly feel pinching want, when
upon them must fall the evil of the barely-sufficing aggregate
scarcity, the ideal creation which the self-interested producers
strive for. It has been shown that the supply of wants is
at present alone roughly predetermined by the self-interested
calculations of producers, and that their aim is to extend the field
of production as far as they can in safety to themselves—and
that means as near an approach to a full supply as will ensure
good prices, involving a tight market, or scarcity. Consumers,
who desire abundance, do not determine the forthcoming supplies.
Producers’ interests, therefore, are antagonistic to any social ideal
which would bring the highest quota of necessary satisfactions
easily within the reach of all men. Therefore, so long as
producers’ self-interest rules supreme in the creation of necessary
products, so long must we expect the periodic suffering and
pinching of the lower stratum of the working classes. Bastiat
even is forced to admit that “antagonistic desires cannot at one
and the same time coincide with the general good.” “ As a
purchaser he desires abundance ; as a seller he desires scarcity.”
“The wishes and desires of the consumers are those which are in
harmony with the public interest.” Food, clothing, houses,
railways, steamboats, and the various machines of production are
almost wholly regulated in the interests of producers, compe-
tition alone preventing this interest from working in too great
antagonism to the interests of consumers. Nearly all bread-
winners, therefore, in detail defeat, to some extent, their own
ultimate interests as general consumers by regulating the produc-
tion of supplies upon a principle which is inimical to their
interests as consumers. Nor is this the only evil. All wages-
breadwinners must produce, or serve to produce, before they can
earn the right to share or consume the fruits of production. But
the xumbers of the employed depend almost wholly upon the se/f
interest of the large capitalist producers. It is not the interest of
large capitalist producers to provide the full quota of wage-
earning employment to a// breadwinners. The larger the number
of fully employed labourers the keener is the demand for products,
and indirectly this may have some influence upon certain
producers. But this indirect consideration is too feeble to interest
producers in any scheme for the general good which might be
directed to ensuring full employment to a// breadwinners. It is
152 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.
manifest, therefore, that in the present scheme of the division of
labour there are two ugly defects. /irs¢, there is no interest
intelligently organised to train and determine according to natural
proportions the occupations of the future breadwinners. — Second,
the only existing agency which determines the extent of employ-
ment is guided by a principle which has for its object neither the
supply of the highest quota of satisfactions to consumers nor the
more needful provision for securing employment for all bread-
winners. In the latter case, competition, instead of befriending
the wage-earner and dependants as consumers, operates all the
more harshly upon the larger number who are handicapped in
the race by aimless training, or no training, for the nature of
services that might possibly be otherwise open to some of them.
UvopiaAN SCHEMES OF SOCIALISTS.
It is not a matter of surprise, therefore, that the mass of wage-
earners should readily sympathise with every vague Utopian
scheme of the Socialists, which holds out, however faultily, some
promise or plan for dealing more effectually with the root
difficulties which affect them most nearly, viz., security of employ-
ment, protection from over-competition, shorter hours labour with
more adequate remuneration, redistribution of wealth, &e., &c.
But it is needless to point out that, before the redistribution of
the aggregate of all forms of existing wealth of exchange (so-
called) can be dealt with, it must be clear that this wealth consists
of such forms as might effectually satisfy all the primary wants and
comforts of human beings. That existing wealth in exchange, even
if equally distributed, would fulfil this most necessary provision
is a pureassumption. It has already been shown that a great part
of the existing nominal wealth of exchange largely owned by the
rich consists of the mere ¢oo/s and iustruments of production, and
that the real wealth appropriated as consumable wealth, or primary
satisfactions, is already more widely and evenly distributed than
is generally supposed. Even under the most thorough Socialistic
scheme this form of wealth would be far less generally distributed
than at present ; for, according to such a scheme, it would be
wholly reserved in the hands of the executive Government. It
is utterly misleading to reckon upon the existing wealth of
capitalists as a source for raising the quota of the real consumable
and primary satifactions. The only distribution possible in this
respect would be the empty idea of part-ownership. It is the
increase to necessary current productions designed for actual
consumption (material satisfactions) which alone can raise the
average standard of primary satisfactions, and so dispose of
material want, or poverty and distress. The question therefore
arises—Suppose that such a scheme were practicable, would the
producing energies of men be greater and more effective than
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION F. 1955)
under the scheme of Competition, Liberty, Right of Inheritance,
Property Right, or Individualism as it is called? To be more
effective in one essential, it must utterly fail in the other. The
workers must be trained and allocated to specific occupations in
strict conformity to the amount and nature of the labour actually
required to produce the primary satisfactions and comforts
desired. Training for every specific occupation requires con-
siderable time, but for the occupation of skill a large amount of
time must be consumed in acquiring the necessary training,
irrespective of questions with regard to the unequal distribution
of capacity.
Now, on the basis of equality, it may be easy to divide
products; that according to actual needs is simple enough,
involving no insuperable difficulty. But what about the alloca-
tion to different employments? How can the easy, the refined,
and the skilled occupations be allocated on any scheme of
equality? The majority must, as heretofore, sweat at the hard
and dirty forms of labour ; but what power or what plan can be
devised which will enable any elective executive to doom once
and for ever the majority of learners and workers to the hard
and irksome occupations, and to fix the minority in the refined,
the easy and skilled services? Suppose it were for a time insti-
tuted, how long would the unfortunate majority be content to
submit to their lot before an irresistible cry for redistribution of
occupations arose; and if it arose, where is the force stronger
than the majority of freemen to preserve the break-down of the
social organisation necessary to produce the primary supply
wants according to individual needs? What compensation can
be given to the masses toiling in the more wearisome occupations?
Extra allowance of satisfactions cannot be thought of, for that
would destroy the coveted ideal of equality in the distribution
of satisfactions according to needs. Shorter hours cannot
be allowed without trenching upon equality of leisure. The
unequal distribution of natural capacity, and the time necessary
to acquire knowledge of more than one technical branch of skilled
employment make it impossible to share in turn for a time all
possible forms of labour. In short, the practical difficulties
standing in the way of eguadity in the allocation of employment
appear to be insuperable, and would most certainly, if there were
no other objection, destroy any social organisation on a /arye
scale which had been courageous enough to attempt it. Reference
to simple communities, as in America, following agriculture
pursuits mainly, and not of themselves fulfilling for themselves
the whole round of human wants, are utterly misleading. Such
small communities are composed of a peculiar, select class, who
voluntarily bind themselves to a more or less ascetic life, and all
such petty attempts tend to perish from lack of internal vitality.
With a large mixed body of men, embracing all occupations, and
154 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.
endowed with ordinary passions and desires, the results would be
chaotic and disastrous in the extreme. One effect, terrible to
contemplate, would seem to be inevitable, viz., that the indis-
criminate distribution of products among all men would destroy
the major source of savings at present so largely devoted to the
creation and maintenance of the powerful and costly auxiliary
aids to human labour, and the slight individual gain per head in
material satisfactions would only be of a very temporary character,
for it would soon be lost by the new impulse to the improvident
to rapidly increase their numbers.
WHAT WOULD BE THE PROBABLE EFFECT UPON SocIAL WELL-
BEING IF THE Masor Source oF SAVINGS WERE DESTROYED.
In another place it has been indicated that the mere “ two
hands,” or the unaided labour of man, would not only fail to
produce the average comforts and luxuries now enjoyed by nearly
all classes of men, but more calamitous still, they would fail to
produce the prime necessaries of life in sufficient quantity to
maintain the lives of the existing population. Defects in the
existing scheme of civilisation, some of which seem to be
ineradicable, may be truly charged yearly with the destruction
of thousands of valuable lives ; but were the present major source
of savings dissipated or destroyed by equality in share of earnings,
either by lowering the powers of production or by slightly raising
temporarily the average amount of satisfactions consumed or
enjoyed, the new conditions (equality of earnings) would be a
blight and a curse, for while the existing defects in distribution
may be the cause of the misery and destruction of thousands of
valuable lives, the eguality scheme would certainly entail the
misery and destruction of millions now living in a state of
comparative comfort. Many who fail to ponder over those root
difficulties may exclaim—How can you explain this paradox ?
Why should the fairer distribution of wealth (that according to
actual individual needs, without regard to inequalities of natural
powers, capacities or inheritance), raising the average comfort of
the majority and lowering the superfluous and luxurious satisfac-
tions of the minority, be productive of such disaster ?
The answer is plain enough. The power to effect large savings,
or to create the more costly auxiliaries of labour, depends mainly
upon the existence of specially favourable conditions.
(1.) The desire to accumulate or save can only become strong
enough to be effective when the stronger desires for primary
satisfactions are appeased.
(2.) Savings or accumulations, therefore, can never be
produced by labourers or others whose earnings do not exceed
the supply necessary to satisfy the three primary wants. The
majority of breadwinners are always in this “hand-to-mouth”
PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. 155
condition, and rarely, of themselves, are able to contribute to the
maintenance and increase of machines and instruments to serve
as auxiliaries of production to future labour. They, however, in
their social relations, more than contribute the average share of
the future surplus workers, whose efforts must be proportionately
supplemented by capital and power-multiplying instruments if
they are to enjoy the same or a further improved condition.
Those workers whose earnings are suflicient to provide comforts
beyond the limits of bare prime necessaries may, however, by
self-denial in the satisfactions of comforts, lay by a small store of
savings which, in time, may swell into such valuable auxiliaries
_to earnings, that the self-denial in comforts hitherto may be
rewarded in the greater satisfaction in comfort in the future, and
even in adding considerably to the store of wealth, which may
be converted into the more permanent capitalised auxiliary
instruments of power, which will benefit the generation coming
after them.
Those, however, who contribute most largely to the creation of
the permanent instruments which add unknown power to the
efforts of hand labour, are chiefly those who either have inherited
these or similar creations from their ancestors, or who, by
extraordinary energy, skill, or self-denial, or all together—in the
earlier part of their lives—are now enabled, after satisfying the
three primary wants and comforts, to indulge the prevailing
passion of comfortable people, z.c., the accumulation of wealth or
power over wealth. This passion in itself is, at this stage,
undoubtedly a personal luxury ; but, unlike the luxuries which
are directed to greater fersonal consumption, it is fortunately
directed to that form of immaterial enjoyment which springs
from the knowledge that the owner possesses the power to direct
the mode or secure the best conditions in which wealth may be
further employed. Fortunately for the world at large, self-
interest at this stage converts into a virtue what otherwise would
be a vice ; for the passion to further secure luxury of power over
wealth, and to augment it, restricts personal indulgence in
further consuming the material fruits of labour and the material
gratuitous stores of nature, and runs parallel with that course
which favours increased production relative to numbers, involving
the improvement of the social and economic condition of all
labourers ; z.¢., the wealthy man or industrial chief does not, or
cannot, increase his own personal consumption of the materia/
fruits of labour, skill, enterprise, and the gratuitous gifts of
nature beyond a moderate standard. The unconsumed material
surplus by passion, self-interest, and even the better motives, is
necessarily devoted to multiplying and sustaining the inanimate,
costly, and powerful permanent aids to human productive power
which alone distinguishes civilised populous communities from
those of the miserable and bare-handed savage races, whose
156 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F.
command of a continent of the richest land upon the globe is
too feeble to support in comfort a few insignificant wandering
tribes.
The broad conclusions to be drawn from the foregoing con-
siderations are :—That the social condition of mankind cannot
be improved, or even maintained, unless a considerable proportion
of the aggregate primary satisfactions produced be specially
devoted continuously to agencies set apart for the maintenance,
creation, discovery and improvement of such machines, tools,
instruments and skilled contrivances as promise to add most
effectually to man’s power in transforming the forces of nature
to the service of man. That the devotion of such a large propor-
tion of created products to such purposes, entailing such a tax
upon the aggregate store of Aresent satisfactions, for and upon
the individual share which otherwise might fall to each consumer,
can only be secured by society living under peculiarly favourable
conditions, such as has already been indicated. This involves
favourable natural conditions as regards extent and quality of
soil and climate ; maximum of skill and energy, tempered by the
reasonable maximum of allowance for leisure and rest ; division
of labour—each division carefully disciplined, apportioned, and
maintained in strict relation to the probable amount of the
different satisfactions and needs required, and each member of
the community in the dependant and under tutelary conditions—
carefully trained in strictly corresponding proportions to that
branch of work in which it has been predetermined that the
individual must in the future devote his life’s service; the
adoption of such regulations as will restrict the number of
consumers and dependants within reasonable limits—that is,
within the present limits of the producing powers of the society —
to provide a reasonable quota of satisfactions to each individual.
The last provision involves the great population difficulty.
PoPpuLaTION DIFFICULTIES, OR THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE.
Darwin (page 52, “Origin of Species”) has observed “ that
in a state of nature almost every full-grown plant annually
produces seed, and amongst animals there are few which do not
annually pair. Hence we may confidently assert that all plants
and animals are tending to increase at a geometrical ratio—that
all would rapidly stock every station in which they could anyhow
exist. And this geometrical tendency to increase must be checked
by destruction at some period of life,” and, as an inevitable
consequence, he goes on to add ‘‘ that each individual lives by a
struggle at some period of its life, that heavy destruction falls
either on the young or old during each generation, or at recurrent
intervals. Lighten any check, mitigate the destruction ever so
little, and the number of the species will almost instantaneously
increase to any amount.”
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION F. L5G
These considerations, when fully appreciated, form the founda-
tion of the problem of Malthus.*
TNcREASING NUMBERS.
Residents of new countries, with a scant population, and with
vast natural resources in the shape of unlimited areas of
unoccupied and unutilised virgin lands, longingly picture the
transformation of these areas into yellow cornfields, fruitful
gardens, verdant pasturage teeming with browsing cattle, busy
industrial centres crowded with the homes of industrious and
happy people.
Ah! little do they know of the never-failing, Nemesis which,
like a sleuth-hound, dogs the steps of an ever-increasing popula-
tion. Happy selectors of easily-acquired choice lands may
luxuriously grumble at the amount of their taxation, the Jow price
of mutton and corn, their bad roads, and the impossibility of
extending their operations in the production of corn and wool, so
long as the wages of farm and other labour are so high.
The professional and merchant class may reasonably grumble
at the scarcity of men and products which restricts their respec-
tive callings, and may impatiently rail against the slow progress
which the country is making in jofulation and the creation of
products. The few wealthy men of leisure may hanker after the
amusements and honours so common in thickly-crowded centres,
where the attractive ministry of cheap labour is but too common.
The comparative comfortable artisan or labourer, under such
favourable conditions, may 7x verbal or literary debate still wage
a lively dispute whether the irksome eight hours’ labour—or
weekly half-holiday—may not be further improved, and the rate
of wages further raised above the rates of over-peopled old countries,
* but he does not view with favour the fresh introduction of
labourers in zs own craft.
The consumers of the services of local dear labour may desire
the introduction of the surplus cheaper labour of Europe, and for
the sake of Protection may urge upon the Government the
necessity of extending the advantages of external Free Trade.
On the other hand, the protector of a local monopoly of
relatively high wages, or dearer local manufactures, may more
strenuously advocate the necessity of increasing the tariff on all
manufactures from other countries, especially on such as may be
produced locally. It will be seen, therefore, that in young
countries, as well as in the old, we have the battle of interests
still waged, if not so keen. The competitor or seller of services
cries for Protection ; and the user or consumer of services enlarges
upon the harmonies and advantages of universal Free Trade.
* An Essay on the Principle of Population. Malthus. (2 vols., London, 1826.)
158 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—-SECTION F.
Few recognise the truth that individual welfare depends less
upon the greatness of the aggregate wealth of a country than
upon the proportion which freedom from excessive competition
gives each individual over the local natural sources of utility.
including primary wants; and that the country possessing the
greatest aggregate of material wealth may, owing to the
competition of excessive numbers, present the spectacle of a
small privileged minority absorbing an unparalleled share of
luxurious wealth, while the masses are struggling for the barest
subsistence.
All other things being equal, it follows that in the country
where Nature’s gratuitous stores of wealth, as regards food and
other essential products, far exceeds the power of its inhabitants
to utilise, yet, notwithstanding the comparative insignificance of
its accumulated wealth in exchange, its inhabitants on the
average are individually happier, and enjoy a much larger share
of material comforts than the inhabitants of countries, however
great the aggregate wealth, but whose natural resources, as
regards food products, are far below the local requirements of its
teeming inhabitants.
Two nations, standing in this relation to each other, would
correspond to the relation of two iudividuals, where one is the
privileged capitalist or buyer, and the other the unprivileged
seller of labour service. In other words, the latter would be in
the position of the needy Esau in being forced to sell his whole
birthright to preserve his life; the former would occupy the
favourable position of Jacob, who had merely to part with a
portion of his surplus of primary wants (red pottage) to secure a
large augmentation to his wealth of pleonexia.
This, unfortunately, for many old centres of civilisation, is no
overdrawn statement—the creation of enthusiastic declamation or
sentimentality—for if we take one of the most vigorous countries
of Europe (England), with its untold wealth in the aggregate, and
compare it with the young colony of Victoria, we may readily
demonstrate the verity of what has been alleged.
Can A HIGHER CULTURE BE MAINTAINED IN ANY ONE COUNTRY
WirHout REGULATING Its INTERCOURSE WITH OTHER RACES
oF Men In A Lower PLANE oF CIVILISATION ?
There is still another difficulty to face, even if one enlightened
country, by providence, had succeeded in adapting the growth of
its population to the means of subsistence. And this difficulty
now presses hard upon the labourers of a higher civilisation open
by Free Trade to the competition of the labour market of a lower
or more degraded form of civilisation. The partial exclusion of
cheap Chinese labour from America and these colonies, may or
may not, have been in accord with the principle of Free Trade ;
PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION F. 159
but it opens up a grave subject. For if a higher culture could
be enabled by provident moral or self-control to successfully
grapple and overcome the present enigmas of social science, how
is it possible that such a culture could be effectually preserved
if it were open to be disturbed by the cheap labour or the
starvation price products of other nations, who, by improvidence
and lack of moral control, were still sunk in the abyss of that
wretchedness which is due to over-population? In this aspect I
am humbly of opinion the doctrines of Free Trade and Protection
require further consideration ; and it is with the hope that the
reasonable discussion of such matters may shed fresh light upon
this and related problems that I have had the courage to
address you upon these old, well-worn, but hitherto insoluble
difficulties belonging to social and economic science.
One thought impresses me not a little. It is this—AlIl truths
that are painful are blindly and passionately resisted by the
majority, who also are ever prone to reward skill when it is
employed in opposing or obscuring what is hateful. It cannot
be hoped, therefore, that the warnings given with respect to the
danger that awaits us in the near future will be much heeded at
present. The world’s greatest intellects and genius are, for the
most part, supported in defending popular views; for it is not
found to be a difficult matter for men of greatest literary talent
and skill to show, where complications abound, that the true is
false and the false is true. Popular favour is a terrible task-
master, for she refuses bread to those who fail to work her
pleasure. I do not, therefore, undervalue the temptation which
ensnares the majority of able minds to continue the defence of
pleasant delusions, when these alone find a ready market of
exchange value. But the evil time draws too near for delusive
teaching. It is now necessary that those who see the rocks
ahead should speak out faithfully.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS IN SECTION G.
ANTHROPOLOGY.
By tHE Hon. JOHN FORRES'', C.M.G., M.L.C.
Ir seems to me that a few words on the condition of the
Australian aboriginal race will fittingly open our proceedings
on this important occasion, and if the very few words I have to
say will lead to some greater interest being taken in their
customs, manners and traditions, I will be greatly pleased.
The condition of the Australian aboriginal race when the
civilisation of the Old World was introduced to their island
continent is one of the most interesting subjects that can occupy
the thoughts of those who contemplate the history of the human
family scattered throughout the world.
There is no doubt but that Australia has been peopled for a
considerable time, and it is also certain that its original people
are much lower in the human order than any of their neigbours.
These facts being admitted, it becomes interesting to speculate
as to the causes which have acted upon these people and have led
them to follow the nomadic life in which they were found and in
which they now exist.
To find a people without any idea of cultivating the soil,
without any permanent dwellings, in many places without any
clothing, without any means of cooking, other than by roasting
in the ashes—and without any villages—was certainly an
extraordinary discovery, and must have astonished and puzzled
the early explorers of Australia. Dampier, who visited the
north-west coast of Australia in 1688 expresses his surprise
and disgust in these words:—‘“The inhabitants of this
country are the miserablest people in the world—the
Hottentots of the Cape of Good Hope, though a nasty people,
yet for wealth are gentlemen to these, who have no houses and
skin garments, sheep, poultry and fruits of the earth, ostrich
eggs, &c., as the Hottentots have; and, setting aside their
human shape, they differ but little from brutes—they have no
houses, but lie in the open air without any covering, the earth
being their bed and the heaven their canopy.”
One might have reasonably expected that in an immense
continent the people of the different portions might have been
found to differ largely in their customs and manners, and in
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION G. 161
their state of civilization, and that an altogether different state
of things would exist on the east coast from that existing on
the west coast, separated by more than 2000 miles. This, I
think, might have been reasonably expected ; but, strange to say,
the same habits, customs, and manners were found to exist
throughout this great continent. Although there were no
means of inter-communication, although the languages or dialects
were altogether different; although they were separated by
immense distances ; although no sympathy, or even knowledge
of one another existed, it is still a fact that they were found to
be the same people, with the same laws, customs, and manners,
and, to a very large extent, with the same ideas and traditions.
When it is considered that probably for many thousands of
years this continent has been peopled ; that even supposing they
originated from a few persons cast away on this island continent,
is it not marvellous that they should have retained their original
character, and, being subject to like conditions of soil and climate,
should now be found to be the same people in all important
respects !
In considering this question, one is lost in amazement. Why
has no superior genius arisen through the ages of the past to
instil into his people an ambition to rise from their servile and
degraded condition? Why has it not occurred to some one of
these people to build a permanent habitation to protect him from
the rain and the sun? Ihave myself often noticed that, in north-
west Australia, the natives have no covering by night or day,
and although skins of animals are abundant, they do not trouble
to make a rug, or even a cloak.
As no idea appears to have entered into the mind of the
Australian aboriginals to cultivate the soil, their whole attention
is given to securing game by hunting, and in this they are very
expert. All their implements are fashioned for this purpose, and
for self-defence. There seems to be very little, if any, inventive
genius among them ; and, seeing that nearly all their arts are
possessed equally by those on the whole coast line and by those
in the interior, it all points to the conclusion that the aboriginals
of Australia have come from a common stock, and that this stock
must have possessed the same customs, manners, and traditions
as are now possessed by their descendants, which have been
retained ever since, without any improvement or otherwise,
except in small and isolated instances.
There is probably no race of people which has done so litile
to leave behind it a record of its existence as the Australian
aboriginal race, and no race has been so little able to cope
with civilisation. After existing in their own savage state for an
immense time, an intercourse of about half a century with a
civilized race has been suflicient to almost remove them from the
face of the earth. Other peoples have suffered and have gradually
K
162 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION G.
given way and become extinct, or almost so, before the advance
of civilization, but in no case, I think, has the progress of
extinction been so rapid.
It seems, therefore, in reviewing the present position of the
aboriginal race of Australia, to be a great duty we owe to them
and to Australia, not only to try to preserve the race from
extinction, but also to preserve their history, laws, habits,
traditions, and language, as far as is possible, and there is still
sufficient time to do this as regards the interior of the continent.
I can only now, in these few words, urge upon all who have
the means and the opportunity to use every endeavour to collect
reliable information on this subject, for however unimportant
particular details may appear, they may eventually prove of great
value in dealing with the history of the aboriginal Australian
race,
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS IN SECTION #H.
(Sanitary Science and Hygiene).
ON THE PRACTICAL BASIS OF PREVENTIVE
MEDICINE.
By J. ASHBURTON THOMPSON, M.D., D.P.H.
WE are met for the advancement of science ; and in this section
for improvement in the branch of knowledge which teaches the
causation of disease, and the conditions ancillary to disease which
act by impairing functional efficiency. A sharp distinction is
thus drawn between the science and the art of sanitation. The
former regards the phenomena of life, and especially its duration,
under observed conditions; the latter devises the means, which
are sometimes political, sometimes mechanical, by which the
teachings of science may be put into practice, and the circum-
stances favourable to life be provided or preserved. And I choose
rather to say that our occupation is to learn the causes of disease
than to prevent them for reasons which, if they are trite, are yet
seldom enough mentioned to warrant me in recalling them. If it
be assumed that the prevention of all diseases is possible, and that
by preventing all diseases the average duration of life can be
extended until death by decay become the common course, it
needs no profound reflection to show that the change could be
but temporary, that the truce could but serve to reinforce the
destroyer. Probably the supposition is fallacious, since we are
in thrall to our ancestors; but, at all events, success in that
enterprise must ever involve failure.
If we pass from thought of disease as it affects mankind in
general, to consider some kinds of disease in relation to some
sections of mankind, however, it will at once appear that the
effort to abate them is natural, and may be successful. The
preventability of some diseases has now been demonstrated. Once
that knowledge gained, systematic effort to prevent them follows
of course. Self-preservation is an instinct ; what man desires
instinctively for himself civilised man desires strongly for others :
thus he not only avoids injury for himself, but he warns and
protects his fellows, although nothing of them be known to him
but their threatened existence. Now, in learning the causes of
some diseases we have also learned that their introduction to the
body is for the most part accidental in no unusual sense ; and,
K2
164 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H.
practically, it is the accidental conjunction between specific causes
and susceptible organisms that we seek to prevent. We may,
therefore, speak as justly of vaccinating, or of isolating a case of
fever, to avoid accident—that is to say, to prevent communica-
tion of the cause of disease to persons unaware either of its
propinquity or of its quality—as we speak of fencing a revolving
shaft. It is thus inevitable that we should endeavour to prevent
some diseases ; all those, namely, which have been shown or in
the future may be shown to be preventable.
And such endeavour may be successful. Experience in
England is taken to show so much. By abatement of some
diseases a large number of deaths have in that country been
saved to persons chiefly between the ages of five and thirty-five
years ; and the average duration of life has been extended for
persons by as much as two years and a tenth. Thus the
diminution in deaths has brought about a numerical increase in
population. It may be contended that, by so many lives saved,
or by so inany years of life added, the productive power of the
nation has been increased. For reasons that will appear imme-
diately, it seems most likely that it has been increased, although
not to the full indicated extent ; but it has been questioned
whether such proximate increases will ultimately prove the
substantial advantage which at first sight they seem to be. It
has been said that disease attacks the weak, that by checking it
many of the weak who would have died must be preserved, that
these will survive to the reproductive ages, and will then either
reproduce their lke by intermarriage or, by union with the
strong, will at last lower the general standard of vitality, so
that the productive power of the nation will be diminished, and
its tendency become towards extinction. And perhaps the
following illustration might have been adduced in support of
that view :—It might perhaps have been suggested that the
natural terin of life is still set at three score years and ten, and
four score years is still regarded as an extension too seldom
enjoyable to be generally coveted, just because disease has been
left unrestrained during the last four thousand years, has steadily
weeded out the weaker, and has left the strong to reproduce
their like. In fact, it seems that there is at bottom much of
highest importance in the view mentioned ; but it is surely not
the whole truth. In the first place, the diseases whose abatement
has led to the saving of life in England which is represented by
an increase in the average duration of life of two years and a
tenth, are chiefly the specific contagious and the filth-diseases ;
and these are the diseases against which (in the main) preventive
medicine is thus far engaged. It is not to these alone, however,
that those who are of imperfect constitution succumb. If they
escape these they still have other chances, of which some important
ones are inherent to them, of extinction. But, secondly, the
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H. 165
kinds of disease referred to do not kill all they attack ; while
they farther damage the constitutionally defective, and leave some
of them to attain to reproductive ages still less fit for reproduction
than they were born, they leave others in a damaged condition
who were born sound. And lastly, while they are not seen to
attack those of imperfect constitution alone, or even preferentially
in any marked proportion, they do seize preferentially upon those
who are weak merely from immaturity, and those who are
weakened and depressed temporarily ; while, when they become
epidemic, or when their causes are introduced to the body in
special ways, they seem to attack the weak and the strong
nearly indiscriminately. In short, although disease is inevitable,
all diseases are not so, and if we may not choose our mode of death,
yet we may exclude some modes. Weare rightly fixed, therefore,
to prevent some diseases—we obey both instinct and reason
therein ; and if the near limit of the attainable oblige us to set
our aim not very high, a measure of success both proximate and
remote is thereby rendered certain.
I began by mentioning the problems which Sanitary Science
seeks to elucidate: namely, the causation of disease, and the
nature of the conditions which impair function, diminish vital
efficiency, and so conduce to shorten the duration of life. The
investigation is made by experiment; the results are found by
induction. The experiment is performed without our active
intervention, or is unplanned, the corpus vile being any body of
men, and the conditions of experiment those under which they
happen to live; the record of observation is the register of the
facts of individual lives ; and when these individual observations
are accurate enough and numerous enough, they may be classified,
and the work of induction may be begun. The method of
collecting ‘the observations may be indicated under three heads :
first, enumeration of the people; secondly, record of their
individual fertility ; thirdly, record of the individual duration of
life among them. Under these are included many different
details; and the register must be so framed as to facilitate
combination of the several particulars into more or less broad
classes, and bring them into comparison with foods, with soils,
and with climates. Few enquiries are more complicated than
this, which seeks to estimate the vitality of nations ; for trust-
worthy conclusions can be drawn only trom the total phenomena,
all of which are inter-dependent, and influence all the rest ; and
perhaps few are more difficult, because many conditions which
modify the import of individual observations, and some that are
of wider effect, are but accidental, and alter from time to time.
The general lines upon which such an investigation is planned
should therefore be broad; and if this arrangement render
conclusion uncertain at first, it must be remembered that the
facts and their classification are both the more likely to be
166 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H.
accurate, and that lapse of time is alone necessary to render
sound induction possible. And time—or what is in this case its
equivalent for many purposes, multiude of accurate individual
observations—is an indispensable condition. Impatience to arrive
speedily at some result is fatal to soundness, and is actually the
cause of much of the doubt with which the science of vital
statistics especially is regarded by the many. Undue haste
leads, on the one hand, to resort to calculation to supply the place
of facts for direct observation of which in sufficient number time
enough has not elapsed ; on the other to comparisons superficially
warrantable, but really between unlike things. These errors are
more than misleading ; they obstruct the truth.
Tf the lapse of long periods of time be necessary before the
observations alluded to can accumulate in sufficient number to
afford trustworthy indications of the vitality of a nation—to
furnish, by comparison with the conditions under which its people
live, indications of those habits and surroundings which are
inimical to prolonged life in a state of full efficiency, the record
which is at last to yield that information may be made to serve
an immediate purpose in the meantime, namely, detection of
some of those grosser conditions which result in marked or in
specific disease. If the number and ages of the people living
within defined areas are known; if the plan of record allow
smaller areas within those larger ones to be examined in the
detail of neighbourhoods, of streets, and at last of that ultimate
unit, the house ; if, while the machinery for ascertaining the
causes of death with reasonable accuracy is sufficient, the registra-
tion of deaths under causes be prompt and complete ; lastly, if
these particulars for every such district be recorded and analysed
under supervision of a professed sanitarian (who, it seems neces-
sary to add, must be of medical education), then the information
becomes immediately available to direct the efforts of sanitary
authorities, and to concentrate them upon those localities where
they may be most profitably made. To a full measure of this
immediate usefulness records of sickness are almost indispensable ;
for death is but a variable incident of disease, or, in other words,
current death-rates stand in no constant relation to sickness-rates.
Registration of sickness, however, has as yet been done nowhere,
I believe, on the national scale. But the register of illness from
some diseases is now in a way to be kept universally in England,
where it has already been kept for several years in many cities ;
and by the enlightened action taken in this province a year ago,
the registration of the zymotics is now universal in Victoria.
Having thus briefly indicated the kind of observation in which
scientific hygiene has its foundation, three points may be
distinguished as being of especial importance to us in Australia.
These are separate record and analysis of the general facts of life
regarding the native-born population, accurate and speedy informa-
PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H. 167
tion as to the eauses of death, and information from year to year
of the number, sex, and ages of the people by rough enumeration.
Without the first the modification in old races which changed
environment will inevitably, though very slowly, produce cannot
be watched ; without the second it is neither possible to observe
similar changes in the character of disease which may be expected,
nor to get early knowledge of the prevalence of such diseases as
are preventable, nor to discriminate between such as are adven-
titious (or easily preventable) and such as are bound up with the
more fixed conditions of life; while without the third it is
impossible to make just comparison either between the sanitary
state of this country and of others which may be considered in
general respects like it, nor between one part of this country and
another part, nor between separate districts within any one such
part. While the general particulars registered must be nearly
the same in all countries, these are points which in a new country
demand special attention ; they are vital to all the useful purposes,
both proximate and remote, to which such records may be put.
But if the laws under which statistical enquiry of this kind is
carried on in Australia be examined, it will be found that they
are either copied, or slightly altered, from the English law of
1837, except in one province, namely, in South Australia. We
have adopted that law which, framed as it was for another and
an old country, was a lawyer’s Act. Useful for some legal
purposes of great importance, it was defective in several respects
for that other purpose for which it was used—enquiry into the
conditions under which the people lived, and the vitality of the
nation. It contained no reference at all to the cause of death ;
although it amply sufficed the legal object of facilitating and
systematising registration of births and deaths for purposes
relating to property, it was little calculated to procure that prompt
and complete registration which is essential to observation of life.
Generally, it is under this law that we try to observe and to work
in Australia to-day. Secondly, although birth-place is a particular
required, by regulations having the force of law, to be recorded
in connection with the fact of death, in no province is that
separate analysis and comment accorded to native-born
decedents which it is important they should receive. Thirdly, we
have in similar fashion adopted the decennial census, without
regard for our special circumstances, and although the defects it
is universally admitted to show in old countries are scarcely a
tenth of the defects it has in new and growing countries. ‘These
three are points in which our present method of observation
requires speedy reform, for want of which, as it seems to me, the
elaborate returns annually made by our statists are far from
possessing a practical value commensurate with the labour
bestowed upon them.
Now, if our present methods of observation are thus defective,
it may be enquired how it happened that we adopted them ; and
168 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H.
it seems worth wlile to attempt to answer this question. I
believe it happened for reasons incidental to the population of a
new country by emigrants from an old one. Perhaps this may
be illustrated by discussing a remark which fell recently from
that distinguished sanitarian, Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., F.R.5.,
in the course of an address he delivered before the Sanitary
Institute. He said: “In colonies sites abound that, with
ordinary prudence, might have been kept in a healthy condition,
but in which ignorance and carelessness have in some cases
produced, and in others may produce, conditions causing wide-
spread disease and death.” That remark has reference especially
to the filth-diseases, and to fever, which has its mode of spread
in conditions which would warrant the application to it of the
same epithet ; these are the distinctively preventable diseases, of
distinctively local diffusion; and we know very well that they
are among the most important of all the causes of death that
swell our mortality, about one-ninth of the total deaths in urban
districts being due to them alone. There is therefore something
in the criticism, something to warrant it ; but I venture to think
that more appears to be at first sight than will stand analysis.
Settlers do not enter into an inheritance. A hundred years ago
a thousand persons sat down upon these shores, who by natural
inwrease and by immigration have become three and a half
millioms to-day. That band when they landed began a struggle
for the bare neecessaries of life ; and when, after long years, they
had secured a measuit® of success, a similar struggle was under-
taken again and again qin distant parts of the continent by
oft-shoots from the originals society. When, at last, production
exceeded immediate requirennents, and some revenue became
available, it was spent upon tehose objects which are always
among the first needs of a community thus established—I mean
the maintenance of order and estaiblishment of communications.
These, and not sanitary measures, «are the prime conditions of
corporate life. But at all events sarleitation could not early secure
special attention in such a communitky, because the diseases most
directly amenable to it do not begin tto show themselves in recog-
nisable form until the aggregation cgf men upon comparatively
small areas has become considerable. 1: Prevalence of that class of
diseases is attendant upon city life, abud so constantly that, of a
people among whom that class of disea, ses 1s known to prevail, city
life may be predicated. But, it will be observed, by the time a
population has become urban, a certain organisation, or at least
certain habits of life, have been deviased or fallen into before the
danger referred to is felt, and have be?come more or less fixed and
difficult to alter by the time necedésity for alteration becomes
apparent. In themselves these constitiute an obstacle to the reforms
which are then seen to be required. .] That nearly, and in relation
to that one class of diseases that prevcisely, is where we find our-
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H. 169
selves to-day. We have not so much to insist upon preventability
as to endeavour to reform rooted habits of life. Yet it may be
suggested that the danger should have been foreseen and guarded
against by suitable organisation, either at first or from. a very
early date of settlement. That, however, was impossible for still
other and all-sufficient reasons. Immigrants to a new land do
not often comprise many of the best-instructed in the mother
country ; but, whatever their quality, they can but bring with
them the knowledge which was current at the time of their
departure. Now, it is very easy to-day to speak of “ filth-
diseases,” and to point out the certain and easy methods of
preventing them ; but the knowledge which warrants the epithet
now applied to them has not long been established, and, above all,
has not long been current. It is but sixteen years since Sir John
Simon, K.C.B., F.R.8., found it expedient to recapitulate the
knowledge regarding their causation which had slowly accumulated
under his direction during the preceding twenty-five years, and to
present it ina formal report to the English Local Government
Board, of which he was at that time the medical officer. At so
late a date as that he found it expedient to write that remarkable
paper, to illustrate it with notable instances, and to enforce it
with all the arts of logic and of rhetoric ot which he is an
acknowledged master, for guidance of the chief administrative
body of that day in England. This was necessary in that country
which has led and leads the world both in scientific and in
executive sanitation, in 1874. But by that date the filth-diseases
had already become established amongst us, and were even
attracting our attention.
My first object in making that quotation was not to reply to
the opinion expressed in it. I wished to show that we have thus
far enjoyed all the advantages and all the disadvantages of
inheritance, in order to point out in relation to the present subject
(to which, however, the quotation is cognate) that we labour
under inherited disadvantages almost exclusively. We have
inherited a law for the registration of births and deaths which
was no sooner passed than it was seen to be defective in a most
important respect.* And we have inherited a habit of decennial
censuses. The decennial census has been again and again
condemned in England—in a country where population is not
only established, but to a large extent settled in districts and in
towns so old as to have become fixed in those conditions of
occupation which almost govern age-distribution. Even in such
a country decennial enumerations, when not supplemented by
annual rough enumerations under sex, age, Wc., have been found
to lead to remarkable error when their results have been used
together with deaths to gauge the sanitary condition of localities
* The omission of penalties fiom tle original Act was in most case; supplied upon its
acoption in Australia.
170 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H.
in inter-censual years. Yet here in Australia, in a new country,
where the population is annually recruited by immigration, where,
to speak of one province alone, I have during the past few years
seen in one case about seven thousand, and in the other about
fifteen thousand, persons accumulate within two or three years
upon previously uninhabited areas, and where similar displace-
ments of population are common ; where in the eleven years, 1876
to 1886, the excess of arrivals over departures was more than
528,000, or more than one-sixth of the total population in the
latter year. Under these circumstances we adhere to the
decennial census, and strive to supply its defects in intervening
years by calculation. It is plain that this course must often
lead to serious error; and in point of fact it was found at the
census of 1881 that the enumerated population fell short of
the estimated population by more than 67,000 in Victoria,
and by nearly 30,000 in New South Wales, upon enumerated
totals of 862,346 and 751,468 respectively.* The death-rates
published in these provinces for 1881 (and _ proportionately
in former years) must have been considerably below the
truth, since they were calculated upon these exaggerated
estimates ; and in certain cities or localities they must have been
still more erroneous—here by excess, there by defect. False
impressions of the state of the public health must have been
given for that if for no other reasons.
But there are other reasons, and most important ones. We
have adopted the laws and organisation which, good or bad, were
devised to suit an old country. They are especially unsuited to
our circumstances. We inhabit a favoured land. If a com-
paratively small and scarcely inhabited area be excepted, there is
no malaria in Australia; and it is precisely the absence or
presence of malaria which distinguishes a healthy from an
unhealthy climate. he carnivora which in some other partly
occupied countries levy a heavy tax upon mankind and hinder
settlement are entirely wanting, while the reptiles, if they are
not for the most part harmless, are at all events of but small
practical consequence. And then the country, although conti-
nental in size, is separated from the rest of the world by wide
seas ; it presents great variety of climate, but extreme cold in no
part ; and it is so fertile that, while production has long been in
excess of local needs, the natural limit to increase is clearly
almost infinitely removed. Nor are special conditions less favour-
able to life. Ample food, varied and nutritious, is easily within
the reach of all; the terms of labour are uniformly reasonable ;
occupations and amusements are chiefly out-door ; the specitic
population is everywhere low, if some comparatively small areas
of the larger cities be excepted; and the general population is
youthtul.
* * Wealth and Progress of New South Wales, 188-9." Mr. T. A. Coghlan, Government
Statistician.
171
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H.
4s1qvq9 quell
21 88 6¢ |F8 /EIL|9FT]06 86 | SOT OZl 9ET
EI Se 9 [08 |S8 |OZT|eoT OTE] GIT ear | OFT
z 6 8% |S |ShI|1ZT|66 | 98 GOL Sat. er
9 |8I 68 |69 | LOT] 291 OL 901 CIT FET | GPT
9 ‘SI 6e |S |SIL| SFT oot 101 8IL Zl | SPT
9 6 Te |POL| Zot) Str] 46 | 911 | 9at, Lat | eT
“94-89 ~99/-9F|-g6 -92 “00-9 “01 -§ -0
NOLLVTNdOd GULVUANONG AHL DNOWV Sdnowy-LoVy
LV “ONTAIT SUUMWON AM AX AUNUOT OOOL OL NOMMLOGOU
on “oy yw ‘taysupy us[Aopy Aatlopy ayy
Aq ‘99 pre 6g ‘dd ‘g-ygg] ‘yoog ava { URLLOJOLA 9lYJ ULOAZ UOyVZ vAV SUOIQR[UO[Vo vsot[y LOZ VQUP OIL,
poynqrazst]
pojnqiaystq
91V'S
powmeqEysHg |
COS SIS
C9861 le
SOF TSZ
ope‘cog |”
“ISST NOLLVINdOd
CLV Uo WAN OL
OhLON
GNVIDNG
Goon Get. ORIOOLE VINVASV,],
GNWISNGAN?)
“VITIVULSOWY HLAOg
SHIVA HLQAOG MAN
a ts ie - wIRTOMAINA:
‘TSS. 40 SOSNU() DHL LY GUiLVaaWONG ‘ANVIONY, NI GNV
‘VIIVULsAy GO SHONTAOUdG G NI ONIAIY WIdOUq UHL dO NOIAGIUISIG-oy AHL YNIUVdWO*D
In the propor-
to them.
tion of about one-third, I believe, the population is merely
1ve
joy them are not nat
«
Now these are very special and very favourable conditions.
But we who en
g¢ two-thirds, although they are
inin
So that not only the immigrants but the parents
and for the rema
actually native born, but a very small proportion come of native-
)
grant
born parents, and still fewer can be in the third generation of
native-birth.
Imm
172 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H.
of the greater part of the native-born population (who came, of
course, mainly from northern European countries) entirely
changed their conditions of life when they settled in Australia.
That ‘change of surroundings will at last produce changes in the
jose, habits, and modes of thought, which were , prevalent
in the old world among them. In the future characteristics will
inevitably develope, which may be properly called Australian, or
racial, But such changes are not made in a generation or two.
Such as may be observed in the earlier generations of the native-
born are not of the kind referred to—that is to say, are not
characteristic nor permanent. They are such as may be observed
in the individual long resident in an alien climate, and such as are
ready to disappear after return to the land of his forefathers. It
is most important that this slowly-approaching, this momentous
change, should be watched. But how does the case stand? Have
any steps at all been taken to observe and to record it? Does any
register exist from which its beginnings may be ascertained, and
its direction forecast ? The only way in which this could be done
would be by connecting the individual records of birth with the
corresponding records of death. But in no province, nor in all
the provinces (which together constitute but one country, and on
any reasonable plan of vital statistics would be dealt with as a
whole, as well as in parts distinguished by their geology and
their climate) is there the organisation which would warrant the
statement of which our politicians are fond, that ‘“ we assist at the
birth of a nation.” For want of the foresight which is the
characteristic of statesmanship, we do but stand by while a nation
evolves itself—a nation that may some day arouse to find its mode
of government unsuited to the altered customs, the altered habits
of thought, the altered views of morals, into which it has been
imperceptibly moulded by surroundings alien to the race from
which it sprang, and from which it took its laws.
And under the circumstances of life in Australia which I have
described, I venture to say that the manner in which many of
the particulars at present gathered are often dealt with is not
only useless but misleading. As we have taken the Acts from
the old world, so (though by no means necessarily) are we in the
habit of comparing the results they afford us with old-world
results. It seems to be forgotten, or at all events it is practically
overlooked, that death-rates have appreciable value only in relation
to various coincidental conditions—to race, feeding, climate,
density, as well as to many others. We never tire of comparing
our general death-rates with those of countries which differ from
ours in nearly every condition of life as widely as, on the same
globe, is well possible; and especially we refer our results to
English standards. If unlike things may be compared, that is
ine witable ; for English statistics are at once fuller and, with the
discount to which all such figures are liable, more accurate than
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H. Led
those of any other country. But it is only like things that
suffer comparison ; and when from the contrast of unlike things
we draw conclusions eminently flattering to our own country—
we have the flattery for our pains. It is simply impossible,
under the general conditions described, that our death-rates for
provinces should approach those of older countries as a rule.
I wiil try to make this clear by giving an example of the
comparison between unlike things to which I allude, and I will
point out the extravagant lengths to which it may lead those who
indulge in it unreservedly ; and as I draw it from the annual
statistical report of one province among several, I beg that it may
be noticed that all such reports are liable to a measure of the
same criticism, although not to the same exactly. I choose this
instance, in fact, partly on account of the deservedly eminent
reputation of the Government Statist of Victoria (Mr. H. H.
Hayter, C.M.G.), who is officially responsible for it, and partly
because it is apter, rounder, and more suitable for quotation
than any other of the kind I have seen. Mr. Hayter says
(and he repeats the statement annually in several years) that ‘ it
has been held by high authority that in countries in which
the climate is healthy, hygiene properly attended to, and the
population in a normal condition as regards age, the ordinary
mortality incident to human nature would probably cause the
death-rate to be in the proportion of about 17 per 1000 persons
living ;” and he then goes on to point out that in the province
with which he is dealing that rate has been exceeded only seven
times in 27 years, and that the average death-rate over that long
series of years has been only 15.57 per 1000 persons living. What
inference must be drawn from that comparison, which seems to
show that in Victoria the “ ordinary mortality incident to human
nature” has somehow been eluded? What must the general
reader, what must the legislator, whose studies may chance not
to have included the subject of vital statistics, infer from it?
Must he not conclude that his province is in fact doing remarkably
well ; that it affords no scope for the operations of preventive
medicine, and wonder within himself what all the stir about
legislation for health means? But when I mention that the high
authority alluded to is no less a person than the late Dr. Farr,
C.B., F.R.S., it will be suspected that error has somewhere crept
in; and [ will explain it in order to introduce some remarks
touching the search for a health-standard with which to compare
our rates, to which, indeed, the present fallacy is at bottom due.
What Dr. Farr really said was this:—He had been examining
the mortality in 54 healthy districts of England, and had found
it to be 17 in the 1000 living, and he had compared it with the
mortality for all England, which he showed to be 22 in the 1000
living. Upon those local facts he ventured to base the following
generalisation of local application and use. He said: “It will
174 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H.
not, therefore, be pitching the standard of health too high to
assert than any excess of mortality in English districts over 17
annual deaths per 1000 living is an excess not due to the mortality
incident to human nature, but to foreign causes to be repelled,
and by hygienic expedients conquered.” There is a wide
difference, it will be noted, between Dr. Farr’s cautious,
conditional statement, and the nett, positive terms of the quotation
I first made. But the point to which I now direct attention with
reference to the search for a health-standard for this country is
that Dr. Farr is careful to limit the application of his generalisa-
tion to England, to the observed facts of life among that particular
population living under the particular conditions presented by
that country. And, in fact, all health-standards must be drawn
from the very countries within which they are to be set up, unless
‘the comparisons made with them are to be delusive, misleading,
and obstructive to true progress.
In giving that example, I have shown that its logical conclusion
is a reductio ad absurdum. But a defence might be set up—
it might be said that want of correction for age explains the
alleged phenomenon. That would be sound as far as it goes,
although, of course, it would be destructive to the comparison
instituted. It is, however, far from being the only correction
needed, as may be easily shown from another part of the work,
where it is made, or rather allowed for. Mr. Hayter there uses
Mr. Sargent’s plan for eliminating the disturbing influence which
inequality in age-distribution has over such comparisons between
two different countries or cities. This consists in finding the
death-rates in the two places at the usual age-groups, and in
ascertaining the absolute number of deaths they would afford in
each place upon the supposition that an equal number of persons
were living in each at each age-period ; and then in striking a
rate upon each total hypothetical population with the two
absolute numbers of deaths. Mr. Sargent called this a method
-of ascertaining the specific mortality—Mr. Hayter prefers to call
it the ‘adjusted death-rate.” Its use appears to be in places
where the ages of the people are vow, to save the trouble of
redistributing one of the populations under ages to agree with
the other. Mr. Hayter compares in this manner the mortality
at age-groups (calculated mainly upon estimated numbers living
at ages) in Victoria with that in England; and the result is still
vastly in favour of the former. The general reader will, then,
get from this comparison confirmation of the opinion to which
the first led him—that there is in reality very little for sanitation
to do in his province. But what is the fact? It is that the
comparison is false. It is instituted between places which are
quite different in general respects, as I have already pointed out ;
but they are different in the following particulars especially,
which alone are fatal to the supposed parallel :—Victoria is a
PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H. WS,
province which carries an estimated number of 1,036,119 persons
{1887) on 88,000 square miles, of which 497,000 live in five
cities, the largest having a population of 391,000. England is a
country which carries 28 millions on 58,172 square miles, of
whom 9,244,099 live in 28 towns, of which the largest has a
population of 4} millions. This difference in density, and a
dozen other differences involved in it, render the comparison
misleading; and indeed a careful reader would find food for
reflection if he observed that, notwithstanding these flatteries, the
infantile death-rate of Melbourne and suburbs is (mean of 10
years 1878-87) 169-7, and higher by 17:7 in the 1000 than that
of London (mean of 10 years 1877-86, 152), although the latter
city carries more than ten times as many people on less than
half the area.*
I need not press these particular examples farther, having
chosen them, indeed, chiefly because Mr. Hayter’s eminence in
several branches of statistical enquiry goes far to render them
conclusive. After repeating, therefore, that all our statistical
reports are open to similar criticism, I just mention those of the
Registrar-General for Tasmania (Mr. Robert M. Johnston,
F.L.S.) I regard the labours of this gentleman with respect, and
all that I wish to say of them is this: he shows not only that he
is very well aware of all the points to which I am now in cursory
fashion drawing attention, but that while writing he has them
constantly in mind ; yet he falls, after all, into what I may call
the familiar error of the professed statist. He strives to supply
the place of observed facts, which are wanting, by allowance and
by calculation. Now, I do not contend that such methods are
unjustifiable or always profitless. Among statists they may
sometimes serve a useful purpose ; and indeed, were the facts
unascertainable, we might all of us have to be content with
cautious speculation, and we might derive from it that support
which is afforded by theory when facts begin to fail. But that
is not the present case: the facts are accessible, and their obser-
vation is in many respects a mere matter of suitable organisation.
That being so, I do not know but our statists are seriously in
error to amuse us with speculations which are largely of theoretical
bases, and which those unacquainted with statistics cannot
effectually scrutinise.
I just now called such errors the familiar errors of the professed
statist ; and they are not confined to the gentlemen who comment
on our records here. The Government Statistician of New South
Wales (Mr. T. A. Coghlan, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E.), reproduces in
his volume of ‘The Wealth and Progress of New South Wales”
for 1888-9 the mean after life-time at ages calculated for the
people of Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria, taken
* London: seilicet, Registration London; now the “County of London (for adminis
trative purposes).”
176 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H.
together, by Mr. A. F. Burridge, F.LA. Ihave not seen the
original paper, but the table is apparently constructed from the
deaths registered during the 12 years 1870 to 1881, and the census
enumerations of 1871 and 1881 (assisted in Queensland by the
enumeration of 1886), the age-distribution for intervening years
being calculated. With the aid of the result Mr. Coghlan, like
his conjréres, draws comparisons between the expectation of life
in these provinces of Australia and in other parts of the world,
which are very flattering to the former. But, without going to
the very bottom of the calculation, and there is much to be dug
up thence and anxiously scrutinised in all countries in which
decennial censuses are the rule, what is a life-table designed to
do? Is it not designed to ascertain the after life-time at ages of
a particular race living under particular conditions? The
possibility of constructing a life-table for a population which
increases by immigration as does that of Australia may well be
questioned ; but apart from that, of what value is such a table to
Australia, or to the world, from which the racial or national or
Australian element is absent, or in which it is present only in
unrecognisable form and inappreciable amount? Are not all
these coniparisons between unlike things, and all these methods
which use elaborate and hazardous calculations to supply the
place of observable but neglected facts, distinctively unscientific ?
Direct observation of the fact, patient accumulation of recorded
fact, self-restraint from speculation until the body of accumulated
fact is sufficient to warrant induction, and, last of all, zwduction
with aid of whatever mathematical formule may then seem useful
—these are the essential conditions of experimental enquiry. In
relation to vital statistics we neglect them at present, or make
little more than a show of observing them.
Having now indicated the quality of the results which our
modes of enumeration and registration furnish, and the practically
futile character of some of the calculations, comparisons, and
inferences which are based upon them, I proceed to touch upon
the second branch of the topic which I mentioned at first. This
is the use of the same set of observations (or of part of them) for
the immediate purposes of practical sanitation. And just as
record of the duration of life is the leading feature of the data
from which it is proposed to deduce the vitality of a nation, so
accurate record of the cause of death is the leading feature of the
register which is used to give direction to sanitary organisations.
But upon this essential point—accurate return of causes of death—
I need not speak ; most of us have already fully considered it in
relation to the organisation at present sanctioned by our Govern-
ments, and most of us are of opinion that the returns the latter
yields are in this respect seriously open to question. I therefore
merely insert in a note some facts which are sufficiently suggestive.
PRESIDENTS ADDRESS-——SECTION H. 177
In South Australia alone is a medical certificate of the cause of death
required by law in cases in which a medical man has been in attendance.
Elsewhere deputy or district registrars are instructed to enquire for the
name of the medical attendant, and, if possible, to get a certificate from
him; in some cases.the form of register prescribed in schedules to the
Act includes a column for this entry, in others it is required by regula-
tions made by the Registrar-General ; but when no medical man was in
attendance, any person qualified or required to give information touching
a death may assign a cause to it, and the Registrar is nowhere forbidden
to enter causes so assigned. In the second place, the official nosology of
the Royal College of Physicians was in one province used for the com-
_ pilation of a list to assist district registrars in their duty, and there
were included in it directions for dealing with causes of death which
might be assigned in popular terms. The following are a few of these,
taken almost at random :—‘‘ Cauliflower” is to be recorded under
Order VI., Class 8, 2 ; ‘‘cold, a vague term; was it bronchitis ? pneumonia ?
influenza ? if undefined, Order I., Class 1, 8;” “ collapse—what was the
cause? class accordingly ” (in these two instances it seems that the
District-Registrar, who has not seen the case, and who would not be
much the wiser if he had, is to ascertain and classify the cause of death,
after consultation with other unqualified persons); “ constriction of the
brain—bad ; Order VI., Class 1, 13;” “yellow fever (remittent fever),
Order I., Class 1, 15;” ‘shivering fit (ague ?) vague; Order I., Class 3,
2.’ This list was adopted in other provinces after its appearance in the
first. It therefore seems to have supplied a want, and to have served a
purpose. Thirdly, Registrars-General, under the older classification,
returned deaths from unspecified causes in the proportion of about less
than one per cent. to total deaths; and under the newer classification in
the proportion of from about 8 to 10 per cent. to total deaths (the
proportions, perhaps, having been nearly the same all along, but being
now more easily seen.) Finally, since “certified” and “uncertified ”
deaths are in no province discriminated in the abstracts (nor, I believe,
in the registers), there are no means of judging (unless the list quoted
be taken to supply them) whether the 8 or 10 per cent. mentioned really
include all the deaths which should, in a reasonably accurate sense, be
returned as due to unspecified causes.
In South Australia a medical certificate of the cause of death is not
only required in cases on which a medical man has been in attendance,
but the latter is compelled by law to furnish it. That the cause of death
should be ascertained in every case (as far as possible) by competent
observers is, of course, essential; but a law under which a class of the
people is compelled to render skilled or professional service to the rest
gratuitously, and under penalties for failure, is obviously and grossly
unjust. The Government of South Australia, on the one hand, neglects
to oblige its paid officers (the coroners), who are especially appointed by
it to ascertain the cause of death in doubtful or suspicious cases, to desist
from returning such futile verdicts as “death from natural causes ;’
and on the other, goes out of its way to enforce under penalties return
of the cause of death in cases to which no sort of suspicion attaches by
members of one class of the people governed to whom it stands in no
special relation whatever. The violation of liberty thus described is of
infinitely greater moment than the injury inflicted on the particular
class that in this case happens to suffer, and should be found of very
general interest, as it is of general, and of the highest, importance.
Annual rough enumeration of the people living within defined
areas of comparatively small size (which should be, of course,
merely subdivisions of larger defined districts), with registration
L
178 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION H.
of births, and of deaths under causes, within the same areas,
together with regular prompt return of the observations as the
are made to the chief medico-sanitary authority of the country
for analysis, is the life principle of practical hygiene. The more
preventable diseases are, if not of local origin, at all events of
local immediate causation ; the measures to prevent them must,
therefore, be of local application. Where this information is
wanting, whatever the administrative and executive sanitary
organisations may be, and whatever their possible efficiency, their
efforts must In many most important respects be without system,
diffused, wasteful, and must therefore yield results incommensurate
with their cost in money, in labour, and in thought. It is possible
to express the reason on which this statement rests in a sentence :
Deaths are never distributed equally over districts. Preventable
deaths occur where removable causes exist ; not elsewhere.
Now, there is not in any province—I judge from official
reports—the organisation here referred to ; the numbers of the
people are estimated from year to year; and this, which is a
hazardous process when applied to the population of a whole
province, becomes simply deceptive when applied to cities, and
especially to parts of cities; the sex and age-distribution are
brought on from the decennial census enumeration in a similar
way, and in districts, at all events, are therefore in realit
unknown ; and the record, imperfect as it is, is not dealt with
for purposes of local sanitation by the medical officer of any
authority.* I will illustrate the result of this want of practical
organisation—again a failure to refer to the fact, and so far a
lack of scientific method—by a concluding comparison ; it shows
that the work of central health authorities is done under
difficulties, or rather, not to mince the matter, for want of this
kind of direction exactly, remains practically fruitless in a most
fertile field. I choose for the test the proportion of deaths from
tilth-diseasest and enteric (or typhoid) fever, because it is now
notorious that if sanitation. can certainly do anything at all—
and it can do very much—at all events its first and easiest
successes are against that class of diseases. That is now a well-
established fact ; so that the efficiency of any sanitary organisa-
tion may be fair ly g gauged by the proportion of deaths that occur
among the people living under it from those diseases. M
comparison is, of course, between Victoria and New South Wales;
not only because those provinces are similar in population and
in many other respects, but because they differ distinctively in
the most important point—in sanitary law and organisation.
But the two provinces are not comparable as wholes, because
they carry a similar population on widely different areas. I
therefore select the metropolitan areas in each case; and that
* Dr. H. T. Whittell has for many years been Registrar-General for the province of
South Australia, and for some time President of the Central Board of Health as well.
j By filth-diseases, diarrhoea, dysentery, and cholera are intended.
4
PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H. 179
is the more suitable because the filth-diseases, &ec., are diseases
of urban life. The Melbourne metropolitan area is marked
off by a circle of ten miles’ radius described from the centre
of Melbourne. It includes 256 square miles,* and it carried
an estimated population of 391,546 persons in 1887. The Sydney
metropolitan area measures 256 square miles, and is of irregular
shape. It carried a population estimated at 350,866 in 1887.
From this statement, and on inspection, the two areas seem fairly
ona par as regards density, the people on both being chiefly
centered at one part, and for the rest scattered irregularly over
rural or quasi-rural districts. As to geological character, I am
informed by the Government Geologist of New South Wales (Mr.
W. C. Wilkinson), who has surveyed both areas, that as regards
permeability of soil and retentiveness it may be taken that there
is not much difference between the two ; but although Melbourne
stands on seven hills, these are but low, and of a conformation which
distinguishes them from that of a part of the Sydney area where
abrupt ridges abound. As to climate, in Melbourne the hot
season is shorter than in Sydney, and the cold season when it
comes is much colder. The yearly mean temperature (22 years)
is 57°:2 F. in the former, and 63° F. (29 years) in the latter ; the
-mean yearly rainfalls, 25-53 inches and 48:96; the mean yearly
number of days on which rain fell, 130 and 154. Melbourne is
near the sea on the south coast, Sydney near the sea on the fertile
east or Pacific coast ; the latitudes, 57° 49’ and 33° 5’ S. lat. All
the difference as regards influence of climate on the diarrheal
diseases is in Melbourne’s favour, and there is also an artificial
difference between the two which is of especial importance as
regards prevalence of fever. Melbourne has been supplied with
excellent water from a very early date, and its distribution by
pipes has more or less kept pace with the growth of population
and the extension of suburbs. Sydney, on the other hand, until
the third month of 1886, had but a scanty supply, drawn from a
source which was (during the years presently dealt with) befouled.
This imperfectly served the city (122,000 in 1885) and some
districts adjacent to it. As far as enteric fever goes there was,
therefore, during the period dealt with a very great advantage on
the side of Melbourne. Next as to sewerage. It may at first
sight be supposed that the city of Sydney (population 87,000 to
122,000, 1876-85) has in this respect an important advantage
over Melbourne, since it has for many years been sewered. But
these conduits are “imperfect sewers, constructed at different
times, in various fashions, running in many instances on
unrecorded and now forgotten lines, without ventilation, and
discharging into the tidal waters of the harbour.” Many
* The circle encloses a part of the bay.
7 See “A Record of the Sanitary State of New South Wales, on December 31st, 1887.”
Sydney, Charles Potter, Government Printer, by the present writer.
L2
180 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H.
of them are in fact either natural channels covered over, or
made-drains which have been converted to the use of sewers ;
and, as the manner in which house connections are made
corresponds in point of defectiveness with the construction of
the channels mentioned, each must judge for himself whether
they are likely to be an advantage to the people using them, or
the reverse. On the other hand, Melbourne has no system of
sewers at all. Lastly, the age and sex distribution of the two
populations cannot be compared (except by estimate, which in
the case of any small area, at all events, is in my opinion more
properly called a guess); but the birth-rate and the rate of
natural increase are considerably higher in Sydney, and that, of
course, gives her an advantage over Melbourne. So that in this
comparison, while the two metropolitan areas are nearly on a
level as regards population, specific population, and geological
characteristic, Sydney has the general advantage of a higher
birth-rate ; Melbourne has the great advantage, as regards fever,
of a pure and copious water supply, and as regards diarrheal
diseases, that of a colder climate. The balance between them
may therefore be now struck. The difference as regards laws is
as follows :—
Victoria enjoys a very complete set of health statutes, the
earliest of which dates from 1865; it has a Public Health
Department, within which is a Board of Health not only well
known to be composed of earnest gentlemen, but having the
advantage of the sagacious advice of its permanent President,
Mr. A. P. Akehurst; and it has local medical officers of health
and local boards of health. New South Wales also has a Health
Department, within which is a Board of Health, which my
position precludes me from more than mentioning; but that
province as yet has not any health statute at all, and of special
laws relating to health has only a Quarantine Act, a Dairies
Supervision Act, and an Infectious Diseases Supervision Act,
which applies to small-pox alone. That board has statutory
powers under other Act whatsoever. So I describe closely
similar areas in two provinces, in one of which elaborate health
statutes, administered by able officers, are operative, while in the
other are (as regards the class of diseases especially referred to)
absolutely no legal powers at all. I repeat once again that if
executive sanitary organisation can do anything, it can reduce
the prevalence of fever and of filth diseases, and theretore—
unless there be something wanting—that class of diseases might
be expected to be rife in the Sydney area, but should be nearly
absent from the Melbourne area. I shall not be misunderstood,
I am sure, yet I will say distinctly that the question now under
examination is why these diseases, notoriously too prevalent
amongst us, continue to prevail ; and although the circumstances
detailed with regard to the two cities mentioned render their
181
finding the answer, I do not
in
ly useful i
PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION H.
experience especia
conclude upon a comparison between them, but upon a general
province.
inference which has application to every urban district in every
*QULZLOCUNUN PVT, SITY ABPUN FUMOUIOIV4S SAOPUAL SB TOUS SI svaty aATQOadsoa TOY] WO sUOTyUTNdod Omg O19 Jo VOYNQLYSIP OL, t
“qST9Rq9 JUOTAUAIAADD “HNO “bsg ‘tegAvy ud[Aop Atay Aq WQ0q ‘g-ySgT WT 1IOA “S[OOT Ava WeItogorA OYA WO AQITVZALOUT apIQULs TI
TOF FUG * (OST TOF) LST “SONSIVIS [VILA “AT WBA “VIMOJOLA JO AoJSIBoyYy [VOI|STAVyg 94} Woay Uayyy ale suOTyL[NO[Vo asayy AOF vQVp at, +
*[B1NUAy-ABIGSESAYT oT Aq ‘YALA 4Tvop savad oY] AOJZ ‘opvUT sot4si9eqg [egIA Uodn sqtodey [weraAos O19 WO.AY
SoqzVI 1o[gO 10J : Avo Yous Jo pus 044 4B SLOqUINU poZLUIIZSo O49 MOAT PooNpap Suleq sttvawt oy] ‘UVIOSIVVIg JUOUTMIOAOD “bswy ‘ue[s09 *"¥ “Lb
Aq ‘L-988T wok of} OF ,, SATBAA TINOG MON JO ssarSorg puv YATwAA\ ,, 9 Woy ‘uUoIge[ndod toJ—uoyvq aav SUOI|LTNOTeO asat{y IOs VQUP CYL, «
2 ¢0-g — i 8F-8 — } PE-3 — ‘
9 2 m be, 9 | 1.02! &: z.2 e7epPor aANYAOPTA
ot ${49T| 6ST logy + § | FEES + § | 0-9 logs + y | Te4] 1-08) eT | Z-£8 ceorez| + W
61— FZ. — oe 1 dies :
oz & P(Ser SOILS i 96.73 |e 6 4 Y) se.s1 oan } OF-9} 6-02] 6-T | 9-68 o9Feee «MING
= -5& “pe
iG Cod Fa ‘ and VOR a ate
a
%
A ; ag.
is
f Asan eer ed
rh i . 7
ie 1
a ;
it ;
i H . . cual y
\ ney s HAS 4 «’ . ss
a
‘ ‘ . {
. ¥ sf
’ psa) Oo PA EL eae | WE La 8, oes
} ... . UPBce
Alkalies, ete. td wet RS
100-00
MINERALS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 213
Levcire.—(1) Byrock, were: Cowper, (T. W. E. David and
W. Anderson); (2) El Capitan, County Cambelego, in
a basaltic lava Hee (See Records Geol. Sur. N. S.
Wales, vol. i. part We) Analyses :
. (ye (3)
Silica mu . 4643 47°31
Alumina ¥, 090. alasbh
Oxide of iron (Fe, Os yo 15-04 14-56
Lime (CaO) . Pg Nina fei rigor
Magnesia (MgO) Ld. (iahi74 2°28
Potash (K, O) ve il lGs98s 6-14
Soda (Na, QO)... , “D1 98
Phosphor ic Anhydr ide
oy Sa = yy 2°31
99°84 100-21
Specific gravity of mineral 2-890 2-910
(Ann, Rept. Dept. of Mines, 1887, p. 177.)
Matacuite.—New Mount Hope, Nymagee, Great Barrier Copper
Mine, Gorilambone; common in copper lodes of the
colony ; (Geo. Sur., Dept. Mines, Sydney).
Manaanire.—Bendemeer ! ! !, Glanmire, near Bathurst !! !, Bogan
District, Molong ; (Geo. Sur., Dept. of Mines, Sydney).
Marmouite—This foliated variety of serpentine occurs with
massive serpentine on Jones’ Creek, Gundagai (L.).
Mo.tyspENItTe.—Found with cobaltine and erythrite at Carcoar
in fairly well deve loped platy crystals (L.).
Monranite.*—Molongo, near Captain’s Flat. (1) Pale greenish
yellow variety. This mineral encrusts the tetradymite,
and does not show any crystalline structure. Green
tints are observable wherever the particles of half-
decomposed tetradymite become abundant, the green
being due to the steel-grey tetradymite showing through
the yellow coating of montanite. (2) Ferruginous dark-
brownish red variety. This variety occurs in cubical
pseudomorphs, single or aggregated, and about yinch
in diameter. The colour is dark brownish red, excepting
on thin edges, where the mineral is semi-translucent and
of a deep claret colour. Analysis of a few broken
pieces of the cubes (b) about 2 grammes in weight,
though they were not thoroughly free from tetrady-
mite :—
* See Mingaye and David on Tellurium in N.S.W. ores.—
E. B. LINDON, Brisbane, ) Queensland
ROBERT L. JACK, Townsville, ( Sub-Committee.
WILLIAM H. RANDS, Maryborough, J
234 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
ActTINOLITE—Cloncurry !, on calcite (Q.M.C.); Mount Perry
district !!!, actinolite rock, and as green radiating
crystal in actinolite rock (R.); Charters Towers !, in
“Day Dawn Extended” quartz reef (J.), also in
country rock (syenite) of ‘ North Australian Block,”
(C.).
Acate—Agate Creek, Etheridge! !, in large quantities (L.) ;
Burnett district !!, over a wide area (N. Bartley) ;
Narrango district ! ! (R.) ; Mount Toussaint and Mount
Macedon !!, in geodes in epidote rock (J.); Agate
Creek, Gilbert !! !, occurring “in thousands of tons ”
in river gravels (4J.).
AmMALGAM— Kilkivan, in hard dark quartzose rock (R.).
Amertuyst—Logan River ! (R.); Upper Coomera, Albert district
(R.) ; Cloncurry (Upper Camp 2) !, in alluvial (C.).
ANALCIME—Strathmore Creek and Bowen River ! !, in geodes in
epidote rock (J.).
ANGLESITE—Silver Hill Mine, Mount Albion !, transparent
pyramidal crystals (J.); at all the silver-lead mines,
especially Argentine, Dry River, and Mount Albion ! ! !,
argentiferous, enveloping argentiferous galena, and
apparently derived from its decomposition (J.).
ARGENTITE—Cumnor Lease, Silverfield, Tinaroo district—“ It
is probable that in argentiferous galena from here,
assaying 1400oz. silver to the ton, a good deal of this.
silver is distributed through the galena in the form of
free sulphide” (C. I. E.); Emu Plains, Bowen River,
intimately mixed with cuprite and tenorite, especially
the latter, the mixed ore containing 2299o0z. silver per
ton (J.).
He meeroreMicnnt Wheeler, 18 miles from Rockhampton ! !, in
serpentine (D.) and (C.) ; Cloncurry !, in “ The Contra ”
copper lode; near Gympie !, in serpentine (R.) ;
Gympie !, with quartz in reefs (R.); Woodonga ! !,
Glastonbury, Wide Bay district, in serpentine (R.) ;
Mount Alma, Charters Towers ! !, in diorite rock, the
vein cropping out at surface from 4in. to 5in. thick (C.)
—perfectly white and silky in part, but bulk stony :
silky portion lost no weight on treatment with warm
hydrochloric acid, and was unaltered by blow-pipe or
Bunsen flame (C.).
AspouitE—Kilkivan, in a lode running nearly N. and S. in
light-coloured serpentine, occurs sometimes in solid
veins, sometimes in large botryoidal masses, but gene-
rally running in an irregular manner through the
MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 235
gangue (R.), [Analyses: undressed ore, Co 7:50 per
cent., Ni 2°12 per cent., (K. T. Staiger) ; fair sample of
lode, Co 7:50 per cent., Ni 2-25 per cent., Mn 18-00 per
cent., (K. T. Staiger) ; surface ore, Co 2°75 per cent.,
Ni 2:25 per cent., Mn 65-00 per cent. (W. Vivian and
Sons, Swansea).]; Kilkivan !!!, believed to be from
lode referred to by (R.) ; “specimens of asbolite from
same locality in Queensland Museum, where it is termed
cobaltiferous wad, have the following assays appended :
—Cobalt 22-207 per cent., nickel 3-510 per cent, iron
29:130 per cent., manganese 2°360 per cent., copper
0:103 per cent. (Cat. C.J. E.); Mountain Home !, in
copper lode, associated with green carbonate of copper,
ferruginous red oxide of copper, pyrolusite and garnets
(J.).
AtTAcAmiITE—Mount Perry district (Q. M. C.) ; Cloncurry, pseudo-
morphous after cuprite (Q. M. C.).
AzuritE—Great Kennedy Copper Mine ! ! !, in rhombic prisms
and pyramids and in radiating botryoidal masses in a
large lode (J.) ; Keelbottom Copper Mine ! !, in quartz
veins in porphyrite country (J.); Contra Lode, Clon-
curry !, in large copper lode in diorite country (J.) ;
Pumpkin Gully, Cloncurry !!, in ferruginous cup of
copper lode (J.) ; Great Australian Copper Mine, Clon-
curry ! !, in large lode with cuprite, native copper and
malachite (J.); Ironclad Mine, Watsonville !!, with
cassiterite and malachite (J.) ; Clan Ronald, Eureka
Creek, Tinaroo ! !, with malachite and cassiterite, from
20 feet below surface (C.); Mount Garnet, Tinaroo.
district ! !, with malachite (C.) ; Peak Downs Copper
Mine !, near Clermont, not so common as malachite
(L.) ; Mount Perry district !, with other copper ores (L.);
Mount Orange Copper Mine, Nebo, accompanying mala-
chite, hematite and black oxide of copper (W. J. C.
Adrian) ; Pine Vale, 25 miles S.W. of Mackay ! !,
massive in reefs, also as alteration product of copper
pyrites, associated with quartz, zinc-blende, malachite,
galena and quartz (M.).
Barytes—Three miles from Mary River along Kilkivan Road ! ! !,
as a large vein (R.) ; near Miva, Wide Bay ! ! (G.) ; 30
miles west of Milo Station, near Adavale ! !, also
Maxwelton, near Hughenden !, as radiated nodules in
shales of the Rolling Downs (cretaceous) formation (J.).
BismutH—Narrango !, in auriferous lode in a matrix of steatite
(L.) ; Mount Biggenden, Degilbo, Wide Bay district ! ! !,
(R.) ; Stanthorpe, in tin-wash (Q. M.C.); Pumpkin
Gully, Cloncurry !!, in auriferous drift (J.); Mary.
bo
eo
for)
MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
Douglas Reef, Cloncurry !!, associated with quartz,
limonite and gold (J.); Herberton Tin Mines !, in
Home Rule, Herbertina and other mines, associated
with cassiterite (J.).
BismutH Ox1pE—Mount Shamrock, Wide Bay district, veins of
oxide of bismuth are exceptionally rich in gold (R.),
assaying 62 per cent. of bismuth and 2520z. of gold
(Mr. Hamilton, reported by R.).
BIsMUTHINITE—Mount Shamrock !, in fine acicular crystals (R.) ;
Mount Biggenden ! !(R.) ; Coolgarra, Tinaroo ! ! !, with
native bismuth in lode in granite (C.) ; Gilbert River ! },
in lode (J.) ; Great Britain Mine, Coolgarra ! !, in lode
associated with cassiterite, galena and sphalerite (J.) ;
Southern Tin Mine, Irvinebank ! !, in lode associated
with cassiterite (J.).
sISMUTHITE—Cloncurry !, containing visible gold (Q. M.C.) ;
Sellheim !!, in lodes (L.), containing a good deal of
copper and iron and probably derived from decom-
position of Wittichenite (J.); Mount Biggenden,
Degilbo !! !(R.); Mount Shamrock ! !, (R.) ; Coolgarra,
Tinaroo !, alluvial associated with cassiterite (C.) ; Perey
River ! ! !, in gullies worked for alluvial gold, containing
over 72 per cent of metallic bismuth (W. M. Mowbray) ;
Percy River !!!, in alluvial gravels (J.).—[ Analyses,
Bi 72°61, COs 12:77, iron oxide 12°80, sand, mica,
&e. 1:82, sp. gr. 64 (K. T. Staiger); Kangaroo
Hill ! !, in alluvial gravels (J.); Head of Severn
River ! !, in alluvial gravels (J.).
BornitE—Blue Mountains near Eton !, associated with tenorite
and cuprite (J.); Mount Perry district ! !, associated
with other copper ores, sometimes in steatite, (R.) ;
Cloncurry ! ! (Q. M. C.).
S0URNONITE—Mount Albion! ! !, argentiferous: “The recent
discovery of bournonite at Mount Albion proves to be
more important the more fully the deposit is opened up.
It is calculated that there is in sight at the present
time fully 2000 tons of black ore, which at £60 per ton
amounts to the encouraging total of £120,000. As the
copper, antimony, &c., in the ore pays all expenses,
this means that the whole £120,000 is clear profit.—
(Herberton Advertiser, June, 1889).
‘CACOXENItTE— Watts’ Selection, Logan district !, on limonite (R.).
CatcirE—Sellheim River ! ! !, large veins in shale and sandstone
country (Gympie Beds), (J.); Hector Claim, Ravens-
woop ! !, on hanging wall of auriferous quartz reef, 85
feet from surface (C.); Markham’s Claim, Ravens-
MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 2a
wood !!, associated with galena from 120 feet from
surface (C); Ravenswood ! !, on foot-wall of a lode
carrying chalcopyrite, sphalerite, iron pyrites, mispickel
with gold and quartz (C.); Golden Bar, Rosewood,
Rockhampton, with auriferous quartz 86 feet from
surface (C.); Advance Reef, Norton Goldtield, Glad-
stone ! !, with iron pyrites and sphalerite from 180 feet.
The same vien occurs in the adjacent claims on this line
of reef, sometimes the calcite vain is on the hanging,
less often on the foot-wall of the reef (C.): some of
this calcite is nearly transparent, one small piece was
sufficiently clear to exhibit double refraction. The
calcite vein is about 3” thick; Gympie Goldfield ! },.
with auriferous quartz and iron pyrites: ‘The manner
in which the crystals of quartz, calespar and pyrites cut
into each other and are indented by the gold which is
in other parts moulded to the angles of the crystals,
shows that they were all deposited at the same period ;
while the lime, taking the form of calespar, indicates
that the deposition was at a low temperature”
(A. C. Gregory); Victory Lease, Charters Towers !',
in pellucid crystals in fissures and vughs in the walls of
the lode or reef : these crystals are so grouped together
that only one set of facets is perfect. These facets are
eurved. Three of them grouped round the principal
axis and termining in a point form the only part of the
crystals that are visible among the whole sample raised,
(C.); Victory Lease, Charters Towers !!, in opaque
rhombohedral crystals, on auriferous quartz (C.) ;
Gympie ! !, with quartz associated with gold and gold-
bearing sulphides (L.); Kilkivan !!, with quartz and
auriferous and argentiferous sulphides (L.); Glenlyon,
near Stanthorpe ! !, large beds of limestone containing
caverns with stalactites and stalagmites (L.) ;
Warwick ! !, black and white limestone (C.); analysis.
by (C.):
WHITE BLACK
Moisture ... = 1:10 1:29
Carbonic acid oO 43-05
Lime 54:66 54:72
3
Peroxide of iron gxtyh O35 0:37
Magnesia Sy HOrLs
Insoluble residue il
100°93 100-95;
Potosi claim, Tinaroo district !!!, limestone used as a
flux for silver-lead ores (C.) ; analysis by (C.) :
238 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
Moisture va 1:07
Carbonate of lime me +. 69588
Silica ‘ ae 2-41
Peroxide of iron aig Be 0-78
Carbonate of magnesia seit) Ong
100:56 ;
Gladstone ! !, white and coloured marbles (R.), (Q. M. C);
in very many auriferous reefs! !, a common form of
gangue (L.); Toowoomba district !!, in cavities in
basalt (L.).
\CASSITERITE—Stanthorpe district |! !, stream tin in drifts, gene-
rally in small water-worn crystals, with a large proportion
of the ruby and amber varieties, sometimes together
with water-worn gold (J.), as crystals in quartz reefs,
and in dykes of greisen in granite country (J.);
Pascoe River ! ! !, as stream tin ore (L.) ; Mount Spur-
geon !! !, principally stream tin (J.) ; Kangaroo Hills !! 1,
stream and lode tin (J.); associated with bismuth
(Pears) ; samples of the pannned-off ore contain abso-
lutely white water-worn grains of tin oxide (10-15mm.
diameter). Awby and améer tin also occur (C.) ; Running
Creek, Star River! ! !, stream tin, associated with
garnet and topaz (J.); Granite Creek, Palmer Gold-
field !!!, as stream tin associated with gold, latter
having been derived from the slates which abut on the
western banks of the creek, while the granitic eastern
banks supplied the tin (Sellheim) ; Cannibal Creek ! ! },
stream and lode tin, the latter in large quartz reefs
in slate and greywacke country (J.); Annan and
Bloomfield ! ! !, stream and lode tin, the latter associated
with quartz, tourmaline, hornblende, and wolfram,—prin-
cipal mines are Mount Leswell, Lion’s Den, Mount
Amos, Mount Romeo (J.); Mount Leswell, Cooktown ! ! 1,
with tourmaline crystals, under the microscope the
panned-off ore is mainly honey-yellow, with a little
opaque black tin and a little rudy tin, the tourmaline
is of a greyish blue and markedly pleochroic parallel
to principal axis (C.) ; a specimen of schorl and tin ore
assayed 55 per cent. of metallic tin (L.); Mount Amos,
Cooktown ! ! !, with tourmaline crystals, under the micro-
scope the cassiterite appears to be mainly transparent
and of amber or honey-yellow colour, the tourmalines
are greyish-blue and strongly pleochroic, parallel to
principal axis (C.); Lion’s Den, Cooktown, ! ! !, with
tourmaline crystals, microscopic examination reveals
nothing of interest (C.), some of these Cooktown tin
MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 239
ores are rich, we having had samples of }-cwt. assaying
30°25 per cent. metallic tin, while, on the other hand, some
samples have only yielded 5 per cent. metal on assay
(Coane and Clarke) ; he Bloomfield River, Cooktown !!!,
grey very water-worn stream tin ore, a boulder from
this river, exhibited in the Colonial and Indian Exhi-
bition (1886), was nearly pure tin-stone (cassiterite),
and weighed 82lbs. (C.); Rose of England, Eureka
Creek, Tinaroo ! ! !, associated with fluor spar, quartz,
and iron pyrites (C.); Clan Ronald, Eureka Creek,
Tinaroo ! ! !, with azurite and malachite, 20 feet
from surface (C.); Lass of Gowrie, Eureka Creek,
Tinaroo ! ! !, with white mica, 60 feet from surface (Cy;
Black Rock, Eureka Creek, Tinaroo ! ! !, with red
hematite, 70 feet from surface (C ) ; Lancewood Creek,
9 miles from Brooklands Head Station !!!; Etheridge
Goldfield ! ! ! (Hodgkinson); Krombit, Port Curtis
district !, water-worn crystals in creek (R.) ; Christmas
Eve, Irvine Bank, Tinaroo! ! !, with quartz, the two
minerals occurring in alternate layers, about 15 times
in 1”, the whole having a pink cast (C.); General
Gordon Tin Mine, &c., Thompson’s Creek ! ! !, in lodes
(J.); Return Creek !!!, lode and stream (J.); Emu
Creek !!!, lode (J.); Halpin’s Creek !!!, lode and
stream (J.) ; Pinnacle Creek, near Thompson’s Creek ! ! |,
stream (J.) ; Oakey Creek, near Thompson’s Creek ! ! !,
stream (J.) ; Bachelor’s Reef, Eidsvold !, in auriferous
quartz reef, associated with tourmaline (R.); Dry
River !!!, stream (J.); Aunitt or Nettles Creek ! ! !,
stream (J.); Rudd Creek !!!, stream (J.); California
Gully, near Herberton ! ! !, lode and stream (J.) ;
Irvinebank ! ! !, in lodes in sedimentary rock, in Great
Southern the cassiterite is associated with arsenical
pyrites, native bismuth, stibnite, kc. (J.); Walsh
River !!!, very fine crystals of tin ore disseminated
through a chloritic matrix in lodes which coincide with
the bedding of the country rock (pebbly grits), (J.) ;
Gordon Mine, Glenhinedale ! ! !, the ore impregnating
a country rock of hard, fine-grained, silicious, and
talcose sandstone (J.); Koorboora, Tate River ! ! fu
lode (J.) ; Watsonville !!!, in lodes in a country rock
of shales and greywackes, associated in Ironclad Mine
with copper pyrites and copper carbonates (J.) ; Spinifex
Creek, near Herberton !!!, as stream tin (J.); Her-
berton !!!, in leads below the basalt and in recent
stream beds (J.); rarely in “elvan dykes”; at
“Three Star” Mine, &c., in dykes of quartzose chlorite,
and quartzose serpentine, and in chlorite rock-country,
240
MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
rock quartz-porphyry (J.), sometimes associated with
chlorite, orthoclase, Rea ite schorl, wolfram, garnet and
topaz (L.); W atsonville 1! 1, in dykes of quartzose
chlorite, and quartzose serpentine in a country rock of
quartz-porphyry (J.); Eureka Creek ! ! !, lode (J.);
The Tate River, 60 miles from Herberton, Tinaroo ! ! !,
stream (C.); Tornado, Newellton, Tinaroo !!!, with
kaolin, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, mispickel, galena and
quartz (C.) ; Bolton’s Folly, Watsonville, Tinaroo ! ! |,
with garnets, 30 feet from surface, in green chlorite (C.);
Return Creek, Coolgarra, aroo ! i !, as stream tin:
“T have seen nearly (300 grains short) 2lbs. of coarse
tin washed out of a dish full of dirt” (C.); Creesus
Claim, Tinaroo !!!, with fluor spar crystals from 80ft.
level (C.) ; Denny’s Claim, near Watsonville ! ! !, with
bright red hematite (C.); Bonnie Dundee, Coolgarra,
Tinaroo !! !, in red chlorite with wolfram and mica (C.) ;
Pinnacle Lease, Gregory’s Gully, Tinaroo!!!, with a
light pink orthoclase and quartz crystals (C.) ; Adven-
ture Claim, Tinaroo !!!, with kaolin and quartz (C.) ;
Cosmopolitan, Tinaroo ! ! !, with kaolin and quartz (C.).
CrerussitrE—Argentine Silver Field !!!, argentiferous in upper
levels of argentiferous galena lodes (J.); Flagstone
Creek, Bowen district ; with decomposing galena (L.) ;
Lawn Hill ! !, in galena lode (J.) ; Scrubby Creek, Broad
Sound ! !, argentiferous in lode (J.) ; Star of the South
Gold Mine, Ravenswood !, in auriferous quartz reef (J.) ;
Ravenswood Silver Field!!! argentiferous, in argenti-
ferous galena lodes (J.) ; Curlew, about 12 miles south
of Charters Towers ! !, associated with galena, gold,
quartz, malachite, chrysocolla and pyromorphite (C.) ; ‘
Dry River Silver Field!!! argentiferous, in argenti-
ferous galena lodes (J.); Rainbow Claim, Newellton,
Tinaroo !!, with galena and quartz in very perfect
crystals and macles (C.); First Shot Claim, Coolgarra,
Tinaroo !, with hematite and galena (C.); Mount
Garnet, Tinaroo!, in minute crystals with copper
stained quartz and galena, very much decomposed (C.) ;
Mount Albion Silver Field ! !'! argentiferous, in argen-
tiferous galena lodes (J.); Sellheim Silver Field! ! !
argentiferous, in argentiferous galena lodes (J.).
CuapasitE— Main Range, below Toowoomba !, lining cavities in
basalt (L.); Darling Downs, Toowoomba !, lining
cavities in basalt (A. C. Gregory): a sample submitted
to me by Mr. Gregory contained 21°76 per cent
water (C.).
MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 241.
CuaLcepony—Clermont Plains ! !, in basalt (R.); Mount
Toussaint and Mount Macedon ! !, in geodes in epidote
rock (J.) ; Westwood ! in geodes in basalt (J.).
CHALCOPYRITE—Tinaroo district !!, associated with marcasite,
galena, mispickel, and sphalerite (J.); Mount Perry
district |!!! generally auriferous, lodes in granite and
schistose country, often associated with bornite (L.) ;
Copperfield, Clermont, Peak Downs ! !, accompanying
iron pyrites (L.); Ravenswood ! ! auriferous with iron
pyrites (L.); Charters Towers ! ! associated with iron
pyrites and galena (C.); Carnarvon Castle Claim,
Blackfellow’s Gully, Rockhampton!!! auriferous in
quartz and calcite (L.), assays from 2 to 5 oz. gold per
ton (L.); Mount Morgan (London), Extended Croco-
dile Goldfield!!! readily decomposing, slightly auri-
ferous (L.); Yabba Station between Nanango and
Gympie ! ! !, lode, auriferous (L.): assays from 5dwts.
to 440z. of gold per ton (L.); Mount Orange Copper
Mine, Nebo ! !, lode (L.); Pine Vale, Merani, Mackay
! !, with bornite in quartz, lode in granite country (L.) ;
Pine Vale, 25 miles south-west of Mackay ! ! ! occurs in
quartz reef in small veins and isolated masses, showing
often a beautiful iridesence on the surface, associated
with malachite, azurite, and tetrahedrite (A. G. M.) ;
Kangaroo Mine, Crocodile Goldfield, 3 miles from
Mount Morgan Mine!!! in quartz lode, auriferous
(L.) ; Copper pyrites occurs !! associated with pyrites
and mispickel, more or less plentifully in the majority
of the auriferous reefs of Queensland (J.).
CuatyBitE—Normanby Goldfield (Bowen) ! !, in Glengarry Reef
and others (J.); Cloncurry: Goldfield ! ! (J.); Mount
Perry district !, associated with iron pyrites, calena and
sphalerite (R.).
Curert—Brookfield, Brisbane (Q. M.C.) ; Springsure (Q. M. C.).
Curomite—Near Ipswich ! !, in serpentine (C.) ; Mount Wheeler,
Rockhampton ! !, in serpentine (D.) ; Kilkivan!, in ser-
pentine (R.); Pine Mountain ! !, (G.); Gladstone dis-
trict !!, in serpentine (D.) ; Cawarral ! !, in serpentine
Cs):
Curysocotta—Burdekin River, near Mount Keelbottom !, in
lode in quartz, porphyry country (J.); Curlew, about
twelve miles south of Charters Towers !, with galena,
malachite, gold, quartz and pyromorphite (C.); Towns-
ville Road, near Dalrymple, with native copper and
malachite (J.).
