^^^^ SECOND REPORT

OF THE

WELLCOME RESEARCH LABORATORIES r/l.^>dtl^

AT THE

GORDON MEMORIAL COLLEGE
KHARTOUM

ANDREW BALFOUR, M.D., B.Sc, F.R.C.P. Edin, D.P.H. Camb.,

DIEECTOR

Fellow of the Eoyal Institute of Public Health, Member of the

Epidemiological Society, the Incorporated Society of

Medical Officers of Health, and the Association

of Economic Biologists, Medical Officer of

Health, Khartoum, &c.

Department of Education, Sudan Government,

Khartoum
1906

r^gON^

f^

33216

'.'^M

^l^O/VArMUS^-

THE GORDON MEMORIAL COLLEGE
AT KHARTOUM

Patron :
H.M. THE KIXG

President :
The Right Hojf. Lord Kitchexek of Khartoum, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., etc.

Hon. Treasurer :
The Right Hox. Lord Hillixgdox

Hon. Secretary:
Baldwin 8. Harvey, Esq., H7, Lombard Street, London, E.C.

Committee and Tru.^tees :

The Right Hux. Lmku Kitchexer of Khartoum, G.C.B.. G.C.M.G., etc.

Sir F. Reginald Wixgate, K.C.B.. K.C.M.G., etc. {ex ojficio) Govemor-
(reneral of the Sudan

Alexander Falcoxer Wallace, Esq. {ex officio), (Tuveruor of the Bank
of England

The Right Hox. Earl of Cromer. OM.. G.C.B.. G.C'.^M.G., G.C.S.L, etc.

The Right Hox. Lord Rothschild

The Right Hox. Lord Revelstoke

The Right Hon. Lord Hillixgdox

The Right Hox. Sir Ernest Cassel, G.('.^I.(t., K.C.\'.0., etc.

Hugh Colix Smith, Esq.

Sir Hexry Craik, K.C.B.

Hexry S. Wellcome, Esq.

Sir "William Mather ^

Hon. Solicitor :

Henry Turton Norton, Esq.

Hon. Auditors :
Messrs. Gerard A"ax de Lixde & Sox

Director of Education in the Sudan, and Principal of the College :

James Currie, Esq.

s r A F F

OF THK

WELLCOME RESEARCH LABORATORIES, IDOG

Director ANDItEW HALFOUH. M.D.. Ktc.

ChemiM WILLIAM ItHAM, FTC, Etc.

TraveU'n,., r.,th,>l„.,lsl owl Xninr.illM i'"i- Y'M^^ .. SHEFFIELD XEAVE, mi;. CI'.. Etc.

Kconom !c Eiitoiiwloiiixt

Assistants

(Appointed January, 19015)
Clerk MAHMOri) EFFENDI KHALIL

r HAROLD H. KING

( (Appuiiite.l March, 1906)

n\. n. FRIEDRICHS
■■y. A. GOODSOX, A.LC.

Mr. F. V. TiiEOHALii. M.A.. etc.. has again aettil as Consulting Entomologist ami
furnishes a chapter un Cnlieifhe, Human ami Animal Pests ami Vegetal Pests.

-Mr. K. E. ArsTKX, of the British Museum, has rendered much valuable aid in the
identification and ela-ssitication of Diptcra, and contributes an article on the IJiting Flies
of the Sudan.

CONTEXTS

PAGE

INTEODUCTION 9

MOSQUITO WOEK IN KHARTOUM AND THE ANGLO - EGYPTIAN

SUDAN GENERALLY 15

Statistics of Mosquito Reduction — Work of Mosquito Brigade — General Notes
— Cost of Operations — New Genera and Species.

BITING AND NOXIOUS INSECTS OTHER THAN MOSQUITOES ... 29

Memorandum — Tsetse Flies — Biting Diptera — Bot-Flies — Myiasis — The Jigger
— Ticks — Aphides — Plant Bugs — Fruit Fly — Locusts — Vegetable Parasites
of Plants.

ON SOME BLOOD-SUCKING DIPTERA FROM THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN
SUDAN COLLECTED DURING THE YEAR 1905, WITH
DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES. ERNEST E. AUSTEN ... 51

A SECOND REPORT ON THE MOSQUITOES OR CULICIDiE OF THE

SUDAN. F. V. THEOBALD 67

New Genera, Species and Localities.