CurysoTitEF—Mount Coora !, in serpentine (R.).
) Pp
243 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
CINNABAR—Kilkivan ! !, in limestone, also with tetrahedrite (L.),
{Analysis by (C.) of limestone containing cinnabar, the
cinnabar being determined by the use of Sonstadt’s
solution :—Carbonate of lime, 50°83 per cent., carbonate
of iron 26:00 per cent, silica 15°13 per cent., sulphide
of mercury 7°01 per cent., total 98-97]; Manumbar,
Brisbane River ! !, reported by Mr. 8. L. Hester ;
Kilkivan district ! ! !, in lodes, country rock, micaceous,
chlorite and serpentinous schists, also conglomerates,
sandstones and _ shales, 70 tons treated, yielded
6000lbs of mercury (R.).
Coat—/Vo/e.— Although a complete list of coal seams with their
analyses hardly comes within the scope of a “ Mineral
Census,” a list is given of localities where coal is, or has
been, profitably worked.)—Burrum !!!, the coalfield
appears to be intermediate in age between the Bowen
River Field (Carbonifero-Permian) and the Ipswich
(Jurassic?) (J.); Ipswich! !!, the coalfield is the
equivalent of the Clarence River beds of New South
Wales (Jurassic ?) (J.) ; Clifton !! !, part of the Ipswich
coaltield (J.) ; Jimbour!!!, part of the Ipswich coal-
tield (J.); Cooktown, Townsville, Bowen River, Nebo,
MacKenzie River, Dawson River ! ! !, coal of Carboni-
fero-Permian age extending over wide areas, but not
worked (J.); Styx and St. Lawrance !!!, Coal seams
(Burrum beds) now being opened up (J.).
Copper (Native)—Peak Downs ! !, with quartz (Salmon) ; Mount
Perry district !!(R.); Alliance Mine, Morinish, Rock-
hampton ! !, in auriferous quartz, the whole being
crushed together and yielding loz. of gold per ton
(L.) ; Gympie !, in amygdaloidal volcanic rock (R.) ;
Keelbottom Copper Mine!!, in quartz veins in
porphyrite country (J.); Mount Leyshon, 17 miles
south of Charters Towers !, in fine microscopic octa-
hedral crystals, grouped together among decomposing
felspars, kaolin, hematite, &c., the volcanic ash described
by R. L. Jack, Gov. Geol., in his report on Mount
Leyshon (C.); Peak Downs !, in fine threads per-
meating quartz, so as to render it difficult to powder
(Salmon); Great Australian Copper Mine, Clon-
curry !!!, with cuprite in large lodes (J.) ; Cloncurry !!1,
altering to cuprite (L.); Argylla Copper Mine, Leichardt
River ! !, in large lode with cuprite and malachite (J.) ;
Dugald River!!, in large lode with cuprite and
malachite (J.); No. 1 Copper Selection, Dugald
River ! !, forming veins through cuprite (J.) ; Cottais’
Tin Mine, Herberton !, on joint planes of an intrusive
MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 243
amphibolic rock (J.); Kirk River, near Ravenswood },
in an auriferous reef (J.); Burdekin River, near
Mount Jxeelbottom!!, in lode in quartz porphyry
country (J.).
Coprpras—lIronclad Mine, Herberton, crystallises from water
trickling from the mine associated with blue vitriol,
ratio between the copper and iron in these mixed
sulphates is very variable, some crystals being deep
blue, and consequently rich in copper, while others are
a pale green and poor in copper (C.).
CuprirE—Great Australian Copper Mine, Cloncurry ! ! !, in large
Tile
lode with native copper, tenorite, azurite and mala-
chite (J.) ; No. 1 Copper Selection, Dugald River ! ! !,
in large lode, with malachite and native copper, the
cuprite very fine, and much of it is of the ~wéy variety
(J.); Cloncurry Copper Smelting Co.’s Mines, Clon-
curry !!, very fine crystals associated with hematite,
some 3-inch in diameter, being combinations of the
cube with the pentagonal dodecahedron, the most
minute microscopic crystals exhibiting the same com-
bination of forms (Sheatfe) ; Contra Lode, Cloncurry !! },
in large lode in diorite country, with malachite and
azurite (J.); Pumpkin Gully, Cloncurry !! in cap of
large lode (J.); Homeward Bound, Cloncurry !!, in
lode, with malachite and azurite (auriferous), (J.) ;
Copper Mines at Duck and Malbon Creeks, Cloncurry
!!!, in lodes (J.); Chillagoe !!!, large copper lodes
(cuprite ?), (Moffat); two miles north of Great Aus-
tralian Copper Mine, Cloncurry ! ! !, group of lodes (J.);
Argylla Copper Mine !!!, in large lode with native
copper and malachite (J.); Leichardt River ! ! !, Cru-
sader and other lodes (J.); Dugald River, 45 miles
north-west of Cloncurry !!, with native copper, calcite
and melaconite (Sheaffe); Great Kennedy Copper
Mine !!!, in a large lode with azurite and malachite
(J.); Moreton Island ! ! (Q.M.C.); Mount Perry
district !!!, associated with other copper ores (L.) ;
Texas, Stanthorpe district !!!, with other copper ores
(Gunn); Blue Mountains, near Eton!! (J.); Emu
Plains, Bowen River ! ! (J.).
Ore—A brick red or earthy variety of cuprite generally
containing peroxide of iron, the term is little used,
but is convenient for a variety of cuprite very
common in Queensland (J.); Great Kennedy Copper
mine! !, in a large lode with azurite, malachite and
cuprite (J.); Copper Mines at Duck Creek, Clon-
curry !!,in lode No. 9; near Tierrawomba, Mackay },
P2
244 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
in cap of lode, with malachite (J.) ; Gregory River !, in
a quartz reef with malachite (J.); Cloncurry Copper
Smelting Co.’s Mines, Cloncurry !!!, associated with
hematite and minute crystals of cuprite (Sheaffe).
Cyanosite—Mount Morgan (London) Extended Mine, Crocodile
Goldfield ! !, on chalcopyrite (L.).
DiamonpD—Yandina !, Tabragalba !, (I have been informed that
diamonds have been found in these localities, but cannot
vouch for the accuracy of the information), (J.) ; Gilbert
River !;—Mr. Warden Samwell in Report of the Dept.
of Mines for 1883 says: It is stated in the prospectus of
a gold mining company, that a ‘diamond of the first
water” from the Gilbert, was in possession of “one of
the earliest Commissioners.” I am informed that Mr.
T. R. Hackett is referred to. The same prospectus quotes
Mr. W. O. Hodgkinson, late Minister for Mines, as
having written :—‘“If similarity of strata, associated
mineralogical deposits and general characteristics,
argues anything, Agate Creek holds out inducements
for a vigorous search for the king of gems ” (J.)
Fiuorite—Creesus Claim, Tinaroo !, with cassiterite in small
cubical crystals (C.); Rose of England, Eureka Creek,
Tinaroo !, with cassiterite, quartz and iron pyrites,
crystals octahedral and cubical (C.); Herberton Tin
Mines ! !, with cassiterite in lodes (J.); Irvinebank
Tin Mines ! !, with cassiterite Wc., (J.).
FrencH CuHA.k (Steatite)—Mount Morgan ! ! (J.).
GALENA—Etheridge Goldfield !, in auriferous reefs with pyrites,
arsenical pyrites, copper pyrites and sphalerite (J.) ;
Hodgkinson Goldfield !, in auriferous reefs (J.) ; Gilbert
River !!!, argentiferous, in large lodes (Mowbray) ;
Mount Garnet, Tinaroo district ! !, cupriferous, decom-
posing (C.) ; Black Bull, Hodgkinson, with visible gold
(C.) ; Ravenswood Goldfield ! !, in auriferous reefs, with
pyrites, arsenical pyrites, copper pyrites, sphalerite, dc.
(J.); Mount Albion Silver Field ! ! !, argentiferous, in
lodes associated with anglesite, cerussite, cerargyrite, dc.
(J.); Chillagoe!!!, very large out-crop of lead ore
(galena?) Girofla Mine (J. Moffatt); Degilbo!!},
argentiferous, in lodes, with gold, arsenical pyrites and
sphalerite (R.) ; Eidsvold Goldfield !, with pyrites (R.) ;
Norton Goldtield ! with gold, pyrites, sphalerite, quartz
and calcite (R.) ; Yarrol !! !, in lode, poor in silver (R.);
Norton Goldfield ! !, lode in granite (R.) ; Gympie ! !,
with free gold (R.); Eungalla, Broken River, North
Kennedy !!!, in crystals, also massive in reef with
MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 245
quartz, galena, carbonate of zinc and iron pyrites, very
argentiferous (M.); Flagstone Creek, Bowen district
!!!, ina lode having an out-crop composed mostly of
wolfram and quartz, assays 76 oz. of silver per ton (Id);
Yarrol, Burnett district ! ! (L.) ; near Merani, Mackay
district !, in small veins in granite (L.) ; Potosi Lode,
Mount Perry district ! !, associated with iron and copper
pyrites and a little sphalerite in a gangue of quartz
and barytes (R.); Allendale Lode, Chowey Creek,
Wide Bay district ! ! !, with iron pyrites, mispickel and
sphalerite, assaying 39oz. of silver and loz. of gold to
the ton (R.); Argentine Silver Field ! ! !, argentiferous,
in numerous lodes (J.); Sellheim Silver Field ! ! !,
argentiferous, in lodes associated with sphalerite and
pyrites (J.); Pyramid Lease, Sellheim !! !, argentiferous,
with sphalerite. [Analyses, zinc 34-23 per cent., lead
42°01 per cent., sulphur 22-80 per cent., iron 1:11 per
cent., total, 100:15 (C.); Charters Towers Goldfield !
with pyrites in auriferous reefs (J.); Charters Towers !,
nearly always occurring with calcite and sphalerite in
the auriferous quartz on this field (C.) ; Curlew, about
12 miles south of Charters Towers !, with cerussite,
gold, quartz, malachite, pyromorphite, chrysocolla (C. ye:
Silver King Tin Mine, Herberton !, with cassiterite (J.) ;
Northcote ! !, argentiferous (Towner) ; Return Creek ! !,
silver lodes (argentiferous galena?), (J.); Lawn Hill
!! |, argentiferous, in large lode (J.) ; Coen River, south
!!, argentiferous, in small lode (J.); Croydon Gold-
field !, in auriferous reefs with pyrites, sphalerite and
graphite (J.); Koh-i-noor, Tinaroo !!!, with mispickel
and sphalerite (C.); Tornado Claim, Silverfield,
Tinaroo district!!! with iron pyrites and sphalerite
(C.), assay silver loz. 2dwts. per ton (L.). [ Analyses,
zine 13-42 per cent., copper 5:10 per cent., lead 6-06 per
cent., arsenic 11-99 per cent., iron 29-06 per cent.,
sulphur 32°74 per cent., silica 2-11 per cent., total,
100-48 (C.) ; Dry River !!! argentiferous, with pyrites,
marcasite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, anglesite, cerussite
and malachite (J.); Target Mine, N ewelltown, Tin-
aroo ! ! !, the lode is much decomposed, the galena can
be picked out in nodules as big as a cricket ball, on
cracking open these nodules, a zoned structure is seen
consisting of carbonate of sulphate and oxide of lead in
concentric layers, with perhaps a nucleus of clean fresh
galena. In other cases the decomposition is complete
and there is no trace of nucleus. I have seen such
nodules in other galena lodes throughout the Tinaroo
district, but they always occur in the lodes above
246 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
water level (C.) ; Silverfield, Tinaroo !!! similar to the
Target Mine galenas described above (C.) ; Ravenswood
Silver Field ! ! ! argentiferous, in lodes, associated with
cerussite, sphalerite, stibnite, pyrites, Xe. (J.).
Garnet—Eungella Goldfield ! !, with wolfram and iron glance in
large lode in granite country (J.); Pyropfe, Running
Creek, Star River ! !, in tin wash, associated with topaz
(J.); Coen River Diggings ! !, in auriferous wash-dirt.
(J.); Cloncurry !! (G.); west of Mount Eurie, Clon-
curry ! (J.); Mountain Home !, in copper lode, in
ferruginous red oxide of copper, associated with green
carbonate of copper, asbolite and pyrolusite (J.) ;
Bolton’s Folly Tin Mine, Watsonville ! !, in chlorite
rock, with cassiterite (J.); Woolgar Goldfield ! !, in
auriferous wash-dirt (J.); Bolton’s Folly, Watson-
ville ! !, in green chlorite rock, imbedded so softly as to
be removable by tapping the specimens smartly with a
hammer, when the garnets drop out, with cassiterite (C.).
Gotp—Etheridge g.f.!!!, in quartz reefs with calcite, iron
pyrites, copper pyrites, arsenical pyrites, sphalerite and
galena, mainly in granite country, but at Goldsmith’s
in schist and slate country (J.); Woolgar g. f.! !!, in
quartz reefs, under conditions similar to those of the
Gilbert Goldfield (J.) ; Gilbert g. f. !!!,in quartz reefs
in slates, shales and metamorphic mica schists of supposed
Lower Silurian age, penetrated by numerous dykes of
elvanite, diorite, hornblende rocks, &c.,—‘ Where
these dykes penetrate slates payable gold is usually
obtained” (D.); Hodgkinson g. f.!!!, in quartz reefs
in highly inclined shales and sandstones (J.),
sometimes accompanied by galena and iron and
copper pyrites (L); Palmer g.f.!!!, in reefs in highly
inclined shales and sandstones, also alluvial gold (J.) ;
Coen g.f.!!!, reef and alluvial gold, the gold being
much alloyed with silver (J.); Croydon g.f.! ! !, in
quartz with oxide of iron, native silver and cerargyrite
(L.); in reefs in a country rock partly granitic and
partly metamorphic (J.); Pikedale ! !, in lodes with
copper pyrites (J.); Jimnag.f. ! ! !, reefs in granite
country and in alluvial drifts (A.); Gooroomjum g. f.
!!!,in alluvial drifts (A.); Black Snake !!!, in reefs
in micaceous porphyry country, with iron, copper and
arsenical pyrites, argentiferons galena and stibnite (R.);
Kilkivan g.f. ! ! !-—“The country around Kilkivan
consists entirely of metamorphic rocks, such as serpen-
tine and hornblende and micaceous schists. All the
reefs found in the district occur in these rocks. From
MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. QAT
the Rise and Shine Reef very good specimens of gold
were obtained in the upper part; lower down the stone
changes to a mundic consisting greatly of zinc-blende,
with some iron pyrites and a little galena.” . . “ Most
of the work at Kilkivan has been the driving of tunnels
in a sheet of white porphyry which occurs in the face
of a range running north and south. There are no
defined reefs at all in the porphyry, but only minute
veins of quartz, with oxides of iron and manganese.
Where the manganese di-oxide occurs, the veins are the
richest in gold. In some parts of the porphyry these
veins are very numerous, and the veins are very patchy.
Where these patches occur, however, the whole of the
mass will pay to crush” (R.) ; Kilkivan ! !, associated
with oxide of manganese in a white felspar (R.) ;
Gympie g.f.!!!, in reefs traversing grey shales, black
pyritous shales, greywackes, sandstones, grits, and
conglomerates of Carbonifero-Permian age, the richest
deposits of gold occur where the reefs intersect the
pyritous black shales (J.); No. 1 N. Lucknow Mine,
Gympie !, associated with asbestos (R.); Brovinia g. f.
!!!, in reefs (J.); Hidsvold g.f. !!!, in reefs in granite
country, with galena, pyrites, arsenical pyrites and
stibnite (R.) ; Mount Shamrock g.f.!!!, im lodes con-
taining quartz, hematite and bismuth oxide,—‘ The
gold appears to be especially associated with the bismuth,
for the veins of oxide of bismuth are exceptionally rich.
A small sample of the oxide assayed by Mr. Hamilton
contined 62 per cent. of metallic bismuth and 252oz.
of gold per ton of the material” (R.); Mount Sham-
roek !, in molybdenite (L.); Old Chowey Reefs, Wide
Bay ! !, in molybdenite in quartz (R.) ; Crocodile g. f.!!!,
reefs partly in granite and syenite country and partly
in slates, greywackes, grits, and conglomerates inter-
sected by diorite dykes (J.) ; Rosewood g. f. ! ! !, Golden
Bar Reef, of calespar, with chlorite in pockets and
coating calcite crystals, occasionally a good deal of
quartz, some very rich specimens of gold in calcspar,
the reef occurs in a diorite dyke for the most part
altered to chlorite—Caledonian Reef, quartz with patches
and pockets of chlorite, country rock altered sand-
stone (J.); Blackfellow’ Gully !!! (J.); New Zealand
Gully !!!, North Star Mine, in porphyry country (J.) ;
Last Chance Reef, gold disseminated through a mass of
chloride of silver (D.); Cawarral!!!, in serpentine
country, also alluvial gold (J.); Canoona g. f.!! 1,
‘‘when (in alluvial workings) found with the matrix
attached, matrix was serpentine” (R.); Mount
48
MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
Morgan ! ! !,Finely disseminated throughout a deposit
varying from red and brown hematite to a frothy,
spongy, cellular silicious sinter, risimg into a mountain
mass through a country rock of quartzites, hardened
sandstones. greywackes and shales of Carbonifero-
Permian age. I believe the deposit to be due to a
geyser, but different explanations have been offered by
Messrs. Macdonald, Cameron, Ranft and _ others.
The gold is extracted by chlorination. The gold is of
remarkable purity, assaying, according to Dr. Leibins,
99°7 per cent., worth £4 4s. 8d. per ounce (J.); Norton
g. ft. !!1!, reefs in an erupted boss of grey granite passing
into syenite and porphyry, and intersected by dykes of
diorite, dolerite and porphyry, reefs containing, besides
gold, pyrites, arsenical pyrites, sphalerite, galena,
stibnite, quartz and calcite, gold is extracted by
chlorination (R.); Cania g. f. !!!, in reefs of quartz and
calcite, and in alluvium, country rock sandstone, slate
and limestone, probably Carbonifero-Permian (R.) ;
Raglan g. f. !!!, reefs and alluvial, country rock slates,
hardened sandstones or quartzites with occasional
conglomerates and limestones, probably of the age of the
Gympie beds (Carbonifero-Permian), (R.); Calliope
g. f. !!!, reefs and alluvial, country rock chiefly altered
slates with limestone and marble, intersected by dykes
and patches of serpentine, diorite and porphyry (R.) ;
Mount Britten g.f.!!1!, reefs, partly in diorite and
partly in grey and black shales and sandstone of the
“Gympie” series (Carbonifero-Permian), alluvial gold
in large nuggets, with hardly any fine gold (J.);
Yatton g.f.!!!, in reefs in diorite country, intersected
by dykes of silicated felstone, the gangue-stuff (gene-
rally composed of fragments of diorite) is veined with
calcite and decomposed concretionary carbonate of lime,
while occasional aggregations of siderite and decomposed
orthoclase are met with, some of the stone, composed of
mixed quartz and reddish ferruginous carbonate of
lime shows gold very freely, the gold is flaky, like gold-
leaf (J.); Kroombit g.f.!!!, alluvial gold in Recent
and Post Tertiary (?) drifts (R.) ; Peak Downs g. f.!!},
reefs in crumpled and fissured metamorphic schists,
slates, &c., of supposed Lower Silurian age (D.), alluvial
gold from recent drifts, also from deep leads covered by
basalt, and supposed by Daintree to be Miocene, alluvial
gold also in a drift of Carbonifero-Permian age (R.) ;
Normanby g. f., near Bowen !!!, reefs and alluvial,
country rock, a porphyry consisting of quartz, black
mica (sparsely) and schorl passing into greywacke,
MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 249
much pyrites below water level (J.); Marengo g.f.!!
in reefs, country rock essentially a white granite in
which the mica is sometimes supplemented and
occasionally replaced by hornblende, frequent bosses of
intrusive felspar-prophyry, and _ occasional small
areas of gneiss, mica schist, shales and _ grey-
wackes, gold in reefs associated with quartz, calcite,
malachite, pyrites and chalcopyrites (J.); Cape
River g. f. !!1, filiform, in threads and _hairs,
which, under the microscope, resemble in a marked
degree, the roots of fine grass, and in the matted mass
small particles of opaque iron-stained quartz are observ-
able. As much as 53 oz. at a time have been melted
into a bar by us, the bar which weighed 520z. ldwt.
6gr., assayed £3 16s. 10d. per oz. (Coane and Clarke) ;
alloyed with a large proportion of silver, &c, and often
takes a peculiar form, combining a thread-like structure
with a semi-crystalline surface, which is technically
known among Queensland diggers as ‘ spider-leg” gold
(D.); in reef in metamorphic schist country, also in
recent alluvium and older fragmentary drifts, supposed
to be Pliocene (D),—[ Analysis by Mr. Richard Smith,
of the School of Mines, London:—Gold 89-920, silver
9-688, copper 0-128, lead 0-026, iron 0-070, total 99°832];
Paddy’s Gully, Cape River ! !, alluvial (D.), [Analysis
by Mr. Richard Smith, School of Mines, London :—
gold 92-800, silver 6:°774, copper 0:048, lead 0-048,
bismuth traces, iron 0-014, total 99-684]; Charters
Towers g. f. ! ! !, throughout the goldfield, generally
associated with galena, sphalerite, calcite, and quartz and
iron pyrites (C.) ; the principal mines in a granitic area
inand around the town, others in a country rock of
quartzites, greywackes, slates and shales, field also yield-
ing asmall and annualy decreasing proportion of alluvial
gold (J.); Curlew, about 12 miles south of Charters
Towers ! ! !, associated with cerussite, quartz, pyromor-
phite, chrysocolla, malachite and galena(C.); Ravenswood
g. f. !, free gold in galena, in cerussite and in limonite
(L.) ; Ravenswood ! ! !, in reefs associated with quartz,
iron, copper and _ arsenical pyrites, sphalerite,
galena, &c., country rock, grey syenitic granite, a fair
proportion of alluvial gold also obtained (J.) ;
Mulgrave g. f.!!!, in reefs in a country rock of grey-
wacke, slate and quartzite (J.); Russell Terraces ! ! },
alluvial, in old high-level terraces, probably Tertiary (J.) ;
Cloncurry g. f. !, in schorl, in malachite, in limonite, in
sandstone, in malachite and cuprite, in carbonate of
bismuth (L.), in reefs among highly-inclined slates,
250 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
quartzites, and greywackes, with quartz, calcite and side-
rite, and in some cases with limonite, some reefs below the
water level highly charged with pyrites, also in alluvial
drifts with native bismuth and bismuthite, the alluvial
gold generally coated with iron peroxide, gold mostly in
large nuggets (J.); Reid’s Creek, 4 miles south-east of
Mount Perry ! ! !, in reefs in granite country, associated
with iron pyrites, arsenical pyrites, spahlerite and
galena (R.) ; Boolboonda ! ! !, in reefs in gneiss country
(R.); Molangul!!!, in reefs and alluvial (R.) ; Nor-
manby (Wide Bay)! ! !, in reefs and alluvial (R.) ;
Lucky Valley ! ! !, in alluvial drifts (A.) ; Lucky Valley,
Duffer Gully !, imbedded in “small, bright, foliated,
metallic plates with scales of tellurium ” (A.) ; McKinlay
g.f.!!!, reefs and alluvial, country rock, gneiss and
mica and tale schists,—‘‘The associated minerals are
gold and copper, the presence of ‘dykes’ of intrusive
material seeming to be the chief cause of mineralisation ”
(D.); Enoggera Ranges, Brisbane !, in quartz (L.)
GrapHitE—Mount Bopple ! ! !, in micaceous granite (C.) ;
Gympie ! !, with gold on “slickensides” (L.); Cape
Upstart !!, (J.); Croydon Goldfield!!! common
throughout the field (B.).
Gypsum—Near Mount Albion, Tinaroo ! !, cropping out at
surface (C.); Victory Lease, Charters Towers !,
pellucid crystals in vughs in auriferous quartz reef,
(C.); between Fanning Old Station, and Ravens-
wood Junction !!!, three feet vein in granite country
(J.); 18 miles west of Collingwood!!!, described
as occurring in very thick beds in the “ Rolling
Downs” (Cretaceous), (J.); Bulimbu, near Brisbane},
as selenite (L.) ; Warrego district ! ! fibrous and foliated
varieties (L.) ; Mount Gregory ! !, Clermont (R.)
Ha.ite—Sylvester Creek, Herbert River ! !, (Q. M. C.).
HemitirE—
Specular tron ore—Kelvin Grove, 30 miles south of Mac-
Kay !, occurs in thin leaders and isolated kernels in
a rock made up mainly of actinolite and clear and
pellucid grains of quartz (M.); Mount Leviathan and
Mount Pisa, Cloncurry ! ! !, hills of pure ironstone near
the Cloncurry copper lodes in slate, greywacke and
quartzite country, micaceous iron ore, plentiful in the
same neighbourhood (J.) ; Kangaroo Hills, near Towns-
ville ! ! !, very large lodes of very pure ore (J.); Wild
River !! !, very large lodes of very pure ore (J.) ;
Cabbage Tree Creek !! !, very large lodes of very pure
MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 25
ore (J.) ; Gunpowder Oreek ! !, vein in slate and quartz
ore, greywacke (J.); Gilbert River (Q. M.C.).
Micaceous iron ore—Rosslyn, Burnett district !, (R.) ; Clon-
curry district !!(J.); Mount Morgan !! (auriferous),
with hematite and silicious sinter (J.); Mary Douglas
Reef, Cloncurry ! ! (auriferous), associated with quartz
and native bismuth (J.) ; Warwick, (Q. M.C.) ; Ravens-
wood, ochreous (Q. M.C.); Ipswich, (Q.M.C.); Kil
kivan, pseudomorphous after pyrites (Q.M.C.); near
Calliope, Gladstone !! (R.); Mount Morgan ! ! (aurif-
erous), with brown hematite and silicious sinter (J.) ;
Cloncurry !, as pseudemorphs after iron pyrites (L.) ;
Calliope ! ! (R.); Duck Creek, Cloncurry, ochreous,
cementing a breccia (Q. M. C.) ; Yatton Goldfield, pseu-
domorphous after pyrites (Q. M.C.); MacKinlay Range,
Cloncurry !, pseudomorphs after iron pyrites, in perfect
cubes and in pentagonal dodecahedra (Sheaffe).
Hyauite—Stanthorpe district !, encrusting smoky quartz (L.) ;
Northern Downs (Q. M. C.).
InFusor1AL EAartu—Logan district (R.),—[ Analysis by W. A.
Dixon :—Moisture and traces of organic matter 10°31,
oxide of iron and traces of alumina 0°59, lime traces
silica 89-10, total 100-00]; Upper Coomera, Albert
district (R.).
IronsTONE Buacksanp—Fourteen miles up Cockatoo Creek |,
thin seams in Carbonifero-Permian formation (J.).
J ASPER—Diamantina, Springsure (B.); Kilkivan, in veins, both
red and green (R.) ; Tableland, Peak Downs (R.).
KaoLtin—Stanthorpe district !!, in the tin-drift (L.); Mount
Morgan Extended of Brisbane (Callan’s Knob) ! },
apparently in dykes and of a very pure character (L.) ;
Mount Morgan and elsewhere +! !, common as a result
of decomposition of acidic felspars in dykes and of
granites, &c., in reefs (J.).
KERARGYRITE—Mount Albion ! !, large “slugs” in Albion Mine
at surface and at 19 feet, and in Lady Jane Mine at
130 and 180 feet, associated with galena (J.) ; Croydon
Goldfield ! !, Queen (auriferous) reef, No. 2 south (B.) ;
Last Chance, New Zealand Gully, Rockhampton !, in
reef; the kerargyrite contains specks of gold (D.) ;
Puzzler Reef, 8 miles north-east of Charters Towers !,
in small slugs with quartz, native silver, and very
much decomposed galena (C.). This sample assayed for
silver 6180z. 7dwt. 13gr. per ton (Coane and Clarke).
LaprapDorite-—West of Mount Eurie, Cloncurry |, iridescent (J.).
252, MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
LaumonitE—Strathmore Creek and Bowen River ! !, in geodes
in epidote rock (J.).
LizvritE—Endeavour River !, in geodes in basalt (J.).
MacnesirE— Western half of Queensland ! ! !, in extensive beds,
part of the “desert sandstone” formation (W.);
Waverley Creek, St. Lawrence !!!, cimolitic fire-clays or
magnesites, with films of coal and fragments of silicified
tree stems, in Styx Coalfield (D.); Islaport, Rock-
hampton,—[ Analysis :—Silica 7-23, carbonic acid 49-08,
peroxide of iron 1°66, magnesia 43.70, lime traces,
total 101.67.] (C.).
MaGnetirE—Newelltown, Tinaroo!!!, the lump in my pos-
session exhibits marked magnetic polarity and will
support a fine sewing needle. The powdered mineral
can be lifted up in long strings or brushes on a lump
of the mineral (J.),—This is a very pure iron ore and it
was being raised in large quantities when I was at
Newelltown for the Mount Albion Silver Smelting Co.,
who used it in conjunction with limestone (which
abounds in this neighbourhood) as a flux in their
Pacitic smelters (C.); Wild River, five miles below
Herberton !!, sand in tin wash (J.); Hinchinbrook
Island !, fine octahedral crystals in chlorite schist (J.) ;
Percy Island No. 2! !, fine sand on beach (J.) ; Great
Northern Mine, Star River (Q. M.C.); Nundubber-
mere, near Stanthorpe ! !, in granite (R.); Mount
Victoria, near Mount Perry ! !, in granite (R.); Mount
Webster, Mount Perry district, crystalline and granular,
massive (L.); Chowey Creek, Wide Bay district, in
bluish grey quartzite (R.) ; Kroombit, with carbonates
of copper (Q. M. C.).
MALACHITE—Flying Dutchman Reef, Cloncurry !, in auriferous
quartz reef (J.); Homeward Bound, Cloncurry ! ! !,
auriferous copper lode (J.); Mountain Home ! !, with
ferruginous cuprite, pyrolusite, garnets and asbolane
(J.); Duck Creek Copper Mines, Cloncurry ! !!, in
lodes (J.); Argylla Copper Mines !!!, in large lode
with native copper and cuprite (J.); Leichhardt
River!!!, in lodes (J.); No. 1 Copper Selection,
Dugald River ! !, in large lode with cuprite and native
copper (J.); Iron Clad Mine, Herberton !!, with
azurite and iron pyrites (C.) ; Mount Garnet, Tinaroo ! !,
with cerussite and galena and hematite, in some
portions of the lode very perfect crystals of azurite,
measuring 12-l5mm. in the longest axis, occur in
vughs in the malachite (C.); Mount Garnet, Tinaroo
MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 253
district ! !, with azurite (C.); Cloncurry !!!, frequent
in “gossan ” often in large masses (L.); Cloncurry ! ! },.
containing free gold; also pseudomorphs after cuprite,
azurite and siderite (Q.M.C.); Great Australian
Copper Mine, Cloncurry ! ! !, in large lode with native
copper, cuprite, tenorite and azurite (J.); Bau Bau,
Burnett district !, coating serpentine (Aplin) ; Taromeo,
near Narrango (Q. M.C.); Curlew, about 12 miles
south of Charters Towers !, with galena, gold quartz,
chrysocolla and pyromorphite (C.); Burdekin River,
near Mount Keelbottom ! !, in lode in quartz porphyry
country (J.); Great Kennedy Copper Mine!!!, in a
large lode, with azurite and cuprite (J.) ; Keelbottom
Copper Mine ! !, IN quartz veins in porphyry (w.)3
Mount Perry !!!, disseminated through granite (R.) ;
Mount Perry district !!, in copper lodes, but not
of very frequent occurrence (L.) ; Peak Downs Copper
Mine, near Clermont! ! !, in fine botryoidal masses
(L.); Mount Gotthard, near Lake Elphinstone, 100
miles west of Mackay !!, in ‘“gossan” and in small
veins (L.); Mount Orange Copper Mine ! !, with other
copper ores (L.); Pine Vale, 25 miles south-west of
Mackay ! !, massive, in reefs, and as stains in quartz,.
also as an alteration product of copper pyrites (M).
Massicot—Stanton Harcourt, Burnett district, from decomposing
galena (R.); Argentine Silverfield !!!, (argentiferous),
from decomposition of galena (J.) ; Dugald River ! !, in
large lode, contains according to assays by K. T. Staiger,
antimony and silver (J.); in small quantities at all the
silver-lead mines ! ! (J.).
MeExaconiteE—Great Australian Copper Mine, Cloncurry !, occa-
sional crystals, with cuprite and native copper (J.) ;
Great Kennedy Copper Mine !!, in a large lode, asso-
ciated with azurite and malachite (J.) ; Ironclad Mine,
Herberton !, with sulphates of iron and copper, and
iron pyrites, hematite, &., &e. (C.); Mount Leyshon,
17 miles south of Charters Towers !, with pyrites in the
country rock of the mount; country rock has been
identified by Mr. Jack, the Government Geologist, as a
volcanic ash (C.); Pine Vale, 25 miles south-west of
Mackay !, an alteration product of copper pyrites, in a
quartzose matrix (M.); Blue Mountains, near Eton ! !
(J.); Emu Plains, Bowen River, mixed with argentite
(J.); Mount Perry district ! !, with chalcopyr ite (L.) ;
Texas, Stanthorpe district ! !, with other copper ores (G. ‘
Mercury — Kilkivan district !} in a hard, dark quartzose
rock (R.).
954 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
MispicKEL !! !—Arsenical pyrites occurs in nearly all the
auriferous reefs in Queensland, especially those in which
the country rock is granite, conspicuously at the
Etheridge, Ravenswood and Norton (J.) ; Stanthorpe!
(Q. M. C.); Allendale lode, Chowey Creek, Wide Bay
district ! !, with galena, sphalerite and iron pyrites (R..) ;
Mount Witty, Beenleigh ! !, in dark quartz, auriferous
(L.) ; Reid’s Creek, Mount Perry ! !, auriferous (R.).
MoLyspENiIvE — Stanthorpe district ! in greisen dykes, with
wolfram and cassiterite (R.), also in quartz at Noble
Tin Mine and at Greenups (J.) ; Townsville district!
(D.) ; Halifax Bay, near Townsville ! (J.); Herberton
district ! (J.); Ravenswood Goldfield !, in quartz (J.) ;
Herberton, Young American Claim !, with wolfram (J.) ;
Cania Goldfield !, with gold in calcite (R.); Ipswich
(Q.M.C.); Walsh River ! (J.); Eidsvold Goldfield !, in
“ Moonlight” Reef, auriferous, in quartz (R.); Stan-
thorpe !, in quartz, sometimes with arsenical pyrites and
with tin ore (L.) ; 30 miles west of Mackay !! }, large
blocks obtainable (Staiger); Mount Ophir, Chowey
Creek, Wide Bay district! !, with iron pyrites in
auriferous quartz (R.) ; Old Chowey reefs, nearly due
north of Didcot, Wide Bay district !!, with specks of
gold in its midst (R.); Mount Shamrock Mine, Wide
Bay district !, containing visible gold (L.); Burnett
district ! !, exact locality not yet made public, in quartz
with molybdic ochre, showing fine flakes of gold (L.).
Motyspic Ocure— Burnett district, in quartz with molybdenite,
specks or flakes of fine gold being visible in the ochre, as
well as in the sulphide mineral (L.).
NatroLitrE—Main Range, below Toowoomba !, in basalt (L.) ;
Degilbo Run, Wide Bay !, in basalt (R.).
OLIvINE—Gatton, in basalt (L.) ; Albert district, in basalt (R.) ;
Cania Goldfield, in basalt (R.) ; Cania, Burnett district,
in basalt (R.) ; Albert and Logan districts, in basalt (R.).
Opat—Bulloo River ! ! (L.); Barcoo River ! ! (L.) ; Logan River |,
(Hinchcliffe); Springsure (Q. M. C.); Blackwater
Creek, Bulgroo, Keeroongooloo, Mayne River, Nicka-
villa, Winton !!, ‘in nodules of ferruginous silicious
sandstone and silicious ironstone, elther in the ‘ desert
sandstone’ formation or denuded out of it and resting on
the surface of the underlying ‘Rolling Downs’ formation.
The whole of the area over which the ‘desert sandstone’
extended—the western half of the colony— might
therefore be given as the locality in which ‘opal mines’
are ‘undeveloped’” (J.) ; Mount Toussaint and Mount
MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 25d
Macedon ! !, in geodes in epidote rock (J.); Cape Hills-
borough, about 20 miles north-west of Mackay !!, as a
coating in many fragments of the desert sandstone,
forming the Cape tableland (M.).
ORTHOCLASE — Stanthorpe ! !, associated with smoky quartz, the
felspar being in large crystals (L.); Pinnacle Lease,
Herberton ! !, of pink colour as matrix of cassiterite (L.) ;
North Australian Block, Charters Towers !, in fine pink
erystals with chlorite and iron pyrites on granite (C.).
PIMELITE—Cobalt lode, Kilkivan !, earthy variety (R.).
PratinumM—Russell River Terraces !, iinute flakes associated
with gold and cassiterite in high-level river drifts capped
by immense basaltic flaws, probably miocene (J.).
PREHNITE—Biralee, Bowen River ! !, in cavities in epidote rock,
“in radiating groups of crystals” (Allport),—{ Analysis
of “ prehnite rock” by Mr. R. Daintree :—Silica 42-033,
alumina 21-606, ferric oxide 8°829, lime 23°633, water of
constitution and hygroscopic 2°900, copper carbonate
0.825, total 99.826, sp. gr. 2-844. ]
PSILOMELANE — Brookfield, Brisbane (Q. M. C.) ; Beenleigh
(Q. M.C.); Between Chinaman’s Creek and Duck
Creek, 13 miles from Cloncurry ! !, loose blocks in slate
country (J.) ; Gregory River ! ! !, large lode in sandstone
country (J.); left bank of Police Creek, 300 yards
from Gregory River ! !, very pure ore (J.).
Pyritres—Bee Creek, 60 miles west of Mackay ! !, as crystals in
most of the mines, generally enclosed in a quartzose
matrix, associated with galena, zinc blende and copper
pyrites (M.); Allendale Lode, Chowey Creek, Wide
Bay district ! !, associated with mispickel, galena and
sphalerite (R.) ; Eungella, Mackay district ! !, in quartz
with small quantities of copper pyrites and galena (L.) ;
Ravenswood !, in chert as hexakisoctahedra (Q. M. C.) ;
Mount Webster, Mount Perry district! !, with fine
grains of magnetite (L.); Union Claim, Rackhampton
district ! !, auriferous associated with black schorl (C.) ;
Eungella Lime Plains!!!, in quartz with a trifling
quantity of chalcopyrite and galena, assays 240z. gold
per ton (L.), iron pyrites occurs probably without
exception in all the auriferous reefs in Queensland,
in most of the metalliferous lodes, disseminated
through most of the plutonic and igneous rocks, in
many sedimentary rocks, and conspicuously in the
carbonaceous shales which form the country rock of
the Gympie goldfield (J.).
256 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
Pyro.usitrE—Near Didcot Creek, Wide Bay district (R.) ;
Leyburn, near Warwick, very pure massive and some-
times crystalline (L.); 8 to 9 miles west of Gympie ! !
(R.); Thanes Creek, Warwick ! !, crystallized, massive
and stalactitic (R.); 20 miles from Port Douglas,
near Mount Spurgeon !!!, the ore is of a high
percentage and the lode very large (Towner) ; Mountain
Home !, dendritic markings on quartz in copper lode
associated with green carbonate of copper, ferruginous
red oxide of copper, asbolane and garnets (J.);
between Gregory River and Police Creek! !, loose
pebbles (J.); Mitchell River, below mouth of St.
George River ! ! !, large lodes associated with quartz in
slate and greywacke country (J.); between Police
Creek and Fiery Creek !! (J.) ; Mount Morgan !, with
silicious sinter and red and brown hematite (J.) ;
Mount Leyshon, near Charters Towers !, in volcanic
ash traversed by auriferous ferruginous veins (J.) ;
Argentine Silver Field ! !, with argentiferous lead ores
and pyrites in “Colorado” and other mines (J.) ;
Hodgkinson Goldfield !, coating quartzite on Peak
river (J.); Flinders River, near Coalbrook !, in films
on bedding-planes and joints of “ desert sandstone” (J) ;
Magazine Island, Townsville, and west of Arthur’s
Creek, Burdekin River !!, as dendritic markings on
quartz poryhyry, unusually fine examples (J.); Glad-
stone Harbour ! ! !, with ferruginous quartz among hard
jasperised metamorphic rocks (R.). Gladstone (C.),—
[ Analyses :—
Available peroxide of
manganese .. 74:84 57:00
Protoxide of manganese 8:20 9°30
Oxides of iron vey PRO LOU. 3°80
Alumina ... Sens S eOO 2°00
Carbonic acid ... traces traces
Sulphur... see | Ore 0:13
Water ates cacy COM 2-70
Silicious insoluble matter 1:10 25-00
Loss ek fuok Oe 0:07
100-00 ~=100-00
no gold or silver—(Messrs. Johnson, Matthey & Co.,
London),
PyromorpHite—Etheridge Goldfield !, in auriferous quartz reef,
with galena and pyrites (J.).; Curlew, about 12 miles
south of Charters Towers, with cerussite, galena, gold
quartz, chrysocolla, malachite, &c. The pyromorphite
MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 257
is in very small perfect crystals, being combinations of
the prism with the basal pinacoid (O.P.) (C.).
Quartz—Day Dawn P.C. Mine, Charters Towers ! ! !, auriferous,
associated with pyrites, galena, sphalerite, &c., occurs
in quartz lode, which is associated with diorite (?) and
runs through granite country. The ore is taken from
a depth of 997ft. on the course of the lode, representing
a vertical depth of 732ft. The lode underlies at an
angle of about 50° (T. Buckland).
Tron ee nf icc. OD
Lead a =: woe ore
Zine Ae Av tee 6°50
Copper the id ad: “15
Alumina Nee EM 3 30
Sulphur Sa Se. >. neko
Siliceous insoluble matter ey. 220r90
Gold, silver, oxygen and loss... "25
100-00
Produce of gold 140z. 2dwt. per ton of 2240lb. ; produce
of silver, 90z. l5dwt. per ton of 2240lb., (assay
by Messrs. Johnson, Matthey and Co., London) :—
Lead wa BS UND, FAD
Copper tg oe ae “36
Tron “oe ae cee MZ OSH.
Zine ue OS 3 Sa)
Manganese, with a little cobalt ... “30
Sulphur ins ae IPR MET SOO
Arsenic Ae ale Me 2139
Antimony ... Me a: ‘09
Carbonate of lime oe er 1°50
é », Magnesia ihe 21
Alumina a Bae aes 1:20
Silicious rock ae sezgen ce LO
Gold and silver ae ete ‘04
Oxygen and loss a of 64
100-00
Silver 6oz. 11dwt. per ton of 2240]b. ; gold 60z. 10dwt.
12gr. per ton of 2240lb. (assay by Fred. Claudet,
Esq., London, assayer to the Bank of England); Black
Jack, Charters Towers !!, with calcite, the latter in
opaque rhombohedral crystals (C.) ; Charters Towers ! },
when associated with galena, sphalerite and calcite and
iron pyrites, nearly always auriferous (C.) ; Smoky guartz
Stanthorpe district ! !, with tin ore, with orthoclase felspar
Q
bS
oO
02)
MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
(L.); Stanthorpe Tin Field ! !, in reefs with cassiterite and
in stream tin wash (J.). All the goldfields in Queens-
land ! ! !, containing free gold and auriferous pyrites (L.).
ReprutTuite—Alliance Mine, Morinish, Rockhampton !!, in
auriferous quartz (L.).
Rupy—Gilbert River !, “‘in creeks flowing from the Conglomer-
ate Ranges” (Samwell).
SapPHIRE—Stanthorpe ! ! (Q.M.C.); Leichhardt district ! (R.) ;
Gilbert River !, ‘‘in creeks flowing from the Conglomer-
ate Ranges ” (8.).
Sarponyx— Stanthorpe ! ! (B.).
Scuorit—lIrvinebank Tin Mines ! ! (J.) ; Ravenswood Goldfield ! },
in granite country (J.); Cooktown ! !, with the tin ores
of this district, particularly Mount Leswell, Mount
Amos, and The Lion’s Den, (vide cassiterite), (C.) ;
Union Claim, Rockhampton ! !, with auriferous iron
pyrites and calcite (C.).
SERPENTINE—Gladstone (R.); near Ipswich, as matrix of chromite
(C.) ; Canoona, a belt of serpentine (D.); Kilkivan and
Yarrol, Burnett district, forming rock masses (L.) ;
different parts of the Burnett district, as Sandy Creek
and Mount Coora, coated with green carbonate of
copper, or containing copper lodes (Gregory and Aplin) ;
Mount Wheeler, 18 miles from Rockhampton, ‘ within a
radius of one mile of Mount Wheeler the serpentine is
traversed by auriferous quartz reefs, while the extension
of the same band of serpentine over a large area beyond
this contains no parallel to the auriferous area round
the above-mentioned hill” (D.).
Sizicious SintreEr— Mount Morgan ! ! !, highly auriferous,
supposed deposit of a hot spring (J.).
Sttver (Native)—Croydon Goldfield !, Waratah (auriferous)
reef (Biccard) ; Croydon Goldfield !, in “‘ Miners’ Right”
and “No. 2 8.” Queen auriferous reefs (Wallmann) ;
Queen line of reef, Croydon, with free gold in quartz
(Morgan) ; Mount Albion, Tinaroo district, in oxide of
iron (L.) ; Puzzler Reef, 8 miles north-east of Charters
Towers, in spangles splashed over quartz (C.) ; Scrubby
Creek, Broad Sound !, in cerussite lode (J.); Nannam
Mine, Orient Camp (Ringrove).
Smrrusonite— Bowen district !, in vesicular quartz, with carbonate
of lead and galena.
SpHALERITE—Bee Creek, 60 miles west of Mackay ! !, massive, in
many of the mines enclosed in quartz, associated with
MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 259
iron pyrites, copper pyrites and galena (M.); Tornado
Claim, Silverfield, Tinaroo district ! !, with chalcopyrite,
arsenical pyrites, and galena (J.); Koh-i-noor, Newell-
town, Tinaroo district ! !, with arsenical pyrites and
galena (J.); Hector Claim, Ravenswood ! !, auriferous,
with iron pyrites (C.); Currency Lass and Politician
Claims, Ravenswood !!, auriferous, with iron and
copper pyrites and galena (C.); Alexandra Hill
Gold Mine, Charters Towers ! !, auriferous, with iron
and copper pyrites (C.); Sunburst P.C., Charters
Towers ! !, with galena and iron pyrites in quartz, auri-
ferous (L.) ; Mary Florence, Rockhampton !, auriferous,
with iron and copper pyrites in quartz (C.); Kilkivan
Amalgamated Gold Mine, Kilkivan ! ! !, in quartz with
a little calespar, associated with galena and iron pyrites,
free gold often visible (L.); Gympie !, in quartz with
free gold (R.); Rise and Shine Reef, Kilkivan ! !, auri-
ferous (R.) ; Mount Leyshon, 17 miles south of Charters
Towers !! !, with galena, assayed 2loz. 4dwts. 4grs.
silver per ton (C.); Ravenswood !!, with galena
(Christoe),—The sample assayed 430oz. silver per ton,
An experiment was tried to see whether the galena or
the zinc-blende carried most silver, and as the sample
was remarkably pure and the two minerals in com-
paratively large crystals, it was possible to sort out
sufficient of each (from the coarsely powdered ore) for a
separate assay, and the following returns were obtained :
—Galena 43loz. silver per ton, sphalerite 429o0z. silver
per ton (C.); Charters Towers Goldfield !, with pyrites
and galena in auriferous reefs (J.); Ravenswood Silver
Mines !!!,in lodes with galena, cerussite, stibnite,
pyrites’ &e. (J.) ; Sellheim Silver Mines !! !, in lodes
associated with galena and pyrites (J.); Dry River
Silver Mines ! !, in lodes, associated with pyrites, marca-
site, chalcopyrite, galena, anglesite, cerussite, and mala-
chite (J.); Degilbo !!, in lodes, associated with gold,
galena and arsenical pyrites (R.); Croydon Goldfield },
in auriferous reefs associated with pyrites, galena and
graphite (J.); Ravenswood Goldfield ! !, in auriferous
reefs associated with pyrites, arsenical pyrites, copper
pyrites and galena (J.) ; Etheridge Goldfield ! !, in auri-
ferous reefs associated with pyrites, arsenical pyrites,
copper pyrites and galena (J.); Norton Goldfield ! !,
with galena, iron pyrites, quartz and calcite, auriferous
and argentiferous (C.).—[ Analyses and assays of two
complex zinc, iron and lead sulphides from Norton
Field :—
260 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
Goopy’s FRAMPTON’S
REEF. REEF.
Tron ae vem LOO 25:10
Lead coe ma 8:90 1:10
Zine pi am 6:00 7°60
Arsenic ae Bye ass 6:80
Copper Has es 0-95 0:65
Sulphur... a DOU 25-70
Alumina ... en 0-40 0:20
Silicious insoluble
matter .,..:- sag USEPA) 32°60
Gold, silver, oxygen
and loss ... Ban 0:40 0-25
100:00 100-00
Sample from Goody’s reef: Produce of gold, 2°400oz.
per ton of 20cwt.; silver, 14°7000z. per ton of 20cwt.,
sample from Frampton’s claim: produce of gold,
5:5000z. per ton of 20cwt., silver 4:7000z. per ton of
20cewt. (Messrs. Johnson, Matthey and Co., London)].
SrannitE—Eureka Creek !!, in Ivanhoe Mine, associated with
cassiterite (J.); Watsonville, with cassiterite in
Stewart’s T. Claim (J.).
Sraurotire—Agnes Vale, Wide Bay district !!, twin cruciform
crystals in argillaceous slate (R.).
Sreatire—Cobalt lode, Kilkivan (R.).
Sripnitre—Neardie, near Gympie ! !, with valentinite in quartz
(R.); St. John’s Creek, Burnett district ! !, with
valentinite (L.); Victoria Claim, Silverfield, Tinaroo
district ! !, accompanying galena (C.); Emily Reef,
Northcote, Hodgkinson district ! ! !, auriferous, yielding
over 2oz. gold per ton, value of gold £3 19s. per oz. (O.) ;
Rishton ! !, lodes (J.);- Mount Wright, near Ravens-
wood !!!, White and Phillips’ and other lodes (J.) ;
Herberton !, Home Rule and other tin lodes (J.) ;
Fanning River ! !, lodes (J.); Northcote ! !!, in large
lodes, some of which have yielded payable gold (J.) ;
Woodville, Hodgkinson River ! ! !, lodes (J.); five
miles north-west of Gympie !, in fossiliferous limestone
(R.); Eidsvold Goldfield ! !, in auriferous quartz reef,
south of Stockman’s Claim (R.); Etheridge Goldfield !! ~
(Hodgkinson).
SuLtpHur—Curtis Island, Keppel Bay !, cementing grains of sand
(L.); Taylor’s Range, Brisbane !, in cavities of quartz
formed from the decomposition of pyrites (Q. M.C.) ;
Etheridge ! !, on highly decomposing pyrites (L.).
MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 261
TetLturiuM—Lucky Valley, Duffer Gulley ! in a quartz vein
there are found ‘small, bright, foliated, metallic plates
and scales of tellurium, in which gold may be seen
imbedded ” (Aplin).
TETRAHEDRITE—Pumpkin Gully, Cloncurry !, in cap of a large
lode (J.) ; Copper Mines at Duck Creek, Cloncurry ! },
in rainbow lode (J.); Argylla Copper Mine ! !, in large
lode, with native copper, cuprite and malachite (J.) ;
Leichhardt River! !, Crusade and other lodes (J.);
Mount Orange Copper Mine, Nebo district! !, with
chalcopyrite (L.) ; Bowen district ! !, with calcite, assay-
ing to 400oz silver per ton (L.); between Bowen and
Mackay !!!, rich in silver (L.); Emu Plains, Broken
River, North Kennedy !, occurs in thin strings, as an
alteration product of azurite, associated with calcite and
malachite, argentiferous (M.); One Mile, Ravenswood
!!!, in Great Extended Shaft at 700 feet, ‘the gangue
is 5 feet wide, the ore is exceedingly rich, assays giving
by ordinary fire process from 500 to 5000 ounces of
silver per ton, the rich ore is contained in a vein from
6 to 12 inches thick, and, singular to say, contains the
merest trace of lead. The formation (gangue) below
this ore is intersected by small] galena veins ” (Archibald),
although generally spoken of as tetrahedrite, with which,
or rather with the argentiferous variety, freibergite,
analyses sometimes roughly correspond, the “ore” does
not appear (judging from what samples I have seen) to
be a single mineral, but an intimate mixture of several
ores of antimony, copper, iron, zinc, &c. (J.), assay silver
23840z. 10dwt. per ton (L.).—Analysis by (J.) :—
Copper Aer wd L012 OF
Antimony ... a. sed ft lls3do
Silver ee =o dee 7°29
Tron aa — tp LOA
Zine ».. aaa wey fa gadis.
Sulphur a eS. .. 24:87
Silica i aa BENS YOR ST
101-86 (C.).
Analysis, different sample :—
Copper ses af vee) ou)
Antimony ... he Loe, ee
Silver Fs aft poo LORS
Tron A dys we 8 8:49
Zine hp nee a3 8-75
Sulphur a at eerily le
Silicious matter gee aad tor
99-47 (Merry).
262 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
THOMsSONITE—Strathmore Creek and Bowen River ! !, in geodes
in epidote rock (J.).
TiraNiFEROUS Iron—In creeks in Mount Perry district (R.) ;
watercourses on the flanks of Mount Jukes, 20 miles
west of Mackay! !, as rounded grains and regular
octahedrons, associated with grains of magnetite and
quartz (M.).
Topaz—Never-can-tell claim, Coolgarra, Tinaroo, with cassiterite
erystals (C.) ; Running Creek, Star River (yellow), in
tin wash, associated with garnets (J.); Stanthorpe
district (white) in tin wash (J.).
TourRMALINE—Cloncurry ! !, with free gold (Q.M.C.) ; Union Gold
Mine, Rockhampton! !, with calcite as matrix of auri-
ferous pyrites ; Great Freehold, Mount Perry district ! |,
in masses composed of fine divergent acicular
crystals (L.); Mount Leswell, near Cooktown ! ! !,in coarse
crystals with cassiterite (L.); Stuart Valley, Burnett
district ! !, in fine-grained felsphatic rock; St. John’s
Creek, Burnett district !,in quartz (Q.M.C.); Cooyar
Range, Narrango!, long prismatic crystals in coarse
granite (R.) ; Mount Victoria, Mount Perry district ! !, in
radiating crystals (R.); Woodonga, near Kilkivan, in
radiating crystals (R.); Lizard Island !!, in large
crystals (J.); Argentine Silver Field! !, large thick
crystals embedded in quartz (J.); Fanning Diggings !,
small crystals passing into the aggregated fibrous
bundles called schorl (J.).
VALENTINITE—Neardie, near Gympie ! !, and St. John’s Creek ! },
with stibnite (L.).
Wo.trram — Noble Island ! ! !, in quartz (L.); Stanthorpe
district ! !, associated with cassiterite (L.); Brisbane
district !!, in quartz (L.); Flagstone Creek, Bowen
district ! !, in quartz, forming cap of a galena lode (L.) ;
Bonnie Dundee, Coolgarra, Tinaroo !, with cassiterite
and mica in red chlorite (C.); Mackay district !, in
quartz (G. Francas) ; Great Northern P.C., Herberton ! |,
with quartz and cassiterite (C.) ; Chance claim, Watson-
ville, Tinaroo !!, in fine large crystals in ferruginous
gangue, with quartz and cassiterite, also massive (C.) ;
Eureka Creek, Tinaroo ! !, with cassiterite (C.) ;
Herberton Tin Mines ! !, with cassiterite in lodes (J.) ;
Stanthorpe Tin Field ! !, with cassiterite (J.) ; Eungella
Goldfield !!, with garnets and iron glance in a large
lode in granite country (J.); Annan Tin Mines ! !, with
cassiterite and tourmaline in lodes at Mount Amos (J.).
MINERALS OF QUEENSLAND. 263
ZEOLITE—(ScCOLECITE ?) Charters Towers,—This zeolite, which is
of a pale pink, occurs in the joints and cleavage planes
of the granite. One sample from the Rainbow Lease is
massive and is found on both walls of the lode. The
polished surface shows an included vein of pure white
calcite. The mineral is found at various depths (C.).
(I.) (ELOY) * CV.)
SiO, wa 46:25. .49-04 47:0. 47-94
PG She OO) Lord 26-64
CaO a hago | Loree 12°95
H, O (by igni-
tion) ... 13:47 13:30 13-7 14:20
Fe, Os; ... trace trace trace
In the above analyses No. 1 is from the Queen Block
Extended, No. 2 from the Mary claim, No. 3 from the
Rainbow, and No. 4 from the Mexican (C.).
Zircon, Narrango Creek (R.); Russell River Terraces ! ! (hya-
cinth), water-worn, associated with gold, quartz (Clarke);
EKungella, Broken River (J.); Constant Creek, about
18 miles west of Mackay, occurs both as small crystals
and grains of a deep yellow or reddish brown colour,
all more or less rounded by attrition, in the sandy
gravel in the bed of the creek, associated with fragments
of quartz and mica (M.)
MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND.
By Sir JAS. HECTOR, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
Actinouite !—Milford Sound (Hector); Para-para, (Cox), as
radiating fan-shaped crystals in metamorphic schists.
ALBITE, or Sopa Ferispar!!— Maori Point, West Coast,
Wilkes River, Makarora, Dun Mountain, George
Sound, in diorites (Hector, Haast, Davis).
Axum !!—Pomahaha, as a product of pyritous shale (Hector,
1862) ; Puai Island, Waikuaiti (Hochstetter, 1860) ;
Tokomairiro, as potash alum (Hector, 1862); D’Urville
Island, as manganese alum (Hackett, 1866). Analysis
per cent (Skey) :—
Alumina, +! sit “ee 2 O40
Ferric oxide... ie, ee 1h
Lime ME Oy fs *5O
Magnesia ... Ai a: 5:46
Soda ay iu VA A]
Sulphuric acid - woe) OTEAO
Hydrochloric acid’... ... traces
Water aus ae Pe cr
Insoluble in water... bi 2-00
100-00
ALuNnITE !—RKotorua, deposited by geysers (Ulrich)
ALUNOGENE ! !—Tuapeka, Manawatu, occurring in some of the
brown coals, is colourless, crystalline, and completely
soluble in water. Analysis per cent. (Skey) :—
Sulphate of alumina ... Jie OD aD
Sulphate of lime a Soule Labi
Sulphate of magnesia ... at (ero
Alkaline sulphates... a 3:00
Water Bae son ae or ae
100-00
AnpbEsINE !—Colleville Peninsula, Taupo district, Ruapehu, in
andesites (Hutton).
ANORTHITE !—Kakapo Lake, West Coast, in diorite dykes
(Hutton).
ANTHOPHYLLITE !—Karori, Wellington, in a massive laminated
form (Davis).
ANnTIGORITE !—Dun Mountain, in serpentine schists (Cox).
MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 265
ANTIMONIAL OcHRE !—Endeavour Inlet, as a coating on antimonite
(Cox).
ApatvITE !—Wangapeka (Lab. and Geol. Reports).
APopPHYLLITE ! !—Turnagain Point, in amygdaloids, Rangitata, as
ichthyopthalmite in felsite porphyries (Haast).
ARAGONITE ! !—Collingwood, Dunedin, Thames, in cavities in
basaltic rocks and from hot springs (Hector); and
several other places, lining fissures and cavities in
volcanic rocks of Bank’s Peninsula (Haast).
ArsENIc (Native) !—Kopanga Mine, Coromandel, in auriferous
quartz lode with calcite (Hector, 1367).
Assestos ! ! !—Milford Sound, Collingwood, Takaka (Hector).
Avaite ! !—Hororata district, Dunedin, Nelson, Auckland,
Collingwood, Bank’s Peninsula, Acheron, Chatham ;
enters into the composition of all basalts, dolerites,
anametesites, trachydolerites, diabases and melaphyres ;
sometimes in crystals $ inch long, Nelson (Hector).
AzuriTE !—Nelson, Great Barrier Island, in gossan of copper
lodes in serpentine.
Barytes !—Waikoriti (Mantell, 1852); Akitea (Hector, 1867) ;
Thames (Skey, 1870); East Cape (McKay, 1874).
Beryt !—Dusky Sound, in hornblendic schists (Cox); Stewart’s
Island, with tin stone in large crystals (McKay),
determined by Skey.
BismutH !— Owen, Collingwood, alloyed with gold (Hector),
determined by Skey.
Brrumen—Cast up on the south and east coast of New Zealand
in considerable quantity (Lab. Geol. Reports III.)
Bote ! !—Lytt elton Tunnel, in dolerite rocks (Haast). Analysis
(Skey) :—
Silica Las mm nnd Gaffe
Alumina .... wv ft)? *1 5°66
Tron AA SA Ai Reemall IE Spf
Manganese ... ie ne ‘60
Lime Bad et sa 2-02
Magnesia... ae a 5-02
Potash 25 «>, na 2-69
Water (constitutional) LA
100-00
Bornite !—Kawau, Dunstan, in micaceous quartz (Hector).
BournonitE !—Wangapeka, occurs in quartz with galena (Hector).
Bravunite ! !—Malvern Hills, vicinity of Wellington, massive
(Geol. Survey, 1873).
266 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
Bronzite !—Dun Mountain, in diorite rocks (Hector, Davis).
BrookiTE !—Otepopo, in crystalline dolerite (Hector, 1862).
CALAMINE !—Tararu Creek, as lustrous transparent crystals
attached to diallogite, but always external (Skey).
CaLcspar (CauciTE) ! !—Tokotea Range, Otago, in tertiary rocks
of Otago as dogtooth spar; Nelson, in limestone at
Moeraki; Canterbury, as Iceland spar (Hector 1862,
Haast 1864); Dunedin, Sea-cliff, near Waikouaite,
Cape Rodney, Tararu Creek, Thames, smoke-coloured
calcite, Cape Rodney (Cox, 1882).
Marble | |—Collingwood district (Hector, 1863) ; West Coast:
Sounds (Hochstetter, 1860); Kakaka, Canterbury
(Monro, 1866).
Stalactite and Stalagmite | !—Whangarei, Waipu, Colling-
wood, Mount Somers, occur in many limestone caves.
Travertine | '!—Oamaru, Mauriceville, Takaka, and many
other places, deposited from calcareous waters (Hector,
1862).
CERVANTITE !
widely distributed, occurs incrusting stibnite.
Cuasasite !—Dunedin, in vesicular basalts (Hector) ; Helen-
burn and Bank’s Peninsula, in trachytic rocks (Haast).
CuHaALcopyRritE ! ! !—Kawau, Great Barrier Island, Moke Creek,
Paringa River, Canterbury, Collingwood (Geol. Surv.).
CHIASTOLITE !—Collingwood, embedded in clay slate (Hector).
Cuuorite ! !—Fox Glacier, Westland, in chlorite schists (Cox) ;
Tararu Creek, Thames (Skey); West Coast of Otago
and Otago Heads, in an amorphous form in vesicular
basalts (Hector) ; Kakapo Lake (Liversidge).
CHROME OcHRE ! !—Nelson, occurs in combination with
“chromite” in small quantities (Hackett, 1861).
CuromiteE ! !—D’Urville Island, Dun Mountain, Aniseed Valley,
Red Hills, Otago, in a band of serpentine and olivine,
also occurs as massive crystals, massive amorphous
crystalline, disseminated, and granular (Hector, 1865) ;
Nelson ! !, associated with nephrite (Hector, 1865). Sp.
gr. 3°328. Analysis (Skey) :—
Silica 12:66
Chromic oxide ree mae BES)
Ferrous oxide ne gan EEO
Alumina .... _ apie 6:29
Lime ag as a 3:16
Magnesia... ae 2 6:12
100-00
MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 267
CurysoBEeRYL !—Stewart Island (determined by Skey, 1889).
Curysocotia !—Nelson, encrusting gossans of copper ores in the
serpentine belt.
CurysoTiLe, or Perrpot—Dun Mountain, traversing the dark
green serpentine (Cox).
CHLOROPHYLLITE !—Mount Somers, fine earthy mineral filling
cavities in rocks (Haast).
Coats ! ! !—Special schedule, abstract of report by Sir J. Hector
(Geol. Surv. Dept.
Coats oF NEW ZEALAND.
Analyses by Skey.
No. Description. Locality. < 8 ¢ 5 8 _ & 2 3
Pe ell) palee iS @ Jane
BS jms] & | ~ [Bee
|
if Anthracite dee Acheron, Canterbury 84:12 | 2°06 1°80 | 12°12 | 10°93
2 Bituminous oon Coalbrookdale ... .» | 74°83 | 20°50 1°16 3°51 | 10°72
3 a + 5 Ex ese | 70°00 |, 22°15 2°52 5°33 910
4 ss ae Banbury ... aoe «-- | 69°97 | 25°71 99 3°33 9°09
5 | Altered brown coal Malvern Hills... ... | 68°54 | 19°89 4°15 742 8°87
6 Bituminous ae Tyneside ... aoe ..- | 65°59 | 29°18 82 | 4:41] 852
7 | Glance Coal gs Rakaika Gorge ... ..- | 6451 | 21°27 | 676 | 7:46] 8:30
8 Bituminous ree Wallsend ... sea ... | 62°87 ; 31°64 | 1°66 3°83 | 817
9 ss a4. Grey River “ed .-- | 62°37 | 29°44 | 1:99 | 6:20] 8-01
10 | Pitch Coal ae Kawa-Kawa 2 --. | 61°16 | 28°00 | 2°51 8°33 | 7°95
11 Bituminous AG Preservation Inlet ... | 60°88 | 20°69 | 4°33 619 | 7:91
12 Pitch Coal Bae Black Creek, Grey River. | 60:20 | 29:97 | 8-01 1°82 | 7°82
13 | Bituminous % Mokihinui.. Ss 59°75 | 32°14 | 3°27 | 414) 7°76
14 Pe sea Coalpitheath Sen ... | 5881 | 38°98 1:02 119 764
15 a eae Mokihinui ... rc ... | 57°92 | 34°94 | 3°96 | 3:18 | 7°50
16 a as Brunner Mine ... ... | 56°62 | 35°68 | 1:59} G11) 7°36
17 ae wea ” oe .. | 06°21 | 37°83 1:50 | 4:56 7°30
18 re kde Westport ... “ee ... | 56°01 | 37°17 2°60 4:22 7°28
19 + a Mokihinui... ead ... | 55°59 | 38°86 | 3:16 | 2°39 | 7:20
20 S os Brunner... aig ... | 5416 | 35°85 2°50 | 7:49 7-04
21 | Altered brown coal Malvern Hills... ... | 08°29 | 32°04 | 12°65 2°02 6°92
22 Bituminous ay Otamataura Creek ... | 52°89 | 36°63 2°19 8:29 6°90
23 % ... | Wallsend ... ... | 53°10 | 35°47 | 1:41 | 10°02 | $-90
24 ES Pe: Near Cape Farew: ell J. | 48°59 | 43°17 2:18 6°06 6°31
25 | Pitch coal one Shag Point ih .-, | 43°19 | 30°15 | 15°82 | 10°94 5°61
26 O65 Fee Kawa-Kawa as ... | 50°15 | 42°63 | 418] 3°04] 6°50
27 Glance coal... Whangarei aes ... | 50°11 | 38°68 | 8:01 | 3:20} 6°50
28 | Pitch coal es Kamo . ro ... | 50°01 | 37°69 | 9°61! 2°69] 6°50
29 Brown coal = Malvern Hills eee .--.| 49°99 | 35°42 | 11°79 2°80 6°49
30 2 ae Fernhill ... sta ... | 49°95 | 36°95 | 12°00 1:10 6°49
31 5 ae Allandale .., maa ... | 47°31 | 36°26 | 12°41 6°02 6°15
32 cf ae Kaitangata zs ... | 46°48 | 33°48 | 1466 | 5°35 6°04
33 é ek Shag Point rs ... | 46°21 | 32°65 | 16°02 5°12 6°00
34 a ia Homebush wet ... | 44°92 | 36°00 | 15°83 | 3°25 5°83
35 = vee Hokonui .., ios ... | 44°28 | 38°22 | 16°50 1:00 | 5°75
36 oe 225 Kaitangata os ... | 4411 | 38°32 | 15°44 2°13 574
37. » Ee Nightcaps... aoe ... | 43°62 | 33°68 | 18°33 4:37 5°67
38 9 ... | Springfield wane | 42°68 | 33°66 | 18°65 | 5°01 | 5°55
39 5 = Orepuki ... ... | 42°64 | 36°26 | 14-44 | 6°66 5°54
40 | Pitch coal “| Walton's Whangaraei ... | 38°80 | 41°20 | 7-20 | 1280 | 4:96
41 | Brown coal i3f Kaitargata i883 ... | 38°29 | 32°43 | 17°50 | 11°78 | 4°87
42 ” sae Shag Point ee .-. | 35°76 | 30°92 | 13°22 | 20:16 464
43 ” ave Allandale ... Bs 3 ... | 34°72 | 40°26 | 1899 4°86 4°51
44 | Pitch coal a Grey River on ... | 84°72 | 55°48 | 6°20,| 2°60 | 4°51
t
268 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
| TF TF
Approximate Total
Name of Coal. Output of Coal
up to the
31st December, 1888.
Tons.
Bituminous... =; ees oF Aa ae 2,484,687
Piteh re. sit ais ast a fe 803,948
Brown ... She see os a0 So 550 1,797,725
Lignite ... dd bes Hen SOK “He 544 146,472
Totals 500 cs 3 AP 5,232,832
Total output of coals of New Zealand to 31st December
1888, 4,618,937 tons.
‘CopaLtt Bioom !—Otago, occurs in schists and gneiss (Hector).
‘Copper (Native)—Great Barrier Island, Nelson, Lake Wakatipu,
Dun Mountain, Perserverance Mountain, &c., in plates
associated with copper deposits in serpentine (Skey);
as grains disseminated through a granular serpentine,
as fine grains in basaltic dykes which cut through
trachydolerite breccias (Geol. Survey), (Cox).
Black Copper, or Tenorite—D’Urville Island.
Copper Glance !|—Nelson, in various parts of the serpentine
belts, in a massive form.
Peacock Copper—Maharahara, Champion Mine, occurs asso-
ciated with native copper (Hector).
hed Copper !—D’Urville Island, Lake Te Anau; 35:60 per
cent. copper.
‘Copper Pynrites! ! !—Waipori, Moke Creek, Coromandel, in a
compact amorphous form (Hector). Analysis (Skey):—
Copper ste ae .» . 15°03
Iron ike me eR Bir ax0
Quartz us Me: azn 2AGOG
Sulphur cle a's des OOIOK
100-00
‘Copperas !—Kawau, Barrier Islands, crystallised.
‘CovELLINE !—D’Urville Island (Hector, Cox).
DeErRmMATIN !—Dun Mountain, West Coast Sounds, occurs in their
faces with smooth polished surfaces (Davis).
DIALLAGE, or ALUmINous AvaItTE ! !—Kakapo Lake, in diorites
(Hector) ; Martin’s Bay, in gabbro and in reefs
traversing mesozoic limestones (Hector).
Green Diatlage!!—Mount Arthur, in serpentine schists
(McKay).
MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 269
Drattoaits ! !—Thames (Hector, 1881), associated with calamine ;
Makara (Skey, 1870).
Ditessite !—Mount Somers, fine earthy mineral filling up
cavities in melaphyres (Haast).
Dioprase !—Thames, Nelson, occurs as an encrustation on the
copper ores (Skey).
DotomitE !—Malvern Hills, interstratified with augitic sand-
stone (Haast, 1865) ; Collingwood (Hector, 1872).
DoppieritE !—Waiapu, formed as a surface deposit by oxidation
of exuded petroleum. Analysis (Skey)
Oils 3:1
Paraffin ee 9°3
Earthy matters as seidinzce
Water aes ee se extghlie
Oxygenated hydro-carbons 49-4
100-0
DuFeRENoysITE !—Great Barrier Island, as a fine crystalline
vein associated with galena in large crystals (Hutton).
Dunite ! !—Dun Mountain, found in masses (Hochstetter), named
by Hector, 1863. Analysis (Reuter) :—
Silica is nce ... 42°80
Magnesia... ore pea (ES 0)
Protoxide of iron ne et 0
Water eh ae a DT
100715
ELaTeritE !—Kawau (Hector, 1865), hardness 2 sp. gr. 1-034 ;
Poverty Bay (Liversidge, 1877).
Eectrum !! !—Thames, usually found in places where gold
occurs.
Emeraxp !—Dusky Sound, in quartz with pyrrhotine (collected
by Dockerty, determined by Cox and Skey).
Kripote !—West coast of Otago, in granites (Hector) ; Mount
Torlesse, in diorites (Haast); Wairarapa, in massive
form (Hector). Analysis (Skey) :—
Silica bet me MP All
Tron ae ae <<..0pfl 4-06
Alumina aa os ee Weer
Lime ns ae eed WER:
Magnesia... ee eek
Water of constitution aa 4:10
100-00:
270 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
EpsomiTe, or Epsom Sats !—Otago, as an efflorescence (Hector,
1865).
Faya.irE !—Nelson, in schist, contains 2°67/ copper (Skey).
Freispar (Guassy) !—Taupo district, in rhyolites, &c. (Hector).
Fiuor Spar ! ! !—Stewart’s Island and West Otago (McKay,
1889); Batton Liver, associated with sulphate of
baryta (Park, 1889) ; determined by Skey.
Fuutier’s Eartu !—Great Barrier Island Hot Springs, in
trachyte tuffs (Hutton).
-GAHNITE !—Stewart Island, with tin stone (McKay) ; determined
by Skey, 1888.
GaLena !—Kaituna and Kaimauawa Range, associated with
quartz, generally argentiferous ; Wangapeka, containing
an average yield of about 91 ounces of silver per ton;
Great Barrier Island (Skey).
‘Garnet (Lron Lime)—West Otage, in gneiss (Hector).
Black Garnet—Dunedin, in vesicular basalts (Hector).
GLAUBER Sats !—Brancepeth, Whareama, Wellington, sample
forwarded by Mr. W. H. Beetham in 1874 (determined
by Skey).
GLAUCONITE !—Otago, occurs in schist and green sands as rounded
grains in several of the younger secondary beds (Hector).
Gotp (Native) ! ! !—Auckland, Taranaki, Hawke’s Bay, Welling-
ton, Nelson, Marlborough, Canterbury, Southland,
Westland, occurs plentifully in reefs, alluvial deposits,
sea sand, Wc., as crystals in the Ben Nevis Range and
Mahakipawa.
GRAPHITE ! ! !—Pakawau, occurs chiefly as thin flat veins inter-
stratified with metamorphic schist, was largely worked
prior to 1866; Wangapeka and Mount Potts, dissem-
inated throughout the graphtolite or carbon slates
(Silurian) and in the glossopteris beds (Permian),
(collected by Hector); Waikoura Creek, a boulder of
very pure graphite in a stream from Mount Egmont.
Analysis of Pakawau sample (Skey) :—
Carbon 2% ‘oe ice, DOuLO
Water : has Joie +(e OS
Ash a a Sate Oe
100-00
Green Eartsa !|—Malvern Hills, filling cavities in melaphyres
(Haast).
MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 971
Hattoysire ! !—Dunedin (Hector) ; Water of Leith (Liversidge) ;
Scinde Island (McKay),
Analysis (Skey):
in decomposing
basalts.
Silica i 58-22
Sesquioxide of iron 5,82
Alumina 24°34
Lime 2-02
Magnesia 2°53
Water =y 4-8]
Alkalies and loss 2°26
100-00
Haverire ! — Wakatipu district, Collingwood, in crystals
(McKay) ; Hauerite per cent. 10°87 (Skey).
HavsMAnniTE !—Selwyn liver, in rolled pieces and coating joints
in rocks (Haast, 1865).
Hecrorite!—Dun Mountain, named
serpentine rocks (Cox, Tran.
Analysis (Skey) :—
by Cox, occurs with
N.Z.I. 1882, p. 409).
Silica : 57°89
Ferrous oxide 18-46
Alumina 4:74
Ferric oxide traces
Manganese ... traces
Lime 11S ig)
Magnesia 13°94
Water 2°98
100-00
Hematite !— Mount Gilbert, Nelson, Dunstan, as _ lenticular
masses. Analysis (Skey) :—
Silica 4-60
Alumina 3°00
Sesquioxide of Iron 90°60
Water of constitution... 1:80
100-00
Hev.anpiteE !— Canterbury, in amygdaloidal traps associated
with felsite porphyries (Haast).
Hessite !—Te Aroha, in auriferous quartz (Hector); analysed
by Skey.
HornBLENDE ! !—Widely distributed (Hochstetter, 1863).
HyPerstHENE ! !_-Warp Point, Kaduku River, in diorite rocks
and in hypersthenite (Hector).
22 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
Ipocrasz, or VesuvianiTE !—Dusky Sound, as dirty-green, fluted
prismatic crystals in quartz associated with crystalline.
rocks (Docherty), (identified by Skey).
IDRIALITE, or INFLAMMABLE CrINNABAR !—Dunstan, Serpentine
Valley, Waipori, Ohaeawai Springs, occurs as rounded
grains in alluvium (Hector). Analysis (Skey) :—
Water sna ae it 6°89
Hydrocarbon As Pie it)
Cinnabar... bas Ay 0)
Sand ohh Ye WM EST DL
100-00
ItmenitE !—Taranaki, in iron sands in all parts of New Zealand,.
especially Taranaki.
IrmposMInE !—Takaka, Orepuke, occurs in gold wash as small
flat grains (Hochstetter).
Tron Pyrires ! !—Collingwood, Wakatipu district, &c., occurs in
octahedral crystals (Lab. and Geol. Reports).
Tsering !!—Common on the West Coast, S. I, (Lab. and Geol.
Reports).
JADE, NEPHRITE, or AXxE-STONE ! !—Milford Sound, Teremakau
River, known as “maori greenstone.” It occurs as
rolled pieces on the beach and as white nephrite
(Hector), Analysis (Skey) :—
Silica ae oon POL Ue
Ferric oxide, ate eens of man-
ganese and chronium ee Res
Adami a Re Fe 1:42
Lime “ef Me Zan 9:00
Magnesia... his -0 4 2eoo
Soda ~~ rn ... traces
Water (constitutional) ae 97
95-20
Kaoutn ! ! !—Manuherikia, Arrow River, Mount Somers, Colling-
wood, Stewart Island, formed by the decomposition of
felsite porphyries (Hector, Cox).
Kermes !—Endeavour Inlet, occurs with stibnite.
Kyanite, or DistHene !—Westland, associated with quartz.
Lasraporire ! !— Purahanui Range, Mount Charles, Bank’s
Peninsula, in trachydolerites (Hector, Haast).
Leap (Native) !—Collingwood, in the wash of a creek in the form
of round grains, like shot. It is alloyed with gold
(Skey,; Tr. N2Z.,. dn. SGT, pd 67):
LepipouiTe !—Thompson Sound, in marble (Hector).
MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 273
LEPIDOMELANE !—Milford Sound, in schists and gneiss rock
(Hector).
Levucite !—Castle Point, in leucite basalt (McKay). Analyses
(Skey) :—
Silica ... ... 48°63 48:29 43-06
Lime ... PSO SI), 9 Daisey
Alumina ois, DOO mR eee 47
Tron and = man-
ganese ... traces traces 7:24
Magnesia ee SUES 30 (1 906
Water . aay Brod {i Bsbe y hae?
Loss ... se LAt ayn (tl
100-00 100-00 100-00
LeucopyritE !—Thames, Reefton, Collingwood, with mispickel
(Cox).
LimoniteE ! !—Wangaru, Parapara River, Shotover River, Col-
lingwood, in massive earthy botryoidal, mamillary and
concretionary forms (McKay).
MaenesitE !—Rotorua, crystalline (Cox, 1878); Chatham Islands,
massive (Smith).
MaenetitE ! !—Lake Wakatipu, Mount Cook, disseminated
through various rocks in minute crystals and grains
(Haast), 72 per cent. iron (Skey).
Matacuite — Moke Creek, D’Urville Island, occurs as thin
encrusting films on some copper ores (Hector, Cox).
Analysis (Skey) :—
Copper ai. es 4. 1) 88:20
Tron dee aa: Jar Kealcho
Silica ud By LL) ded
Sulphur +f ... traces
Carbonic acid and Beer soar OM EDL
100-00
Maneanite !!— Tory Channel, Kawarau, Clutha, Otago,
Waiheke, Waimarama, Wellington, Waipu, “in veins
in schists,” ‘‘as rolled fragments in alluvial drift.”
Analysis (Skey) :—
Sesquioxide of manganese ... 63°42
Sesquioxide of iron... J12.1/.66°66
Alumina... ie ... traces
Silica aes ae UE S2O
Sulphur i ... traces
Water (hygroscopic) . Ja VI1O"22
Water (constitutional) — seg P2*45
100 00
274 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
Marearite !—Milford Sound, in schists and gneiss (Hector).
Meerrscuaum !—Dun Mountain, in contact with massive white
quartz (Davis). Analysis (Skey) :—
Silica wl (O3FkG
Lime tte aA Se 2:36
Alumina ~s: De fs AS
Tron oxides ... ae ... traces
Magnesia... asf, .49020°36
Water of constitution... ie LO
100-00
MELLITE '_Thames, described as a resinous substance with a
splintery fracture (Hutton, 1870); Blgh Sound, from
a cave (Hector, 1876).
Menaccanite !—Brancepeth, Wairarapa, occurs associated with
felspar (Skey).
Mercury !—Waipori, Bay of Islands, Westport, occurs in alluvial
wash in the form of small thin globules (Hector) ;
contains 99.54°/ of mercury.
Mereorite, or Mertroric [ron !—Wairarapa. Hardness 5:6,
specific gravity 3°254, weight, 94lbs., contents 49 cubic
inches, containing 24 / iron, with silica, sulphur,
nickel, &c..
Mica! ! !—West Coast, in all schists; Charleston, in granite as
large plates.
(Biaxial, or Potash) |—West Otago, in schists (Hector).
(Uniaxal, or Biotite) |—Dusky Inlet, Milford Sound, a black
green mica rock with numerous minute crystals of
zircon (Hector).
Chrome Mica |—Dead Horse Gully, in flat tabular plates
(McKay, Skey). Analyses (Skey 2) :—
Specimens from 1 2
SCHWART- DEAD HORSE
ZENSTEIN. GULLY.
Silica sped 221 4Asces 39°25
Alumina... eee alts 22°12
Chromic oxide as) ee 1:56
Ferric oxide art 5°72 18:69
Manganous oxide ... 1:05 “A
Magnesic oxide ... 11°58 10-60
Sodic oxide pee) belles ; S443
Potassic oxide PAL \
Water hey 2°86 4-06
Lime rae rte 2°18
MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 275
Muscovite, or Mica !!—Snowy Peak Range, Milford Sound,
Charleston, Dusky Bay, Great Barrier Island, as a
common constituent of mica schist, gneiss and granite.
Mispicket ! —Milford Sound, Waipori, Malvern Hills, Colling-
wood, Thames, associated with gold (Hector, Hutton,
Cox). Analysed by Skey.
Mo.tyspeEnitF !—Dusky Sound, as flakes in a gneiss rock
(Docherty, 1880).
Narrouitre !—Dunedin, in vescicular basalts (Hector); Bank’s
Peninsula, in volcanic rocks (Haast); also in cavities
of basalts from Dunedin (Hector) ; Mount Livingstone,
Look-out Point, Whakahara.
OpsIDIAN, or Voucanic Gtass ! !— Mayor Island, Bank’s
Peninsula, Mount Eden, Taupo Island, associated with
rhyolites and on the sides of trachyte dykes (Hochstetter,
Hector).
OuicocLasE !!—Mount Misery, Malvern Hills, Snowy-peak
Range, in quartz porphyries (Haast, Daintree).
OLIVINE, or CHRYSOLITE ! !—Mandamus district, Hurunui district,
in dolerites (Liversidge, Hutton); Banks’ Peninsula,
Chatham Islands, as grains in basaltic rocks (Haast) ;
Saddle Hill, Milford Sound, in basaltic rocks (Hector,
1862).
Opa ! !—Mount Somers, Malvern Hills, inferior qualities only.
Common Opal and Semt-opal | |—Malvern Hills, filling small
cavities in quartz porphyries (Cox, Haast).
fire Opal !|—Otago Peninsula, in tuffs, collected by Capi.
Fram, determined by Skey.
Opal Jasper | !—Portobello, Otago, in trachytic tufa (Liver-
sidge).
fitch Opal! '!—Dunstan, Rakaia Gorge, Harper’s Hill
(Liversidge).
Wood Opal, or Silicified Wood !!—Mount Somers, Canter-
bury, Coromandel, occurs in tuffs and conglomerates
and where silicious rocks are decomposing (Haast,
_ Hochstetter).
Geyserite | !—Rotorua (Hochstetter),.
ffyalite |—Bank’s Peninsula, Malvern Hills, found lining
cavities in vocanic rocks (Haast) : Dunedin, in vesicular
grey-trachyte (Liversidge).
Menilte | |—Bay of Islands.
OrTHOCLASE, or PorasH Fetspar! !—Mount Misery, Bank’s
Peninsula, West Coast, Auckland Islands, Ruapuke,
R2
276 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
Great Barrier Island, Sugar Loaves, Boulder Bank,
Nelson, Hororata district, Dusky Sound, as a con-
stituent of granites, syenites, gneiss, trachytes and
rhyolites.
OzoKeERITE !—Dunstan, Otago, occurring brown coals (Hector,
1865).
PaxaconiTe ! !—Harper’s Hill, Two Brothers, Taipo Hill, as
angular fragments in palagonite tufas (Haast). Analysis
(Skey)
Silica sis ses 38°82
Alumina DAB PITS
Tron oxide 6°30
Lime 3°65
Magnesia ae,
Alkatlies ti Suh. 2:08
Water Bit th ae eh | 5)
Carbonaceous matter ... ... traces
99:97
Peart Spar !—Thames (Hector, 1878).
Perroteum ! !—Sugar Loaves, Taranaki, from deep-seated coals,
altered by voleanic dykes. A specific gravity, -960 to
‘964, rich in lubricants (Hector, Geol. Rep., 1866 ;
Poverty Bay and Waiapu, deep wells and surface
springs from middle jurrassic strata (Hector, Geol. Rep.,
1873). Paraffin oil, sp. gr. ‘843 to °872, yielded 647 to
84% kerosene (Skey).
Picrouite !—Dun Mountain, coarsely fibrous, of a dark-green
colour (Cox).
PicrosMInE !—Dun Mountain, associated with chromite, and is
also found as a network of veins in which crystals of
bronzite occur (Cox).
PIMELITE !—Malvern Hills, Clent Hills, filling cavities in
amygdaloidal rocks (Haast).
Pisracite !—West Coast, Mount Torlesse, Mount Somers,
Wairarapa, in gneiss, granite, and granulite, and in
melaphyres (Hector, Haast).
Pircustone !|—Mount Somers, Snowy Peak, associated with
quartz porphyries (Haast).
Puatininipum !— Takaka, Orepuke, as grains in gold-wash
(Hochstetter).
Pratinum (Native) !—Orepuke, Stewart Island, Collingwood,
Nelson, Takaka, in the form of small flat grains of a
steel-grey or white colour, associated with gold and
zircons in southern goldfields, but it has never been
found in reef (Hector).
MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 277
PREHNITE !— Moeraki, Otepopo, Canterbury, in trap rocks
(Hector, Daintree).
Provustire !—Thames (Hutton).
PsILOMELANE ! !—Waiheke, Wairuakariri, Bay of Islands, Kawau,
Wellington, massive, and is associated with manganite,
forming a valuable ore. Analysis (Skey)—sample from
Bay of Islands :—
Manganese oxides... Se EO
Ferric oxide Sut ML E76
Silicious matters aes sol A
Water - _ ... 10°04
100-00
Pumice ! ! !—Tongariro, Tokano, Lake Taupo, Kereru, Ruapehu,
&c., along the coast and on the banks of rivers, and on
the plateaux round Lake Taupo, 2000 feet above the
sea level, occurs also as pumice sand (McKay) at
Kereru. ;
Pyrires (AuriFEROvS) ! !—Thames, Otago, as octahedral crystals
in quartz reefs.
Quartz—Amethyst | | |—Rakaia Gorge, in an amygdaloidal trap ;
Canterbury, in the melaphyres (Haast).
Cellular Quarts | !—Thames.
Ferruginous Quartz !!|—Abundant (Lab. and Geol. Reports, °
1865).
Milk Quarts | !|—Everywhere, in the granites, schists and
slates.
Rose Quartz | !—Rakaia Gorge, in trachyte and pitchstone
(Haast).
Bloodstone !|—Clent Hills, Snowy Peak, Malvern Hills, in
small fragments (Haast).
Carnelian |!— Malvern Hills, Mount Charles, Otago, in
volcanic rocks (Hector).
Chalcedony |!— Canterbury, Clent Hills, Gawler Downs,
Tokatoka, Nioeraki, Otepopo, &c., in ‘“‘geodes” in the
‘‘melaphyres” and quartz porphyries (Hector, Haast,
Hochstetter).
Chrysoprase !— Moeraki, Otepopo, Dunedin, Canterbury,
Coromandel, filling cavities in amygdaloidal rocks
(Haast).
Flint ! !—Kaipara, Mount Somers, in chalk marls (Hector) ;
Campbell Island, in chalk (Hector); Amuri Bluff, in
limestone (Haast); Bay of Islands, Tapanui (Liversidge),
(see Trans. N.Z. Inst.) ; Whanganui Heads, in diatom
earth (Hector).
278
MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
Jasper | |—Coromandel, abundant in volcanic and porphy-
ritic rocks (Hector) ; Snowy Range, as porcelain jasper
(Haast) ; Auckland, in tuffs and conglomerates (Hoch-
stetter).
Agate Jasper | !|—Coromandel, in trachytic tuffs (Hector).
Plasma | '!—Mount Somers and Gawler Downs, filling fissures
in tertiary quartzose trachyte (Haast); Moeraki and
Otepopo, in volcanic rocks (Hector).
Potato Stone or Geode |! !—Snowy Ranges (Haast).
Pearl Sinter | |—Rotorua.
Prase !|— Gawler Downs, as small deposits in quartzose
porphyritic trachytes (Haast, 1865).
Rock Crystal! !!—Tamata, Kereru, Napier, Taupo, Canter-
bury, Milford Sound, in metamorphic schists, and derived
from rhyolitic rocks (Lab. and Geol. Reports).
Silicious Sinter | |! — Orakeikorako, surrounding thermal
springs (Hochstetter) ; Te Tarata, in terraces.
Siderite | |—Mongonui, in cover of brown coal beds (Hector,
1866).
Tridymite | |—Lyttleton Harbour, in trachytic rocks (Ulrich).
RETINITE, or AMBRITE ! !—Hyde, Caversham, Tuapeka, Waita-
huna, Dunstan, Bay of Islands, occurs as masses of
altered kauri gum in brown coals. First mentioned
by Hochstetter, also Hector (Geol. and Lab. reports).
Mean of three analyses by Richard Maly :—
Carbon ote wet ose LOGE
Hydrogen ... Sia «- Uae
Oxygen i fe .. WDB
Ash is tos ia “19
100-00
RHODONITE, or MANGANESE Spar!— Canterbury, Kawarau,
Clutha, Dunstan, Waiheke, as veins in schists and as
rolled fragments in alluvial drifts (Haast, 1865).
Analysis (Skey.)
Silica Ba Shr ede 15240)
Sesquioxide of iron... we SORT O
Protoxide of iron Ko ste 1-20
Protoxide of manganese ont SESS
Alumina... ae Das 7:20
Copper ste ee ... traces
Lime ot — ae 3°02
Magnesic aide ie cre 3°00
W ae (constitutional) _ 1:43
MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 279
RUBELLANE !—Bank’s Peninsula (Haast. )
SappHire !—Southern Alps and Collingwood, in alluvial gold
beds (Haast, Hutton), determined by Skey.
Emery—Stewart Island.
Saussurite !— Mount Torlesse, in gabbro (Haast).
ScHEELITE !!!—Lake Wakatipu, Buckle Burn, Rees River,
Waipori, Richardson Mountains, Havelock, solid lodes
and large rolled fragments and in arsenical pyrites in
the form of small grains (Hector 1863, McKay 1880).
ScHILLER Spar !—West Coast, with iron pyrites (Hector.)
Scuort !—Bedstead Gully, Mosquito Hill, Resolution Island, in
gneiss and in micaceous and hornblendic schists (Hector).
ScHROTTERITE !— Malvern Hills, filling the cavities in
amygdaloidal trachytes, having a mammilated crust on
its surface (Liversidge).
SELENITE, or Gypsum ! ! — Widely distributed throughout
Canterbury, Auckland, Nelson, New Plymouth, &c., as
groups of crystals associated with sulphur, or as nests of
crystals in clay or marls. It is very plentiful, and is
mentioned several times in the Geol. Sur. and Lab.
Reports.
“ SELEN-SULPHUR” !—White Island, massive dark yellow varieties
of sulphur (Liversidge, Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. X).
SERPENTINE, or MArmontireE—Mineral Belt, Nelson, and Dun
Mountain, as common serpentine forming rock masses
(Hochstetter) ; Milford Sound, nobleserpentine, occurring
with nephrite in thin grains (Hector). Analyses (Skey):—
(1.) (I1.) (111.)
Silica AtH4.0-20 OD BO Hob Ol
Protoxide of iron 12°10 12-10 1:67
Alumina ... traces traces 5:63
Manganese... traces traces traces
Chromium ... traces traces traces
Magnesia .. 33°20 ° 34:02 35-07
Water (consti-
tutional ... De) 12:94 2-67
98:20 100-06 100-95
with gold and as a component of tetrahedrite; Golden
Crown Mine, as rolled fragments.
5 SMARAGDITE !—Red Hill, Collingwood, in diorite (Hector).
SPH ROSIDERITE !— Mount Somers, Bank’s Peninsula, in volcanic
a and dyke rocks (Haast).
280 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
SpineEL — Manawatu and Waipori, Otago, as rhombic dodeca-
hedrons, nearly opaque (Hector).
SreaTiTe, or Soap Strong! !—Milford Sound, massive ; Colling-
wood, foliated (Hector).
SrrpniteE ! !—Otago, Endeavour Inlet, Reefton, Langdons (Hector,
1865) ; Thames (Hutton, 1867); Endeavour Inlet (Cox,
1879), in schistose rocks.
Strizpite ! !— Karori, Mangawhai, Tokatoka, Dunedin, as radiating
pearly crystals forming films in joints of auriferous
rocks (Skey), also in trachytic rocks as detached
crystals (Haast, Liversidge).
Sutpuur!!!—White Island, deposited from fumaroles and
geysers and from an enormous spring in the centre of
White Island (Hector, 1865); Roturua and Taupo
districts, from Hot Springs (Hochstetter) ; Waipara,
efHorescence from carbonaceous standstones (Haast,
1870), efflorescence from pyritous reefs (Davis) ; Wan-
gapeka. Analyses :—
LIVERSIDGE Cox
?2_——, =
Sulphur ese]. ¢ 99/6145. (98888; .55, 00500 5 Ga
Foreign matters 386 Tova =I 37°5
100:000 100-000 100-00 100-00
TacHytitEe !—Bank’s Peninsula, Oamaru, on the sides of fissures
where basaltic dykes have intruded (Haast).
Tatc !!—West Coast, S.I., Jackson’s Bay, Collingwood, in
quartz, and associated with crystalline rocks (Hector).
TARANAKITE !—Taranaki, very much like wavellite, is a double
hydrous phosphate of alumina and potash, part of the
alumina being replaced by ferric oxide, discovered and
described by Skey as a new mineral. Analysis per
cent. (Skey) :—
Phosphoric acid f Lay [BOD
Alumina * we ng Wea
Ferrous oxide a ada 4°45
Lime et Asis his a)
Potash a4 “ae 4-20
Soda aT Lee ... traces
Chlorine 33 BSH ee 46
Sulphuric acid ... traces
Insoluble in acid (silica) 80
Water driven off at 212° 15: 46 \ 33-06
s As red heat 17°60
MINERALS OF NEW ZEALAND. 281
TETRAHEDRITE !—Collingwood, a variety, Aichmondite, occurs as
as a lode at Richmond Hill. Analysis (Skey) :—
Sulphide of lead ite ie i
7 5» antimony... 1, 122-20
3 , bismuth ... ... traces
‘5 mecopper, UC Mp rd 9-3)
. » iron BAA 19ia1 3°50
o +) VANE cae OES 2p
9 5, silver — sa 2°39
es 5, Manganese ve ‘52
100-00
Tin !—Reefton, in granite (McKay, 1874); Stewart Island, in
mica gneiss (McKay, 1889).
Topaz !—Chatto Creek, Arrow River, Waipori, in alluvium,
: mixed with rubies, garnets, &c. (Hector); Stewart
Island, with tin stone (McKay), determined by Skey.
Tremo.ite !—Kanieri, Hokitika, Milford Sound, in quartzite
(Hector).
VivianitE !—Dunedin, Awatere, as prismatic crystals in moa
bones (Hector).
Wap ! !—Auckland, as crystals (Hector, 1870) ; Stewart Island
(McKay, 1886).
WaAVELLITE !—Taranaki, occurs in thin seams of a deep yellowish
brown colour, hard, translucent and infusible, traversing
the taranakite in various directions (Skey).
WITHERITE, or BarRyTo-cALcITE !—Thames, in gold mines (Skey).
Wotrram ! !—Stewart Island, with tin stone (McKay, 1889).
WottastonitE !—Dun Mountain, massive in form. Analyses
(Skey) :-—
1 2 3 4
Silica ... 48:01 49°30 50°62 58-80
Lime... 46:20 45:91 44°88 24-60
0
Alumina 145 1-41 1°84 | 5%
Tron oxide traces traces 1°64 {
ae .-, 2 e RD: . traces
8°8
4°6
Magnesia traces °80 traces 146
2-2
1-4
Miter. 2" loeeoe | 102. 4
100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00
WULFENITE !|—Dun Mountain, as crystals of a flat tabular form.
282 MINERAL CENSUS OF AUSTRALASIA.
Zinc BienpE !—Bedstead Gully, Tararu Creek, Great Barrier
Island, associated with gold (Hector, Hutton). Analysis
(Skey) :—
Sulphide of zinc nf J Soll
Sulphide of cadmium ... traces
Sulphide of iron Sen kg ilat
Silicious matter set Mae Dow's,
100-00
ZincitE !—Collingwood (Skey).
Zircon !—Southern Alps, Timbrill’s Gully, Doubtful Inlet,
associated with platinum and gold and in the wash, and
also in ‘biotite rock” (Hector).
NOTE.
This Report 1s not yet complete, as it does not include the
Census of Victortan or Tasmanian Minerals.
i ee eee eee.
.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE No. 14.
The State and Progress of Chemical Science in Australasia,
with Special Reference to Gold and Silver Appli-
ances used in the Colonies and elsewhere.
MemsBers oF CommitTTEEe: —Professor Brack, Professor Kerrnot, Dr.
Lereius, Professor A. LiversipGE, Professor Orme Masson, Professor
Renniz, Mr. 8. H. Cox (Secretary).
Durine the past year, although a good deal of new work has
been projected in Australasia, there is comparatively little fresh
to chronicle regarding the treatment of ores of this class. It is
true that new inventions have been brought out, but, with very
few exceptions, they have not found favour with owners of mines,
because, in the majority of cases at any rate, they offer no real
improvements upon old and well-tried processes.
We may call attention at the outset of our report to certain
subdivisions which may be made in considering the subject, and
classify the ores as follows :—
: { 1. Free milling gold ores.
— \ 2. Refractory gold ores.
( 3. Free milling silver ores.
« 4. Easy smelting silver ores.
| 5. Refractory silver ores.
It will be understood that there is, perhaps, no hard and fast line
to be drawn between these different groups, and thus that Nos. 1
and 2 often occur in the same stone, while No. 1 very generally
gives place to No. 2 as depth is attained. The characters of the
silver ores, moreover, and the methods of treatment to which
they must be subjected, necessarily depend largely upon the
surroundings, the nature and quantity of flux attainable, the
price of coke, salt, and other substances required in the processes
to be adopted, and so forth ; and our division must thus be of a
somewhat arbitrary nature. We shall endeavour, however, to
define our meaning in speaking of these different classes of ore so:
as to make plain the reasons which have induced us to adopt
them.
Silver
284 STATE AND PROGRESS OF
GOLD.
Free milling gold ores include all those ores in which the gold
is in a free state, associated generally with quartz as a gangue,
but occasionally also with porous ironstone or gossan. In the
majority of cases, however, where gold occurs under the latter
condition, it is coated by a film of oxide of iron, which prevents
proper amalgamation, and is also, in many cases, of a very fine
nature ; these characters would transfer the ore from this class
to that of class No. 2.
The treatment of ores of class No. 1 has, from the earliest
times, consisted of crushing and amalgamation, and although
many new systems of crushing have been tried from time to
time, no machine has yet been introduced which will compete
with stamps when a large quantity of ore has to be dealt with.
‘The primitive battery crushing of the early days has, however,
given place in the better managed mines to plants in which all
the points which promote rapid, efficient, and economical work
are considered ; and although we still find batteries supplied
from some foundries built upon the old systems and employing
the old patterns, there is a decided tendency at present to erect
thoroughly capable machines, and to study what really are the
best methods of treating the ore.
Perhaps the chief point of difference to be noted in batteries is
that some employ light stamps, with a high drop, while others
use heavy stamps, 8 or 9 cwt., with a drop of 6in., or, in some
cases, even less. It will be evident that one advantage of the
latter form is that the battery can be worked at a higher speed,
since those with a low drop will not take the same time to fall
as those in which the drop is higher. Another point in which
a great difference presents itself in the efficiency of different
machines, is to be found in the method of feeding the stone to the
battery. In many cases, even now, the stone, as it is brought
from the mine, is roughly spalled by hand, and fed into the mill
whenever the feeder has time or inclination to attend to the
work ; and thus at times we hear the stamps striking direct on
the dies, having nothing to crush, while at others there is so
much stone in the battery that the stamps have a large part of
their fall cut off, and are, moreover, crushing stone on stone
instead of, as intended, directly on the dies. The more improved
batteries of the present day are supplied with ore crushers (stone
breakers), which reduce the stone to about one and three-quarter
inch metal, and this is fed into the boxes by means of improved
self-feeders, such as the Challenge Ore Feeder, which can be
regulated so as to furnish a regular supply of ore to the mill.
There is a good deal of prejudice against ore-feeders at some
mines even now, and no doubt, in certain cases, they have not
worked satisfactorily ; but the fault has been, not in the feeders
?
5
g
CHEMICAL SCIENCE IN AUSTRALASIA. 285.
themselves, but in the neglect to regulate them so as to produce
the best results.
A crushing battery that is firmly set on good foundations,
consisting of vertical mortar blocks, well rammed with sand,
that has substantial mud-sills and cross-sills, and the housing
constructed so as to resist the strains put upon it, and that is fed
regularly with ore that has been first broken by a stone-breaker,,.
will work rapidly without very great vibration, and should put
from two to three tons per head per twenty-four hours through a
No. 8 screen.
The boxes or mortars are made of various forms, and with a
delivery which is high or low, according to the fineness or coarse-
ness to which the crushing is to be carried, and the arrangement
of the screens is also varied by different makers. It is in these-
boxes that the first amalgamation takes place, and usually a stout
copper plate is placed in a recess at the back of the box, on which,
when the gold is coarse. a considerable proportion is retained. It
is, also, sometimes considered advisable to place free mercury in
the boxes, but the practice should be deprecated, as it flours the
mercury, and a considerable loss frequently ensues.
Outside the screens plates of copper amalgamated with mercury
are placed to catch the gold as it flows over the surface, and in
many cases of late these copper plates have been replaced by
electro plates, which avoid the constant formation of a green scum
when the plates are new. Mercury wells are also used in many
batteries, but they are not beneficial, because, if any sulphides are
present in the stone, they soon form a coating on the mercury and
destroy its utility.
For true free milling ores this treatment is all that is necessary,
and although machines have been introduced to replace the
stamps there are none which have as yet been tried which can
claim to have superseded them. Probably the best of the new
machines is the Huntingdon mill, which has achieved a certain
measure of success, and for small mines is undoubtedly an
economical system of crushing. It has, however, been so
frequently erected by men who have not had any experience in
the plant, and worked by others who are equally ignorant in the
matter, that there have been many failures recorded in these
colonies against comparatively few assured successes.
The Globe mill again claims to supersede the stamps, but has
not yet, so far as we are aware, succeeded in establishing itself
at any mine. Another machine, the Ashcroft Pulveriser,
which has been patented, works upon a different system, the
grinding being done by heavy balls and pestles, an attempt
being made to imitate, as closely as possible, the action of
the pestle and mortar. The inventor claims that the motion
of a ball, or a hemispherical surface, revolving on its own axis at
the same time as it is driven round the pan, is the most economical.
way of reducing mineral to fine powder.
286 STATE AND PROGRESS OF
In the earlier machines this motion was imparted to the balls
by cones, against which the centrifugal force so acted as to
produce the rotatory motion desired, and it acted well so long as
the balls preserved their spherical form, but if any small flat
surface became worn, or if fine matter accumulated in the machine,
the balls ceased to rotate. In the present arrangement the balls
cannot stop, and the true spherical form is preserved.
The result of experiments with the first mill made on the new
plan is that the hardest quartz can be rapidly reduced to the
finest powder, and the inventor has supplied us with the following
figures, derived from actual experiments, as illustrative of the
work performed :—
Power required to work a four feet diameter
mill ‘en ta sf ... 6 horse-power.
Quantity passed through wire screen, with
1600 holes to square inch, per hour de De Wibs
Weight of heaviest piece in mill Se. el etewite
Total weight of mill_... Bc i. © -Setons’
A plant is now being erected at the Britannia Mine, near
Forbes, which wili afford an excellent guide as to the actual
working results of the machine. There are several incidental
advantages which are claimed for this mill. The whole grinding
pan can be replaced at the same cost as replacing a false bottom.
The wearing parts are all castings. The mill requires no founda-
tions, and can be set to work a few hours after arrival at a mine,
and can easily be moved from place to place.
The refractory gold ores, in the majority of cases, carry a certain
amount of free gold in them, and are thus generally subjected to
the processes to which we have alluded before undergoing further
treatment. They are sometimes, however, taken direct from the
battery for concentration without the intervention of any method
of amalgamation, or, at times, passed through a system of pan
amalgamation, which will be alluded to further on, without being
concentrated at all.
In concentration there is a wide field for inventors, and to
this subject a good deal of attention has been directed. Until
comparatively lately concentration was performed on blanket
tables, in buddles of various form, or on end blow, percussion, or
shaking tables only ; but of late the Frue Vanner and Triumph
Concentrator have been somewhat extensively introduced, doing
their work very completely, but working at a comparatively slow
rate, wo vanners being required for each #ve heads of stamps.
A patent has been taken out by Mr. G. C. Knapp and
Mr. T. E. Fuller for a concentrator known as the ‘‘ Champion,”
which, while working on a similar principle to the Triumph, has
different mechanical arrangements, and the belt is shorter and
wider. This concentrator comes under the head of belt
i a er a ae
CHEMICAL SCIENCE IN AUSTRALASIA. 287
machines, and was designed by the inventors to modify
and overcome some of the defects experienced in their practice
with the Frue Vanner, Triumph Concentrator, and other machines
of a like character. Their first object was to gain a larger
cencentrating surface by widening the belt, and their second to
do away with a needless length of belt, and thereby increase the
facility with which the tailings could flow away. The superfluous
length was ascertained by direct experiments with existing
machines. With this object in view, the length of the top surface
of the belt, from centre to centre of the two end rollers, was made
six feet, and the width the same, thereby decreasing the length
of the vanner belt by about one-half, and increasing the width by
two feet, giving a large increase in the concentrating power of
the machine, and getting rid of the tailings in about half the
time of the Frue Vanner. Another special point in the construc-
tion of the machine, which the inventors claim in their patent,
has relation to the means by which the “ grade” is raised or
lowered, and is one of which any practical man who has seen it
will at once admit the advantage.
The work of a machine of this class can be regulated almost
exclusively by the alteration of the grade, without reference to
the “uphill travel,’ and, in most machines, this alteration has
been effected by wooden wedges, driven in or out by a hammer
according as the grade is to be lessened or increased. As, in
that case, the whole of the stationary framework has to be raised,
it detracts very considerably from the stability of the machine,
and, in the case of the Triumph Concentrator, slackens the
driving-belt to a great extent, as the wedges have to be driven
under the frame at the head.
In the machine now under consideration the raising and
lowering is done by a separate framework, made of angle iron,
on which the supports of the shaking frame rest in suitable
sockets. The front ends of this frame are pivoted on the main
standing frame, which is made of cast iron, and bolted permanently
down to the longitudinal mud-sills, and it is raised or lowered on
the pivots by two hand wheel-screws situated at the foot of the
machine, which work in cast iron bosses bolted to the floor.
This machine has been built by the Mort’s Dock Engineering
Company Limited, but has not yet been worked, pending the
arrival of the belt ; but it may be mentioned that Mr. Egleston
states, in his “Metallurgy of Silver, Gold and Mercury,”
Vol. I, p. 481, that at the Silver King Mine, in Arizona, six 6ft.
vanners were started in August, 1886, and by January, 1887,
they had treated 10,178 tons of tails from the twelve 4ft. vanners
on which the first concentrations were made. The average
amount treated on each of the 6ft. vanners was twelve and a half
tons per day, nearly twice the quantity dealt with by the 4ft.
machine. The tails from the large vanners yielded only 2:030z.
288 STATE AND PROGRESS OF
of silver, or 74 % of the value of the original ore, and was almost
entirely composed of argentiferous zinc blende. With any of
these concentrating machines the heavy pyritous minerals can be
concentrated from the ores, leaving the tailings almost absolutely
clean, but since every ore requires special adjustments of the
concentrators to achieve the best results, it is only by actual trials,
which may take a few days, that the most perfect adjustment
can be arrived at. Where vanners are employed it is necessary
to crush with as little water as possible, and consequently the
tables have to be set on a steep grade. If this be not attended
to there is too much water for the vanners to work satisfactorily.
It is the subsequent treatment of the concentrated sulphides
that has, perhaps, received the greatest amount of attention of
late, as the colonies have but recently awakened to the fact that
on this treatment the ultimate success of the gold-mining
industry depends. In every case the pyrites has to be roasted
in the first instance, with the exception of the so-called cyanide
process, in which the finely-divided sulphides are digested with
potassic cyanide, which is stated to dissolve the silver and gold,
and these are subsequently precipitated by zinc, the cyanide
being recovered. We are not aware that this process has been
tried on a practical scale in the colonies, but the results of
laboratory tests by several observers has disclosed the fact that
the results are very various, and while sometimes nearly 90 /% of
the silver and gold are obtained, in other cases not more than
half that proportion is saved. It would appear, therefore, that
there are some disturbing agencies which are not yet thoroughly
understood, and consequently that the process requires further
investigation before it can be considered a practical success.
Roasting is the first requisite in all other processes, the object
being to oxidise the sulphides and liberate the gold in a free state,
and this is done at several of the mines. There are certain
difficulties attached to roasting ores, some relating to the question
of expense and others to the complete extraction of the gold and
silver if it is present.
The simplest form of furnace, and the one which is usually
employed here, is the reverberatory, the floor of which is made
very long, and the ore being fed through a hopper at the end
farthest from the bridge, is gradually raked down until it reaches
the hottest part near the flame, and from this point it is scraped
through a hole in the floor into cars, which convey it to the cooling
chamber. Roasting in this furnace can be done as perfectly as in
any other, but the expense of handling, and the hard work it
entails on the men, is a decided disadvantage, and a good deal of
attention has been directed elsewhere to the construction of
furnaces which obviate these difficulties. We may mention
Bruckner’s revolving cylinder, White’s, White-Howell and
Howell’s improved revolving furnaces, which have been largely
wae eS
CHEMICAL SCIENCE IN AUSTRALASIA. 289
used in America; but we believe there is only one mine in
Australasia, the Waiorongamai, at Te Aroha, New Zealand,
where any of them have been erected. Another furnace, the
“Stetefelt,” works on the principle that a rapid oxidising and
chloridising action can be produced by bringing the finely-divided
particles, either with or without salt, in contact with an ascending
column of hot air, and this again, although it has been worked
successfully in America, has, we believe, been only tried at one
place, St. Arnaud, in the colonies, where it was subsequently
stopped.
A furnace has been patented in the colonies by Mr. H. D.
Meston, which consists of several floors communicating one
with the other by slots, which can be opened or closed
at pleasure. The ore is transferred from one shelf to a lower
one through these slots from time to time, and the ore is stirred
by revolving stirrers, the final roasting being performed in a
reverberatory furnace. This would appear to possess the
principal requirements for perfect and economical roasting.
It is at present in operation at the Clyde Smelting Works,
near Sydney, where it is stated to perform its work
satisfactorily.
So long as the gold is free from silver, or contains only a small
proportion of that metal, but little difficulty is experienced in
roasting, provided sufficient care is taken not to raise the heat
too rapidly, and thus fuse or cake the material; but with silver
the greatest care is necessary, because, in order to recover this
metal, it is necessary to introduce salt at some time during the
roast, preferably near the end, and a volatile chloride of gold is
frequently formed, resulting, unless the greatest care is taken, in
a loss of that metal. It would appear, however, that care and
attention can overcome this difficulty, and the loss is comparatively
slight where the process is thoroughly understood. After roasting,
there are two distinct processes open, each of which has received
a good deal of attention; these are respectively amalgamation
and chlorination.
Where amalgamation is employed, the roasted ore is ground in
charges in some form of pan, and of these there are numerous
adaptations. The objects of these pans are to provide as great a
grinding surface as possible, and to have a complete circulation
of the pulp. This circulation is generally secured by wings in
the side of the pan diverting the flow of the current to the
centre, but a pan has been patented in the colonies of late
by Mr. G. C. Knapp which has an octagonal form, the mullers
having, of course, only a circular rotation, and the circulation of
the pulp in this machine is as perfect as it is possible
to desire. Another pan, invented by Mr. C. Dubois, is
closed at the top, and having a steam jacket below,
it is claimed that the mercury is volatilised, and thus
s
290 STATE AND PROGRESS OF
permeates every pore of the pulp. We have not seen this pan in
operation, but it appears that the heat gained could not be
sufficient to volatilise the mercury, except at a prohibitory
expense.
In chlorination there is not a single instance in which Plastner’s
system is being employed, that known locally as the Newbery-
Vautin process, with modifications, having entirely taken its
place. We think some notice of this class of process is necessary,
because there is some misconcepiion as to the origin of the
principle.
Dr. Mears seems to have been the first to introduce the
system of working chlorination under pressure, and to do this he
employed a revolving barrel, into which chlorine, generated
from chloride of lime and sulphuric acid, was pumped, and the
barrel was subsequently rotated. Mr. Thies evolved chlorine
from the same substances, but did it in the barrel itself, not
obtaining any adventitious pressure ; while Messrs. Newbery and
Vautin proposed to secure the pressure by pumping in air, the
chlorine being generated as in Mr. Theis’ process. The system
employed here seems to be identical with that of Mr. Theis.
In all chlorination it is necessary to keep the pulp damp after
crushing, the test of suitability being that it can be crushed
together in the hand, but commences to fall to pieces when the
pressure is released. Under these conditions, the chlorine pene-
trates the ore more completely than when it is dry, besides
which, if allowed to dry it cakes, and has to be reground.
SILVER ORES.
The various processes of treating the more simple silver ores
has been so thoroughly exhausted in numerous works on the
subject that it would be going outside our province to note any
details regarding it. For the free milling ores a chloridising
roasting is first resorted to, and this is followed by amalgama-
tion in pans. This process is now in operation at Waiorongomai,
at Te Aroha, New Zealand, and will probably be introduced at
the White Rock Mine in New South Wales. There have not,
so far as we are aware, been any improvements introduced into
the methods of treatment in these colonies, in which, indeed, the
silver mining industry is but new. The principal method of
treatment which has found favour here is by smelting, and this
is adopted over a wide-spread area. At Broken Hill, Sunny
Corner, Mount Costigan, Port Pirie, and other places the ores
are smelted, and in some cases lead has been bought and passed
through the furnaces with the view to recover the silver. In the
majority of cases the water-jacket continuous furnaces are
employed for smelting, and although, in some cases, refining has
been attempted, the bullion is now generally shipped. At Sunny
CHEMICAL SCIENCE IN AUSTRALASIA. 291
Corner the first system adopted has given place to smelting to a
regulus in the first place, and from this the silver is subsequently
recovered with lead. There are, however, no new adaptations of
well-known processes to chronicle. As regards the refractory
silver ores at Webb’s Mine, New England, an ore is being raised
which consists of a mixture of fahlore, galena, zinc blende, and
copper pyrites, and this has been subjected to a leaching process,
modified from Von Patera’s. There are many other localities,
notably in Northern Queensland, where very refractory ores are
met with, and which are generally shipped for sale.
The leaching process does not appear to have been worked
satisfactorily at Webb’s—at least, operations were suspended, and
a good deal of discussion ensued as to what was the best method
to adopt for dealing with the ore. Amalgamation was advocated
by some, but this has been overruled, and the process about to be
employed is stated to be Russell’s modification of the Von Patera
process, in which sodium hyposulphite takes the place of the
corresponding calcium salt, and sodium sulphide is used asa
precipitant. There are many advantages in this change, the
principal, perhaps, of which is that the lead can be precipitated
as a carbonate, leaving the silver in solution, and although the
sodium hyposulphite solution is more expensive than the calcium
hyposulphite one, it can be used in a more concentrated form, and
the sodium sulphide precipitates a larger proportion of the silver
than the corresponding calcium salt. This process is about to be
introduced at the Broken Hill Proprietary Mine to treat some of
their ores, but the “extra solution,” a double cuprous and sodium
hyposulphite, which forms one of the features of the Russell process,
is to be used weaker than specified in Russell’s patent. We believe
this process to be admirably adapted for the treatment of many of
the more complex ores in the colonies, and may quote Mr. Stetefelt’s
resumé of the advantages of this system over pan amalgamation,
set forth in a paper read before the American Institute of Mining
Engineers. These are as follows :—
1. In amalgamation the fineness to which the ore has to be
crushed is determined by the capacity of the settler to work off
coarse sands without loss of quicksilver. It is not practicable to
use a coarser screen than No. 30 if the crushing is done by
stamps. This is almost equivalent to sifting through a No. 40
revolving screen, if the crushing is done by rolls. In lixiviation,
pulverising as coarse as possible is desirable. The limit of coarse-
ness is determined by the roasting process. It depends upon the
character of the ore, and, principally, upon the manner in which
the silver-bearing minerals are distributed in the gangue.
2. The original cost of the lixiviation plant is much lower than
that of pans and settlers. A further saving is effected by a
reduction in the size of the engines and boilers.
92
al
292 CHEMICAL SCIENCE IN AUSTRALASIA.
3. In amalgamation the pans and settlers consume not less
than one and a half horse-power per ton of ore. The power for
pumping solutions, &c., in the lixiviation process is merely
nominal.
4. In large mills the quantity of quicksilver in rotation repre-
sents a capital of from £6000 to £8000, while the stock of
chemicals required for lixiviation does not cost more than one-
tenth of this amount.
5. With Russell’s improvements, the percentage of silver
extracted by lixiviation is much higher than by amalgamation.
6. Lixiviation by Russell’s process requires a less careful
chloridising roasting. In many cases the salt may be dispensed
with.
7. The value of the lost quicksilver and cost in wear and
tear of the pans and settlers amounts to more than that of the
chemicals consumed in the lixiviation process.
8. The lixiviation process permits of the extraction of copper
and lead as valuable by-products.
9. The sulphides from the lixiviation process can be more
easily converted into fine bars, and the gold parted, than this
can be done with the bullion obtained in amalgamation.
10. Amalgamation is invariably injurious to the labourer’s
health.
11. Where gold-bearing silver ores have been roasted with
salt, lixiviation extracts, In most cases, more gold than amal-
gamation.
12. The possibility of lixiviating many so-called “free milling
ores” without previous roasting, including tailings resulting from
amalgamation of roasted or raw silver ores.
13. The possibility of lixiviating with profit some classes of
silver ores after they have been subjected to an oxidising
roasting only.
Since the foregoing was written, a patent by A. A. Lockwood
and H. Chappel has come under our notice, in which the
roasting of auriferous and argentiferous ores is performed in
retorts by steam, super-heated steam, or carburetted hydrogen.
An experimental plant has been erected in Sydney, but we
have not yet had an opportunity of ascertaining the completeness
of the operation.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE No. 11.
The Bibliography of the Australasian, Papuan, and
Polynesian Races.
MempBers oF CommirTse :—Hon. Dr. AcNEw, Rev. J. CopELANp, Rev.
S. Exiua, Rev. W. Wvratt Git, Sir James Hector, Mr. A. W.
Howirt, Mr. J. F. Mann, and Dr. Joun FrRassr, Secretary.
ALL the members of this committee have been consulted, but
the arrangement of the work to be done and the doing of it have,
of necessity, been mainly in the hands of those members of it
who reside in Sydney. Thus it was agreed that the Papuan Race
should be inserted in our programme; it was also thought
desirable, and in this all the members of the committee concurred,
that an effort should be made to present to these colonies, and
especially to Britain, a full and reliable account of some of the
less known features of the social and domestic life of the
Australasian, Papuan, and Polynesian Races, based on the same
topics of inquiry, and written, as it were, in parallel columns.
Even those who are well informed on such subjects may find it
pleasant to have thus the means of comparing and contrasting at
one glance some of the characteristics of these races; and when
we consider the lack of trustworthy information of that kind
among scientists in European countries, our committee is of
opinion that a voluntary labour such as this, may well be added
to the work assigned to us. The following syllabus was
accordingly prepared and issued to the members of the committee
and to others :—
Torics TO BE DISCUSSED IN THE REPORT ON THE AUSTRALASIAN,
PAPUAN, AND PoLYNESIAN RACEs.
N.B.—The characteristic features of the Races and other well-known
points are omitted.
BirtH AND CHILDHOOD.—Observances and superstitious beliefs in con-
nection with the birth of a child—any variation in these when
the child 1s a female—is the woman isolated and regarded as
294 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
unclean for a time—how long? Infanticide of males, females ;
when, how, why practised—any cannibalism then? Is child
named in any formal way—when, how—whence comes the name ?
How are deformed and sickly children treated? How does the
mother carry the child or children—does the father ever carry it ?
Suckling, how long continued? Is anything applied to the
child’s head to regulate its shape? During childhood is the child
lovingly cared for, disciplined, taught useful habits by parents ?
Is female child betrothed when young—by whom ?
Marurity.—At whatage mature? For females, observances on reaching
maturity? For males, rites of initiation into the tribe and the
privileges of manhood—circumcision, how done, why (as natives
say), with what instrument, by what person—how long is initiation
carried on—is it progressive as in the grades of freemasonry ?
Are there mystic ceremonies—of what kind—a badge or sacred
belt, a new name, tattoo, hair cut off, restrictions as to food? Are
there special colours used at the ceremony—sacred songs, dances,
taught? What privileges does the fully initiated youth possess ?
Marriace.—Preliminaries ? Does a betrothed child at once pass into
the charge of her husband? Is there marriage by force, by
capture, by sale, by barter? State restrictions, if any, as to
marriage among the classes of the tribe—marriage ceremonies
and observances? Is there polygamy? Is it restricted to the
chiefs? Do children take their tribal (totem) classification from the
father or from the mother—in war do they join their mother’s kin?
The law of inheritance of land or property? How is a widow
treated—orphans? Is there any restriction of converse or inter-
course between relatives by blood or marriage—why (as natives
say)? What work has the married woman to do—how is she
treated by her husband ?
Tue Tripe.—What constitutes a tribe ? Is there one chief or several—
how does a man become a chief—is the office of chief hereditary—
how does it pass—the power and authority and duties of a chief ?
Is there a tribal council—how constituted—its work? How are
infractions of tribal law punished ?
SociaAL AND Domestic.—Huts—how built—of what material, shape ?
Cultivation—how—kind of food—abundance of food—work done—
by whom? Meals, how cooked, how eaten—when, how many each
day—reception of strangers? Ornaments—of hair, ear, nose,
arms, legs? Clothing? Are the natives well nourished ?
Wizarps.—What makes a man a wizard? How is he supposed to obtain
his magic powers—how use them, for good, for evil—in bringing
rain or driving it away—in causing sickness—in curing the sick—
in driving away evil spirits—in causing death—in discovering the
cause of death, &c.? Does he receive any pay or reward ?
Dratu.—Beliefs as to causes of natural death—observances by relatives
at death—cutting of gashes on head or body—modes and colours
of mourning—wrappings of dead or other preparations—funeral—
erave—mode of interment—grave mound or other mark—articles
put in the grave with deceased—offerings or watchings at fire at
grave, mourning, how long continued ?
Sprrir Woritp.—Where? Beliefs as to the continued existence of
spirit, and its first condition after death—changes which the spirit
undergoes, when, how—transmigration—the spirit’s ultimate
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 295
destiny and abode—its presence and influence among the living—
the entrance and road to the spirit world; beliefs as to the
deceased great men of the tribe or race ?
Myruo.tocy.—Beliefs as to a creator or creators—assistants in the work
of creation, in administration, in communicating with men—as to
inferior deities and their province and attributes ?—are these
supposed to be heroes or (family) ancestors deified >—do they help
or injure men ?
PuitoLoey.—A list of the numerals and pronouns in the language, with
suggestions as to their etymology? Paradigm of the conjugation
and declension of the verb “to go,” and of the verb “to kill,”
with a pronominal object? A few simple sentences to show the
erammatical structure of the language ? A list of words for the
English—man, woman, head, hair of head, eye, nose, tongue, ear,
hand, thumb, foot, bone, blood, fire, water, sun, moon, father,
mother, son, daughter, brother, sister, cousin, uncle, aunt; and
the verbs give, take, make or do, bear, burn, see, hear.
Our committee wishes to present to the next meeting of this Associa-
tion a comparative view of the Australasian, Papuan, and Polynesian
races, to be written in sections and on the same lines (as above) by those.
who are well acquainted with these races, and are thus able to give
reliable information regarding them.
Reports on these lines may yet be obtained in sections for
Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, the New Hebrides, New
Guinea, Fiji, and the chief groups in Polynesia. These reports
would, doubtless, show considerable uniformity in the usages of
the races, but the divergences would also be considerable, and
especially interesting to a mind accustomed to observing these
usages, and to ask what was their origin and how they came to
vary. Of course such a task is a large one, and can be managed
only by instalments. We now present two of these instalments,
the one written by the Rev. W. Wyatt Gill, B.A., LL.D., and
the other by that indefatigable pioneer missionary, the Rev.
James Chalmers, of Port Moresby, New Guinea. Dr. Gill’s
report applies to Polynesia, and especially to the Hervey Islands,
where he so long laboured.
The bibliography of the races has been compiled from two books
already published, the ‘Catalogue of the York Gate Library,”
formed by Mr. G. Wm. Silver, and the “Catalogue of the Sir
George Grey Collection,” in the Free Public Library at Auckland,
of which the latter has been forwarded to us for this purpose
through the courtesy of Sir George Grey himself. Our committee
has entered in these lists only such books as throw light on the
ethnography of the races or the philology of their languages ;
concise notices of some of the chief publications in the native
languages will be found under each head. These lists do not
pretend to be complete, and therefore may require to be supple-
mented at some future time, when also other portions of our
report on the races themselves may appear, if the Science
Association should wish our labours to be continued.
296
i)
or
~I
co OO
16.
AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
I.—BIBLIOGRAPHY.
(1) AvsTRALIA.
. Angas, G. Frencu.-—“ South Australia [lustrated, with
illustrations of the Australian Aborigines.” 60 plates
with letterpress. Folio. London, 1847.
. Ancas, G. Frencu.—‘“ Savage Life and Scenes in Australia
and New Zealand.” 2 vols., 12mo. London, 1847.
Bennett, J. W. O.—“ Vocabulary of the Woolner District
Dialect, Adelaide River, Northern Territory.” Adelaide,
1869.
Brireex, W. H. I.—“On the Position of the Australian
Languages.”
Bonwicx, Jas.—‘ William Buckley, the Wild White Man,
and his Port Phillip Black Friends.” 8vo. Melbourne,
1856.
. Bonwick, Jas.—‘‘ The Last of the Tasmanians and the
Black War of Van Diemen’s Land.” 8vo. London,
1870.
. Bonwicx, Jas.—‘ Daily Life and Origin of the Tasmanians.”
8vo. London, 1870.
Bonwick, Jas.—‘‘ The Australian Aborigines ” (see 14).
Brapy, Rev. J.—‘‘ Descriptive Vocabulary of the Native
Language of Western Australia.” Rome, 1845.
. Breton, Lieut. H. W. (R.N.)—“The Aborigines of New
Holland.” In “ Excursions in New South Wales, &e.”
1833.
. BuckLey (see 46).
Buncr, Dantet.—‘ Language of the Aborigines of the Colony
of Victoria, with Translations.” Melbourne, 1851.
. Catpger, J. E.—‘“ Account of the Wars, Extirpation, Habits,
&ec., of the Tasmanians.” 12mo, Hobart, 1875.
. CASsELL’s “ Tllustrated Travels.” 6 vols., 4to. Vol. VI.—
“¢ At an Australian Corroboree,” by J. A. SKERTCHLEY.
Vol. VI.—“The Australian Aborigines,” by Jas.
Bonwick. London, 1869-74.
. Cotiins, Davip.—“ Account of New South Wales, with
Remarks on the Native ; Particulars of New Zealand,
and the Discovery of Bass’ Straits.” Plates. 2 vols.,
4to. London, 1798-1802.
Couns, Davip.—‘ The Australian Aborigines ; their Habits,
Manners and Customs.” With plates. In “The Account
of New South Wales.” (See 15).
it.
18.
to
(02)
33.
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 297
CunnincHam, Prerer (R.N).—“The Aboriginals, their Personal
Characteristics, Mode of Life, Customs, &c.” In ‘‘Twe
Years in New South Wales.” 2 vols., 12mo. London,
1827.
Dawson, Rospt.—‘‘The Present State of Australia, with an
Account of the Aborigines.” 8vo. London, 1831.
. Dawson, Jas.—‘‘ Australian Aborigines; Languages and
Customs of Several Tribes of Aborigines in Western
Victoria.” With photographs. 4to. Melbourne, 1881.
Fison, Lorimer, and Howirr, A. W.—‘“ Kamilaroi and
Kurnai; Group, Marriage, and Relationship, &c.” 8vo.
Melbourne, 1880.
. Fraser, Joun.— The Aborigines of Australia ; their Ethnic
Position and Relations.” London, 1888.
. Grey, Sir Georce.—“ The Aborigines of Western Australia ;
in Two Expeditions in North-west and Western Aus-
tralia, 1837-39.” 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1811.
. Grey, Sir Grorce.—“ Vocabulary of the Dialects of the
South-west of Australia.” London, 1841.
Grey, Sir Grorce.—The Library of Philology—* Languages
of Australia, Papua, Fiji, New Zealand, Polynesia.”
8vo. London, 1858-9.
. GRIBBLE, Rev. J. B.—‘ Black but Comely; Glimpses of
Aboriginal Life in Australia.” 12mo. London, 1884.
Harr, Horario.—“ The Australian Aborigines, &c.” In
the ‘“‘ Ethnology and Philology ” of the “ U.S. Exploring
Expedition.” Royal 4to. Philadelphia, 1846.
. Hrenperson, Lieut. Joun.— Excursions and Adventures in
New South Wales; Description of the Australian
Natives, &.” 2 vols.,12mo. London, 1857.
. HENDERSON, JoHn.—“ Observations on the Colonies of New
South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land.” 8vo. Calcutta,
1832.
. Hopexinson, CLemEentT,—“ Australia, from Port Macquarie
to Moreton Bay.” 8vo. London, 1845.
. Howitt, A. W. (see 20).
. JARDINE, J.—‘“‘Overland Expedition from Rockhampton to
Cape York.” 1867.
2. Keane, A. H., and Watuacz, A. R.—‘‘ Australasia.” Edited
by A. R. Watxace, 1879. In Stanrorp’s “Compendium
of Geography and Travel.” 6 vols. 8vo. London,
1879-85.
Lane, G. 8.—“ The Aborigines of Victoria.” Melbourne,
1865.
298
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
43.
44,
45,
46.
47.
48,
AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
Lane, Rev. J. D.—‘ Queensland: a Field for Immigration,
&e., with a Disquisition on the Aborigines.” 12mo.
London, 1864.
Leicuarpt, Dr. Lupwic.—‘ Journal of an Overland Expe-
dition in Australia (from Moreton Bay to Port
Essington, a distance of upwards of 3000 miles) During
the Years 1844-45.” 8vo. 1847.
MacGi.iivray, Joun—“ Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S.
Rattlesnake.” 1852.
Martin’s “Colonial Magazine.”—Articles on ‘‘The Abori-
gines of Australia.” In vols. iL, v., Vi.
McCompiz, Tuos.—‘ Arabin; or the Adventures of a
Colonist in New South Wales.” With ‘“ Essay on the
Aborigines.” 12mo. London, 1845.
Metvitir, Henry. — “Present State of Australasia ;
Remarks on the Aborigines, &c.” 12mo. London, 1857.
Meyer, H. E. A.—‘ Manners and Customs of the Aborigines
of the Encounter Bay Tribe, South Australia.” Adelaide,
1846.
Meyer, H. E. A.—‘“ Vocabulary of the Language Spoken
by the Aborigines of the Southern and Eastern Portions
of South Australia.” Preceded by a Grammar. Adelaide,
1843.
. Minuican, JosEpH.—‘ Vocabulary of the Dialects of Some
of the Aboriginal Tribes of Tasmania.” 8vo. Hobart,
1866.
Mitcuett, Major T. L.—“Three Expeditions into the
Interior of Eastern Australia.” 2 vols., 8vo. London,
1838.
Moors, G. F.—“ Descriptive Vocabulary of the Language
in Common Use amongst the Aborigines of Western
Australia.” London, 1842.
Moornousr, M. — “Vocabulary of the Murray River
Language.” Adelaide, 1846.
Morean, Joun.—“ Life and Adventures of William Buckley ;
for 32 Years a Wanderer amongst the Aborigines of
Victoria.” 12mo. Hobart, 1852.
Morritt, EpmMunp.—“‘ Sketch of the Residence of James
Morrill among the Aborigines of Northern Queensland
for 17 Years. Brisbane, 1865.
Muniz, Rosr.—* Account of the Native Inhabitants of
Australia,” from Collins, Flinders, Oxley, Barron Field,
and others. In the “Pictures of Australia.” 8vo.
London, 1829.
49.
60.
61.
63.
64.
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTER. 299
Mounpy, Col. G. C.—“ Our Antipodes; or, Residence and
Rambles in the Australasian Colonies.” (1846-51).
8vo. London, 1855.
. Parerson, G.—‘ History of New South Wales; with a
Description of the Natives, &c.” 8vo. Newcastle-on-
Tyne, 1811.
. Peron, Frep.—‘ Voyage de Découvertes aux Terres Aus-
trales, 1800-1804.” Paris, 1807.
2. Peron, Frep., et Freycinet, Lovuis.—‘‘ La Force Physique
des Peuples Sauvages de la Nouvelle Hollande et la
Terre de Diemen.” In the “ Voyage aux Terres Aus-
trales.” 2 vols., folio. Paris, 1807.
. Riptey, Rey. W.— “Gurre Kamilaroi; or, Kamilaroi
Sayings.” Sydney, 1856.
. Riptey, Rev. Wm.—‘ Kamilaroi, Dippil, and Turrubul;
Languages Spoken by Australian Aborigines.” 4to.
Sydney, 1866.
. Riptey, Rev. Wu.—“ Kamilaroi and (20) other Australian
Languages.” 2nd edition, revised and enlarged. 4to.
Sydney, 1875.
. ScourMANN, C. W.—“ Aboriginal Tribes of Port Lincoln, in
South Australia.” Adelaide, 1846.
. ScourMANN, C. W.—‘“ Vocabulary of the Parnkalla Lan-
guage.” Adelaide, 1844.
. SKERTCHLEY, J. A.—‘ At an Australian Corroboree” (see 14.)
. SmytH, R. Broveu.—‘ The Aborigines of Victoria, &c.”
2 vols., 8vo. Melbourne, 1878.
STANBRIDGE, W. E.—‘“ General Characteristics, Astronomy,
and Mythology of the Tribes in the Central Part of
Victoria.” 8vo. 1861.
Stokes, J. L. (R.N). — “ Discoveries in Australia; the
Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle in the Years 1837 to 1843 ;
also a narrative of Captain Owen Stanley’s Visit to the
Islands in the Arafura Sea.” S8vo. London, 1846.
2. Sturt, Capt. CHaries.—‘ Two Expeditions into the Interior
of Southern Australia during the Years 1828-31.” 2
vols. London, 1833.
Sturt, Capt. Cuartes.—“ Narrative of an Expedition into
Central Australia, &c.” 2 vols. London, 1849.
Tapuin, Rev. G.—“The Folklore, Manners, Customs, and
Languages of the South Australian Aborigines.” 8vo.
Adelaide, 1879.
300 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
65. TEICHELMANN, C. G., and ScHuRMANN, C. W.—“ Outlines of
a Grammar, Vocabulary, and Phraseology of the Abori-
ginal Language of South Australia.” Adelaide, 1840.
66. THornge, E.—‘‘ The Queen of the Colonies ; with an Account
of the Aborigines of Queensland.” 8vo. London, 1876.
67. THRELKELD, L. E.—“ An Australian Grammar, &c.” 8vo.
Sydney, 1834.
68. THRELKELD, L. E.—‘‘ A Key to the Structure of the Aborig-
inal Language.” 8vo. Sydney, 1850.
69. TownsEND, J. Puipps.—‘‘ Rambles in New South Wales;
Sketches of the Aborigines.” 12mo. London, 1849.
70. Watuace, A. R.—“ Australasia.” In Sranrorp’s “ Com-
pendium of Geography and Travel,” based upon
Hellwald’s ‘‘ Die Erde und ihre Folker.” London, 1879.
71. WiLHetmi1, Cart.— Natives of the Port Lincoln District,
South Australia.”
72. Wituiams, W.—‘ Vocabulary of the Language Spoken by
the Aborigines of the Adelaide District.”
73. Woop.—‘ The Native Australians.” In “ Wood’s Natural
History of Man.” Illustrated. 2 vols., royal 8vo.
London, 1868-70.
74. Woops, J. D.—“The Native Tribes of South Australia.”
8vo. Adelaide, 1879.
Vocabularies and incidental notices of Australian words, and
their meanings, are found in the works of many authors who have
written about Australia; e.g.—1790, White has a few names of
animals ; 1763, Hunter, about 390 words ; 1793, Tench, between
70 and 80 words; 1798, Collins, about 400 words; 1807-11,
Péro, about 20 words; 1811, Patterson, a few words; 1814,
Flinders, about 15 words; 1820, Oxley, 37 words ; 1825, Field,
a few words; 1827, Cunningham, over a dozen words; 1827,
King, about 50 words; 1832, Henderson, about a dozen words ;
1833, Breton, 70 words; 1833, Sturt, a few words; 1834,
D’Urville, about 150 words; 1834, Geo. Bennett, 130 words ;
Threlkeld’s Grammar has a large vocabulary of words ; 1839,
Ogle, about 170 words; 1839, Mitchell, about 350 words and
names ; 1844, Mrs. C. Meredith, 25 words ; 1845, Hodgkinson,
a few names ; 1845, Strezlecki, remarks on the language; 1845,
Eyre, nearly 100 words; 1845, Rev. D. McKenzie, about 50
words ; 1846, Dr. Braim, a few notices from Threlkeld; 1846,
Hale (U.S. expedition), about 360 words ; 1847, Marjoribanks, a
few words; 1848, Mitchell, some names ; 1848, Gould (‘ Birds”),
about 230 native names ; 1849, Sturt (“‘ Central Australia”), some
names ; 1850, Threlkeld’s Key has comparative tables of words ;
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY CCMMITTEER. 301
1851, Bunce, about 80 words ; 1851, Henderson, about 70 words ;
1852, Mundy, half a dozen words ; 1857, Cooper, 220 words ;
1860, Geo. Bennett, 50 names ; 1862, Latham, about 150 words ;
1863, Rev. J. Graham, upwards of 30 words; 1865, Sam.
Bennett, comparison of words; 1866, Bailliere (‘‘ Gazetteer of
New South Wales ”), about 3000 names of rivers, mountains, &e. ;
1866, Ridley, first edition ; 1875, Ridley, second edition, greatly
enlarged, about 1200 words; 1878, R. B. Smyth, about two.
dozen words ; 1880, Fison and Howitt (‘‘ Kamilaroi and Kurnai”),
words for relationships ; Curr.
Information about the aborigines of Australia and_ their
languages may also be obtained from ‘‘ Notes and Proceedings of
the Parliament of New South Wales, 1834-38 ;” “Report of the
Select Committee of the Parliament of New South Wales, 1838-
1845;” and from numerous articles in the volumes of the
“Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain,” the
“Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London,” the
“Journal of the Royal Colonial Institute of London,” the Journals
of the Royal Societies of New South Wales, Victoria, cc.
(2.) East InpIAN ARCHIPELAGO.
—
. Bopp, Franz.—‘‘ Uber die Verwandschaft der Malayisch.
Polynesischen Sprachen mit den Indisch. Europiischen.”
Berlin, 1841.
. CRAWFURD, JoHn.—“ History of the Indian Archipelago ;
Manners, Arts, Languages, Religious Institutions, and
Commerce.” 3 vols., 8vo. Edinburgh, 1820.
bo
3. CRAWFURD, JoHN.—‘‘ Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay
Language.”
4. Harrwic, Dr. Grorce.—‘‘ On the Malayan Race.” Vol. iv.
5 vols., 8vo. London, 1881-82.
5. Humsoitpr.—“ Uber die Kawi Sprache.”
6. Marspen, Witi1amM.—‘ History of Sumatra; its Native
Inhabitants, Natural Productions, &c.” 35rd edition, 4to.
With Plates, Folio. London, 1811.
. Marspen, Witit1am.—Miscellaneous Works on “The Poly-
nesian and East Insular Languages ;” on “ A Continental
Roman Alphabet, Applicable to Oriental Languages,
&e.” 4to. London, 1834.
8. Muuuer, F.—“ Reise der Fregatte (Vovara.” Wien, 1867.
9. WautLace, A. R.—“ Physical Geography, Ethnology, &c., of
the East Indian Islands.” In Sranrorp’s “ Compendium
of Geography and Travel.” 6 vols., 8vo. London,
1879-85.
~J
Uf
18
AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
(3.) MELANESIA (GENERAL).
. ANDERSON, J. W.—‘“ Notes of Travel in Fiji and New
Caledonia.” London, 1880.
. CAMPBELL, F. A.—“ A Year in the New Hebrides, Loyalty
Islands, and New Caledonia.” Melbourne, 1874.
. Coprineton, Rev. R. H. (D.D.).—‘“A Sketch of Motu
Grammar.” London, 1877.
. Coprineton, Rev. R. H. (D.D.).—“The Melanesian Lang-
uages.” S8vo. Oxford, 1885.
. CopELAND, Rey. J. (Futuna Island, New Hebrides).—‘“ The
Language of Aneityum.” 1861.
. CopELAND, Rev. J.—‘‘ Sheet of Meteorological Observations
Made at Futuna Island during tha years
Dunedin, 1878.
. Duncan, Prof.—“‘ Types of the Lowest Races.” Folio.
London, 1874.
. GABELENTZ, H. C. von pER.—‘ Die Melanesischen Sprachen,
&e.” Leipsic, 1860.
. GARNIER, J ULES.—‘‘ La Nouvelle Calédonie et Tahiti.” 12mo.
Paris, 1871.
. GrezEL, Le Peére.—“ Dictionnaire Futunien-Francais, avec
Notes Grammaticales.” 8vo. Paris, 1878.
. Guppy, H. B. (late surgeon R.N.).—‘“ The Solomon Islands
and their Natives.” S8vo. 1887.
. Hoop, T. H.—‘“ Notes of a Cruise of H.M.S. Fawn in the
Western Pacific in 1862.” 8vo. Edinburgh, 1863.
. Ineuis, Rev. J. (D.D.).—“A Dictionary of the Aneit-
yumese Language.” 8vo. London, 1882.
. Inauis, Rev. J. (D.D.).—‘“‘In the New Hebrides.” 8vo.
London, 1887.
. Macponatp, Rey. D. (Havannah Harbour, New Hebrides).
“Oceania: Linguistic and Anthropological.” 8vo.
Melbourne, 1889.
. Macponatp, Rev. D.—‘ Three New Hebrides Languages
(Efatese, Eromangan, Santo).” 8vo. Melbourne, 1889.
Marxuam, Com. A. H. (R.N.).—‘ The Cruise of the Rosario
Amongst the New Hebrides and the Santa Cruz
Islands.” 8vo. 1873.
Martin’s “Colonial Magazine.” Articles on the various
Islands and Groups of Melanesia, in vols. ili., iv., V., Vi.
vii., vill, 1840-42.
27.
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 303
. McFartane, Rev. 8.—‘‘Story of the Lifu (Loyalty Islands)
Mission.” 12mo. London, 1873.
. Meyer, Dr. A. B.—“ Beitriige der Kentniss der Melanesis-
chen, Mikronesischen und Papuanischen Sprachen.”
Leipsic, 1882.
. Pickertne (see Polynesia).
. Rienzi, G. L. Domeny pE.—“ Océanie.” Paris, 1836.
. Rominty, H. H.—‘‘The Western Pacific and New Guinea.”
8vo. 1886.
. SmyrHe, Mrs.—‘“Ten Months in the Fiji Islands.” 8vo.
1867.
. TyerMAN, D., and Bennett, G. (see Polynesia).
. Watuace, A. R.—“ Australasia.” In Sranrorp’s “ Compen-
dium of Geography and Travel.” Chapters xxii., xxiii.,
and Appendix.
WILKEs (see Polynesia).
Articles on the various groups and islands of Melanesia will be
found in the “ Encyclopedia Britannica.”
(4.) Mrentanesia (NEW GUINEA.)
. CHALMERS, JAs., and Git, W. Wyatt (B.A., LL.D.).—“ Work
and Adventure in New Guinea, 1877-85.” 12mo.
London, 1885.
. Earue, G. Winpsor.—‘‘ The Papuan Races of the Indian
Archipelago.” 12mo. London, 1853.
. Lawes, Rev. W. G.—‘‘Grammar and Vocabulary of the
Language Spoken by the Motu Tribe, New Guinea.”
With Introduction by Rev. Gro. Pratt. 8yvo. Sydney,
1885.
. Linpt, J. W.—“ Picturesque New Guinea; with Chapters
on the Manners and Customs of the Papuans.” With
50 autotype illustrations. 4to. 1887.
. Stone, O. C.—‘‘ A few Months in New Guinea.” With
Illustrations and a Vocabulary. 12mo. London, 1880.
. TrEGANCE.—“ Adventures of Lewis Trégance; Nine Years a
Captive in the Interior of New Guinea.” Edited by
Rev. H. Croker. 12mo. London, 1876.
. Woop, J. G.—“ The Papuan Race, their Customs, &.” In
Vol. II. of ‘*Wood’s Natural History of Man.” Illus-
trated. 2 vols., royal 8vo. London, 1868-70.
Articles on New Guinea, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia,
and the other adjacent groups will be found in the “ Encyclopedia
304 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
Britannica,” ‘Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of
London,” and ‘“ Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute.”
Books and pamphlets in the native languages of MELANESIA
are :—
New Hebrides, etc.
In the languages of Aneityum, Futuna, Tanna, Eromanga,
Aniwa, Efaté, Nguna, Epi, Ambrym:—Primer, Catechism,
Hymn Book, Lesson Book, Vocabulary, portions of the
Bible (the earliest of these dating from the year 1855).
The Aneityumese has the whole Bible (1889) and the
‘“‘Pilgrim’s Progress,” also a dictionary of the language.
Almanacs were printed in 1855 and 1859.
Of the Northern Groups of Melanesia,
Motu Island
Has the Lord’s Prayer, Reading Book, and Hymns in the
native language.
Solomon Islands
Have Prayers and Scripture Readings.
New Britain
Has Catechism and Hymns, a Dictionary and Grammar, and
St. Mark’s Gospel.
(5).—Tue First Isianps.
1. Erskine, J. E. (R.N.).—“ Journal of a Cruise Among the
Islands of the Western Pacific, Fiji, &c., in H.MLS.
Flavannah.” 8vo. London, 1853.
Gorpon-Cumminea, Miss C. F.—‘‘ At Home in Fiji.” 2 vols.,
12mo. London, 1881.
3. Hazitewoop, Rev. D.—‘ A Fijian and English Dictionary.”
8vo. Fewa, 1850.
4. HazLewoop.—‘ A Fijian and English and an English and
Fijian Dictionary, &c., with a Grammar of the
’ Language.” 8vo. London.
5. Moorr, Rev. Wm.—‘“ Handbook of the Fijian Language.”
8vo. Hobart, 1866.
6. Prircnarp, W. T. (H.M. Consul at Samoa and Fiji).—
“Polynesian Reminiscences.” 8vo. London, 1866.
i)
7. Scuoues, S. E.—‘“ Fiji and the Friendly Islands; their
Scenery and People.” 16mo. London, 1882.
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 305
8. Turner, Geo. (LL.D.).— “ Nineteen Years in Polynesia,
Fiji, &c.” 12mo. London, 1884.
9. WatTeRHOUSE, Rev. JosepH.—“ The King and People of
Fiji.” 12mo. London, 1866.
10. Wituiams, Rev. T. and Catvert, Jas.—‘ Fiji and the
Fijians; the Islands and their Inhabitants. 2 vols.,
12mo. London, 1858.
Books in Native Language are :—
** Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress.” London, 1867.
“ Teacher’s Hymn Book, Catechism, and Book of Offices.’
London, 1884.
“ Church History.” Barth. London, 1867.
“System of Theology.” Hunt. Viti, 1850.
“ Lectures on the Doctrines of Christianity and Wes-
leyan Catechism.” London, 1884.
Arithmetic (no date).
Catechism, 1863.
Geography, 1879.
Arithmetic Book, 1871.
Hymn Book, 1884.
Outline of Theology, 1863.
History of Daniel and Esther, 1883.
The New Testament. Mission Press, Vuva, Fiji, 1853.
The Bible. London, 1864 and 1867.
(6.) MiIcRONESIA.
1. Martin’s “Colonial Magazine.”—Articles on the various
Islands and Groups of Micronesia in vols. v., vi., Vil., Vill.
1840-42. And in the “ Encyclopedia Britannica.”
Some of the books on Polynesia also include Micronesia.
2. Meyer (see Melanesia).
3. Watuace, A. R.—“ Australasia,” in “Stanford’s Compen-
dium.” Chap. XXV.
Pamphlets in the native languages are :—
Gilbert Islands—
Spelling Book, 1860; Catechism, Hymn Book, Geography.
Marshall Islands—
Arithmetic Book, 1863 ; Hymn Book, 1869; Geography, Spelling
Book, Reading Book.
i
306
bo
“J
10.
ike
17.
AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
(7.) Poynesta.
. Anprews, Lorrin.—“ Grammar of the Hawaiian Language.”
8vo. Honolulu, 1854.
Anprews, Lorrin.— A Dictionary of the Hawaiian Lang-
uage.” 8vo. Honolulu, 1865.
Aneas, G. FrencH.—“ Polynesia; a Description of the
Physical Features, Inhabitants, History, and Productions
of the Islands of the Pacific.” 12mo. London, 1866.
ArsousseT, To.—‘ Tahiti et les [les Adjacentes.” 12mo.
Paris, 1867.
Birp, J. L.—‘“‘ Hawaiian Archipelago; Six Months in the
Sandwich Islands.”
BoppamM-WHeEtTHAM, J. W.—‘“ Pearls of the Pacific.” 8vo.
London, 1876.
. BrencuiEy, Jutius L.—‘“Jottings During the Cruise of
H.M.S8. Curacoa Among the South Sea Islands in 1865.”
With Illustrations and Natural History notices. 2 vols.,
8vo. 1873.
Buzacotr.— Mission Life in the Pacific (Tahiti, Rarotonga);
Life of Aaron Buzacott.” 12mo. 1866.
CHEEVER, Rev. Henry T.—‘“‘ The Island World of the Pacific
(Hawaii).” 12mo. Glasgow, 1857.
CuEeEVER, Rev. Henry T.—“ Life in the Sandwich Islands:
As It Was and As It Is.” 12mo. London, 1857.
Cook and Kine.—Atlas, containing two charts of Cook’s
Discoveries and 61 plates of the Races of the South
Pacific. Folio.
Coox.—‘‘ The Three Voyages of Captain Jas. Cook;” with an
appendix giving an account of the present condition of
the South Sea Islands. 2 vols., 4to. 1846.
. Cooper, H. StonrHEwER.—“ Coral Lands.” 2 vols., 8vo.
London, 1880.
. Daviss, Rev. Jonn.—“A Tahitian and English Dictionary.”
Ato; Tahiti, 1857:
. Dipsir, Rev. SHELDoN.—“ History of the Sandwich Islands.”
12mo. Lahainalima, 1843.
. Exviis, Wu.—“ Narrative of a Tour Through Hawaii; with
Observations on the Natural History of the Island and
its Inhabitants.” 8vo. London, 1824.
Exuis, Wm.—“ Polynesian Researches, Natural History of
the Islands, History, Mythology, Traditions, Arts,
Manners and Customs of the Islanders.” 2 vols., 8vo.
London, 1829. 4 vols., 8vo. London, 1859
18.
19.
20.
_
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 307
FornaNDER, ABRAHAM.—‘“ The Polynesian Race ; its Origin,
Migrations, and Ancient History of the Hawaiian
Peoples.” 3 vols., 8vo. London, 1878-85.
Git, Rev. W. Wyarr (B.A., LL.D.).—“ Myths and Songs
from the South Pacific.” With preface by Max Miiller.
12mo. London, 1876.
Git, Rev. W. Wyarr (B.A., LL.D.).—“ Life in the Southern
Isles ; or, Scenes in the South Pacific and New Guinea.”
12mo. London, 1876.
. Gitt, Rev. W. Wyarr (B.A., LL.D.).—“ Historic Sketches
of Savage Life in Polynesia.” With illustrations, clan
songs, &c. 8yvo. Wellington (N.Z.), 1880.
. Gitt, Rev. W. Wyarr (B.A., LL.D.).—“ Jottings from the
Pacific.” 8vo. London, 1885.
. Gint, Rev. W. Wyarr (B.A., LL.D.).—“Gems from the
Coral Islands of the South Seas.” 8vo. London, 1856.
. GopEeFrFRoy Museum, Catalogue of—Being a Handbook of the
Ethnography and Ethnology of the South Sea Tribes,
including Australians, by J. D. E. Scumetrz and R.
Kransz, M.D. Map and 46 plates. 8vo. Hamburg,
1881.
. GopEFFRoy Musrum.—Album of 28 Photographs, containing
175 subjects, with descriptions. 4to. Hamburg, 1881.
. Grey, Sir Georce.—“ Polynesian Mythology and Ancient
Tradition ; History of the New Zealand Race, as
furnished by their Priests and Chiefs.” &vo. London,
1855.
i Jarves, J. J.—‘ The Hawaiian Islands ; their Antiquities,
Mythology, Legends, History, &c.” With additions by
H. M. Wuritney. 8vo. Honolulu, 1872.
. Keans, A. H.—“ The Philology and Ethnology of Polynesia.”
In Wallace’s “ Australasia.” (See 47.)
. Lane, Rev. J. Dunmore.—‘ Origin and Migration of the
Polynesian Nation, &c.” 8vo. Sydney, 1877.
. Lunpiz, G. A.—“ Missionary Life in Samoa.” Being the
Journals of Gro. ArcH. Lunpiz, 1840-41. 12mo.
Edinburgh, 1846.
. Mariner.—“ Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands.”
Edited by Dr. Jonn Martin. 2 vols., 8vo. London,
1878.
. Murray, Rev. A. W.—“ Missions in Western Polynesia.”
8vo. London, 1863.
. Murray, Rev. A. W.—“The Martyrs of Polynesia, &c.,
from 1799 to 1871.” 8vo. London, 1885.
T2
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
4].
42.
43.
44,
45.
46.
47.
48.
49,
AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
. Murray, Rev. A. W.—“ Forty Years’ Mission Work in
Polynesia and New Guinea.” 12mo. London, 1876.
. Perkins, Epwarp T.—‘The Hawaiian, Georgian, and
Society Islands.” With plates. 8vo. New York,
1854.
Pickerine, Cuas. (M.D.) (Member of the U.S. Exploring
Expedition.—“ The Races of Man and their Geogra-
phical Distribution.” 8vo. London, 1854.
Pratt, Rev. Gro.—“A Samoan Dictionary; English-
Samoan and Samoan-English ; with a Short Grammar.”
8vo. Samoa, 1862.
PritcuarD, W. T.—‘ Polynesian Reminiscences.” By W. T.
PritcHarD, H.B.M.’s Consul at Samoa and Fiji. 8vo.
London, 1866.
Rienzi, G. L. Domeny pre.—‘ Océanie ; Revue Geographique
et Ethnographique de Melaisie, Micronesie, Polynesie,
Melanesie.” 3 vols., 8vo. Plates and Maps. 1836-37.
RussEtL, Bishop M. (LL.D.).—“ Polynesia: Account of the
Islands of the South Sea, including New Zealand, their
Inhabitants, &c.” 12mo. Edinburgh, 1842.
Stewart, Rev. C. S.—‘ Private Journal of the Rev. C. S.
Stewart, Missionary to the Sandwich Islands.” 12mo.
Dublin, 1830.
Stewart, Rev. C. S.—‘*A Residence in the Sandwich
Islands.” With Introduction and Notes by EL.Is.
12mo. London, 1832.
TurNER, Rev. Gro.—“ Nineteen Years in Polynesia ;
Missionary Life and Travel.” 8vo. London, 1861.
TuRNER, Rev. Gro.—‘‘ Samoa a Hundred Years Ago; with
Notes on the Cults and Customs of 23 other Islands in
the Pacific.” 12mo. London, 1884.
TyerMAN, D., and Bennett, G. — “Voyages and Travels
Round the World, 1821-29.” London, 1840.
VEESON, GEorGE.—‘“ Authentic Narrative of Four Years’
Residence at Tongatabu.” 8vo. London, 1810.
Wattace, A. B.—“ Australasia.” In Sranrorp’s “ Compen-
dium of Geography and Travel.” Chap. xxiv. and
Appendix by A. H. KEanr.
West, Rev. TuHomas.—‘Ten Years in South Central
Polynesia.” 8vo. London, 1865.
Witkes, Commodore CHariEs.—“‘ U.S. Exploring Expe-
dition to Polynesia and the Antarctic Regions in
1838-42,” 5 vols., 8vo. Philadelphia, 1845. London.
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 309
50. Woop, J. G. — “The Sandwich Islands.” In “ Wood’s
Natural History of Man.” Illustrated. 2 vols., royal
8vo. London, 1868-70.
Books, PAMPHLETS, &c., IN THE NATIVE LANGUAGES.
Rarotonga.
Catechism, 1847; Arithmetic, 1848; Pilgrim’s Pro-
gress, 1849 ; Hymn Book, 1852 ; Astronomy illustrated ;
English and Rarotongan Grammar (Buzacott) ; Bogue’s
Theological Lectures ; Scripture Lessons; Geography
and School Reading Book; the Laws of Rarotonga,
written by the chiefs, and printed at their special
request and cost, 1862—all printed at Rarotonga ;
Barth’s Church History; Commentaries on Several
Books of the Bible (William Gill); Ata Ao, “ Peep of
Day” (Mrs. W. W. Gill)—all printed at London;
and many others. The New Testament (translated by
John Williams), London, 1838; the Bible (translated
by Williams, Pitman, and Buzacott), 1st edition, London,
1851; 2nd edition (edited by William Gill), London,
1855; 3rd edition (edited by Geo. Gill and E. R. W.
Kranse), London, 1872; 4th edition (carefully revised
and carried through the press by Rev W. Wyatt Gill,
LL.D.), London, 1888.
Hawaiian.
Catechism on Bible History, 1832 ; Hymns and Times,
1834; Geography Book, 1845. Printed at Oahu.
Sacred Readings, 1841; Pilgrim’s Progress, 1842 ;
Arithmetic Book ; Church History ; Moral Philosophy ;
The Story of the Lady of the Twilight ; Baxter’s Saints’
Rest ; Evidences of Christianity ; Keith on the
Prophecies ; Wayland’s Moral Science; Wayland’s
Political Economy ; General History ; Ancient History;
the Bible ; and many others. Printed at Honolulu.
Maort.
Maori Catechism (the first book printed in New Zealand),
16mo., Kirikiri, 1825; The Pilgrim’s Progress; Robinson
Crusoe ; Poems, Traditions and Chants of the Maoris,
edited by Sir Geo. Grey; Proverbial and Popular
Sayings of the Ancestors of the New Zealand Race,
edited by Sir George Grey ; and other books; pamphlets
very numerous.
Margquesan.
Geography, Arithmetic, Hymn Book, 1869.
310 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
(8.) New ZEALAND.
1. Ancas, GeorcE FrencH.—“‘ The New Zealanders.” Illus-
trated. Folio. London, 1847.
2. AnGas, GEorGE FRENcH.—“ Polynesia ; a Popular Descrip-
tion of the Physical Features, Inhabitants, &e.” 8vo.
London, 1866.
3. ANGAS, GEORGE FrEeNcH.—‘‘Savage Life and Scenes in
Australia and New Zealand.” 2 vols., 8vo. London,
1847.
4, Brown, Wmu.—‘ New Zealand and its Aborigines, and the
Means of Civilising Them.” 12mo. London, 1845.
. Buiier, Rev. Jas.—“ Forty Years in New Zealand ; with
an Account of Maoridom, &e.” 8vo. London, 1878.
6. CamMpBELL, Dr. J. L.—‘ Poenamo.” Sketches of the early
days of New Zealand. 8vo. 1881.
7. Fenton, F. D.—“ Origin and Migrations of the Maori People.”
8vo. Auckland, 1885.
8, Fenton, F. D.—‘“‘ Observations on the Aboriginal Inhabitants
of New Zealand.”
9. Grey, Sir Greo.—“ Polynesian Mythology and the Traditional
History of the New Zealand Race.” 12mo. London,
1855.
10. Jounstone, J. C.—‘‘ Maoria; Manners and Customs of the
Aboriginal Inhabitants of New Zealand.” 12mo. 1874.
11. MaunsetLt, Rev. R.—‘“‘Grammar of the New Zealand
Language.” Third edition, Melbourne, 1882; first
and second editions, Auckland, 1842, 1862.
12. Potack, J. S.—“‘ Manners and Customs of the New
Zealanders, &e.” 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1840.
13. Rutuerrorp.—‘ The New Zealanders; Account of New
Zealand and its Inhabitants.” With a History of Jon
RUTHERFORD, a Sailor, Detained among them Several
Years (1816-27). 12mo. 1830.
14. SHortTLAND, Epwarp.—‘‘The Southern Districts of New
Zealand, with Notices of the Aborigines.” 12mo.
London, 1851.
15. SHorTLAND, Epwarp.—Traditions, Superstitions, Manners
and Customs of the New Zealanders.” 2nd edition. 12mo.
London, 1856.
16. Taytor.—“Te ika a Maui; or, New Zealand and its
Inhabitants, their Origin, Manners, Customs,
Mythology, Religion, Songs, Proverbs, Fables and
Language.” 8vo. London, 1870.
Or
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 31}
17. Wuitt, Joun.—“Te Rou; or, the Maori at Home.” 8vo.
1874.
18. Wurtz, Joun.—“‘The Ancient History of the Maori; His
Mythology and Traditions.” 8vo, Wellington, 1887.
19. Wixiiams, W.—“ Dictionary of the New Zealand Language.”
8vo. London, 1852 and 1871.
20. Woop, J. G.—“ The Maoris.” In ‘“ Wood’s Natural History
of Man.” Illustrated. 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1868-70.
II.—REPORT ON THE AUSTRALASIAN, PAPUAN,
AND POLYNESIAN RACES.
(1.) New Guinea. Toaripr and Ko1ari TRIBES, BY
THE Rev. JAMES CHALMERS.
(2) TOARIPI TRIBE.
BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD.
In many of the tribes a feast is prepared by relatives when a
woman is known to have conceived, but here (Toaripi, or Motu-
motu) nothing is done. After conception a woman is not sacred,
but hes with her husband until near childbirth. When she feels
the pains of childbirth, she goes to the bush close by, and
selecting a cocoanut or other large tree, lies down beside it. A
friend brings her a chatty of water and a shell. She is left
alone, and does everything for herself and the child. The after-
birth she takes home and presents to her mother or other near
relative, who keeps it for a day or two, when it is thrown into
the sea. Ifa son is born, great is the joy ; if a girl—well, only
a little pleased. She cooks her own food, but the husband does
not partake of food cooked by her; he remains away from her
until the child is well grown, when he enters the house, talks
with his wife, and nurses the child. There is no cohabitation
until the child is grown and able to crawl about. Only then
will the husband have connection with her and eat food cooked
by her. A man having connection with his wife before then
would injure the child, who would sicken and die.
A woman having another child before one is quite grown is
spoken of as an animal, a pig, or something else ; she would be
terribly ashamed. An Eastern Polynesian woman had two
children within a year, and the natives were horribly disgusted,
and said she was only a sow.
312 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
For the first child, on the fifth day after birth, food is cooked
by the husband’s and wife’s relatives, and the women of the
village where the woman who has given birth to the child resides
partake of it.
Only illegitimate children are killed. There is no infanticide
and no cannibalism.
Children are named by relatives—if a girl, the mother’s friends
give the name ; if a boy, the father’s friends. A name will be
given for a quarrel, or a journey, or anything particular occurring
on it, or sickness. A man is now here named by a relative who
at the time of his birth was suffering from a sore chest, and he
named the child Harepai (sore chest). They do not actually kill
deformed children, but they are so neglected that they soon die.
They do not pierce the nose until the child is about five or six
years old, having no superstition regarding it. The mother
carries the child in her arms, or, when going a distance, in a net
bag over her back. The father frequently nurses the child.
Yesterday a father returned from a journey, and when safely
landed, his wife met him, gave him the child, which he nursed
affectionately, whilst the wife carried home the things on the
canoe. Such may be seen any day. The child suckles until
walking about. Children are lovingly cared for by parents and
relatives. Uncles and aunts take as great an interest in the
children as the parents do. They are not disciplined, are taught
planting, sago-making, and fighting.
There is no betrothal in infancy. When young women, they
are betrothed. Parents make all arrangements, but not unless it
is agreeable to the young man and woman.
MATURITY.
Fourteen and fifteen years old. There are no observances at
that time. Lads, when about seventeen or eighteen, leave off the
sporran worn by all boys, enter the Eramo (temple or dubu), and
these adopt the string, shave the head, and remain for many
months until the hair has grown long and frizzy. Before entering
the Eramo the father, or nearest relative, kills a pig and makes
a feast, and invites all friends to assemble. A relative takes off
the sporran, and fastens on the sihi (string), after which all sit
down and eat. When the hair is well grown he leaves the Eramo,
and again there is feasting. He is now considered a man, and is
marriageable. When in the Eramo he is not supposed to look upon
or be seen by a woman. Female friends cook food and leave it
outside, making a noise as they leave, and shortly the lad
‘descends, takes it into the Eramo, and eats it. They spend the
time in the Eramo making armlets from fibres. The old men, who
live mostly in the Eramo, occupy themselves in working (plaiting)
belts, which are worn by young men after birth of the first child.
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 313
When the first child is born the father cooks a pig and food, and
the belt, being purchased with food, is then fastened on, there to
remain until rotten, or, on death of a near relation, it is cut off.
When in the Eramo, various kinds of food may not be eaten,
especially taro. Sago and bananas may be eaten, and only a very
few kinds of fish. The young man’s hair is shaven off on entering
by a friend, for whom he will do the same.
Not until after they have left the Eramo is the “ Roaring
Bull” seen. On the occasion of its being worked all women and
children and young men keep away. Near to here are two large
houses filled with masks, which are all very sacred, and are now
kept from vulgar gaze until after a large feast, soon to be held,
when they will be used for dancing, and afterwards burned. A short
time ago two old men sat in one of the houses, communicating
with the spirits and working the “Bull.” Large quantities of
food were brought them by men. Not until a youth has been
in the Eramo can he wear a mask or join in the dances and
drum-beatings of the tribe, and only then is he considered a man.
Not until he has descended from the Eramo does he know a
woman. All singing, dancing, and drum-beating are considered
sacred, and never uselessly done.
There is no circumcision practised in the Toaripi Tribe.
MARRIAGE.
When about fourteen years of age, boys and girls go planting
in different places, and there is a custom (Hiriho), when the
afternoon arrives, the boys get their bows and arrows and rush
the girls, who make for the sea, and if one of them is wounded,
she is supposed to become the wife of the boy who fired the arrow.
Many girls attend school who, a few days ago, were wounded.
As already stated, there is no betrothal in infancy. A young
man gives areca nuts to a girl, and she tells her parents, and the
young man informs his. The youth’s father then gets bananas
and areca nuts and carries them to the maiden’s parents, and if
accepted they are said to be betrothed, and the girl carries firewood
at night to the boy’s home. They are not married until the young
man leaves the Eramo. Should the girl not care for the lad, she
informs her parents, and the bananas and areca nuts are returned.
Before marriage, food is collected in large quantities by parents
and relations of the young man, and on a fixed day carried to the
girl’s home. Her parents dress her in feathers, arm-shells, shell
necklaces, and best petticoats. The bridegroom remains at his
home. The girl, when dressed, sits on a mat in presence of the boy’s
parents and eats out of a dish cooked specially for her. She then
rises, and her father places on her shoulder a bow and a bundle of
arrows, and she then accompanies the boy’s parents to their home.
A large party accompanies them, all carrying food, and preceded
314 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
by a man carrying a bunch of ripe bananas, which he distributes
one at a time to the crowd of children and others who follow.
On arrival at the bridegroom’s home, she takes off all her finery,
which then becomes the property of the husband’s parents, and
she presents him with the bow and arrows; a dish of food having
been prepared, they both eat out of it. The day after, the woman’s
head is shaven and a large feast is prepared and distributed to
each Eramo. She is now a married woman, and does all the
work of a married woman.
Relations do not as a rule marry. They are polygamists, but
only a few have more than one wife. When two or more
wives, they all live in one house. Polygamy is not restricted to
chiefs,
The classification is from the father, and in the event of war
children would join the father’s tribe.
Sons and daughters share alike in land. A woman takes land
with her, and dying without issue, the land would return to her
own family, brothers or sisters. If there are children, they
claim it.
Widows, if they have children, remain with the husband’s friends ;
if no children, they return to their own families. Should a widow
again marry, the payment for her is very great, and goes to the
first husband’s relatives.
Orphans are well cared for by relatives of the father and
mother ; after death of both parents they are divided.
Women do all the cooking, and a great part of the fishing.
Husband and wife plant, fetch wood, make sago, &e.
As a rule the women are well treated; not many beat their
wives. A husband beating his wife would have to bear the wrath
of all her relatives.
Sometimes a woman, after a quarrel, will leave her husband, and
will remain with her relatives until fetched back by him. A
woman leaving her husband takes all the children with her.
THE TRIBE.
There is one language, one tradition. There are several chiefs,
and no distinction between them. Chieftainship is handed down,
and if there are no sons the girls can take it. The chief is
supposed to have plenty of pigs, and makes feasts, assisted by
his friends. He is not supposed to fight, and does not carry
warlike implements—only goes about with a net bag containing
areca nuts, betel, pepper, and lime calabash.
They have no councils. Each one does his own sweet will.
Breach of custom is punished by the sufferer. Theft or any other
crime is so also, Asa rule there is very little crime. When food
is stolen all denounce it, and it may lead to serious quarrels.
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 315
SOCIAL AND DOMESTIC.
Huts are built of wood, on wooden piles about 9 feet above
the ground. The house slants towards the back. In the front
there is a platform. They plant yams, taro, sweet potatoes, sugar-
cane, and always have plenty. There is a very large supply of
sago, and at all times itis used. Spoons made from cocoanuts
are used for sago and any other soft food, a one-pronged fork is
used for other food. They always cook in pots bought from the Motu
tribe. They have two mealsa day asa rule, sometimes only one.
Husband sleeps in the Eramo, and only occasionally visits his
wife, and very seldom sleeps a whole night with her. When
they are alone in plantations they will have intercourse.
Father and small children will eat together, and mother, grown-
up daughters, daughters-in-law or other female relatives eat apart.
Sometimes grown-up sons will eat with the father, but more
frequently come in after the meal and have their food.
Strangers are kindly treated and fed regularly as long as they
like to remain. Male strangers live in the Eramos, women in
houses with other women. They cover themselves from the cold
with a cloth, made by the men from the bark of a tree, some
made from mulberry tree.
They are greatly given to ornamenting themselves, using
various coloured ochres, and marking in various ways. They
wear feathers and shell ornaments of various kinds, also collars,
garters, and anklets made of netted twine. All men on feast
days wear a large carved belt, made from the bark of a tree.
They are all well nourished.
wiIzaRDs (Karisu Vita).
There are none here, but plenty at Kerema and Vailala. A
spirit enters into a man, and he becomes Karisu Vita. The spirit
gives him power. When he desires to kill anyone he gets various
kinds of plants, cooks them, and drinks the water. He then goes
outside, and near to where the party is asleep whom he wishes to
destroy. He goes through some incantations, when pigs’ and
dogs’ bones enter into sleeping one, who soon wakes up ill, and
not long after dies. The spirit is said then to carry heart, lungs
and liver to some other place, where they are buried.
These Karisu Vita are employed by others, and receive large
payment in pigs, shell ornaments and feathers.
When anyone is sick the Karisu Vita is fetched, who prays, and
then extracts from the sick one’s body pigs’ and dogs’ bones, and
sometimes men’s. He is then paid. Should the sick one die, it
is because some spirit is having revenge for some misdeed.
The Karisu Vita can cause sickness, and can drive it away.
They declare the cause of death, and point out who killed.
316 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
The rain-makers, lightning and thunder makers, sun, wind and
calm makers reside chiefly at Oiapu, and receive payment from
people all round. There is one here, and he often gets payment
for wind, rain and sun.
To frighten away general sickness they beat drums, blow
conchs, throw fire-sticks, and shout.
DEATH.
Only old people die natural deaths. All others are slain by
spirits, it matters not how they die. Relatives assemble and
mourn, and cut themselves with shells. The body is dressed in
all the ornaments belonging to the deceased. They dig a grave
and then place the body in it. In the evening all ornaments are
taken off, the body is covered over, and never again uncovered.
A house is built over the grave, and relatives sleep there. Ifa
husband dies, the widow throws off her petticoats and goes about
as if demented. Her first sign of mourning is to plaster herself
all over with river mud and live naked over the grave. Friends
bring her food, which she cooks. Three months after death a
feast is made, and she goes into black, which is made from burnt
cocoanut husk and water. The last mourning isa dress that
covers from the neck to the knees, made of native twine, netted.
Widows mourn for very long. Ihave known them continue it
for three or four years.
After death the spirit roves about until there is plenty of food
got together, when a double canoe is carried to the side of the
grave. A number of young men, artistically dressed in their
finest, get in, and stand with paddles ready to pull. A large
quantity of food is placed on the centre, the widow sits beside it,
there is then a loud, long shout, and the young men paddle.
They soon get out, and the canoe and food is carried to the river,
and in the evening the food and areca nuts are divided amongst
the relatives. The spirit has now gone to Lavau, far away to
the west.
SPIRIT WORLD.
Motu motu (Toaripi) spirits go to the west, and there all
meet. Those there first will be informed of the approach of
friends, and they will come to meet them, throw their arms
round them, and embrace them. In Lavau they build houses,
plant food, and live as man and wife as we do here. Itis a
good place, with a constant and plenteous supply of food.
MYTHOLOGY.
Hiovaki Semese, one spirit, who lives in the heavens, made
the sea and the land. There was nothing until he descended.
When he made the sea and land he dwelt at Meveave, and there
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 317
he planted trees which cause elephantiasis ; hence the prevalence
of that disease at Meveave. They take offerings to Hiovaki, and
seek his favour in fighting. All killed in fighting go to Hiovaki.
Hiovaki is the son of Semese by his wife Kauue. He has a
younger brother, and they divide work—Miai is his name.
Hiovaki made first men and women from a cocoanut tree
which he cut down, and he first taught men how to build houses
and Eramos.
I cannot find that they deify heroes or ancestors. Spirits
both help and injure men.
PHILOLOGY (see Motu Grammar).
(5) KOIARI TRIBE.
BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD.
When a woman is known to have procreated, her husband
takes a spear and points it at her breasts, signifying he wants a
son, ales being more desired than females. When it is certain
a woman is in such a state, food is cooked and a feast (udugui)
is made by the parents of the husband and wife, and eaten by the
woman and all friends and relatives. The woman is not then
sacred, but cooks food and sleeps with her husband.
When pains of childbirth first begin, her friends get a supply
of dried banana leaves, spread them on the floor, and on these she
lies. The house will be full of women, the only males present
being her father and husband. The father will call on the spirits
of his forefathers to come and help his beloved daughter in her
pains. He will take an old cocoanut, break it in two, and over
it prays that the child may be quickly born. Food is cooked by
the woman’s friends, and the women in attendance eat it. The
husband, when the pains are great, takes off his sihi (string—
only article of clothing worn) and armlets and sits apart. The
sihi is made fast to a rafter in the roof, and in pain the woman
hangs on to it. An old man, a member of that part of the tribe,
is fetched, who looks at the woman, then goes inland and plucks
long grass, returns to the house, breaks the grass up small and
places it in a dish, pours water over it, repeating a prayer and
breathing on it. The grass is then thrown away, and the water
poured on the woman’s head, who sips what flows over to her
mouth. The old man leaves, and soon after the child is born.
When the child is born, food is prepared by friends of both
parties. When the navel string drops (dokoru negea), more
food is cooked.
The woman stays in the house after the birth of her first child
for a month or two. When she goes out for the first time, food
is again cooked (hadihoa). From the birth the woman becomes
318 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
sacred, and is not touched by the husband, nor can he approach
any other woman, until the child is grown, crawls about, and
picks up food.
The woman does not cook food during the time the child is
small, lest the child should suffer ; the husband cooks, or friends
for him.
Illegitimate children only are destroyed. I know of no
infanticide anywhere in New Guinea.
The first-born child, if a son, is named by the father; if a
daughter, by friends. Children are named frequently from events.
Deformed children are not destroyed. Fathers frequently
nurse children, and are very fond of them.
Children are carried in arms, and, when grown, on the hips.
The cradle used is a netted bag, hung up to a rafter, and swung
to and fro.
The child is long suckled. I have seen children playing with
spears, bows and arrows, sporting in the sea, and spying the
mother, rush up to her, insist on her sitting down until they have
been suckled. Women suckling frequently suckle a young pig or
a pup at the same time. I have seen a child at one breast and
a pig at another.
Nothing is applied to the child’s head to regulate its shape.
When the child is first washed with lukewarm water the head is
squeezed to make it round. At Levalupoand Eelema, after birth,
the mother and child bathe in the sea.
All children are lovingly cared for. Discipline is unknown,
“they grow.” Fathers teach sons to fight, hunt, fish, plant, and
to make nets, and mothers teach girls to make pottery, cook, &e.
Children are betrothed sometimes in infancy by their parents.
The boy’s father, seeing a nice girl, or because of friendship, will
take a present of food to the girl’s parents, signifying he wishes
their daughter for his son. If the food is taken it is agreeable,
and the betrothal is made. The mother and daughter will
constantly visit the boy’s home, fetching water, wood and food.
The food is cooked in the boy’s house by the girl’s mother, and
eaten by the boy’s parents.
MATURITY (Zidua-koht).
When menses are first seen, the girl will be ordered to wash the
blood off her legs, and taught how to use her under rami (petticoat).
When getting better food is cooked, and friends invited, and an
aunt will then take some of the food, pass it round her head,
body, and under her legs, praying to the spirits that the girl may
grow up strong, beautiful and pure. The girl will be taught to keep
pure, to remember that for a virgin a great price is paid. During
menstruation she is not allowed to eat pig, fish, or kangaroo.
They reach the age of maturity when thirteen or fourteen years
old.
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 319
At Kabadi and Nara, girls, on reaching maturity, are kept
indoors for a long time, well fed, and not allowed to be in the
sun. When they are to go out a feast is prepared by her parents,
and she mixes with the company, dressed up with all the finery
available.
Girls also have tattoo marks made at various times, and when
menses appear, the fima/e is made between the legs and back, and
then she waits until marriage, when her chest is done.
In Motu and other tribes, lads when about 14 years old, or
when hair appears, receive the sihi (string). When the parents.
think the time has arrived he is sent to his aunt on father’s side
with food, pig, and arm-shells, and she ties on the sihi. He
receives presents from father’s and mother’s relatives, and visits
every part of the village. If there is any girl he likes he may
spend the evenings with her, she lying close to him, it may be on
his arm, but they must have no intercourse. If he has not been
betrothed he can then select the girl he wishes for wife, and will
inform his parents of it.
There is no circumcision, and the only place I have seen it was
on Rook Island.
MARRIAGE.
Marriage is by payment. After betrothal, the boy’s parents
and relatives give articles of value to the girl’s parents, also give
food, fish, wallaby, and pig, when these can be got. Near relatives
do not marry.