HUMAN AND ANIMAL PESTS. F. V. THEOBALD 83 -

The Maggot Fly — The Congo Floor Maggot — Stingless Bees — A New Pupiparous
Dipteron — Forest Flies (Hippoboscidae).

VEGETAL PESTS. F. V. THEOBALD 93

A H^MOGREGARINE OF MAMMALS 97

H. Balfouri — Cycles of Development — Schizogonj' — Probable Cycle in Pulex ■^.^

Cleopatrae — Flagellated Parasites of Fleas — Examination of Mites.

A LEUCOCYTOZOON OF MAMMALS 110

L. Muris.

CHANGES IN THE ERYTHROCYTES OF THE JERBOA Ill

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 113

Prevalence and Distribution — The Disease in Cattle — The Disease in Mules
— Experimental Vv'ork — Prophylaxis and Treatment — Case of Human
Trypanosomiasis — Pathological Anatomy of Trypanosomiasis — Conclusions.

ROUTINE WORK 173

List of Examinations Performed — Notes on Communicable Diseases and
Parasites.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ' 179

Blood Examinations — Bilharziosis.

REPORT OF THE TRAVELLING PATHOLOGIST AND NATURALIST

De. SHEFFIELD NEAVE 183

Introductory — Route — Case of Human Trypanosomiasis — General Notes —
Technique of Blood Examinations — Trypanosomes of Birds and Fish —
Filarise of Birds — A New HaemamcEba — Diptera — Mosquitoes — Pathological
Notes — Anthropological Notes — Conclusion.

REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY. De. WILLIAM BEAM... 205
Introductory — Chemical Composition of Nile Waters — Milk Supply of
Khartoum — Dried Milks — Sudan Grains — Salt — Limestone and Lime — Sudan
" Gum Arabic " — Tureba — A Novel Use of Asbestos — • Ancient Gilded
Pottery — Gunpowder made by the Khalifa — Benga, a Magic Powder — Iron
Ore from the Bahr-El-Ghazal — Nyam Nyam Arrow Poison — A New Form of
Hydrometer — Determination of Crude Fibre — Simple Form of Blast Lamp.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 245

INDEX 247

12

E

y.

E

INTRODUCTION

rpHE First Eeport of these laboratories was issued in the autumn of 1904. It gave
an account of the work performed during the first year of the institution's existence,
tliat is to say down to the end of January, 1904. Since that period I think one can safely
say that the record has been one of steady progress. Such, at least, is the case regarding
the work performed. It has greatly increased botli in amount and variety but, fortunately,
additions to the stafi' have rendered it possible to cope with the routine duties, while some
eftbrts at research have also been made.

In the First Eeport I foreshadowed the appointment of a chemist, and suggested that
a trained collector and observer with a roving commission in the Sudan, would constitute a
valuable addition to our forces and increase our knowledge of Tropical Pathology.

The first post was in dxie course filled by the selection of Dr. William Beam, whose
reputation as a chemist is widely spread, and who is especially well versed in economic
chemistry. He commenced his duties on October 2nd, 1904, and there can be no doubt that

Appointment

his appointment has been amply justified. He has been kept constantly busy, and it is of a Chemist
gratifying that the chemical portion of this Report bulks so much more largely. A special
effort has been made to render the chemical research of as practical a nature as possible, as
it is believed this will best meet the needs of a rapidly developing country like the Sudan.
I would draw special attention to Dr. Beam's investigations on the river water of the
country, and on its grains and salts. Work on gums has also been commenced.