A young man who has been betrothed will sleep in the girl’s
house, leaving it before morning light; his parents, knowing where
he has been, will ask him if he has been with the girl, and if they
had connection. The same is asked of the girl by her parents, and
if answered in the affirmative, the girl is that day taken to the
husband’s house, food is cooked by the friends of both parties,
husband and wife eat out of one dish, and she remains in the
husband’s home. Afterwards, final payment is made, the husband’s
friends carry to the bride’s parents, arm-shells, necklaces, toma-
hawks, and food. The bride takes home with her to her husband
cooking pots, water pots, fish net, hunting net, spear and shield,
bow and arrows.
Many betrothed ones, not caring for one another, never come
together, and, the girl marrying another, the payment is made to
the betrothed. There is generally a good deal of trouble about
such lapses.
There is polygamy: it varies in the various tribes—in some
many, in others few. It depends upon the wealth of a man the
number of wives he has. The more he has the more food he will
have, and hence the greater man he becomes.
Children follow their father’s tribe, but can hold property in
their mother’s. In war they follow their father’s. Sometimes,
320 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
when brought up in the mother’s, they become members of
the same.
Property is divided equally between sons and daughters, and
the latter hold land equally with the former. A woman marrying
into another tribe takes land with her. Leaving her husband, or
dying childless, the land belongs to her father’s party. If there
are children, on the death of the parents property will be equally
divided between sons and daughters. A widow is treated very
well; she belongs to her husband’s party, and should she marry
again, the payment will go to them. When old they are well
cared for by their children and friends. Orphans are adopted by
the friends of their father and mother.
Relatives do not marry, as they say it is one blood. Cousins
of several degrees are called brothers and sisters.
The married woman is fairly well treated. Some husbands are
wife-beaters. The Kirarians (inland tribe) often kill their wives.
She is supposed to care for the house, fetch and cook food; she
assists in planting, but the husband does all the heavy work.
She follows to the fight, urges the husband on, and helps in
looting.
THE TRIBE.
In former ages there must have been chiefs of some power,
but now their power is very nominal. Nowhere is there a real
chief with kingly or priestly power to be felt.
A people speaking one language and with like traditions we
have called a tribe.
Many become chiefs by force of character, prowess, large
family connections, and plenty of food. These often come to the
front, and the real hereditary chief sinks into insignificance.
Sometimes a sorcerer will hold great influence over a tribe and
neighbouring tribes. The oldest member of a family would be
called a chief, and would be listened to in restraining from or
urging on to fight or kill. In making peace or friendship, it
would be done through him. Chiefs such as mentioned declare
taboo, order feasts and dances, and have a kind of superintendence
over others.
There is no tribal council and no law. There is no one who
can pass punishment on another. Only custom is honoured.
Breaking a taboo the spirits punish.
SOCIAL AND DOMESTIC.
Nearly everywhere huts are built on piles; at Maiva and
some parts of Eelema they are built on the ground. In the Motu
district some of the villages are built at sea. The huts vary in
kind, from the small humpy to the fine large houses of Kalo.
Some are square, with a level ridge pole; others are round at
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. Sell
the top, and shaped like a canoe afloat ; others like a canoe turned
upside down; others like a crocodile with large open mouth.
They are built of wood, some of bamboo; some thatched with
sago leaf, others with nipa leaf, and others with long grass.
The flooring in some parts is large planks made from old canoes ;
in other tribes strips of palm, and, inland, frequently the sago
leaf stem.
In cultivating, the earth is turned over with long, pointed
sticks, natives standing in a row, and each native with two:
sticks. When dry, the women go over the ground, pick out all
roots and burn them, breaking up the clods with short pieces of
hard wood at the same time. The fencing and hard work
generally is done by the men, the women assisting. The women
plant, weed, and fetch, the men assisting. Yams, bananas, sweet
potatoes, and sugar-cane are the chief kinds of food, and in some
districts these grow abundantly.
Food is cooked in pots made from clay by the women, and in
some parts earth ovens are sometimes used.
There is only one meal a day, and that in the afternoon.
As a rule, strangers are kindly received, but sometimes
rudely, and even cruelly, treated. At Aroma they were badly
treated.
Visitors are generally met in a kindly manner, and have food
cooked for them. Friends bring dishes of food and place near to
visitors.
All the tribes love dress, and use flowers and variegated leaves.
In many parts they very artistically paint the face. On the head
they wear various kinds of head dresses made from birds’ feathers,
and greatly delight in the whole plume of the Paradisea regiana.
They have shell ornaments on the forehead, also necklaces, made
from small shells, dogs’ teeth, and kangaroos’ teeth. On the
breast they wear a large pearl-shell crescent. Everywhere they
wear tortoise-shell earrings ; in some districts they are very large.
In the nose they wear ground pieces of shell, and sometimes
coral, also pieces of wood when not dressed, On their arms they
have large toeas (arm-shells, made from a large conical shell) ; also
armlets, made from vines, pandanus leaves, and reeds. Round
the body they have belts of various kinds, some made of native
cloth and coloured, others made of the bark of a tree, nicely
carved, and inlaid with lime and red ochre. On legs they wear
knitted garters and anklets, some very tastefully worked. The
most dressy of all the tribes is the Eelema.
The Dahuni natives wear the soft part of the sago leaf, which
covers the person, and they look respectable. Mailiu, Aroma,
Levalupo, Motu, Eelema, and others wear only a string, and on
occasions a narrow piece of native cloth, coloured. Kabadi,
Nara, Lolo, Maiva, Kiveri, cover the person with a piece of native
cloth, and are ashamed if seen without it.
U
322 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
As a rule, the natives are well nourished, and have plenty to
eat; but some seasons, such as this, there is a great scarcity of
food in some districts, and hunger is known.
WIZARDS (OR SORCERERS).
Generally descend from father to son. Spirits are supposed to
be their familiars. They cause sickness, and remove it. They
withhold and give rain. They give fine weather at sea, and cause
storms. They kill by their magic, and discover the causes of
death. They are much feared, and large presents are given to
them, such as large pigs, arm-shells, necklaces, tomahawks,
tobacco, and food of various kinds.
DEATH.
Death occurs by some unseen agency. The sorcerer pronounces
the tribe that is guilty, and sometimes the individual, and then
the dead will be revenged, just as if they had been killed by the
hand of an enemy.
Spirits travel by night, and cause sickness and death.
Mourning continues for a long time. The juice from the body
is rubbed over the chest and back, and sometimes, mixed with
black, it is rubbed over the whole body. Friends and relatives
sleep over the grave. At stated times food is cooked, presented
to the dead, and eaten by the living. At death they cut them-
selves with shells and flint, and do so until the blood flows freely.
In Eelema, for some time they besmear themselves with mud
as a mark of mourning. Food is cooked, and they then use black.
The dead are wrapped in old mats or native cloth, and laid in
a grave covered with a plank. In some districts great mounds
of earth cover the graves.
The funeral is attended by friends and relatives, and these also
dig the grave. The grave is dug under the house or in the
village street.
A chief will be buried with his finery on. Over the grave, if a
man, the bow and arrows and spear used by him, also cooking
pot and dish, and small bag containing lime calabash and betel
nuts, will be placed. If a woman, her petticoat, cooking pots,
and dishes, and any other article she used much.
A year is very general for mourning for grown-up people,
especially for husband or wife. I have known widows in
mourning for three or four years, and widowers for two years. It
is indecent to get married within a year or two.
SPIRIT WORLD.
Spirits go west towards the setting sun. On leaving the body
they seek some point of land near to, and there await some
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 323
friendly spirits, who lead them away to a land of plenty. All
with a pierced nose pass into that country, hence every native
has the nose pierced in childhood. The Motuans say the spirit is
dried over a fire, and when light and dry is taken into Tauru.
Spirit land is one of plenty, and there they live as they do here.
There is death there, and after it the spirits become lights
(mamaro) that wander over the sea.
When chiefs or leading men in families are laid in the grave,
friends bend down and speak into their ears, and ask that they
may be remembered in that other state, and that they always may
have plenty of dugong, turtle, fish of all kinds, and kangaroo.
MYTHOLOGY.
The sorcerers and sorceresses have communication with spirits,
and it is they who know all about the other state. Spirits can
both help and injure men, and are more dreaded than loved.
PHILOLOGY.
See Motu Grammar, by Mr. Lawes, and list of words at end.
(2.) Maneara (Hervey Is~anps), By Rev. W. Wyarr GILL.
BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD.
On the island of Mangaia, in the Hervey Group, as soon as a
child is born, a leaf* of the Alocasia indica (Seeman) was cut off,
its sides carefully gathered up, and filled with pure water. Into
this extempore baptismal font the child would be placed. First
tieing with a bit of “tapa” (native cloth made from the inner
bark of the Broussonetia papyrifera) the part of the navyel-string
nearest the infant, the right hand of the operator longitudinally
divided the cord itself with a bamboo-knife. The dark coagulated
blood was then carefully washed out with water, and the name of
the child’s god declared, it having been previously settled by the
parents whether their little one should belong to the mother’s
tribe or to the father’s. Usually the father had the preference ;
but occasionally, when the father’s tribe was devoted to furnish
sacrifices, the mother would seek to save her child’s life by getting
it adopted into her own tribe, the name of her own tribal divinity
being pronounced over the babe. As a rule, however, a father
would stoically pronounce over his child the name of his own
* From 8 to 12 feet in circumference. The Alocasia indicu isa gigantic aroid, the native
name of which is “kape.”
v2
324 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
god, Utakea, Teipe, or Tangiia, which would almost certainly
insure its destruction in after years. It was done as a point of
honour; besides, the child might zo¢ be required for sacrifice,
although eligible. The bamboo-knife would be taken to the
“marae” of the god specified, and thrown on the ground to rot.
If a second god’s name were pronounced over the child, the
bamboo-knife would go to one “marae” and the name of the
babe only be pronounced over the second “marae.” The removal
of the coagulated blood was believed to be highly conducive to
health, all impurities being thus removed out of the system.
An analogy was believed to exist between the pith of a tree
and the umbilical cord at birth. Hence the expressions “ara io”
z.¢., “ pathway of the pith,” or simply “io” z.e., “ pith,” are still
used for ‘ God.”
On the island of Rarotonga, when a boy was born, a collection
of spears, clubs, and slinging stones was made. When the sun
was setting, a leaf of that gigantic aroid, A/ocasia indica, filled
with water, was held over these warlike weapons, and the umbilical
cord treated as above described. The idea was that the child
should grow up to be a famous warrior.
The wife is, as arule, isolated from her husband ten nights only.
Infanticide was rarely practised in the Hervey Group, excepting
at Rarotonga, where it was common.
In six out of of seven islands of the Hervey Group cannibalism
ceased only with the introduction of Christianity. It is worthy
of note that on the remaining island—Mangaia—this revolting
practice ceased defore the introduction of Christianity, a cireum-
stance unparalleled in Polynesia. It was in this wise: About a
century before the Gospel was conveyed to those islands, the
famous priest-chief, Mautara, had, by craft and force, crushed out
all his foes, and seized the reins of government. There was not a
person living on the island but was connected with him or his by
worship, blood, or marriage. When this far-seeing man acquired
absolute power, he wisely forbade cannibalism, through fear of
perpetuating the anarchy which for generations had existed. Still
the old habit showed itself again, even in Mautara; and solitary
instances of cannibalism are known to have taken place in later
times by stealth, not openly and constantly as in the early days.
. of the celebrated priest-chief.
Old cannibal Hervey Islanders have assured me that human
flesh is “‘far superior to pig.” My worthy friend and helper,
Maretu of Rarotonga, was, in early manhood, a cannibal. This
T learnt from his own lips. But the last generation that practised
cannibalism has entirely disappeared. Their descendants, in many
instances, through shame, deny the well-known facts of the past.
+In Maori “iho” (=io) means the funis umbilicus. See “Myths and Songs” by the
present writer, page 37.
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 325
At Mangaia, and, I believe, the other islands of the Hervey
Group, it was customary to prepare the body in this wise: The
long spear, inserted at the fundament, ran through the body,
appearing again with the neck. As on a spit, the body was slowly
singed over a fire, in order that the entire cuticle and all the hair
might be removed. The intestines were next taken out, washed
in sea-water, wrapped up in singed banana leaves (a singed
banana-leaf, like oil-silk, retains liquid), cooked and eaten, this
being the invariable perquisite of those who prepared the feast.
The body was cooked, as pigs now are, in an oven specially set
apart, red-hot basaltic stones, wrapped in leaves, being placed
inside to insure its being equally done. The best joint was the
thigh. In native phraseology, “‘nothing would be left but the
nails and the bones.” It is worthy of notice that only warriors
partook of these horrid feasts in the Hervey Group, very rarely,
and by stealth, women and children (as in times of famine), or the
remains of a broken clan hiding in the forest or in caves.
Indeed, when a warrior wished his son to partake of human flesh
for the first time, it was needful to deceive the lad by saying “it
was only a bit of pork.” Of course, when the truth oozed out,
the son felt less scruple in following the evil ways of his father
and uncles. Taoro, of Rarotonga, cooked his only child (a son) as
a return feast for his cannibal friends. There can be no question
that, at first, an inward voice protested against this unnatural
practice. Yet, after a time, they learned to giory in their shame.
For many generations after the settlement of the islands
cannibalism was rarely practised. Native traditions distinctly
informs zen it was first sanctioned by the authority of leading
men, and thus grew to be customary. Strange that on Mangaia
it should again have ceased. In the opinion of many, in the
deadlock which existed about the date of the introduction of
Christianity, the natives of Mangaia would have relapsed into
cannibalism. The deadlock was this :—Tead would only consent
to beat the drums of peace on condition that his two maternal
uncles, the leading vietorious warrior chiefs (Tead being himself
amongst the vanquished), were slain, and laid on the altar of
Rongo as the price of peace! It was for this that Teaé lost his
rank in after days.
Deformed children are very kindly treated indeed, although, ,
perhaps, the deformity was occasioned by the cruel treatment of
the parents in a burst of passion.
A single child is universally carried astride on the hip of the
mother. “Thy daughters shall be nursed at thy side” (Isaiah,
Ix. 4.). When there is a second child to be carried, it is placed
on the shoulders of the mother, so that it rides triumphantly,
holding on to the hair of the parent. This leaves one hip free to
carry a basket of food and cooking leaves. It is rare for a father
to carry his child.
326 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
I have known a lad, three years old, to be still suckled, but in
general the period of suckling does not extend beyond two years.
Too often infants are not suckled at all, on the plea that the
“ mother’s milk is bad.” Such children are ‘‘mama paru,” Ze.,
brought up by hand. — Bits of “taro” (Caladium fetiolatum), well
chewed, are given to it from time to time. The kernel of an old
cocoanut is finely scraped, the rich, oily juice is then expressed
from it, and given in small quantities to the infant. The spoon
anciently used for the purpose is the leaf of the gardenia. I have
often wondered how the stomach of the infants should be able to
stand it ; but they do, and become fine men and women. Of late,
however, the use of the cocoanut has gone out of fashion, much
to the detriment of the children. The soft, half-formed kernel
itself is much used as the child becomes stronger.
Many natives feed their new-born children on “ paka,” z.e., the
baked leaves of the “taro,” dipped in water. The mortality
amongst infants thus reared is great, and should they attain to
adult age they have a diminutive frame.
A chief’s child would have three or four wet nurses, in order
to produce the enormous frames for which they were famous.
It is customary for a native woman, when visiting her friend,
to suckle her infant.
At Rarotonga, to regulate the shape of the child’s head, it
was a common practice to apply slabs of soft wood (‘“ buka tea ”)
to the forehead and back of the head to produce the desired
shape, z.2.,a high head. This practice did not obtain on Mangaia,
nor, I think, on any other island of the Hervey Group.
It is still customary in the Hervey Group for mothers to press
with the palm of the hand the noses of their infants, so that they
may grow squat and round, “not (as I once overheard a woman
say) like the ¢izn, starved nose of the white race.”
When children are small they are spoiled by their parents ;
but when of a useful age all this disappears, and many of them
have a very hard life. The curse of native family life is adoption ;
this makes discipline almost impossible. A cross word will make
the youngster run off to its adopted parents, who sympathise
where they ought to scold. I have known parents take a present
of food to the runaway, and humbly entreat his return; but all
in vain! These adopted parents, however, will resolutely set
themselves to discharge the duties of real parents in teaching the
youngster the arts needful in after life.
The betrothal of the female child often takes place in the
families of chiefs, in order to secure a suitable match. In that
case the girl is continually receiving presents from the family
into which, at adult (say 13 or 14 summers) age, she is to marry.
Should the contract not be fulfilled, full payment is exacted for
all these gifts; but, as a rule, the contracts are well kept, so
many parties being interested in the the affair.
Ls |
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 32
MATURITY.
When circumcised, a lad considers himself to be a man. This
rite was not unfrequently delayed, so that the lad might become
a finer man. It was performed about the age of 17 or 18.
A Hervey Island girl may be considered mature at the age of
14. It must not be imagined that the ages of children were
marked off by years, as with us.
For females, a slight tatooing, the patterns being different
from those on males.
She is expected to make her aéut by taking part in the next
grand dance. The great requisites of a Polynesian beauty are to
be fat and as fair as their dusky skins will permit. To insure
this, favourite children in good families, whether boys or girls,
were regularly fattened and imprisoned till nightfall, when a
little gentle exercise was permitted. If refractory, the guardian
would even whip the culprit for not eating more, calling out,
“Shall I not be put to shame to see you so slim in the dance ?”
These dances invariably took place in the open air, by torch-
light. About a year was required for getting up one such
entertainment. This long interval was needed, first, for the
composing of songs in honour of the fair ones and the rehearsal
of the performers ; secondly, for the growth of “taro,” &e., &e.,
to provide the grand feast necessary. The point of honour was
to be the fairest and fattest of any young people present. I
know of no more unpleasant sight than the cracking of the skin
as the fattening process proceeds; yet this calls forth the
admiration of the friends.
There is no analogy between the initiation of males into the
tribe and the grades of freemasonry, it being done once for all.
No new name is taken, no special colours used at the ceremony.
The advantage that accrues is simply this—he ranks as a man,
can marry, take part in tribal dances, songs, recitations, and the
various duties of adult native life.
CIRCUMCISION.
An imperfect sort of circumcision has been practised in the
Hervey Islands from time immemorial. Captain Cook’s account
of the ceremonies attending this rite at Tahiti applies to nearly
all the branches of the great Polynesian family. In point of fact,
the term ‘‘circum-cision,” as applied to these islanders is a solecism.
The operation is sometimes attended with danger, and is usually
performed about the age of sixteen. The lad invariably wears a
necklace of fragrant flowers after his recovery, and takes the
coveted rank of a man.
Two reasons were assigned for this observance in heathenisin.
First, in the event of being slain in battle, or being offered in
328 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
sacrifice, that the nude body should not be reviled as ‘“‘the carcase
of an uncircumcised wretch.” It was considered to be sufficiently
remarkable to be handed down in tradition that amongst the
sixty who fell in the important battle of Maueue, fought about
184 years ago, were two uncircumcised youths.
Secondly and principally, the performance of this rite was, and
still is, absolutely indispensable to marriage. No Hervey Island
woman would knowingly marry an uncircumcised husband. A
few years ago a young man, a church member, complained to me
that nothing could induce his wayward spouse to live with him.
The near relatives of the woman had again and again taken the
truant wife back to her husband, but in vain. I requested a
deacon to go and remonstrate with her upon her conduct. The
dark-skinned shrew said to the deacon, “ What! ask me to go and
live with an uncircumcised husband? Never!” A year or two
afterwards, severe illness caused her to alter her mind.
The greatest insult that can be offered to a man is to accuse
him of being uncircumcised. The contemptuous expressions in
the sacred writings, in reference to the uncircumcised Gentiles,
seem to the Hervey Islanders to be quite natural.
This epithet, put in the most offensive way, led to war some
years prior to the introduction of Christianity to the island of
Mangaia, in the Hervey Group. The predecessor of Numangatini,
the late king of Mangaia, was on one occasion thus reviled,
without reason, by his maternal uncle. The irate sovereign
demanded that his two maternal uncles should be slain, and
presented in sacrifice to the god Rongo, by way of atonement for
the insult. The leading warriors of the day declined to carry
out his insane wish. Two bloody battles resulted from the
king’s persistence.
The first native pastors set their faces like flint against the
practice of circumcision. The entire despotic power of the great
warrior chief, who embraced Christianity, was brought to bear
upon the extinction of this custom, but utterly failed to uproot it.
My predecessor wisely persuaded the chiefs to blot circumcision,
as a crime, out of their statute-book.
Numbers of white men in the Eastern Pacific Islands, married
to native women, have submitted to this degrading custom to
please their wives.
The natives of Peurhyus, Manihiki, Rakaauga, Pukapuka, and
Niue, also the Ellice and Gilbert Islanders, do not practise
circumcision, although the parent stock of all those islanders still
observe it. The reason for its disuse, doubtless, was the fact that
in all those islands the sharp red quartz, invariably used in
circumcising, is not found. Bamboo is unsuitable for the opera-
tion; like Zipporah of old, they “take a sharp stone” for a knife.
In the Southern New Hebrides, z.c., Fotuna, Aniwa, Aneityum,
Tauna, and one half of Erromanga, circumcision is universally
7
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 329
practised. It appears to have been introduced from Tonga by
the first settlers on Fotuna and Aniwa, who originally drifted
from that Island. These drift natives have, in most of the islands,
intermixed with the true Papuans, and propagated their own
eustoms. The Loyalty Islanders, the natives of New Caledonia,
and the Northern New Hebrides, who appear to be pure Papuans,
are reported not to practise circumcision.
The mythical origin of circumcision at Mangaia runs thus :—
The god Rongo invented it in order to steal away the affections
of Taka, the beautiful wife of his twin-brother Tangaroa. In this
he was but too successful. Unable to endure this new affront
put upon him by his unscrupulous brother, Tangaroa took flight
(aecompanied by his other wife) to other lands, where he enjoys the
supremacy justly due to the eldest-born divinity. Rongo enjoined
the observance of circumcision upon his worshippers.
It should be borne in mind that Rongo, tutelar god of Mangaia,
is the “‘Orono” (or rather Rono) of the Sandwich Islands; the
“Oro” (or rather Ro’o) of Tahiti and most of the Leeward
Islands ; “'Terongo” (= fe Rongo) of Atiu; the “Longo” of
Samoa. In some mythologies he is the soz of Tangaroa, in others
the ¢win-brother, to indicate equal rank.
The modus operandi is as follows: a piece of cocoanut shell
(scraped smooth and thin) is introduced beneath the upper part
of the prepuce, and a longitudinal slit made. The divided
prepuce is then drawn underneath into a slight twist. A soothing
application heals the wound in a few days. The operator
frequently renews the twist, so that eventually a small lump
remains underneath the urethra. I asked a venerable deacon the
motive for this singular custom. Respondit ille: Hoc facere eo
consilio, cum ne album illud (piapia quam vocant), sub preputio
exsistat ; tum autem maxime, quo magis femine venerea voluptate
fruantur. I believe that the statement of my aged friend is
perfectly correct; indeed, it may serve to explain why Polynesian
women are far more lascivious than their Melanesian sisters in
the Western Pacific, where this curious practice was originally
unknown.
MARRIAGE,
Special messengers, of high social rank, are despatched to
make the proposal and convey presents in ratification of the
contract ; but the betrothed child usually remains in the custody
of its parents, now and then paying a visit to the other parties
with much ceremony and under proper guardianship.
Marriage never occurs by force or capture. Sometimes a fallen
tribe or family would endeavour to resuscitate its fortunes by
giving in marriage the flower of the tribe to some disagreeable
but powerful old chief.
The pet daughter of a chief often married into an inferior or
330 _AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
fallen tribe, the parent intending thereby to swell the ranks of
his own warriors by the welcome addition of this inferior or
unlucky clan. In times of peace this servile son-in-law is
expected to be at the beck and call of his father-in-law. There
is, properly speaking, no such thing as sale or barter of wives in
the Hervey Group.
Exogamy was the universal rule of the olden time. Should a
tribe be split up in war, the defeated portion was treated as an
alien tribe. I have known comparatively near relatives to marry
with the approbation of the elders of the victorious portion
of the tribe, expressly on the ground that the sanctity of the clan
law had been wiped out in battle.
Distant cousins sometimes (though rarely) marry ; but must
be of the same generation, z.e., be descended in the same degree
(fourth or fifth, or even more remotely) from the common
ancestor. That the male branch should thus invade the female
is a far more pardonable offence that the converse, but even then,
should misfortune or disease overtake these related couples, the
elders of the tribe would declare it to be the anger of the clan-
god (kua kai te angai). It is the duty of parents to teach their
growing children whom they may Jawfully marry, the choice
being extremely limited. The correct thing in the native mind
undoubtedly is exogamy.
The nuptial ceremony consisted merely in a feast, when bride
and bridegroom, seated together on a piece of the finest white
native cloth,* ate together in the presence of their friends, and
received gifts from them, the good things of the bridegroom’s
friends going to the bride, and vie versa.
A remarkable ceremony obtained on Mangaia in families of
distinction on the marriage of the first-born. Gaily dressed, he
walked from his own door-way to the house of the father-in-law
over a continuous pathway of living human bodies, members of
the wife’s clan. On reaching the goal, three elderly females so
prostrate themseves as to form a living seat for the bridegroom.
A fish is now brought forward, and, with the aid of a “pit of
sharp bamboo, cut up into dice upon a human body. It is now
presented to the bridegroom, who eats it raw. Piles of native
cloth and food are then formally presented to the happy man.
All parties partake of the feast, and afterwards the road of
living bodies is again formed for the distinguished son-in-law to
go back, as he came, to his home.
In due time (a few months later on) the husband’s friends
return the compliment to the bride, only it is understood that
(unless of inferior social status) the second exhibition should
surpass the first. The native name of this remarkable custom is
“maninitori.” It is a usage of great antiquity, but no account
* Theinner bark of the Breussonelia papyrifera beaten out with mallets and pasted
together.
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 331
is given by tradition of its origin. (See my “Life in the
Southern Isles,” pp. 59, 60.)
Polygamy has been entirely done away with by Christianity.
In the olden time it was very common, and was not restricted to
chiefs. As women were rarely slain in war, superfluous females
were divided out amongst the victorious warriors. The famous
Arekare, of Mangaia, had ten wives, Parima six, others two
apiece. In general, if a man of position married the eldest
girl of a slave-family, the younger sisters became his as a matter
of course, being only too glad to have a protector. Even amongst
those of equal rank a man often had two or three sisters to wife
at the same time. Even now, in Christian times, a woman feels
herself to be deeply injured if her brother-in-law does not, on the
death of his wife, ask her to become a mother to his children.
Children, unless distinctly adopted into another clan, always
follow the father. The name of the god pronounced at the
severance of the /wnis umbilicus really determines the clan of the
infant, as before stated. In war they usually followed the
father’s kin; but the duty of an adopted son would be to fight
alongside of his adopted father. Sometimes serfs, forgetting the
claims of blood, followed their lord to battle.
Land is the property of the tribe, and must on no account be
alienated. The adopted son possesses land only so long as he
goes with the clan, obeys the commands of the elders, and fights
(if need be) against his nearest of kin for the tribe into which he
has been adopted. A woman, in general, owns not an inch of
soil, lest she carry away the right to it into another family.
Usually she gives up one child at least to her own tribe, the rest
going to the father’s. When her husband dies, she lives on with
the tribe as s/ave to her children. She weeds, plants, and eats
because of them. If they die, she goes back to her tribe as she
originally came—empty-handed.
When a chief has only a daughter, and that daughter is
married (by the father’s arrangement) to a man of inferior (7.e.,
slave) rank, the husband lives with her on land given to her for
their mutual support (or, as the phrase runs, “land given to her
to feed her husband.”) In all points she rules the household and
lands ; but should war break out, Ze may elect to fight by the
side of his father-in-law, and if victory incline to their side, he is
no longer counted a slave. Should he go with his own clan to
fight against his father-in-law’s tribe, the wife may or may not
go with him. Sometimes the wife, with her children, will stay
on with her own clan; so that, if victorious, the children will
share the good things of the mother’s tribe, whilst the unhappy
father, if not slain in battle, becomes a homeless, hunted fugitive.
In no case may a woman take into another clan any portion of
the ancestral lands of her own tribe. The reason of this is
obvious ; these lands were originally won and subsequently kept
332 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
by the bravery of the entire tribe. Rarely did women fight ;
their part was to stand a little de4znd the husband, to carry baskets
of stones and weapons with which to supply the warriors.
Heavy ¢koru clothes were thrown by the wives over these spears
‘to turn their points aside from the mark.
At Rarotonga, &c., the soil was the sole property of the high
‘chiefs (areki) and under-chiefs. These distributed the land in
accordance with their own wishes .
I do not consider that orphans were in general ill-treated ; the
uncles, as a matter of course, looked after their welfare. In the
native language there is but one word for “ father” and “ uncle.”
It was of the last importance to the tribe that their numbers
should be kept up; hence the care taken of the children, and their
careful education in mimic war.
There are no restrictions as to converse, but as to kissing
(“rubbing of noses”) plenty. The rule is to “kiss” only near
relatives on either side. The elders of the tribe settle these
knotty points. Many a quarrel have I had to compose, the
ground of the dispute being that the lady had no right to permit
‘So-and-so to kiss her. The usual defence is, ‘‘it was done openly,
and therefore could bear no ill significance.” Half the troubles
in native life arise from this source ; the other half from land-
grabbing, or, as the natives phrase it, ‘ land-eating.”
Woman is the slave of man in heathen society. She plants,
carries home the food, collects the firewood and succulent oven-
leaves, cooks her lord’s meal, spreads out supper on hibiscus
leaves (in lieu of plates, and of the same size), never omitting the
sea-water, used as sauce and salt. Torch-fishing is woman’s
occupation only. Whenever she gets home, often in ‘the small
hours of the morning, a special oven for these dainties must be
prepared by her for husband and children. The wife is expected
not only to feed but to clothe her husband. She strips off the
bark of the paper-mulberry (Bvoussonetia papyrifera), steeps it in
running water, beats it out with a square iron-wood mallet, pastes
the strips together, stains the cloth, or, with the aid of leaves,
makes designs on it, glazes the outer side, that her lord may strut
about in his new clothes. A/7s duty is to defend land and life, to
plant and weed, and to fish with hook or net or spear. The wife,
in her torchlight fishing, simply grabs sleepy fish, or puts her
hand in holes which they haunt (often to her cost), but never
uses either canoe, hook, or net.
But as their children (girls) grow up, all the duties of the
mother are performed by the daughters. And the strange thing
is, that they are perfectly content with their lot. To see a
‘woman emerge from the mud of a taro-patch (up to her waist), in
which she has been planting taro-tops (no man at Mangaia plants
.a taro-patch), and then go to the stream to wash herself, excites
pity. But she does not think herself to need pity.
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 333)
At Rarotonga, and some other islands, men plant and bring.
home the “taro,” but the women weave mats and baskets.
After all, despite the horny hands of Mangaian women, their’
lives are pleasant, so long as Christianity secures immunity from:
the cruel bloodshed of heathen times. Even in the old time they’
enjoyed their old dances and semi-dramatic performances. In.
general, it was the young women and girls who took part in these
diversions, the middle-aged prompting or clapping hands or:
looking after the feast to follow.
The model Rarotongan warrior never (like other natives),
allowed his wife to s/eep on his arm, lest his spirit should become:
enervated. After slaying a foe, he became “tapu,” so that he-
might, for a certain period, only kiss his wife and children. On
no account might he cohabit with his wife until the “tapu” had
been removed. During this period of “tapu,” all the warriors of
the same tribe lived together, receiving immense presents of food.
When a sufficient interval had elapsed, in preparation for the
removal of the “ tapu,” they would go unitedly to fish. If, while
fishing, a warrior happened to be bitten by an “aa” (conger eel),
or get his legs clasped by an octopus, he regarded this as a sure
presage of a violent death. If he, that day, caught only a
miserable fish, such as the poisonous “no’u,” it plainly indicated
that in his next battle he would only kill a wretched sort of
person, not a chief or a warrior. On the other hand, if he caught
a really fine fish, it was evident that he would hereafter conquer:
and kill some person of distinction, and thus enhance the fame of.
his tribe !
THE TRIBE.
Descent in the ma/e line from a common ancestor (tama tane))
constitutes the tribe. Descendants in the female line (tama
vaine) may be adopted into the tribe, with the consent of the:
elders, after bathing in a sacred stream in order to wash off the
taint of old slave or antagonistic associations. (See my “Historical
Sketches of Savage Life,” pp. 136-9). In general, slaves married
into the victorious clans, were content to follow its fortunes ; but
there were numerous exceptions to this rule. When dying,
mothers of rank would commend their children to the chiefs of
their own tribe, the slave-fathers having no voice whatever
concerning their own offspring. The filial instinct, however,
often led these children to endeavour to restore the fallen fortunes
of the father’s conquered clan. Usually, the question of tribe
was decided by the divinity or divinities named at the severance
of the funis umbilicus. But all the worshippers of Tané, with its
numerous modifications, were supposed to form but one tribe
In every case there must be oneness of origin (on the maternal if
not on the paternal side), even in cases of adoption. When a
334 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
great favour—life or land—was sought, it was wonderful how
close the relationship was made to appear ; but when a grudge
had to be paid off, the sins (blood-shedding) of that branch of the
clan were alone remembered.
Each tribe had its own god or gods,* its own marae or maraes
(groves for worship), its own prayers and incantations, and its
own songs. Even in the matter of clothing there were special
differences. I have seen a man stripped naked for presuming to
wear the garments of another tribe. The meek defence was that
his grandmother was a member of the said tribe. Thus the will
of the individual counted for nothing, or next to nothing, in
heathen times.
There is one head chief, many subordinate ones. The office
and power of chief is usually passed on to the brother, but when
all the brothers were dead, would be transmitted to the eldest
born of the eldest male branch of the ruling family (‘te kiko
mua”). Whenever this individual was deficient in intellect or
courage, the tribal oracle was sure to declare that the god had
taken up his abode in another (generally speaking, the youngest
male) member of the ruling family. This divinely-favoured
individual was then duly installed, and the entire tribe compelled
to obey, as there could be no appeal from the word of the priest
when inspired, for it was the fiat of the gods. On the island of
Mangaia ‘“ Barima” was not the representative of the eldest
branch of the tribe of Tané, but he was undoubtedly the fittest
man, specially selected, it was averred, out of his family by the
god Tane-i-te-ata. Primogeniture was the rule, selection by the
god the exception. The kingly oftice mzght descend in the female
line; and this of necessity, as the males were so generally slain.
But the male line would invariably be preferred.
The duties of a tribal chief were (1) to adjust disputes, (2) to
confirm or lay aside wills (vvd@ voce wills, of course), (3) to lead
in battle, (4) to preside at all tribal work or feasting, (5) to
provide at all points for the well-being of the clan, and (6) not
the least important of a chief’s duties was to consult or worship
the gods, on his own behalf as chief and on behalf of the tribe.
On Mangaia every high chief must worship Rongo, god of war and
ruler of the invisible world. But there would be also his own
private god, who must be duly honoured in the daily concerns of
life. The worship of Rongo was reserved for great occasions, the
making of war or peace, the selection of human sacrifices for the
ratification of all degrees of chieftainship, &c. Summoned by
the king, as high-priest of Rongo, all tribal chiefs were bound
to attend, with a few followers, on behalf of their respective clans
The state was conceived of as a long dwelling standing east and
west; the chiefs of the southern (right) side of the island
* The tribe of Ngariki worshipped Rongo, Ruler of Night, i.e, the invisible world, and
Motoro, one of the gods of “ Day,” or this upper and visible world.
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 335
represented one side of it; the chiefs of the northern (left) side
of the island represented the other side. The under-chiefs
everywhere symbolized the lesser rafters ; individuals the separate
leaves of thatch covering. Yet, by a subtle process of thought,
the state itself—with its great and lesser chiefs, and its numerous
members—was but the visible expression of a spirit-dwelling in
under-world, in which the major and minor divinities did not
merely live, but actually constituted it ; the major gods being the
pillars and main rafters, the minor gods the lesser rafters,
&e., &e. The safety of the state consisted’ in this—that in the
spirit-temple in the nether-world there should be no schism or rent ;
for should there be one, divisions will immediately arise in the
visible state, z.e., in the councils of the great chiefs; the necessary
consequences being war and bloodshed.
The order of descent in regal families was usually from father
to son; but with great land or warrior chiefs it was different,
the brothers of the deceased taking precedence of his sons,
for the excellent reason that it was their strong arms that won
or preserved the tribal lands. The kings were sacred men, priests
of the great tutelar divinities ; therefore the representative of the
senior branch in each generation was held in the greatest
veneration, irrespective of age and sex, as being the visible
mouth-piece and shrine of the invisible and immortal gods. But
no female was competent to offer “prayers” (karakia), however
well versed in them.
The elders and wise men of the tribe constituted the tribal
council. The paramount chief or king must endorse their advice,
else it was not law. It was the duty of the presiding chief to
ask the opinion of the elders on any point.
Punishment for theft of food was the destruction of everything
edible on the land belonging to the family of the thief, or the
taking of the culprit’s life. In general, the former penalty was
for members of the tribe; the latter for outsiders. In some
islands all offences were punished with one—the death—penalty.
No idea of proportion between an offence and its punishment
existed in the native mind. Asa rule, a chief might do anything
he liked ; not so the members of the tribe.
Polynesian chiefs were invariably fine men. Makea Daméla
of Rarotonga would have been considered a very tall man but
for his extreme corpulence. He seemed to waddle, not to walk.
In his infancy he had (as was usual with the children of high
chiefs) three or four wet nurses at the same time. His eldest
brother weighed 312 lbs., their father nearly 5 cwt.
SOCIAL AND DOMESTIC,
In the Hervey Group the huts were in the form of a rectangle,
and made of reeds. The thatch used by the common people was
336 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
merely the plaited leaflets of the cocoanut palm—very pervious
to rain. The idol-temples and the great dwellings of the chiefs
were covered with pandanus-leaf thatch—idol-temples first,
dwellings of chiefs afterwards. The doors were always sliding.
There was a sacred and a common entrance. Squares were
prettily worked in black sennit on the front and back sides of
the dwelling. The “tirango,” or threshold, was made of a single
block of timber, tastefully carved. We name our dwellings
because they are are enduring; ¢4ey name the sve, their huts
being so perishable.
Only the large open valleys of Mangaia and Atiu were culti-
vated in the olden time, but at Rarotonga a considerable portion
of that narrow strip of rich soil near the sea was well planted.
The weeding spade of Mangaia was not unlike a club in shape,
and was made of iron-wood (Casuarina equisetifolia). The length
was five feet nine inches. Indeed, it was a most formidable
weapon at close quarters, as many an unfortunate has found to
his cost.
The staff of life on Mangaia and Atiu is the “taro”* plant ; on
Aitutaki, the sweet potato; on Rarotonga, bread-fruit and plan-
tains; on Mitiaro, &c., &c., cocoanut. In most of the islands a
vast quantity of fish is eaten as soon as it is captured.
On Mauihiki the natives subsist on cocoanut and fish; on the
sister island of Rakaauga they have in addition a good supply of
“puraka” 7.e., a coarse species of Caladium. On most of the
atolls the inhabitants live contentedly on cocoanut and fish only.
Food is abundant throughout the Hervey Group except when
a cyclone has wrought its desolation, or continuous rain has
flooded the valleys where “taro ” is cultivated.
About two days’ work in a week will keep a plantation in good
order. On atolls, like Mauihiki, where only the cocoanut palm
flourishes, no weeding or planting can be done, as the soil
consists of sand and gravel thrown up by the ocean on the ever-
growing coral. Hence it is that the natives of these atolls are
such excellent fishermen, having little else to do.
The usual time for the one real meal of the day in the Hervey
Group is at sunset. The richer natives have a warm meal about
ten a.m., but in general they cook enough at sunset to last for the
morning’s repast.
Throughout Polynesia the mode of cooking is similar. A
circular hole, two or three feet in diameter, is dug in the ground,
the centre being deeper than any other part. Firewood is split
and piled up in the hole. Basaltic stones are now laid on the
firewood just before it was lighted. When the fire had burnt
out, and the red-hot stones fallen to the bottom amongst the
glowing ashes, they are carefully arranged by means of a hooked
* Caladium petiolatum.
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 337
green stick, of a sort that will not easily burn. A large bundle
of succulent leaves are now thrown upon the hot stones, occa-
sioning a dense cloud of steam to arise. On this the well-scraped
“taro,” split bread-fruits, sweet potatoes, or plantains are placed.
Fish are invariably wrapped up in the leaves of the Cordyline
terminalis, so that their juices may be retained. The oven is
now covered in with a second bundle of fresh-plucked leaves.
The dry leaves of yesterday are thrown on the top, and the whole
pressed down by heavy stones kept for the purpose. In fine
weather this steaming oven was made in the open air, in rainy
weather under shelter.
In heathen times it was customary at Mangaia and some other
islands to slay all strangers. At Rarotonga, if a stranger
landed in sight of one of their kings his life was safe; but even
then it was not quite wise to travel any distance in the bush
without the chief. But in these days the stranger is fairly well
treated, often far better than he deserves. He shares the good
things going and remains as long as he likes. It is usual, on
meeting another, to share whatever food may be in the hand or
in the basket. The influx of visitors is rapidly producing a
change in their customs ; still, I think an unprejudiced observer
must admit that the stranger is better cared for in Christian
Polynesia than in Christian Britain. The generous man is the
ideal good man yet.
Ear ornaments were universal. The shell of a species of
cocoanut producing small, long nuts—their ends rubbed off on
madrepore coral—were filled with fragrant flowers and leaves and
worn in the slit lobes of the ears of persons (males) of distinction.
The lobes were marvellously distended by this practice.
The arms of warriors—between the elbow and the shoulder—
were tatooed black only, so that, on dance nights, the beautiful
white (Ovwla ovum, Linn) shell fastened across with sennit might
be the more admired. Happy was the dancer who had a shell
for doth arms.
Just above the ankles finely-plaited hair was wound repeatedly,
the amount indicating the rank and wealth of the wearer. So,
too, with the wrists and neck. From the plaited hair on the
neck was suspended a large pearl shell, or, in lieu of this coveted
ornament, a piece of “miro” wood ( Thespesia populnea), adzed
into its shape. This plaited hair was called “manoa;” the
breast ornament, “ tia.”
The ears of children were pierced with fish-bone, then enlarged
with a twig of the gardenia, so as to admit a fresh-plucked
flower (the scarlet Azd7scus or the Gardenia).
The women had to be content with necklaces and chaplets of
flowers, but a favourite daughter might wear plaited hair round
her neck. Of course, in each ear a flower was worn, and on her
bosom a woman of rank might wear a “miro” ornament. Men
Vv
338 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
emulated the other sex in regard to wreaths and necklaces, the
latter often descending nearly to the knee. It is noteworthy
that the septum of the nose was never pierced by the Hervey
Islanders, as nasal ornaments were never in vogue in that part
of the Pacific.
The Hervey Islanders were a clothed race. The inner bark of
the paper-mulberry (Lroussonetia papyrifera) yielded them the
material for their ‘‘ tikoru.” Poorer natives were content to use
the inner bark of the “aoa,” or banyan tree. On Rarotonga,
Aitutaki, and Mauke the inner bark of the bread-fruit tree
yielded a light and beautiful garment. Even the Zutada scandens
was utilised by the poor for the manufacture of clothing.
The defect of native garments is their inability to keep out
moisture. To remedy this, on Mangaia, the outside was some-
times anointed with scented cocoanut oil. The varieties of native
dresses, with their distinctive names, were very numerous.
A native woman, in her own dwelling, wears a single garment.
In the cold season she throws a “ tiputa ” over her shoulders. A
man at work in the olden time, 7.e., when weeding, canoe-making,
or fishing, wore only a girdle (maro). Travelling through the
rain he was content with a girdle, but on arriving at his hut he
would put on old warm clothing. A good covering of native
cloth is (as I know from experience) as warm as a blanket.
An unmarried girl wore her petticoat nearly to the knee ; when
married, it was brought down just below the knee. In sitting,
the Hervey Island females rested upon their heels, zo/, as in
these days, tailor fashion. This latter indelicate custom was
imported from Tahiti in recent times.
Speaking generally, it may be confidently stated that the
natives are a well-nourished race. But in the old fighting days,
when so small a portion of the soil was cultivated, it was hardly
so. The chiefs and all the ruling race were indeed well nourished,
but the “ao,” or serfs, had sorry times of it. The frequent famines
of those days were terrible. I have known natives who kept
themselves alive on candle-nuts alone for months together ; but
they were wretched objects to look at. It is curious that a
starved race becomes black almost, but if plenty returns, their
natural, agreeable, coffee-colour is restored. In atolls, to the
north-west of the Hervey Group and the Line Islands, the natives
subsist chiefly on cocoanut, pandanus drupes, and fish. Should
any accident (e.g., if the leaflets are devoured by a plague of
Lopaphus coccophagus, or a cyclone, or if the crowns are sprinkled
by ocean spray) occur to the cocoanut palm, it is frightful to see
the wasted forms of the islanders.
But even on the most fertile islands, after a cyclone, the
sufferings of the natives are great. Happily, now, there are so
many introduced plants, as well as imported food, that the natives
do not perish of sheer starvation as in the days of heathenism. I
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 339
have known entire families to subsist on the crown of a felled
cocoanut, with what fish they could catch.
The salutation of the Hervey Islanders was the very reverse
of our own. We dow to our friends ; they toss the head upwards,
at the same time elevating the eyebrows.
Their great national amusement was the dance. In this
singular performance the joints seem to be loose. I do not believe
it possible for any European to move the limbs as a Polynesian
loves to do. Ata very early age mothers carefully oil the hands,
&c., and then knead the tiny limbs, stretching and “ cracking ”
each joint. Respecting the morality of their dances, the less said
the better; but the ‘‘ upaupa dance,” introduced from Tahiti, is
obscene indeed.
WIZARDS,
Priests ex-officio dealt with the gods and the invisible world.
It was for them alone to approach the deities on behalf of the
state, clan, or chiefs, ze, to chaunt avakia (prayers) at the
marae* and present offerings. If Rongo were the divinity to be
propitiated, a human sacrifice specially selected must be offered.
To all other gods offerings of tish and “taro,” &e., with the indis-
pensable bowl of piper mythisticum, were presented from time to
time. No worshipper dared go empty-handed to his priest to
inquire the will of the gods. The value of the gift must be
proportioned to his rank and means. The load might be carried
by ma/e slaves to the outskirts of the marae, but the offerer had
a place allotted to him within the sacred precincts. The priest,
or “ god-box,” clothed in white} //koru, at a little distance, alone,
in the most sacred place, went through the needful prayers.
Ina case of sickness the deity would be asked about the fate
of his devoted worshipper. At Mangaia the favourable response
would be couched in these terms—(‘ The spirit) will go to the
sun-rising ” (ka aere ki te ra iti), ze, the sick will recover. For
the spirit to descend with the sun-god Ra into the nether, or
invisible, world is death. If the sufferer must die, a different
metaphor was employed by the priest —“ kua rau-ti para ”—‘‘ The
leaf of the ¢ tree (Cordyline terminalis) is sere,” z.e., will drop off
and perish.
The office of priest was hereditary throughout the Hervey
Group. When a new priest was installed, he first bathed in the
sacred stream of his tribe, put on the white “/horu, ate only
certain kinds of food, and abstained from many things permitted
to others. On the day of installation of the priest of Rongo the
temporal chief accompanied him to the marae—not too closely
following him. Offerings of food having been deposited at the
* Idol grove.
+ Off duty, the priest might wear a yellow “tiputa” over his shoulders.
340 : AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
usual spot, cooked ‘“‘taro” and the invariable bowl of “kava”
having been disposed of by the new priest-king, the temporal
chief shouted, ‘“‘ Ka uru Rongo”—* Let Rongo enter” (z.¢., inspire).
The new high-priest, seated on a sacred stone,* then fell into
convulsions, and spake in a most unearthly voice (? ventriloquism),
the words so uttered being accepted as a divine oracle! Thus
did the /empora/ sovereign install the new priest-king (z.e., spiritual
ruler). A grand feast would follow.
Less of ceremony was observed with priests of divinities of
inferior rank, but substantially the same process was carried out.
The technical phrase for this was “ Va’i ite pia atua ou”—‘‘ open
up the new god-box.”
On the eve of an important battle “the omens were taken”
(ka pa te vai) by the warrior chief himself. These omens
consisted in the drowning of insects, &c., in water, or a fish hunt
on the reef. (See my “Savage Life,” page 104).
The native phrase, ‘‘ Ka pa te vai,” means, literally, ‘“‘ enclose the
water,” because in taking the omens by the drowning of insects,
&e., it was customary to arrange the cut stems of a banana ina
square on the ground. A single leaf of the Alocasia indica
(Seeman), holding half a bucket of water, was deposited in the
hollow, the water being kept from spilling by the cut banana
stems. A number of centipedes, green lizards, and dragon-flies
were now dashed into the water. The total of creatures drowned
prefigured the number of warriors doomed to perish in to-morrow’s
battle. There was a special prayer (now lost) for this ceremony.
Sometimes two shells (Zirbo petholatus), intended to represent
the two hostile camps, were deposited by the warrior chief on his
own marae, with an appropriate prayer, in the dusk of evening.
On returning at daylight, it is averred that Moke found the shell
representing his foes turned upside down, a sure omen of their
destruction, which accordingly took place.
On most of the eastern Pacific islands were “ wise women,”
who were consulted respecting the minor affairs of daily life.
These women were supposed to be inspired by a female divinity.
A small present must be made ere consulting the priestess. On
Mangaia the goddess Ruatamaine was consulted to discover a thief,
and to secure success in fishing. There were numberless Ruaatu,
or fishermen gods (of stone) in all the islands, each demanding an
offering of a newly-caught fish from its votaries, or, in default of
that, a hollow pebble to be strung into a sort of necklace, or the
midrib of a cocoanut leaf, and thrown into the darkness, with
these words, “ Here is thy share, O Ruaatu !”
The native name for sorcerer is “taugata purepure,” 7.2, “a
man who prays.” A heathen only prays for the ill-luck or death
of his foes. The prayers offered by the priests to the gods
*Te koatu karakia—the stone for praying.
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 341
worshipped on the national or tribal maraes were termed
“ karakia ;” those on minor occasions to the lesser gods were
named ‘“fure.”* All these prayers were metrical,j and were
handed down from generation to generation with the utmost
care. There were “prayers” for every phase of savage life; for
success in battle; for a change of wind (to overwhelm an
adversary fishing solitarily in his canoe, or that an intended
voyage of his own may be propitious); that cocoanuts, yams,
&c., &c., may grow; that a thieving or murder expedition may be
successful; that his hook or net may catch plenty of fish; that
his kite may fly higher than all others; that his “teka” (reed)
may outstrip the rest; that strong teeth may take the place of
his child’s first tooth when extracted, &c., kc. A great secret
was the prayer at the excision of the /funis umbilicus, that the
boy might be brave, or that the girl might in after-life be fruitful.
Few men of middle age were without a number of these
“prayers” or charms. ‘They were usually uttered in too low a
key to be heard by a stranger, lest he, too, should thus be armed
with a dangerous weapon of offence. If a plantation were to be
robbed, the appropriate “prayer” or charm must be uttered near
to it, so that it might have its full effect. If a man were to be
clubbed in his sleep, the “prayer” must not be used until the
hut is in sight. Important charms or “prayers” such as these
were to grown-up sons part of the equipment of life. In most
cases, one or two would never be divulged until there was a
premonition of death in sickness or battle. A man felt that if
his last bit of “wisdom” were “reeled off” (to use a native
parable), die he must.
Payment to the sorcerer consisted in a couple of pieces of native
cloth, or fish and “taro,” &e.
The succession was from father to son, or from uncle to nephew.
So, too, of sorceresses ; it would be from mother to daughter, or
from aunt to niece. Sorcerers and sorceresses were often slain by
the relatives of their supposed victims.
A singular enchantment was employed to kill off the husband
of a pretty woman desired by someone else. The expanded
flower of a Gardenia was stuck upright—a very difficult perform-
ance—in a cup (ze., half a large cocoanut shell) of water. In New Zealand “‘ karakia.”
+ Hence appropriately termed by us incantations.
342 AUSTRALASIAN AND POLYNESIAN
all become impotent. Indeed, the “prayers” themselves are
happily lost.
In adzing a canoe, it was the duty of the chief saunga (artisan-
priest) to chaunt an extempore never-ending song, which the other
workmen took up. The song gave precision and unity to the
stroke of their stone adzes, added to their cheerfulness, and
was believed to be supernaturally efficacious in helping on the
work to its completion. As the ¢awnga would be sure to be
associated with the same set of helpers, the assistants knew
pretty well what was being chaunted. This sort of thing was
called a “pataratara” — “a talking,” of which I retain two
written but untranslated specimens. Originally it was an address
to the tree-spirit not to be angry at their adzing the noble trunk,
with an invocation to the axe-fairy, Ruateatonga, to aid the
progress of the work.
Taraaere, the last priest of Tangaroa (who had often offered
human sacrifices to the tutelar god of Rarotonga), when nearly
ninety years of age, said to me :—
“My father taught me how to retain wisdom (korero). He also
told me when to marry. He did not feed me with bananas,
plantains, and fish, lest, the food being light and slippery, wisdom
should slip away from me. No! he fed me with ‘taro,’ well
beaten with a pestle, and mixed with cooked ‘taro ’-leaves, the
glutinous nature of the ‘taro’ being favourable to the retention
of wisdom.”
This was uttered without a sinile, in the full belief that this
simple diet of his youth and early manhood accounted for the
marvellous memory which he possessed to the very end of life.
He assured me that it was thus the priests of the olden days
were brought up.
DEATH.
No one was believed to die a strictly natural death unless
extreme old age was attained. Nineteen out of every twenty
were regarded as victims of special divine anger or of the incan-
tations of “the praying people” (Zangata purepure) i.e., the
sorcerers. Causes of death were :—
1. Infringement of Zapz laws of all kinds.
2. An uttered resolve broken; e¢.g., preparation for battle
upon the receipt of false intelligence. The trick may be seen
through after a time, still the fight must at all risks come off, 7f
once the war-girdle has been put on. Not only would shame attend
the withdrawing warriors, but the special wrath of the war-god
would rest upon them. So that there is nothing for it but fight at
allrisks. A journey prepared for, but not carried out. Many years
ago it was intended that the writer should remove to Rarotonga to
take charge of the mission there. Everything was ready, when
a brother from England arrived for that station. It so happened
RACES BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE. 343
that just afterwards I lost two sons in one week of diptheria. I
was astounded to find that the natives of Mangaia, while
sympathizing with my loss, attributed the sad blow to my failure
to carry out my original purpose.
3. A grave dug fora corpse, but not occupied. At the last
moment perhaps the owner of the soil objects to the burial, so
the corpse is disposed of elsewhere. In that case, the natives
firmly believe that someone else must die in order to occupy
the empty grave.
4. Unusual luxuriance of growth of plantations of food. The
saying is, “ E mou Avaiki tena,” 7.e., ‘it is also a crop for spirit-
land” (portends a crop for the reaper Death, as we perhaps
would phrase it).
The bodies of deceased friends were anointed with scented oil,
carefully wrapped up in a number of pieces of cloth, and the same
day committed to their last resting-place. A few were buried
in the earth within the sacred precincts of the appropriate
marae; but by far the greater number were hidden in caves
regarded as the special property of certain families.
If a body were buried in the earth, the face was invariably
laid downwards, chin and knees meeting, and the limbs well
secured with strongest sinnet cord. 3/7 the internal
virial must vary inversely as the volume. In agreement with
this, the equation for the elementary gases and methane is
from Amagat’s experiments proved down to the critical volume
to be pu=K r{ 1 +5/(o-5 ; “5 where //v is 2:43 3 Fr for
unit mass of gas. But in the case of compound gases a different
form is, from Ramsay and Young’s experiments on ethyl oxide
and Amagat’s on carbonic dioxide, proved to hold down to the
9
critical volume pv= Rk T (1 +24) wife which is indirectly
v+k/i utk
proved to apply to the great majority of compounds, the most
prominent exceptions being the alcohols and water, ethylene and
bodies such as acetic acid and nitric peroxide, which have been
shown to contain double molecules. The most notable point
about this equation for compounds is that the form //(v+) for
the internal virial holds down to yolume v=4, at which it
becomes 7/2, and below which it becomes 7/2v. Hence, below
a certain volume, 4, the internal virial for compounds varies
inversely as the volume, as the law of the inverse fourth power
requires, but above the volume & the form //(v+) would seem
to be in contradiction to that law, only that the author is able to
show that this form is due to the pairing of molecules in com-
pound gases, the virial constant for the free molecules being J,
a ee
an
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 369
and that for the pairs being 7/2, so that when the volume 2 is
reached all the molecules are paired, and then through the whole
range of liquid volume the pairs behave as single molecules in
the matter of molecular force. These equations apply down to
the critical volume ; in the case of the elements and methane the
critical volume pressure and temperature are given by the con
3k
ditions df/dv=od'p/dv’ = o, whence 2, Sh VE OO eae
p. = 47/27. At the critical volume 2 i 1+ Iw-5) |
Dui , ¥ :
becomes sea and the form established below the critical volume is
— us
pu= if z. (1 pba ) —- Im the case of compounds the
Zi = U.
condition @’f/dv° =o is not a possible one, and the critical
Tk
values are given by @f/dv=o and v, = = whence 7, = 120//
409 Rk, p. =367/409 &. By means of Ramsay and Young’s data
aon ¥Tv,- 4
for ethyl oxide, the general form fp 7= ra
hate , Ga
eis established for compounds below the volume 4, while
25 R ae Cee
between & and 7 £/6 the form is J v = ares ile Ser . - e
4
v+ hk.
of the present experimental range of fluidity, one can proceed
to applications too numerous to detail in an abstract ; thus it
is possible to amend to a more accurate statement Van der
Waals’ generalisation that, if volume pressure and temperature
for any substance be expressed in terms of its critical values,
as units, then one and the same law applies to all fluids.
The more accurate statement is that above the critical volume
the elements and methane follow the same law, while compounds
with the previously mentioned exceptions follow another law, the
same for all compounds, but different from that for elements.
Below the critical volume these statements are not strictly but
only approximately true. With these equations there are five
main methods of finding values of the virial constant / from
available data. The first is from extended enough observations
on the compression and expansion of bodies as gases ; the second
from one measurement of the co-efficient of expansion a and of the
compressibility ». at temperature Z of the body as a liquid
x
Thus equipped with equations covering the whole
370 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A.
: i 25 :
according to the relation / = $ (2, me - R)o T the third from
Vg
the latent heat 4 according to the relation /4= fe adv
a
which, with appropriate reduction and approximation, gives
M1/v, =66°5 AZX—-101 7, in terms of the megadyne, gramme
and centimetre, where J/ is the molecular weight and 7; the
boiling point (counted of course from absolute zero) 4 being
measured in calories; the fourth from the equations given for
T.and p~, whence /= 409 &’ 7?/ 400 4, The fifth method depends
on results already established (PAz/. Mag.. July, 1887, and
April, 1889), that the internal virial is 3 7 4 p Jog Z/a, so that,
for compound liquids, 7= 4 7 A log L/a where Z/a isa ratio
which is constant and the same for all compounds; and that the
surface tension x Is given by x = wp’ Ae / (2 + vy’ 2) where e is
like a a quantity nearly equal to the mean distance apart of the
molecules, from these we get / = ¢c x v3 / 173 wherec is a constant
whose value can be found. To get comparable values for ditferent
bodies we must measure y and v always at the same fraction of
the critical temperature. These methods enable us to calculate
values of 7 for a large number of bodies; the following are three
illustrative samples of the agreement of the different methods :—
Method Second Third Fourth Fifth
GS; 26°5 25°7 27°2 26°9 ) Values of 47° in terms
CHC, 33°0 38°2 36°71 36°8 ~ of megamegadyne,
God. MAD 43°] 42-7 43°8 \ gramme and cm. ~
Agreement such as this in a large number of cases constitutes
the veritication of the theory so far unfolded. In s-eking for the
law that connects the virial constant 7 of a compound with its
chemical composition, it proved advantageous to multiply 7 by
M*, and it was then found that J7°7 = 6S + 668° where S is
called the dynic equivalent of the compound and is defined as the
number of C7, groups in the normal paraftin which exerts the
same molecular force as the compound; .S is the sum of the dynic
equivalents of the radicals in the compound. The following are
the values of the dynic equivalents for several radicals, along
with their molecular refractions in terms of that for CZ, as unity
CE we H CO OO Nise
Dynic equivalent 1 7a) (P25 dO Gen eel
Molecular refraction 1 54 P3vil-4) 35) chhpeeeliaee
iO UCM Sigma SC
2 2:85 “
2
Dynic equivalent 1
S-Ouinls
9D.
ad
Molecular refraction 2°
ee
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 371
The significance of the parallelism in the values of these two
quantities cannot be discussed in this abstract. The law of Z has
thus been found, and as 7 is proportional tu 4, we have the law of
Am in 3An’ //* the expression for molecular force.
In extending the theory to inorganic bodies with data at
present available it is necessary to construct a theory of the
capillarity and compressibility of solutions ; this is successfully
done with the unfolding of some interesting results in the
process, and the same parallelism between dynic equivalent and
molecular refraction is again established for a large number of
elements. Many matters are treated of in the full investigation
which cannot be touched on in this abstract.
7.—REMARKS ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF A
GALVANOMETER.
By E. F. J. Love, M.A., Fellow of Queen’s College, Melbourne,
and Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Natural Philosophy
to the University.
| Adstract. |
THE author of this paper described a ballistic galvanometer, the
suspension and mounting of which offered some peculiarities.
The suspended system of magnets was made as nearly astatic as
possible, and the restoring force was supplied by the torsional
rigidity of the suspending fibre. For the latter, the author
employed dark human hair, of suitable length, mounted in its
natural state without cleansing. This substance he found to
possess very perfect torsional rigidity, and to be nearly free from
“elastische nachwirkung.” It was recommended that all
delicately-suspended apparatus should be mounted on india-rubber
pillars, of height equal to their diameter, as such a mounting
almost completely insulates the apparatus from external
disturbance, and, at the same time, rapidly takes up and damps
vibrations actually set up within the instrument. The paper
further contained a comparison of the merits of Gauss’s method
of observing by means of telescope and scale with those of Sir
W. Thomson’s lamp and scale method, the conclusion being
strongly in favour of the former for absolute measures of angle,
and concluded by describing a simple method of constructing
circular scales.
8.—AIDS TO CALCULATION.
By J. J. Fenton.
Section B.
CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
President op the Section: Professor E. H. Rennie, M.A., D.Sc.,
University of Adelaide.
1—ON AN APPLICATION OF CHEMICAL CONTROL
TO A MANUFACTURING BUSINESS.
By Ep. W. Knox.
As there are still doubts in many minds about the money value
of scientific aid in practical work, I have thought that some
interest might be taken in a short account of a purely commercial
application of chemical science to a manufacturing business—
an application, I think, unique in its completeness as far as
Australasia is concerned, though in Europe many better examples
might easily be found, but few, if any, where the staff of experts
is so large or the work done so wide in its scope.
The business I speak of is that of the company known as the
Sugar Company, which is largely interested in the manufacture
and refining of sugar in five of the colonies of the Australasian
group. Having entered the service of this company twenty-five
years ago, and having since passed through all its grades, I can
speak with some authority of its transactions ; but as I have not
enjoyed any training in science, I will deal with the subject on
which J am to address you merely from the point of view of one
concerned with the results alone.
About ten years since we were led by the great attention then
being paid to chemical research in connection with the beet-sugar
industry to commence such investigations into our mode of work.
We did not know clearly what was wanted, nor did the man we
engaged, so the first start was not a success; but it showed us
we were on the right track, and we accordingly engaged in
Scotland a refinery chemist, and a year later two beet-sugar
chemists in Germany, and began the systematic check on our
working. Of these gentlemen, the former is now our head
chemist (Mr. T. U. Walton, B.Sc., F.1.C., F.C.S.), and one of the
latter our inspecting chemist (Dr. Gustav Kottmann, Ph.D.) ;
and it is to the patience and industry of these two gentlemen, and
to the system they introduced, that much of the success we have
.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. Bal f3)
achieved is due. The chemical staff then fast increased in numbers,
but it was not till I visited Europe in ’85 and saw there to what
an extent the supervision of industrial work was passing into the
hands of those having chemical knowledge that any large portion
of the practical work was entrusted to members of our chemical
staff. I sought, however, authority for such a change, and during
the past two or three years have gradually, as chances offered,
transferred to men who were trained chemists or analysts, the
management of a large part of our manufacturing operations.
The method adopted now is as follows :—There is a central
laboratory in Sydney, where the head chemist is stationed. Here
five or six officers, including juniors receiving elementary training,
are always at work, and to this centre all the returns from each
factory are forwarded weekly. At each sugar-mill and refinery
(nine and three respectively) there are employed a chemist or
analyst, and one or more juniors or assistants—not counting the
officers who may be engaged in overlooking the manufacture—
and each of these analysts is responsible for the chemical
investigations to be carried out at his station. At the mills
these comprise :—
1. Analysis of the sugar-cane as received
2. 2 5» juice expressed
3 _ 5, megass er crushed cane after the juice
has been removed
4, A 5, Clarified juice
ap _ £5 as 5, after it has been boiled down
6. . », massecuite from the pans
is u » sugar and molasses
8. iS eM Coal
and in addition a record is kept of the work done, and each week
a statement is prepared which shows the quantity of cane crushed
and sugar produced. The work, of course, is so arranged that
the more important analyses which determine the amount of
sugar lost in the various processes are made frequently, and those
of smaller moment as time permits.
At the refineries the sugar is all sampled and analysed according
to the various brands on being landed from the ships, and it is
stowed so that it can be procured as wanted. Each day’s melting
is again analysed, and the weekly averages of all sugars and syrup
produced. There is also a careful examination made of the bone-
black used for filtering, to determine if this has been rightly
re-burned, and full analyses of this also are made from time to
time. The records of the work are prepared on different lines
from those for the mills, but there is a similar check, and
occasional investigations have also to be made into other points
connected with the refinery work.
374 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.
At the end of each quarter for the refinery, and of each
crushing season at the mills, the weekly returns which have been
prepared are summarised and tabulated, and careful comparison
made between the results at the various factories, improvements
effected or new methods suggested being brought under the
notice of the leading officers, as are also the occasional short-
comings relentlessly exposed by the figures recorded. The refinery
returns are all under the charge of the head chemist, the mill
returns under that of the inspecting chemist ; and the whole of
them are made out in such a way that the administrative heads
of the different departments—who, as a rule, know nothing of
chemistry—can grasp the main features very easily, and then at
once deal with any matters which call for attention or explanation.
All the work in connection with sugar is carried out by the aid
of the polariscope, and indeed could hardly be done without this
instrument, which has been devised to make a practical applica-
tion of the property that a solution of sugar has of altering the
character of polarised light allowed to shine through it. The
degree of change thus experienced by the rays of light is in exact
proportion to the quantity of sugar present in the solution, and
when measured by suitable prisms the amount of sugar thus
becomes known. This apparatus is the outcome of a long series
of experiments and discoveries commenced nearly seventy years
ago, and it serves well to illustrate the dependence of practical
work on purely scientific enquiry conducted for the acquisition of
knowledge, and in this instance, I think, without thought of
personal gain.
So far I have spoken altogether of the manufacturing work,
but I should here state that we have now also taken the chemical
staff into our counsel in regard to the cultivation of the cane
grown on our own plantations, at present about 14,000 or 15,000
acres. In past years we have not availed ourselves to any extent of
the assistance of the chemists in this department, partly because
we were working virgin land, and partly because, till a
short time ago, nearly the whole of our supply of cane—and
still a large proportion—was grown by others and sold to us when
cut. However, the partial exhaustion of our lands and the
necessity for applying manure, the desirability for improving the
present canes and for introducing new varieties, and some little
trouble with diseases in the canes, compelled us to seek the aid of
our chemical staff in this branch also, and we are now carrying
out an elaborate investigation into the composition of the soils of
our various estates; and, under the supervision of the chemists,
a vast number of trials in the special cane nurseries established
by us two or three years ago, and in the fields with manure of
various compositions applied in different ways, and with irrigation
and many systems of planting. From all these experiments we
shall, in the course of time, derive much benefit ; but though there
=r = ee
ee eee
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. By Es
can be little doubt that, by careful selection of cane and manures,
we can increase considerably the production of sugar per acre,
still we can hardly hope that there can, in a short time, be any
improvement in the sweetness of the cane at all corresponding
with that obtained in Europe in a few years in beet-roots. Sugar-
cane is one of those grasses which has been hitherto believed not
to produce fertile seed, and as propagation is therefore effected. by
planting cuttings, no one has attempted to produce by selection
of seed—as is done with the beet—that marked increase in
saccharine contents which is so much desired ; and any advance
in this direction, if actually obtained at all by continually planting
the sweetest canes, can only be made by slow and painful steps.
Fertile seeds have, however, been lately found by scientific
observers in the West Indies and in Java, and as their success
in raising plants from such seeds will be emulated by hundreds
of planters all over the world, it seems possible that we may now
be on the threshold of an important change in our methods of
propagating cane, and that we may have grounds for hoping that,
in the early future, we may bring about a sensible improvement
in the sweetness of sugar-cane, which has not, so far as our know-
ledge extends, been as yet increased, even if it has not, in some
countries, been diminished by the use of immature stalks for
cuttings and by careless cultivation. To what extent the beet
has been improved can be gathered from the fact that, during
the last twenty-five years, its sweetness has been practically
doubled, and that nearly 20 per cent. of pure sugar in the picked
beets is not unusual, this increase being obtained by extreme care
in the cultivation and manuring, but principally by the special
selection of sweet beets for seeding, thus following the same line
as that pursued by Mr. Hallett when raising the celebrated
pedigree wheat, which attracted so much notice a good many
years ago.
A good deal of attention is also paid by the chemists to the
saving of what are usually called waste products. These play an
inportant part in the manufacture of sugar from the cane. The
crushed cane, after the obtainable sugar has been extracted, is
used for firing the boilers, and thus furnishes a very large
proportion of the fuel needed for working the factory ; and this,
too, serves a second purpose, as the ashes from it contain a good
deal of potash and other fertilising substances which are needed
for application to the fields from which the cane has been taken.
Then, again, at all our factories, the water driven off the juice of
the cane while this is being boiled down is caught and used for
watering the megass before it goes to the second mill and for
other purposes ; and at our New South Wales mills, where fresh
water cannot be obtained, it is fed into the boilers, which are
thus both fed and fired with parts of the cane we buy. There is,
however, one waste product for which yet but little use has been
376 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.
made: this is molasses, of which we make about 5000 to
7000 tons a year. Of this quantity we distil nearly half, and
sell a small proportion for other purposes ; but the balance is put
on the fields as manure, or thrown away. As it contains about
40 per cent. cane sugar and from 10 to 20 per cent. glucose or
grape sugar, it is a material of the greatest value for feeding
stock ; but so far we have not found it possible to make arrange-
ments for disposing of it in any quantity. In the refineries, also,
we effect some savings from the by-products by recovering
sulphate of ammonia from the bones we distil for making the
filtering charcoal, and the spent charcoal itself is converted into
superphosphate, the three important components of cane manure—
ammonia, phosphoric acid, and potash—being, to a certain extent,
provided by the waste material of our own business.
Tt could not be expected that changes in our methods, such as
have been here alluded to, and the general adoption of chemical
control, could be carried out without some friction. Among
even the strongest and most intelligent of our officers there was
at first a hardly-concealed scorn for the new-fangled notions and
distrust of the chemists’ work; but these have now entirely
disappeared, and in every direction their reports are, as a rule,
accepted without question, and with confidence in their fairness
and accuracy ; and the help of the chemists is sought in many
ways—here by a manager who wants to check waste in some
branch of the manufacture, there by an agricultural overseer who
wishes an analysis of the water he is using for irrigation, or
advice as to the proportion of manure to apply to a field, or,
again, by an engineer who asks for an analysis of the coal he
uses or of the gases from a boiler flue, in order that he may know
if the setting of the boilers and the arrangement of the fire-bars
are those most conducive to the economic combustion of coal.
Having thus briefly sketched our system, I may say a few
words about the financial results ; and first, as to our expenditure,
would state that we are now paying to the chemical staff and
to those officers charged with the control of part of the manu-
facturing business who possess a knowledge of chemistry, and
have been chosen for those posts in consequence, some £8000 to
£9000 a year in the shape of salaries and allowances for board,
&e. There may be some doubt how we can be repaid for such
expenditure, but any doubts on this point I do not in the
remotest degree share. It would be almost impossible, even if it
were necessary, for me to state exactly what is the value of the
savings we have to set against such an expenditure ; but among
those in whose hands the general control of our business is placed
there is not a second opinion as to the money advantage of the
chemical check ; and when J say that saving 10lbs. or 12lbs. of
sugar from each ton of cane—say 5 per cent. of the weight of the
cane—means to us £15,000 to £20,000 a year, and that an
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. By arg
improvement in the colour of our refined sugar, which will bring
us a few shillings per ton more for it, represents a similar sum,
some:idea can be gained of the ground on which the chemical
staff has to work and of the savings they can effect ; and I can
add that some of the losses in our manufacturing business have
by their aid been reduced by one-third during the past four
years, and the extent of this saving can be guessed by the fact that
in one year the entire losses of sugar at our mills amounted to
14,000 tons, z.e., the cane we crushed contained 14,000 tons more
sugar than we were able to turn into marketable sugar. From
the sum of such loss it is easy to see that there are yet great
possibilities in the manufacture of sugar from the cane, and in
the cultivation of this crop much can still be done by manuring
and thorough culture, even if the sweetness of the cane be not
increased, as before suggested. We know now that on one
plantation in Java the entire crop of cane has contained in one
year as much as 8 tons of sugar to the acre, the cane being about
twelve months old; and when we bear in mind that the weight
of an unusual crop of maize (80 bushels) is two tons, and that a
40-bushel crop of wheat gives a total yield of one ton of grain
and two tons of straw, some idea will be gained of the effect of
tropical rain and sunshine in forming sugar in the cane when
the circumstances are favourable and the cultivation and manuring
are carefully done under skilled supervision. Jt will be seen,
moreover, that sugar-cane occupies an exceptional position among
other crops in the weight of marketable produce which can be
extracted from it.
And to the money benefits obtained by the chemical check we
must add two more, both of considerable importance. The first
is the great advantage of having in a large service like ours a
body of men of various ages trained in the knowledge that their
work is useless unless it is carried out with patient thoroughness,
accompanied by uncompromising truth-telling. No chemist worth
his salt dreams of concealing anything wrong or twisting his
conclusions so as to hide defects in the work of himself and
others, and it is surely of great value to have an example of this
sort always before the younger as well as the older men. To
those who fear to confess a mistake the certainty of its exposure
acts as a useful tonic, while to all, from the top to the bottom
of the staff, the example is wholesome. The second is the
mental refreshment and the increased interest in the work due
to the constant discussion of recorded facts and opinions, and of
the experiments of the chemists. Speaking for myself, I can say
that I have frequently found that energy flagging from the
pressure of routine and other monotonous work has again been
roused by interesting reports of experiments or suggestions as to
changes in our methods ; and in the case of others, the constant
competition between the officers, the chances offered in the
378 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.
interval between the seasons for independent research and the
interchange of results, certainly produce healthful and useful
interest in the work.
Such is the record of our experiences, but I may, before con-
cluding, answer two questions which are sometimes put to me.
These are—‘' How was such a staff got together,” and “ What
education do you consider best for boys intended for chemical
work.” To the first I would say that the officers I have
mentioned, as well as one Englishman, one Scotchman, and one
German, were engaged in Europe and brought to Australia by
us. The rest were engaged here and trained by us, with the
exception of a few who had instruction in chemistry before
entering our service.
The staff now consists of nine Scotchmen, two Germans,
three Danes, one Belgian, one Swiss, two Englishmen, fourteen
Australians ; total, thirty-two.
It will be noticed at once that the proportion of Englishmen
—and of the two one was trained by us—is but small, but I can
only say about this that such a result is not due to any inclination
on my part to employ in preference men born elsewhere.
Whether the passing of chemical work of this sort into the hands
of men of other nationalities is due to the temper and character
of the English, making them averse to the study and application
which it demands, or to the opportunities for such study in
England being less frequent or availed of to a smaller extent than
is the case elsewhere, is a matter about which I cannot pretend
to speak with authority ; but I think I should call attention to
the position which men born in England hold numerically in a
staff recruited as ours has been. Nor have I any intention of
comparing the work of the men from the various countries ; but
I can say this, that we have derived much benefit from having
officers of different nationalities and dispositions and trained in
different ways, and that the Australians, who are all younger
than the others, have shown that in quickness and natural
ability they are not inferior, though not all possessed of the
patient perseverance which is so marked a characteristic of the
Scotch, Danes and Germans; and some of them have been, in a
measure, hindered in the acquisition of the knowledge of the work
by superficial school training.
And this remark brings me to the second question—about the
education best calculated to benetit boys intended for scientific
work. To this the reply is very simple, viz., that in my opinion
no special training should be attempted. Of all the plausible
fallacies put forward from time to time about education, the most
foolish seems to me that of attempting to teach any boy a trade
at school. If he is to leave school between sixteen and seventeen,
as most boys do, the years available are none too long for him to
master the ordinary school course, and it is simply wasting
|
|
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 379
precious time to give a boy a smattering of chemistry at school
because he is destined for a laboratory when he leaves. Let him
be grounded thoroughly in mathematics, let him work seriously
at history and geography, and from the first drill him in the
Latin grammar, and then teach him to read and understand
French and German, the Latin grammar being taken up, as he
will learn from it the construction of a language much better than
if taught syntax from an English grammar, while it will also be
of much assistance afterwards when studying French and German,
a partial knowledge of which languages is desirable on account of
the valuable scientific literature thus made available. With such
a training as this, the boy will have a fair chance when he
commences his business life ; but if some of his school hours are
spent in an endeavour to teach him chemistry, he will find, when
put in a laboratory, that he has then to make good deficiencies in
his education due to his time having been wasted over so-called
technical training. Ido not go the length of saying that there
should not be a chemical laboratory at a school, or that the boys
should be brought up in entire ignorance of chemistry or science
of any sort, but I do maintain that the laboratory will do more
harm than good unless the masters realise that its function can
only be to fulfil that part of the definition of education which
requires that a man should know something of everything, or to
give a possible bias to the thoughts and aims of some boys who
have a natural gift for scientific pursuits; and it is surely an axiom
that no boy is fit to take up any branch of science, or indeed any
work by which he is to earn a living, until he has received a
thorough elementary training, and has learned how to acquire
knowledge—the only part of an education he can hope to receive
-at school.
There only remains now for me to add the hope-that the facts
and opinions I have been permitted to bring before you this
morning may be of some use in showing you how, by the employ-
ment of trained experts, the results from manufacturing and
agricultural work can be improved, and the losses which now
occur may be reduced, and those products now called waste
utilised, which latter may in other industries, as in the manufac-
ture of gas, be found of sufficient value to cause an enormous
reduction in the expenses of manufacture.
2,.—ON THE GUM OF THE LEOPARD-TREE
(Hindersia maculosa.—¥. v. M.)
By J. H. Maipey, F.LS., F.C.S., Curator of the Technological
Museum, Sydney.
Hilindersia maculosa (F. v. M., B. Fl., i. 388) is a synonym of
F. strzeleckiana (F. v. M.), of Mueller’s Census, p. 9. It belongs
380 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.
to the natural order AWe/iacee.* It is an interior species, and is
found in New South Wales and Queensland. Owing to the
peculiar, and somewhat ornamental, spotted or blotched appear-
ance of its bark, it is known as “spotted, or leopard tree.” It
also bears the name of “‘ dogwood.”
During the summer months large masses, of a clear amber
colour, exude from the stem and branches. It makes good
adhesive mucilage, has a pleasant taste, and is eaten by the
aboriginals. It is commonly used by bushmen as a remedy in
diarrhea.
Two samples have been received at the Technological Museum,
and the following is an account of them. In view of the scarcity of
good gum-arabic, it would be a useful addition to our raw products
if abundant supplies of it could be obtained. I have not heard
of a gum being yielded by any other Australian species of
Llindersta :— ’
SampiLe I.—From between the Lachlan and Darling Rivers,
N.S.W. Sa ee
466 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.
17.—NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CAVES.
By James Sriruine, F.G.S.
18.—NOTES ON THE CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF
THE) CAPE OTWAY DISTRICT
By J. H. BieNnett.
| ddstract. |
Tue Mesozoic rocks of the Cape Otway Ranges are bounded by
the coast on the south, and are more or less overlain by Tertiary
rocks on the north and north-west.
During four years’ prospecting the author found several seams
of brown coal near Mount McKenzie, into the largest of which a
tunnel was put for 300 feet. It averaged 3 feet 6 inches in
thickness. Iron pyrites were abundant in that part of the district.
It would not pay to work the coal-seams of the Gellibrand
River district unless the latter were made navigable or a railway
brought near. The author believes the immense drift deposits
of this district to have been brought down from the Grampians.
Passing over the dividing range between the Gellibrand and
Barrum Rivers, the author found the Mesozoic rocks to be well
exposed in the beds of the streams. Small veins of bright coal
were visible, and on the coast, between the mouths of the Elliot
and Barrum Rivers, five seams were found, varying in thickness
from 5 inches to a foot. Between the mouths of these two rivers
there also exist mineral springs, about one and a half miles inland.
In the Apollo Bay district the Mesozoic rocks dip from north
to south, at an angle of about 25 deg., and contain patches and
small veins of bright coal of the nature of cannel and anthracite,
and in following down the dip a bluish-white fire-clay is found.
Some twenty chains up the Wild Dog Creek, which runs into
Apollo Bay, Mesozoic rocks appear, standing at an angle of 75
deg., and seams of coal are seen between layers of sandstone and
shale. These extend for some 80 chains, and have been exposed
by the erosion of the creek waters; they vary in thickness from
3 to 18 inches. They all dip to the south-west, at angles varying
from 10 to 71 deg. Some 50 chains to the east les the Stony
Creek, a short distance up which is a precipitous ledge, 100 feet
in height. Under this cliff the author proposes to put in a tunnel
to cut the 25 seams met with along the Wild Dog Creek, and
expects to cut them about 700 feet below their outcrop. Above
the cliff nine seams of coal were seen, varying im thickness from
3 to 17 inches, and in angle of dip between 49 and 61 deg., the
coal being of first-class quality.
i Ne ee
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION ©. 467
By the side of Skene’s Creek the author found a seam of coal,
which was not more than 6 inches thick at its outcrop, but which
on tunnelling was found to increase to 26 inches. Close to this
was found another seam, 18 inches thick, and the two dipping at
different angles come to lie close to one another at some 35 feet
below the surface, giving in all 3 feet 10 inches of coal. Higher
up the creek more seams were found, varying from 6 to 18 inches
thickness.
Altogether, the author has prospected for some 45 miles from
east to west, and across the measures from north to south, and
has opened 55 seams of coal, of which 50 consist of good black
coal. From the rock-sections examined, the belief has been
arrived at that an extensive coalfield exists in the Otway
Ranges. In addition to coal, iron, fireclay, lead, copper,
graphite, magnesium, cobalt, and manganese are to be found.
19.—ON THE DESERT SANDSTONE OF CENTRAL
AUSTRALIA.
By Proressor Tate, F.G.S.
20.—THE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH
THE CHIEF COAL-MEASURES OF TASMANIA
AND VICTORIA WERE FORMED.
By 8S. H. Winttz, FVL:S.
It has been the general impression among the earlier geologists
who had visited Tasmania, notably, that the coal-measures of that
island, which not only flank its mountain system for the most
part, but encircle it as a zone, are of anterior age to the green-
stone which rises above them. The result of over a quarter of a
century’s observation convinces me that the contrary is the fact.
In a word, that the dioritic crystalline rock, most frequently
highly columnar and diabasic, is truly plutonic, and that it
existed long before the coal-measure strata, with the great
thickness of alternating thick-bedded sandstones, clay-shales,
mudstones, limestones, conglomerates, together with the Silurian
beds were laid down. When the coal deposits are not found upon
the mountain slopes in Tasmania at an elevation of from 500 feet to
1500 feet above sea level, they not only form an exception to the
rule, but are of very limited extent, and much disrupted by
subsequent local seismic disturbance, as, for instance, in the
Mersey district, at Jerusalem, and the anthracite beds at New
*p2
468 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.
Town. I believe I am right in assigning the position which the
three last-mentioned coal-measures occupy, in the lower levels, to
seismic depression of the surface of the area which they occupy,
long after the deposits were formed, for the reason that they are
intimately associated with eruptive and disrupted basalts corres-
ponding to the older or Miocene basalts of Victoria.
The principal coal-beds of Tasmania, from a commercial point
of view, are those at Mount Nicholas, in the district of Fingal,
Mount Ben Lomond, 30 miles distant easterly, and at the Sandfly
Rivulet Ranges, in the Huon River district, south of the island.
These all occupy elevated positions on the sides of mountain
ranges, the altitude of which vary from 500 feet to 1500 feet above
sea level. These coal-seams, with their associated interstratifying
clay-shales and sandstone, present a nearly horizontal position,
the average inclination, or dip, being 24 deg. north-east, while
the Upper Silurian strata on which they repose uncomformably,
and which chiefly consist of purple and yellowish variegated
arenaceous incoherent shales, with intercalating slates, have an
average inclination of 70 deg. The Mount Nicholas coal-seams
may be accepted as a type of these alpine coal-measures in the
island of Tasmania. The summit of this range consists of crystal-
line diabasic prismatic greenstone, its greatest altitude being
1800 feet above sea level, or 1000 feet above the Break-o’-Day
valley. The uppermost coal seam (which is that mined by the
Cornwall Coal Mining Company, and exported to Victoria) has a
thickness of 11 feet, but at the western extremity of the range,
distant about two lineal miles, it attains a thickness of 15 feet in
the clear. There are known to me five other different seams, vary-
ing from two feet in thickness to five feet. They are all bituminous
coal, of a dense, laminated structure, possessing a well-defined
cleavage conformable to the line of deposit. The coal-seams
which obtain on the southern side of the range have their exact
equivalents on the northern side. They have been cut through
in the depressions at both ends of the mountain range. That
they have not been subjected to any displacement, such as would
be the result of telluric disturbance since they were deposited, is to
be gathered from the fact that they only depart from the horizontal
position by a mean dip of 6 deg. east by south on both sides of
the range. All the associated strata of clay-shales, sandstones,
marine mudstones, and limestones—the faunal paleontology of the
two latter formations being striking analogues of the faunal
paleontology of the carboniferous, z.c., mountain limestone of
Europe—are conformable to the coal-seams. The base of the
system is a coarse, pebbly conglomerate, reposing immediately
upon the edges of the upturned Upper Silurian shales and sand-
stones. In brief, these coal-measure strata, at one remote period,
formed an unbroken zone, or belt, around these older greenstone
heights to within, on an average, 500 feet of their summits, as
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION ©. 469
at Mount Nicholas, Ben Lomond, and Sandfly Ranges. At this
period, which is generally regarded as Mesozoic, the summits of
the loftier mountains formed small islands in the southern ocean.
Subsequently, seismic action took place in various centres, and
produced depressions of areas of the coal-measures, and these
terrene disturbances, by eruptions of diorite, shattered and in
many instances overflowed the coal-measure strata. This is
evidenced in the Jerusalem coal basin, Derwent Valley, and at
the Mersey, north of the island. The coal-beds flanking the
mountain sides are covered up, to. a great extent, by fallen green-
stone. At the Cornwall mine, before mentioned, the main adit
level has been carried in for a distance of 950 yards towards the
greenstone backbone of the mountain under fallen greenstone
without meeting with the dyke of plutonic rock. Turning to the
coal deposits of Victoria, in Gippsland, at South Moe, which are
those I have examined and reported upon professionally, they are
found to obtain to an elevation of little short of 1000 feet above
sea level. Here, as in Tasmania, they have a very slight
departure from the horizontal. The associated trap-rock, dark
augitic basalt, is older than the coal, if [ may venture to make
such an assertion, from the fact that I saw a slightly-rounded
erratic block of the same basalt taken out of the centre of a seam
of coal two feet eight inches thick on the Moe Coal Mining
Company’s holdings. These coal-measures differ from those of
Tasmania in having been laid down under fresh-water conditions.
The complete absence of marine deposits is strikingly apparent.
My contention is that the diabasic greenstone of the island
colony, and also the basalt associated with the Gippsland coal
beds of Victoria, are older than the coal-measures. In short, the
coal-measure strata were laid down in depressions, which, at that
time existed, in contradistinction to the older accepted theory
that the igneous rock had burst through them.
21—THE SILVER ORES OF THE BARRIER.
By G. H. Buaxemors.
22.—GRANITE: ITS PLACE AMONG, AND ITS CON-
NECTIONS WITH THE SEDIMENTARY AND
IGNEOUS ROCKS.
By J. G. O. Teppsr, F.LS.
Section D.
BIOLOGY.
President of the Section: Professor A. P. Thomas, M.A., F-L.S.
1—ON SOME. POINTS IN THE MORPHOLOGY OF
ASTACOPSIS BICARINATUS.
By J. StepHen Harr, M.A., B.Sc., University of Melbourne.
[ Abstract. |
THE common crayfish of the ponds and waterholes of Victoria,
known as Astacopsis bicarinatus, or popularly as the yabbie or
yabber crayfish, is a member of the family Parastacide, separated
by Professor Huxley from the northern crayfishes on account of
the absence of a well-developed lamina on the podobranchie, of
appendages on the first abdominal segment, and of a transverse
hinge dividing the telson. But although placed ina different
sub-family, our Astacopsis resembles very nearly the European
Astacus, and is substituted for it in our university courses and
elsewhere as a representative of the bigher crustacee. The aim of
this paper is to serve as a supplement to the well-known text-
books—such as Huxley’s volume, in the International Series, or
Marshall and Hurst’s Practical Zoology—by pointing out what
differences are to be looked for in the general anatomy of the two
genera.
The external form is described by Professor McCoy in the
Prodromus, decade iii., plate 29, under the name of Astacoides
dicarinatus, and further details are given in decade xvi., plate 160.
To this description it should be added that the first abdominal
segment has pleura as large, in proportion, as the other segments,
and not concealed, as in Astacus, by those of the second segment.
The colour, as Professor McCoy points out, is very variable, the
forceps alone being constantly blue, with red joints. The mem-
branous parts of the last appendages of the abdomen are said by
him to be constantly brown, but I have found them much more
often of a bluish colour.
Appendages.—The thoracic and cephalic appendages are identical
with those of Astacus, but those of the abdomen are very
different. As already stated, there are none on the first segment.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 47]
On the second, third, fourth and fifth there are appendages,
diminishing in size towards the posterior end, and consisting of a
protopodite of two segments, a very small coxopodite and longer
basipodite, surmounted by an exopodite and endopodite, which
are similar in form and almost of the same size, the endopodite
being generally rather the smaller, except on the fifth segment.
Each has the form of a narrow, flat, membranous plate, bordered
by more perfectly calcified serrations, from which arise large
plumose sete forming a close fringe to the appendage. The
appendages of the sixth segment forming, with the telson, the tail
tin, have much the same shape as in Astacus.
Gills —The gill formula is as follows :—
Arthrobr.
Thore. segt. Podobr. ant. post. Pleurobr.
Ihe af ep. s0c 0 0 0)
II. 1 1 0 0
III. 1 1 A )
IV. 1 i! 1 0
Ve i 1 it 1
Ve 1 1 1 1
VII. iL 1 1 rud. 1
VIII. 0 10) 0) 1
6+ ep 6 4+rud. 4=20+rud.+ep.
This differs from the formula of Astacus, in having the posterior
arthrobranch on the 7th segment rudimentary, and all the pleuro-
branchs fully developed.
The podobranchie have a somewhat complicated structure.
The stem, or main axis, arises from a broad basal piece directed
backwards, and covered with plumose setz, with hooked ends.
This is continued upwards as a narrow posterior wing to the stem,
which is covered elsewhere very closely with branchial filaments.
From its inner side a flat plate projects, lying between the
arthrobranchs and covered, though much less densely than the
rest of the gill, with branchial filaments. It is very small and
narrow on the posterior podobranchs, those of segment 7, and
gradually increases in size in the more anterior ones, in which
it finally extends nearly the whole length of the gill. The
epipodite on the first thoracic segment is a flat plate, furnished on
the posterior surface with branchial filaments resembling the
inner projecting plate of the podobranchs.
In front of each podobranch is a tuft of coxopoditic sete, like
those of Astacus, but much smaller, and provided with hooks. On
the posterior edge of each segment there is a small flat plate, fringed
with hooked setz, and formed from the membrane of the joint.
The arthrobranchize consist of a simple stem, with very
numerous filaments, except along the posterior inner surface,
472 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
which is closest to the body, and has very few, or none. The
posterior arthrobranch of segment 7 is reduced to a papilla,
bearing some 9 or 10 gill filaments. The pleurobranchs have
no filaments on the inner side, which is closely applied to the
body.
The gill filaments are, in some cases, provided with distinct
hooks at their free extremities, the distribution of which appears
constant. All the filaments of the posterior arthrobranchie,
and the pleurobranchie, are of this description. The anterior
arthrobranchie bear hooked filaments only on the inner surface,
while in the podobranchie they are confined to the projecting
lamina.
Sense organs.—As in Astacus, the exopodites of the antennules
bear setze, supposed to be olfactory in function. There is one set
on each joint, not two as in Astacus, and it consists of a trans-
verse row of three or four hairs, each of two joints, the distal one
very much flattened. These are supported by a pair of sete,
which are larger, and taper gradually towards the free extremity.
Of the internal organs the circulatory and reproductive systems
are most modified.
Circulatory system.—The heart, lying in the same position as
in Astacus, has three pairs of valves leading from the pericardium.
Two pair are placed towards the dorsal side at the anterior and
posterior ends. The third is at about the middle of the ventral
surface. The arteries arise as in Astacus, and, except the sternal
artery, follow the same course. The sternal artery divides into
twoa short distance below the heart ; the branches encircle the
intestine, and again unite just above the endophragmal skeletal
plates, after which they follow the same course as the single
sternal artery of Astacus.
Reproductive system.—The ovary lies principally just in front of
and below the pericardium. There is a median part between the
pericardium and the stomach, from which project backwards two
small lobes lying close together beneath the heart. In front it
rises towards the dorsal surface, and there divides into two
divergent halves. A long, narrow, tube-like prolongation of each
half runs forward for some distance. At its extremity, between
the large muscle of the mandible and the eye, it dilates into a
small sack containing ova. The oviducts arise from the posterior
end of the main undivided region of the ovary.
The testes lie in the same position as the ovary, in front of and
below the heart. They are formed of two lateral halves united
together, only in the region of the vasa deferentia, about one-
third from the anterior end. The posterior end is not formed of
a median lobe as in Astacus, but of two distinct from each other,
and often unequal in size.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 473
2.—NOTES ON THE FERTILISATION OF XNIGHTTA.
By T. F. Cueeseman, F.LS., Curator of the Auckland
Museum.
Some years ago [ published in the New Zealand Journal of Science
some notes on the fertilisation of Axightia, one of the two species
of Proteacee indigenous to New Zealand. Since then I have had
opportunities of examining the subject with more care, and it
has occurred to me that a veswme of what I have been able to
make out may not be without interest to the members of the
Australasian Association.
Up to the present time very little has been published on the
fertilisation of the Proteacee. Many years ago Mr. Bentham, in a
suggestive paper printed in the journal of the Linnzan Society
(“ Botany,” vol. 13, p. 58), pointed out that in most of the species
the anthers open while the flower is still unexpanded, and
discharge their pollen on an enclosed portion of the style often
described as the stigma. Thus, on a superficial examination, it
might be concluded that the flowers fertilised themselves, and
several observers have fallen into this very natural error. In
reality, however, either the stigma does not mature until long
after the expansion of the flower, and until after all the pollen
has been swept off the style, or else special contrivances exist by
which the stigma is shielded from the pollen so liberally scattered
around it, and reserved for the action of pollen brought from
other flowers. The general plan of fertilisation is thus somewhat
analogous to that of the Composite, where, as is well-known,
the anthers cohere into a cylinder surrounding the style-branches,
on the pubescent or papillose outside of which the pollen is
usually shed. But fecundation cannot take place at this stage,
for the stigmatic surface is always on the inner face of the style
branches, which remain firmly closed together until some little
while after the expansion of the flower ; and before they separate
the pollen has usually been brushed off by the visits of insects,
or removed by other means; so that, to ensure fertilisation,
pollen must be regularly conveyed from younger flowers to older
ones. This is precisely what takes place in the Proteacee ; butas
in that order the style is always undivided, and the stigma con-
sequently external, much more elaborate contrivances are often
required to screen off the pollen of the same flower. Some of
these contrivances are so remarkable that it has long been a
matter of surprise to me that so few of them have been fully
examined and described.
The curious inflorescence of Anightia is familiar to most
settlers in the northern portion of New Zealand. The flowers,
which are of a bright red-brown colour, and very conspicuous, are
arranged in pairs on stout lateral racemes, each raceme containing
\
474 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
from 40 to 80 flowers, or even more. Before expansion the
perianth is cylindrical in shape, slightly swollen at the base and
then contracted, but again gradually thickened towards the
extremity. It is about 13 inch long, and externally is every-
where covered with a dense velvety tomentum. In the young
bud there is no appearance of segments, but some time before
expansion the top of the tube splits into four minute teeth, the
apex of the style showing between. Later on the segments come
apart at the base of the perianth, and by degrees the separation
extends higher up. For a long time, however, they firmly cohere
in the upper swollen part of the tube, and the final separation
always takes place suddenly and elastically, the four segments
each coiling up into a tight spiral band, which is packed away at
the very base of the flower. The fully-expanded racemes show,
therefore, little more than a brush of long styles projecting from
a mass of twisted perianth segments, and present a very different
appearance to those in the bud state, so that I have had the two
brought to me as the flowers of two distinct plants! The anthers
are four in number, sessile towards the tops of the perianth lobes,
and in the bud form a ring round the upper part of the style, to
which they are closely applied. The style is over an inch in
length, rather slender at the base, but much swollen in its upper
half, forming a lengthened club-shaped termination usually con-
sidered as the stigma, but I very much doubt the whole of it
being truly stigmatic. At the base of the flower are four rounded
glands, secreting an abundance of nectar, which slowly exudes
from them and usually surrounds the base of the ovary. The
flowers have a strong and very peculiar odour, a single raceme
being quite sufficient to unpleasantly scent a close room.
If a flower is examined just prior to expansion, it will be
noticed that the anthers have opened down their inner face and
deposited the whole of their pollen on the moist surface of the
thickened portion of the style, on which it forms four little
ridges. After the opening of the flower, and the coiling up of
the perianth segments, the pollen is thus left exposed on the
surface of the style. As mentioned before, this looks like a
simple case of self-fertilisation, but a little examination proves
that the stigmatic surface is not mature until some time after the
flowers open; and that before it is in a receptive condition the
pollen has.all been removed. Some means must therefore exist
by which the pollen is regularly transferred from the younger to
the older flowers. It is natural to assume that this is done
through the agency of insects, especially as the great abundance
of honey induces many to visit the flowers. But in most cases.
they simply crawl about between the styles, and never touch
either the pollen or stigma elevated far above them. It appears.
to me that large insects alone could aid in the work of fertilisa-
tion; and even among these the nocturnal or crepuscular moths.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 475
could be of little service, as the styles are far enough apart to
allow of their probosces being inserted without touching them.
Possibly some of the larger Diptera or Coleoptera, as well as the
honey-bee (which is a regular visitant), may be of use; but the
conclusion I have arrived at is that the flowers are principally
adapted for fertilisation by honey-feeding birds, such, for example,
as the Tui (Pvrosthemadera nove-sealandig) and the Korimako
(Anthornis melanura). 'That the former bird regularly frequents
the flowers I have myself repeatedly observed, and old and obser-
vant residents, who were well acquainted with the habits of the
Korimako before its disappearance from our northern forests, all
agree in stating that it was equally ready to take advantage of
the luscious supply of honey offered by the plant. In addition
to these two species, I have noticed the Kaka Parrot (Vestor
meridionalis) sucking the honey from the flowers, as also the
little white-eye (Zosterops ceulescens), but I do not think that
either is such a frequent visitant as the Tui.
A glance at the flowers will at once show how fertilisation is
effected. It is obvious that a bird, when thrusting its head
between the styles of a recently-expanded raceme in search of the
honey, must dust the feathers of the forehead and throat with
pollen. And if it should afterwards visit flowers in a more
advanced stage, it is quite certain that much of this pollen would
be rubbed off on the moist surface of the style, and fecundation
consequently take place.
Knightia is not the only New Zealand plant in which the work
of fertilisation is mainly performed by birds. The flowers of the
red kowhai (C/ianthus puniceus) rarely produce seed in our
gardens, simply because that in such situations they are seldom
visited by birds. Some years ago, a fine plant growing in my
own garden, profusely loaded with flowers, was visited by a stray
Kaka parrot, which spent the greater part of one day in sucking
the honey from the flowers. That season the plant was loaded
with pods, although in no previous year could more than two or
three be obtained at one time. The yellow kowhai (Sophoza
tetraptera) is largely (but not exclusively) fertilised by birds, as
also is the tree fuchsia (7. excorticata). There can be little doubt,
too, that in the various species of JWetrosideros there is a good
deal of cross-fertilisation through the agency of birds.
It is now well established that cross-fertilisation possesses
undoubted advantages over self-fertilisation ; and an excellent
argument in favour of this view may be inferred from the case of
Knightia. We find that the structure and arrangement of the
parts of the flower are such that the style and stigma are actually
embedded for some time in a mass of pollen, so that no one can
doubt that if self-fertilisation had been the preferable mode it
might have been obtained with certainty, and with a minimum
expenditure of force. But instead of this we see a number of
476 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
contrivances all pointing in the opposite direction. The ripening
of the stigma is delayed, in order that there may be no risk of
contamination by pollen from the same flower. The summit of
the style is enlarged to form a suitable stage on which the pollen
may be presented to the visitors, to whom the task of transferring
it from flower to flower is entrusted. The perianth segments are
coiled up, and removed from their path, and a suitable attraction
is afforded in the shape of an abundant supply of nectar. Surely
these contrivances would not be provided if some great advantage
were not expected in return. To my mind, cases similar to those
of Anightia—and they are probably numerous enough—afford
additional proof of the truth of Mr. Darwin’s well-known
aphorism—“ That nature tells us, in the most emphatic manner,
that she abhors perpetual self-fertilisation.”
3.—ACCLIMATISATION IN VICTORIA.
By W. H. D. Le Sousr, Assistant Director of the Zoological
Society, Melbourne.
THE subject of Acclimatisation is a record of great successes and
great failures, and I regret that my experience of the subject tells
me (and mine is the experience of all interested in this subject)
that, as a rule, it would have been better for Australia if the
great successes had been failures and the failures successes.
Certainly, horses, cattle, and sheep, and, in fact, all domestic
animals, have proved themselves very much at home in almost all
parts of Australia, for no portion of the earth’s surface produces
finer stock or finer wool.
I do not propose in this brief paper to go into the subject of
Acclimatisation generally, but only to mention those animals and
birds that have been introduced into Victoria from other
countries at different times during the past thirty-five years. I
am unable to say how long ago it is that the first efforts were
made in the direction of acclimatisation in Australia, but it most
likely commenced in the older colony of New South Wales, and
it is now nearly if not quite fifty years ago since efforts were first
made to introduce the pheasant into Tasmania, but all efforts
failed to establish this fine game bird in the island. Here in
Victoria enthusiastic men, foremost among whom may be men-
tioned the late Mr. Edward Wilson, the late Mr. Samuel Winter
of Murndal, and Dr. Thomas Black of St. Kilda, have for many
years past endeavoured to introduce not pheasants only, but many
other birds and animals, and, I regret to say, have met with but
indifferent success. The Zoological and Acclimatisation Society
of Victoria has also introduced many varieties ; among them may
be enumerated the alpaca, the Angora goat, the sambur, axis,
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 477
rusa, hog, Formosa, and Barasingha deer, the hare, the ostrich,
pheasant, Californian quail, thrush, blackbird, starling, &c., and
it has to bear a certain amount of blame for assisting in the
introduction of the house sparrow ; but it had no share whatever
in the introduction of that dreadful pest, the rabbit, which was
brought out by private individuals ; the fox, which promises to be:
almost as great a nuisance, was also introduced by private
enterprise.
The two first-named animals, the alpaca and the Angora goat,
were costly experiments, and both have failed. In Peru, the
habitat of the alpaca, its home is on high mountain ranges ;
there these animals are found at an altitude of nearly 10,000
feet, seldom descending lower. The difference in altitude and
climate soon told on the imported animals, and they gradually
drooped and died out. It is doubtful if these animals will thrive
in any part of Australia, but the most likely place would be in
mountainous country far inland, where the rainfall is small.
The Angora goat, also imported by the Society, principally
through the instrumentality of Dr. Black, of St. Kilda, at a very
considerable outlay and much trouble, has also proved a failure ;
many persons have tried them, both in Victoria and South
Australia, but all have failed to make them pay, and the only
pure goats now in Victoria (excepting a few kept at the Zoo-
logical Gardens as specimens) are a small flock on the Mount
Bute estate, the property of Sir Samuel Wilson. These animals
have been tried in almost all parts of Victoria, and also in South
Australia, by Mr. Price Maurice and others; but they have
never been able to hold their own, and have in all cases been
given up as an unprofitable industry, being not only delicate in
constitution, but troublesome to manage, great care having to be
exercised to keep them from common goats, which are now to be
found almost everywhere ; and although on one occasion the clip
of Victorian bred Angoras reached as high as four shillings a
pound, and on another three shillings and sixpence, yet as a rule
the fleece, beautiful as it is, is not as valuable in the London
market, pound per pound, as first-class merino wool; and, at the
same time, the fleece is much lighter than that of a well-woolled
merino. In a very interesting paper on the Angora goat,
published in the Society’s Proceedings in the year 1873, by Sir
Samuel Wilson, that gentleman stated that, with careful manage-
ment and sufficient pastures, his flock of a little over one hundred
should increase in forty years from that date to over seven
millions. Sixteen years have passed since then, and the pure
flock mentioned in this paper has remained nearly stationary in
numbers. If common goats had never been introduced into
Australia, and the Angora only had been acclimatised, the result
might have been very. different, and the animal would have
proved of great value, for they would then have fallen into the
478 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
hands of small owners, who would have looked well after them for
the sake of their fleece, and there would then have been no
chance of deterioration from cross-breeding. This is the case in
Angora in Asia Minor, the habitat of this particular breed of
goats.
The Cashmere goat has also been tried here, a number having
been introduced in 1862, but it did not succeed ; in all proba-
bility the difference of climate and elevation having something to
do with the failure, Cashmere being from 5000 to 6000 feet above
sea level.
Deer, on the other hand, do very well in Victoria, and there
are numbers of different varieties in the colonies. On the Upper
Yarra the Fallow deer (Dama vulgaris) is well established ; they
have increased and spread from some turned out by Mr. Paul de
Castella many years ago. On the Grampians the Indian Axis
deer (Cervus axis) are numerous, and in the Koo-wee-rup swamp
and surrounding country in Mornington the Sambur deer ( Cervus
aristotelis) are plentiful; they are the progeny and descendants
of a few liberated many years ago by the Society ; this variety of
deer is also established at ‘ Ercildoune,” near Burrumbeet. In
the Gembrook Ranges the Rusa deer (Cervus hippelaphus) and
Formosan deer (Cervus taévanus) are met with, but they have
not had time to increase much yet, as it is not long since they
were liberated by the Society.
Little need be said about the hare, which seems to be only
second to the rabbit in fecundity in this climate, and it seems
to have spread all over Victoria from a few pairs liberated nearly
at the same time by the Society at the Royal Park, by Mr. F. R.
Godfrey at Mount Ridley, near Donnybrook, and by the late Mr
William Lyall at ‘‘ Harewood,” near Cranbourne. They are fre-
quently found in scrubby, mountainous country, where no one
would expect to see them.
The ostrich was first introduced by the Society in the year
1868 ; they were first sent to the Wimmera, to one of Sir Samuel
Wilson’s stations, and remained there for some years; they were
then transferred to the care of Messrs. Officer Brothers, at the
Murray Downs Station. Owing to the bad means of transit from
the Wimmera to the Murray, and an accident to one of the hen
birds soon after their arrival, the success of the experiment was
nearly marred at the outset, as only one hen bird was left ; fortu-
nately she proved herself equal to the occasion, and laid a number
of eggs, which were successfully hatched. The birds gradually
increased in number until they reached one hundred, the Messrs.
Officer Brothers going to considerable expense in providing
suitable accommodation and food for them. Some years after
the Murray Downs Station was sold, and Mr. C. M. Officer pur-
chased the Society’s interest in the birds and removed them to a
property of his near Kerang, where they still remain; but the
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 479
industry has not developed, as no one else has had the spirit to
follow in their footsteps, and at present, though the adaptability
of the lower Murray country to the ostrich has been fully proved,
there seems very little probability of the industry being followed
up; one reason, no doubt, is the great difference at times in the
price of feathers, which suffer much from the caprice of fashion,
and are not, like wool, always in demand.
That splendid game bird, the pheasant, was introduced by the
Society many years ago and efforts were made to acclimatise it,
numbers being liberated in various parts of the country; but no
success attended these early efforts, and it was not till the Zoo-
logical Society secured a block of land at Gembrook, then a newly-
settled district, that the birds increased to any extent. For
some years a considerable number were liberated there every
season, and they increased and spread considerably for miles
around ; but then came the rabbits, and in destroying these the
pheasants also suffered. There are still a few to be found on
different properties, but as a matter of acclimatisation the experi-
ment cannot be said to be a success, although at one time it
promised to be so, as the birds were breeding fairly well and
many young broods were seen; but poisoned grain and domestic
cats turned loose have done their work, and the pheasants have
nearly disappeared.
Californian quail, a very fine bird, about two-thirds the size of
a partridge, were a great success at Gembrook for some years,
and the original fifty birds liberated there increased to many
hundreds ; but suddenly they began to disappear, and now there
is not a bird to be seen, and it is a mystery to me what has
become of them. They certainly were not shot, and I never
heard of any that had been found dead, nor could we learn that
they had migrated, but the fact remains that they have gone.
It must be remembered that there are very few berry-bearing
bushes in Victoria, and the birds have many enemies ; the native
cat, or Mange’s dasyure, the tiger cat, or spotted-tailed dasyure,
the iguana, or Gould’s monitor, the snake, laughing jackass, or
giant kingfisher, the hawk, etc., all prey on the young birds.
The partridge was introduced many years ago, and seemed to
succeed for a time, but bush fires carried them off. Now that
large tracts of land are under cultivation, it would be much easier
to introduce and establish them than in former years ; but it could
not be done unless they were protected by law.
The European thrush has been successfully established, but has
spread very slowly, although it is plentiful on the south side of
the Yarra, in the gardens of Toorak and the surrounding districts,
but it has not made its appearance in any numbers in the northern
suburbs, although a few are to be seen occasionally.
The blackbird does not seem to thrive in Victoria. This is, no
doubt, principally from the want of berry-bearing bushes, which
480 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
form a large portion of its food. At the Zoological Gardens we
are making another effort to establish this delightful songster by
enclosing the birds in a large wire aviary filled with shrubs, and
letting only the young birds go free.
Considerable sums of money have been expended by the Society
in the introduction of. the skylark, but so far almost without
success. Here and there a few birds are still to be seen, and their
delicious song heard, but they are few and far between. Yet
everything is in their favour here in regard to climate and suitable
country, but the reason of their non-success is apparently due to
the ever-active and numerous hawks in the air, added to the many
enemies I have already enumerated on the ground.
About ten years ago the Society liberated a few starlings,
obtained from New Zealand, in the University grounds here and
in the Zoological Gardens. The success of this experiment has
been very marked. Not only have they succeeded, but they have
increased to large numbers ; flocks of several hundreds may now
frequently be seen. They migrate every year, most likely to the
north, and regularly return about November. This is strange, as
the starling is not strictly a migratory bird. As is well known,
these interesting birds are insectivorous in their habits, and are
looked upon justly with favour even in quarters where most birds
are viewed with a suspicious eye.
The Indian minah, introduced in the year 1862, has spread all
over the neighbourhood of Melbourne. They are insectivorous
birds, and no doubt do much good by destroying countless insect
pests, but as they also eat fruit an outcry has been raised against
them. Victorians have been so accustomed, of late years, to a
plentiful supply of vegetables that thay forget that it is to such
birds as the Indian minah and the sparrow that they are indebted
in this respect. Before these much abused, but in many respects
most useful, birds were introduced, cabbages, cauliflowers and
many other vegetables could not be grown successfully, they
were so covered with aphis, but now such a thing is rarely seen.
The same may be said of roses, which were formerly infested with
aphis. I have often watched a sparrow on a rosebush busy in
clearing off the aphis with which it was thickly covered.
The English robin, the goldfinch, the linnet, and many other
small birds have been introduced and liberated, but they have
not succeeded. It is very different in New Zealand, where all
the European birds seem to answer admirably. Pheasants,
blackbirds, thrushes, skylarks, and numerous other birds have
not only succeeded, but in some instances become a nuisance from
their increasing numbers.
I may say that the result of acclimatisation in this colony has
taken everyone interested in the subject by surprise. The rabbit
goes on breeding at an astonishing rate all the year round. The
hare, which in England rarely produces more than two at a birth,
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 481
here frequently has five and even seven, while the sparrows have
increased at a prodigious rate. On the other hand, many birds
that would be highly beneficial will not adapt themselves to their
new surroundings. Another troublesome importation from the
old country has of late years made its appearance, in the European
snail, no doubt introduced in wooden cases containing plants. It
is now spreading far and wide over Victoria; wherever plants
are carried the snail probably goes too. It seems, like the
sparrow, the rabbit, and the fox, to increase very rapidly, and
will yearly become more troublesome.
The introduction of English trout into Victorian streams has
been, on the whole, a success. There are several fish acclimatisa-
tion societies in Victoria—in Ballarat, Geelong, and other places,
all of which do good work ; and Sir Samuel Wilson has a very
complete fish-hatching establishment at “ Ercildoune,” which he
maintains at his own cost, giving the young fish every year
principally to the Zoological and Acclimatisation Society, the
Society undertaking the transportation of the fish to suitable
streams, and thus benefitting the whole colony. In this manner
a great many fine streams have been stocked, and the number of
trout streams is being increased every year. One or two costly
experiments have been made with the English and the Californian
salmon, but without success. But here again New Zealand is
far in advance, as the streams of that fine colony are much better
adapted to the trout and other European fish than ours are.
Both my father and myself have taken a deep interest in
acclimatisation for many years past, and I sincerely wish I could
write more hopefully on the subject; but I fear that but scant
success will attend any efforts in this direction, as far as good
game birds are concerned, without laws to prohibit indiscriminate
shooting. At every holiday season parties of young people spread
all over the country shooting everything they meet, and also,
alas! shooting each other. This should be stopped, but in this
free and democratic country such prohibitions are not popular.
One thing is certain, that if birds are to be established they must
be protected from pot-hunters, and individual effort must be more
sustained in the future than it has been in the past.
The following list gives a summary of the principal animals and
birds acclimatised in Victoria :—
The Deer, of which six kinds have now successfully established them-
selves, and are at large in the colony.
The Alpaca, which has not been able to accommodate itself to the
great change from an altitude of 10,000 feet in Peru, its native land, to
the Victorian climate, and has died out.
The Cashmere Goat, which has failed from the same cause.
The Angora Goat, which has proved unprofitable, and has been almost.
entirely absorbed into the breed of common goats. Ms
E
482 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
The Hare, which is well established here, and, with the fox, bids fair
to be a nuisance in some parts. Both the fox and rabbit were introduced
by private enterprise.
The Ostrich, which has proved itself well suited to the plains of the
lower Murray ; but the enterprise has not proved profitable, owing to
the uncertain market for the feathers.
The Pheasant, Partridge and Californian Quail throve well at first, but
seem now to have succumbed to their many enemies.
The Thrush has been established here, but not as yet in large numbers.
The Blackbird has not as yet been established, but another effort is
now being made at the Zoological Gardens.
The Skylark, too, has not met with suitable conditions here, and is now
almost extinct.
The Starling and the Indian Minah have been very successfully intro-
duced, and are to be found in great numbers.
The Robin, Goldfinch, Linnet and many other small birds have also
failed to get a footing here.
Amongst fish, the ZTvout has been a success, and the Salmon has
failed.
4._ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAH/LOBRANCAUS
RUFUS (TELEOSTEL SYMBRANCHIDZ:).
By Witiiam A. Hasweti, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Biology,
University of Sydney.
Chilobranchus rufus is a small eel-shaped fish, very abundant
below stones between tidal limits in Port Jackson. The family
(Symbranchide) to which it is referred includes only the two
genera Symbranchus and Chilobranchus, and is regarded as most
nearly related to the Wurenide. With regard to the structure
and affinities of the genus I shall have something to say in a
later paper dealing with the more advanced stages in the
development.
Chilobranchus rufus deposits its eggs on the under surfaces of
stones between low and high water mark, occasionally, though
not frequently, on the upper surface of small stones or shells
lying under the shelter of a larger stone. In such shelters, in the
breeding season, which extends over July, August, and September,
male and female (which differ very strikingly in coloration and
markings) are to be found together, and near them will usually
be found a batch of eggs. The eggs are cemented to the surface
of the stone in a single layer, and in one batch there will often be
found from fifty to a hundred, presenting a variety of stages in
their development, showing that they had been laid and impreg-
nated at different times. Each egg is cemented to the stone bya
little disc, formed apparently by a drop of a viscid material,
against which the egg is pressed, and which becomes firmly
united with the egg-membrane which it resembles in
character.
——_— ss
Eee
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 483
In addition to the examination of living eggs, the following
methods were followed :—
1. The eggs were put in a ten per cent. solution of nitric acid
and left in it for half an hour, then thoroughly washed in water,
and passed through ascending grades of alcohol to 90 per cent.
This was found to be by far the best method for most phases in
the development ; the nitric acid readily passes through the egg-
membrane and produces a strong whitening effect on the blasto-
disc, leaving the yolk unaffected and translucent; the shrinkage
is very slight. With this, as with the other methods employed,
series of sections cannot well be made by the paraffin method,
owing to the great brittleness of the yolk, especially in the earlier
stages, and recourse must be had to celloidin.
2. The eggs were fixed with Perenyi’s fluid, allowed to act for
half-an-hour, and followed by ascending alcohols. This method
preserves the eggs well, but is not so serviceable as the preceding,
as it does not produce so great a whitening effect on the proto-
plasm of the blastodise.
3. The eggs were treated with osmic acid, followed by Merkel’s
fluid, as used by Agassiz and Whitman in their studies on
pelagic fish-eggs. This method is of very great value in differen-
tiating the periblast and the periblast cells from the other
elements.
General Features of the Egg of Chilobranchus.
The eggs are very small, being only 1-2mm. in long diameter.
They are nearly always of oval shape (though a few spherical
examples were found), and the short diameter is lmm. The egg
is cemented down by one side; the blastodisc is sub-polar in
position, but nearly always inclined towards the upper side of
the egg (z.e., that side cemented to the surface of the stone) ; its
position would therefore seem to be a polar one, slightly modified
by the action of gravity. In a small percentage of cases, how-
ever, the blastodisc was found to be situated in the middle of one
side of the egg, which brought about marked changes in the
general form in certain stages, as will be afterwards noticed. A
few abnormalities were observed, of which the most interesting
were two cases, in each of which there were ¢wo two-cell stages
close together. It is very likely that these were not natural, but
resulted from mechanical action during the removal of the eggs
from the stone. There were a good many eggs, however, in
which development seemed to have been arrested, there being
only an abnormal blastodisc with a softened yolk. Such were
probably eggs that had accidentally escaped impregnation.
Circumstances were not favourable for investigating the history
of the egg previous to the beginning of the process of segmenta-
*E2
484 _ PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
tion, and what slight observations I have been able to make on
this stage may be reserved till | have had the opportunity of a
more thorough study. As in some other teleosteans, the germinal
disc is formed as a result of impregnation, and an unimpregnated
ovum presents no trace of such a structure.
The Blastodisc and the Process of Segmentation.
The blastodisc makes its appearance a little on one side (the
upper) of the future ectodermal pole of the egg. When fully
formed, and before segmentation has commenced (a phase which,
judging from its rarity in preserved specimens, must be of very
brief duration), it is a small circular disc, around which is
gathered a narrow zone of periblastic protoplasm. From the
periblastic zone there radiate outwards a number of branching
protoplasmic threads, which soon become lost in the yolk and in
the thin investing layer of periblast. The plane of the first
cleavage is vertical to the surface of the blastodisc, and is
inclined at an angle to the plane passing through the long axis
of the egg. In the next stage, of which many specimens were
obtained, there are four symmetrically-arranged blastomeres
forming a quadrilateral blastodisc with rounded angles. The
next change brings about a disturbance of the symmetry, for two
of the four cells subdivide in such a way as to give rise at once
to the appearance of a long anda short axis in the blastodise,
which now consists of three pairs of cells, arranged right and left
on either side of a median line—the future long axis of the
embryo. Of these, the middle pair are larger than the others,
and each of them very soon becomes divided into two by a
transverse fissure. Thus is reached the stage of eight cells, in
which four pairs of cells are arranged symmetrically on either side
of the middle line. During those phases of segmentation the
blastoderm has undergone some increase in size, probably at the
expense of the periblastic material, which has become much less
evident, the radiating threads having disappeared altogether
shortly after the beginning of segmentation.
The next stages are marked by the considerable increase in
thickness of the blastoderm, which soon projects prominently
from the surface of the egg, and by the appearance of a ring of
marginal cells differing to a marked extent from those of the
remainder of the blastoderm. This ring first appears in the 32-
cell stage, when it consists of ten rather narrow cells encircling
the remainder. At first it is on a level with the rest of the
blastodisc, but while the latter bulges more and more the marginal
cells remain nearly ona level with the surface of the vitellus,
eventually becoming tucked in beneath the steep edge of the
central part of the blastodisc.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 485
In the meantime the blastodise has become (after the 32-cell
stage) two layers thick in its central portion. It lies directly on
a thin layer of non-nucleated periblastic material, which extends
round the whole vitellus. There is at this stage no trace of a
segmentation cavity. The blastoderm now spreads out as a very
thin layer over the ectodermal extremity of the egg. The thick
blastoderm of 16 cells becomes converted in eighteen hours into a
thin cap of very numerous small cells, covering about a quarter of
the yolk. This cap is at first perfectly uniform, but soon changes
appear, by which it is marked out into an embryonic (posterior)
and a non-embryonic (anterior) portion.
The first of those changes, which becomes marked when the
blastoderm extends over about a third of the yolk, is the forma-
tion of a thickened rim, having the appearance of being produced
by a bending inwards of the edge. About this time also a cavity
(segmentation cavity) appears underneath the anterior (non-
embryonic) part of the blastoderm. This cavity has a very short
duration, soon becoming obliterated. It intervenes between the
blastoderm proper and a thin layer of periblast, with scattered
nuclei, which forms its floor. A depression then appears just
within the anterior border of the ring, bounded behind by two
rounded elevations. The depression, which is of small extent, is
the non-embryonic part of the blastoderm, the rest, ending in front
in two convexities separated by a median notch, is the embryonic
shield. As the blastoderm extends further over the yolk, both
the embryonic and the non-embryonic portions are increased in
size. The two convexities of the anterior border of the embryonic
shield coalesce to form one median prominence, which marks the
position of the anterior border of the head of the embryo. When
the blastoderm has passed the equator of the egg an axial
thickening, at first very narrow, appears, running from the
posterior border to near the anterior margin of the embryonic
shield. Its direction of growth seems to be from behind forwards,
and it probably begins at the thickened posterior border, into
which its posterior extremity passes out laterally. In some
instances there is a slight break or notch in the thickened border
of the blastoderm at the end of the axial thickening; but this
does not seem to be of constant occurrence.
When the blastoderm covers three-quarters of the surface
of the egg the axial thickening has become somewhat
broader and is growing downwards into the yolk as a keel-like
ridge. This keel is much more strongly developed in its anterior
half ; behind it decreases greatly in size.
Sections through embryos with the keel in various stages of
development show that epiblast and mesoblast are completely
fused in the whole length of the keel. This is entirely at variance
with what has been observed in other fishes. Goette, for example,
states that in the trout there is no coalescence of the layers along
486 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
the line of the median keel at any stage, and figures them as
clearly distinguishable from one another.
It is some time before the blastoderm has quite covered the
yolk that the earliest rudiments of the optic vesicles become
visible. First the anterior end of the epiblast layer of the keel,
which may be termed medullary cords, shows a rounded enlarge-
ment in front. Then in this there become distinguishable an
axial portion, which is the anterior end of the medullary cord,
and two lateral parts, which soon become distinctly separated
from the former. When they first become distinguishable these
lateral parts of the anterior enlargement extend to the extreme
front end of the latter; but very soon they appear to retreat
backwards—their anterior ends falling short, by a little distance,
of the end of the axial cord. This appears to be due to the
anterior part thinning out, while the posterior part becomes
thickened and more strongly defined. These lateral parts of the
anterior enlargement are the equivalents of what Goette* terms
the sensory plate (Sinnesplatte). The thickened posterior part
forms the optic “ vesicle.”
That these optic rudiments arise from the same stratum of cells
as the medullary cord is evident enough, but from the way in
which they make their appearance at the sides they would rather
seem to be thickenings of the surface stratum of epiblast than
outgrowths from the medullary cord. The latter, it has also to
be noted, at the time when the bodies in question are distinctly
formed is scarcely yet a definite structure, but is really nothing
more than the more superficial cells of the blastodermic ridge or
keel, which are not yet definitely marked off from those below,
destined to form the notochord and the mesoblast.
Up to this point there is not the least appearance of a groove
or cleft on the surface of the medullary cord, which is an un-
divided axial thickening of the epiblast not projecting very
prominently on the surface. It is only after the establishment of
the optic “vesicles” that the medullary cord becomes separated
from the cells lying below it, and becomes marked out by a faint
longitudinal fissure into two lateral halves. A little later a pair
of thickenings appear behind the optic rudiments at the sides of
that part of the embryonic cerebro-spinal axis destined to form
the hind-brain. These when first they become evident are
elongate thickenings running parallel with the medullary cord.
The middle part of each gives rise to the rudiment of the auditory
labyrinth, which makes its appearance later in the form of a
rounded sac.
The first trace of the drain is the appearance of a slight
swelling just behind the optic vesicles. From this there become
constricted off behind a pair of inconspicuous swellings, which
* “ Beitriige zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Wirbelthiece, IV., Ueber die Sinnesplatte
der Teleostier.” Arch. f. Miker. Anat.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 487
subsequently give rise to the cerebellum. The front part—
corresponding to both fore and mid brain—long remains undivided,
but subsequently a slight dilatation of the median longitudinal
fissure appears opposite the anterior ends of the optic vesicles ; this
is the third ventricle, and the small segment of the brain at the sides
of and in front of it represents the fore-brain. When the rudiment
of the third ventricle has made its appearance, the hind-brain has
become plainly marked into cerebellum and medulla oblongata.
The lens-involution first appears before the brain shows any
definite signs of division into parts ; it has the form at first of an
irregularly-shaped plug of cells, which does not lose its connection
with the surface epiblast till after the fore-brain has become
differentiated. It grows into a depression of the optic “ vesicle”
formed to receive it; the “vesicle” long remains a solid structure,
the wall of the optic cup only presenting a division into two
layers at a comparatively late period.
The nasal pits appear after both eye and ear rudiments have
become well formed ; they appear as depressions in little three-
cornered masses of cells between the anterior end of the cerebro-
Spinal nervous axis and the rudimentary eyes.
The proto-vertebre appear at about the time when the first
swelling indicating the brain has become apparent. They are
remarkable for their small size and their number. They are
formed as a result of the segmentation of two narrow bands of
mesoblast lying at the sides of the cerebro-spinal axis.
5.—NOTES ON THE MUSCULAR FIBRES OF
PERIPATUS.
By Wittram A. Haswett, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Biology,
University of Sydney.
In Hatchett-Jackson’s revised edition of Rolleston’s “Forms of
Animal Life,” there is the following statement with reference to
Peripatus capensis (p. 320) :— The muscles, with the exception
of those attached to the jaws, are unstriped.” I have been
unable to find in any of the original papers* on Peripatus the
statement that the muscles attached to the jaws are striped, and
I do not know on what authority Hatchett-Jackson rests in
making the statement. Owing, however, to the peculiar interest
which the subjects presents from the point of view of the evolution
of striated muscle, I made a very careful examination of the
muscular fibres of the New South Wales species of Peripatus
* I refer to the well-known papers on the subject by Mosely, Balfour and others. It is
possible that there may be some statement of this kind in Sanger's paper, which I am unable
to read.
488 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
(P. leuckartii), both in the fresh condition and when treated by
the gold method, with the result that the fibres of the jaw muscles
are entirely unstriated, like the muscles of the rest of the body,
though a peculiar transversely-striped appearance is imparted to
those muscles by the arrangement of a number of the finest
branches of the trachee.
If the statement made by Hatchett-Jackson should prove to be
correct—that in P. capensis the jaw muscles alone are striated—
then one would be tempted to think that we have in the muscular
fibres of the appendages of Peripatus an example of degenerate
compound fibres, in which the striation has become lost, save in
one set of muscles, since the ordinary fibres of the muscles of the
limbs are of compound character, and resemble some varieties of
muscular fibres found in other Arthropods in all respects save in
the absence of striations. This does not, however, in view of
what we know of the rest of the organisation of Pertpatus, seem
very probable, and it appears more likely that a mis-statement
has crept into a work otherwise remarkable for its accuracy.
6.—DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW VICTORIAN ALGA.
Translated by J. BracesripcE Witson, M.A., F.LS8., from
Till Algernes Systematik nya bidrag af J. G. AGARDH.
SIPHONE.
Bryopsts claveformis.—Group of plants somewhat pyramidally
tufted. Fronds bristle-shaped, about half an inch in height,
radiating upwards from a radical plexus, simple or sparingly
dichotomous below, cylindrical, gradually thickening upwards
into a club shape, bearing spherical conceptacles below the blunt
apex.
B. baculifera.—Group of plants somewhat pyramidally tufted.
Fronds bristle-shaped, four to five inches long, radiating upwards
from a radical plexus; dichotomous below, branches distant,
narrowed at the base, finally cylindrical, apices blunt.
B. gemellipara.—F¥ronds more or less erect, generally simple ;
each plumula at the lower part of its contour lanceolate,
apparently distichous. The branchlets springing on each side
duplicated in two ranks, each forming several series of twin
branchlets, above the middle simple, with a very short imbricated
featherlike tip.
Avrainvillea obscura.—Frond rising with a short flattened
stem from a swollen base. Upper portion passing into a wide
wedge-shaped expansion, thick, dark in colour, ragged along the
terminal margin. (Note.—It is not unlikely that, when more
perfect specimens are obtained, our Victorian plant will prove to
be Avrainvillea letevirens of Crouan.—J. B. W.)
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 489
Callipsygma wilsonis.—Frond expanded on each side above the
stem, which is apparently rough below and slightly encrusted,
extending in two directions, sparingly, sub-pinnately, branched
from the margins. The whole frond is flattened, each branch
passing into a terminal fan-shaped expansion, at length plumose
by the lengthening of its own rachis. The lower filaments of
each expansion somewhat separate, and rapidly passing into fresh
branches. The filaments composing the whole frond constricted,
so as to form oblong articulations The filaments of the laminze
proceeding from the margin of the rachis repeatedly dichotomous,
placed close together, united laterally. Those of the stipes for
some distance wavy, alternately superimposed, fastened together,
thicker near the medial line.
Udotea peltata——Frond expanded, slightly funnel-shaped,
peltately attached upon a very short simple stipes, the lamina of
the flabellate expansion generally somewhat rounded, but
inequilateral. Margin ragged, or irregularly lobed. Plant green,
filaments of the flabellum covered by a cortical stratum,
conspicuous along the margin, rather distant, lower down united,
the cross filaments passing transversely to the surface of the
fronds, uncinate and peltate, forming the cortical stratum of tha
surface.
Caulerpa alternifolia.—Fronds from a surculum, erect, slender,
filiform, repeatedly dichotomous, pinnate along their whole length.
Pinne subulate, mucronate, attenuated from a somewhat thicker
base, lower pinne generally regularly alternate, spreading,
~distichous, slightly curved inwards, many times exceeding in their
length the breadth of the rachis; the upper pinne approaching
nearer to one another, less regularly alternate.
FLORIDE®.
Thamnocarpus glomuliferus.—Frond filiform, elongated, upper
portion with long branches, branchlets in the form of glomeruli,
alternately arranged like knots along the branches. Stem and
branches very distinctly articulated, cortical stratum dense,
articulations two and a half times their diameter, separated by
the darker line of the nodes. Ramellisituated at the nodes much
branched, articulated, the young ramelli rather soft, the older
somewhat rigid, furnished with a spinelet at the apex and at the
upper nodes.
Fructification as yet unknown.
Cryptonemia wilsoni.Stipitate membranaceous, nearly a foot
in length, fronds elongated, lanceolate or linear, from the usually
entire margin scattered proliferous processes, sometimes pinnate,
at others terminal, digitately spreading from the upper margin of
a frond apparently injured. Young proliferous leaflets obovate
lingulate, older ones linear.
490 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D,
Fructification as yet unknown. The older fronds often marked
with scattered stains. Frond bright red, without any indication
of ribs. Cortical stratum comprises 3 to 4 series of cells, the inner-
most the larger, occasionally somewhat elongated vertically, very
many globose, the cortical cells conspicuously smaller than the
others.
Stenogramma leptophyllum.— Fronds arranged in a_hemi-
spherical group, mostly very narrow, linear, apparently arranged
dichotomously, the older segments alternating on the rachis,
sub-pinnate, as it were primary and exceeding the rest. Apices
obtuse, very slightly narrowed. Antheridia in blotches in longi-
tudinal series along the middle of the frond. In colour and
substance resembling Stexogramma interruptum.
florea wilsonis.—Frond flat, distichously decompound, pinnate,
the larger pinne compound and intermixed with minute pinnules
proceeding from the margin. Pinnze somewhat erect, sub-obtuse,
pinnules very spreading, subulate and delta-shaped. Cystocarps
almost intramarginal, topped with a very short crown of
spines.
Rhodymenia stenoglossa. — Stems from a_ radical plexus,
numerous, somewhat erect, filiform at the base, soon becoming
flat with a slight groove, passing into a flat, very narrow, linear
frond. Young frond simple, or sparingly dichotomous, segments
slightly attenuated at the base. The older frond beset with
marginal processes, by degrees growing out into lingulate pinne,
subfiliform at the base.
Fructification as yet unknown.
Glaphyrymenia pustulosa.—Plant about a foot in diameter,
sometimes also with laciniz of equal dimensions. Stem some-
times hardly perceptible, almost sessile, sometimes more con-
spicuous, rounded below, soon flattened into a wedge shape, and
then widened into a flat membranous expansion, somewhat
thicker near the base and thinner above. Membranous expan-
sion widely expanded, sometimes rounded oblong with a con-
tinuous margin, or at times more or less divided into very large
lobes, with the margin either even or folded. Surface smooth, or
at length pustulate, more or less perforated by scattered foramina.
Margins of the foramina and laciniz often recurved, bearing
cystocarps within the margins. Colour and habit resembling
those of Kallymenia reniformis. Adheres very closely to
paper.
(Nore.—In the living state this alga is peculiarly soft, velvety,
and clinging, quite unlike in consistence any other I have
handled.—J. B. W.)
Delesseria heterocystidea.—Frond with cortex ribbed, prolifica-
tions appearing from the midrib, generally in a single row, rarely
branched, folioles somewhat erect, very slender, lanceolate,
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 49].
acuminate, occasionally blunt, without veins, margin slightly
wavy, minutely denticulate.
Sori unknown as yet.
Scinata moniliformis. — Frond membranaceous, cylindrical,
flattened, extremely constricted at the joints, dichotomously
decompound, with prolifications appearing below the upper part
of the articulations. Articulations united by a very narrow neck,
the lowermost obconical, the middle ovate-oblong, the uppermost
lately formed sub-rotund.
Chondriopsis foliifera.—Plant nearly pyramidal, with branches
alternately pinnate with great regularity. Pinne springing from
the margin, or within the margin of the rachis, spreading both
ways, linear, lanceolate. Simple, or beset with an additional
series of similar pinnules ; all, on both sides, extremely slender,
the last fruit-bearing. Spherospores rather irregularly arranged
on the upper part of the pinnules, marginal keramidia on the
pinnules either solitary or few in number. Cortical cells angular,
a little longer than their own diameter.
Polysiphonia sphacelarioides.—Stem spread out in every direc-
tion, loosely entwined among other algz, with long, curved, hair-like
threads rooting here and there. Articulate, devoid of cortex,
distantly branched with dense ramelli. Rachis often extending
beyond the branchlets, ramelli subvertical, chiefly secund, younger
ones slender to a distance from the base, older branchlets flexible.
Articulations of the older branchlets 7-siphoned, mostly 2 to 3 times.
as long as their diameter. The final ramelli about equal to their
diameter.
Cliftonea pectinata.—The cystocarps in Cliftonea pectinata
(observes Agardh) were first discovered by J. Bracebridge Wilson.
In the fruit-bearing specimens sent to me I have seen cystocarps
of considerable size, sub-globose, arranged in a row along the
midrib, between the lacinie, produced upon the older parts of the
plant ; protected, as it seemed to me, by the sterile laciniz
encompassing them from the side of the phyllodes. In a trans-
verse section I observed the pericarp to be formed of two strata,
that is, of exterior cells closely packed together, and inner ones
more loosely arranged, as though meeting one another only at
scattered points ; in the lower part of the pericarp more extended
longitudinally.
In the lower part of the cystocarp there is a placenta, from
which large pear-shaped spores proceed, supported on long stalks,
collected into several tufts, such as are normally present in the
Rhodomela group. On the lowermost part of the placenta I noted
a cell of greater size, as though primary, filled with a quantity of
granular matter. This cell is joined by other smaller cells, loosely
arranged, touching it round about in places, from the upper part
of which the spores at length proceed.
492 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
7.—NOTES ON THE ZOOLOGY OF HOUTMAN’S
ABROLHOS.
By A. J. CAMPBELL, F.L.S.
My visit to these most interesting islands was from 7th to 23rd
December, 1889. To Messrs. Broadhurst and McNeil I am in-
debted for passages to and from different islands, as well as for
much open-handed hospitality, while Mr. F. C. Broadhurst, Mr.
G. K. Beddoes, C.E. (manager), and other employés of the firm,
have furnished me with many valuable notes gathered of late
years upon the groups, and which were impossible for me to
personally make during my limited sojourn.
Houtman’s Abrolhos are certainly the greatest “rookery” for
sea birds in Australia, and by reason of their geographical posi-
tion in the sub-tropics, perhaps afford suitable breeding grounds
for a greater number of species than any other distinct or limited
spot in the world. That the groups have been resorted to for
untold ages by the birds is evinced by the rich deposits of guano
—notably upon Rat and Pelsart Islands. Rat Island may be said
to be fairly alive with feathers. There were birds breeding upon
the bushes, birds breeding under the bushes, and birds breeding
in the ground underneath. Rat Island approximately contains
350 acres. Deducting, say 50 acres, for the guano station and
cleared ground, and taking one bird for every square yard (there
could not be less, probably more, when young and eggs are taken
into consideration) the 300 acres would give 1,452,000 birds upon
one island alone. With fair success I took instantaneous photo-
graphs of some of the flights, but could not take the birds when
thickest, namely, at early morn and late evening, the sun being
unfavourable or the camera. Of the wonderful flights of noddy
and sooty terns I need not speak, but can fully substantiate
Gilbert’s accurate descriptions as given in Gould.
MAMMALIA.
Halmaturus derbianus, Grey (Derby’s wallaby). Found on
the East and West Wallaby Islands (northern group) only.
Luotaria ? (seal). Principally found on Easter and Pel-
sart groups, but now getting scarce.
Mus (rat). I was unable to procure a specimen for
identification, which may probably prove to be the common Euro-
pean rat introduced by some shipwreck.
AVES.
Haliaetus Jeucogaster, Gm. (White-bellied sea-eagle). Not
common. Eyries are established on Wallaby (Pigeon Island)
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 493
and Pelsart groups. The noddy tern constitutes a portion of
this eagle’s prey. Breeds beginning September. Young do not
assume adult plumage until second or third year.
Pandion leucocephalus, Gould (White-headed osprey). More
common than the preceding species. One day, as the barque
Capella was riding at anchor in Good Friday Bay each of the
mast heads was occupied by one of these noble birds. In addition
to fish, the osprey is very partial to the little white-faced storm
petrel and a rough-tailed lizard (Zgernia stokesi) common upon
Rat Island. Lay in September.
Hirundo neoxena, Gould (Welcome swallow). Noticed flying
over Pelsart Island.
Sericornis maculatus, Gould (Spotted serub-tit). Found only on
Wallaby group.
Zosterops gouldit, Bp. (Green-backed white-eye). Found in pairs
throughout the groups.
Phaps chalcoptera, Lath. (Bronzewing pigeon). Wallaby group.
Turnix scintillans, Gould (Speckled turnix-quail). Wallaby
group.
Hematopus longirostris, Vieill. (White-breasted oyster-catcher).
Few pairs throughout groups.
Hematopus unicolor, Wagl. (Sooty oyster-catcher). Seen occa-
sionally.
igialitis ruficapilla, Temm. (Red-capped dottrel). A few
always upon the islands where they breed.
Tringa albescens, Temm. (Little sandpiper). In small flocks
about the beaches. Retire inland to roost at evening, when they
often co-mingle with the former species.
Tringa subarguata, Gmel. (Curlew sandpiper). Singly or in
twos or threes about the shores. But none observed in full
plumage.
Strepsilas interpres, Linn. (Turnstone). This cosmopolitan was
observed in flocks of six or seven about the reefs at low water,
but scarcely in adult plumage.
LWumenius cyanopus, Vieill. (Australian curlew). Noted at
Wallaby group.
Numenius uropygialis, Gould (Wimbrel). Small flock seen at
the mangrove swamp, Pelsart Island, 23rd December.
Demuiegretta sacra, Gmel. (Reef-heron). Both the blue variety
and the white found throughout the groups. Breed November.
Lypotenidia philipensis, Linn. (Pectoral rail). Seen upon Rat
and Pelsart Islands. Known to breed upon latter.
Porzana tabuensis, Gmel. (Tabuan crake). Pelsart Island,
about the mangrove swamp.
Anas castanea, Eyton (Australian teal). Wallaby group.
Larus pacificus, Lath. (Pacitic gull). Odd couples breed
throughout all groups. Laying commences early September.
AQ4 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C.
Larus longirostris, Masters (Long-billed gull). Common. Breeds
in September. Have been witnessed plundering the noddies of
their eggs, especially if nearly incubated. The gulls also rob
these peaceful birds of the contents of their stomachs when spread
out for their mates or young.
Sterna caspia, Pall. (Caspian tern). Seen in small companies
about the reefs or singly diving for fish about the harbours.
Fledglings seen 15th December, also fresh egg taken same date.
Young in down white underneath, mottled with black and brown
above.
Sterna bergit, Licht. (Common tern). A few breed upon
Pelsart Island. Young in down similar to Caspian tern.
Sterna dougalli, Mont. (Graceful tern). Nesting in scores
upon the dead coral ridges in the narrowest part of Pelsart Island.
December appears to be the laying month. Young in down
under surface white, wings white, and rest of upper surface
mottled black and white, with slight brownish tinge. Feet and
bill light pink.
Sterna anestheta, Scop. (Panayan tern). In small companies
of ten or twelve, or in pairs, breeding under shelving limestones,
sometimes under bushes, chiefly on isolated rocks.
Sterna fuliginosa, Gm. (Sooty tern). The “ wide-awakes ”
first appear in the beginning of September upon Rat and Pelsart
Islands, when they come in vast numbers for about a fortnight.
When the young are reared, all depart about April. Their call-
note sounds like “‘ wide-awake ;” hence their vernacular name.
A long guttural scream appears to be the alarm note, while
“squak” like notes are uttered in anger. Young in down,
underneath parts (except throat) whitish, all the rest of the
surface mottled with black, brown and white. Feet and bill dark-
coloured.
Sternula nereis, Gould. (Little tern). A few couples found
breeding upon dead coral on Pelsart Island, in close proximity to
the graceful terns. Young in down dull or yellowish white.
Bill and feet light yellow.
Sternula inconspicua, Masters. A pair noticed in company
with little and Caspian terns near Rat Island. A skin was
obtained, which appears to correspond with Masters’ description,
although some authorities believe it to be a different stage of
plumage of the little tern. But this can hardly be, seeing the
young of the little tern from the time they are hatched possess
yellowish-white bill and feet, whereas Masters’ tern has dark-
coloured bill and feet.
Anous stolidus, Linn. (Noddy tern). Records kept upon Rat
Island. show that these birds first appeared for the breeding
season 14th August, 1888, and 16th August, 1889, respectively.
They are usually first heard at night, and then appear gradually
for a few days before they arrive in great crowds. The earliest
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 495
eggs are deposited about the beginning of October, but laying
continues for the two or three following months. About the
break-up of the weather in April all the noddies with their young
depart. Nota solitary bird remains. A week or two prior to
the final exodus the birds leave the island daily, but return at
night. This may be a method of exercising the young before the
last great flight. There is a curious incident of all these birds
having suddenly left Rat Island for about a fortnight during the
month of October when a cold rain set in, leaving eggs and young
to perish. Upon slight showers of rain falling, the birds clear
out to the shoals upon the reefs, and skim over the water in a
remarkable manner, as if fishing. The call-note of the noddy is
a coarse, gull-like bark. Young in down vary in colour from
light to dark sooty brown, with the upper portion of the head
mouldy white. Bill and feet black.
Anous tenuirostris, Temm. (Lesser noddy.) As its name
implies, it is similar in appearance but smaller than the noddy,
yet in one or two points of its natural history differs much.
Unlike the noddy, which nests upon low bushes or upon the
ground, the lesser noddy seeks the mangrove trees, and then only
upon one island (Pelsart) out of all the groups, although man-
groves exist elsewhere. Then, again, the lesser noddy remains
throughout the year, whereas the noddies’ visits are periodical.
The first eggs may be observed the beginning of September, but
the climax of the breeding season is not reached till December.
Young in down, sooty black, upper part of head mouldy white.
Bill and feet black.
Now that a successful guano depét has been established upon
Pelsart Island, no doubt in time the limited supply of mangrove
trees will be used for fuel. What then will become of the
extraordinary flights of the lesser noddies as they go to and from
their fishing grounds? I trust the photographs I took may not
soon be the “light of other days.”
Puffinus nugax (1). Sol. (Allied petrel.) I am not quite
satisfied about the identity of this petrel, although it closely
resembles P. nugax. Professor McCoy, to whom I submitted a
skin, shares my doubt. If it be P. xugax, then it has never been
reported from the western side of Australia, nor has it been
recorded nocturnal, as the Abrolhos bird certainly is. I took my
specimen flying about Rat Island the midnight of 9th December.
They have also been known, attracted by the light, to fall into
the fires of persons camping upon the islands. They breed in
underground burrows in July, and appear to rear their young
and depart in time to accommodate the following species.
Puffinus sphenurus, Gould. (Wedge-tailed petrel.) It has
never been hitherto published that this petrel is also nocturnal in
its habits. It is somewhat extraordinary that such a peculiar
trait in the bird’s character should have escaped Gilbert’s notice.
496 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
About half an hour after sundown they commence moaning and
get uneasy in their burrows, and shortly afterwards birds may be
seen swiftly cutting the air in many directions. The moaning
and infant-like cries of the wedge-tailed petrel are a curious
experience. After a ramble, one quiet night, I noted in my
pocket-book next morning that “the whole island seemed groaning
and travailling in pain with the noise of mutton birds.” Some-
times the roofs of the guano station are struck with terrible force
by the birds during flight. About half an hour before sunrise
they disappear underground, when all is quiet as far as they are
concerned. The attitude of this petrel upon the ground resembles
a duck upon water, a squatting posture. When walking they
are assisted by their wings, which gives the bird a waddling or
lame gait. The burrows generally extended two or three feet in
an oblique direction, rarely more than five feet. Sometimes they
deposit their single egg in holes or fissures of rock, while more
than once eggs have been taken from under bushes. The eggs,
like those of the noddies and other birds, are excellent eating, not
at all fishy in flavour as may be supposed.
Procellaria fregata, Linn. (White-faced storm-petrel.) 15th
December, found young about ten days old in burrows upon
Beacon Rock, near Rat Island. They were clothed in long
bluish-grey down, with dark naked head and bill ; feet also dark-
coloured, with webs yellowish-white. After death an amber-
coloured oil exudes freely from the beak.
Phaéton candidus, Briss. (White-tailed tropic-bird.) An occa-
sional visitor.
Phaéton rubricauda, Bodd. (Red-tailed tropic-bird.) Seen
occasionally on Rat Island during calm weather.
Graculus varius, Gm. (Pied cormorant.) Frequent the bays
and breed in numbers upon isolated rocks.
Pelecanus conspicillatus, Temm. (Australian pelican.) Have
been known to breed upon Pigeon Island (Wallaby group) during
September.
REPTILIA.
Morelia variegata (?) (Carpet snake.) Found only on Wallaby
group. Said to be a darker variety than that found on the
mainland, and not so lively in movements. Maximum length
about nine feet. Supposed to be non-venomous.
Lgernia kingt, Gr. During the season these lizards devour
many of the eggs and young of the noddy and sooty terns, when
their skin assumes a darker hue ; but whether this be from the
change of food or merely a summer coat remains to be proved.
L£gernia stokest, Gr.
Lygosoma lesueurt, D. and B. (variety).
Lygosoma prepeditum, Blg.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 497
8.—A COMPLETE CENSUS OF THE FLORA OF THE
GRAMPIANS AND PYRENEES.
By D. Suutivay, F.LS.
In presenting this compilation to the Society, I beg to state that
my sole aim and object is to encourage others to attempt similar
productions in their respective districts. By such efforts amateur
botanists could at once see which districts were explored and
where to go to make their labours both pleasant and profitable.
The present enumeration is the result of eighteen years’ research,
and little remains to be accomplished by future explorers within
the area included in the “census” now presented. Sir Thomas
Mitchell, Baron von Mueller, Dalachy, and others have been over
the district, so that in the way of actual discovery there was little
left for me to accomplish ; still I have added, as shown, not less
than thirty-six plants new to science. It is quite possible that
many mosses and lichens, and perhaps orchids, remain still to be
discovered in the deep umbrageous gorges of the Grampians. The
district, concerning which these pages are written, extends from
Stawell to the Hopkins and the Ararat and Hamilton railway on
the one hand, and from the Grampians, Serra, and Victoria
Ranges on the other, or about forty miles each way, which gives
an area of 1600 square miles. The country lying between these
boundaries is beautifully diversified with hill and dale, having a
most charming effect, especially in the spring, when the grass and
crops are green.
The principal trees scattered over this area are Aucalyptus
rostrata, viminalis, stuartiana, obliqua, leucoxylon, gunnit and
gontocalyx, Acacia decurrens, melanoxylon and pycnantha. Fora
time the wholesale destruction of these useful trees was ruthlessly
carried on for the sake of their bark, but, I am happy to say,
since the appointment of foresters in the district, one seldom sees
saplings denuded of their bark. The native cherry, Exocarpus
cupressifornis, at one time very plentiful, is totally disappearing.
The sheoaks, too, are becoming scarce.
With regard to the vegetation of the Pyrenees, it is neither
varied nor remarkable. I have found no plants that could be
said to be absolutely restricted to these ranges. The eucalypts
already mentioned, together with Prostanthera rotundifolia,
Correa emula, Kunzea pomifera, and a few acacias, form the
leading features. Bursaria spinosa attains here the dimensions
of a middle-sized tree. ‘Ihe most elevated peaks of the Pyrenees
are Langi Ghiran, 3200, and Ben Nevis, 3000 feet above the
level of the sea. The native plants are destined in time to
become extinct, owing to bush fires and the vast number of sheep
depasturing on the slopes, and, in fact, to the very summits of
*F
498 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
the ranges. Taking leave of the Pyrenees, and turning our
attention to the beautiful Grampians—“ the garden of Victoria ”—
one feels like a weary traveller coming upon an oasis after
traversing the dreary desert, that is, from a botanist’s point of
view.
The Grampians (in 1871, when I first commenced their
exploration) were very different indeed from what they are at
present. They were then a perfect floral paradise. Bush fires
and sheep have made sad havoc within the last ten or twelve
years. The Lpacridee abound everywhere on the heath-grounds.
The incomparable £pacris tmpressa—the queen of native flowers
—here exhibits its endless variety of colour through all shades,
from dark-red to the purest white. Contrasted with this, the
bright-red of Styphelia sonderi, the white and pink of Styphelia
ericoides, the greenish yellow of Styphelia adscendens, the delicate
white of Styphelia glacialis, the fiery-red flowers of Dauiesia
brevifolia, the tall white-flowered spikes of the grass-tree
(Xanthorrhea australis), with the fine glossy foliage of the young
trees of Eucalyptus robusta, and you have before you a picture
that, to be appreciated, must be seen. Crossing the creeks at the
foot of the mountains, the explorer tears his way through a maze
of Melaleucas, Leptospermum, Acacias, Pultenzeas, Sprengelias, and
species of Myrtacez, with charming festoons of the white-flowered
Clematis aristata, the pretty blue-flowered Comesperma volubile,
and the rare yellow-flowered Mavianthus bignoniaceus. Then,
tired from his late exertion, he sits probably on a rock, taking in
at one view the splendour and variety that nature has lavished
upon this highly-favoured locality. The prevailing plants close
to the mountains are Conospermum mitchelli, with immense
corymbs of white flowers, the white-flowered Brachylomas,
Kennedya monophylla (native sarsaparilla), grass-trees, Correas,
Hakeas, Dillwynias, and the Styphelias already alluded to
Advancing up the stony ridges, the scented Boronias, Eriostemons,
myrtaceous plants, Pultenzas, Bossivas, and the large white-
flowered Leptospermum lanigerum are met with everywhere.
After about three hours’ struggling, the summit of the highest
peak—Mount William—is reached. The height of Mount
William is variously recorded at from 4000 to 5200 feet, the
latter being probably nearest the truth.
The scenery is, indeed, sublime. To the north-west, forming a
curved line, are the Grampians, and farther still the dark outline
of the Black Range, towards the South Australian borders. To
the north-east is to be seen the bold granitic peaks of the other
Black Range, in the vicinity of Stawell. Mount Ararat, standing
boldly out from the group of granite hills by which it is
surrounded, presents the appearance of a volcanic cone. Farther
to the east, Mount Cole, Langi Ghiran, and Ben Nevis, the cul-
minating points of the Pyrenees, form a conspicuous feature in
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 499
the landscape. Moyston, Stawell, and Dunkeld are the only
towns visible from Mount William. To the south, the vast and
fertile plains of the Hopkins, dotted over with small lakes,
resembling sparkling stars, in the far distance, give a momentary
relief from the contemplation of apparently interminable
mountain scenery. Descending one of the deep gorges or gullies
of the mountain, the traveller finds himself in the midst of a
dense, luxuriant growth of fern-trees, Lomarias, Gleicheneas, &c.,
their ample fronds completely canopying the mountain streams.
As he advances downwards the gorge widens, and now, indeed,
he is in the “ The Garden of Victoria.” The walks, however, are
badly kept, for one has to labour through the dense entangled
mass of vegetation with the utmost difficulty. Pultenzas,
Coprosmas, Daviesias, Pomaderris, Baueras, Hoveas, Melaleucas,
Eriostemons, Correas, Sprengelias, Clematis, Billardieras, and
hundreds of others too numerous to mention, mingle their
brilliant red, yellow, blue, pink, and scarlet flowers in such pro-
fusion as to fairly dazzle the eyes of the spectator.
DICOTYLEDONEA. Ray.
CHORIPETALEZ Hypocyne. F. v. M.
RANUNCULACEA. B. de Jussieu.
Cuematis. Jl EHcluse.
Clematis aristata. R. Brown. Grampians.
Clematis microphylla. Candolle. Grampians.
Myosurvs. L’Obel.
Myosurus minimus. Linné. Grampians, Saline Flats.
Ranuncubus. Tournefort.
Ranunculus aquatilis. Dodoneus. Grampians.
Ranunculus lappaceus. Smith. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Ranunculus rivularis. Banksand Solander. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Ranunculus hirtus. Banks and Solander. Pyrenees.
Ranunculus parviflorus. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
t
DILLENIACE. Salisbury.
Hisppertia. Andrews.
Hibbertia densiflora. F.v. M. Grampians.
Hibbertia stricta. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Hibbertia humifusa. F.v. M. Grampians.
Hibbertia billardieri. F.v. M. Grampians.
Hibbertia fasciculata. R. Brown. Grampians.
Hibbertia virgata. R. Brown. Grampians, Serra, and Victorian Ranges.
Hibbertia diffusa. R. Brown. Grampians, Serra, and Victorian Ranges.
Hibbertia acicularis. F.v.M. Grampians.
*F2
500 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
MAGNOLIACEH. St. Hilaire.
Drimys. Forster.
Drimys aromatica. F.v. M.
LAURACE. Ventenat.
CassyTHA. Osbeck.
Cassytha glabella. R. Brown. Grampians.
Cassytha pubescens. R. Brown. Grampians.
Cassytha melantha. R. Brown. Grampians.
CRUCIFERZ. B. de Jussieu.
Nasturtium. Linné.
Nasturtium terrestre. R. Brown. Grampians.
CARDAMINE. I’Ecluse.
Cardamine dictyosperma. Hooker. Grampians.
Cardamine laciniata. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Cardamine hirsuta. Linné. Grampians.
Cardamine hirsuta, var. glabra. Grampians.
SisymBrium. ‘Tournefort.
Sisymbrium cardaminoides. F.v. M. Grampians.
CapsELLA. Medicus.
Capsella elliptica. C.A. Meyer. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Lepipium. Dioscorides.
Lepidium ruderale. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
VIOLACEH. De Candolle.
Vroua. Plinius.
Viola betonicifolia. Smith. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Viola hederacea. Labillardiére. Grampians and Pyrenees.
HYMENANTHERA. R. Brown.
Hymenanthera banksii. F. v. Mueller. Pyrenees.
PITTOSPOREA. R. Brown.
Bursaria. Cavanilles.
Bursaria spinosa. Cavanilles. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Mariantuus. Huegel.
Marianthus procumbens. Bentham. Grampians.
Marianthus bignoniaceus. F.v. M. Grampians.
BILLARDIERA. Smith.
Billardiera scandens. Smith. Grampians.
Billardiera cymosa. F.v. M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D,
DROSERACEZ. Salisbury.
Drosera. Linné,
Drosera spathulata. lLabillardiére. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Drosera whittakerii. Planchon. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Drosera pygmea. De Candolle. Grampians.
Drosera glanduligera. Lehmann. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Drosera peltata. Smith. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Drosera auriculata. Backhouse. Grampians.
Drosera menziesii. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Drosera binata. Labillardiére. Grampians.
HYPERICINA. St. Hilaire.
Hypericum. Plinius.
Hypericum japonicum. Thunberg.
POLYGALEA. Jussieu.
ComESPERMA. Labillardiére.
Comesperma retusum. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Comesperma volubile. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Comesperma calymega. Labillardiére. Grampians
Comesperma defoliatum. F'.v. M. Grampians.
Comesperma polygaloides. F.v. M. Grampians.
TREMANDREA. Rk. Brown.
TETRATHECA. Smith,
Tetratheca ciliata. Lindley. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Tetratheca ericifolia. Smith. Grampians.
RUTACEA, Jussieu.
Boronta. Smith.
Boronia polygalifolia. Smith. Grampians.
Boronia pilosa. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Boronia pinnata. Smith. Grampians.
Eriostemon. Smith.
Eriostemon obovalis. Cunningham. Grampians.
Eriostemon pleurandroides. F.v. M. Serra Range.
Eriostemon hillebrandi. F.v. M. Grampians.
Eriostemon pungens. Lindley. Grampians.
CorrREA. Smith.
Correa speciosa. Andrews. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Correa lawrenciana. Hooker. Grampians.
Correa emula. F.v. M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
LINE. De Candolle.
Linum. Theophrastos.
Linum marginale. Cunningham. Grampians and Pyrenees,
501
502 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
.GERANIACEA. Jussieu.
GERANIUM. Dioscorides.
Geranium carolinanum. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Geranium sessiliflorum. Cavanilles. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Eropium. Il Héritier.
Erodium cygnorum. Nees. Pyrenees.
PELARGONIUM, 1’ Héritier.
Pelargonium australe. Willdenow. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Parlargonium rodneyanum. Mitchell. Pyrenees.
Oxauis. Plinius.
Oxalis corniculata. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
STERCULIACEZ. Ventenat.
LasIopETALUM. Smith.
Lasiopetalum dasyphyllum. Sieber. Grampians.
EUPHORBIACEA. Jussieu.
PoRANTHERA. Rudge.
Poranthera microphylla. Brongniart. Grampians.
PsEUDANTHUS. Sieber.
Pseudanthus ovalifolius.* F.v. M. Grampians.
Bryeria. Miquel.
Beyeria viscosa. Miquel. Grampians.
Beyeria opaca. F.v.M. Grampians.
AMPEREA. Jussieu.
Amperea spartioides. Brongniart. Grampians.
PHYLLANTHUS. Commelin.
Phyllanthus thymoides. Sieber. Grampians.
URTICEA. Ventenat.
PaRieTariA. C. Bauhin.
Parietaria debilis. G. Foster. Grampians.
Urtica. Plinius.
Urtica incisa, Poiret. Grampians.
CASUARINE. Mirbel.
Casuarina. Rumphius.
Casuarina quadrivalvis. Labillardiére. Pyrenees.
Casuarina distyla. Ventenat. Grampians.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 503
SAPINDACEA. Jussieu.
Doponza. Linne.
Dodonea viscosa. Linné. Grampians.
Dodonea bursarifolia. Behrand F.v. M. Grampians.
Dodonza boronifolia. G. Don. Pyrenees.
STACKHOUSIEH. R. Brown.
StackHousia. Smith.
Stackhousia linarifolia. Cunningham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Stackhousia viminea. Smith. Grampians.
PORTULACE. Jussieu.
CLAYTONIA. Gronovius.
Claytonia pygmea. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Claytonia australasica. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Claytonia calyptrata. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
CARYOPHYLLEA.
SreLuarra. Linné.
Stellaria pungens. Brongniart. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Stellaria glauca. Withering. Pyrenees.
Stellaria flaccida. Hooker. Grampians.
Stellaria multiflora. Hooker.
SPERGULARIA, Persoon.
Spergularia rubra. Cambessédes, Grampians.
PontycarpPon. Loefling.
Polycarpon tetraphyllum. Loefling. Grampians.
AMARANTACEH. Jussieu.
ALTERNANTHERA. Forskael.
Alternanthera triandra. Lamarck. Pyrenees.
Pritotus. R. Brown.
Ptilotus alopecuroideus. F.v.M. Grampians.
Ptilotus erubescens. Schlechtendal. Pyrenees.
Ptilotus spathulatus. Poiret. Pyrenees.
Ptilotus macrocephalus. Poiret. Grampians.
SALSOLACEA. Linne.
Raacopira. R. Brown.
Rhagodia billardieri. R. Brown. Pyrenees.
CuENopopium. Tournefort.
Chenopodium carinatum. R. Brown. Grampians.
DysPHANIA. R. Brown.
Dysphania myriocephalia. Bentham. Pyrenees.
504 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
FICOIDEA.
MESEMBRIANTHEMUM. Breyne.
Mesembrianthemum aequilaterale. Haworth. Pyrenees.
Mesembrianthemum australe. Solander. Pyrenees.
POLYGONACEA. Jussieu.
Roumex. Plinius.
Rumex brownii. Campdera. Grampians.
Rumex bidens. R. Brown. Pyrenees.
Potyeonum. Dioscorides.
Polygonum strigosum. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Polygonum prostratum. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Polygonum hydropiper. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Polygonum minus. Hudson. Grampians.
Polygonum lapathifolium. Linné. Grampians.
MUEHLENBECKIA. Meissner.
Muehlenbeckia cunninghamil. F.v. M. Pyrenees.
Summary of the Choripetalee Hypogyne :—
Natural Orders 556 eee aie 24
Genera ihe 3% 18 nk 52
Species are ah Ae seve LS
CHORIPETALEH PERIGYNZ.
LEGUMINOS. Haller.
GomPHOLOBIUM. Smith.
Gompholobium huegelii. Bentham.
SPHHZROLOBIUM. Smith.
Spherolobium vimineum. Smith. Grampians.
Viminaria. Smith.
Viminaria denudata. Smith. Grampians.
Daviesta. Smith.
Daviesia corymbosa. Smith. Grampians.
Daviesia brevifolia. Lindley. Grampians.
Daviesia ulicina. Smith. Grampians.
Aotus. Smith.
Aotus villosa. Smith. Grampians.
PuULTENZA. Smith.
Pultenea rosea. F.v. M. Grampians.
Pultenea gunnii. Bentham. Pyrenees.
Pultenewa daphnoides. Wendland. Grampians.
Pultenza scabra. R. Brown. Grampians.
Pultenza pedunculata. Hooker. Grampians.
Pultenzea subumbellata. Hooker. Grampians.
Pultenea dentata. Labillardiére Grampians.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 505
Pultenea mollis. Lindley. Grampians.
Pultenza viscosa. R. Brown. Grampians.
Pultenza juniperina. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Pultenza villosa. Willdenow. Grampians.
Pultenea villifera. Sieber. Grampians.
Pultenza styphelioides. Cunningham. Grampians.
Pultenza laxiflora. Bentham. Grampians.
Evraxta. R. Brown.
Eutaxia empetrifolia. Schlechtendal. Grampians.
DILLwYnNisa. Smith.
Dillwynia floribunda. Smith. Grampians.
Dillwynia hispida. Lindley. Grampians.
Dillwynia ericifolia. Smith. Grampians.
PLATYLOBIUM. Smith.
Platylobium alternifolium. F.v.M. Grampians.
Platylobium obtusangulum. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Platylobium formosum. Smith. Grampians.
Platylobium triangulare. R. Brown. (Grampians.
Bosst#a. Ventenat.
Bossiea cinerea. R. Brown. Grampians.
Bossiea riparia. Cunningham. Grampians.
Bossiea prostrata. R. Brown. Grampians.
TaMPLETONIA. R, Brown. P ear
= 2 ‘ ! Pa J ot
‘Templetonia muelleri. Bentham. Grampians. ym :
%
Hovea. R. Brown. i w
Hovea longifolia. R. Brown. Grampians. jm 4 rar
Hovea heterophylla. Cunningham. Grampians. ‘ &
9 -”
Goopra. Salisbury. b+ co, 2 asf
. . . . A ts gn,
Goodia lotifolia. Salisbury. Grampians. i 2 ro. gM ey
Goodia medicaginea. F.v.M. Grampians. VE eee S/
, £3 2
Nee a Ry oy
InpicorerA. Linné, NE
Indigofera australis. Willdenow.
Swarnsonta, . Salisbury.
Swainsonia procumbens. F.y.M. Grampians.
Swainsonia lessertiifolia. Candolle. Grampians.
GuycinE. Linné.
Glycine clandestina. Wendland. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Glycine latrobeana. Bentham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Kennepya. Ventenat.
Kennedya prostrata. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Kennedya monophylla. Ventenat. Grampians and Pyrenees.
ACACIA. Dioscorides.
I,.—PUNGENTEs.
Acacia juniperina. Willdenow. Grampians and Pyrenees.
506 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
Il.—UNINERVES.
Acacia aspera. Lindley. Grampians.
Acacia armata. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Acacia vomeriformes. Cunningham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Acacia retinodes. Schlechtendal. Grampians.
Acacia pycnantha. Bentham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Acacia myrtifolia. Willdenow. Grampians.
-III.—PLuRInERVES.
Acacia whanii. F.v.M. Grampians.
Acacia melanoxylon. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
IV .—JULIFERS.
Acacia oxycedrus. Sieber. Grampians.
Acacia verticillata. Willdenow. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Acacia longifolia. Willdenow. Grampians
V.—BIPINNATA.
Acacia mitchelli. Bentham. Grampians.
Acacia decurrens. Willdenow. Grampians and Pyrenees.
ROSACEA. Jussieu.
Rusus. Plinius.
Rubus parvifolius. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
ALcHEMILLA. Brunfels.
Alchemilla vulgaris. Bauhin. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Acmna. Mautis.
Acena ovina. Cunningham. Grampians.
Acena sanguisorbe. Vahl. Grampians and Pyrenees.
SAXIFRAGEA. Ventenat.
Bavers. Banks and Kennedy.
Bauera sessiliflora. F.v. M. Grampians.
Bauera rubioides. Andrews. Grampians.
CRASSULACEA. De Candolle.
Tirnua. . Michelli.
Tillea verticillaris. Candolle. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Tillea purpurata. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Tillea macrantha. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Tillea recurva. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.
ONAGREA. Jussieu.
EprrLtopium. Gesner.
Epilobium tetragonum. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
SALICARIEA. Jussieu.
LytruRum. Linne.
Lythrum salicaria. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Lythrum hyssopifolia. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 507
HALORAGEA. R. Brown.
Hatoraais. R. and G. Forster.
Haloragis elata. Cunningham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Haloragis micrantha. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Haloragis ceratophylla. Zahlbruckner. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Haloragis tetragyna. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Haloragis teucrioides. Schlechtendal. Grampians and Pyrenees.
MyriopHyiium. Dioscorides.
Myriophyllum variifolium. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Myriophyllum integrifolium. Hooker. Hopkins River.
CALLITRICHIN A.
CALLITRICHE. Linné.
Callitriche verna. Linné. Pyrenees.
MYRTACEHX. Jussieu.
CatycorHRix. Labillardiére.
Calycothrix tetragona. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Calycothrix sullivani. F.v.M. Grampians (new).
Lyorzxya. Schauer.
Lhotzkya genetylloides. F.v.M. Grampians.
THRYPTOMENE. Endlicher.
Thryptomene mitchelliana. F.v.M. Grampians.
Thryptomene ericea. .F.v.M. Pyrenees.
Thryptomene ciliata. F.v.M. Grampians.
Backes. Linné.
Beckea diffusa. Sieber. Grampians.
Leprospermum. R. and G. Foster.
Leptospermum scoparium. Foster. Grampians.
Leptospermum myrsinoides. Schlechtendal. Grampians.
Leptospermum lanigerum. Smith. Grampians.
Leptospermum flavescens. Smith. Grampians.
Kunzea. Reichenbach.
Kunzea pomifera. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
CALLISTEMON. R. Brown.
Callistemon coccineus. F.v.M. Grampians.
MeEuatevca. Linné.
Melaleuca gibbosa. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Melaleuca decussata. R. Brown. Grampians.
Melaleuca squarossa. Donn. Grampians.
Melaleuca squamea. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Evcatyrptus. Il Heritier.
Eucalyptus pauciflora. Sieber. Grampians.
Eucalyptus amygdalina (var.). Labillardiére, Grampians.
‘508 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
Eucalyptus obliqua. Jl Heritier.
Eucalyptus capitellata. Smith. Grampians.
Eucalyptus leucoxylon. F. v. M. (var.). Pyrenees.
Eucalyptus melliodora. Cunningham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Eucalyptus alpina. Lindley. Grampians.
Eucalyptus goniocalyx. F.v. M. Pyrenees and Grampians.
Eucalyptus gunii. Hooker. Grampians.
Eucalyptus stuartiana. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Eucalyptus viminalis. Labillardiére. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Eucalyptus rostrata. Schlechtendal. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Eucalyptus macrorrhyncha. F.v. M. Grampians.
RHAMNACEA. Jussieu.
PomapeErRis. Labillardiere.
Pomaderris apetala. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Pomaderris elliptica. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Pomaderris elachophylla. F.v. M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Pomaderris vacciniifolia. Reisseck and F.v. M. Grampians.
CRYPTANDRA. Smith.
-Cryptandra amara Smith. Grampians.
ARALIACEA. Ventenat.
AsTRoTRiIcHA. Candolle.
Astrotricha ledifolia. Candolle. Grampians.
UMBELLIFERA. Morison.
Hyprocoryite. Tournefort.
Hydrocotyle laxiflora. Candolle. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Hydrocotyle callicarpa. Bunge. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Hydrocotyle capillaris. F.v. M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Dipiscus. Candolle.
Didiscus pusillus. F.v.M. Grampians.
TRACHYMENE. Rudge.
‘Tractyme heterophylla. F.v.M. Grampians.
Eryneium. Theophrastos.
Eryngium vesiculosum. Labillardiére. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Apium. 'Tournefort.
Apium prostratum. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Daucus. lEcluse.
Daucus brachiatus. Sieber. Grampians and Pyrenees.
OREOMYRRHIs. Endlicher.
Oreomyrrhis andicola. Enlicher. Grampians.
Summary of the Choripetalee Perigyne :—
Natural Orders ei mes anc ial
Genera ar, ait 664 ie 47
Species ae. Me sh. we =: 124
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 509°
SyNPETALEZ® PERIGYNE.
SANTALACA. R. Brown.
Lepromeria. R. Brown.
Leptoweria aphylla. R. Brown. Grampians.
Exocarpos. Labillardiére.
Exocarpos cupressiformis. Labillardiére. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Exocarpos stricta. R. Brown. Grampians.
LORANTHACEA. Jussieu.
Lorantuus. Linné.
Loranthus pendulus. Sieber. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Loranthus celastroides. Sieber. Grampians.
Loranthus exocarpi. Behr. Grampians.
PROTEACEHX. Jussieu.
; Isopocon. R. Brown.
Isopogon ceratophyllus. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees..
ApENANTHOS. Labillardiere.
Adenanthos terminalis. R. Brown. Grampians.
ConosPeRMUM. Smith.
Conospermum mitchellii. Meissner. Grampians.
Conospermum patens. Schlechtendal. Grampians.
Prersoonia. Smith.
Persoonia rigida. R. Brown. Grampians.
Persoonia juniperina. Labillardiére. Grampians.
GREVILLIA. R. Brown.
Grevillia aquifolium. Lindley. Grampians.
Grevillia ilicifolia. R. Brown. Grampians.
Grevillia alpina. Lindley. Grampians.
Grevillia confertifolia. F.v. M.
Grevillia australis. R. Brown. Grampians.
Haxkea. Schrader.
Hakea rostrata. F.v.M. Grampians.
Hakea acicularis. R. Brown. Grampians.
Hakea ulicina. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Hakea dactyloides. Cavanilles. Grampians.
Banksia. Linné.
Banksia marginata. Cavanilles. Grampians and Pyrenees...
Banksia ornata. F.v.M. Grampians.
THYMELE#. Jussieu.
PimeveA. Banks and Solander.
Pimelia curviflora. R. Brown. Grampians.
Pimelia phylicoides. Meissner. Grampians.
510 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D,
Pimelia flava. R. Brown. Grampians.
Pimelia axiflora. F.v.M. Pyrenees.
Pimelia linifolia. Smith. Grampians.
Pimelia humilis. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Pimelia spathulata. Labillardiére. Grampians.
RUBIACE. Jussieu.
Corrosma. R. and G. Foster.
Coprosma hirtella, Labillardiére. Grampians.
Coprosma billardieri. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.
OPERCULARIA. Gaertner.
Opercularia varia. Hooker. Grampians.
Opercularia ovata. Hooker. Grampians.
Gatium. Dioscorides.
Galium umbrosum. Solander. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Galium australe. Candolle. Grampians and Pyrenees.
AsppRuLA. Dalechamps.
Asperula oligantha. F.v. M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
COMPOSITA. Vaillant.
LAGENOPHORA. Cassini.
Lagenophora billardieri. Cassini. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Lagenophora huegelii. Bentham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Lagenophora emphysopus. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Bracuycome. Cassini.
Brachycome diversifolia. Fischer and Meyer. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Brachycome graminea. F.v. M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Brachycome exilis. Sonder. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Brachycome scapiformis. Candolle. Grampians.
Brachycome multifida. Candolle. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Brachycome collina. Bentham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Canotis. R. Brown.
Calotis anthemoides. F.v. M. Grampians.
Aster. Dioscorides.
Aster myrsinoides. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Aster stellulatus. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Aster asterotrichus. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Aster glandulosus. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Aster huegelii. F.v. M. Grampians. %
Aster aculeatus. — Grampians.
Virrapinia. Ach. Richard.
Vittadinia australis. A. Richard. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Struartina. Sonder.
Stuartina muelleri. Sonder. Grampians and Pyrenees.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
GNAPHALIUM. Bauhin.
Gnaphalium luteo-album. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Gnaphalium japonicum. Thunberg. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Gnaphalium indutum. Hooker. Grampians.
Popouepis. Labillardiére.
Podolepis acuminata. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
LEPTORRHYNCHOS. Lessing.
Leptorrhynchus squamatus. Lessing. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Leptorrhynchus tenuifolius. F.v. M. Grampians.
Leptorrhynchus elongatus. Candolle. Grampians.
Leptorrhynchus medius. Cunningham. Grampians.
HewipTeRum. Candolle.
Helipterum incanum. Candolle. Pyrenees.
Helipterum cotula. Candolle. Pyrenees.
Helipterum corymbiflorum. Schlechtendal. Grampians.
Helipterum exiguum. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Helipterum dimorpholepis. Bentham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Heticurysum. Theophrastos and Dioscorides.
Helichrysum blandowskianum. Steetz. Grampians.
Helichrysum apiculatum. Candolle. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Helichrysum semipapposum. Candolle. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Helichrysum baxteri. Cunningham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Helichrysum scorpioides. Labillardiére. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Helichrysum obtusifolium. Sonderand F. vy. M. Grampians.
Helichrysum ferrugineum. Lessing. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Helichrysum obcordatum. F.v. M. Grampians.
Helichrysum bracteolatum. Bentham. Grampians.
Cassin1a. KR. Brown.
Cassinia aculeata. KR. Brown.
Humes. Smith.
Humea elegans. Smith. Grampians.
Rutiposis. Candolle.
Rutidosis pumilo, Bentham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Ixop1a. R. Brown.
Txodia achilleoides. R. Brown. Grampians.
Minuotra. Cassini.
Millotia tenuifolia. Cassini. Grampians and Pyrenees.
AnGIANTHUS. Wendland.
Angianthus tomentosus. Wendland. Grampians.
CaLocEPHALUS. R. Brown.
Calocephalus lacteus. Lessing. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Calocephalus citreus. Lessing. Grampians and Pyrenees.
SrmcesBeckia. Linné.
Siegesbeckia orientalis.. Linné. Grampians.
bl PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
Cotuta. Linné.
Cotula filifolia. Thunberg. Grampians.
Cotula coronopifolia. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Cotula australis. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.
CENTIPEDA. Loureiro.
Centipeda cunninghami. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Centipeda orbicularis. Loureiro. Grampians.
Isorropsis. Turcezaninow.
Isoetopsis graminifolia. Turczaninow. Grampians.
Smnecio. Plinius.
Senecio lautus. Solander. Grampians.
Senecio vagus. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Senecio velleioides. Cunningham. Grampians.
Erecutites. Rafinesque.
Erechtites quadridentata. Candolle. Pyrenees.
Crmsponotus. Cassini.
Cymbonotus lawsonianus. Gaudichaud. Pyrenees.
Mrcroseris. D. Don.
Microseris fosteri. Hooxer. Grampians and Pyrenees.
CAMPANULACE. Jussieu.
Lopeuia. Linné.
Lobelia simplicicaulis. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Lobelia rhombifolia. De Vriese. Grampians.
Lobelia anceps. Thunberg. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Lobelia pratioides. Bentham. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Lobelia concolor. BR. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Isotoma. R. Brown.
Isotoma fluviatilis. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
WauLENBERGIA. Schrader.
Wahlenbergia gracilis. Candolle. Grampians and Pyrenees.
CANDOLLEACEH. F. v. M.
CanpouuEA. Labillardiére.
Candollea sobolifera. F.v.M. Grampians.
Candollea calearata. F.v. M. Grampians.
Candollea despecta. R. Brown. Grampians.
LEEWENHOEKIA. R. Brown.
Leewenhoekia dubia. Sonder. Grampians and Pyrenees.
GOODENIACEA. R. Brown.
Brounonia. Smith.
Brunonia australis. Smith. Grampians and Pyrenees.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
Scmvona. Linné.
Scevola emula. R. Brown. Grampians.
GOoDENIA. Smith.
Goodenia ovata. Smith. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Goodenia geniculata. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Goodenia elongata. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Goodenia pinnatifida. Schlechtendal. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Goodenia humilis. R. Brown. Grampians.
VELLEYA. Smith.
Velleya paradoxa. R. Brown. Grampians.
SELLIERA. Cavanilles.
Selliera radicans. Cavanilles. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Summary of the Synpetalee Perigyne :—
Natural Orders ae a * 9
Genera ... es = ats me 00
Species ... ale a ag be les
SYNPETALEZ HypoGynz2.
GENTIANE. Jussieu.
SEB#A. Solander.
Sebea ovata. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Sebza albidiflora. F.v. M. Grampians (Wannon R.).
ERYTHRzA. Reneaulme.
Erythrea australis. R. Brown. Grampians.
LOGANIACEA. BR. Brown.
Mirrasacme. Labillardiére.
Mitrasacme paradoxa. R. Brown. Grampians.
Mitrasacme distylis. F.v. M. Grampians.
PLANTAGINEA. Jussieu.
Prantaco. lEcluse.
Plantago varia. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
PRIMULACEA. Ventenat.
Samoutus. Tournefort.
Samolus repens. Persoon. Grampians and Pyrenees.
CONVOLVULACEM. Jussieu.