Like Egypt, the Sudan depends for its prosperity chiefly on the Nile, or rather, the
Niles and their tributaries. Dr. Beam early began special analyses of the waters of the
Blue and White Niles, and at the request of H.E. The Governor-General, these investiga-
tions were ultimately extended to the waters of other rivers. They are not yet completed,
but a good start has been made and some interesting points have already been elucidated.
Again, the Sudan must in the future develop along agricultural lines, so that work on the
constitution of its cereals is of interest and of considerable importance. At present its gum
forests are the Sudan's chief asset and enquiry has shown that very little is really
known about gums. Dr. Beam's labours may yet serve to place the trade in this commodity
on a sound basis. It will, at any rate, probably demonstrate the excellence of several
varieties of Sudanese gum. There has been much general work on water, milk, food-stufts,
mineral deposits and natural products. It was a more difficult matter to fill the other post
but, thanks to Mr. Wellcome's munificence and the interest H.E. The Governor-General
took in the matter. Dr. Sheffield Neave was appointed under the title of Travellino-

^ ^ c» .Appointment

Pathologist and Naturalist. Although it has been impossible to retain Dr. Neave's services of a Travelling
for a second period of six months he has achieved a considerable amount of valuable work, ^aM°f'r'ii
often under very trying circumstances, during the short period at his disposal.* This
statement can be amply verified by a perusal of his appended Report. One of the chief
reasons which made me urge his appointment was the rapid spread of Sleeping Sickness
into the northern parts of Uganda, and the proximity of the Sudan to the Nile Province of
that country. This led one to fear that, if Glof^ina palpaUs existed on the Upper White
Nile in Sudan territory, the disease might spread and play havoc amongst the Baris, Dinkas

• It is hoped that this division of the work will be continued at a later period.

10

INTRODUCTION

Dr. Nfave's
cxpniilion

E<|uipmont
supplied to llie
ex(>cdilion of
the Sudan
Sleeping
Sickness
Commission

Appointment
of a clerk

mill other tribes iiihiibitiiig that rugioii. Trnv I liml not fuuml tlic tly in tluso parts, hut my
observations hud been very limited, and a thorough examination was most necessary. Tinit
sneh was the ease was speedily provid by the news that Captain Greig of tiie Koyal
.Society's Coininissiim in Uganda, Inid been deputed to travel iiortli and examine both banks
of tile Nile not only in Uganda bnt in the Sudan. It so happened that Dr. Neave was able
to meet him at Gondokoro and eo-operate with him. ('aptain Greig being pressed for time
did not exteiiil his observations furtlur lliaii Uni-. 1 Ir. Neave made a more lengthy
exploration and his results, being negative, coincide with those alreadv published by
Dr. (}reig. Dr. Neave then nianhcd tliiough a portion of the ]5ahr-EI-(iliazal province
finding (J. morsitaiiK present but no sign (if (i. ji(i/j>ali.i.

In additidU, Dr. Neave made many bltiod exaiiiinatidiis and (liscovered new
trypanosuiiu's in tisli ami lijnls. He aiso f(aniii (itiicr iilooil parasites which are
tle.scribed and tigure<l in liis licpurt ; Captain (!nig Idmlly cummitted to his care a
Uganda boy sufl'ering from tiypanosomiasis, ami Dr. Neave was able to test the effect of ii
new therapeutic agent, wliidi has also been Iried in cases of animal trypanosomiasis in the
laboratories.

Several new mos(]uitoes were taken by Dr. Neave, and he brought back a collection
of biting flies, native drugs and other specimens of interest.

His expedition has, therefore, been product ive of valuable scientific results, and he has
obtained useful information for the Government.

From evidence supplied by JIajor Bray of the Egyptian Jledical Service it is evident
that the danger is to be looked for in the direction of the Congo Free State and Bahr-El-
Ghazal province, a point to wliirli allusion will be made later. The discovery of d'. .\[nrsiliiiis
by JIajor Jlorant in Southern Konlofan is another fact of somewliat ill-omened interest.
At the instance of the Sudan Commi.ssion on Sleeping Sickness, JIajor Dansey Browning,
of the Egyptian Jledieal Service has been sent in charge of an Expedition to observe and
report in the southern part of lln- ISahr-El-Ghazal luovince. These laboratories have
supplied the scientific outfit for this work.*

At the end of 19U4, Jlr. Newluve terminated his connection with the laboratories, being
appointed Sanitary Inspector for Khartoum. His work with the mosquito brigade had
specially fitted him for sudi a jiost. His place was taken by Jlr. H. K. Fiiedrichs, who
came with good credentials from Leith Technical College and elsewhere.