ConvotyvuLus. W. Turner.
Convolvulus erubescens. Sims. Grampians and Pyrenees.
DicHonpRA. Forster.
Dichondra repens. Forster. Pyrenees. ,
%* er
G
513
514 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
SOLANACEA. Haller.
Sotanum. Tournefort.
Solanum nigrum. Linne. Grampians and Pyrenees.
SCROPHULARINA. Mirbel.
Mimutvus. Linné.
Mimulus repens. R. Brown. Grampians.
Mimulus gracilis. R. Brown. Grampians.
GrRaTIoLaA. Dodoens.
Gratiola pedunculata. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Gratiola peruviana. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Limosetuta. Lindern.
Limosella aquatica. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
VERONICA. FUCHS.
Veronica derwentia. Littlejohn. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Veronica gracilis. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Veronica calycina. R. Brown. Grampians.
Veronica peregrina. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Evpnrasia. Matthaeus.
Euphrasia brownii. F.v. M. Grampians.
Euphrasia scabra. KR. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
LENTIBULARINEA. Richard.
Urricutaria. Linné.
Utricularia dichotoma. Labillardiére. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Utricularia lateriflora. R. Brown. Grampians.
PotypompHoLyx. Lehmann.
Polypompholyx tenella. Lehmann. Grampians.
ASPERIFOLI®. Haller.
Myosortis. Dioscorides.
Myosotis australe. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Erirricoum. Schrader.
Eritrichum australasicum. Candolle. Pyrenees.
Cynogiossum. Dioscorides.
Cynoglossum suaveolens. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Cynoglossum australe. R. Brown. Grampians.
LABIATA. Jussieu.
Mentaa. Hippocrates.
Mentha laxiflora. Bentham. Grampians.
Mentha australis. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Mentha gracilis. R. Brown. Grampians.
Mentha saturejoides. R. Brown. Grampians.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 515
Lycorus. Plinius.
Lycopus australis. R. Brown. Grampians.
BrRunELuA. Brunfels.
Brunella vulgaris. Candolle. Grampians.
PRosTANTHERA. Labillardiére.
Prostanthera rotundifolia, R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Prostanthera lasiantha. Labillardiére. Grampians. ;
Prostanthera hirtula. F.v. M. Grampians.
Prostanthera spinosa. F.v. M. Grampians.
Prostanthera debilis. F.v.M. Grampians (new).
Asuea. Scribonius.
Ajuga australis. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Tsucrium. Dioscorides.
Teucrium corymbosum. R. Brown. Pyrenees.
VERBENACEA. Jussieu.
VERBENA. 1 Ecluse.
Verbena officinalis. Linné. Grampians.
MYOPORINA. R. Brown.
Myororum. Banks and Solander.
Myoporum viscosum. R. Brown. Pyrenees.
EPACRIDEZX. R. Brown.
STyYPHELIA. Solander.
Styphelia Sonderi. F.v. M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Styphelia adscendens. R. Brown. Grampians.
Styphelia humifusa. Persoon. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Styphelia thymifolia. F.v. M. Grampians.
Styphelia strigosa. Smith. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Styphelia pinifolia. F.v.M. Grampians.
Styphelia glacialis. F.v.M. Grampians.
Styphelia ericoides. Smith. Grampians.
Styphelia rufa. F.v.M. Grampians.
Styphelia scoparia. Smith. Grampians.
Bracuytoma. Sonder.
Brachyloma daphnoides. Bentham. Grampians.
Brachyloma ciliatum. Bentham. Grampians.
Brachyloma depressum. Bentham. Grampians.
Epacris. Cavanilles.
Epacris impressa. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Epacris obtusifolia. Smith. Grampians.
Summary of the Synpetalee Hypogyne :—
Natural Orders bs Sec Prk tts)
Genera ... oo mm eh Aero eer-ts)
Species ... = J si oS
¥G@2
516 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
APETALEZH GYMNOSPERMEZ.
CONIFER. Haller.
CaLLItRis. Ventenat.
Callitris pyramidalis. Ventenat. Grampians.
Summary of Dicotyledonee.
Orders, 58; genera, 178; Species, 413.
MonocoTyLEDONE.
CALYCER PBupicewans EF. v. M.
ORCHIDEA. Haller.
Dipopium. R. Brown.
Dipodium punctatum. R. Brown. Grampians.
Gastropi1a. R. Brown.
Gastrodia sesamoides. R. Brown. Grampians.
THELYMITRA. Forster.
Thelymitra ixioides. Swartz. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Thelymitra longifolia. Forster. Grampians.
Thelymitra carnea.. R. Brown. Grampians.
Thelymitra antennifera. Hooker. Grampians..
Thelymitra macmillani. F.v.M. Grampians.
Diuris. Smith.
Diuris palustris. Lindley. Grampians.
Diuris pedunculata.. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Diuris sulphurea. RK. Brown. Grampians.
Diuris longifolia. R. Brown. Grampians.
CaLocuitus. R. Brown.
Calochilus campestris. Grampians.
PRASOPHYLLUM. R. Brown.
Prasophyllum patens. R. Brown. Grampians.
Prasophyllum elatum. R. Brown. Grampians.
Prasophyllum
Microtis. R. Brown.
Microtis porrifolia. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Microtis atrata. Lindley. Grampians.
CorysantHEs. R. Brown.
Corysanthes pruinosa. R. Brown. Grampians.
Prerostruis. R. Brown.
Pterostylis concinna. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Pterostylis curta. R. Brown. Grampians.
Pterostylis nutans. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Pterostylis nana. R. Brown. Grampians.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 517
Pterostylis barbata. Lindley. Grampians.
Pterostylis mutica. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Pterostylis rufa. R. Brown. Grampians.
Pterostylis longifolia. R. Brown. Grampians.
Caurya. R. Brown.
Caleya major. R. Brown. Grampians.
Caleya sullivani. F.v.M. Grampians (new).
Actantuus. Rk. Brown.
Acianthus caudatus. KR. Brown. Grampians.
Cyrrtostruis. R. Brown.
Cyrtostylis reniformis. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Lyprrantuus. R. Brown.
Lyperanthus nigricans. RK. Brown. Grampians.
Eriocuiuus. R. Brown.
Eriochilus autumnalis. R. Brown. Grampians.
CALADENIA. R. Brown.
Caladenia menziesii. R. Brown. Grampians.
Caladenia latifolia. R. Brown. Grampians.
Caladenia carnea. R. Brown. Grampians.
Caladenia deformis. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
CuiLocioTtis. R. Brown.
Chiloglottis gunnii. Lindley. Grampians.
Guossopia. R. Brown.
Glossodia major. R. Brown. Grampians.
IRIDE®. Ventenat.
PatTerRsonra. Rk. Brown.
Patersonia glauca. R. Brown. Grampians.
Patersonia longiscapa. Sweet. Grampians.
HY DROCHARIDE®. Lamarck
Orrrnta. Persoon.
Ottelia ovalifolia. Richard. Grampians and Pyrenees.
AMARYLLIDEA, St. Hilaire.
Hypoxis. lLinné.
Hypoxis glabella. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Hypoxis hygrometrica. lLabillardiére. Grampians and Pyrenees.
CatycE2 Hypocynm F. v. M.
LILIACEA, Haller.
DrymopHita. R. Brown
Drymophila cyanocarpa. R. Brown. Grampians.
518 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D
Dranetia. Lamarck.
Dianella revoluta. R. Brown. Grampians.
Dianella longifolia. R. Brown. Grampians.
Dianella tasmanica. Hooker. Grampians.
Wourmsea. Thunbere.
Wurmbea (Anguillaria) disica. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Burcuarpia. R. Brown.
Burchardia umbellata. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Busine. Linné.
Bulbine bulbosa. Haworth. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Bulbine semi-barbata. Haworth. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Tuysanotus. R. Brown.
Thysanotus tuberosus. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Thysanotus patersoni. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Casta. R. Brown.
Cesia vittata. R. Brown. Grampians.
Cesia parviflora. R. Brown. Grampians.
CuamMa@sciLta. F.v. M.
Chamescilla corymbosa. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
TRICHORYNE. R. Brown.
Trichoryne elatior. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
StypanprRA. kh. Brown.
Stypandra glauca. R. Brown. Grampians.
Stypandra cespitosa. R. Brown. Grampians.
ArTHROPOoDIUM. R. Brown.
Arthropodium minus. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Arthropodium strictum. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees
Catrctasia. R. Brown.
Calectasia cyanea. R. Brown. Grampians.
XzERoTES. R. Brown.
Xerotes longifolia. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Xerotes brownii. F.v. M. Grampians.
Xerotes micrantha. Endlicher. Grampians.
Xerotes thunbergii. F.v.M. Grampians.
Xerotes glauca. R. Brown. Grampians.
XANTHORRH@A. Smith.
Xanthorrhea australis. R. Brown. Grampians.
Xanthorrhea minor. R. Brown. Grampians.
TYPHACEZ. Jussieu.
TypHa. Tournefort.
Typha angustifolia. Linné.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 519
FLUVIALES. Ventenat.
TricLocHiIn. Dalechamps.
Triglochin procera. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Triglochin striata. Ruiz and Pavon. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Triglochin nana. — Grampians aud Pyrenees.
Potamogeton. Fuchs.
Potamogeton natans. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
XYRIDEZ. Salisbury.
XyRIs. Gronovius.
Xyris gracilis. R. Brown. Grampians.
JUNCEZ. R. Brown.
Luzuua. Candolle.
Luzula campestris. Candolle. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Juncus. Camerarius.
Juncus bufonius. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Juncus brownii. F.v. M. Grampians.
Juncus planifolius. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Juncus communis. Meyer. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Juncus pauciflorus. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Juncus palidus. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Juncus maritimus. Lamarck. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Juncus prismatocarpus. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
RESTIACEA. R. Brown.
TritHuRiA. Hooker.
Trithuria submersa. Hooker. Grampians.
ApHbELIA. R. Rrown.
Aphelia gracilis. Sonder. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Aphelia pumilio. F.v. M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
CENTROLEPIS. Labillardiére.
Centrolepis polygyna. Hieronymus. Grampians.
Centrolepis aristata. Roemer and Schultes. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Lrepyrropia. R. Brown.
Lepyrodia interrupta. F.v. M. Grampians.
Restio. Linné.
Restio complanatus. R. Brown. Grampians.
Restio tetraphyllus. Labillardiére. Grampians.
CatostropHus. Labillardiére.
Calostrophus lateriflorus. F.v. M. Grampians.
Calostrophus fastigiatus. F.v. M. Grampians.
Lxeprposouus. Nees.
Lepidobolus drapetocoleus. F.v. M. Grampians.
520 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
GRAMINEZ. Haller.
NrvuracHne. R. Brown.
Neurachne alopecuroides. R. Brown. Grampians.
Lepturvus. R. Brown.
Lepturus incurvatus. Trinius. Grampians.
ANTHISTIRIA. Linné (fil.).
Anthistiria ciliata. Linné (fil.). Grampians and Pyrenees.
, Eruarta. Thunberg.
Ehrharta stipoides. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Stipa. Linné.
Stipa semibarbata. R. Brown. Grampians and: Pyrenees.
Stipa pubescens. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Stipa scabra. Lindley. Grampians and Pyrenees.
DicHELACHNE. Endlicher.
Dichelachne crinita. Hooker. Grampians.
Dichelachne sciurea. Hooker. Grampians.
PrenTAPoGon. R. Brown.
Pentapogon billardiéri. R. Brown. Grampians.
Ecuinopocon. Palisot.
Echinopogon ovatus. Palisot. Pyrenees.
AmpuHipocon. R. Brown.
Amphipogon strictus. R. Brown. Grampians.
Agrostis. Linné.
Agrostis solandri. F.v. M. Grampians.
Arra. Linné.
Aira cespitosa. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
DantHonta. Candolle.
Danthonia penicillata. F.v.M. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Danthonia nervosa. Hooker. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Poa. Linné.
Poa cespitosa. Forster. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Festuca. Dillenius.
Festuca distichophylla. Grampians.
Triopia. R. Brown.
Triodia irritans. R. Brown. Grampians.
Eracrostris. Palisot.
Eragrostis brownii. Nees. Grampians.
AGrRopyron. Gaertner
Agropyron scabrum. Palisot. Grampians.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
Arunbo. Varro.
Arundo phragmites. Dodoens. Grampians and Pyrenees.
AcaLyce® Hypocyne. F. v. M.
CYPERACEZX. Haller.
Cyperus. Tournefort.
Cyperus difformis. Linné. Grampians.
Cyperus lucidus. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Hepteocuaris. R. Brown.
Heleocharis sphacelata. R. Brown. Grampians.
Heleocharis acuta. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Sctrpeus. Terentius.
Scirpus fluitans. Linné. Grampians.
Scirpus cartilagineus. Sprengel. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Scirpus nodosus. Rottboel. Grampians and Pyrenees.
ScHornvus. Linné.
Schoenus imberbis. Hooker. Grampians.
Schoenus axillaris. Poiret. Grampians.
LEPIposPrERMA. Labillardiére.
Lepidosperma semiteres. F.v. M. Grampians.
Lepidosperma filiforme. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Ciapium. P. Browne.
Cladium mariscus. R. Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Caustis. R. Brown.
Caustis flexuosa. R. Brown. Grampians.
CAREX. Ruppius.
Carex tereticaulis. F.v.M. Grampians.
Carex appressa. — Grampians.
Summary of Monocotyledonec.
Orders, 12; genera, 73; species, 132.
ACOTYLEDONEZ.
ACOTYLEDONEZ VASCULARES.
LYCOPODINEA. Swartz.
Lycoropium. Ruppius.
Lycopodium densum. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Lycopodium laterale. R. Brown. Grampians.
SELAGINELLA. Palisot.
Selaginella preissiana. Sprengel. Grampians.
Selaginella uliginosa. Sprengel. Grampians.
OI
ogo PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
PuHYLLOGLOSUM. Kunze.
Phyloglosum drummondii. Kunze. Grampians.
FILICES. Linné.
OpuHioaLossum. ‘Tournefort.
Ophioglossum vulgatum. Bauhin. Grampians.
Scuiz#a. Smith.
Schizea fistulosa. Labillardiére. Grampians.
Schizea dichotoma. Smith. Grampians.
GLEICHENIA. Smith.
Gleichenia circinata. Swartz. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Gleichenia dicarpa. R. Brown. Grampians.
Gleichenia flabellata. R. Brown. Grampians.
OsmunpDA. Tournefort.
Osmunda barbara. Thunberg. Grampians.
AusopHina. R. Brown.
Alsophila australis. R. Brown. Grampians.
Dicxson1a. Jl Heritier.
Dicksonia antarctica. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Dicksonia davallioides. R. Brown. Grampians.
Davatiia. Smith.
Davallia pyxidata. Cavanilles. Grampians.
Davallia dubia. R. Brown. Grampians.
Linpsaya. Lindsaya.
Lindsaya linearis. Swartz. Grampians.
Apiantum. Tournefort.
Adiantum ethiopicum. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
CHEILANTHES. Swartz.
Cheilanthes tenuifolia. Swartz. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Preris. Linné.
Pteris falcata. R. Brown. Grampians.
Pteris aquilina. Linné. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Pteris incisa. Thunberg. Grampians.
Lomaria. Willdenow.
Lomaria discolor. Willdenow. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Lomaria capensis. Willdenow. Grampians.
Lomaria procera. Grampians and Pyrenees.
AsPLENIuM. Linné.
Asplenium flabellifolium. Cavanilles. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Asplenium bulbiferum. Forster. Grampians.
Aspipium. Swartz.
Aspidium aculeatum. Swartz. Grampians.
Aspidium decompositum. Swartz. Grampians.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Se
Potyropium. ‘T'ournefort.
Polypodium grammatidis. R. Brown. Grampians.
Polypodium pustulatum. Forster. Grampians.
Polypodium scandens. Forster. Grampians.
Polypodium punctatum. Thunberg. Grampians.
GRAMMITIS. Swartz.
Grammitis rutifolia. R Brown. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Grammitis leptophylla. Swartz. Grampians.
ACOTYLEDONEX VASCULARES.
Orders, 2; genera, 19; species, 36.
MUSCI: MOSSES.
DIcRANES.
Ditrichium muelleri. Hampe. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Ditrichium affine. C. Mueller. Pyrenees.
Dicranella paucifolia. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Dicranum sullivani. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Dicranum dicarpum. C. Mueller. Grampians.
Dicranum polychetum. Hampe. Grampians.
Dicranum angustinervis. Mitten. Grampians.
Dicranum subpungens. Hampe. Grampians.
Ceratodon purpureus. Bridel. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Campylopus tasmanicus. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Campylopus depilosus. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
GRIMMIEX.
Grimmia basaltica. Grampians.
Grimmia subeallosa. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees (new).
Grimmia leiocarpa. Taylor. Pyrenees.
Grimmia cylindropsis. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Grimmia sullivani. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).
Grimmia cygnicolla. Taylor. Pyrenees and Grampians.
TORTULER.
Acaulon sullivani. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).
Tortula pandurefolia. C. Mueller. Pyrenees.
Tortula vesiculosa. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees (new).
Tortula breviseta. C. Mueller. Pyrenees.
Tortula propinqua. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).
Tortula calycina. Schwaegrichen. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Tortula sullivani. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees (new).
Tortula lamellosa. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Tortula geminata. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Tortula acrophylla. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees (new).
Astomum kanseanum. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Eucalypta tasmanica. Hampe and C. Mueller. Pyrenees.
Phascum disrumpens. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).
Phascum sullivani. C. Mueller. Pyrenees and Grampians (new).
Pottia brachyphylla. Pyrenees and Grampians.
Weissia nudiflora. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Weissia sullivani. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
H24 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
ORTHOTRICHEZ.
Orthotrichum eucalyptaceum. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Orthotrichum sullivani. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Zygodon brownii. Schwaegrichen. Pyrenees and Grampians.
Zygodon scaber. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees (new).
FUNARIEX.
Funaria hygrometrica. Linné. Grampians and Pyrences.
Funaria pulchidens. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).
Leptangium repens. Hooker. Pyrenees and Grampians.
Entosthodon sullivani. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees (new).
Entosthodon minuticaulis. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).
Entosthodon dissodontoides. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
HOOKERIEZ.
Orthodontium zetterstedtii. C. Mueller. Grampians.
BARTRAMIE®.
Bartramia erecta. Hampe. Grampians and Pyrenees (new).
Bartramia austro-pyrenaica. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).
Bartramia pygmea. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees (new).
Bartramia commutata. Hampe. Pyrenees and Grampians.
BRYER.
Bryum mielichhoferia. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Bryum leucothecium. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).
Bryum austro-nutans. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Bryum pyrothecium. C. Mueller. Grampians.
Bryum subrotundifolium. Hampe. Pyrenees (new).
Bryum pohliopsis. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Bryum altisetum. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Bryum pumilisetum. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Bryum pachypyxis. Hampe. Pyrenees (new).
Bryum breviramulosum. Hampe. Pyrenees (new).
Bryum sullivani. C. Mueller. Pyrenees (new).
Bryum gambierense. C. Mueller. Pyrenees.
Bryum inequale. Taylor. Pyrenees.
Bryum nutans. Schreber. Grampians.
Mielichhoferia sullivani. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Leptostomum flexipile. C. Mueller. Grampians and Pyrenees.
NECKERE.
Neckera hymenondonta. C. Mueller. Grampians.
Meteorium molle. Hooker (fil.) et Wilson. Grampians.
Hedwigia ciliata. Ehrhart. Grampians.
Rhacocarpus humboldtii. Hooker. Grampians.
Hedwigidium emersa. Hampe and C. Mueller. Grampians.
HYPNEz.
Rhynchostegium patulum. Hampe. Grampians.
Rhynchostegium trachychetum. F.v. M. Grampians.
Hypnum stenangium. C. Mueller. Grampians (new).
Thuidium plumiforme. Hampe. Grampians.
Thuidium pinnatum. Grampians.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
SKITOPHYLLES.
Fissideus sullivani. C. Mueller. Grampians.
POLYTRICHES.
Polytrichum juniperinum. Hedwig. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Polytrichum sullivani. Mitten. Grampians.
ANDRES.
Andrea subulata. Harvey. Grampians.
Andrea acuminata. Mitten. Grampians.
LICHENES.
Parmelia perforata. — Grampians.
Parmelia placorrhodioides. Nylander. Grampians.
Parmelia physodes. Acharius. Grampians.
Parmelia conspersa. Acharius. Pyrenees and Grampians.
Parmelia anthomelana. J. Muller. Pyrenees.
Parmelia imitatrix. Taylor. Pyrenees.
Parmelia eneofusca. J. Muller. Pyrenees.
Parmelia tenuisima. Taylor. Grampians.
Parmelia pertusa. — Grampians.
Cladonia verticillata. Floerke. Grampians and Pyrenees.
Cladonia ochrochlora. Floerke. Grampians.
Cladonia macileuta. Nylander. Pyrenees.
Cladonia corallifera. Nylander. Pyrenees and Grampians.
Cladonia pyxidata. Hoffmann. Pyrenees.
Cladonia costata. Floerke. Grampians.
Cladonia furcata. — Pyrenees.
Pertusaria glebosa. J. Muller. Grampians.
Urceolaria scruposa. Acharius. Grampians.
Placodium xanthophanum. Nylander. Grampians.
Callopisma aurantiacum. Nylander. Pyrenees.
Lecanora vitellina. Nylander. Grampians.
Lecanora effusa. Fries. Grampians.
Lecanora hoffmannia. Acharius. Pyrenees.
Lecanora sordida. Fries. Pyrenees and Grampians.
Lecanora atra. Acharius. Pyrenees.
Rhizocarpon geographicum. Kirb. Pyrenees and Grampians.
Lecidea confluens. Fries. Pyrenees.
Theloschistes parietinus. Norm. Pyrenees.
Ramalina levidea. — Pyrenees.
Usnea barbata. — Pyrenees.
Usnea dasypogoides. Nylander. Pyrenees.
Clathrina (Cladonia) sullivani. Pyrenees (new).
Stereocaulon proximum. Nylander. Grampians.
Knightiella leucocarpa. J. Muller. Pyrenees.
Squamaria gelida. — Grampians and Pyrenees.
Physcia speciosa. —- Pyrenees.
Peltigera polydactyla. — Grampians.
Peltigera pulverulenta. — Grampians.
Stictina fragellima. — Grampians.
Stictina gilva. — Grampians.
Sticta freycinettii. — Grampians.
Sticta fasciculata. — Grampians.
Biatora lucida. — Grampians.
Total species AA ae: ae ar 708
New species discovered by the writer ... ne 36
Ol
526 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
9.—NOTES ON THE KNOWN DIPTEROUS FAUNA OF
AUSTRALIA.
By Freperick A. A. SKUSE.
Tue Diptera, or two-winged flies, constitute a very considerable
section of our fauna; indeed, it would be strange if they did
not, for throughout the world this order is known to be one of the
most richly represented of the great insect class.
Our Lepidoptera and Coleoptera have been assiduously collected
and studied, but the Diptera, which are probably as numerous
as either of these orders, have been sadly neglected by both
collectors and describers.
The total number of described Australian Diptera cannot be
precisely stated, but it does not exceed 1392. Even this small
total is undoubtedly above the mark, being for the most part
merely an enumeration of the published descriptions. On close
examination, many cases will be found where descriptions of the
same species are twice and thrice presented by one or more
authors, under not only different specific and perhaps generic
names, but in some instances placed in wrong families. Many
unavoidable cases of describing the same species twice over must
necessarily be found among the numerous publications of Walker
and Macquart between 1848 and 1856; also, between those of
Dr. Schiner (“ Novara” Exp.) and Thomson (“ Eugenia” Exp.),
both appearing in the year 1868, and each containing about fifty
descriptions of new species of Diptera found in the neighbourhood
of Sydney.
In the following pages, under the different family headings,
arranged in systematic order, I have enumerated all the genera
(with the number of species) recorded from Australia, or known
to occur here.
The families Cecidomyide, Sciaridee, Mycetophilide, Simulide,
Bibionide, Culicids, Chironomid, and the Tipulide brevipalpi
have been reviewed by myself in the proceedings of the Linnean
Society of New South Wales (1888-89), and a fair number of
species have been described. All the species of the rest of the
families have been described by European authors, chiefly by
Walker and Macquart, in the Dipteres Exotiques and Lritish
Museum Catalogue respectively; and very little indeed has
been done among the Australian Diptera during the last twenty
years. Dr. Schiner (V.z.-b.G. Wien, 1866) reviewed the Asilidee
of the world, with the advantage of a large number of types,
so that our knowledge of the described Australian species
is fairly complete; Dr. Gerstaecker (Ent. Zeit. Stett., 1868)
overhauled the Midaide; and Bigot (Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 1874)
partially reviewed the Dexide. Of few of the other families is
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 527
our knowledge reliable, except where the genera are readily
understood, and limited in described species.
Our described species are referred to rather more than 300
genera, of which about 80, or a little more than one-fourth,
are regarded as endemic; but these numbers will doubtless
be somewhat modified on a careful investigation of the species
themselves.
This essay can only be a very incomplete sketch of the
Australian Diptera, but at any rate it serves to show the present
unsatisfactory state of our knowledge of this most prolific and
interesting portion of our fauna; and may prove of assistance
to entomologists who may be induced to come forward and
devote some attention to one or more of the neglected families.
There is an abundance of unnamed material in collections, and a
plentiful harvest yet to be gathered.
Section 1.—DIPTERA ORTHORHAPHA.
Division I.—NEMATOCERA.
The families falling under this division are probably as richly
represented in Australia as in any other part of the world. Very
little is known of the speoies occurring outside New South Wales,
and the majority of them have been described from specimens
obtained in the vicinity of Sydney. The Blepharoceride and
Orphnephilide are the only families at present unknown.
Fam. 1. CEcIDOMYIDA.
Ninety-five species referred to fourteen genera have been
described from Australia, or, more correctly, exclusively from
New South Wales. Leteropeza, Winn., one; Miastor, Mein.,
two; Gontoclema, Sk., one; Cecidomyia, Loew, seven; Diplosis,
Loew, forty-eight ; Asphondylia, Loew, two; Hormomyia, Loew,
one; Vecrophlebia, Sk., one; Chastomera, 8k., one; Colpodia,
Winn., one; Lfidosis, Loew, ten; Asynapta, Loew, three ;
Lastoptera, Meig., seven ; and Campylomyza, Meig., ten. Most
of these genera are of world-wide distribution ; and some of them
occur in a fossil state in amber. Vecrophlebia, Chastomera, and
Gontoclema have hitherto been found only in Australia. I know
several undescribed species, belonging to four or five genera,
among which is a species of Lestvemia. I am also imperfectly
acquainted with the life-histories of several species, some of
which form galls on the leaves and twigs of the Eucalypti. This
family seems to be very abundant in Australia.
For descriptions of the Australian species see Proc. Linn. Soe.
New South Wales, vol. iii. (Ser. 2nd), 1888, pp. 17-144, pl. 2-3.
Descriptions of all the known genera, and references to the most
important papers treating on this group are given.
528 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
Fam. 2. ScIARID®.
The typical genus Sciara, Meig., is represented by forty-two
described species, and Z7ichosta, Winn., by one species, nearly all
from New South Wales. Several species of .Sczava and one or
two of Zygoneura, Meig., are known to me, but not yet charac-
terised. Sciara seems to be generally diffused throughout all
regions of the earth’s surface ; Zyonewra and Trichosia have been
recorded from Europe and America.
Undoubtedly this family is abundantly represented in Australia,
but scarcely anything is known of the species outside New South
Wales. See Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. ili. (Ser.
2nd), 1888, pp. 657-724, pl. 11.
Fam. 3. MycrToPrHILID®.
The hitherto described species number thirty-five species
apportioned to no less than sixteen genera. A/acrocera, Meig.,
three ; Cevoplatus, Bosc, one; Heteropterna, Sk., one ; Platyura,
Meig., eight ; Psewdoplatyura, Sk., one; Antriadophila, Sk., four;
Sciophila, Meig., one; Homaspis, Sk., one; Acrodicrania, Sk.,
three; Zeta, Meig., one; Aze/eca, Sk., one; Zrizsygia, Sk., one;
Aphelomera, Sk., one ; Trichonta, Winn., two ; Mycetophila, Meig.,
two; and Brachydicrania, Sk., four. Of these, nine generic
names, Heteropterna, Pseudoplatyura, Antriadophila, Homaspis,
Acrodicrania, Ateleia, Trizygia, Aphelomera, and Brachydicrania
have been proposed for peculiar Australian forms; the other
genera are of more or less world-wide distribution.
Since enumerating the species last year (Proc. Linn. Soc. New
South Wales, vol. iii. (Ser. 2nd), 1888, pp. 1123-1220, pl. 31 and
32), I have discovered several additional species. No estimate
can be taken of the number of species inhabiting Australia, but
the number must be very considerable. Very little is known of
the species occurring outside New South Wales.
Fam. 4. SIMULID.
This family, containing only a single known genus of universal
distribution, is represented in New South Wales by only a single
described species, S. molestum, Sk. No others have been yet
discovered.
a
Fam. 5. BIBIONIDA.
Australia does not appear to be rich in Bibionide. Nine
species of Aibz0, Geoff., are ascribed to this country, one of which
is Bibio marci, Geoft., known commonly in Europe. I have only
seen one species, B. zmitator, Walk., with which B. fulvipennis
and B. ruficoxis, Macq., and LB. helioscops, Sch. are synonymous.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 529
Plecia, Wied., common to America, Asia and the Eastern Isles,
is known in Australia by four well-marked species. Dz/ophus,
Meig., of almost world-wide distribution, has two species; and
Scatopse, Geoff, also occurring almost everywhere, is represented
here by two species, one of which, S. zofa/a, Linn., originally a
native of Europe, is now known from several parts of the world,
having been introduced into other countries through the medium
of shipping. See Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. iii.
(2nd series), 1888, pp. 1363-1386, pl. 39.
Fam. 6. BLEPHAROCERID®.
No representative of this group has been yet discovered in
Australia.
Fam. 7. CULICIDA.
The genus MZegarrhina, Desv., recorded from America, West
Indies, Asia and the Eastern Isles, is known in this country by one
species. The cosmopolitan genus Cu/ex, Linn., seems abundantly
represented, twenty-one species having been already described ;
one of these, C. claris (? var.) Linn., has been introduced from
Europe, and is the great nocturnal pest of all the colonies.
Anopheles, Meig., has five, and #des, Meig., one described
example. Iam also in the position to record the occurrence of
Corethra, Meig., having recently taken specimens at Wagga
Wagga, New South Wales. For descriptions of our species see
Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. ii. (2nd series), 1888,
pp. 1717-1764, pl. 40.
Fam. 8. CHIRONOMID.
This family, rich in North American and European species,
seems also abundant in Australia, Eleven genera and seventy-
two species have been already recorded. Chivonomus, Meig.,
twenty-eight ; Ovrthocladius, v. d. Wulp, five; Camftocladius,
v. d. Wulp, five; Doloplastus, Sk., one ; Zanytarsus, v. d. Wulp,
seven ; Metriocnemus, v. d. Wulp, one; Tanypus, Meig., one;
Lsoplastus, Sk., three ; Procladius, Sk., two ; Leptoconops, Sk., one ;
and Ceratopogon, Meig., seventeen. Doloplastus, Tsoplastus,
Procladius, and Leptoconops have been adopted for what appear to
be endemic forms. Most if not all of the other genera are
probably universally represented, but owing to the insignificant
size of these insects, and the difficulties which attend their collec-
tion and study, very few have been described, except from Europe
and America. The Australian species are described in the Proc.
Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. iv. (2nd series), 1889, pp. 215-
311, pl. 11-14.
Fam. 9. ORPHNEPHILID®.
None known.
*H
530 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
Fam. 10. PsycHopip@.
Several examples are known to me, but none have been
described.
Fam. 11. TipuLip#.
This group is probably as richly represented in this country as
it is known to be in Europe and America. The Tiputipa
BREVIPALPI have received the most attention, with the result that
almost one hundred species belonging to twenty-five genera are
now known, as follows:—Limwnopina, Dicranomyia, Steph.,
fourteen ; Zhrypticomyia, Sk., one; Geranomyia, Hal., four;
Limnobia, Meig., one; TZyrochobola, O. Sack., one; Lidbxotes,
Westw., one; Limnobpina ANOMALA, ARhamphidia, Meig., four ;
Orimarga, O. Sack., two; Letponeura, Sk., two; Teucholadis,
O. Sack, one: Erioprertna, Rhypholophus, Kol., two; Molophilus,
Curt., sixteen; Zasiocera, Sk., two; Evrioptera, Meig., one;
Trimicra, O. Sack, two; Guophomyia, O. Sack., one ; Goniomyia,
Meig., one; Rhabdomastix, Sk., one; Lechria, Sk., one; Trente-
pohlia, Bigot., one; Conosia, v. d. Wulp, one; LimNopHILina
Limnophila, Macq., sixteen; Gynoplistia, Westw., eighteen ;
Cerozodia. Westw., one; and AMALOoPINA, Ama/opis, Hal., two.
The genera Thrypticomyia, Leiponeura, Tasiocera, Rhabdomastix
and Lechria have been erected for Australian species. The second
great division, TIPULID# LONGIPALPI, is also well represented, but
the described genera and species must undergo a thorough revision
before the genera can be clearly defined and located. Altogether,
something like twenty-two species have been described, eleven of
which are vaguely described under the name Z7pu/a. Several
species belong to JMacromastix, O. Sack., a genus which also
occurs in New Zealand and South America. The genera Leféo-
tarsus, Guérin, Semnotes, Westw., and Prilogyna, Westw., are
peculiar Australian forms.
Several undescribed species of Tipulide are known to me,
including a species belonging to the section CYLINDROTOMINA.
Fam. 12. Dixip2.
No species yet recorded from Australia; I am, however,
acquainted with three species occurring in N.S.W. Dzxa, Meig.
(the only genus included in this family), is known by several
species in Europe and America.
Fam. 13. RHyYPHIDA.
This family, represented throughout the world by the genus
Rhyphus, Latr., the species of which bear a remarkable similarity,
is known by one described species, A. dvevis, Wlk., from Tas-
mania. This and another species seem to be found all over New
South Wales.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 531
Division I].—Bracuycera.
The Asilide and Bombylide have received a considerable
amount of attention, from their being conspicuous and for the
most part large insects. No species belonging to Acanthomeridz
and Senopinide yet recorded.
Fam. 14. XyYLOPHAGIDS.
Of this small family two Australian examples of both Xylo-
phagus, Meig., and Agapophytus, Guérin, have been described.
_ Agapophytus is endemic, while the other genus is represented in
Europe and America.
Fam 15. Ca@nomyIp.
This family seems to be of rare occurrence everywhere, as
far as the number of species is concerned. Three Australian
species, belonging to the genus C/zvomyza, have been described ;
one of these by Macquart under the name Xenxomorpha australis.
Fam 16. STRATIOMYID.
Thirty-eight species, referred to nine genera. From this it
appears that this family, which is so richly represented in other
countries, is but poorly so in Australia. Of the more or less
cosmopolitan genera, Odontomyia, Meig., is known by seventeen
described examples; Servis, Latr., seven; Stratiomyia, Geoff.,
eight ; Sargus, Fabr., Oxycera, Meig., Ciitellaria, Meig., Meto-
ponia, Macq., and Zphippium, Latr., by one each. Anacanthella,
Macq., the only known genus which seems peculiar to this
country, has also a single described species.
Fam. 17. ACANTHOMERIDZ.
No examples yet described from Australia, nor have any, as far
as I am aware, been yet discovered here.
Fam. 18. TABANIDA.
One hundred species, arranged under eight genera, have been
recorded. The cosmopolitan genera, Pangonia, Latr., Chrysops,
Meig., Sz/vius, Meig., and Zabanus, Linn., are represented by
forty-seven, two, four, and forty-three species respectively ; the
other four genera, Apocampta, Sch., Cenopnyga, Thoms., Dasybasis,
Macq., and Palecorhynchus, Macq., are endemic, and each contains
only a single described species. Possibly Ajocampta and Cenop-
nyga are identical. Zabanus and Pangonia are numerous all over
the country. The number of Australian species belonging to the
section PANGONINA is considered very large, and, according to the
list, only exceeded by the American species.
*H2
Or
bo
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
Fam. 19. Lepripa.
Only four species stand recorded. Three belong to Chrysopila,
Macq., and the fourth to Lefts, Fab., both well-known genera in
Europe and America.
Fam. 20. ASILID®.
Of this family one hundred and thirty-four species and thirty
genera are recorded for Australia. The DasypoGonrna are repre-
sented by forty-eight species, twenty-one of which are distributed
as follows :—4athypogon, three ; Brachyrhopala, two; Cabasa,
two; Codula, two; Damalis, one; Dioctria, one; Leptogaster,
three ; AZicrostylum, one; Phellus, one; Saropogon, two; Steno-
pogon, one; Plesiomma, one ; and Laparus, one. The remaining
twenty-six species doubtfully occupy their correct genera. The
Laphrine only fifteen species— Andrenosoma, one ; Dasyllis, one ;
Lampria, one; Laphria, four ; Thereutria, four ; Tapinocera, one ;
and three doubtful species. The Asi~mina# number the most, with
seventy-one species and eleven genera— Asz/us three, Cerdistus one,
Craspedia two, Erax six, Glaphyropyga one, Ltamus six, Ommatius
five, Philodicus two, Proctacanthus three, Promachus two, Psecas
one, and thirty-nine species of uncertain position. Seven of the
genera, Brachyropala, Cabasa, Codula, Craspedia, Phellus, Psecas,
and Zapinocera are endemic ; two, Lathypogon and Glaphyropyga,
are only found elsewhere in South America, while 7heveutria is
only otherwise known by an oceanic species. The rest of the
genera are more or less completely universal in their distribution.
See V. z.-b. G., Wien, xvi, pp. 649-722, 1866, by Dr. J. R.
Schiner.
Although the Asilide have been largely collected, being for
the most part conspicuous insects, they are so numerous in this
country that it is probable only a small proportion of the existing
species are yet described. The family is richly represented in
the Macleay collection.
Fam. 21. Miparpa.
The Australian species of this family occupy exclusively
endemic genera. Dr. A. Gerstaecker (Ent. Zeit. Stett, 1868;
pp. 65-103) reviewed the Midaide of the world, and placed all
the known Australian species under three new generic names.
Thomson (Eugenies Resa, p. 463) in the same year proposed the
name Harmophana for two species, one of which, described by
Macquart, Gerstaecker simultaneously placed in his own new
genus Zyiclonus. Diochlistis contains one, Triclonus four, and
Miltinus ten species. The Australian genus Pomacera, Macq.,
with a single species, may also be provisionally retained in
this family. The Midaide are generally distributed over the
country, but several of them have been described from Western
Australia.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 533
Fam. 22. NEMESTRINID.
This apparently limited family is, according to descriptions,
more numerous in Australia than in any other ‘country, the total
of our species amounting to twenty-five. The African and South
American faunas are each credited with about twenty species ;
these belong to the genera to which the majority of the Australian
forms are referred. TZ7ichophthalma, Westw., has nineteen,
Hirmoneura, Meig., four, and Z7richopsidea, Westw., and LExere-
toneura, Macq., a single species each. The two last-mentioned
genera are known only from this country; Zxeretoneura is
recorded only from Tasmania.
Fam. 23. BomByLip«.
This family is richly represented. One hundred and twenty-
three species, referable to eleven genera, have been characterised ;
no species, falling under the section ToxopHorIn& are yet known
here. ANTHRACIN# has fifty nine species, nine of which belong
to Exoprosopa, Macq., and the remainder to Anthrax, Scop ;
Lomatin® jncludes sixteen species, one belonging to Lomatia,
Meig., five to Veuria, Newm., and ten to Comptosia, Macq. ; and
BomBYLIn# is represented by six genera and forty-eight species,
two species belong to Gevon, Meig., the same number to Phthiria,
Meig., one each to Duschistus, Loew, and Lomatia, Meig., two to
Acreotrichus, Macq., and forty to the typical genus Bombylius.
Only one genus, Acreotrichus, Macq., is yet recorded as peculiar
to Australia ; several of the others are cosmopolitan.
Fam. 24. THEREVID.
Thirty-three species, belonging to five genera, have been
described. Anabarhynchus, Macq., peculiar to Australia, has
eleven described species ; Dimassus, Walk., has one species
occurring in New South Wales and two others of doubtful locality.
Thereva, Latr., a cosmopolitan genus, is, according to descriptions,
represented throughout the country by at least seventeen species.
The genus Phycus, Wlk., is known by only two species, one of
which has been described from New South Wales, the other from
Bengal. Lctinorhynchus, Macq., only known from Sydney, South
Australia and Tasmania, seems to be limited to three or four
species.
Fam. 25. ScENOPINIDA.
No Australian species have been yet recorded, and I do not
yet know of the occurrence of any.
Fam. 26. Cyrrip2.
Represented here by six genera, three of which are endemic ;
these latter, picerina, Macq., and Leucopsina and Nothra,
534 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
Westw., each contains only a single described example. Oncodes,
Latr., of world-wide distribution, has five Australian representa-
tives ; while Prerodontia, Gray, and FPanops, Latr., have each
three species (see Trans. Ent. Soc., Lond., 1876, pp. 507-518).
The genus Ozcodes occurs all over the country; Thomson’s
species described (Zugenzes Resa, 1868, p. 475) under the name
of Mesophysa, from Sydney, belongs to Ozcodes.
Fam. 27. Empip2.
This family, so numerously represented in Europe and America,
seems to be only sparingly so in Australia; the cosmopolitan
genera, /Zybos, Hilara, and Hmfpis, Meig., are indicated by one,
two, and three species respectively. The two species of Alara
belong to Tasmania; Lmpzs occurs in New South Wales and
Tasmania ; the single species of Ay4os is only known in New
South Wales. There are some undescribed species known to me
in collections.
Fam. 28. DoLicHoPpoDID™s.
The Dolichopodide seem numerous in both genera and species,
but only twenty-one species have been described; all but one
have been characterised under the generic title Psz/opus, Meig. ;
the odd one is a Hydrophorus, from Tasmania. Doubtless many of
those described by Walker and others as Psz/opus will eventually
be found to really belong to different genera; some names, I
believe to be synonyms. Loew (Mon. Dipt., N. Amer. IT., 1864)
has written an important work on the North American species.
Fam. 29. LoNCHOPTERIDE.
No species have yet been recorded, though the family, which is
throughout the world represented by only a single known genus,
occurs in Australia.
Srotion II.—DIPTERA CYCLORHAPHA.
Division I.—PrRoposcipEA.
Except among the Syrphide, Tachinidae, Dexide, Muscide,
and Anthomyide, very little is known of the Australian species
belonging to the numerous families included in this division.
The Cordyluride, Lonchxide, Heteroneuride, Sepsidz, Diopside,
and Asteide are unknown.
Fam. 30. SyrRpPHIDZ.
Twenty-three genera of this extensive family are known in
this country; the widely-scattered genera Syrphus, Fab., and
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 535
Eristalis, Latr., are put down as numbering fifteen and eleven
species respectively; the remaining genera, Brachyopa, Meig.,
Ceria, Fabr. Cheilosia, Meig., Chrysogaster, Meig., Chrysotoxum,
Meig., Cozloprosopa, Macq., Criorrhina, Macq., Cyphipelta, Bigot,
Deineches, Wik., Zumerus, Meig., Helophilus, Meig., Hemilampra,
Macq., MJelanostoma, Sch., Merodon, Latr., Mesembrius, Rond.,
Microdon, Meig., Mixogaster, Macq., Orthoprosopa, Macq., Psilota,
Meig., Spherophoria, St. Farq., and Xy/ota, Meig., have mostly
only one, but never more than three, species described as Aus-
tralian. The genera Cozloprosopa, Cyphipelta,, Detneches, Hemt-
lampra, and Orthoprosopa seem peculiar to Australia, none
having been yet recorded from other countries.
The total number of species on paper is sixty-one, though it is
scarcely probable that they are all tenable ; Schiner, in 1868, put
the Australian species down at 53, and even this includes the
New Zealand species.
The Syrphide are numerous all over Australia, and doubtless
there is a large number of unknown forms ; there is a considerable
number of undescribed species in the Macleay collection.
The cosmopolitan species, Zristalis tenax, Linn., occurs in
Australia and New Zealand.
Dr. Williston (Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 31, Washington, 1886)
has monographed the North American species, and compiled a
complete list of all known genera, with synonyms.
Fam. 31. Conopip®.
The universal genus Cozofs, Linn., is credited with twelve
Australian species. The only other genus known here is the
endemic Pleurocerina, Macq., of which a single example is recorded.
Conops occurs throughout the continent.
Fam. 32, PIrPuNcULIDa.
No species have been hitherto described from Australia. There
are specimens belonging to the well-known genus Pipunculus,
Latr., in the Macleay collection.
Fam. 33. PLATyYPEzID®.
None yet recorded.. I know one or two species of Platypeza
Meig., or an allied genus.
Fam. 34. CéstrRIp&,
No Australian examples hitherto recorded. Sir William
Macleay informs me that a fly which may belong to this family
attacks the natives of northern Australia. Cstrus ovis, Linn., is
said to have been introduced into this country (Proc. Roy. Soc.
Tasm., 1884, p. 258, by A. Morton)
536 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.
Fam. 35. TACHINIDA.
The recorded species amount to eighty-six, referred to twenty-
eight genera. Hyalomyia, R. Desy., one; Gymnosoma, Meig.,
one; Ocyptera, Latr., four ; /urinia, R. Desv., one ; Echinomyza,
Dumer., one; Micropalpus, Macq., nine; Gonia, Meig., two;
Exorista, Meig., seven; Zachina, Meig., twelve; JMasicera,
Macq., twelve ; Phorocera, R. Desv., fourteen; Belvorsia, R.
Desv., one; Blepharopesa, Macq., one; Lurygaster, Macq., two ;
Degeeria, Meig., one ; Chrysosoma, Macq., one; JZyobia, Macq., one;
Tritaxys, Macq., one ; Aprotheca, Macq., one ; Chlorogaster, Macq.,
one ; Exechopalpus, Macq., one; Heterometopia, Macq., three ;
Platytainia, Macq., one; Lolycheta, Macq., one; Sumpigaster,
Macq., one; Zeretrophora, Macq., one; Zoxocnemis, Macq., one ;
and Zvrichostylum, Macq., one. The ten last-named genera are
regarded as endemic forms; the remainder are ice either in
Europe or America, or in both, &ce. Four species of AZicropalpus
have been described under the name WVemoraa, R. Desv.
Fam. 36. DeExip#.
Twelve genera, with about ninety-four species, are ascribed to
this family. Some of the genera and species require a critical
revision ; this has been partly effected by Bigot (Ann. Soc. Ent.
Fr., Ser. V., 4, 1874, pp. 451-460). Dexza, Meig., seventeen ;
Prosena, St. Farq., six; Rutilia, R. Desv., thirty-three, two of
them doubtfully Australian ; Aormosia, Guérin, seventeen ; AZicro-
topeza (= Rutilia), Macq., two: Omalogaster, Macq., three ;
Amphibolia, Macq., three, one of which is possibly merely a
synonym; Sexostoma, Macq., two; Diaphania, Macq., three ;
Amenia, R. Desv., five; and Chetogaster and Graphystylum,
Macq., one each. Three species described as Rutilia belong to
Amphibolta, fourteen to Formosia, and one to Diaphania. Eleven
species described by Walker under Dexia are placed in Rutz,
another in ormosia. The genera Che/ogaster, Diaphania, and
Graphostylum are endemic, and closely allied to Auta; the
latter seems peculiar to Australia, New Guinea, and the Eastern
Islands, New Zealand, and India. § Makea piniand ... ... Makea-the-sorrowful and
=a Makea keu Wf ... Makea-of-the-flaxen-hair.
23 Makea Tinirau and ... Makea-lord-of-all-fish and
F } Makea Tekao ate ... Makea-the-bud (= hope or glory of
the family).
24 Makea Pori and ... ... Makea-the-fat and
Makea Karika II. .. Makea-the-terrible, second of that
name. These were the reigning chiefs at Avarua in 1823, when
the Rev. John Williams conveyed the Gospel to Rarotonga.
Since then have reigned—
25 ( Makea Davida and ... Makea-David.
{ Makea Pa se ... Makea-the-defender.
26 ( Makea Te vairua and ... Makea-the-spirit and
( Makea Tuaivi os ... Makea-the-hill.
ae { Makea Daniela and ... Makea-Daniel and
“(0 Makea Tavake ... ... Makea-the-tropic-bird.
28 Makea Abela and the above- ( Makea-Abel and the above-named
4 \ named Makea Tavake _.,. ( Makea-T'avake.
29 Makea Takau and the above- ( Makea-Twenty and the above-named
named Makea Tavake. ( Makea Tavake. Both now living.
Kings of the “ Puatkura” tribe.
1. Rongo-oe, or Napa; otherwise named “ Te ariki ape tini” = “ The-
king-with many faults.”
2. Tamatoa ... sei ... The-brave-son.
3. Tekao ate She ... The-bud.
4, Papa (female) 508 ... Foundation.
5. Temutu ate ss ... The-end.
6. Enua tama nui Me. ... Land-full-of-offspring.
Ts ABW boc 500 cat ... Trembling.
8. Teauariki ... Lg ... Royal-domination.
Oe linoman aims Mighty-frame, or Wonder-work-
ing-body. In this king’s reign Christianity was introduced to
Rarotonga (z.e., 1823) “by the late Rev. John Williams. Tino-
mana represented the eighteenth generation from Karika. Some
say the nineteenth.
10. Tinomana te ariki tapu rangi... Tinomana-the-king-who-sustains-
the-sky. His baptised name was “ Setephano”’ = Stephen.
ae
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 633
Tinomana Rongo-oe II. His baptised name was “Samuela” =
Samuel.
Tinomana Mereane (= Mary Ann). Her baptised name was
«“Mereane” —Mary Ann. Wow living. She is the twentieth
direct descendant of Karika in the Rongo-oe line, being sister
(but by a different mother) to the previous sovereign. She is
niece to Makea Takau of Avarua.
Pedigree of Makea Takau, as given to me by herself in 1883.
Makea Karika se .... Makea-the-terrible.
Makea Putakitetai ... Makea-lord-leading-captives.
Makea te ariki akamataku ... Makea-the-kiny-striking-terror.
Makea Atea* rere ao ... Makea-Noon*-rushing-on-the-world
Makea te ariki iti au ... Mak ea-the-king-giving-peace.
Makea te arikinoo marie ... Makea-the-quiet-king.
Makeateratu ... .... Makea-(like)-the-upright-mast.
Makea Rongo-oet ... ... Makea-Rongot-of-the-paddle.
Makea vai katau ... .... Makea-of-the-right-wing.
Makea peau rango ... Makea-of-the-fly-like-wings.
Makea putua ariki ... Makea-the-feasted-king.
Makea tinorei ori ... Makea-of-the-handsome-person.
Rangi Makea ko Takaia ... Heavenly Makea or Takaia (who
went to Mangaia to wage war).
Makea tumu pu _... ... Makea-of - the - (royal) - conch - shell
(who went to Atiu to wage war).
Makea, who went to Tahiti on a peaceful errand.
Makea te arikiape tini ... Makea-the-king-with-many-faults.
Makea taruia We .... Makea-heaped-up.
Makea te-patua-kino ... Makea-badly-beaten.
Makea pini ae ... Makea-the-sorrowful.
Makea Tinirauft ... ... Makea-lordt-of-all-fish.
Makea Pori ch ... Makea the fat (who welcomed Mr.
Williams in 1823).
Makea Davida Ree ... Makea David.
Makea Tevairua ... ... Makea-the-spirit.
Makea Daniela _... ..Makea-Daniel.
Maker Abela as ... Makea-Abel.
* Atea =Vatea = Avatea — Noon. The full form is Avatea. This
Atea, or Vatea, is one of the great divinities of Polynesia. )
+ Rongo is the son of Atea, or Vatea, whose sanguinary worship was so
general in Eastern Polynesia. Rongo-oe probably means ‘‘ Rongo-the-
steersman,” z.e., of the ship of the state.
{ Tinirau was brother to Atea, Vatea, or. Avatea, and was lord of all
fish. This fish-god Tinirau, was accordingly one of the great primary
deities of Polynesia.
634 PROCEEDINGS OF ECTION G.
26. Makea Takau* ... ... Makea-Twenty,* now living.
There can be no doubt that the first list is the complete one.
In this latter account there is no reference to the dual kingship
at “Araitetonga.” It is confessed that Rarotongan Zzstory (so
far as Makea is concerned) begins with Karika ; but there is.
lying before me a list of purely mythological names, given
as ancestors of the Karika who sailed from Tonga, Rotuma,
Avaiki (=Savaii), and Manuka (the Manu’a cluster of three
islands, forming the eastern portion of the Samoan group. Some-
times Tau, the largest of these three islands, is called by Hervey
Islanders Manuka). It is believed that Karika made his final
start for the south-east and Rarotonga from the island of Tau or
Manw’a, where the marae of ‘“Salia” = “ Karika” may still be seen.
The place is called “ Rarotonga.” Tau is 700 miles north-west of
the island of Rarotonga.
Karika’s great double canoe, in which he made eight wonderful
voyages, had two masts, and carried (tradition says) 170 people
(okoitu). He gave to the queen-island of the Hervey Group, the
home of his descendants, its name ‘“ Rarotonga” =‘ (in memory
of) Western Tonga.” Karika selected as his followers the fleetest
runners and the bravest men of the various islands he touched at,
z.¢., of Tonga, Rotuma, Savaii, and Tau.
It is said that on the island of Rotuma is still shown the
“footprint of Salia”=Karika. And at the famous marae of
Opoa, in the island of Raiatea, “the stone-seat of Aria” =
Karika
IT.—Kings of Mangaia, Hervey Group.
The island of Mangaia was discovered by Captain Cook in 1777.
The sign of installation of the kings of Mangaia was to be
formally seated by the temporal lord, in the presence of the
leading under-chiets, upon “ the sacred sandstone” (fe kea tnamoa)
in Rongo’s marae (O-Rongo) on the seashore, facing the setting
sun. This was ¢#e/r equivalent of our coronation in Westminster
Abbey. The special duty of a king was by rhythmical prayerst
to Great Rongo to keep away evil-minded spirits (pa tuarangi)
that might injure the island. For this end the principal} king
(te artki patuta) lived in the interior, in the midst of abundance,
in the sacred district of Keia. His prayers (harakia) were
supposed to keep away bad spirits coming from the eas¢. On the
barren seashore, at O-Rongo, lived the secondary king (¢e ariki
pa tat), who kept away bad spirits coming from the west. Besides
* In the memory of “twenty ” heads obtained at Mangaia by Makea’s warriors generations.
ago. It isan ancient name. See my “Savage Life in Polynesia,” page 17.
+ Of great antiquity.
t Also called “the praying king” (te ariki karakia).
eee ee a ee ee ne ee a ee a
——
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 635
this primary ghostly function, many other important duties
devolved upon these royal personages (see “Myths and Songs,”
page 293, &c.).
T derived the following information (under promise of secrecy)
many years ago from my late valued friend, King Numangatini.
These lists are the most accurate now obtainable ; some points,
however are disputed. The kingly office was hereditary ; ; never-
theless the investiture rested with “the lord of Mangaia” for the
time being. A father might be set aside in favour of his eldest
son, or one brother in favour of another, for special reasons ; but
still it must be the same blood divine (as it was believed to be).
The shore king was not unfrequently an illegitimate child of a
great interior king. All kings were ex-officio high priests of Rongo
(=ara pia o Rongo), tutelar god of Mangaia.
Succession 07 Kings defending the Interior (= Te au ariki pa uta).
1. Rangi ae coe Shae
2. Te-akatauira-ariki ... The-arrived-king.
3. Te.mata-o-Tangaroa ... The-face-of-Tangaroa.
4, Te-upoku-rau... ... Two-hundred-heads.
5. Rua-ika I. ... Fish-hole i. Slain by Ngauta, when for
the first time “ lord of Mangaia.”
6. Rau-ue ... Gourd-leaf. Son of the shore king Vae-
rua-rau. The drum of peace for the Jast (seventh) “lordship ”
of Ngauta (enjoyed by Terea) was beaten by Rau-ue over the
body “of Inangaro.
7. Poa-iti 5 ... Small-scale. Reigned in the days of
Neangati.
8. Te-ao I. fe ... Day I. Reigned in the days of Mautara.
9. Rua-ikall. ..:. ... . Hish-hole IT.
10. Te-tipi ee .. The cutting (7.e., slaughtering).
11. Te-ao II. .. Day II. Died a.p. 1829. Professed
Christianity.
12. Nu-manga-tini Palm-of-many-branches (purely allego-
rical). Reigned from A.D. 1821 till his lamented death in 1878.
13.4 Ioane Terego ... ... John Trego, sox of Numangatini
14. ( Davida-iti bs ... David-the-younger, grandson of Numan-
gatini.
(Reign jointly now by will of the late king).
Succession of Kings defending the Shore (= Te au ariki pa tat).
DF! US .. Sew. From Rarotonga.
2. Tama-tapu... Sacred son. Son of preceding. Some say Te-pa
= The-defender, who was born on “the sacred sandstone” (te
kea inamoa).
Sy) \YERe Ie tac .. Beginning. Vari was sister to Te-pa.
036 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.
4, Buanga .. Budding (a female).
5. Vaerua-rau ... Two-hundred-spirits. Son of Buanga. His son,
Rau-ue, was made principal (the sixth) king of Mangaia.
Deified after his violent death.
35 (Ouayey Sas .. The-ancient. Slain and eaten by his hereditary
foes in Mautara’s time.
7. Kai-au paku... Kingly-office-holder I. Also called Tuki-rangi =
Sky-striker. Son of Oito.
8. Tenio-pakari ... The-strong-toothed.
9. Kanune. In the days of Mautara. Slain by Raumea.
10 Te-ivi-rau .... Two-hundred-bones (7.e., relatives). Drowned at
sea when in chase of Paoa.
11. Kai-au II. .. Kingly-office-holder LI.
12. Numangatini. Appointed shore-king by Pangemiro in a.p. 1814.
When (in 1821) Teao was deposed, he became sole king of
Mangaia. The final word and collective kingly authority were
then vested by the conquering chiefs in Numangantini alone.
In the incessant fighting of Ngauta’s younger days the kingly
family was almost exterminated by their hereditary enemies, 7.¢.,
the Teipe and Tongan tribes, then masters of the island. Only a
royal female (Buanga) and her infant son (Vaeruarau) survived.
Even Vaeruarau was eventually murdered at the suggestion (not
by the hand) of Ngauta.
Even the shore-king, after he had been formally seated on the
sacred sandstone at O-Rongo, was so sacred (¢apuz) in the estima-
tion of the men of past generations that even “the lord of
Mangaia” approached him, not without an offering, oz all fours /
Yet, when the charm of peace had been broken by the wanton
shedding of human blood, this sanctity (tapu) departed, and the
shore-king went to his ancestral lands in the interior without
any special reverence being paid to him. So sacred were the
persons of the kings that no part of their bodies might be tattooed,
nor could they take part in actual warfare.
I would earnestly warn all students of these pages of the danger
of laying too great stress upon the meaning of these royal names.
In mythology nothing is more important than the study of names,
as showing how naturally the myth originated in the minds of
“the wise men” of past ages; but in Azsfory (which this un-
doubtedly is) nothing can be more misleading.
As to the origin of the people, the universal tradition of the
Hervey Islanders points to Avaiki (= Hawaiki, Hawaii, Savaiki,
Savaii) as the original home of their ancestors. Sometimes this
region is called “the night” (te po), z.e., the place where the sun
hides itself at night, or, in other words, “the west.” | Their
ancestors are said to have ‘come up,” 7.e., to Aave sailed eastward.
When a man died his spirit returned to Avaiki, z.e., the original
home of their ancestors in the region of sunset.
—_
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 637
Owing probably to the hiding of their dead in deep caves, so
numerous in these coral islands, Avaiki came to be conceived of
as a vast hollow beneath them.
In Avaiki are many regions, bearing separate names, but all to
be regarded as part of spirit-land. For example, spirits are said
to travel to Manuka (= Manw’a), or Tutuila, or Upolu, or Vavau,
or Tonga, or Iva, or Rotuma (=Rotumah), &e., &e., &e. The
problem now is to determine whence the Samoans (z.e., the clan
or family of Moa), sprang. This ‘“ Moa” is the hereditary king
of the Samoans, his residence being always on “Tau,” the largest
of the three islets collectively designated ‘“‘ Manu’a.”
9—NOTE ON THE USE OF GESTURE LANGUAGE.
IN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES.
By A. W. Howirr.
THE use of gestures accompanying, supplementing, or replacing
speech is, I doubt not, to some extent inherent in the human
race. Children make use naturally, or, as some might prefer to
say, instinctively, of certain simple signs. Deaf-mutes necessarily
use them to communicate their needs or wishes, and some simple
signs are so universally used that the term “ natural gestures” is
not inapplicable to them.
Moreover, the rudiments of gesture language may even be
observed among animals, and especially in those which have
been domesticated, and have become the conipanions of man.
It may be inferred that gesture language is of earlier origin.
than speech, and also would have been found, at one time, to be
more universal in the least advanced races of mankind. Whether
this is so or not | am not prepared to maintain, but this much
may be said, that with the exception of the Neapolitans, there
seems to be scarcely any civilised people who habitually use a
recognised code of signs having a settled meaning, whilst in savage
tribes the practice is very common.
It has been long known that gesture language was much used
among the North American Indians, and some remarkable state-
ments have been made as to the reasons for its use. Burton
attributed it to the paucity of language, which compelled the use
of supplementary signs. It was even said that certain tribes.
were not able to communicate freely unless when daylight
permitted the use of gestures. This statement has been completely
disposed of by the researches of American anthropologists,
especially those of Col. Garrick Mallery, to whose exhaustive
treatise upon his subject of %esture language the reader is.
referred.
638 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.
Nor can it be said that the use of signs by the Australian
aborigines is in any way due to paucity of language, their languages
being fully competent to provide for every mental or material
necessity of their life. Those who have had an opportunity of
becoming intimately acquainted with these savages in their social
life will agree fully with me in this statement, and no one can
feel the slightest doubt who has heard one of their orators
addressing an assembly of the men, and with a flow of persuasive
eloquence moulding opinion to his will. Indeed, in some respects,
the languages of the Australian savages are more copious than
our own, for instance, in defining degrees of relationship, which
our tongue groups under the same term. It is somewhat remark-
able, and at the same time difficult, to explain, that the use of
gesture language varies so much in different tribes of this
continent. Some have a very extensive code of signs, which
admit of being so used as almost to amount to a medium of .
general communication. Other tribes have no more than those
gestures which may be considered as the general property of
mankind,
The occurrence or absence of gestures as an aid or substitute
for speech does not, so far as I can ascertain, depend upon social
status or the locality in which any given tribe lives. But, as_to
this, the materials which I have collected are certainly insufficient
to form a positive opinion, being few in number, and scattered
over a wide area. Yet, so far as I can venture to form an
opinion from my own observations, and from the statements made
to me by correspondents, the use of sign language 1s more common
in Central and Eastern Australia than in the south-eastern part
ot the continent. The very different degrees in which gesture
language is made use of may best be seen by taking a few
illustrations from tribes of my acquaintance.
The Kurnai of Gippsland had no gesture language, but they
made use of certain signs in lieu of words, when they were for
some reason or other prevented from using or were reluctant to
use the words themselves. Thus the messenger who conveyed
the news of death of some individual to his friends or kindred,
either spoke of the deceased in some roundabout manner, as the
‘father, brother, son” (as the case might be) of “that person”
(pointing to him) “is dead”; or, what was perhaps more common,
owing to the objection to refer to the dead, the messenger said,
naming the relationship, for instance, “the father of that one
is—,” here concluding the sentence by pointing with the fore-
finger to the ground or up to the sky. Thus intimating that he
was buried, or that he had gone up to the ‘ Leén wruk,” or
celestial land. I have observed that when the aborigines of
Victoria and New South Wales have spoken to me of the great
Supernatural Being in whom they believe as having once inhabited
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 639
the earth and now the sky,* they have either uttered the sacred
name with bated breath, or have used gestures signifying the
*‘ oreat old man up in the sky.”
If to this are added the signs for “come here,” “ go away,”
“there,” or “in that direction,” as indicated by the natural signs
of beckoning and pointing with the hand, the gesture language
of the Kurnai is almost exhausted.
The Woiwurung Kulin, who inhabited the Yarra watershed,
had a much more extensive code of signs, which are recorded
herein so far as I have been able to obtain them.
The tribes of the Barcoo delta have a most extensive system of
gestures, which, it seems, is able to completely take the place of
speech. According to Mr. Gason, whose authority on the Dieri
customs is beyond question, a widow is not permitted to speak
until the whole of the white clay which forms her “ mourning”
has come off without assistance. During this time (perhaps for
months) she communicates by gestures alone.
I have observed the extensive use of gestures in the tribes to
the northwards of the Dieri, and have learned from corres-
pondents that they are also practised to the west of Lake Eyre,
to the northward of it, at Port Essington, and also in Queens-
land. It may be assumed with safety that the use of gestures is
more or less general throughout Australia.
Some of the statements made by my correspondent, Rev. H.
Kempe, as to the gesture language used by the Aldolinga tribe
at the Finke River in South Australia, are both interesting and
suggestive. I have preferred to give these, with his illustrations
of their use 77 exfenso, rather than to embody werely the signs
themselves in the succeeding list. He says that the Aldolinga
have signs for nearly everything, but that it is difficult to describe
them, so as to convey the proper meaning to a stranger. They
have a sign for every animal. Jor instance, for the kangaroo,
the hand is held palm upwards and the fingers a little bent.
Movements are made with the hand to imitate the jumping of
the animal. For an emu the hand is held palm downwards, and
moved with an undulating motion from left to right. There are
signs for all the varieties of snakes. For instance, the sign for
the Ilyuralea (a poisonous one) is made by holding the bent
fingers upwards and making some horizontal circles with the
hand. For the carpet snake the hand is also held palm upwards,
with thumb and fingers sticking up, and the hand is moved by
successive jerks towards the person. For Patamanina, a poisonous
snake, the second finger of the right hand is held upwards and
moved in a vertical circle. For the native turkey, the bird’s
movements of its head are imitated by the second finger of the
“right hand.
* Buniil, or Mamangata, by the Kulin, and Munganngaur, by the Kurnai, mean Our Father.
640 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.
There are also gestures appropriate to the four different class.
names of the Aldolinga tribe :—
Binanke __... ng} ... Lizard.
Burale cb sae a cuy )eAIIb:
Baltare ae 5Y. ... Haglehawk.
Kuamare be Wels ... Wallaby.
The sign for Binanke is that the right hand is moved up and
down several times in front of the face, with all the fingers bent
in towards the palm. For Burule, the same, but the second
finger is extended and closed again several times. For Baltare,
also, the same, but all fingers are extended, and the motion of
the hand thus imitates the flight of the eaglehawk. For Kamare,
the same, but the little finger “and third are kept pressed to the
palm, while the thumb and other two fingers are extended.
Mr. Kempe, also, in reply to my question whether a gesture
was known in this tribe indicating an offer of, or request for, a
temporary wife, replied that it was, and according to his descrip-
tion, it is precisely that which I have seen used by the Dieri and
other tribes in the Barcoo delta.
The systematic use of gestures by the Australian aborigines in
lieu of words, or in connection with speech, seems to have been
almost overlooked until lately by writers on the Australian
aborigines. It was observed that they used certain signs, such as
shaking or nodding the head to signify dissent or assent. Ex-
plorers have occasionally mentioned that the blackfellows they
met with used gestures to them, as, for instance, Sir Thomas
Mitchell, when travelling on the Thomson River.f But the idea
did not arise that in such cases these signs and gestures were not
merely the natural aids to speech, but, in fact, formed part of a
recognised and well-understood system of peel language, by
which these savages endeavoured to communicate with the white
strangers passing through their country, just as they’°would have
endeavoured to communicate with strangers of their own
colour.
The difficulty in the way of investigations into gesture language
are very great. The ordinary enquirer needs to be almost
specially trained in order to prevent his falling into errors in
interpreting or describing the signs made. I have found that,
unfortunately, there are but few who do not break down under
the process of preliminary instruction and the subsequent cross-
examination to which their statements must be subjected. There
is, moreover, always a danger that the blackfellow may misunder-
stand the meaning of the enquiry, and instead of giving such
signs as were recognised in his tribe, or of saying that there were
+ Stuart’s well-known statement that a blackfellow in the Northern Territory made
Masonic signs may be merely based upon a use of gesture language.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 641
none at all, will endeavour to give such a translation in signs
as seems to him best to express the reply to the question put to
him. .
I have not been able to do more than to superficially touch
upon this subject. I have recorded the few data which I have
been able to obtain, and I trust that now, when attention has
been drawn to the subject, those who are ina position to do
so will investigate the subject.
There are plenty of places in Australia where the aborigines
are numerous, and still sufficiently in their original condition to
maintain their old customs to a great extent.
In compiling the list of gestures given in this paper I have
recorded such as I have seen used myself, and also those for which
I have to thank the following correspondents :—Mr. Robinson, of
Coburg Peninsular, as to the Oirig tribe, Mr. Gason and the Rev.
H. Vogelsang as to the Dieri, the Rev. H. Kempe as to the
Aldolinga, and Mounted-constable Hewitt as to the Kuriwalu.
All.—Hold out the clenched hands and open and shut them
several times. Urunjeri.
All gone.—Extend both hands and arms as if in the act of
swimining, then point in the direction to which they have
gone. Diert. Hold out both hands with widely-
extended fingers, and the palms downwards in the direction
in which they have gone. A/dolinga.
All right.—Hold the hand out palm upwards, and describe several
horizontal circles with it. Aldolinga. Nod the head
twice. Azuriwalu.
Anger.—Pout the lips out. Deer Gason.
Attention /—Hold up the open hand, palm outwards, and move it
once or twice up and down. Woiwurng. Wave the
open hand, palm upwards, several times towards the body.
Kuriwalu. Wave the hand from the breast, and shake
the head. Awuriwadlu.
Lad.—Shake the hand, then throw both the hands out and over
the shoulder backwards. Ovrig.
Before.—Point forwards and a little downwards with the right
hand and forefinger. A/dolinga. Point with the hand in
front downwards. Dvzeri Vogelsang. Right hand brought
from the left shoulder across the body in front. Kuriwalu.
Behind.—Place left hand, fingers slightly closed, palm outwards,
behind the hip. - Urunjert. Point with the hand back-
wards. Dieri Vogelsang. Point with the hand extended
behind the body. A/dolinga. Waét the hand, fingers open,
*O
642 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G.
downwards, and to the rear.
684 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.
designed basins, on account of the sewage having to pass under
the bed of a navigable river by asyphon. The sludge is dredged
from these basins, and together with extraneous matter, which is
caught on the screens, is taken to the farm and dug in.
The farm is situated on a neck of land at the junction of Cook’s
River with Botany Bay. The formation is drift sand overlying
clay, which is at a considerable depth.
The sewage, after passing under the bed of the river, is
conveyed across the farm by a concrete carrier, on each side of
which is laid out the storm-water tanks and irrigation areas.
The irrigation areas lie between the main carrier and Cook’s
River. They are formed in terraces, and the sewage is applied
to the land by sluices in the main carrier and ordinary earth
channels, with subsidiary sluices made of timber. The daily
sewage is applied to the irrigation areas, the tanks on the opposite
side being reserved for storm-water.
The irrigation plots have been planted with sorghum, barley,
cabbages, swede turnips, and other vegetables, all of which thrive
very well and find a ready sale. Some of the storm-water tanks
have been planted with lucerne, the crop being watered with the
storm-water, which is turned into the tanks ; the growth has been
beyond expectation, considering the nature of the soil prior .to
being irrigated, the crop being capable of being cut once a month.
From a sanitary standpoint, the disposal of the sewage has
proved successful, the effluent water being analysed by the
Government Analyist every quarter. Appended hereto are
reports of Mr. Hamlet for July and September, 1889.
The question of disposal of sludge has to be considered in any
system of sewage disposal. This difficulty has been met in many
ways, viz.—l. By allowing the matter in suspension to precipitate
in specially-designed tanks, drawing off the supernatant water,
and allowing the sludge to dry, and afterwards dealt with; 2. To
precipitate the suspended matter by chemicals and sludge, dealt
with as above; 3. To carry out precipitation by either of the
above processes, and treat the sludge by “filter presses,” the
resultant being sludge cake. This has the advantage of the sludge
being easily handled if there is any demand for this description
of manure by farmers, market gardeners, or other agriculturists.
The simplest and best means of disposal of sludge is to dig it into
the ground if the land is available ; where such cannot be obtained
the question of disposal becomes more expensive, and the cost has to
be faced, as experience has demonstrated that no laboratory value
of the sludge can be obtained from those who are likely to use it.
The mode of disposal adopted at the Botany Sewage Works is
to precipitate the suspended matter by lime, the supernatant
water being lifted from the tanks to the syphon-well by an
“ejector.” The sludge is dredged out by a dam-dredger, and
deposited in trucks and conveyed to the farm and used as a top-
dressing and manure.
——
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 685
The sewage was turned on to the farm in August, 1887, and
at the present time the character of the soil does not indicate any
great change, notwithstanding the quantity of sewage which it
has received.
The area cultivated and irrigated with liquid sewage was little
over two acres, the population draining into the main sewer being
estimated at 7000, so that each acre of land was absorbing the
sewage of about 3500 persons.
As before stated, the question of disposal has been solved
favourably from a sanitary point of view, and it accords with the
opinion of sanitary engineers who have had any experience in
the matter, that notwithstanding any prior treatment the sewage
should, as a final measure, be disposed over and filtered through
land.
The question of treatment of sewage by “ electrolysis” is dealt
with by Mr. Roberts, who is the patentee in the colonies for the
process. In connection with this system I merely wish to state
an opinion that the system is destined to supersede chemical treat-
ment, but where suitable land and circumstances are favourable
it will not hold good against land filtration.
Government Laboratory,
Sydney, 8th July, 1889.
Analysis of a sample of sewage effluent received from the Medical
Adviser, 21-6-89. Labelled No.1. Well 79 feet from tank.
Results expressed in |
Grains per Parts per |
gallon. 100,000.
Appearance in two-foot tube ... as .. | Brown peaty colour |
Odour on heating to 100 deg. Fahr. ... oi Slight
Chlorine as Chlorides... aa es 12°5 Lacs
Phosphoric Acid in Phosphates set a Trace
Nitrogen in Nitrates and Nitrites ... = — == |
Do. equivalent in Nitric Acid ... ee _ — |
| Do. existing as free Ammonia ... 653 934 |
Organic Nitrogen, or Albuminoid Ammonia.. ‘070 | "100 |
Oxygen absor bed in 15 min. at 80 deg. Fahr. — | —
Do. do. 4 hours do. 3°29 4:70 |
Hardness in degrees, Clark’s scale, before
boiling kas ae i re at _ —
Loss on ignition . ae a ee as 47 | 68
Poisonous metals — : None |
Total solid residue, dried at 220 deg. Fahr. 38°9 55:6 |
}
General observations on the character of the water: The effluent is of
such composition as may be passed into tidal rivers without causing a
muisance: (Signed) WILLIAM M. HAMLET,
Government Analyst.
nuisance.
Webb’s Grant, Botany, 4
686 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION
Hie
Government Laboratory,
Sydney, Sth July, 1889.
Analysis of a sample of sewage effluent received from the Medical
Adviser, 21-6-89. Labelled No. 2.
Appearance in two-foot tube ... :
Odour on heating to 100 deg. Fahy. ...
Chlorine as Chlorides
Phosphoric Acid in Phosphates
Nitrogen in Nitrates and Nitrites
Do. equivalent in Nitric Acid .
Do. existing as free Ammonia ...
Organic Nitrogen, or Albuminoid Ammonia...
Oxye en absorbed in 15 min. at 80 dee. Fahr.
De do. 4 hours do.
Hardness in degrees, Clark’s scale, before
boiling 4
Loss on ignition .
Poisonous metals
Total solid residue, dried at 220 deg. Fabr.
General observations on the character of the water:
Well 20 feet from tank.
Results expressed in
Grains per
gallon.
Brown pe
sh
The
Parts per
100,000,
aty tint
eht
13°80
ces
80
14
5°08
14°8
ne
43°6
composition
is such as to allow it to be passed into tidal rivers without causing a
(Siened) WILLIAM M. HAMLET, F.LC.,
Government Analyst.
Government Laboratory,
Sydney, 16th September, 1889.
Analysis of a mates of water received from the Sewerage Farm,
-9-89.
Labelled Effluent marked “ A. 3
Results expressed in
Grains per
gallon.
Appearance in two-foot tube ...
Odour on heating to 100 deg. Fahr.
Chlorine as Chlorides
Phosphoric Acid in Phosphates
Nitrogen in Nitrates and Nitrites
Do. equivalent in Nitric Acid ...
Do. existing as free Ammonia ... :
Organic Nitrogen or Albuminoid Ammonia...
Oxygen absorbed in 15 min. at 80 deg. Fahr.
Do. do. 4. hours do.
Hardness in degrees, Clark’s scale, before
boiling
Hardness
boiling
Poisonous metals
Total solid residue at 220 deg. ‘Fahr.
in degrees, Clark’s scale, after
No
Parts per
100,000.
31°36
General observations on the character of the
water :
44°8
The analysis
fl
el a
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.
687
indicates that the effluent is undergoing the natural process of purifica-
tion by oxidation, and may be safely discharged into rivers without
causing a nuisance.
(Initd.) W. M. H.,
Government Analyst.
Government Laboratory,
Sydney, 16th September, 1889.
Analysis of a sample of water received from Sewerage Farm, Botany,
A-9-89. Labelled Effluent marked “ B.”
|
| Appearance in two-foot tube ... =
| Odour on heating to 100 deg. Fahr. ...
| Chlorine as Chlorides
| Phosphoric Acid in Phosphates
| Nitrogen in Nitrates and Nitrites
| Do. equivalent in Nitric Acid ...
Do. existing as free Ammonia ... ;
Organic Nitrogen, or Albuminoid Ammonia..
Oxygen absorbed in 15 min. at 80 deg. Fahr.
| Do. do. 4. hours do.
| Hardness in degrees, Clark’s scale, before
i boiling : ae ; ie
| Hardness in degrees, “Clark’s scale, after
| boiling . , be
Poisonous eaiaa: ,
| Total solid residue, dried at 220 deg. Fahr. .
Results expressed in
Grains per
gallon.
Parts per
100,000.
ne
48°0
General observations on the character of the water:
The analysis
indicates that the effluent is undergoing the natural process of purifica-
tion by oxidation, and may be safely discharged into rivers without
causing a nuisance.
5.—HEALTH LEGISLATION
By A. P. AkEHURST.
6.—DUTIES
By C. J. Eassie.
(Initd.) W. M. H.,
Government Analyst.
EN VICTORIA:
OF SANITARY INSPECTORS.
688 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.
‘7.—HOUSEHOLD SANITATION.
By Grorce Gorpon, M.Inst.C.E.
| Abstract. |
THE requirements for a wholesome dwelling are—lst, a good site
and correct construction of the house ; 2nd, plenty of fresh air ;
3rd, a pure water supply; and 4th, the speedy, and as far as
practicable, automatic removal of all refuse.
Under the three first heads, which are not entirely in the
control of individuals, it is urged that where the ground-water
level, or a clay subsoil, is near the surface, the whole area occupied
by the house should be covered with a layer of concrete or asphalt,
and the space intervening between this layer and the floor joists
should be thoroughly ventilated. Hollow walls are recommended,
and when practicable such an aspect that the morning sun shall
shine into as many bedrooms and livingrooms as_ possible.
Thorough ventilation is insisted on, but no special arrangements
for artificial ventilation are needed, except in the case of buildings
inhabited by a great number of persons. It is pointed out that
where there is no town water supply a moderately roomy house
will generally, where the rainfall is 22 in. per annum, yield from.
the roof sufficient water for drinking and cooking, and partly for
washing purposes, and that an equal additional supply of inferior
water would sufiice for other purposes. Jron tanks above ground
are preferable to underground brick tanks, as being more easily
cleaned, and not liable to have the water contaminated by infil-
tration from surrounding soil. If the latter are used, they should
be at some distance from, and at a higher level, than the house
and outbuildings, the water being led in by a cast-iron pipe into
which the down pipes are fixed.
The special subject of the paper is the removal of all kinds of
refuse liquid, which can easily be removed by water without
manual labour, and solid, which it would be impossible so to
remove. ‘The first is practically all the water used in the estab-
lishment and fouled in the using, and coming from the kitchen or
scullery, bedrooms, water-closets, washhouse, and from the scrub-
bing of floors.
The principles on which the house drainage should be designed
are simple, viz., these :—There should be no stagnant fluids ; they
should be discharged into the sewers as quickly as possible, and
there should be no possibility of foul air from the pipes or sewers
entering the houses, that is to say, there should be no cesspits,
and all drains should be trapped. The use of water-closets is
advocated for town houses, wherever there is an underground
system of sewers, because they are the only unobjectionable means
of removing fecal matter, and their use adds little to the liquid
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 689
refuse that has in any case to be disposed of—about one-sixth—
and the proportion to the quantity of water used becomes less as
this increases, which is the observed tendency in most town
supplies. When it can be conveniently arranged, the closets
should be against an outside wall, and the soil-pipe should be out-
side the wall, and should, in all cases, be carried up above the
roof, the connections with it and the closets being trapped.
Alongside the soil-pipe there should be a smaller ventilating-pipe,
into which the closet-traps are ventilated. The horizontal part
of the soil-pipe, called the “house drain,” should be carried by
the most direct line to the street sewer, but it should not pass
under the house. If this is unavoidable it should be of cast iron,
laid on a solid foundation. There should be an “air disconnec-
tion ” between the sewer and the house-drain, near their junction.
The waste-pipe, which disposes of the sewage from sinks, &c.,
should be treated in the same way; but at the foot of the pipe,
and near the wall of the house, there should be a disconnecting
trapped chamber, into which all the foul drainage from outhouses,
&c. (except closets), should also be led, preferably by open drains
of half-round glazed tiles, which are easily cleaned. Various
kinds of traps are described and illustrated by diagrams, and it
is pointed out that it is essential they should be ventilated in
order to prevent unsealing. Each trap should have a separate
connection with the waste-pipe, as, if several traps are on pipes
joined together below the trap, the action of one may unseal the
other.
The second kind of refuse, the solid waste, consisting of ashes,
cinders, bones, small rubbish, tins, sweepings, and such kitchen
waste as is intercepted by the strainers, should, in towns, be
placed in covered receptacles, and removed daily by the dustman
in a covered cart, and it is best disposed of by burning. Where
the water-closet system is inapplicable, either from want of a
proper water supply or of underground drainage, as in some
villages, barracks, country houses, &c., probably the best substi-
tute is the dry-earth closet, or the ‘‘Goux” pail system. Closets
should be detached from the house, and the pans should be made
so that the urine is carried off separately and led by pipes into
the drains carrying the other waste water or liquid sewage, and
conveyed to a distance from the house bya rapid current. Unless
this be done the so-called dry-earth system is little better than
the ordinary pail system, which has the great fault of keeping the
excreta for a considerable time, whereas they ought to be instantly
removed.
A system of house drainage, however well designed, may be
made worse than useless by bad construction or workmanship,
and it is suggested that only such plumbers as have been examined
on the principles of sanitary work, and have certificates of com-
petency and experience, should be allowed to carry out such
RE
690 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.
works, and in case of negligence they should be liable to prosecu-
tion. In New York and other principal cities of the United
States of America the plans of the plumbing have to be approved
by an officer of the Board of Health, specially appointed for this
purpose. It is thought, what with these checks on defective
design and workmanship, the sanitary condition of dwellings
would be much improved.
8.—SCHOOL HYGIENE.
By E. G. Lecer Erson, L.R.C.P.
9.—HOUSEHOLD DRAINAGE: ITS PRINCIPLES.
By A. M. Henperson, C.E.
[ Adstract. |
HovusrnoLp drainage, regulated in Victoria by local municipal
officers, who are, as a rule, untrained in the work—result unsatis-
factory. Open drains insisted on, but great carelessness as to
quality of materials and permeability of the joints, which soon get
saturated with grease, urine, and filth. Interceptors not allowed
at junction of pipes and open drains, and hence fouling of the
pipes and return of bad gases.. Unfortunate that architects,
being in business competition, too often have to consider economy,
and often ignorant work being cheaper triumphs. Suggest regu-
lations compelling uniform work ; and as there will be underground
system in Melbourne within the next five years, regulations and
trained inspectors should be adopted now, and all new wastes and
drains for houses made on sanitary principles and suitable for new
system. New Health Act provides for registration of plumbers,
but training in sanitary principles first necessary.
Necessary to have good maintenance as well as good construc-
tion. Maintenance of house drains entirely neglected here ; often
clogged with years’ deposits. Cause of great part of typhoid.
Waste waters of two classes—continuous and intermittent.
Continuous include (a) bath and lavatory water, with no solid
matter, and often used for irrigation ; (4) pantry, scullery, and
laundry water, containing solid and greasy matter; (c) water
from slop-sinks and urinals, with no solid matter ; (@) from water-
closets, containing solid matter.
Intermittent include (e) pure water from roofs and tank over-
flows ; (f) fairly pure water from balconies, towers, flats, and
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. , 691
tank-flushes ; (g) overflows of trays under baths and lavatories ;
(2) trays under slop-sinks and closets.
Greatest dangers arise from intermittent wastes. Upper
ends generally open. Difficulty in securing interception.
Good drainage requires—
I.—Proper conductors to convey away the waste products
made with non-absorbent, non-corrosible material, and
joints—of sufficient (not too great) size and fall, and self-
cleansing form and easily accessible.
II.—Proper interceptors to prevent dangerous matter entering
or leaving the conductors. Made with non-absorbent,
non-corrosible materials and joints. Two classes. Self-
cleansing form as small as practicable for (q), (c), (2),
where gases only require interception, but not so self-
cleansing as to empty by momentum or suction. Non-
self-cleansing and of full size for (4) where solids and
gases require interception. As interception is generally
maintained by water, the surface should be as small as
possible to lessen evaporation.
III.—Proper disconnection to prevent pressure in the
conductor and aid in ventilation— consists in leaving out-
let end of each section of conductors open to the air-
generally discharging over open drains or over inter-
ceptors.
IV.—Proper ventilation to maintain interception, which
might be destroyed by suction where conductors unite
or strong flushes are used—and to oxygenise the inner
surface of conductors and render products of decompo-
sition innocuous. Upcasts should be carried well above
roofs and chimneys.
It is characteristic of intermittent drainage that the inlets are
open, so that interceptors must be fixed at outlets or at junction
with continuous drainage. In continuous drainage interceptors
should be fixed as near the inlets as possible.
Foregoing classification and notes especially useful as a basis
of criticism, and for instructions to inspectors.
10.—FACTS AND FIGURES RELATING TO
VACCINATION.
By A. J. Tayior.
692 e PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H.
11.—PREVENTIVE INOCULATION AGAINST
ANIMAL PLAGUES.
By O. Karz, Ph.D,
12.—MICRO-ORGANISMS AND HYGIENE.
By A. Surexps, M.D.
13.—CREMATION A SANITARY NECESSITY.
By H. K. Ruspev.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE No. 9.
Town Santtation.
Memepers or Commitrer :—Dr. Bancrorr, W. M. Hamurr, Sir James
Hector, Professor LiversipGz, Professor THRELFALL, Dr. SPRINGTHORPE,
Dr. Syms, Professor THomas, Professor Warren, and Hon. Dr.
CAMPBELL (Secretary).
Art the close of the last annual meeting, on the motion of Professor
Liversidge, the following gentlemen were appointed a committee
to report on “Town Sanitation,” viz. :—Dr. Bancroft, Hon. Dr.
Campbell, Mr. W. M. Hamlet, Sir James Hector, Professor
Liversidge, Professor Thomas, Professor. Threlfall, and Professor
Warren. Subsequently the names of Dr. Syme and Dr.
Springthorpe were added. In December Dr. Campbell agreed
to act as hon secretary.
On the Ist of February, after consultation with various members
of the committee, the secretary issued a letter to upwards of 200
medical practitioners and health officers in Australia and New
Zealand. ‘The letter asked for information respecting the sanitary
condition of the towns in which they either practised or held
health appointments. It was suggested that for the purpose of
classification the information should be given upon the following
lines, viz. :—
1. Site and soil.
2. Houses, their arrangement, material of construction}
regulations respecting houses unfit for occupation, overs
crowding, and lodging-houses.
The water supply.
The removal of refuse water, and of dry refuse.
The removal of excreta.
. The conservancy of the surface.
me oe. ee
The food supply—regulations respecting milk, slaughter-
houses and bake-houses.
8. The regulation of offensive or noxious trades, and the
overcrowding of factories.
694 TOWN SANITATION.
9. The arrest of infectious diseases. State views on the
compulsory notification of infectious diseases.
10. Disposal of the dead.
11. The supervision of nuisances.
12. Liability to outbreaks of special diseases, and their connec-
tion with any insanitary condition.
13. State suggestions as to the most suitable means of
improving the sanitation of your town, or, in your
opinion, the best system to be adopted to place it in a
reasonably sanitary condition.
14. Statistics as to population, death-rate, and general
character of the diseases which prevail.
The following gentlemen courteously favoured the committee
with replies :—Dr. Coppeadge (Roma), Dr. Vivian (Rockhampton),
Queensland; Dr. W. C. Aild (Kiama), Dr. W. J. Bassett
(Bathurst), Dr. W. Asher (Lithgow), New South Wales ; Dr. D.
F. Fleetwood (Warrnambool), Dr. H. H. Radcliffe (Ballarat),
Dr. H. H. Gordon (Clunes), Victoria; Dr. Markham (Port
Augusta), Dr. Mitchell (Port Adelaide), T. Farrell, Esq.
(Adelaide), South Australia; Dr. 8. H. Beard (Masterton),
Dr. Neil (Wellington), New Zealand; J. G. Bushman, Esq.
(Launceston), Tasmania.
Communications from other sources, in the shape of Health
Acts and reports of health boards, have also been received. The
committee desire to acknowledge their indebtedness to Dr.
Mitchell, Dr. Vivian, Dr. Neil, Dr. Radcliffe, Mr. Farrell, and
Mr. Bushman, for their admirable reports.
The paucity of the replies received, as well as the heavy labour
involved in an attempt to bring all the colonies under one report,
induces the committee to make the suggestion that in future the
work of any similar “town sanitation ” committee should for the
year be restricted to one colony, and, if possible, the colony in
which the annual meeting of the Association for that year shall
be held. It is further suggested that the honorary secretary
should be a resident of the same colony.
This suggestion, combined with the fact that the present
honorary secretary had before him ampler information respecting
the colony of South Australia than any other, the report has
been limited to the “‘town sanitation ” of that colony.
It may briefly be stated that the Health Acts of South Aus-
tralia are under the administration of a Central Board of Health,
the president being a Government officer. Appointments upon
the board are in the hands of the Cabinet. By a recent enact-
ment, all civic corporations and district councils are local boards
of health. Corporations have power to raise a special sanitary
rate, while both corporations and district councils may appoint
TOWN SANITATION. 695
. health officers, and may take proceedings against infringements
of their regulations.