The stafl" has also been increased by the appointment of a clerk in the person of
Mahmoud Etl'. Khalil, a late iiupil of tlie College who has completed his training. This has
considerably lightened the ollice and clerical work which was fast becoming a buriKii and
greatly interfered with research.

• Hi» K.xcellency. the Governor Qeiieral of tlie Sudan, has directed that a Commission \k appointed to
investi(;ate the possibility of the e.vtension of "Sleepiiii: Sickness" into Sudan Territory. The Coniniission to he
as follows:- Lieut.-Colonel O. D. Hunter. D.S.O., P.M.().K..\., Dr. .Vndrew Balfour, Director of the Wellcome
Itesearch I.ialionitories, Khartoum, A British Medii-il Ollieer, Eiryptian Army, or Medical Inspector, Sudan
Medical Dept., or such nicml)crs as may be hereafter appointed.

Points to be Investigated.

1. To ascertain the distribution of various species of t.sciso flies or other biting flies in the Sudan.

2. To a.s<^-rtain if the disease at present exists in Sudan territory. If sti, to determine the exact areas —

and to what e.\teut the distribution of the disease coincides with tlie preseiKT of the tsetse or
other Hies in these areas.

3. A systematic investif;atiou of the blood and lymph glands of a population in an infected district.

4. A thoroutrh and complete research into the character of the disease, especially as regards itsorigin and

spread.

INTRODUCTION

11

Extension of

In the bacteriological laboratory attention has been chiefly directed to the question of

trypanosomiasis in equines and cattle and to the discovery uf a new blood parasite, a

IIaino<jrcijarine, in the jerboa or desert rat. A somewhat similar parasite has also been

found in the Norway rat. A full account is given of these researches. Mosquito work has

been steadily continueil, some attention has been paid to bilharziosis in the Sudan, and there

has been a great deal of clinical work for the hospitals and sanitary work for the town

generally. Insect pests and grain diseases have also come under notice and the value of

zeers as bacteriological filters is at present being determined.

I have to report that there has been an extension in tjie i)reiiiises. The Director of

premises

Education kindly granted tlie use of two extra rooms. One of tliese has been converted into
the Director's office and accommodates the library ; to the other which adjoins it the
laboratories' museum has been transferred. It is thus next the kitchen and preparation
room and is more conveniently situated, while the re-arrangement has enabled the old
museum room to be attached to the Chemical Department. Dr. Beam has fitted it out as a
water analysis room ami place for standing apparatus, and there is no doubt it was urgently
needed. He has also altered and re-furnished the main Chemical Kooni to meet his
requirements.

This year the laboratories were fortunate enough to receive a grant of £E 322, which Special grant
enabled special chemical apparatus to be obtained and new books and periodicals purchased.
Some bacteriological equipment was also added and breakages were made good. Our small
annual contingent was quite insufficient to meet these necessities.

The library, though still far from perfection, is fairly well supplied, ami the number of '^'"'^ library
scientific journals taken in or presented has undergone considerable addition.

The museum has markedly increased in pathological material, biting flies, ticks
and mosquitoes. Not many new native drugs have been added. A few were sent by Museum
Captain Ensor from Suakin. It is impossible to mention all those who have benefited the
museum, but I would like specially to thank Colonel Penton and Colonel Hunter, the past
and present Principal Medical Officers, JIajor Bray, Captain Nickerson and Captain Hughes
for specimens of biting diptera, and Major Dansey Bro%\-ning, Mr. Crispin, Mr. Waterfield, and
Captain P. E. Yaughan for valuable pathological material. Mr. Crispin has also furnished
interesting photographs of various diseases. I regret that the beautiful series given by
Dr. Christopherson during the first year of the laboratories' existence has not been further
augmented.

Colonel Griffith, Captain Head and Mr. Thomas have continued generous donors
and there is quite a respectable veterinary pathological department now in existence.
Mrs. Broun has rendered much valuable help in the identification of ticks, many of
which were sent by Mr. Gorringe. Sir Rudolph von Slatin kindly presented a goat
showing an interesting malformation.