The Act requires each local board to forward annually a report
to the Central Board. Any corporation, as a local health board,
failing to impose a health rate, or to appoint a medical health
officer when called upon by the Central Board, or failing to carry
out any instruction of the Central Board, may be summoned to
appear at the Supreme Court. In the case of district councils as
local health boards, if they refuse or neglect to comply with any
instruction of the Central Board, that board may do the thing
required to be done, and recover the expenses incurred from the
district council.
The administration, then, of the Health Acts is greatly sub-
divided, and is proportionately less effective. In proof of this
inference, it may be stated that the report of the Central Board
for 1888-9 says that, out of 173 local boards, no less than 112 had
failed to comply with the Act in the simple matter of sending an
annual report. In the same document it is further intimated
that several local boards had been guilty during the year of so
far neglecting to carry into effect their own regulations that the
Central Board was under the unpleasant necessity of issuing
peremptory orders upon them.
The sanitary condition of all the towns, whether under cor-
porate jurisdiction or under district councils, is therefore in the
hands of their respective local boards. Leaving out of view in
this report the city of Adelaide, which, with its numerous and
populous suburbs and its distinct deep drainage system, certainly
merits an exclusive report, the towns of South Australia range in
population from 8000 to 500. The committee consider that a
fair estimate of their sanitary condition may be arrived at by
dividing them into two classes—-those situated on the sea-board
and those inland. Of the first, Port Adelaide, Port Pirie, and
Port Augusta may be taken ; while, of the second, Gawler, Burra
and Clare may be selected to illustrate the position. The
respective sanitary conditions of these towns will give a fair
notion of the “town sanitation ” of the province.
Port Adelaide.
Port Adelaide was laid out in 1840, four years subsequent to
the founding of the colony. It lies about seven miles west of the
City of Adelaide, on an estuary of the Gulf of St. Vincent, called
the ‘‘ Port River.” It is the chief seaport. The river is subject
to tidal action. The “Port” may be regarded as consisting of
Port Adelaide proper, lying east of the river, and the Semaphore
lying on the west side. The population is about 8500. The site
is low, and in many places damp, much of the eastern portion
having been at one time covered by the tides. The river is now
696 TOWN SANITATION,
banked off, and the land behind is being gradually levelled up.
Port Adelaide proper has a honeycomb clay bottom, through
which the tides ebb and flow. Above is a layer of sand, rubbish
of various descriptions, and limestone silt, deposited from the
dredgings of the harbour. The western side has a hard clay
bottom, with a varying thickness of sand overlaid. Fresh
water is easily obtained in this sand. The eastern portion is the
old section of the town, and still retains among its modern and
substantial stone erections some of the primitive structures,
consisting of wood and galvanised iron. Some of these are highly
insanitary, being on the original swamp level, and now below the
surrounding street level. On the western site, while one portion
is unsatisfactory from very imperfect drainage and damp, the
houses on the whole are modern and substantially built, and free
from the unwholesome surroundings which affect the Port proper.
The water supply is mainly derived from the same source as
the City of Adelaide, viz., the reservoirs at the Torrens and Hope
valleys. The supply is very pure. The reticulation area, however,
does not extend to many of the more distant houses. These
obtain their supplies either from the roofs or surface wells. The
water in these wells being secured by soakage, is liable to contami-
nation. Outbreaks of typhoid or bowel derangement have been
traced to them.
The refuse water is conveyed in open water-tables to the
harbour. Sludge boxes, 2ft. x lft. 6in..x 2ft., are placed in
the course of these water-tables at the entrance to all culverts
and drains, and are periodically cleaned out. It is estimated
that at least 12 miles of these open drains has been constructed.
The site of the town being very little over the sea level, the
carrying out of a system of deep drainage would be very costly.
On the Semaphore, or western side, few streets, and consequently
few water-tables, have been fully constructed. The refuse water
is here allowed to pass into the sand, which, in view of the wells
above referred to, as well as the pollution of the soil, constitutes
a highly objectionable practice. It is a happy circumstance for
the health of the residents, as well as an attractive feature of the
locality, that a large number of trees and shrubs are planted
every year. They thrive well, and absorb the accumulated foul
soakage which lies on the clay bottom underneath the surface.
Dry refuse is removed weekly by itinerating carts, under a
contract with the local board. It is employed to fill up low-lying
levels alongside of the swampy ground to the north. The Cor-
poration have at times allowed it to be used for fillmg up hollow
sites in the town itself. The Health Officer states that in 1888
he attributed an outbreak of 15 cases of typhoid fever to this
cause
Cesspits are chiefly used. In about 50 instances earth-closets
have superseded the cesspit, and where properly attended to have
la
TOWN SANITATION. 697
given satisfaction. According to the provisions of the Health
Act, all cesspits must be water-tight, but the law is perfunctorily
enforced by the local board. In numerous cases the pits are
glaringly defective, being visibly influenced by the tides. In this
leaky condition they thoroughly saturate the surrounding soil,
The cost of emptying the pits seems to be the chief obstacle to an
efficient administration of the law, and the local board does not
appear to attach sufficient importance to this matter to induce
them to establish an organised system for the complete and fre-
quent removal of excreta. The contents of these cesspits are
cleared away at intervals much as the residents choose, although
by regulation it should be done at stated intervals. In several
parts of the town the pepper-tree is again a friend of the public
health, preventing many from reaping the harvest of their in-
difference and ignorance.
It may be said with regard to the inspection of food that it is
only nominal so far as the local board are concerned. In the case
of imported meat or other food it is different. This has to pass
an inspection by the Customs officers, a service of great moment
not merely to Port Adelaide, but to the whole colony.
Port Adelaide has no public abattoirs ; small cattle are allowed
to be slaughtered inside the limits of the town. Slaughtering-
places and butchers’ premises are subject to inspection. It must,
however, be admitted that not a few of them are left, particularly
in the summer months, to become sources of annoyance to the
neighbourhood.
The regulation of trades and trade premises seems to be con-
ducted on very general principles. Bakehouses are seldom looked
at; noxious trades are occasionally inspected, and where a glaring
instance is found of workmen being employed in ill-ventilated or
otherwise unhealthy buildings interference may take place.
No provision is made under the Health Acts for the early or
compulsory notification of infectious diseases, except smallpox,
cholera, plague, yellow fever, and leprosy. The speedy discovery
of infectious cases is therefore very difficult. When such cases
do become known to the local board, steps are promptly taken to
disinfect the premises and remove any known or suspected cause.
Isolation, except in the case of smallpox, cannot be enforced, as
there is no legal power and no accommodation to receive patients.
No doubt, in the event of any serious epidemic arising, temporary
premises would speedily be made available.
The ordinary practice of interment is followed. There are two
cemeteries, one almost disused, inside the Corporation boundary,
and another on the outskirts. The latter has a dry clay soil.
The water level is reached at a depth of 10 to 12 feet.:
The general work of inspection is carried out by a medical
health officer and two inspectors. The latter have too many
duties to perform to be able to give the requisite attention to
698 TOWN SANITATION.
sanitary work. Other duties as those of Town Surveyor, Inspector
of weights and measures, of lights on vehicles, of widths of tires,
of public conveyances, of lodging-houses, of storage of kerosene,
the registration of dogs, etc., are laid upon them. Efficiency
under such circumstances cannot be secured.
Port Pirie.
Port Pirie is situated about 150 miles north of Adelaide and
50 miles south of Port Augusta. It les ona small estuary of
Germein Bay, itself a part of Spencer’s Gulf. The population is
well over 1000, aitd from its business connection with the Barrier
silver mines, is rapidly on the increase. The site is only a few
feet above high-water level; it is consequently defective in
natural drainage. The buildings are nearly all of recent erection,
and fairly substantial. Its water supply is good ; originally it
was supplied from an expensively-constructed reservoir at Nels-
haby, some miles off; but latterly it has formed a connection
with the splendid Beetaloo Water Supply. Scavenging is carried
out effectively, and the disposal of refuse is strictly regulated.
No means are adopted by which foul water can be satisfactorily
disposed of. The primitive cesspit is well-nigh superseded by
the earth-closet, quite two-thirds of the residents using the latter.
The scavenging contractor attends to the pans. The regulations
bearing upon slaughter-houses, trades, lodging-houses, &e., are
fairly enforced. The sanitary staff consists of a medical health
officer and an inspector.
What must be regarded as a retrograde step was taken by this
corporation a short time ago. It indicates decisively how the
worthier interest of the public health is set aside by such local
bodies when confronted with the chances of material progress.
The Amended Health Act of 1882 admits of the creation of
manufacturing districts, the object being to free certain manu-
factories from the strict application of the Health Act of 1873
in several respects. These districts are proclaimed at the instance
of the Government on petition of the residents and the local
governing body. In this instance a petition was presented,
asking two things in addition to that of the formation of a manu-
facturing district. The first was that the clause in the Health
Act providing that corporations or local health boards shall have
power to order the removal of waste and foul water, and the
second, that clause 45, providing for a simple and inexpensive
legal process for securing compliance with the previously-men-
tioned clause, should not apply to this manufacturing district.
The Central Board of Health, in the future interests of Port
Pirie, strongly remonstrated against granting these two con-
cessions. The prospect of having smelting and other works
established prevailed against every other consideration, not
TOWN SANITATION. 699
merely with the local authority, but with the Government also,
and the full petition was granted. Under such circumstances,
all nuisances created by this manufacturing district are absolutely
without control. It may be urged that the power of inspection
remains to the Central Board ; but without the power of enforcing
its orders, inspection is to little purpose.
Port Augusta.
This town is situated (on the map) at the apex of Spencer's
Gulf. It is distant about 240 miles from Adelaide. It possesses
a fine harbour, and is regarded as the coming metropolis of the
north. On the completion of the railway system, which will
connect South Australia with every colony, all the lines will con-
verge to it. The population is just under 2000. The site is low
and difficult to drain. It has a sandy soil, with a sub-layer of
clay. It is laid out rectangularly, and the streets are mostly
formed and well-paved, with properly-constructed water-tables.
The buildings generally are substantial. The water supply is
fair, being obtained from a reservoir some 14 miles off. An
attempt is made to dispose of the foul water by leading it into a
number of deep subsidence wells. This is said to answer fairly.
Until recently these wells were not ventilated. In numerous
parts of the town the people are still permitted to throw refuse
water on the surrounding soil, which being of a sandy nature
allows the water to disappear readily. In hot weather, however,
the state of the soil brought about by this practice is unquestion-
ably the cause of numerous cases of intestinal inflammation among
children. A moderately efficient system of scavenging is in
operation, but the objectionable custom of filling up hollows with
dry rubbish is still followed. Privy-cesspools are practically
abolished in favour of the dry-earth system. No organised super-
vision of the system by the corporation exists as yet, and conse-
quently it is attended with nothing more than partial success.
The excreta are removed weekly, and buried outside the town in
trenches. Notwithstanding the large possibilities that exist for
improvement, the town is remarkably healthy, having a death-
rate of 13 to the 1000.
Gawler.
Gawler is situated 25 miles north of Adelaide, in close
proximity to the main northern line. Its population numbers
2000, and its houses 400. It occupies partly the face of a hill
and partly a flat. The arrangement of the streets is rectangular.
It is the centre of an agricultural district and the seat of the
famous foundry and machine-shop of Messrs. James Martin and
Co. The natural drainage is good. The soil is limestone in
700 TOWN SANITATION.
character. The principal streets are macadamised, the footpaths
are properly kerbed, and the water-tables well paved. The water
supply is derived from a well, sunk by the Government, on a
rising ground near the town, from whence reticulations are carried
over the greater portion of the town. Except in a few instances
on the west side, where a few soakage-wells are sunk, the waste
water is allowed to run into the water-tables, and thence into the
Para River. The ordinary cesspit and privy is in use, and many
of them possess the usual defects of being too large and full of
leaks, and of remaining too long a time unemptied. In a few
cases the earth-system is adopted, as at Messrs, James Martin
and Co.’s yard, where over 300 men and boys are employed. In
this instance the system is supervised by the company with
care and attention, and the best results are said to follow.
Slaughtering is not permitted within the boundary. There is a
medical health officer and an inspector of nuisances.
Burra.
The Burra township is distant 100 miles north of Adelaide.
When the famous “ Burra Burra” copper mines were in operation
it was the scene of great activity. Since their cessation the
population has greatly diminished. It now numbers some 2600
inhabitants. It is the centre of an agricultural district, and a
depét for cattle going to the far north, or southwards to the
Adelaide market. It has had railway communication with the
metropolis for many years. The town comprises several settle-
ments, each going by a differentname. The site is, on the whole,
good. The soil is hard and stoney, very unfavourable for absorp-
tion or percolation. The houses are fairly built and arranged.
In Kooringa they are closely packed, while at Redruth and
Aberdeen they are scattered. The water supply is from an old
mine called the “Bon Accord,” and is considered to be good. A
- supplementary supply has to be secured for the residents on what
is known as “The Flat,” where, unfortunately, the houses
are numerous and the cesspits, in many cases, nothing more than
large holes in the ground. A licensed nightman attends to the
cleaning of the cesspits, but as each resident has to pay the cost,
not as a rate, but directly to the nightman, he employs him as
seldom as possible. The waste water is allowed to pass into the
street water-tables, and thence into the ‘‘ Burra” Creek. Dry
refuse is removed periodically by an authorised scavenger, and
the excreta is deposited and trenched on a farm at some distance.
This part of the work is well done. Butchers’ premises are, on
the whole, well looked after. There is no medical health officer.
All sanitary work is done by an inspector under the direction of
the local health board.
TOWN SANITATION. 701
Clare.
Clare is some 80 miles northward of Adelaide, and about 20
miles westward of the northern main line of railway. It is the
centre of an agricultural and pastoral district, and contains 1100
inhabitants. It is regarded as the handsomest township in the
colony. The site is favourable, and the houses are, for the most
part, well-built stone structures, surrounded by gardens. The
soil is clayey, mixed with stones. Good natural drainage exists,
except for the main street. The water supply is obtained from
shallow wells, which, from the contiguity of numerous cesspits,
run great risk of contamination. Till recently, these cesspits
were mere holes in the ground. Within the last two years the
Central Board of Health has had to issue an order upon the local
board, requiring the immediate construction of all cesspits in
accordance with the provisions of the Health Act. Scavenging
is only partially attended to. Dry refuse is deposited outside
the boundary, and excreta upon an adjacent farm. No slaughtering
is permitted. An interesting convenience in the shape of a bath,
some 80 feet by 25 feet, exists for the public. The sanitary work
is in the hands of an inspector, who has a hundred and one other
duties besides.
The following facts indicate the extent to which the sanitary
schoolmaster has been abroad in some of these townships since
the passing of the Health Act of 1873. The Central Board of
Health report that, in 1888, a resident of Clare made a formal
complaint that the local board had failed to carry out their
sanitary duties, inasmuch as—1, nightsoil was allowed to be
carried through the street in the daytime; 2, that the so-called
earth-closets were defective; 3, that scavenging was limited to
the main street; and 4, that the removal of nightsoil was made
unnecessarily difficult and expensive. The chief inspector of the
Central Board confirmed these charges, and added that since his
previous visit no steps had been taken to rectify the condition of
the cesspits and protect the wells from contamination. In reply
to the Central Board, the local board forwarded the local inspec-
tor’s denial of the complaint, and his views on the requirements
of the situation. The Central Board issued a peremptory order
requiring immediate compliance with the Health Act, not only in
respect of the complaints made, but also in respect to the construc-
tion of cesspits. The local board immediately carried out the
order, and promised to continue its efforts to secure a good
sanitary condition of the town.
In connection with the natural history of the sanitary state of
the foregoing towns, a word or two is needful on the existence of
infectious diseases during the year ending, March, 1889. The
following table shows the fatal cases of enteric fever and diptheria,
the usual residences of the deceased being the towns named :—
702 TOWN SANITATION.
Towns. Enteric | Diphtheria.
Port Adelaide ... 1 8
Port Pirie tee 1 1
Port Augusta... 1 1
Gawler ©... 0 2 1
Burraneer sa 5 aes
Clare oe Sele — 1
It is unfortunate that no returns exist which would enable a
tabulated statement to be made of the number of persons attacked
in these localities. It is, however, useless to offer a surmise on
the basis of the death-rate; that is, to give a general average.
The main cause assigned for the presence of enteric fever in most
of these towns was the return from Broken Hill of residents who
had either visited the silver mines or had been employed as work-
men, and had contracted the disease there. Broken Hill, at that
time, was in a highly insanitary condition, and quite an epidemic
of typhoid prevailed. The Central Board of Health supports
this statement of the origin of numerous cases by communications
from medical health officers who had carefully traced their courses.
The large number at the Burra was doubtless due to the fact that
this town is the first on the way from Silverton to Adelaide
which possessed hospital accommodation for the treatment of
enteric fever.
DeatH Rate PER 1000 INHABITANTS.
Towns. 1884,. |; 1885.; |; 1886. | 1887..| 1888) ite meee
Port Adelaide ...| 15°99 | 15°6 | 15:6} 18:6 | 12°8 14°5
Port Pirie a) 33°0) | 2922") 924-40 S227 ea 25°3
Port Augusta... 39°5 | 30°5 | 31°8 | 36:2 | 342 34:4
Gawler... Pa lelichsy aie Sey sale Ay |) alley | alors) 14°4
| Burra ... ...{ 165 | 256) 241 | 126 | 18-4 194
Clare 700 vee LAS yd Gielk Cae TT Ors 13°5
TOWN SANITATION. 703
The towns above described are fairly typical of every township
of moderate size in South Australia. The facts stated concerning
them raise almost every question of a general character that is
touched upon in public hygiene. To utilise these facts it will be
needful to present a summarised review of them. This may be
done under the five following divisions :—
The work already accomplished.
Natural difficulties.
Obvious defects.
Local Health Boards.
The Health Acts.
oe
1.—THE WORK ALREADY ACCOMPLISHED.
The leading Health Act upon which all sanitary progress has
rested was passed in 1873, that is, 16 years ago. In that Act
civic bodies formed the local sanitary authorities. Two years ago
the Act was amended so as to include district councils as local
health boards. The territorial jurisdiction of the Central Board
by this extension to district councils became greatly circum-
scribed. Sufficient time has not elapsed to declare the wisdom or
otherwise by the Central and local boards of this step. The work
done during these 16 years has been most varied and beneficial.
The existence in itself of an active and fairly-organised system of
sanitary inspection has had a valuable educational influence upon
the public mind. In this connection the Central Board of Health
must be credited with a large amount of steady perseverance and
real tact.
The record of facts already presented in this report shows that
local sanitary authorities have pushed on the filling-in of all
swampy and low-lying portions of their respective towns. Old
land-marks, around which only too frequently converge insanitary
conditions, have been taken out of the way. Streets of good
width have been systematically laid out. They have been well
macadamised, and finished with water-tables and kerbing of a
substantial nature. Buildings consisting chiefly of stone, or of
brick, have been erected, and all with more or less regard to
hygienic conditions.
A considerable amount of attention has been given to supplying
pure water for domestic purposes. Large and expensive reser-
voirs have been constructed at Hope Valley and Thornden Park,
which, while furnishing a supply for the city of Adelaide, also
serves Port Adelaide. Smaller reservoirs have been formed for
Port Pirie and Port Augusta, and a deep well and a large tank
have been made to meet the requirements of Gawler. The Burra
authorities have taken advantage of an old mine from which to
draw a wholesome and ample supply.
704 TOWN SANITATION.
An attempt has been made in a few places to get rid of foul
water in a simple and inexpensive way. Wells have been sunk
to considerable depths, into which the foul water drains and
passes away by soakage. Where due attention is paid to the
ventilation of these wells, they are credited with a fair degree of
success.
In no town has dry refuse been allowed to accumulate.
Regulations controlling this matter have been strictly enforced.
So far as the employment of cesspits as part of a system for
the disposal of excreta can be brought under hygienic conditions,
fair efforts have been made to doso. They are small in size, and
water-tight. In some instances, as at Port Pirie and Gawler,
earth-closets have been substituted for many of the cesspits.
When the requirements of the dry-earth system, as at Gawler,
are carefully met, such as a good supply of dry earth, and regular
and frequent removal, it has proved a success.
Less disposition exists in the community now than formerly to
oppose sanitary work, and a freer readiness prevails among local
sanitary bodies to appoint inspectors, and even medical health
officers, when required by the Central Board.
Without, perhaps, having directly in view the beneficial more
than the artistic effects of tree-growth, several towns have
planted along their streets, and elsewhere, large numbers of
pepper and other varieties of trees and shrubs, with the happy
result of minimising the serious evils which arise from the
saturation of the soil with foul water.
2.—NATURAL DIFFICULTIES.
It is hardly necessary to say that towns placed near the sea
level are exceedingly difficult to drain. It is well known that
the rivers on which many towns similarly situated to Port
Adelaide and Port Pirie are generally only open sewers. But
this is not so in the case of either of these towns. The reason
for this may possibly be found in the two facts, that the popula-
tion has not reached such dimensions as to bring about this
undesirable state of things, and that further, as the rivers are
really arms of the sea, all sewage passing into them is immediately
subject to the chemical action of sea-water. All the ports
referred to are undrained, beyond what ordinary surface drainage
and a few subsidiary soakage wells can effect. At Port Adelaide
traps are constructed at points on the course of the water-tables,
to arrest the more solid portion of the fluid refuse, but beyond
this no attempt has been made to carry out any complete system
of drainage. The deep drainage of Port Adelaide has been
reported upon by engineers, and frequently discussed by the
town council, but only to be laid aside again. The full supply of
water which each of the ports and some other towns receives points
strongly to the necessity of a system of efficient deep drainage.
v
TOWN SANITATION. 705
3.—OBVIOUS DEFECTS.
In some towns, as Clare and the Burra, water-supplies for
domestic purposes are, in a number of instances, taken from wells
exposed to contamination. Cesspits of old standing, badly con-
structed originally, and permitting soakage, have been found in
close proximity to these wells. It is needless to say that the
contiguity of cesspits and wells under any circumstances is
extremely dangerous, and where, as in every instance in these
towns, supplies can be secured by the conservation of roof-water,
the practice of drawing water from such suspected wells is simply
criminal.
In the similar fact of preserving the air that is breathed from
pollution, we see the serious outrage that is committed against
the public health, in the habit of running filthy water into the
soil or throwing it persistently upon the surface. It is a matter
of regret that this practice should prevail so largely, and be over-
looked by all sanitary local bodies. Numerous cases of enteric
fever—the scourge of Australia—intestinal inflammation and
diptheria are undoubtedly traceable to this source. In this con-
nection the reflection thrusts itself upon us, that a critical
examination of the towns of South Australia reveals the fact that
the local authorities have yet much to learn and more to
accomplish in the direction of sanitation. Tree-planting, it is
true, modifies the insalubrity arising from this cause, but the fact
is indisputable that no real protection exists against some of the
most fatal and severe diseases that attack both old and young,
but especially the young, apart from a clean and wholesome soil.
In this connection another most subtle conspirator against the
public weal is the cesspit. Sanitary regulations may be all that
are desirable, but where cesspits are used, through invisible rents,
decay of structure and neglect, the soil may every day be
becoming more impregnated with filth. The only safeguard,
where the system cannot be supplemented by a better, is to place
the entire management, control and inspection in the hands of
the loca] authority. This is the position taken by an independent
authority where the water carriage system exists, and no reason
is at hand to show why the same authoritative control should
not extend to any other system. To leave to the unquickened
mind and biassed judgment of the ordinary householder the
management of so important a branch of public hygiene is simply,
from his point of view, to put within his reach the opportunity
of saving himself from a rate, which he would otherwise have to
pay, for he allows his cesspit to go uncleaned for an indefinite
period ; and, further, it is to permit failure to step in where
success is imperative. Small cesspits soundly constructed and
maintained, frequent cleansing and disinfection, a proper dis-
position of the excreta, and all carried into effect by the local
*s
706 TOWN SANITATION.
sanitary authority, constitute the elements of a good system.
This, however, most of the towns in South Australia have not
yet attained to.
Another obvious defect is, that. food supplies, such as milk,
meat and bread, are largely allowed to go without inspection. By
this indifference a subtle source of disease is left uncontrolled.
When once the importance of recent investigations in the con-
nection between tubercular disease and the ingestion of diseased
meat has been clearly realised by the public, we may see more
vigilance in this direction than at present exists.
The same indifference applies to trades and trade premises,
except such as are not within the scope of this report, viz., those
in the city of Adelaide and suburbs. It must, however, be said
that the manufacturing industries outside of this centre of
population are very limited in number, and not generally of an
obnoxious character.
4,.—-LoCAL BOARDS.
The circumstance that local boards change their Zexsonne/ more
or less every year is a serious obstacle to sanitary progress. The
members are elected primarily as civic or district councillors, and
mostly for reasons which have no direct relation to sanitary
matters. The most attractive quality which a candidate can
present toa local constituency is a profession of rigid economy,
and that simply means that neither increased taxation nor new-
fangled notions, as they are called, will be indulged in. The
broader principles and larger necessities of good government,
which certainly include systematic sanitation, have no place in
such mens programmes of progress. Hence the prospect of any
rapid expansion in sanitary efficiency is not to be looked for.
Short of local health boards being constituted on an independent
basis, only the rougher phases of sanitary work will be carried on.
Members of these boards should surely possess some acquaintance
with the elementary principles of sanitation, and certainly their
freedom of action should be secured to them on the basis of a
special sanitary rate. When we find local boards, such as Port
Pirie and Clare, disputing the authority of the Central Board on
matters which were patent to any tyro in sanitary knowledge,
the difficulties which bar the way to advancement are very
evident. The difficulties to be overcome then in the case of these
boards lie at the root. Their constitution must be changed. It
is not an ungenerous criticism to say that when material or
monetary interests conflict with even the crudest necessities of the
public health, these boards invariably lend the weight of their
influence to the material. They have yet to prove that they can
act from motives which spring from an intelligent apprehension
of those principles which lie at the foundation of a true providence
over the people.
TOWN SANITATION. 707
5.—THE HEALTH ACTS.
The health acts of the colony consist of the Drain Act of 1873,
two minor amending acts, and the District Councils Act of 1887.
Prior to the passing of the latter act, the Central Board had
direct jurisdiction outside the limits of all corporations. This
jurisdiction has been transferred by the act of 1887 almost
entirely to the district councils.
The existence of the Central Board began with the act of 1873,
and although it has been undoubtedly hampered in many impor-
tant directions by insufficient legal powers, it has overcome
numerous difficulties, and done a great deal of good work. It
cannot be questioned that it has been the means of sweeping away
the grosser and more palpable dangers to health, while it has
educated the people to believe in some degree in the real necessity
of public cleanliness.
The health acts are in several respects too tentative, notably
the District Councils Act just referred to. It may fairly be
doubted whether any colony, such as South Australia, should
commit the administration of its health acts so unreservedly to a
host of small and practically independent local bodies. Sanitary
knowledge is special and always in advance of public opinion, and
it would, therefore, seem to be more reasonable that a body of
men, fitted for the duty and free from popular influences, should
administer its laws.
This position leads to other prejudicial results, and among them
we may refer to the delay in the removal of nuisances. Many of
these boards meet only at intervals of a month, and as the
inspector must first report to his board, and receive his instruc-
tions to serve an order for abatement, weeks must sometimes pass
over before the removal takes place. Meanwhile, it can be
honestly said that the law is at work for its abatement. This
position of things can only be met by investing the inspector with
power to proceed at once on his own judgment against certain
infringements of the acts.
It may as well be noted here that the office of sanitary inspector
to these local boards would be materially strengthened, and
the work be more heartily and effectively done, if the appoint-
ment and removal of these officers were made subject to
confirmation by the Central Board, as in the case of medical
health officers.
The law is further in need of amendment in two other direc-
tions. First, with respect to the notification of infectious
diseases, and in the second place with regard to the possession by
the Central Board of the necessary legal power to deal with
outbreaks of such diseases. The compulsory notification of
infectious diseases formed part of an amending health act
recently before the Legislature, but the clauses having this object
*s2
708 TOWN SANITATION.
were struck out. The purpose of all sanitary work is doubtless
to bring about the extinction of preventible diseases, and if this
point is ever to be reached, then immediate, correct, and syste-
matic information as to the place where and when any outbreak
has arisen must be forthcoming. It is self-evident that unless
the information is speedily transmitted to the proper authority,
the opportunity is lost for the limitation or suppression of the
epidemic. This information cannot, however, be secured without
legislation. The committee admit that they are aware of the
difficulties that seem at present to surround the practical working
of the principle, but they are none the less strongly impressed
with the conviction that there exists a real necessity for compul-
sory notification being brought into operation.
Jointly with compulsory notification, the importance of legal
power being vested in the Central Board to deal with any outbreak
is likewise self-evident. The Central Board has power now to
deal with smallpox, cholera, plague, yellow fever, and leprosy.
Seeing, however, that but one of these diseases, viz., smallpox,
and that in a single instance only, has appeared in the colony,
while other preventible diseases are permitted to stalk abroad, it
is not an unfair inference to say, that with the appearance of
having some legislation, nothing is in reality laid down by the
law having the object of preventing the extension of infectious
diseases. It is to be feared that the indifference that prevails on
this point is due to the misconception that heavy expenses would
be entailed by carrying out stringent regulations of isolation and
quarantine. The actual outlay could not be large, while the
saving effected by the prevention of disease would be very great.
It is very desirable that the central authority should have a
full opportunity of demonstrating to the public the advantages of
checking outbreaks of infectious diseases in their initial stage.
If this could be done, assuredly the public interest in sanitary
work would be stimulated, and with every repetition of such
evidence the public mind would come to appreciate more keenly
the labours of sanitarians in seeking to secure to every member
of the community health and longevity.
It now only remains for the committee to state that the
following documents are on hand for reference should any future
committee, following up the “Town Sanitation” of the other
colonies, desire to do so on the lines suggested in the early part
of this report :—Reports on the towns of Roma, Rockhampton,
Queensland ; Kiama, Bathurst, Lithgow, New South Wales ;
Warrnambool, Ballarat, Clunes, Victoria ; Masterton, Wellington,
New Zealand ; Launceston, Tasmania. Also able reports from
Messrs. W. A. Billing, Esq., F.V.I.A., and Lloyd Taylor, Esq.,
F.R.I.B.A., architects of Melbourne, and George McRue, Esq.,
City Building Surveyor of Sydney, on the Building Acts of
Victoria and New South Wales respectively.
Section I.
LITERATURE AND FINE ARTIS.
President of the Section: Hon. J. W. Agnew, M.D., M.E.C.
1.—ART IN DAILY LIFE.
By Tuomas A. SIsLey.
[ Adstract. |
THE primary meaning of the word Art appears to be “ trained
skill guided by intelligence ;” and it is also applied in a general
sense to the various crafts which require trained skill, as well as
to the results produced. Thus we speak of the art of the gold-
smith or of the ironworker, of the art of painting, and of Japanese
art. But the term has also acquired a special meaning, so that it
is now commonly understood as referring to painting or sculpture,
unless modifying words are used. Indeed, the notion is generally
entertained in the present day that art has nothing to do with
utility, being concerned only with embellishment. The phrase,
“useful as well as ornamental,” shows the prevalence of this
mischievous and quite erroneous idea. We hear also a good deal
about art-furniture and art-fabrics—terms which imply the
assumption that art is a thing to be super-added, and that we
ought not to expect it,unless named in the specification.
Now, it is my purpose to show, in the first place, that art not
only can, but should be associated with utility—nay, more, that
useful things will be all the more useful in proportion as they are
truly artistic. The principle may be formulated in three canons,
as follows :—
1. The first artistic necessity is fitness. The beauty of an
object will always depend on suitability to its right purpose or
function.
‘2. All ornament that interferes with fitness, or is inconsistent
with it, is relatively bad, however beautiful in itself.
3. Nothing, however beautiful, can be artistic unless when put
to its right use amid its right surroundings.
To which may be added the corollary that shams must always
be wrong.
It will, of course, be understood that I do not claim originality
for the ideas involved in these three canons ; they are familiar to
710 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I
all students of art. Nor do I pretend to lay down dogmatic
rules; my object is merely to indicate the principles on which
my remarks are based. ‘ Beauty,” says Lessing, ‘of which we
derive our first notions from material objects, has universal laws,
which apply to many things—to actions and thoughts, as well as
to forms.” And I venture to assert that by applying the rules
here suggested we may all know whether our dwellings and
furniture, our gardens, our costumes, and even our manners and
speech, are in good taste, otherwise artistic, otherwise—for it is
the same thing—rightly pleasing.
Let us first give some attention to architecture, for two
reasons—because it is the oldest, the most important, and the
most universal of the fine arts, and because all other arts of
design are ancillary to it. In the introduction to his great work,
Mr. Fergusson points out that “two wholly different systems of
architecture have prevailed at different periods of the world’s
history. The first is that which prevailed everywhere down to
the time of the Reformation in the 16th century, and still pre-
vails in remote corners of the globe wherever European civilisa-
tion and its influences have not yet penetrated. The other is
that which was introduced with the revival of classic literature,
and still prevades all Europe, and wherever European influence
has established itself. In the first period the art consisted in
designing a building so as to be most suitable and convenient for
the purpose it was wanted for, in arranging the parts so as to
produce the most stately and ornamental effect consistent with
its uses, and applying to it such ornament as should express and
harmonise with the construction, and be appropriate to the
purposes of the building. No race, however rude or remote, has
failed, when working on this system, to produce buildings which
are admired by all who behold them, and are well worthy of the
most attentive consideration. The result of the other system is
widely different. From St. Peter’s at Rome to our own
Parliament Houses, not one building has been produced that is
admitted to have been entirely satisfactory, or which retains a
hold on general admiration.” And the reason of this, according
to Mr. Fergusson, lies in the fact “that no sham was ever
permanently successful, and that the attempt to reproduce any
style which belongs to a state of society totally different from
anything that now exists can never be a real or an earnest form
of art.”
The classic temple was built with one definite object, namely,
to contain the image of a god. We know not precisely how
these temples were lighted ; but certainly they had no windows.
In modern application, therefore, the whole thing is falsified and
the design debased. Gothic architecture belongs properly to
Catholicism ; the high altar was the leading motive in the
construction. Protestantism, which threw down the altar,
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. Tit
abandoned the Gothic style, quite logically and consistently. We
have returned to it, through the influence, I believe, of the High
Church movement, which gave some cause for the revival by
restoring the altar. But, whatever may be said of churches, -
nothing can be more incongruous than the false classical or
pseudo-Gothic forms used for banks, law-courts, or town-halls, the
internal arrangements of which have little or no relation to
their external aspect. We see ringhieras from which no one
ever addresses the populace, balconies on which no one can sit
or walk, turrets from whose narrow loop-holes no watchman spies
the approaching enemy.
Coming now to private houses, we shall very commonly find
that the smaller are best in design, however infamous in con-
struction. Here cost and convenience are prime considerations ;
hence their style is more consistent with common sense, and
therefore with true art. But when something superior is con-
templated people too often go astray. Half-imitations of an
Ttalian villa, a French chateau, or an Elizabethan house, though
possibly handsome enough in themselves, are sure to be uncom-
fortable or to look pretentious and out of place, being more or
less unsuited to our climate and habits. And, since the style
must be modified so as to make the house habitable by modern
people, the result will be a mere counterfeit that cannot be
pleasing to good taste. Weshall see such bad solecisms as flights
of stairs crossing casements, and, still worse, that shocking device
of sham windows or blank window-spaces in the walls. Now,
the weather-board cottage is good in so far as it is a naturally
evolved style. And as the temple grew from the hollowed-out
trunk of a tree through the intermediate stage of the wooden
hut, so might a grand, appropriate, and harmonious order of
colonial domestic architecture proceed from the germ of the
weather-board shanty, by a series of simple, rational improve-
ments and extensions. In forming such a style, the bath-room
and the verandah, which are of especial importance in this
climate, ought, perhaps, to be first considered.
Let us now look at the interior of the ordinary modern house.
The diningroom, being constructed and furnished with one well-
defined, easily comprehended object, will generally be the best
apartment in the house. Men are in earnest about their meals ;
therefore we may expect to find a good solid table, chairs to
correspond, a convenient sideboard—and not much else, because
nothing else is wanted. Therein lies the secret why the dining-
room is usually a pleasant room. It has one distinct function,
and it is actually designed and furnished in strict accordance with
that function, because it is too important to be slighted. But in
the drawingroom we see what is achieved when something more
ethereal is aimed at, when considerations of adornment prevail
over considerations of utility. In a room the eye goes to the
112 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.
hearth as it goes to a dwelling in a landscape. And there, in the
average house, we see scarce anything that is not false or absurd.
First the grate, of which there are three degrees—blacked iron,
bright steel, and iron framework with tiles inserted. The steel
grate is rare enough now, which is a good thing ; for it would be
hard to imagine anything more unsuitable to the purpose than
such a material, involving, as it does, constant care and labour,
and presenting, at its best, a cold and most unpleasant appearance.
The common iron grate, which has to be blacked and _ polished
with infinite pains, is an abomination of lower degree. Then there
is the superior fireplace, with tiles let in to an iron framework.
This appears to me the worst of all, because it is the most preten-
tious and insincere. Like the others, it represents the art of the
furnishing ironmonger. For when he saw that folk were disposed
to revive the good old fashion of the tiled hearth with the grate
standing in it, as properly distinct, he said, ““ Why go to so much
trouble and expense? I can supply the whole article in one piece,
with the tiles all stuck on; you have only to clap it in.” And
the public was delighted, because it always prefers elaborate
combinations and curious devices to what is natural and simple.
The mantelpiece, in its present form, is a modern innovation,
poorly imitated from the slab forming the top of the French stove.
But that is a natural, inevitable thing, and therefore does not cry
loudly for concealment or adornment, while our imperfect imita- _
tion is nothing if not a receptacle for ornaments. Drape and
arrange it as we may, it will never look anything better than a
quite unnecessary shelf for holding superfluous knick-knacks. The
overmantel hardly helps us out of the difficulty, This pigeon-
hole arrangement is at once thrown out of gear if a single article
is wanting in its place ; and it seems far too elaborate and formal
for the trifles that are usually displayed upon it, each in its own
compartment, as if they were of the highest value and importance.
In any case, detached ornaments are far more effective if placed
about with apparent carelessness ; too great a regard for orderly
arrangement suggests the museum or fine-art repository. Never-
theless, the overmantel is an improvement on the old chimney-
glass.
The excessive desire for ornament causes many mistakes.
Results would be far better if the principles of fitness, harmony,
simplicity, and truthfulness were constantly borne in mind. But
these are continually violated. For instance, few people with any
pretension to taste will puta plant growing in an ordinary garden-
pot in their rooms ; the common, ugly garden-pot must be placed
inside one of porcelain—something pretty, with flowers painted
on it. Now, note the absurdity of this practice. The designs on
the china vase, if good enough to be noticed, will confuse the eye
or else attract it quite away from the natural flower, which is the
real ornament ; if inferior, as they usually are, they are worse
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. (le
than redundant. And is the plain garden-pot, simple in design,
unobtrusive and certainly not unpleasing in colour, such a hideous
object after all? In any case, we can substitute a somewhat
similar article in terra-cotta more elegant inform. There cannot
be harmony between the tints of the natural flowers, so pure,
soft, and brilliant, and the comparatively harsh and impure
colours of the porcelain-painter. Lastly, a pot for use inside a
pot for show is an arrangement that cannot be justified.
Among other notable examples of the tawdry effect produced
by undue striving after prettiness are the clocks which have for
their dial a willow-pattern plate, or a sham palette stuck on a
sham easel. Even if the form of the plate or the palette were
convenient for the purpose, it ought to be made clear that adapta-
tion was intended, not imitation. Jugs representing wicker-work
are very bad; and china porcupines with crocuses growing out of
them instead of quills are still worse. Everything must be made
to resemble something else—a pepper-pot like an owl with perfo-
rated cranium, salt-cellars like toy coal-scuttles, with little shovels,
and cruets like perambulators. All this is puerile, and utterly
futile. Then there is the favourite device of a little picture on a
little easel, with a coloured silk handkerchief thrown over the
corner. Surely that is not the proper place for the handkerchief ;
and it would be removed at once if the picture were worth
anything. But you may be quite sure it is not, for the whole
arrangement is a piece of of ridiculous affectation, impossible for
anyone having a right feeling for art.
The rage for drapery is not altogether surprising when we
consider what beautiful designs and colours are now used in
dyeing the most inexpensive textures; but it requires much
moderation. A draped flower-pot, for example, giving the
impression of a plant growing out of a silk bag, is the height of
inartistic absurdity—fit only for a conjuror’s table. As to
window-hangings, it is not creditable to upholsterers that they
should have returned of late years to those very artificial
arrangements, cut in stiff and awkward imitation of natural
folds. Here, again, we perceive the passion for concealment.
What need for hiding the curtain-pole? It need not be unsightly;
while the cumbrous apparatus used for concealing it accumulates
dust and obstructs the light and air.
Ideas of comfort and convenience, when carried to excess, are
inimical to good taste; and some hideous designs in furniture are
attributable to this source. The very worst example, perhaps, is
the 7éte-a-téfe ottoman or arm-chair. The modern practice of
nailing carpets all over the floor is probably due to the notion
that a loose carpet not extending to the walls on each side was
mean and incomplete. It is not immediately apparent how
principles of good taste apply here. But, bearing in mind that
the carpet is not a permanent feature, that it requires to be
714 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.
frequently taken up for the sake of cleanliness, and that the
process of nailing and unnailing it is very laborious, we may
recognise that it is more consistent with fitness and simplicity
that the carpet should be merely laid down. And, that being so,
it is neither necessary nor desirable to cover the floor-space with
painful exactness.
Among other manifest faults in furnishing, I may mention the
application of unsuitable materials and the excessive use of
patterns. _ Brazen rods for supporting delicate sash-blinds, and
chains of brass or steel for looping up curtains, are as appropriate
as a two-inch cable for mooring a cock-boat. In ordinary rooms
you will find that wall-paper, curtains, carpet, upholstery, mats,
table-covers, drapery and other accessories, present, perhaps, a
dozen different patterns, or more. It would be wonderful if half
of them could be harmonious ; and the effect would be far more
pleasing and soothing to the eye if self-colours were used wherever
possible—for table-covers and curtains, at all events.
This excessive use of patterns arises from the notion that plain
things are not pleasing. The sense of form, which was paramount
with the Greeks and other artistic peoples, is now well-nigh lost ;
and the eye must be tickled with ornament. Thus we see spindle-
work applied at random to all articles of furniture, showing
woeful poverty of constructive design. Patterns and other
ornamental devices are also extensively used in order to conceal
or disguise inferiority of material.
The number of false contrivances and elaborate combinations
goes on increasing daily, in spite of pretended esthetic feeling.
It would almost appear that shams are loved for their own sweet
sake, as well as because they are considered more elegant than
plain reality. Many of them are mere survivals, portions of
complex constructions retained long after they have lost their use
or significance, like the heavy leather plastron, representing the
reverse of the old coat, which the French grenadiers and voltigeurs
used to button over their chests. Such things are continued in a
falsified form because people cannot bear to give up anything in
the nature of ornament ; although, rightly regarded, whatever has
become redundant is a disfigurement.
In our time the old national and local styles have almost all
died out ; so that we have to rely on thought and fancy instead
of habit, on selection instead of sound and wholesome tradition,
Therefore, we scour the earth and ransack antiquity to find what
will serve the turn, perhaps with violent modification ; and the
inordinate love of novelty prompts the selection of what is new
and striking, rather than of what is fit and harmonious. We
shall never do any good in this way, nor, indeed, until we first
consider our climate and other peculiar conditions, our social
state and our daily needs. Domestic art will never flourish until
it is founded on these and thoroughly in accordance with them,
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. 715
nor until it abandons ignoble shams and foolish imitations,
keeping constantly in view simplicity, fitness, harmony, and
truth,
2.—THE MIDDLE VERB IN LATIN.
By Henry Betcuer, M.A., LL.D.
Section J.
ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING.
President of the Section: Professor W. H. Warren, M.Inst.C.E.,
University of Sydney.
1—GAS-LIGHTING AND ITS FITTINGS.
By A. U. Lewis, B.A.
[ Abstract. |
THE paper commenced by describing and explaining gas itself,
and went on to show how the mysterious heavy gas bills are
caused. The writer pointed out that, owing to the different
altitudes to which the various gas companies have to supply gas,
* it is impossible for them to give consumers the pressure as it
should be—namely, half-inch, and that it rests, consequently,
with every individual consumer to regulate the supply for himself
by means of an automatic governor attached to the meter. The
author condemned the custom of employing plumbers for work in
connection with gas, and said that gasfitters only should be
entrusted with such work, as plumbers, taken as a whole, knew
little or nothing about the scientific principies of gas.
UTILISATION.
The typical mode of sub-division I have already alluded to,
and it is very useful from the “pay your money, take your
choice,” and “do as you like” point of view. Blind chance
in such a case determines the future of each street of block, and
the game of “beggar my neighbour” is too often played by
adjoining owners with opposing views or interests in the buildings
they erect. It isacase of individualism run mad. And with
no better result than that in the course of years, and after many
rebuildings, some kind of order and classification will have been
evolved out of the chaos of the commencement. Whereas it
Teo PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J,
should not be forgotten a modern town is an organism with
distinct functions for its different members requiring separate
treatment, and it is just as easy to allot these to suitable
positions at first, as to allow them to be shaken with more or less
difficulty into place, while the final result obtained under the
latter system is not to be compared with that of the first—either
on the score of convenience, utility, or beauty. It will be
conceded without dispute that the centre round which town life
revolves is the seat of its government, hence the town-hall should
be allotted the best and most central position. Closely adjoining
it sites should be reserved for other public buildings, such as the
post-office, court-house, and district land office, and near by
opportunities should be given for the erection of semi-public
buildings, such as banks, offices of public companies, theatres, and
places of amusement, hotels, clubs, and possibly one or two
churches, though the latter are best located in the residential
districts. The buildings most used by the population would thus
be grouped together, and a great saving in traffic effected, as
compared with the present plan of haphazard distribution. To
prevent congestion, the absolute centre should form an open
reserve, and from this broad and direct roads, or boulevards,
should radiate to the surrounding country, the railway station, or
navigable river. The exact lines these should take can only
be determined after careful study of each specific case.
Now fill in between these radiating boulevards with ordinary
streets, and with the addition of a few diagonal lines
we shall obtain a plan far more useful for inter-communication
than any arranged on a _ rectangular basis. In fact, it
will resemble that marvel of ingenuity, a spider’s web, than
which nothing could be better devised for rapid access to all
parts of its surface. Immediately around the central nucleus the
business quarters would be located, while retail trade would
naturally extend for some distance along the main arteries of
traffic; and farther out, as the spaces between the main lines
became wider, the residental quarters would find their place.
But these ehould not be extended too far without a break, and if
the admirable example of Adelaide could be followed by
introducing a belt of parklands, the gain to the health of the
town or city would be great. Beyond this belt of open ground,
as the town increased in size, suburbs would naturally spring up,
and these, according to local conditions of soil, elevation and
accessibility to rail or water communication, would naturally
subdivide themselves into residential or manufacturing. One of
the latter should, in all cases, be restricted to the use of noxious
trades. The question how far the heart of the town should be
placed from the railway or river is an open one, and it would
probably result, in many cases, that rail or river would form a
chord, cutting off a considerable part of the complete circle. The
ee
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 733:
foregoing ideal sketch assumes a fairly level site, but where this
condition is absent the gradients should be most carefully con-
sidered. And here, again, the cast-iron uniformity of the chess-
board type shows its entire unsuitability to varying natural
conditions. I have in my mind’s eye ludicrous examples of this.
For instance, there is a fairly level cathedral city in New South
Wales, possessing towards one corner a steep hill from which
there is a beautiful view. This would have formed a most
admirable reserve, but it so happens that two streets intersect
exactly at the top of the hill. They are too steep for traftic, and
hence the town council is compelled to laboriously cut away the
very boon which nature had provided the city with. Again, at a
health resort on the Blue Mountains, most irregular and
diversified in contour, the chess-board plan has produced streets
up and down which it is difficult even to walk, and for horse
traffic they are practically impassable, whereas by the use of
curved roads following the natural configuration of the hills, easy
gradients could have been obtained at a tithe of the cost for
construction, and they would also have been immeasurably more
useful to the inhabitants.
DECORATION.
The beauty, or otherwise, of town or city must have an effect
on its inhabitants. The long, unlovely street pictured by our
poet laureate could not but depress even the least sensitive of its
residents, and the evil is aggravated when, as in a chess-board
city, the streets are all alike. Now, the “spider’s web” plan
possesses not only the advantage of convenience, but also of
variety, and we all know that “variety is charming.” Scarcely
any two of the blocks would be exactly the same size, the angles
made by the streets with each other would differ, and these
together with the trapezoidal allotments, would call for special
treatment. In the hands of an architect who knows how to use
it, an irregular site is a godsend. Such a site enables him to get
out of the beaten track, and design something fresh and original,
while even the tyro cannot make his structure absolutely like
everything else. Then as to the streets—their width should be
ample, both on the score of health and beauty, but they should
not be all the same. Taking one chain as a minimum for side
streets, three chains are not too great for the main arteries or
boulevards. This width would allow of their subdivision into
three roads, with intervening footpaths and rows of trees, the
central road being paved for heavy traflic and tram lines. There
are some examples of this type in Melbourne, and their manifold
advantages will be more and more appreciated as population
increases. And, in passing, let me pay a tribute of praise to the
vigorous way in which the municipal councils of Victoria have
734 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.
carried out tree-planting in the streets, and in that respect
Ballarat may, I think, be awarded the place of honour. In com-
parison, the attempts made in the other colonies are but half
hearted, though I hope the time will soon come when they will
emulate the good example set by Victoria. Moreover, the intro-
duction of trees in large numbers in the heart of cities is a wise
sanitary precaution, for the carbonic acid gas human beings
exhale is absorbed by vegetation, which in turn gives off the
oxygen we need. Hitherto I have only referred to straight
streets set at irregular angles, let me now put in a word as to
the advantages of curved lines. | It is said that ‘“‘ Nature abhors
a straight line,” and so does art unless relieved by curves. As a
source of beauty the curved line is of inestimable value. Imagine
what Collins Street would be without its undulation of surface !
It is that which gives it the charm it possesses. On a level or
nearly level site a curve in plan may often be introduced with the
greatest advantage. It may be detined formally and regularly as
in a quadrant or circus, or so gentle in its sweep as to be scarcely
perceptible at the first glance. Of the former I may instance the
quadrant in Regent Street, London, and the latter that exquisite
example the High Street at Oxford. To carry the principle still
farther, a sinuous line may occasionally be found serviceable
where local conditions permit, and of this there is no finer speci-
men in the world than the Grand Canal at Venice, though to be
sure it is a water-way, but for all that is the chief street of the
city of the sea. The Strand in London is another example, and
even in this southern hemisphere I may refer with satisfaction to
the irregular lines of George and King Streets in Sydney. In all
these the continual unfolding of fresh views is the great charm,
and for my part I am devoutly thankful that one or two at least
of the old Sydney streets were formed by bullock-waggons rather
than by the surveyor’s chain. Their narrowness I do not defend,
but that is quite another matter. In planning a new town,
however, it should never be forgotten that a curve ought only to
be laid down when it serves a practical purpose, and in more
cases than at first appear likely it will be found to serve the
purposes of communication better than a straight line, especially
in easing off the connections of one street with another. I have
already alluded to reserves, and on this point there is usually
little fault to be found with Australian towns, as far as the mere
amount of them is concerned, but their shape is nearly always the
prosaic square or rectangle, in which there is no beauty. Further-
more, the worst is made of them by running roads along the four
sides, instead of leading up to them. Now, instead of this, in the
spider’s web plan there is the possibility of introducing reserves
of all shapes and sizes, and so securing variety of form. Again,
wherever a number of streets converge there should be an enlarge-
ment of the area, with a refuge in the centre. What this means
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 735
in the future can only be realised by those who have seen and
observed the planning of the new quarters in the continental
cities of Europe. It is of the greatest value for traffic, and of
inestimable worth for architectural effect. And of these enlarge-
ments the central square or reserve would of necessity be the
finest. Such a grouping of public buildings around it as I have
suggested would give importance to even a small town, and form
another example of the value of combination as opposed to
separation. Together, their effect would be doubled; separated,
it would be halved.
LEGISLATION.
Where a new town is laid out on Government land it would be
easy to adopt a new system of planning, but I have little hope in
this direction. The bonds of routine are too strong. In those
laid out by private enterprise, the principal and, I may almost
say, only aim is to produce the greatest cash return at the lowest
outlay. At present it is believed this may be done by the
rectangular system. On the ground of the public health and
well-being, I think it is perfectly legitimate that the almost
absolute freedom to lay out a town anywhere, and in any fashion,
should be somewhat limited, and such limitation would prove in
the end a gain to the promoters as well as to the public. I would
therefore suggest the following regulations as reasonable :—1.
That the erection of buildings for human occupation be absolutely
prohibited on flooded land; 2. That no town be laid out on soil
of unhealthy character, such as a morass or over an impervious
subsoil; 3. That no title be registered for any allotment less than
1-20th of an acre in area, and that no lease containing a building
covenant be valid for any site of less area (the object of this
clause is to limit density of population and insanitary conditions) ;
4, That the area of streets and reserves be equal to one-third the
area leased or sold for occupation; 5. That no town or suburb
contain a greater area than one square mile, with a belt of
reserved land at least 3th of a mile in width between the same and
the adjoining suburb; 6. That before any land is sold or leased
in allotments, if less than one acre in area, official sanction to the
plans be obtained, and that this sanction be withheld unless a
satisfactory scheme of drainage and water supply be submitted at
the same time, but for future realisation. At the present time,
when it is beginning to be understood that the land is the heritage
of the whole people, and its absolute ownership is permitted to
individuals only as a matter of convenience, the right of the
community to enforce provisions against misuse is, I think,
undoubted ; and when this misuse takes so glaring a form as
originating conditions that must inevitably tend to produce
diseases it is the absolute duty of the State to interfere. As in
medicine, so in legislation, “‘ Prevention is better than cure.”
736 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.
REALISATION.
The scheme I have propounded is no ideal one; it is quite
within the sphere of practical politics, and if anything is to be
done a commencement should be made at once. It is a matter
not only affecting one colony, but all, and the meeting of this
Association affords the opportunity to take action. A recom-
mendation to the Government of each colony from such a body
as the General Council, backed up by the personal influence of its
members, would at least secure attention. And if, at the same
time, the general public could be instructed through the Press, a
great advance would become possible, more especially as I believe
the time is ripe fora change. The evils of the old “ happy-go-
lucky” system are beginning to be felt, and already, in at least
two instances, private corporations are taking the initiative. I
refer to the well-arranged suburb of Kensington, near Sydney,
the plan of which I have carefully examined and can highly
recommend; and to that of Hopetoun, near Melbourne, of which
I know less. The plans of Kensington were designed by an
architect, laid out by a surveyor, and checked by an engineer.
This is as it should be. The architect is the one man who by
training and experience combines in himself a knowledge of all
the conditions of town-planning, and to him should be entrusted
the task of initiation. He is, or should be, conversant with all
kinds of buildings and their requirements, the general principles
of form and beauty, the devising of good lines of access and
communication, and the requirements of sanitary science. At
the same time, the surveyor should be jointly associated with the
architect, as he has a practical acquaintance with the details of
laying-out, and would naturally carry forward the scheme to
completion in the field ; while the engineer comes in as a valued
and necessary specialist on the questions of drainage and water
supply, &e. I therefore claim, on behalf of my professicn, the
honoured position we once occupied, but froin which we have been
too long excluded, viz., that of chief designers of our towns and
cities, and this claim is being recognised. Those shrewd business
men, the auctioneers and land agents of Melbourne and Sydney,
are beginning to appreciate the aid we can give, as they find that
it Jays. The field thus opening is one that will require the highest
skill, and may well satisfy the ambition of the most talented
among us; and if, at the same time, we can secure the aid of
such legislation as I have indicated, we may indulge in the hope
that the towns of the future will far surpass those of the present
in convenience, healthfulness, and beauty.
7.—ILLUMINATING PUBLIC CLOCKS.
By Sypney Gippons, F.C.8.
lod
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 137
8._SAFETY APPLIANCES ON STEAM BOILERS.
By A. O. Sacuse, C.E., M.E., M.S.E., London, F.R.G.S.
[ Abstract. |
Tue paper refers particularly to the perfunctory manner and
“ penny-wise pound-foolish” policy in which steam boilers are
mounted with safety appliances. Mountings are sometimes used,
_ sometimes not (just in accordance with specifications), irrespective,
in most instances, of the exact capacity or requirements of the
special pattern of the boiler, its method of setting, quality, or
kind of fuel to be used, and other local peculiarities ; and thus it
is that the same sized mountings of orthodox patterns are placed
on boilers of different sizes and peculiarities.
The writer refers at length to the many defects in the design
and adjustment of such apparatus as are now in use, dilating
particularly on the unreliability of low water metallic plugs
and whistle alarms, and strongly deprecates the crass inatten-
tion to the safety valves, and the unsuitability of some of
the materials of their construction. He, moreover, advocates a
dual system of pressure gauge dials and water glasses; and
expresses a high opinion of the value of a late invention of an
automatic safety apparatus, which, by means of a float appliance,
ingeniously connected with a battery, an alarm is given to the
attendant when a “low” or “high” level of water or undue
pressure of steam is attained, and if required registering in a
manager’s office, or other convenient position, an undeniable
record of the height or pressure which the water or steam had
attained ; the probability of oxidation to contact points being
obviated in this invention by the use of diminutive mercury
baths. ‘
Such a system as the latter, he predicts, will be found very
valuable, as not only does its use call the immediate attention of
the stoker to a sense of his duty, by the alarm (which is
sounded at low water level, or undue pressure limit,) but, if this
is disregarded, a second alarm commences, and at the same time
records against him to his superior officer, thus bringing the
culprit immediately under the notice of his employer. Finally,
the author emphasises the importance of a strict care in specifying
all steam boiler safety fittings, and a close periodical scrutiny of
their adjustment and condition, and, in conclusion, advises all
intending users of steam to erect boilers of /arger capacity than
is actually requisite at the time, so that easy stoking, a thorough
combustion (and consequently an economy) of fuel will be
obtained over those steam boilers which have to be driven to
their utmost, and strained in being made to give forth their
maximum power.
*G
738 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.
9.—COMPRESSED AIR AS A MECHANICAL MEDIUM
IN THE EVAPORATION OF LIQUIDS.
By A. O. Sacusz, C.E., M.E., M.S.E. Lond., F.R.G.S8., &e.
[ Abstract. |
In dealing with this subject, the author of the paper pointed out
that there was no thoroughly satisfactory system of evaporating
liquids at low temperatures yet.engineered. In the present method
of boiling by open heat at a minimum temperature of 212 deg. F.,
he explained that many liquids of commercial manufacture were
seriously damaged, principally by caramelisation, such as in the
manufacture of sugar, the concentration of milk, meat extracts,
and similar substances requiring condensation. After giving a
careful consideration to the vacuum-pan systems, the author
referred to extensive experiments conducted by him during the
past 12 years, in which he made use of compressed air, injected
into the body of a liquid (which was kept at a temperature of
150 to 170 deg.), to produce a mechanical or artificial ebullition.
The paper dwelt upon the success of these trials over the
vacuum process, and called attention to the advantage of this
system in regard to the liquid under treatment, being at all times
exposed to view, and skimming could be freely practised ; whilst
in existing vacuum “double” and “triple” effects the removal of
impurities was a matter of impossibility, which was most injurious
to the successful manufacture of many articles of food, and that
in some districts large quantities of cold water for vacuum main-
tenance were unobtainable.
But whilst giving the compressed-air process much praise, he
stated that the mechanisms now to be obtained for delivering
dry air under pressure were unsatisfactory ; and as air-pumps
were inefficacious for supplying large quantities of air, resort had
to be made to rotary blowers, which latter exhibited many dis-
advantages, principally on account of the great noise produced by
them when working. Contrary to his expectations, he found that
hot air when used produced less evaporative results than that
taken in from the ordinary atmosphere. He advocated a careful
research into the working of this peculiar system of evaporation,
and demonstrated what a boon its successful application would
prove to manufacturers dealing with liquid products requiring
condensation, and especially so to proprietors of small installa-
tions, where the heavy cost of purchase and working rendered the
adoption of the vacuum process prohibitive.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 739
10.—CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF
METALLED ROADS.
By Wiuiam Bace, M.C.E.
| Abstract. |
In deciding what construction to adopt, one must consider the
nature and extent of the traffic upon a road. ~What is required,
in addition to a good route and easy gradients, is a smooth
surface, sound enough to carry the traffic, and one that can be
made and maintained at the least ultimate cost. Where traffic is
light the natural surface may answer, or by small expense in
drainage and formation may be made to answer; as the traffic
increases, 1t may be necessary to use selected local materials to
cover the formation ; and, where this is not sufficient, to metal.
As traftic becomes heavier, repairs and renewals become more
frequent, until the metalled surface no longer satisfies the require-
ment of a smooth surface, the traflic being frequently harassed
during the progress of repairs, and the ultimate cost comes to
exceed that of a more permanent road, such as stone, hardwood,
or asphalt paving upon a concrete foundation.
In constructing a metalled road, the bed below the road should
be sufficiently sound to bear the traftic without sinking, and can
generally be made so by draining and consolidating with roller,
or otherwise, before putting on the bed-metal. Where soft clay
or sand is met with, a layer of loam or turf, or even cut scrub, is
often sufficient to prevent it working up into the metal bed. It
is not an uncommon practice to cover sand with clay, but it makes
a very objectionable foundation. Sand itself is a good founda-
tion. It should be prevented from working up into the metal
from below, and the borders should be covered to prevent it
drifting on to the surface of the metal. The same curvature
should be given to the bed as you give to the finished surface of
the roadway ; a slope of about 1 in 30 from the edges is generally
sufficient, and the same slope should be given to the border, if
any, between the metal and the channel or water-table.
The bed-metal, when properly laid and consolidated, should be
permanent and require no maintenance; its duty is to act as a
foundation to bear and distribute the weight of the traffic. It
need not be of so hard a stone as the surface-metal, and is usually
broken to a larger gauge—3}-inch and 4-inch metal is very
commonly used, but a smaller size is better. It should be well
rolled when spread. The depth depends upon the nature of the
traffic and the soundness of the bed, but 5 inches is deep enough
in most cases. If schist or other soft stone be used it consoli-
dates more rapidly. Good schist metal is being extensively used
for bed-metal in many of our suburban streets, and gives very
*u2
740 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.
good results, being cheaper than bluestone, more elastic, and
quite strong enough as a bearing surface. Occasionally pitching
is necessary where, with heavy traftic, the bed is too soft to bear
broken metal, but, if resorted to, should be proper Telford pitching,
wedge-shaped stones on edge, with the narrow edge uppermost,
laid in regular courses across the ro oad, breaking bond, and care-
fully hammer-packed with spalls. Rough-pitching is a good deal
used, but I cannot reconcile it with my notions of good road-
making.
The surface-metal should be of a hard and durable material,
and requires renewal from time to time as it is worn away by the
trafic. How to reduce this wear to a minimum is one of the
important problems of road-making, and can best be studied by
observing the chief causes of wear, especially those due to faulty
construction or insufficient care in maintenance. Until a road
is consolidated, the metal below the surface, as it is disturbed
by traffic, is being crushed and injured; after consolidation this
wear ceases as long as the upper surface or skin of the road
remains unbroken. Any loose stones, sand, mud, or water, lying
on the surface increase wear, and should not be allowed to
remain. Loose stones, projections and hollows also cause con-
cussion from wheels passing over them, and tend to wear and
break the surface.
The surface-metal should be broken to a small guage, 2-inch, or
at the most, 24-inch. Opinions differ as to the relative
advantages of machine-broken and hand-broken metal; the
oO
advantage of the former is that it costs less and consolidates more
rapidly i on the other hand, it is claimed that it is not so cubical
or durable as the latter, being injured by crushing in being
broken by machine. The hand-broken metal has to be crushed
by traflic or roller before it consolidates, and I doubt if it is then
any more durable.
The surface-metal should be spread and raked to its proper sec-
tion, the same transverse slope being given as to the bed; large stones
should be broken down with the hammer; the road should then be
rolled until consolidated, all hollows must be filled up as they appear,
and after partial consolidation, blinding added in sufficient quantity
to fill all interstices in the surface ; but care should be taken in the
selection of blinding-material. Screenings from the stone crusher
answer the purpose well, and so do some loams and marls; but
one often sees most objectionable material used, such as sand,
clay, or even the sweepings of gutters. During rolling in dry
weather it is often necessary to water. Want of sufficient rolling
is the cause of many of our bad roads; a steam-roller is much
more rapid and effectual than a horse-roller, and is an economical
investment for any municipality spending much money upon
metalled roads, if the bridges and roads are good enough for it to
travel upon.
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 741
Roads require constant care and attention to keep the surface
smooth. Remove loose stones, mud and dust, attend to hollows,
never allow water to stand on the surface, and by careful
attention to drains and culverts, keep the subsoil well drained
and the surface-water off the metal. Maintenance-metal should
be of small gauge, certainly not more than 2-inch, and is added
either by patching and darning, or by sheeting the whole surface ;
in either case the surface to be treated should be disturbed by
picking, and the patches of new metal should be frequently
attended to until they have consolidated. Autumn and winter
- are the seasons for systematic renewal and repair of road surface,
spring and summer best for construction.
The borders between the metal track and the water-tables or
channels should be kept in good order, to encourage light traffic
upon them. On many roads they cannot be used, owing to the
mitre drains not being covered.
In conclusion, I wish to draw special attention to the advantage
of using metal of small gauge, and of consolidating rapidly by
rolling and blinding, continuing the rolling until the road is
thoroughly consolidated, and not attempting to roll too great a
thickness of metal at once ; and to the great economy of constant
instead of periodic maintenance, and the employment of careful
and well-trained maintenance men.
11.—THE UTILISATION OF TIDAL ENERGY AS A
CONTINUOUS MOTIVE POWER.
By I. Diamant, C.E.
| Abstract. |
Various methods have been invented to utilise tidal energy as a
motive power, but up to the present time no great practical
utility has been obtained. There are two prominent difficulties
in utilising the power of the tides. i. The development of motive
power out of tidal energy is only possible in certain localities.
2. We depend on the fluctuations as well as on the variable
periodical returns of the tides. With regard to the first point, we
know that the progress made in using electricity modities these
conditions gradually, because the comparatively costless water-
power may be employed to generate electricity, which may be
conveniently conveyed or stored for consumption.
With regard to the second point, we know that whatever
means have been adopted, it was always necessary to allow a
certain period of rest for the motors in order to obtain any effec-
tive head between the restrained and free waters. On the other
742 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.
hand, the tides have their own variable times, which do not
conform with the ordinary hours of everyday work. The object
of this invention is to overcome the last ditliculties, and its peculiar
feature is that the motors do their work continuously without
interruption, consequently we become independent of the daily
variations of the tides. This method consists essentially in the
employment of a pair of reservoirs formed by “dal dams,
constructed of shutters for the principal tidal dam to open and
close automatically at will, an arrangement proposed for the tur-
bines (similar to that adopted for accumulators), in forcing water
beneath their bearings so that they may be abie to follow the
changing level or the sea either gradually or at intervals. Each
dam is connected with turbines or other water motors arranged
to work ; when the water is flowing into as well as flowing out of
the said reservoirs.
Through gradual and alternate emptying and filling of these
two reservoirs the motors are kept in motion in a continuous
and uninterrupted manner. Both reservoirs are able to produce
a certain number of horsepower during thirty-six working hours.
The general remarks made by Mr. Diamant concern the con-
struction of the reservoirs, installation of motors, and the con-
struction of a temporary bridge along the breech of the principal
tidal dam in order to lower the caissons in an easy aud conveni-
ent manner.
12.—DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
AND ENGINEERING.
By F. C. JARRETT.
[ ddstract. |
As science is simply knowledge, the more lucidly that knowledge
is conveyed the more clearly does the writer evidence the mental
process by which he has worked. The advance of science has
been so rapid that we are apt to under-estimate the undiscovered
field still before us. Thomas Carlyle says, “The eye sees what it
brings the power to see.” This must be applied not only to the
work of the specialist who devotes a lifetime to the pursuit of
one study, but to the simplest forms of education which we know.
The power to see is, after all, the power which education gives us
to see. There is no practical end to discovery or study. Nature
is not exhausted. Discovery has recently given us gutta-percha,
asphaltum, and natural gas. Study has made iron trebly valuable
as steel in various forms. The whole history of the past, written
in stone, repeats to us ever the one lesson. Art is greater than
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 743
science, for science discovers while art creates. What is man
without his shoes, his house, his clothing? Nature enables him
to adapt what she provides, and the development of this adapta-
tion is higher and higher refinement, and refinement is the
threshold of all discovery. The history of architecture and
engineering, written in the records of stone, and brick, and
cement, from whatever part of the world we select our study,
tells us that the advance from barbarism to civilisation was
recorded in the building and engineering work itself just as it
progressed. Greece has handed us down the purest examples of
her refinement, Rome of her grasp of sanitary science in the noble
aqueducts, and of the energy and. commercial progress of her
people in the causeways tothe city. The Hindoo, in his temples
of massive and solemn design, speaks of his estimate of nature
which surrounded him. The decadence and ruin of the Roman
Empire is shown in the almost complete loss of her architectural
and engineering greatness, and by the long period of sem-
barbarous rule which followed, and of the generations which came
and went before the skilled mason again left his almost indelible
record upon stone. Though the present teems with importance,
in the past we have cause and effect sketched out before us in
undeniable portraiture ; and while in the present we are creating
further illustrations for the ages to come, we are all too slavishly
following some of the lessons of the past, while we disregard the
more important altogether. Almost every man is guided by the
opinion of others. Opinion is generally a matter of education,
and we are constantly experiencing the fact that we have to
unlearn much, and that this is a harder process than to go from
absolute ignorance to knowledge. There is much which we have
to alter and adapt, and which on that account we neglect. We
slavishly copy “styles ;” we are not free to create. Education is
at fault here. Progress in the past shows that excellent work
was the outcome of the increasing intelligence or knowledge of
the people. Art was generally understood, the youth of the times
were educated carefully, and among those nations where the
masses of the people remained in ignorance the class of work
produced was inferior. We have, in some measure, recognised
the principle thus taught us in the compulsory education of
children for a certain number of years, and we can find a modern
instance of a nation having proved a nation of soldiers, since
every man is trained to service for a certain number of years.
We do not properly apply the lessons which thus surround us ;
we copy “styles” slavishly, and disfigure our streets with
inappropriate monuments of our wealth, and deaf to the history
which those styles repeat to us, we do not avail ourselves of the
methods by which those high states of architecture were reached.
The people reared the temples and churches and cathedrals of the
past because their religious teaching showed them that this was
744 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J.
required of them. The work displayed the fervency of the
workers—the fervency was the work of education. While the old
world surpassed us in the beauty and magnificence of its temples
and public buildings, its inhabitants knew nothing of the pleasures
and comforts of homes such as we enjoy. Athens, with its
Parthenon and its temples, had no house for prince or merchant
which could compare in comfort and convenience with the cottage
of the artisan, which lets to-day in and around this city for 10s.
to 15s. per week. This is called the iron age, because we have
adapted iron and steel to all forms of building construction in
place of the more massive and enduring works of stone of the
ages in which the very roofs were built of stone. Venice, with
its splendid public and private buildings, speaks to us of the
wealth of its inhabitants, and the foundations rising out of the
water itself are a marvel of the skill of builders whose stone
temples, resting upon them, are to-day almost untouched by time.
We have scarcely anything that is new. We find records of a
patent fire-proof wire lathing, dated 1797, and the page of history
has yet to be written which shall tell of the absolutely successful
application of fire-proof building materials. The worthy president
of this section, in a recent speech in Sydney, referred to the
registration of architects and engineers as a desirable thing, and
I make that remark the basis of an application of some thoughts
which this paper suggests. We require to make the knowledge
of these sciences of architecture and engineering a greater power
in our land. Can we do that by registration? I doubt it. Enact-
ments which constrain men in their occupations, or which make
it more difficult for them to develop such talents as they feel
themselves to possess in practising any avocation, are so un-English
that the public, whose will makes these enactments, are slow to
consent to them, or, in consenting to them, run to another
extreme, and create a greater evil. Registration may come by-
and-bye, and I hope it will; but the true basis of such a develop-
ment must be the education of the masses, the thorough training
of the artisans, and the introduction of building acts which will
compel the use, in the interests of health and happiness, of these
discoveries which science has handed down to us, or is still
opening to us day by day. Let it be made impossible for any
man to construct a building, however insignificant or wherever
situated, which shall be deficient in ample provision for lighting,
drainage, heating, and ventilation, or which is constructively
deficient in strength or in provisions in case of fire, and the
owners who need the services of architects will speedily discover
that their best interests lie in the employment of the highest skill
which is available. The processes which will lead to amendment
will be slow of achievement ; our people must be educated. A
great work was inaugurated in this city by the late Francis
Ormond, but the proper education of the artisan is of itself
PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 745
insufficient ; the men who direct the labours of these artisans
will need to be educated to a higher standard. The work must
commence at the bottom of the tree, and go steadily upward ;
there will always be plenty of room at the top. The chair of
architecture at our universities, and the professorship of
engineering, must denote the nationally recognised importance of
the education of these professions. It must become imperative,
from the irresistible force of custom, for the would-be architect or
engineer to pass a course of study, and come forth to the world
certificated as competent. This result cannot be achieved in a
day or a year, or a decade, but a generation may see much
accomplished. It must be achieved by the higher education of
the masses. Our public State schools should be the mediums
through which every boy and girl would be made acquainted with
the laws which govern health, and those which provide sufficient
ventilation, of others which guard against the dangers of inefficient
drainage and general sanitary provisions. They should be made
to understand that a non-observance of these laws which will be
treated as a misdemeanour and offence against society, which
cannot with impunity be disregarded. These are the only steps
by which the people of this great nation, the future federated
Australia, will be enabled to write a page in the world’s history
which will tell how science advanced, and how that advance
improved the building and engineering work of the twentieth
century. Much more may presently be done towards this in the
establishment of national institutes, of which this Association is
the type and, we hope, the parent of all. There should be one
institute of architects, with its provincial chapters, numerous
builders’ exchanges, with one national association holding an
annual convention ; an engineering institute which should be
Australasian, with vigorous offshoots in every city in the country
—and for an example we need only look to Newcastle in New
South Wales to-day—and a determined purpose in all these to make
the national] spirit of their work the predominant idea in their
discussions, and their central and, perhaps, annual gatherings, the
notches by which the next hundred years may record the fact
in stone and iron that Australasia was abreast and even ahead of
the rest of the world in its vigour, intelligence, and scientific
knowledge.
ra Wy of ¢ &
j= ye my
Peay =
fa oat
i qe { s
\E
oh
Te ae eae aa
Fe . Wy yeudea te eowraaTaFOE/
a
pesmi yin wern(h Jes eritentint ods deen hh ode ect .
dasrian’ Ath Obes cly yale nen a arhyret! Hey) Eva secoa ty 9)
‘apietie velidiind olay Sannin dose thay ayehclhati
io becl* onl: FEET LL PU AIS Heir je nil As
% it eatedae PAO ay AOS ONT MT OY, Soul
Sin ihege au al Unaiepeteout elt iy OLAGT ndd oiduroly eee a
jae tern ‘axodlt | ‘toe
i) etal: oeligen
Ohi: add ot dir son ati EDR Joy getiod ue eetae
fe) #1 Puyre arti fe i dete slept opty Ste Lege we awe
Chines ak eae YannY) crceeaéaereny eel satel Lainie er ae eee ee
o Hedtwotbe, wabpix) auth nk fannie a. oes
thon wit at biota jelooudien. panae host hep a ae
bear batt ban pheatehypiies ack Mimo! berg This yod Yve Beer wy
PCOTT aL ren i oe eee \huy dttisagh run vote ut
un bite ii weeutonle, oct ech ete aide eee
tteuel Ath aateieotng Vaha Igee
pbehivde sored catak eens ite credo ction aaa
doithw: ordarqaa tacts wnsto. baa tab mbes he
“din: whiten Gilt) te ead Lol Lie er eR chy, Wel
“VAD ET Au preie Cite rath, Saray al Iie
"a's $oatiin “an (ee d he “ort tat {i
« ]
Li eit TIAL Lt ore AIT Bo vend
fait 4 ! o “{]a rif “1 aS ef: SiG sob
ceryet ; 15} ‘i %) (LA j Lb! al ral {fs
Ly payee Vy | we LICE a Tats initnifa dae
{ / : ; . ts fey “ENT ar ven it if }
roriinoees Sule 1 : te ‘pod Tee (nest Tees to Db Date
i ode oral shaded brut, orld Uso nag .
Madan, inion id tic: 2) tenes ;
i ; Ce
‘iy ware Th Tet. Ae aoe ‘duel
Pe By
‘yi f I f { fe DEMO ieee > ee rural
rts fay Oy ah aoiialio atrlénie Ao
\ ‘ y nil 3 } OP): by : Shey ens hi pc
) Ay OTT RECT THT nic bind on on bit). (a0
Th } isi funte
ts
i \ ‘A
hoon lace
hy i Libiean oad
\ ‘
a *
i
i . e
; s
‘ Shee
‘
ra
4
INDEX.
Aborigines of North-Western Australia, Marriage Laws of the,
“Hon. J. Forrest : cae
Aborigines of Tasmania, James Bad
Aborigines of Victoria, Rev. J. Mathew Fe
Acclimatisation in Victoria, W. H. D. Le Souef :
A@sculin in Bursaria spinosa, On the Occurrence of, Prof. mae
Agriculture and Engineering, Development of, F. C. Jarrett
Ainus of North Japan, Prof. Odlum
An Industrial Federal Debt, J. J. Fenton
Annelid Formation in Queensland, Notes on an, James Smith
Antarctic Exploration, Crawford Pasco
Antarctic Whaling in the Old Days, J. J. Shilling law
oe anion of Chemical Control to a Manufacturing Business,
Ed. W. Knox ...
Application of Photography is Gealngieal Work, J. H. Harvey
Arboriculture as a Science in Australia, Claims of, W. Brown
Arrangement of a Galvanometer, Remarks on the, E. F. J. Love...
Art in Daily Life, Thomas A. Sisley
Astacopsis bicarinatus, On some Points in the Morphology of, J. S.
Hart .. 0 :
Australian Gara Notes on, James Stirling
Australian Exploration, P. G. Mueller ft
Australian Lichenology, Rev. F. R. M. Wilson...
Australian Meteorites, A. Liversidge ...
Bursaria spinosa, On the occurrence of AMsculin in, Prof. Rennie ..,
Calculation, Aids to, J. J. Fenton
Cambrian Rocks of South Australia, Notes on -— Prof, Tate
Carboniferous Rocks of the rae alee District, Notes on ioe
J. H. Bignell ..
Cestode Scolex, An dpparentt? New Type of, Prof. W. re Hngwell
Chalk and Flints from the Solomon Islands, A. Liversidge
Chilobranchus rufus, Development of, Prof. Haswell
Cloud Observations, W. W. Culcheth . =:
Coalfields of New South Wales, ee of the, T. W. E. David
Coal: Its Origin and Process of Formation, James Melvin
466
549
487
365
459
439
748 INDEX.
Colouration of Geological Charts of Australia, Tasmania and New
Zealand, Unification of the, Arthur Everett,
Colouring Matter of Drosera whittakeri, Prof. Rennie
Coming Census. H. H. Hayter
Committees, see page iv.
Complete Census of the Flora of the Grampians and Pyrenees,
D. Sullivan st soe er
Composition of Lucerne, Wm. Mt Doherty
Compressed Air as a Mechanical Medium in the Sr a of
Liquids, A. O. Sachse ...
Construction and Maintenance of Metalled Roads, William Bage
Cool Houses, James W. Barrett
Co-operation : Distributive and Productive, w. Nutall . :
Correlation of the Coalfields of New South Wales, T. w. B. David
Cremation a Sanitary Necessity, H. K. Rusden
Critical List of the Australian Fauna and Flora, On tie Publica-
tion of a, Chas. T. Musson
Crystalline Rocks of Bethanga, Victoria, Notes on ine, Fredk.
Danvers Power }
Daviesia latifolia, Note on, J. Bosisto ...
Debt, An Industrial Federal, J. J. Fenton
Desert Sandstone of Central Australia, Prof. Tate
Designing of Transit Instruments, Prof. Kernot
Development of Agriculture and Engineering, F. C. Jarrett
Development of Chilobranchus rufus, William A. Haswell
Development of Quartzite, Maldon, Notes on the, Jno. Hornsby ...
Dipterous Fauna of Australia, Notes on the known, Frederick
A. A. Skuse a
Diseases of Plants, Mrs. Wm. Moret
Distribution of Land and Water on the Teraasbeeul Globe,
J.J. Wild
Drainage. Household, Its Pr Peisies is Mw. eendeene ee
Drosera whittakeri, On the Colouring Matter of, Prof. Rennie
Early Discovery, Exploration and ees enarirae! of Austra-
lia, A. C. Macdonald
Elastic Properties of Quartz Threads, R. Thr elfall
Estimation of Alkalies in Igneous cae Note on the, oe
Dennant ai oe :
Etiology of Typhoid Fever, ‘i ames Jamieson
Eulerian Equations of Haden ne itt Note on the, Alemania
McAulay :
Evaporation of Liquids, Compressed Air as a oe Aan wane
in the, A. O. Sachse
Examination of some Sand from Wastern ast alia, Notes on an,
A. H. Jackson.. aie aed
in
INDEX.
Experimental Cultivation of the Mother-of-Pearl Shell Meleagrina
margaritifera in Queensland, W. Saville-Kent
Facts and Figures Relating to Vaccination, A. J. Taylor
Fertilisation of Knightia, Notes on the, T. F. Cheeseman
Flora of the Grampians and Pyrenees, A complete Census of the,
D. Sullivan by
Fodder Plants and Grasses of auustenlins Fred. Maree
Forestry: Its Scope and Application, M. H. Clifford
Fountain of “The Mist.”—A Rarotongan ie Rey. William
Wyatt Gill
Fungi, New and Rare Species of bier ian, H. T. Tisdall
Fungoid Growths, On the removal of Gold from Suspension and
Solution by, Prof. Liversidge sos Ae oe
Galvanometer, Notes on the arrangement of a, E. F. J. Love
Gas Lightings and its Fittings, A. U. Lewis
Gauging of Rivers, George Gordon pe
Genealogy of the Kings and Princes of Samoa, eas George Pratt
Genealogy of the Kings of Rarotonga and Mangaia, as Illustrating
the Colonisation of that Island and the Hervey ORE: Rey.
William Wyatt Gill
Geographical Distribution of Land aa eee Water aan ieteatee
in Victoria, A. H. 8. Lucas
Geological Structure and Future Pepe: of tid Thames
“Goldfield, New Zealand, James Park
Gesture Language in Australian Tribes, Note on the Use of the,
A.W. Howitt. E 5
Glacial Pcualometaied of Victoria, E. J. Dede
Granite: Its Place Among, and its Connections with the Sedi-
mentary and Ioneous Rocks, J. G. O. Tepper
Grasses of Australia, Fodder Plants and, Fred. Turner ...
Gum of the Leopard-Tree, J. H. Maiden
Gums yielded by Two Species of Ceratopetalum, Observations on
the, J. H. Maiden E eh bs
Health Legislation in Victoria, A. P. Akehurst...
Hot Spring Waters, Notes on Some, A. Liversidge
Household Drainage: Its Principles, A. M. Henderson ...
Household Sanitation, George Gordon ...
Illuminating Public Clocks, Sydney Gibbons
Iron, Notes on Tests and ae of Cast and anes
Prof. Kernot ... aa
Irrigation Works in Australia: How ee may iy aa Remu-
nerative, W. W. Culcheth = ;
Knightia, Notes on the Fertilisation of, T. F. Cheeseman sel
750 INDEX.
Laws of Molecular Force, Further Investigations on the, William
Sutherland ase
Laying Out of Towns, John Salen
Leopard Tree, on the Gum of the, J. H. ishacey ust
Leucite and Nepheline Rocks of New South Wales, J. Milne Gasset
Light Producing Bacteria with Explanatory Notes and asian
ments, Demonstration of, Oscar Katz
Liquor Trade, Regulation of mS as a means of PaGnbune Tem-
perance, J. ‘B. Gregory .. :
Lucerne, On the composition of, Wm. M. Doherty
Mangaia (Hervey Islands), Rev. W. Wyatt Gill
Marriage Laws of the Aborigines of North-Western Sapihvine:
Hon. John Forrest ‘ F
Meat Supply, H. H. Hayter
Metamorphic Rocks of Omeo, Notes on tees A. W. Howitt
Metalled Roads, Construction and Maintenance of, W. Bage
Micro-Organisms and Hygiene, A. Shields
Middle Verb in Latin, Henry Belcher .. He
Morphology of Astacopsis bicarinatus, J. Stoptital Hart ..
Mother-of-Pearl] Shell, ge Pa Cultivation of the, W. Saville-
Kent..
Muscular Fibres of Porisains, Nee on pat Prof, iW; A Haswell
Mutilations Practiced by Natives of the Viti talaDese On a Cortes
Bolton S. Corney
Navitilevu, Observations on the Hill Tribes of, Rev. A. J. Webb...
New and Rare Species of Victorian Fungi, H. T. Tisdall
New Britain Customs, Rey J. H. Rickard
New Britain People, Some Beliefs and Customs of the, ie B. Danks
New Silver Fields at Mount Zeehan, Tasmania, Notes on oe
A. J. Taylor
New Victorian Alge, Dee eae of, 7 Brace Heel Wilson
Notes on Tests and pace atin of Cast and bia wi
Prof. Kernot .
Notes on the Subject of Town saiesitabe, William Dawes
Observations on the Hill Tribes of Navitilevu, Fiji, Rev. Arthur
J. Webb
Observations on the Tertiary ana Seah Tertiary Geology of South-
Western Victoria, John Dennant
Papuan Race, P. Wolff dat eee tee
Physical Conditions under which the Chief ‘Cea eee of
Tasmania and Victoria were Formed, 8. H. Wintle
Photography, Application of, to Geological work, J, H. Harvey ..,
Physiological Basis of Morals, A. Sutherland
PAGE
368
730
379
459
554
596
383
323
653
575
408
739
692
715
470
541
487
646 °
620
554
664
626
407
488
716
726
620
441
664
467
429
664
INDEX.
Plutonic and Metamorphic Rocks of Bathurst, New South Wal
W. J. Clunies Ross
Precipitation of Zinc Sulphide, Midows on athe, J. ‘3B. Kirkland
Preventive Inoculation Against Animal Plagues, O. Katz
Purification of Certain Substances, R. Threlfall
Purification of Sewage, J. M. Smail and W. L. de L. Roberts
Quartz Threads, Elastic Properties of, R. Threlfall
Regulation of the Liquor Trade as a Means of TREN PER
ance, J. B. Gregory
Growths, A. Liversidge
Reserve Industry as a Remedy for Hfaeeed Tdlenene, w. J. Gua
Removal of Gold from Suspension and Bolnfon Py Raed
Rivers, Gauging of, George Gordon
Safety Appliances on Steam Boilers, A. O. Sachse
Sand from Western eee Notes on an Examination of some,
A. H, Jackson..
Sanitary Inspectors, ae of, C. J. Teta
Sanitation in Schools, F. A. Nyulasy ...
School Hygiene, E. G. Leger Erson
Science and Agricultural Practice, Some Baba ee pane
between, G. W. Brown...
Settlement of an Industrial eo palaiies on the Lend, by ans of
Small Holdings, Hon. G. W. Cotton
Sewage, Purification of, J. M. Smail and W. L. de L. Babaets
Silver Ores of the Barrier, G. H. Blakemore
Some Beliefs and Customs of the New Britain People Rev.
B. Danks
Southern Whaling, S. W. varies
South Pacific Islands, Some ea Bhaeniew of the} oa
Samuel Ella ...
Spectra of Zinc and Gaping mots on ce J. 8. Kirkland
Steam Boilers, Safety Appliances on, A. O. Sachse
Tasmania, Aborigines of, James Barnard
Tasmanian Eucalypts, with Special Reference to a Supposed New
Species, Some Notes upon the Rarer Species of, G. S. Perrin
Teaching of Elementary Mathematics and Tee Some Remarks
on the, Rev. W. L. Bowditch é
Tertiary and Post-Tertiary Geology of South-Western 1 Victoria,
Observations on the, John Dennant
Thames Goldfield, On the Geological Structure and Future et
pects of the, James Park
Thermal Springs of the Pps emaeian River, Queensland, Rebate
L. Jack :
eee
752 INDEX.
Tidal Energy, Utilisation of, as a Continuous Motive Force,
J. Diamant ba ; 5a “
Toaripi and Koiari Tribes, Rev. James OBiledens
Totems in Melanesia, Rev. R. H. Codrington abt
Town Drainage, Notes on the Subject of, William Paes
Towns, Laying out of, John Sulman ES es
Transit Instruments, On the Designing of, Prof. Kono
Typhoid Fever, Etiology of, J. Jamieson
Unification of the Colouration of Geological Charts of Australia,
Tasmania, and New Zealand, Arthur Everett
Utilisation of Tidal Energy as a Continuous Motive Power,
I. Diamant Ser
Vaccination, Facts and Figures Relating to, A. J. Taylor :
Vegetable Food Stuffs of the Australian Aborigines, J. H. Maiden
Victoria, Aborigines of, Rev. J. Mathew
Zine and Cadmium, Notes on the Spectra of, J. B. Kirkland .
Zine Sulphide, Notes on the Precipitation of, J. B. Kirkland
Zoology of Houtman’s Abrolhos, Notes on the, A. J. Campbell
PAGE
741
311
611
726
730
366
665
456
741
691
558
626
395
397
492
AUTHORS.
Akehurst, A. P., Health Legislation in Victoria ai ete
Bage, William, Construction and Maintenance of Metalled Roads
Barnard, James, Aborigines of Tasmania
Barrett, James W., Cool Houses
Belcher, Henry, Middle Verb in Latin..
Bignell, J. H., Notes on the chewoniteroud Rocks of hag Cape
Otway District ss
Blakemore, G. H., Silver Ores of the ee ies
Bosisto, J., Note on Daviesia latifolia ...
Bowditch, Rev. W. L., Some Remarks on the Teaching of eaters
tary Mathematics and Physics ...
Brown, W., Claims of Aboriculture as a Science j in ere ia
Brown, G. W., Some Remarkable Agreements between Science and
Agricultural Practice ... an
Campbell, A. J., Notes on the Zoology of Houtman’s Abrolhos
Chalmers, Rev. James, Toaripi and Koiari Tribes
Cheeseman, 'T'’. F'., Notes on the Fertilisation of Knightia
Clifford, M. H., Forestry: Its Scope and Application
Codrington, Rev. R. H., Totems in Melanesia
Corney, Bolton S., On Certain Mutilations Practised by Natives
of the Viti Islands
Cotton, Hon. G. W., Settlement of an Care Population « on
the Land, by. Means of Small Holdings ...
Culcheth, W. W., Cloud Observations..
Culcheth, W. W., Irrigation Works in eects How they et
be made Remunerative
Curran, J. Milne, Leucite and N sail Rocks of New South Wales
Curry, W. J., A Reserve Industr y as a Bevis for , Enforced
Idleness
Danks, Rev. B., Some Beliefs and Customs of the New Britain
People zs
David, T. W. E., A Gora of fas Coalfields of New South
Wales A
Dennant, John, Note on the “Batimation of Alkalies in pdaestedl
Rocks
Dennant, John, Observations on the Tertiary ‘ait Post- -Tertiary
Geolosy of South-Western Victoria 06 is
Diamant, I., Utilisation of Tidal Hnergy as a Coltitruss
Motive Power Sa At ste ite ame
ey
441
741
754 INDEX.
Doherty, Wm. M., On the Composition of Lucerne
Dunn, E. J., Glacial Conglomerates of Victoria ae —
Kassie, C. J., Duties of Sanitary Inspectors
Ella, Rev. Samuel, Some Enya Phenomena of the South Pacific
Islands cats aa ac
Erson, E. G. Leger, School Hygidne
Everett, Arthur, Unification of the Gatgnestion of Geological
Charts of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand..
Fenton, J. J., An Industrial Federal Debt
Fenton, J. J., Aids to Calculation
Forrest, Hon. John, Marriage Laws of the Aborigines “of Nom
Western Australia rte
Gibbons, Sydney, Illuminating Public Clocks ...
Gill, Rev. William igs Fountain of “The Mist. vy Bato:
tongan Myth ..
Gill, Rev. William Wyatt, Gerlebiog’ of the Kode of Bandtonial
and Mangaia, as Illustrating the Colonisation of that Island
and the Hervey Group...
Gill, Rev. W. Wyatt, Mangaia (Hervey Tela)
Gordon, George, Gauging of Rivers
Gordon, George, Household Sanitation
Gregory, J. B., Regulation of the Fat a ali ide as a "aes of
Promoting Temperance ess
Hart, J. Stephen, On some pointed in the Mor phology of Astacatsts
bicarinatus
Harvey, J. H., On the Application of Photography to Gcvlogeal
Work
Haswell, Prof. W. re bch ST ee an Type i eee. eae
Haswell, Prof. W. A., Notes on the Muscular Fibres of Peripatus
Haswell, Prof. W. A., On the Development of Chilobranchus rufus
Hayter, H. H., Coming Census
Hayter, H. H., Our Meat Supply
Henderson, A. M., Household Drainage: Its peiaetelés J of
Hornsby, Jno., Notes on the Development of Quartzite, Maldon re
Howitt, A. W., Notes on the Metamorphic Rocks of Omeo
Howitt, A. W., Note on the Use of Gesture Language in Austra-
lian Tribes ihe
Jack, Robert L., On the Thermal Bprings of the melihii AYER,
Queensland
Jackson, A. H., Notes on an Ee aaa Es of some ‘saga punks
Western Australia ;
Jamieson, James, Etiology of Typhoid nee
Jarrett, F. C., Development of Architecture and Tie patigtiee
INDEX.
Katz, Oscar, Demonstration of Light Producing Bacteria with
Explanatory Notes and Experiments
Katz, O., Preventive Inoculation Against Animal Pseacs
Kernot, Professor, Designing of Transit Instruments
Kernot, Prof., Notes on Tests and Specifications of Cast ey
Wrought Tron as
Kirkland, J. B., Note on the Precipitation of Zine Sulphide
Kirkland, J. B., Notes on the Spectra of Zine and Cadium
Knox, Ed. W., On an Application of Chemical Control to a Manu-
facturing Business he
Le Souef, W. H. D., Acclimatisation in Victoria
Lewis, A. U., Gas-Lighting and its Fittings
Liversidge, A., Australian Meteorites .. ;
Liversidge, A., Chalk and Flints from the errant Sctnads
Liversidge, A., Notes on some Hot Spring Waters
Liversidge, A., On the Removal of Gold from Eine te and
Solution by Fungoid Growths ...
Love, E. F. J.. Remarks on the Arrangement of a Gaivanilbler .
Lucas, A. H. 8., Geographical Distribution of Land and Fresh
Water Vertebrates in Victoria .
Macdonald, A. C., Early Discovery, pad oreuog and HDweee
Geography of Australia
Maiden, J. H., Observations on the eae Yielded a oi 0 Species
of Cebatopctalum
Maiden, J. H., On the Gum of the Peplend! Tree
Maiden, J. H., Vegetable Food Stuffs of the Australian ‘Aorighnlg
Martin, Mrs. Wim., Diseases of Plants..
Mathew, Rev. J., Aborigines of Victoria
McAulay, Alexander, Note on the Eulerian Equations e Hydro
namics
Melvin, James, rat: Tes Origin and Bipods of Fortiation
Mueller, P. G., Australian Exploration
Musson, Chas. T., On the Publication of a Critical List of the
Australian Fauna and Flora
Nutall, W., Co-operation: Distributive and Productive ..,
Nyulasy, F. A., Sanitation in Schools ...
Odlum, Prof., Ainus of North Japan
Park, James, On the Geological Structure and Future Prospects
, of the Thames Goldfield, New Zealand
Parker, William, Notes on the Subject of Town Drainage
Pasco, Commander Crawford, Antarctic Exploration
Perrin, G. S., Some Notes upon the Rarer Species of Tasmanian
Eucalypts, with Special Reference toa Supposed New Species
*y2
756 INDEX.
Power, Fredk. Danvers, Notes on the Crystalline Rocks of
Bethanga, Victoria och
Pratt, Rev. George, Genealogy of the Kings and Princes of Samoa
Rennie, Prof., On the Colouring Matter of Drosera whittakeri
Rennie, Prof. and Turner, E. F., On the occurrence of Alsculin in
Burscria spinosa
Rickard, Rey. J. H., New Britain eke
Ross, W. J. Clunies, Plutonic and aaah: ‘Ee of
Bathurst, New South Wales was
Rusden, H. K., Cremation a Sanitary Nboesoitry
Sachse, A. O., Compressed Air as a Mechanical Medium in the
Evaporation of Liquids.
Sachse, A. O., Safety Appliances on Steam Ealoas
Saville-Kent, W., On the Experimental Cultivation of the others
of-Pearl Shell Meleagrina margaritifera in Queensland
Shields, A., Micro-Organisms and Hygiene =f
Shillinglaw, J. J., Antarctic Whaling in the Old Days ...
Sisley, Thomas A., Art in Daily Life ...
Skuse, Frederick A. A., Notes on the Known Dipterous wane of
Australia
Smail, J. M., and Roberts, w. in de ie Pur anes of aoe tee
Smith, James, Notes on an Annelid Formation in Queensland
Stirling, James, Notes on Australian Caves
Sullivan, D., A omplate Census of the Flora of the Grampians
and Pyrenees .. :
Sulman, John, Laying Out of Te wd
Sutherland, A., Physiological Basis of Morals ...
Sutherland, William, Further Investigations on the Laws of
Molecular Force
Tate, Prof., Notes on the Cambrian Rocks of South Australia
Tate, Prof., On the Desert Sandstone of Central Australia
Taylor, A. J., Facts and Figures Relating to Vaccination
Taylor, A. J., Notes on the New Silver Fields at Mount Zeehan,
Tasmania
Tepper, J. G. O., Granite: Its Place atone a its Conviabeitee
with the Sedimentary and Igneous Rocks 24 x
Threlfall, R., Elastic Properties of Quartz Threads
Threlfall, R., On the Purification of Certain Substances i,
Tisdall, H. T., Notes on New and Rare Species of Victoria Pun
Turner, Fred., Fodder Plants and Grasses of Australia ...
Viney, S. W., Southern Whaling
INDEX. ToT
PAGE
Webb, Rev. Arthur J., Observations on the Hill Tribes of
Navitilevu, Fiji ss 620
Wild, J. J., On the Distribution of Land and Water on fe ieee
trial Globe... 574
Wilson, J. Bracebridge, Dein ipilors of New i toean ies 40 1488
Wilson, Rev. F. R. M., Australian Lichenology... 549
Wintle, 8S. H., Physical Conditions under which the Chief eu
Measures of Tasmania and Victoria were Formed 467
Wolff, P., Papuan Race ak bia aa pee . »~—664
ae on tia viol oi ooh fe uit wont wonbie of
- : cyohoacetoie, naileue a“ oe aL
, tid a, adhd fiskw ‘viahittyy eiraktibisot > ‘Le
: fy slut 5 aS “abinto 1 yaa ins iat
LIST OF MEMBERS, 1889.
Pa eed oS + a
a8ol” AAaa aye Og
. fc ?
a,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 18809.
Abbey, William, 336 George-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Abbott, Robert L. S., A.M.P. Buildings, Maryborough, Q.
Abbott, W. E., Abbotsford, Wingen. N.S.W.
Adams, C. W., Chief Surveyor, Dunedin, N.Z.
Adams, W. J., Whitmore, Wentworth-road, Burwood, N.S.W.
Agnew, Hon. J. W., M.D., M.E.C., Hobart, T.
Akehurst, A. P , Central Board of Health, Melbourne, V.
Alcock, Alfred, Corr’s Lane, Melbourne, V.
Aleorn, S. A., M.B., East Maitland, N.S.W.
Alexander, E. J., Allendale, V.
Alexander, Maurice, Akaroa, Auburn-road 8., Upper Hawthorn, V.
Alexander, Miss Rose, Akaroa, Auburn-road 8., Upper Hawthorn, V. |
Allen, H. B., M.D., Professor of Descriptive and Surgical Anatomy,
University of Melbourne, V.
Allen, W. W., Belmont Avenue, Kew, V.
Anderson, James, Eblana, corner of Napier and Cowper streets,
Footscray, V.
Anderson, William, Mines Department, Sydney, N.S.W.
Andrews, Henry, 46 Elizabeth-street, Melbourne, V.
Andrews, Thomas R., B.A., LL.B., Parkville Ladies’ College,
Melbourne, V.
Andrews, William, M.D., Wellington-parade, East Melbourne, V.
Angas, Hon. J. N., M.L.C., Collingrove, Angaston, S.A.
Annand, George, M.D., High-street, St. Kilda, V.
Archer, W. H., F.L.S., F.I.A., Alverno, Grace Park, Hawthorn, V.
Ashley, P. A., 479 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Ashton, J. R., Union Chambers, Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Astles, Harvey E., M.D., F.R.C.P.,61 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Atkinson, A. 8., Nelson, N.Z.
Atkinson, Thomas R., Park-street, Glebe, Hobart, T.
Attenborough, Mark, Waymouth-street, Adelaide, S.A.
Bage, Chas., M.A., M.D., Achernar, Toorak-road, South Yarra, V.
Bage, Edward, Cranford, Fulton Street, St. Kilda, V.
Bage, William, M.C.E., Elford, Fulton-street, St. Kilda, V.
Bagot, John, Adelaide Club, Adelaide, S.A.
Baker, Henry H., 251 Swanston-street, Melbourne, V.
Baker, Thomas, Yarra Grange, Bond-street, Abbotsford, V.
Balfour, Hon. James, M.L.C., 9 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Balls-Headley, Walter, M.A., M.D., Collins-street E., Melbourne, V.
Bamby, Alfred, Buckley-street, Footscray, V.
Barbour, R. Thomson, Commercial Bank Chambers, 335 Collins-
street, Melbourne, V.
Barker, John, jun., Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Barker, Mrs., c/o Dr. J. T. Rudall, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Barker, W., Bridport-street, Albert Park, V.
Barnard, F. G. A., High-street, Kew, V.
Barnard, Francis, High-street, Kew, V.
Barnard, James, Hobart, T.
3
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Barnard, Robert J. A., B.A., Queen’s College, University, Mel-
bourne, V.
Barnes, Benjamin, Aston, Queen’s-road, Melbourne, V.
Barnet, Nahum, Hotham-street, Balaclava, V.
Barrachi, Pietro, F.R.A.S., Observatory, Melbourne, V.
Barrett, J. W., M.D., F.R.C.S., Collins-street E., Melbourne, V.
Barton, Robert, Royal Mint, Melbourne, V.
Bate, Henry C., Stawell, V.
Batson, Arthur, 461 Rae-street, North Fitzroy, V.
Bayett, F., Kyneton, V.
Beal, Mrs., Lorne, V.
Beavis, John, School of Mines, Daylesford, V.
A Beckett, Edward F., University, Melbourne, V.
Belcher, Henry, LL.D., Dunedin, N.Z.
Belfield, A. H., Eversleigh, Dumaresq, N.S.W.
Bender, F., 236 George-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Benham, J. J., Adelaide, S.A.
Benham, Mrs. J. J., Adelaide, S.A.
Bennett, George, M.D., F.L.S.,167 William-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Bennett, Mrs. George, 167 William-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Bennie, Peter B., MA., M.B., 123 Collins-street, Melbourne, VY.
Bensusan, 8. L., 44 Castlereagh-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Bentley, Miss M. L., 71 Beach-street, Port Melbourne, V.
Berney, Augustus, 74 Alberto Terrace, Darlinghurst-road, Sydney,
N.S.W
Berney, George A., 74 Alberto Terrace, Darlinghurst-road, Sydney,
N.S.W.
Best, Dudley, 291 Little Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Beyer, Emil, Hotel Victoria, Beaconsfield Parade, Albert Park, V.
Biggs, Alfred B., Savings Bank, Launceston, T.
Billing, R. Annesley, Seaforth, Esplanade, St. Kilda West, V.
Binnie, Richard, 276 George-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Binns, George J. F., F.G.S., Otago University, N.Z.
Binsted, W. H., Glenthorne, Petersham, N.S.W.
Black, A. Owen, Public School, Dubbo, N.S.W.
Black, Alexander, Surveyor General, Lands Department, Mel-
bourne, V.
Blaek, Sydney, Maitai Banks, Nelson, N.Z.
Blacket, Cyril, Tasman Park, St. George’s Basin, N.S.W.
Blackett, C. R., F.C.S8., Government Analyst, Lansdowne-street,
East Melbourne, V.
Blackwood, —, Montalto, Toorak, V.
Blackwood, Mrs., Montalto, Toorak, V.
Blake, Harry Z., Abouthis, Nizhtingale-street, Balaclava, V.
Blakemore, George H., 141 Albion-street, Surry Hills, N.S.W.
Blanche, Henry B., 1 Gladstone Terrace, Malvern, V.
Bland, R. H., Clunes, V.
Blashki, Aaron, 169 Clarence-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Bligh, William R., Longdown, Parramatta, N.S.W.
Bettger, Otto, Flinders-street, Adelaide, S.A.
Boland, J., Gertrude and Brunswick-streets, Fitzroy, V.
Bond, Albert, Bell’s Chambers, Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Bond, H. 8. S., Onslow Avenue, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, N.S.W-.
Boon, G. J., A.I.A., 400 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Bosisto, Joseph, C.M.G., Church-street, Richmond, V.
Bostock, Miss Margaret, Faireleight, Alma Road, St. Kilda V.
Bousfield, Robert K., G.P.O., Box 912, Sydney, N.S.W.
Bowditch, Rev. W. L., M.A., Inisfail, Sydney-road, Parkville, V.
4
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Bowen, T. Aubrey, M.R.C.S., 8 Collins-street E., Melbourne, V.
Bowen, William, Aymestry, Brighton-road, St. Kilda, V.
Boyd, J. A., Ripple Creek, Herbert River, Q.
Braché, Jacob, C.E,, Northcote, Y.
Bradfield, John J. C., St. Andrew’s College, University, Sydney,
N.S.W.
Bradley, R. 8., Queen’s College, St. Kilda, V.
Bragato, Romeo, Board of Viticulture, Melbourne, V.
Bragg, W. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics, University,
Adelaide, S.A.
Brain, Robert 8., 209 Sydney-road, Royal Park, Melbourne, V.
Brett, Captain E., Whaling-road, East St. Leonard’s, N.S.W.
Brett, Mrs. E., Whaling-road, East St. Leonards, N.S.W.
Brett, Percy R., Urana, N.S.W.
Broadbent, John, Myrtle Villa, Lygon-street, Carlton, V.
Broadhurst, R. Henson, jun., Bogalara, Creswick-street, Foots-
cray, V.
Brodribb, Thomas, Kew, V.
Brown, David, Kallara, Bourke, N.S.W.
Brown, E J., 486 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Brown, H. J., Newcastle, N.S.W.
Brown, H. Y. Lyell, F.G.S., Government Geologist, Adelaide, S.A.
Brown, J. Paterson, Murray-street, Caulfield, V.
Browne, Miss M, Hirst, Bella Vista, Parliament-place, Melbourne, V.
Browne, Mrs. John, c/o Salter Watts, Esq., Carre-road, Elstern-
wick, V.
Browne, William, The Hollies, Burke-road, Camberwell, V.
Brownless, A. C., C.M.G., M.D., LL.D., University, Melbourne, V.
Bulteau, A., Douglasdale, Glebe Point, Sydney, N.S.W.
Bundey, His Honour Mr. Justice, Supreme Court, Adelaide, S.A.
Burns, James, Bridge-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Bush, H., 60 Castlereagh-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Butterworth, A. R., Denman Chambers, Phillip-st., Sydney, N.S.W.
Biittner, Alexander, M.D., Villa Wiesbaden, 489 Victoria-parade,
East Melbourne, V.
Calder, W., Wright-street, South Melbourne, V.
Callaghan, James, Blanche Terrace, Victoria-street, Fitzroy, V.
Callaghan, William R., 179 Victoria Parade, Fitzroy, V.
Calvert, John J., Parliament House, Sydney, N.S.W.
Campbell, Allan, L.R.C.P., Yass, N.S.W.
Campbell, Hon. Allan, M.D., M.L.C., North-terrace, Adelaide, S.A.
Campbell, Archibald J., 4 Elm Grove, Armadale, V.
Campbell, Frederick A., C.E., F.R.G.S., Working Men’s College,
Melbourne, V.
Campbell, James, Tennyson-street, St. Kilda, V.
Cape, Alfred J., Edgecliffe-road, Sydney, N.S.W.
Cardew, John H., C.E., 3 & 4 Victoria Chambers, Elizabeth-
street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Carne, Joseph E., Department of Mines, Sydney, N.S.W.
Carolin, J. P., Mitchell-street, Sandhurst, V.
Carter, A. K., Cloncurry, Q.
Castner, J. L., 180 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Catlett, W. H., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., Burwood-street, Burwood, N.S.W.
Chambers, John, jun., Napier, N.Z.
Chapman, James, C.E., Glenroy, V.
Chapman, Robert W., M.A., B.C.E., University, Adelaide, S.A.
Chard, J. S., Armidale, N.S.W.
5
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Chatfield, Samuel P., 5 Princes-street, North Sydney, N.S.W.
Chatfield, Captain W., Old Government House, Parramatta, N.S.W.
Cheong, Cheok H., Montgomery Villa, Gore-street, Fitzroy, V.
Chilton, Charles, District High School, Port Chalmers, N.Z.
Chisholm, Edwin, M.D., Victoria-street, Ashfield, N.S.W.
Chisholm, William, M.D., 199 Macquarie-street N., Sydney, N.S.W.
Clark, Hon. A. Inglis, Hobart, T.
Clark, A. W., Charters Towers, Q.
Clark, Donald, B.C.E., School of Mines, Bairnsdale, V.
Clarke, J. Hamilton, Mus. Bac., Melbourne, V.
Clarke, Miss Julie, Leura, Toorak, V.
Clarke, Hon. Sir William J., Bart., 48 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Clayton, Edward, sen., Riverside, Corowa, N.S.W.
Clemes, Samuel, Friends’ High School, Hobart, T.
Clendinnen, Fred J., M.D., 128 Malvern-road, South Yarra, V.
Clifford, M. H., 45 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Coane, J. M., Prell’s Buildings, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Coates, John, C.E., Planet Chambers, Collins-st., Melbourne, V.
Coates, W. J., 2 Melbourne Terrace, Drummond-street, Carlton, V-
Coghill, George, Burwood-road, Hawthorn, V.
Cole, Frank H., M.B., Ch.B., Ben-Werrin, Rathdowne-street,
Carlton, V.
Colenso, William, Napier, N.Z.
Colley, D. J. K., Royal Mint, Sydney, N.S.W.
Collie, Rev. R., F..8., Wellington-street, Newtown, N.S.W.
Collingridge, A., Parramatta-road, Ryde, N.S.W.
Collins, Arthur 8., Mt. Fyffe Station, Kaikoura, N.Z.
Comrie, Jas., Northfield, Kurrajong Heights, via Richmond, N.$.W.
Conder, William J., Cooma, N.S.W.
Conroy, J. M., Wingham, Manning River, N.S.W.
Cook, C. H. H., M.A. Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Philosophy, Canterbury College, Christchurch, N.Z.
Cooper, E., Tudor, Berkeley-street, Hawthorn, V.
Cooper, Rev., William, 136 Easey-street, Collingwood, V.
Copeland, Miss Annie, Homeopathic Hospital, St. Kilda Road
Me,lbourne, V.
Copeland Miss Kathleen, Drumlarney, Warragul, V.
Copeland’ Mrs. James, Drumlarney, Warragul, V.
Corlette, Rev. J. C., D.D., Goulburn, N.S.W.
Cornell, Henry, Irene, Barkly-square, East Richmond, V.
Corney, Hon. Bolton Glanville, Fiji.
Cornwall, W. E., M.A., Ormond College, University, Melbourne, VY.
Cornwell, Samuel, Australian Brewery, Bourke-street, Redfern,
N.S.W
Cottell, Caulfeild, Sevenoaks, Chomley-street, East Prahran, V.
Cotton, Hon. 8S. W., M.L.C., Adelaide, S.A.
Coutie, W. H., M.B., B.S., Warminster, Canterbury-road, Peter-
sham, N.S.W.
Cowderoy, Benjamin, 57 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Cox, Hon. G. H., M.L.C. Winbourn, Mulgoa, N.S.W.
Cox, J. Herbert, F.C.S., F.G.S., Waima, Wentworth-road, Point
Piper, Sydney, N.S.W.
Cox, James, M.B., 102 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Cox, Sydney T., Treasury, Sydney, N.S.W.
Cracknell, E. C., Telegraph Department, Sydney, N.S.W.
Crago, W. H., M.R.C.S., 82 William-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Craig, Andrew W., M.A., 77 Peel-street, North Melbourne, V.
Craig, Robert, Education Department, Melbourne, V.
6
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Craven, A. W., 123 Collins-street, W., Melbourne, V.
Crellin, William, 10 Market Buildings, William-street, Me 1-
bourne, V.
Crerar, Miss May R., Stawell, V.
Cresswell, Rev. Arthur W., M.A., Camberwell, V.
Culcheth, W. Wood, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.Met.Soc., 31 Temple Court
Melbourne, VY.
Currie, J. L., Eildon, Grey-street, St. Kilda, V.
Currie, W. J., 71 Princes-street, Kew, V.
Curtain, P. B., Merton, Queen’s Mansions, Beaconsfield Parade,
St. Kilda, V.
Curtis, Charles, 7 Motherwell-street, South Yarra, V.
Curtis, Walter S., Nelson, N.Z.
Daish, William, M.D., 837 Howe Crescent, South Melbourne, V.
Dallen, Robert A., University, Sydney, N.S.W.
Dalton, W. H., jun., 63 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Damman, George, c/o Swanston and Collins-streets, Melbourne, V.
Danks, A. T., 42 Bourke-street, W., Melbourne, V.
Danks, John, Merton Crescent, South Melbourne, V.
Dare, H. Harvey, Lugar Place, Waverley, N.S.W.
Darley, Cecil W., Birtley Place, Elizabeth Bay-road,Sydney,N.S.W.
Darley, Sir Frederick, Kt., Chief Justice, Sydney, N.S.W.
Darroch, John, St. Denis Lodge, Toorak, V.
Davenport, Arthur F., M.B., M.R.C.S., High-street, St. Kilda, V.
David, T. W. Edgeworth, B.A., F.G.S., Department of Mines,
Sydney, N.S.W.
Davies, E. H., 41 Palmerston-street, Carlton, V.
Davies, J. Hugh, Edgecombe, Were-street, Brighton, V.
Davis, Miss A., Brisbane House, 79 Stanley-street, Hyde Park,
Sydney, N.S.W.
Deane, H.,M.A.,M.Inst.C.E., Railway Department, Sydney, N.S.W.
De Garis, E. C., Chaffey’s Irrigation Offices, Swanston-street,
Melbourne, V.
Dendy, Arthur, M.Sc., F.L.S., University, Melbourne, V.
Dennant, John, F.G.S., Lyndhurst Crescent, Glenferrie, V.
De Vis, C. W., M.A., Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Q.
Diamant, Ignatius, Railway Department, Austral Chambers, Bris-
bane, Q.
Dickinson, Sidney, M.A., Bella Vista, Parliament Place, Mel-
bourne, V.
Dixon, Samuel, Royal Exchange, Adelaide, §.A.
Dixon, W. A., F.C.S., F.LC., Technical College, Sydney, N.S.W.
Dobbie, A. W., Gawler Place, Adelaide, S.A.
Docker, Mrs. Clarissa M., Carhallen, Granville, N.S.W.
Docker, Ernest B., M.A., D.C. Judge, Carhallen, Granville, N.S.W.
Dombrain, Ernest A., Glena, Victoria Road, Auburn, V.
Donaldson, John, Widows’ Fund L.A. Society, Collins-street,
Melbourne, V.
Du Faur, Eccleston, F.R.G.S., Box 690, G.P.O., Sydney, N.S.W.
Dunean, John J., M.P., Adelaide Club, Adelaide, S.A.
Dunn, Edward C., 70 Elizabeth-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Dunn, E. J., F.G.5., Roseneath, Pakington-street, Kew, V.
Dunn, Frederic, 306 Little Flinders-street, Melbourne, V.
Dunn, J. Macgregor, Milton-street, Ashfield, N.S.W.
Dunstan, Benjamin, c/o Messrs. Cox and Seaver, Hunter-street,
Sydney, N.S.W.
Dutton, C. B., Wowong, Brisbane, Q.
el
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Eassie, Charles J., Sanitary Inspector’s Office, Town Hall,
Fitzroy, V.
Edwards, James D. P., Arthur-street, Fairfield Park, V.
Edwards, Mrs. James D. P., Arthur-street, Fairfield Park, V.
Edwards, James R., Forbes, N.S.W.
Eldridge, W. Waters, Government Architect, T.
Elkington, J. §., M.A., LL.B., Professor of History and Political
Economy, University, Melbourne, V.
Ella, Rev. Samuel, Rathmore, Petersham, N.S.W.
Ellery, R. L. J., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer,
Observatory, Melbourne, V.
Elliott, Sizar, Were-street, Brighton Beach, Melbourne, V.
Ellis, J. 8. E., F.R.I.B.A., Equitable Chambers, 295 Pitt-street,
Sydney, N.S.W.
Ellison, John, Clarke Buildings, 430 Bourke-street, Melbourne, V.
Ellison, Mrs. John, Clarke Buildings, 430 Bourke-street, Mel-
bourne, V.
Elson, Laurence, 9 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Emmerton, Charles, Raveloe, Domain-road, South Yarra, V.
Erson, E. G. Leger, L.R.C.P.E., Chapel-street, Prahran, V.
Etheridge, R., jun., Government Paleontologist, Department of
Mines, Sydney, N.S.W.
Evans, Gowen, M.A., Melbourne Club, Collins-street, V.
Evans, James, Baliol-street, College Park, Adelaide, S.A.
Evans, Thomas, c/o Messrs. Evans and Evans, King William-
street, Adelaide, S.A.
Evans, William, Timaru, N.Z.
Everett, Arthur, Mines Department, Melbourne, V.
Faithfull, R. L., M.D., 5 Lyons Terrace, Hyde Park, Sydney, N.S.W.
Farr, Archdeacon, LL.D., St. Luke’s Parsonage, Whitmore-
square, Adelaide, 8.A.
Faul, J. W., Hargreave-street, Sandhurst, V.
Fennelly, Richard, C.E., Kilmore, V.
Fenton, J. J., Government Statist’s Office, Treasury Gardens,
Melbourne, V.
Fergus, Rev. R. Morrison, M.A., Mentone, V.
Fetherston, R. H., M.B., Ch.M., Women’s Hospital, Carlton, V.
Fiaschi, Thomas, M.D., 39 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Fielder, Rev. Walter, Norwood, Mitchell-street, St. Kilda, V.
Finch, Charles A., 204 George-street W., Sydney, N.S.W.
Fink, B. J.. The Grange, Domain-road, South Yarra, V.
Fink, Harold, The Grange, Domain-road, South Yarra, V.
Fischer, Gustave, C.E., Railway Department, Sydney, N.S.W.
Fishbourne, J. R. Y., M.B., Ch.M., Moonee Ponds, V.
Fisher, Alexander, L.R.C.S.E., 98 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Fison, Rev. Lorimer, M.A., Essendon, V.
Fitts, F. A., c/o Dr. Hewlett, Nicholson-street, Fitzroy, V.
Fitzgerald, Thos. N., F.R.C.S.1., Lonsdale-street W., Melbourne, V.
Fleming, David, McKinnon-parade, North Adelaide, S.A.
Fletcher, A. W., B.A., B.Sc., Wavertree, Kent Town, Adelaide,
S.A.
Fletcher, J. ane: M.A., B.Sc., Linnean Hall, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney,
N.S
Fletcher, Se W. Roby, M.A., Wavertree, Kent Town, Adelaide,
Ss. ‘A.
Flett, W. Simpson, M.D., Mooroop, Auburn-road, Hawthorn, V
Foote, Henry, Outalpa, S.A.
8
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Ford, Rev. W. Charles, Sunbury, V.
Foreman, Joseph, M.R.C.S., 215 Macquarie-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Forrest, Hon. John, C.M.G., Perth, W.A.
Foster, Miss Mary, Ladies’ Gymnasium, Liverpool-street, Sydney,
N.S.W.
Fox, M. Philip, Ravensburg, Dandenong-road, Armadale, V.
Fox, William, Liebenhalle, Robe-street, St. Kilda, V.
Fox, William R., L.R.C.P.E., York House, Brunswick-street, North
Fitzroy, V.
Frackelton, Rev. W.S., B.Sc., Bachel Lodge, Randwick, Sydney,
N.S.W.
Franki, J. P., Mort’s Dock and Engineering Co., Balmain, N.S.W.
Fraser, John, LL.D., Carrington-road, Waverley, N.S.W.
Freehill, Francis B., M.A., 51 Castlereagh-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
French, Charles, F.L.S., Government Entomologist, Exhibition
Buildings, Melbourne, V.
Friend, Walter, 143 York-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Froggatt, Walter W., Linnean Hall, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, N.S.W.
Frost, C., Mont Victor-road, East Kew, V.
Fryar, William, Petrie Terrace, Brisbane, Q.
Fuller, W., University, Adelaide, S.A.
Gabriel, Joseph, 293 Victoria-street, Abbotsford, V.
Gainford, John, Military-road, St. Leonards, N.S.W.
Gardiner, Rev. Andrew, Rixton House, Glebe Point, Sydney, N.S.W.
Gardner, William, Victoria Square, Adelaide, S.A.
Garland, William, 10 Imperial Chambers, 408 Collins-street,
Melbourne, V.
Garlick, D., Architect, Adelaide, S.A.
Garlick, T. W., North Bulli, N.S.W.
Garran, Hon. Andrew, LL.D., M.L.C., Strathmore, Glebe Point,
Sydney, N.S.W.
Garran, Mrs. M., Isham, Strathmore. Glebe Point, Sydney, N.S.W.
Garson, George, Railway Department, Ararat, V
Gibbons, Sydney, F.C.S., Faraday House, East Melbourne, V.
Gibbs, J. Burton, 84a Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Gifford, Algernon C., M.A., Christ’s College, Christchurch, N.Z.
Gill, G. R., Emu Creek, Walcha, N.S.W.
Gill, Harry P., School of Design, Adelaide, S.A.
Gill, Rev. W. Wyatt, LL.D., Perisca, Mlawarra Road, Marrickville,
N.S.W.
Gillies, William, M.A., Box Hill, V.
Glass, Mrs. James, Pyrmont, Flemington, V.
Godhber, J., 15 Market Buildings, Flinders-lane, Melbourne, V.
Godfrey, Fred. R., 15 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Goldstein, Lieut.-Colonel J. R. G., Titles Office, Melbourne, V.
Goodlett, John H., Canterbury House, Ashfield, N.S.W.
Gordon, George, C.E., 39 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Gosman, John, Burwood-road, Auburn, V.
‘Gotch, J. S., 109 Albert-street, East Melbourne, V.
Goyder, Alex. W., B,Sc., Adelaide, S.A.
Goyder, G. Woodroffe, Warrakilla, S.A.
Goyder, G. W., C.M.G., Surveyor-General, Adelaide, S.A.
Goyder, George, jun., F.C.S., Government Analyst, Adelaide, S.A.
Grant, Alexander, Botanic Gardens, Sydney, N.S.W.
Grant, Charles H., Main Line Railway, Hobart, T.
Grant, David, M.A , M.D., 16 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Gray, Geo., F.C.8., School of Agriculture, Lincoln, Canterbury, N.Z.
9
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Greenwood, John, Corner Hotel, Castlemaine, V.
Greville, Edward, Year Book of Australia, 374 George-streety,.
Sydney, N.S.W.
Greene, Molesworth, Greystones, Bacchus Marsh, V.
Gregory, J. Burslem, B.A., LL.M., 10 Selborne Chambers,
Melbourne, V.
Gregson, Francis John, Groveley, Waratah, N.S.W.
Griffith, Edward A., Federal Bank, South Melbourne, V.
Griffith, Sir Samuel, K.C.M.G., Q.C., Brisbane, Q.
Griffiths, G. S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S., Waratah, Washington-street,
Toorak, V.
Griffiths, Mrs. G. 8., Waratah, Washington-street, Toorak, Mel-
bourne, V.
Griffiths, John M., 290 Flinders-street, Melbourne, V.
Griffiths, Miss, Selhurst, Alma-road, St. Kilda, V.
Griffiths, Samuel, Selhurst, Alma-road, St. Kilda, V.
Guilfoyle, W. R., F.L.S., Botanical Gardens, Melbourne, V.
Gullett, Henry, Daily Telegraph Office, Sydney, N.S.W.
Gundersen, H., Consulate for Sweden and Norway, Melbourne, V.
Gurney, T. T., M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Philosophy, University, Sydney, N.S.W.
Gurney, Miss, Fern Bank, Edgecliffe Road, Sydney, N.S.W.
Haager, Eebert E., Princess-street, Ashfield, N.S.W.
Habbe, A, C., Jolimont Terrace, Jolimont, V.
Hage, John M., Daylesford, V.
Haig, William, M.D., 68 Bank-street E., South Melbourne, V.
Halford, Arthur, University, Melbourne, V.
Halford, George, M.B., Ch.B., University, Melbourne, V,
Halford, George B., M.D., F.R.C.P., Professor of General Anatomy
and Physiology, University, Melbourne, V.
Hall, Richard T., Hornsby, Launceston, T.
Hall, Robert, Morris-street, Williamstown, V.
Hall, Thomas S., M.A., School of Mines, Castlemaine, V.
Halley, Rev. J.J.,Coneregational Hall, Russell-street, Melbourne, V.
Halliday, Hon. William, M.L.C., Reform Club, Sydney, N.S.W.
Hamann, Adolph, F.C.S., School of Mines, Sandhurst, V.
Hammond, H. W., Burwood, N.S.W.,
Hamlet, W. M., F.C.S., F.I.C., Government Analyst, Treasury
Buildings, Sydney, N.S.W.
Harber, Alfred, Walsh-street, South Yarra, V.
Hardwick William G. T., 188 Missenden-road, Camperdown, N.S.W.
Hargreaves, W. A., B.A., Ormond College, Melkourne, V.
Harrison, George R., Marrickville, N.S.W.
Harrison, L. M., c/o Messrs. Harrison, Jones and Devlin, Circular
Quay, Sydney, N.S.W.
Hart, Ludovico W., 9 Tivoli Road, South Yarra, V.
Hart, J. Stephen, M.A., B.Sc., Wilson-street, Brighton, Y.
Hart, T. Stephen, Wilson-street, Brighton, V.
Hartung, Ernst, 22 Avoca-street, South Yarra, V.
Hartley, Stewart W., Morning Bulletin Office, Rockhampton, Qe,
Harvey, J. H., 97 V ictoria Parade, East Melbourne, V.
Hastie, Miss, Wallace-street, Toorak, V.
Hawkes, George W., 188 Childers-street, North Adelaide, S.A.
Hawkins, S. M., Ivanhoe, Manningtree-road, Hawthorn, V.
Haycroft, J. I., C.E., Council Chambers, Woollahra, N.S.W.
Hayter, Henry H., C.M.G., Government Statist, Treasury
Gardens, Melbourne, V.
10
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Hearn, Miss Charlotte, Alexandra College, Hamilton, V.
Hearn, Miss Henrietta, Alexandra College, Hamilton, V.
Heaton, Edward, 241 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Hector, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., Director Geological’
Survey, N.Z.
Hedley, Charles, Elgin Cottage, Wickham-terrace, Brisbane, Q.
Heffernan, Edward B., M.D., 8 Brunswick-street, Fitzroy, V.
Heinbockel, Miss A. M., Bell Rock, Delbridge-street, Clifton Hill, V.
Henderson, A. M., Avoca-street, South Yarra, V.
Henderson, Arthur V., M.B., Ch.B., Burwood Avenue, Upper
Hawthorn, V.
Henderson, James, City Bank, Sydney, N.S.W.
Henderson, William, A.M.I.C.E., Water Supply Department.,
Treasury Gardens, Melbourne, V.
Hennell, E. Halford, Ringwood, V.
Henry, Louis, M.D., Sydney-road, Brunswick, V.
Henson, J. B., C.E., Lillington, Victoria-street, Ashfield, N.S.W.
Herlitz, Rev. Hermann, Gisborne-street, East Melbourne, V.
Heron, Mrs., Rossell, Blandsville Point, Gladesville, N.S.W.
Herring, Venerable Archdeacon, Beechworth House, Kilmore, V.
Hewlett, Thomas, M.R.C.S., 122 Nicholson-street, Fitzroy, V.
Higgins, A. Akin, Cook’s Tourist Agency, Collins-st., Melbourne, V.
Higgins, George, M.C.E., 476 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Higgins, Joseph F., C.E., Waverley-road, Malvern, V.
Higinbotham, His Honour Chief Justice, Supreme Court, Mel-
bourne, V.
Hill, G. R., Dandenong-road, Windsor, V.
Hills, Miss R. M., 48 Pitt-street, Redfern, N.S.W.
Hills, Robert, Allington, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, N.S.W.
Hincheliff, Edwin, M.D., Sandhurst, V.
Hodges, His Honour Mr. Justice, Balaclava, V.
Hogg, Henry H., Melbourne Club, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Hogg, Henry R., 19 Market Buildings, Melbourne, V.
Holle, J. F., Rockley, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, N.S.W.
Holmes, William A., Victorian Railways, Spencer-st., Melbourne, V.
Holroyd, His Honour Mr. Justice, Fernacres, Alma-road, East
St. Kilda, V.
Holt, F. 8. E., Sutherland House, Sylvania, George’s River, N.S.W.
Hooper, Miss 8. R., Davington Park-road, Prahran, V.
Hordern, E. Carr, Cobham, Parramatta-road, Ashfield, N.S.W.
Howard, G. T., M.D., 226 Nicholson-street, North Fitzroy, V.
pean ai W., F.G.S., Bayview Terrace, Hawthorne-road, Caul-
eld, V.
at oe Annie, Bayview Terrace, Hawthorne-road, Caul-
eld, V.
Howitt, Miss Mary, Bayview Terrace, Hawthorne-road, Caulfield, V.
ae Miss Maude, Bayview Terrace, Hawthorne-road, Caul-
eld, V.
Hughes, Charles M., 112 Darlinghurst-road, Sydney, N.S.W.
Hulme, Joseph, 152 Roden-street, West Melbourne, Y.
Hume, John K., Beulah, Campbelltown, N.S.W.
Hunt, Edmond A., 34 Queen-street, Melbourne, Y.
Hunt, Miss Fanny E., B.Se., Superior Public School, Bourke—
street, Goulburn, N.S.W.
Hunt, Harry W., 317 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Hunt, J. Horbury, 85 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Hunt, R., C.M.G., F.G.S8., Royal Mint, Sydney, N.S.W.
Huntsman, Thomas, 260 Nicholson-street, Fitzroy, V.
113
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Hurley, Thomas, 10 Albert-street, Windsor, V.
Husbands, Charles F.,1 Eldon Chambers, Bank Place, Collins-
street W., Melbourne, V.
Hutchinson, Jer., Rose-street, Armadale, V.
Hutchinson, W. A., Bond-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Hutton, F. W., F.G.S., C.M.Z.S., Professor of Biology, Canterbury
College, Christchurch, N.Z.
Ingamells, Miss A., Observatory, Melbourne, V.
Ingamells, Fred. N., Observatory, Melbourne, V.
Inglis, Hon. James, Sydney, N.S.W.
Ingram, Alexander, Hamilton, V.
Tredell, Charles L. M., M.D., 20 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Ivey, James, Ballarat, V.
Ivey, W. E., Agricultural College, Lincoln, N.Z.
Jack, Robert L, F.G.S. Government Geologist, Townsville, Q.
Jack, Mrs. R. L., Strathendrick, Townsville, Q.
Jack, William L., 423 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Jackson, A. H., B.Sc., F.C.S., Villa Mancunium, Dandenong road,
Caulfield, V.
Jackson, Fred E., 61 Chatsworth-road, Hawksburn, V.
Jacob, Albert F., Birkbeck, Fairfield, Southern Line, N.S.W.
Jacobs, Leslie R., 72 Queen Street, Melbourne, V.
Jacobs, Louis P., 72 Queen Street, Melbourne, V.
Jaggard, W. W. Rockhampton, Q.
Jakins, W. V., M.R.C.S., 165 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
James, —, M.D., Milne Terrace, Moonta, S.A.
James, John W., 90 King-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
James, Miss S. H., Brisbane House, North Shore, Sydney,
N.S.W.
Jamieson, James, M.D., 56 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Jamieson, Matthew B., A.M.I.C.E., 39 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Jardine, Alex. W., Wandal, Rockhampton, Q.
Jarrett, F. C., 6 Clarence-street, Sydney, N.S,W.
Jefferis, Rev. James, LL.D., Newtown, Sydney, N.S.W.
Jennings, James, 211 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Jessop, J. A., Grenfell-street, Adelaide, S.A.
Johnson, F. M., 254 Albert-street, East Melbourne, V.
Johnson, Lil G., Esperance, Albert-street, East Melbourne, V.
Johnston, Harry F., Adelaide Terrace, Perth, W.A.
Johnston, Robert M., F.L.8., Hobart, T,
Johnstone, A. Clarence, St. Kilda, V.
Jones, Edward L., Brickley, Burwood, N.S.W.
Jones, Miss Gwendolen, 107 Leopold-street, South Yarra, V.
Jones, Isaac J., Ballarat Banking Co., Ballarat, V.
Jones, J. C., North Ilawarra A.M. Co., North Bulli, N.S.W.
Jones, P. Sydney, M.D., F.R.C.S., 16 College-st., Sydney, N.S.W.
Jones, Trevor, Tremayne, North Shore, N.S.W.
Jordan, C. R., 180 Flinders-lane, Melbourne, V.
Joseph, Hon. 8. A., M.L.C., Newhurst, Edgecliffe-road, Woollahra,
N.S.W.
Josephson, Thomas F., F.G.S., St. Killians, Bellevue Hill, Wooll-
ahra, N.S.W.
Joske, Madame, 14 Greville-street, Prahran, V.
Joske, Paul R., 58 Elizabeth-street, Melbourne, V.
Joske, Mrs. Rose, 58 Elizabeth-street, Melbourne, V.
Judd, Thomas, Park Hill, Kew, V.
12
- aiid a
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Kater, Henry E., Mount Broughton, Moss Vale, N.S.W.
Katz, Oscar, Ph.D., Linnean Hall, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, N.S.W..
Kay, F. W., William-street, Norwood, 8.A.
Kay, Herbert, William-street, Norwood, S.A.
Keep, Ernest E., 1 St. James’ Buildings, William-street, Mel-
bourne, V.
Keily, John, Victoria Villa, River-street N., South Yarra, Y.
Kelby, G. W., c/o Messrs. C. & E. Millar, Palmerston, Northern
Territory, S.A.
Kelly, Rev. Robert, Moonta, S.A.
Kelly, T. H., 67 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Kendall, William T., M.R.C.V.S., Veterinary College, Brunswick-
street, Fitzroy, V.
Kennedy, Rev. James, St. Ignatius, Richmond, V.
Kendrew, Rev. George, Adelaide, S.A.
Kenny, A. Leo., M.B., B.S., 70 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Kent, Harry C., Bell’s Chambers, Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Kent, W. Saville, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Commissioner of Fisheries,
Brisbane, Q.
Kenyon, A. S., Water Supply Department, Melbourne, V.
Kernot, Miss M. J., Fierenze, Sydney-road, Royal Park, V.
Kernot, W. C., M.A., C.E., Professor of Engineering, University,
Melbourne, V.
Kilpatrick, Robert, F.R.G.S., 233 Clarendon-street, South Mel-
bourne, V.
King, Arthur 8., Madford, Kew, V.
King, Miss Georgina, Homebush, N.S.W.
King, Hon. Philip G., M.L.C., Banksia, William-street, Double
Bay, Sydney, N.S.W.
King, W. Essington, Caroline-street, South Yarra, V.
Kinnear, Robert H., Toorak, V.
Kinross, Rev. John, D.D., St. Andrew’s College, University,
Sydney, N.S.W.
Kirkby, E. H., 49 Nelson Place, Williamstown, V.
Kirkland, John B., F.C.S., Moreland, Casselly Road, Brunswick, V.
Knaggs, Samuel T., M.D., 16 College-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Knibbs, G. H., Avoca House, Denison-road, Petersham, N.S.W.
Knight, Herbert, 406 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Knight, Rev. Samuel, 279 Victoria Parade, East Melbourne, V.
Knox, Hon. Edward, M.L.C., Fiona, Double Bay, Sydney, N.S.W.
Knox, Edward W., Rona, Bellevue Hill, Sydney, N.S.W.
Knox, William, 39 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Krause, F.M., C.E., F.G.S., Professor of Geology, School of Mines,
Ballarat, V.
Kreitmayer, Max, Abbotsford, V.
Kruse, John, 105 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Kynegdon, F.B., 69 Darlinghurst-road, Sydney, N.S.W.
Laing, R. M., M.A., Boys’ High School, Christchurch, N.Z.
Lamont, Rev. James, St. Stephen’s Manse, East Maitland,N.S.W.
Langdon, James H. C., A.M.I.C.E., Town Hall, Adelaide, S.A.
Langton, Hon. Edward, Collins-street, W., Melbourne, V.
Langtree, C. W., Public Service Board, Melbourne, V.
Larking, Richard J., 16 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Lassen, Madame Alma, German College, Wellington-st., St. Kilda, V.
Latta, George J., Mountsea, Burlington-road, Homebush, N.S.W.
Laurie, Henry, LL.D., Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy,.
University, Melbourne, V.
13
LIST OF MEMBERS.
‘Laycock, George L., M.B., 77 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Leahy, John, Cloncurry, Q.
Leeper, Alexander, M.A., LL.D., Trinity College, University,
Melbourne, V.
Leeper, Mrs. Alex., Trinity College, University, Melbourne, V.
Le Fevre, Hon. George, M.D., M.L.C., 4 Collins-st., Melbourne, V.
Legge, Colonel W. Vincent, R.A., Barracks, Hobart, T.
Leibius, Adolph, M.A., Ph. D., Royal Mint, Sydney, N.S.W.
Lenehan, H. A., Observatory, Sydney, N.S.W.
Lethem, Charles B., Warwick, Q.
Lewis, Arthur U., B.A., 452 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Lewis, C. Norton, Stramore, Charles-street, Kew, V.
Lewis, Rev. Julius, St. Jude’s Vicarage, Carlton, V.
Lidgey, Ernest, c/o Messrs. Chambers and Seymour, Swanston-
street, Melbourne, V.
Lilley, Sir Charles, Kt., C.J., Brisbane, Q.
Linden, Otto, Fulton-street, East St. Kilda, V.
Lindon, Edward B., Albert-street, Brisbane, Q.
Lingen, J. T., M.A., 101 Elizabeth-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Littlejohns, William H., G.P.O., Melbourne, V.
Litton, Robert T., F.G.S., F.Z.S., 45 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Liversidge, Archibald, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Mineralogy, University, Sydney, N.S.W.
Lloyd, Hon. G. A., M.L.C., Scotforth, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney,
N.S.W.
Login, John J., Bank of Victoria, Lygon-street, Carlton, V.
Long, Charles, Ivanhoe, Lygon-street, North Carlton, V.
Looney, Miss N. T., Norwood, St. Vincent-street, Albert Park, V
Lorimer, James, Bohemian Club, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Love, E. F. J., M.A., University, Melbourne, V.
Lowe, Edward, Wilga Downs, N.S.W.
Lueas, A. H. S., M.A., B.Sc., 5 Angelo-street, South Yarra, V.
Luehmann, J. G., Botanical Department, South Yarra, V.
Lupton, George, Woronganack, Fairmount Park, Hawthorn, V.
Lyle, Thomas R., M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy, University,
Melbourne, V.
Lyons, Charles, Imperial Chambers, Adelaide, S.A.
Lyons, Claud H., 184 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Macartney, Miss Charlotte, Deanery, Melbourne, V.
Macartney, George, Victorian Railways, Melbourne, V.
Macdonald, Ebenezer, Kamilaroi, Darling Point, Sydney, N.S.W.
Macdonald, Alex. C., F.R.G.S., 433 Collins-street W. Melbourne, V.
Mace, Edward, Hobart, T.
MacFarland,J.H., M.A., Ormond College, University, Melbourne, V.
MacFarlane, Edward, Bourke, N.S.W.
MacGillivray, P. H., M.A., M.R.C.S:, Sandhurst, V.
MacGillivray, William D. K., Barkly-street, St. Kilda, V.
Mackay, Angus, F.C.S., Lizzielea, Duke-street, Balmain, N.S.W.
Mackellar, Hon. Charles K., M.L.C., Dunara, Rose Bay, Sydney,
N.S.W.
Mackenzie, John, F.G.S., Atheneum Club, Sydney, N.S.W.
Maclean, C. W., Marine Board, Melbourne, V.
Macpherson, John, Carlton, Sloane-street, Summer Hill, N.S.W.
Macully, Rev. Alex., Cullymort, Canterbury, V.
Maddrell, Robert, Bedervale, Braidwood, N.S.W.
Madsen, H. F., Hesselined House, Queen-street, Newtown, N.S.W,
Mayarey, Hon. Dr., Adelaide, S.A.
14
ef aa
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Maiden, J. H., F.C.S., F.L.S., Technological Museum, Sydney
N.S.W.
Main, T., Town Hall, Melbourne, V.
Mais, H. C., M. Inst. C.E., 61 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Maitland, D. M., Afreba, Stanmore-road, Sydney, N.S.W.
Makin, G. E., Market Square, Berrima, N.S.W.
Mann, J. Randall, 1 Gladstone Terrace, Leicester-street, Carlton, V.
Mann, Mrs. M. A., Gilbert-street, Latrobe, T.
Mann, Thomas, Gilbert-street, Latrobe, T.
Manning, Miss May L., Stanbury, Marrickville, Sydney, N.S.W.
Mansfield, G. Allen, 121 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Manwaring, William, 447 Rathdowne-street, Carlton, V.
Marks, Edward L., F.C.S., Federal Coffee Palace, Collins-street,
Melbourne, V.
Marks, Percy J., 80 Victoria-street N., Darlinghurst, N.S.W.
Marks, W. B., 123 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Marsland, Rev. J. A., Wesleyan Parsonage, Daylesford, V.
Martin, Mrs. F. N., Asling-street, North Brighton, V.
Martyn, John, M.A., Prell’s Buildings, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Martyn, James, Prell’s Buildings, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Masson, Orme, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry, University,
Melbourne, V.
Matheson, Alex., Australian Club, Sydney, N.S.W.
Mathew, Rev. John, M.A., Coburg, V.
Mathews, L. 8., 156 King-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Matthews, Richard, 1 Hillside Terrace, Hoddle-st., Richmond, V.
Mathison, H. M., Aroona, Ebden-street, Elsternwick, V.
Maunsell, H. W., M.D., Dunedin, N.Z.
Maxwell, C. M., 76 Davey-street, Hobart, T.
McAlpine, Daniel, F.C.S., 5 Wallace-street, Toorak, V.
McAulay, Alex., M.A., Ormond College, University, Melbourne, V.
McClymont, James R., Koonya, T.
McCombe, A. G., 2 St. James’s Buildings, William-street, Mel-
bourne, V.
McCoy, Frederick, C.M.G., D.Se., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
Science, University, Melbourne, V.
McCutcheon, John W., Royal Mint, Sydney, N.S.W.
McDonald, J. Alex., M.Inst.C.E., Public Works Department,
Sydney, N.S.W.
McDougall, Miss, Summerlee, Riversdale-road, Hawthorn, V.
McDougall, Mrs., Riversdale-road, Hawthorn, V.
McDougall, P. R., Riversdale-road, Hawthorn, V.
MecFell, 87 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Mecllwraith, W. M., Morning Bulletin Office, Rockhampton, Q.
McKay, Alexander, F.G.S., Colonial Museum, Wellington, N.Z.
McKay, H. S., Liverpool, N.S.W.
McKay, Mrs. John, Netherlee, Burke-road, Malvern, V.
McKibbin, J. N., Mascotte, Kensington-road, South Yarra, V.
McLean, Oliver, c/o Messrs. McLean Bros. & Rigg, Melbourne, V.
McLeay, Hon. William, F.L.S., Sydney, N.S.W.
McMaster, Oswald, Exchange, Sydney, N.S.W.
MeMordie, D., B.E., M.Inst.C.E., Shalimar, Waverley, N.S.W.
McNeil, Neil, Penshurst, V.
McPetrie, Capt. Alexander, Rouse-street, Port Melbourne, V.
McPherson, Malcolm, Swanston-street, Melbourne, V.
Mein, His Honour Mr. Justice, Supreme Court, Brisbane, Q.
Meldrum, John W., Bank of South Australia, Adelaide, S.A.
Melvin, James, 255 Scotchmer-street, North Fitzroy, V.
15
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Mercer, Alexander, 7 Great Davis-street, South Yarra, V.
Merewether, Edward C., Castlefield, Bondi-road, Sydney, N.S.W.
Meyer, Felix, M.B., 123 Lygon-street, Carlton, V.
Midelton, Thomas, Chiltern, Stanmore, Sydney, N.S.W.
Miles, Frederick G., Town Hall, South Melbourne, V.
eee ce eee 3 Clarendon Terrace, Elizabeth-street, Syduey,.
Milford, Kearsey, Rockhampton, Q.
Millear, Miss, c/o Professor Masson, University, Melbourne, Y.
Miller, Robert, 72 Clarence-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Mills, Stephen, Aurelia, Croydon, N.S.W.
Milne, Sir William, K.B., Sunnyside, Adelaide, S.A.
Milson, James, Hlamang, St. Leonards, N.S.W.
Milton, George, 49 Swanston-street, Melbourne, V.
Milton, Mrs. George, 49 Swanston-street, Melbourne, V.
Mingaye, J. C. H., F.C.S., Mines Department, Sydney, N.S.W.
Miskin, W. H., F.E.S., Brisbane, Q.
Mitchell, J. S., Etham, Darling Point, Sydney, N.S.W.
Mitchell, John, Public School, Narellan, N.S.W.
Moat, W. Pollock, M.H.R., Te Kapa, Auckland, N.Z.
Moerlin, Carl, Observatory, Melbourne, V.
Montague, G., Railway Department, Melbourne, V.
Moore, F. B., Strahan, T.
Moore, George, M.D., Dickens-street, St. Kilda, V.
Moore, W. L., Exchange, Bridge-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Moors, E. M.,M.A.,Elphin Cottage, Boulevard, Petersham, N.S.W.
Moors, Henry, Chief Secretary’s Office, Melbourne, V.
Moran, His Eminence Cardinal, St. Mary’s Cathedral, Sydney,
N.S. W.
Morley, J. L., 199 Drummond-street, Carlton, V.
Morley, F., 312 Victoria-street, Darlinghurst, N.S.W.
Morris, Edward E., M.A., Professor of English, French, and
German Languages and Literatures, University, Mel-
bourne, V.
Morrison, Alexander, L.R.C.P.E., 472 Albert-street, East Mel-
bourne, V.
Morton, Alexander, F.L.S., Museum, Hobart, T.
Morton, H. Gordon, Numba, Shoalhaven, N.S.W.
Morton, W. H., Town Hall, Melbourne, V.
Moullin, James, The Hermitage, Brighton-road, South St.Kilda, V.
Moulton, —, Burwood, Hawthorn, V.
Mousley, Francis, Royal Mint, Melbourne, Vie
Mueller, Baron Ferdinand von, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., M. and Ph.D.,
Arnold-street, South Yarra, V.
Mueller, Paul G., P.O. Lower Mitcham, near Adelaide, S.A.
Mullens, Josiah, 92 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Munday, John, Herberton, Q.
Murnin, M. E., Hisenfels, Nattai, N.S.W.
Murray, Hon. David, M.L.C., Adelaide, S.A.
Murray, Howatson S., Colonial Sugar Refining Co., Harwood,
Clarence River, N.S.W.
Murray, K. L., Victorian Railways, Spencer-street, Melbourne, V.
Murray, Reginald A. F., Mines Department, Melbourne, V.
Murray, Stuart, Water Supply Department, Melbourne, V.
Musgrove, James, Greenvale, V.
Musson, Charles F., F.L.S., Narrabri, Namoi River, N.S.W.
Nathan, A. W., 81 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
16
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Neild, James E., M.D., 21 Spring-street, Melbourne, V.
Nesbit, E. Pariss, Gladstone Chambers, Pirie-street, Adelaide, S.A.
Newbatt, George, Newtown, Hobart, T.
Newbigin, Edward, Stella, Hunt-road, Prahran, V.
Nicholas, William, F.G.S., Auburn Grove, Armadale, V.
Nicolson, Sir Arthur, Esplanade, St. Kilda, V.
Nimmo, William, Melbourne Club, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Norris, Charles S., Townsville, Q.
Norton, Albert, Speaker’s Room, Brisbane, Q.
Norton, Hon. James, M.L.C., 2 O’Connell-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Nuttall, William, Bay-street, North Brighton, V.
Nutter, C. J.. A.M.P. Society, Pittt-sreet, Sydney, N.S.W.
Nyulasy, Francis A., M.B., Ch.B., Toorak, Melbourne, V.
Nyulasy, Miss Margaret, Toorak, V.
Odlum, E., Cobourg, Ontario, Canada.
Officer, C. G. W., Orrong-road, Toorak, V.
Ogilvy, J. L., Commercial Bank, Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
O’Grady, Thomas R., Nanna Creek, Grafton, N.S.W.
Oliver, Mrs. Annie, Oakhurst, Blessineton-street, St. Kilda, V.
Oliver, Calder E., A.M.I.C.E., Water Supply Department, Yarra
Glen, V.
O’Reilly, Walter W., 197 Liverpool-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Ostermeyer, William, M.A., Lee-street, North Carlton, V.
Page, Thomas H., Toolern, Diggers’ Rest, V.
Palmer, Thomas, South Melbourne College, South Melbourne, V.
Panton, J. A., Carannya, Alexander-street, Hast St. Kilda, V.
Park, Archibald, Hobart, T.
Parker, William, A.M.I.C.E., Prell’s Buildings, Collins-street,
Melbourne, V. ‘
Paseo, Commander Crawford, R.N.,c/o A. C. Macdonald, 15 Market
Buildings, Collins-street, Melbourne, Y.
Parris, Fred., Goulburn Weir, Nagambie, V.
Paterson, Alexander, M.A., M.D., Hill Crest, Stanmore-road,
Petersham, Sydney, N.S.W.
Paul, Arthur W. L., C.H., Male-street, Middle Brighton, V.
Pearson, A. N., Government Agricultural Laboratory, 45 Queen-
street, Melbourne, V.
Pedley, P. R., 201 Macquarie-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Peipers, F., M.D., Collins-street E., Melbourne, V.
Perrin, George 8., F.L.S., Isabella-street, Malvern, V.
Perrin, Major H. W., Naval and Military Club, Collins-street,
Melbourne, V.
Peters, Alfred, Rosebank, Lygon-street, Carlton, V.
Petersern, W., 6 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Petherick, Percival E., St. James’s-street, Melbourne, VY:
Phelps, William, Carlisle-street, Hast St. Kilda, V.
Phillips, A. E., 39 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Phillips, Coleman, Dry River, Wairarapa, N.Z.
Phillips, Louis, c/o M. Moss and Co., Sydney, N.S.W.
Piguenit, W. C., Saintonge, Hunter’s Hill, Sydney, N.S.W.
Pillinger, John, Millbrook, Tunbridge, T.
Pitt, G. M., Pastoral Chambers, George-street, Sydney. N.S.W.
Pittmann, Edward F., Mines Department, Sydney, N.S.W.
Plowman, Sidney, F.R.C.S., College of Pharmacy, Melbourne, V.
Pollock, Arthur, University, Sydney, N.S.W.
Poole, W. B., Savines Bank, Adelaide, S.A.
17
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Poolman, 8., Colonial Sugar Co., O’Connell-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Porter, Edward, Cook’s River-road, Newtown, Sydney, N.S.W.
Porter, Thomas, Drummond-street, Ballarat, V.
Potter, Rev. William, F.R.G.S., Tamar House, South Melbourne, V.
Potts, H. W., 442 Bourke-street W., Melbourne, V.
Powell, Ernest J., Town Hall, Hawthorn, V.
Power, F. Danvers, Box 35, Exchange, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Power, Francis R., Royal Mint, Melbourne, V.
Prankerd, Peter D., c/o. Mr. F. Wright, Italian Consulate,
Adelaide, S.A.
Press, Henry, Quantock, Williamstown, V.
Priestly, A., Federal Bank, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Prince, James E., 1 Henry-street, Windsor. V.
Pritchard, Arthur F., 19 Macquarie-place, Sydney, N.S.W.
Pritchard, G. B., 668 Bourke-street, Melbourne, V.
Pritchard, William, 19 Macquarie-place, Sydney, N.S.W.
Prosser, E., Porthamel, Darling Point, Sydney, N.S.W.
Pullar, James, 419 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Pulver, Louis, Hebrew School, Sydney, N.S.W.
Purchas, Albert, C.E., 462 Little Collins-street, Melbourne, Y.
Purchas, Mrs., V. T., Fern Hill, Kew, V.
Puttmann, H. W., 479 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Quaife, W. F., M.B., Ch.M., Marathon, 195 Elizabeth-street,
Woollahra, N.S.W.
Quodling, W. H., Couranga, Redmyre, Boulevard,Strathfield, N.S.W
Rae, John, Hilton, Darlinghurst, N.S.W.
Ralston, Charles, 47 Armadale-street, Armadale, V.
Ramsay, David, junr., 129 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Rands, W. H., Maryborough, Q.
Ratibek, Kund L., C.E., Water Supply Department, Brisbane, Q.
Rattray, James, Craighall, Dunedin, N.Z.
Raw, John T., Stanhope, Waterloo-street, Camberwell, V.
Raw, Whitfield, Stanhope, Waterloo-street, Camberwell, VY.
Redfearn, W., Condor-street, Burwood, N.S.W.
Regan, J. B., C.E., c/o Messrs. Falkingham and Sons, Railway
Station, 'Tooradin, V.
Reid, Mrs. Aenes, Merton House, Powlett-street, East Melbourne, V.
Reid, Rev. John, M.A., Luidore, Hotham-street, E. St. Kilda, V.
Reid, Robert, Merton House, Powlett-street, East Melbourne, V.
Reid W., Australian Joint Stock Bank, Sydney, N.S.W.
Renner, F. E,, M.D., Woolungar, S.A.
Rennick, Charles, Mercantile Finance and Agency Co., Elizabeth-
street, Melbourne, V.
Rennie, E. H., M.A., D.Se., Professor of Chemistry, University,
Adelaide, S.A.
Richards, R. W., Town Hall, Sydney, N.S.W.
Richardson, H. C., Architect, Adelaide, S.A.
Richardson, P. P., Manfred, Drumoyne, Sydney, N.S.W.
Riddell, Robert B., 6 Eastern Market Buildings, Bourke-street,
Melbourne, V.
Riddoch, John, Yallum, Penola, S.A.
Ridge, Samuel H., B.A., F.R.G.S., 257 Victoria-parade, East
Melbourne, V.
Ridge, Mrs. Susanna, 257 Victoria Parade, East Melbourne, Y.
Rigeall, Miss, The Hollies, Burke-road, Camberwell, V.
Riley, A. J., M.L.A., 'Tulloona, Burwood, N.S.W.
wobberds, John H,, 184 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W,
18
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Roberts, A. E.; 121 Swan- street, Richmond, V.’
Roberts, Tom, Grosvenor Chambers, Collins-st. E., Melbourne, V.
Robertson, Dr. —, Adelaide, S.A.
Robertson, J. Steele, B.A., University, Melbourne, V.
Robertson, James, M.A., M.D., 19 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Robertson, James, 132 Elgin-street, Carlton, V.
Robertson, Rev. James T'., North Melbourne, V.
Robertson, Thomas, Hay, N.S.W.
Robertson, W. L., Inverary, South Yarra, V.
Rochford, James, C.E., Napier, N.Z.
Rodwell, Miss Florence M., Brisbane House, North Shore, Sydney,
N.S.W.
Roe, Reginald H., Brisbane House, North Shore, Sydney, N.S.W.
Roeder, Carl, Victoria-street, Sandhurst, V.
Rosales, Henry, C.H., Alta-Mira, Grandview Grove, Armadale, V.
Ross, Andrew, M.D., M.L.A., Molong, N.S.W.
Ross, Herbert H., St. Andrew’s College, University, Sydney, N.S.W.
Ross, Joseph B., M.D.. Chaucer-street, Moonee Ponds, V.
Ross, W. J. Clunies, B.Sc., F.G.S., Lambert-st., Bathurst, N.S.W.
Rowsell, W. H., 4 O’Connell-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Rudall, James T., F.R.C.S., Collins-street E., Melbourne, V.
Rule, Oliver R., Technological Museum, Melbourne, V.
Rundle, George E., F.R.C.S.E., 71c Darlinghurst-road, Sydney,
N.S.W.
Rusden, H. K., Ockley, Marlton Crescent, St. Kilda, V.
Russell, H. A., B.A., Observatory, Sydney, N.S.W.
Russell, H. C., B.A., F.R.S., Observatory, Sydney, N.S.W.
Russell, Thomas, Egoleen, Clendon-road, Toorak, V.
Russell, William C., Egoleen, Clendon-road, Toorak, V.
Russell, William, Semaphore Observatory, Adelaide, 8.A.
Rutherford, J. Schaw, The Island, Whangerei, N.Z.
Ryan, James P., F.R.C.S., 63 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Ryan, Martin J., M.B., Ch.B., Kyneton, V.
Ryan, Robert H., M.Inst.C.E., Veteran Hall, Prospect, N.S.W.
Sabelberg, J., 128 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Sach, A. J., Technical School, Goulburn, N.S.W.
Sachse, A. O., C.E., F.R.G.S., 454 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Sager, Edmund, Health Office, 127 Macquarie-st., Sydney, N.S.W.
Saunders, John H., M.B., B.S., Victoria House, Grey-street, St.
Kilda, V.
Sayce, O. A.,c/o Mr. Julius Levy, Flinders-lane W.,Melbourne, V.
Schomburg, R., Ph.D., Botanic Gardens, Adelaide, S.A.
Scott, Hon. Henry, M.L.C., Glen Osmond, Adelaide, S.A.
Scott, J. H., M.D., Professor of Anatomy, Otago University, N.Z.
Scott, J. R., C.E., Ware-street, Hobart, T.
Scott, J. R., c/o Mr. Richardson, Kyneton, V.
Scott, Robert, 16 Motherwell-street, South Yarra, V.
Scott, Walter, M.A., Professor of Classics, University, Sydney,
N.S.W.
Scott, William, Fletcher-street, Essendon, V.
Scott, Wm. H., C.E., Empire-buildings, Collins-st., Melbourne, V.
Searle, James, 27 Little Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Selby, G. W., 99 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Selby, G. W., jun., 99 Queen-street, Melbourne, V.
Serjeant, R. M., Yarrowee Hall, Yarrowee-parade, Ballarat, V
Service, John, L.R.C.P.E., Newtown, N.S.W.
Shand, J., M.D., University, Otago, N.Z.
19
b2
LIS? OF MEMBERS.
Sharpe, Andrew, Mines Department, Beechworth, v.
Shaw, Percy W., Railway Department, Sydney, N.S W.
Shellshear, Walter, A.M.I.C.E., Trentham, Holt-street, Petersham,
N.S.W.
Sherrard, J. E., Exhibition Buildings, Melbourne, V.
Shields, A., M.D., 601 Kine-street, West Melbourne, V.
Shillinglaw, Harry, F.R.G.S., College of Pharmacy, Melbourne, V.
Shillinglaw, John J., F.R.G.S., Dumbiedykes, Alma-road, Hast St.
Kilda, V
Shorter, John, Box 469 G.P.O., Sydney, N.S.W.
Shuge, James, Castlemaine, V.
Shuter, Charles, Malvern, V.
Shuter, Charles J., M.B., Kensington, V.
Silk, Harry, Toxteth, Park-street, Parkville, V.
Simms, William K., Pirie-street, Adelaide, S.A.
Sims, George Jno., 60 Market Buildings, William-st., Melbourne, V.
Simson, Augustus, Launceston, T.
Simson, Huntly S., Victoria School, Geelong, V.
Simson, Mrs. John, Trawalla, Toorak, V.
Simson, Miss M., Trawalla, 'Toorak, V.
Simson, Mrs. R., Leura, Toorak, V.
Sinclair, S., Australian Museum, Sydney, N.S.W.
Singleton, Miss M. W., Corinea, Mt. Erica, Prahran, V.
Sisley, Thomas A., 4 Albion-street, South Yarra, V.
Skey, William, Geological Survey, Wellington, N.Z.
Skuse, Fredk. A. A., Linnean Hall, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, N.S.W.
Slatyer, C. H., 295 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Smale, George, State School, P.O. Tylden South, V.
Smith, Alfred M., Professor of Natural Philsophy, School of
Mines, Ballarat, V.
Smith, B. A., Imperial Chambers, Bank Place, Collins-street W..,
Melbourne, V.
Smith, B. Doughty, F.I.A.V., Ashfield-road, Canterbury, V.
Smith, Edward, Commercial Bank, Adelaide. 8.A.
Smith, J. McGarvie, Denison-street, Woollahra, N.S.W.
Smith, James, Albert Park School, South Melbourne, V.
Smith, Mrs. Jessie K., School of Mines, Ballarat, V.
Smith, Louis L., L.8.A., Collins-street E., Melbourne, V.
Smith, R. Burdett, C.M.G., M.L.A., 203 Macquarie-street, Sydney,
N.S.W.
Smith, 8. Percy, F.R.G.8., Surveyor General, Wellington, N.Z.
Smith, Tennyson, Evening Standard office, Melbourne, V.
Solley, Robert, 237A Little Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Souef, A. A. C. le, C.M.Z.S., Royal Park, Melbourne, V.
Souef, Dudley le, Royal Park, Melbourne, V.
Spedding, Jacque, Fehon-street, Yarraville, V.
Spencer, W. Baldwin, M.A., Professor of Biology, University,
Melbourne, V.
Springthorpe, J. W., M.A., M.D., Collins-street H., Melbourne, V.
Stamp, , Prell’s Buildings, Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Stanbridge, Hon. W. E., M.L.C., Daylesford, V.
Starkey, J. Thomas, 37 Castlereagh-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Steane, George R. B., Cunningham-street, Northcote, V.
Steane, Samuel A., Erskine, Darling-street, Balmain, N.S.W.
Steel, Rev. Robert, DDE Lewington House, Pitt-street, Hast St.
Leonards, N.S.W.
Steel, Thomas, Sugar Works, Yarraville, V.
Steele, Miss Jeanie, Sale, Gippsland, V.
20
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Stephen, His Honour Mr. Justice, Supreme Court, Sydney, N.S.W.
Stephens, Thos., M.A., F.G.S., Education Department, Hobart, T.
Stephens, William J., M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy,
University, Sydney, N.S.W.
Stewart, Charles, M.C.E., Murphy-street, South Yarra, V.
Stewart, J. Douglas, Gower-street, Summer Hill, N.S.W.
Stewart, Hon. John, M.L.C., Summer Hill, N.S.W.
Stirling, Edward C., M.A., M.D., University, Adelaide, 8.A.
Stirling, James, F.G.S., F.L.S., Mines Department, Melbourne, V.
Stitt, J. E. A., 298 Murray-street, Hobart, T.
Stokell, R. W., Launceston, T.
Stone, W., Patterson-street, West Beach, St. Kilda, V.
Stott, Sydney, Millicent Avenue, Toorak, V.
Strachan, William, 395 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Strettle, W. 8., Rorymont, Boundary-road, Malvern, V.
Strong, Rev. Dr. Charles, M.A., Lansdowne-road, East St. Kilda, V.
Stuart, T. P. Anderson, M.D., C.M., Professor of Anatomy and
Physiology, University, Sydney, N.S.W.
Sturmer, Edwin, Nevada, Rosslyn, Dunedin, N.Z.
Sugden, Rev. HE. H., B.A., B.Sc., Queen’s College, University,
Melbourne, V.
Sulman, John, F.R.I.B.A., 375 George-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Sullivan, D., F.L.S., 2 Melbourne Terrace, Drummond-street,
Carlton, V.
Sutherland, Alexander, M.A., Carlton College, Royal Park, V.
Sutherland, Mrs. G., 1 Lytton-street, Carlton, V.
Sutherland, William, M.A., Lytton-street, Carlton, V.
Sweet, George, The Close, Brunswick, V.
Swift, James, Commercial Bank, South Melbourne, V.
Swinborne, Geo., C.E., Planet Chambers, Collins-st., Melbourne,V.
Swindley, William, Eccleston, Queen’s-terrace, Albert Park, V.
Syme, G. Alexander, M.A., North-road, Brighton, V.
Syme, G. Adlington, M.B., F.R.C.S., Colllns-st. E., Melbourne, V.
Symon, J. H., Q.C., Adelaide, 8.A.
Symon, W., M.A., Adelaide, S.A.
Symons, Rev. J. C., Glenferrie-road, Hawthorn, V.
Synnot, Monckton D., Sunbury, V.
Tait, James A., Ivanhoe, 151 Hotham-street, East Melbourne, V.
Tate, Frank, B.A., Avilion, Station-street, Box Hill, V.
‘Tate, Ralph, F.G.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural Science, Univer-
sity, Adelaide, S.A.
Tate, Mrs. Ralph, University, Adelaide, 8.A.
‘Taylor, Alfred J., Tasmanian Public Library, Hobart, T.
Teece, R., F.I.A., 67 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Tepper, J. G. O., F.L.S., Museum, Adelaide, S.A.
Thomas, A. P., M.A., F.L.8., Professor of Biology, Auckland, N.Z.
Thomas, Edward V., 145 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Thomas, Miss Emilie A., Versailles, Canterbury-road, Balywn, V.
Thomas, J. C., Port Melbourne, V.
Thomas, William M., Auburn, N.S.W.
Thomson, J. C., Dunedin Iron and Woodware Co., Dunedin, N.Z.
Thomson, John, c/o Kilpatrick & Co., 307 Collins-st., Melbourne, V.
Thompson, Dugald, 409 George-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Thompson, George M., F.L.8., High School, Newington, Dunedin,
N.Z.
Thompson, J. Ashburton, M.D., D.P.H., Health Department,
127 Macquarie-street N., Sydney, N.S.W.
21
LIS? OF MEMBERS.
Thompson, J. Henning, M.A., High School, Charles-street, Kew, V.
Thompson, R. O., Gas Works, South Melbourne, V.
Thorp, R. C., M.D., F.R.C.P., Roseneath, O’Connell-street, Parra-
matta, N.S.W.
Thornton, Rev. J. J., Brunswick-road, Brunswick, V.
Thow, William, Locomotive Department, Eveleigh, Sydney, N.S.W.
Threlfall, Richard, M.A., Professor of Physics, University, Sydney,
N.S.W.
Threlfall, Miss, Beaucliffe, Yanonabbe-road, Darling Point,
Sydney, N.S.W.
Threlfall, Mrs., Beaucliffe, Yanonabbe-road, Darling Point,
Sydney, N.S.W.
Tibbitts, W. H., M.R.C.S., Belchester, Manly, N.S.W.
Tidswell, Henry P., c’o Messrs. Tidswell, Wilson and Co., 68
Clarence-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Tietkens, W. H., Adelaide, S.A.
Tipping, J., 72 Henry-street, Windsor, V.
Tisdall, Henry T., F.L.5., Washington-street, Toorak, V.
Tisdall, Herbert W. L., B.C.E., Rosbercon, Washington-street,
Toorak, V.
Todd, Charles,C.M.G., F R.S., F.R.A.S., Observatory, Adelaide, S.A.
Toll, John J., M.D., Port Adelaide, S.A.
Topp, Charles A., M.A., LL.B., F.L.8., Training College,
University, Melbourne, V.
Touch, J. Edward, c/o Booth, McDonald and Co., Christchurch,
N.Z.
Townsend, Mrs. Anna G., 22 George-street, Fitzroy, V.
Townsend, J. William, 179 Elizabeth-street, Melbourne, V.
Townsend, Miss Jessie G., 22 George-street, Fitzroy, V.
Traill, J. Cuthbert, B.A., B.C.E., 525 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Traill, John, 525 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Travis, J.. Mines Department, Melbourne, V.
Tregarthen, Greville, Government Statist’s Office, 74 Bridge-street,
Sydney, N.S.W.
Trist, Henry, Stevedore-street, Williamstown, V.
Tritton, J. L., Goulburn, N.S.W.
Trotter, W., 104 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Tucker, Thomas G., M.A., Professor of Classics, University, Mel-
bourne, V.
Turner, Duncan, L.R.C.S.E., 90 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Turner, Fred., F.R.H.S., Hyde Park, Sydney, N.S.W.
Turner, Harry, Cavendish Chambers, Grenfell-street, Adelaide, S.A.
Turner, Henry G., Commercial Bank, Collins-street W., Mel-
bourne, V.
Turner, Mrs. Henry, G., Commercial Bank, Collins-street W.,
Melbourne, V.
Turner, J. B. C., 90 Collins-street, Melbourne, V.
Turri, G. Garibaldi, 104 Elizabeth-street, Melbourne, V.
Tuxen, P. V., 456 Chancery Lane, Melbourne, V.
Twynam, Edward, Survey Department, Sydney, N.S.W.
Twynam, George E., M.R.C.S., 38 Bayswater-road, Darlinghurst,
N.S.W.
Tyas, J ohn W., University, Adelaide, S.A.
Uhr, Charles J. K., 93 Elizabeth-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Ulm, Emil, Consul for Bolivia, 36 High-street, Prahran, Vi
Ulrich, George H. F., F.G.S., Professor of ,Mining and Mineralogy,
Otago University, N.Z.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Urquhart, Arthur T. D., Auckland, N.Z.
Usher, J. E., M.D., F.R.G.S., Collins-street E., Melbourne, V.
Vale, Miss Grace, Mayfield, Church-street, Abbotsford, V.
Vale, Hon. W. M. K.., Mayfield, Church-street, Abbotsford, V.
Valentine, Charles J., Wellington-square, North Adelaide, S.A.
Vanse, A. J., Tempe, N.S.W.
Vasey, Thomas, Riversdale-road, Hawthorn, V.
Verdon, Edward de, Office of Titles, Queen-street, Melbourne, V. ont
Vicars, J ames, B.E., Ochil Bank, Palace-street, Ashfield, N.S. m @ ct. ite Ly
Vickery, Hon. E., M. L.C., Edina, Waverley, N.S.W.
Vickery, S. K., A.M.LC. E., Ararat, V. fm AS ‘@’ .?
Vay L ~ & & bso
Walch, James H. B., Holbrook Place, Hobart, T. S #
Walker, E. A., Cramer-street, Preston, V. bs @2aRy
Walker, F. W., 58 Castlereagh-street, Sydney, N.S.W. 5
Walker, J. T., Waltham Buildings, Bond-strect, Sydney, We a oo
Walker, James B., Mutual Provident Chambers, Hobart, T. r Ge
Walker, 8S. J., 60 Alfred-street, Prahran, V. 20”, ‘ey
Walker, W., Victorian Railways, Spencer-strect, Melbourne, wits
Wall, H. B. de la Poer, M A., Hamilton Colleve, Hamilton, V
Wallace, Frank H., B.A., White Street, Balmain, N.S.W.
Walsh, Fred, 26 Elizabeth-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Walsh, Rev. W. M., St. Joseph’s, Townsville, Q.
Walton, T. U., B.Sc., F.C.S., Colonial Sugar Co., Sydney, N.S.W.
Ward, W. F., Government Analyst, Hobart, T.
Ward-Cole, Miss, St. Ninian’s, Brighton, V.
Ward-Cole, Mrs., St. Ninian’s, Brighton, V.
Wark, William, Kurrajong Heights, N.S.W.
Wark, William, jun., Kurrajong Heights, N.S.W.
Warren, Mrs. A., Rosendale, Stanmore-road, Sydney, N.S.W.
Warren, W. H., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering, University,
Sydney, N.S.W.
Watson, Hon. J., Glenworth, Darling Pt., Sydney, N.S.W.
Watson, Robert, Victorian Railways, Spencer-street, Melbourne, V.
Waugh, Rev. J. 8., D.D., Hawthorn, V.
Way, His Honour Chief Justice, Adelaide, S.A.
Webster, —, M.D., Toorak-road, South Yarra, V.
Webster, John, Hokianga, N.Z.
Webster, Mrs. John, Bundalohn, Tennyson-street, St. Kilda, V.
Weir, John, 57 Little Flinders-street, Melbourne, V.
Wells, William E., 197 Clarendon-street, South Melbourne, V.
West, B. Edmund, Melbourne Club, Collins-street, Melbourne, Y.
West, James G., Mt. Leyshon, Charters Towers, Q.
West-Erskine, Hon. W. A. E., M.A., M.L.C., Adelaide Club,
Adelaide, S.A.
Weston, J. J., 29 O’Connell-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
White, E. J., F.R.A.S., Observatory, Melbourne, Y.
White, Rev. James S., M.A., LL.D., Gowrie, Singleton, N.S.W.
White, Mrs. Sarah E. C., Observatory, Melbourne, V.
Wiesener, T. F., 334 George-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Wiggs, Henry C., M.D., 220 Lygon-street, Carlton, V.
Wild, John J., Ph. D., F.R.G.S., 112 Drummond-st., Carlton, V.
Wilkinson, Charles S., F.G.S8., F.L.8., Mines Department,
Sydney, N.S.W.
Wilkinson, Edward, Town Hall, Melbourne, VY.
Wilkinson, John F., M.B., Ch. B., Bright, V.
Wilkinson, Rey. S., Regent House, Regent-st., Petersham, N.S.W.
23
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Williams, John, M.D., 59 Collins-street, Melbourne, V
Willsallen, T. P., Gunnibli, Gunnedah, N.S.W.
Wilshire, J. 'I’., M.L.A., Havilah, Emu-street, Burwood, N.S.W.
Wilson, Alexander, Portsand Harbours Department, Melbourne, V.
Wilson, Edwin L., 56 Market-street, Melbourne, V.
Wilson, Rev. F. R. M., Kew, V.
Wilson, J. Bracebridge, M.A., F.L.8., C.E. Grammar School,
Geelong, V.
Wilson, James J., M.B., C.M., University, Sydney, N.S.W.
Wilson, T. R., Chief Secretary's Office, Treasury, Melbourne, V.
Wilton, Wyn J. E., Elizabeth-street, Hobart, T.
Windeyer, His Honour Mr. Justice, Supreme Court, Sydney, N.S.W.
Wintle, 8. Henry, Eltinor, Park-street, Burnley, V.
Wise, Bernhard R., M.L.A., Carisbrook, 22 Macleay-street, Sydney,
N.S.W.
Wisewould, Frank, 93 William-street, Melbourne, V.
Wood, W. Atkinson, M.B., Ch.B., Corowa, Wattletree-road,
Malvern, V.
Woodhouse, E. B., Mt. Gilead, Campbelltown, N.S.W.
Woodthorpe, Rev. Robert A., B.A., St. Leonards, Sydney, N.S.W.
Wooleock, John L., Town Hall Chambers, Brisbane, Q.
Woolrych, F. B. W., 54 Watkin-street, Newtown, N.S.W.
Wotherspoon, Robert, C.E., Town Hall, Melbourne, V.
Wright, Frederick, Italian Consulate, Pirie street, Adelaide, S.A
Wricht, H. G. A., M.R.C.S., Wynyard Square, Sydney, N.S.W.
Wright, James H., Darlimurla, South Gippsland, V.
Wright, John, Forest Lodge, 67 Wentworth-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
Wright, Robert, Carlton Terrace, Wynyard Square, Sydney, N.S.W.
Wylie, Alexander C., 41 Norwich Chambers, Hunter-street,
Sydney, N.S.W.
Wynne, Richard, Yarrawa, Mt. Wilson, N.S.W.
Yeates, Horatio, St. Kilda road, Melbourne, V.
Yeats, John, 71 Osborne-street, South Yarra, V.
Young, J. B, Sandhurst, V.
Yule, William, 47 William-street, Melbourne, V,
FORD & SON, Printers, 372 & 374 Drummond Street, Carlton, Melbourne,
SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF MEMBERS.
Adair, J. F., Richmond-terrace, Sydney, N.S.W.
Barff, H. E., Toxteth-road, Glebe Point, N.S.W.
Fischer, C. F., M.R.C.S., Sydney, N.SW.
Josephson, J. P., Marrickville, Sydney, N.S.W.
Manning, Sir W., Sydney, N.S.W.
Mestayer, R. L., Parramatta-road, Sydney, N.S.W.
Moore, Ch., Director Bot. Gardens, Sydney, N.S.W.
Parker, T. J., F.R.S., Professor of Biology, Otago, N.Z.
Haswell, W. A., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Biology, University of
Sydney, N.S.W.
Stillman, Henry T. W., Melbourne, V.
Purdie, A., M.A., University of Otago, N.Z.
Teape, Rev. W. M., Penola, S.A.
PANE TO
ss “eo if
aes
ae <
TAR
ae i
ray
A seth 14 al
Vvuaave
Tet :
7 ¢ ) t iaf
wh ARATLI TRO ?
lo ¥iettevicall wpolorth $5. Hemlod ..oadl :
eta baa
Px uri
wei omadt) } ;
; be cnlomad Mae
wtinivia') ole
|
|
Serials
il
5 WHSE 04098
|
MBL WHOI! Libra
|
|
SURED
mt
“SES Va
.
iN} SUUADES Es EASE Us PWEDE AEA
ea easy S
This tes ja os REA, att sabi HEN DS PEAS
patie 7
airs p py MA A Prey ule. ii TEN
EVI ae ee X0zp eae
FETARD ANSON AUN CAVED:
Ag ae 43
na Pati
: i mt Miia
Fi
\\ Bam
1 fas
ai) Re
Ve "
s
7 Ni iy rus
AEN Sal
ay i) _ Vist “ -
| es eth) NR
ant
SAIS:
a wee
pen LW. %
PG eee
- Sf ce ae
Pres
ees
See
——,
ral
- \
ny A
a N : halt A i
. ae ( | ne a 7 at
‘ A A NG : ‘Ny i
a a
by a“ a A ni Aas
A ARYAN
| ae
. \ ‘\ i Ne iy ANE yb NEN NN NS NY
7 te i ae Wea ; i Apt aes iy h
iN - wan wa a) RNS wn
Nati ala ua
a BN
7 i ol Ai { a ah al x
i ‘ a \ na Cy A
\y \\ Al K
o i a ; ih INR Ne AW
SINY ths}
aay ui
URNTE
ee
Eg
Fs
ee
oer,
abe
eel
aie:
»
aes
oe
.
fo
i,
Ca
A
RST
Ny \ a aK
fat
ons
<
.
~~
oy
iw
ase
Ai.
2
—
owe.
we
rae
ee
4
ae
es
sy tiy *
a
ae
=
\
ma
os
yi
AMES
AAI
AN
WAST}
no
=
tS
mae
Tir5 Rote
ee.
ge
pale
ate
ros
Ze
as
nko
ef
i i i
a ORT coe ere cee
a
val oom ee,
ote mom
ee
“,
SILAS
2
ADs
onl:
to Fd
haa ae as
ee
ee ree,
ree
oe
——~
eee, en eT
Gees
res
vy,
a
omens
ae
—"
—
tz
o : | 7
eS a uN
ne
as
me mls
oe
gs
cee
sere ale
as nae
Z
ese:
etd
ci
ee
es
2
eres ¥
Ei een
eee ies dt. Foes
net we
ras
me
—
ees
Q
aa ee
Sap Go mag =,
J, — fet
gael re
ASE ea Anis
feat SMtiy. ‘ : iy d iy “4h RU Nt TAN
NRAUN WAS a 7 Naina}
+ Nt i sy RAG s ‘
‘ \\ th AE
RFF
lh,
aye ee eres
6 ir
ge acre OR,
ape Ny
3
emer
ome As
es
ma e-$
——
* yes,
eee nes
Cire noe
ITE
Sterne
ee ee
Ceo Thy
ALI
aes
LO
time
om,
oa
Tore
ine
ms ves
eee
Se mrwret,
; oI KX
eee aes
a Sud * oe:
Se eos it rey wate
arts cS
are
i SHAE UNS NS : a
a a can
| wah Nea
: ARN
:
ey
-e
wR 2
SENT! CaN
LN RN
Sere se eee ST ib ty: het = miro ene errs ates aspen Sa ah
¥ Omg 5 * Bey Aeg og eS 5 Rte ie ee thi, r ite e > Bao cre en Sages BA rs
Lc y v - ; =! Pa 0S 7 ¥ ~ . - ¥ ~
DSS pees ane bre * Freee 2 SS Pater oy cmeay
adres See: ¢ Z joaer) e ae : es
ry - 4 > eed. ee ,
7 C 3 f. -
v ‘ a Ye
a y y — ‘~
Sides
emer
x
a —— ee wie
Cr ~, mw
Pennies av, Teepe es
ae, i ene ie we
: ioe ae a
clr een ee Ee ane,
lr mena Tao
yarn ao hes
= Roscoe
x - Pa © “ —, f: Yn, ise = ss
/ pe eee le Dots A ee
ital = ont OT ae rg