Other gifts have to be recorded. Besides elastic dust-proof Bookcases for
the library Mr. ^Yellcome presented a valuable Stereoscopic Camera — a most useful
apparatus, in view of Dr. Beam's ability as a photographer, while the outfit which he
provided for Dr. Neave's expedition was most complete and comprehensive in every respect. Gifts to the

Mr. Macmillan, at the close of his Expedition, very kindly handed over a fine Zeiss ''^b"^*'"""
microscope adapted for photographic work. It has proved of great service.

It is again a pleasure to state that medical officers stationed in Khartoum have freely

13

INTUOnrcTION

Increase in
funds

Appoinlnn-nt
of chemical
assistant

\'aluc of an

txonomic

Entomologist

\'alue of .1

Floating

I^lioratory

I Mill very jj;lail to siiy
Tile hilionttories contiiigint was inereasetl ainl

iivailuil t lit'iiisi'lvfs of siuli ailvantiigi's as the lalioratorics oflor, ami have iloiiu a loiisidfralilc
aiiiuiint of work in tlu'iii.

JIajor Erskiiif, ("ajitain Jaini'soii an<l (Japtaiii Evans have all been fretjuent visitors,
while the otHeers of the Egyptian Medieal Service, anil especially JIujor Dansey drowning,
have often attemled for purposes of work ami study.

As regards the future, two things stood out clearly. 'I'lic laboratories required more
money and ti certain increase in the Staff". I accordingly applied for an increase in the
contingent, which had become ijuite ina(lei|uate. The laboratories are growing and recpiire
to be fed, otherwise their constitution will suffer. Similarly the work is growing and
requires to be tende<l, otherwise there is a danger of its being neglected and much valuable
nuiterial may be lost.

Dr. Beam required an assistant in the Chemical Department. Miuh of liis time was
taken up in preparing standard solutions ami in the trivial but important details which
should fall to the lot of a trained assistant. Mr. Frie<lrichs is kept constantly employed
in bacteriological and iiiuscinn work, iiinl native helpei"s have so far jjroved to be broken
reeds. They cannot be trusted beyond the iiottle-washing stage,
that both my applications were granted.
Jlr. J. A. Goodson arrived at the beginning of this year as assistant in the Chemical
Laboratory.

An Economic Entomologist to take entire control of the insect pest work, to study the
conditions both in the field and in the laboratory, and to carry out experimental research,
would not only fill a vacant place in the Staff" but would be of great benefit to the country.
Every year taxes, amounting to large sums. Iiuvc to be rciniltcd nwiiig to the ravages of the
Aji/ii.s sonj/ii and other pests. There is a great deal of work to be performed, but it is
special work and would take up the whole of a man's time. As much as possible luu! been
done in the laboratories and some progress has been nnule, but the possiliilities are great if
funds can be found for such an otliiia! wIid iiiiglit also luiidiut valuable researches as
regards the breeding habits oi (t'/ox-siun and otlicr biting ])iptcra. He lias been applied for,
anil I hope may be appointed.* I saw something of what was being carried out in Egypt in
this direction and it was very hojieful. The Sudan offers a large and even more interesting
field of study, while it is a poorer country ami raimot so well afford to be robbed by these
enemies of the husbandman. \Vc have again had the benefit of Mr. Theobald's
knowledge, both as regards mosiiiiitocs and insect pests, and Mr. Austen has rendered much
Valuable aid with reference to biting fiies. Well-nigh three years' experience has convinced
me that if a floating laboratory were attailuil to the Department a great step in advance would
have been taken. The Southern Sudan is a country seamed liy water-ways, on the banks of
which are clustered native villages wherein all manner of rare and interesting pathological
conditions are to be found. Flies and mosiiuitoes abound, the birds, reiitilcs ami fish harbour
strange parasites, ineu die from curious diseases, there is a vast field for the .study of Tropical
Medicine. Material occasionally reaches us in Khartoum from these distant regions, but it is
too often in a damageil state. IJlood slides are dirty and spoiled, insects broken, notes
incomplete. If the i-onditioiis could be studied locally in a proper manner, I am certain that
much of value could be garnered. I have tried doing blood work and microscopic work in a
native hut, and it is most disheartening. Dr. Neave had similar experiences. A laboratory,

• Pcrniiwioii was olitainvd for the immediate iip])oiDtmciit of sncli an oflicinl, ami Mr. Harold King, of the
South Eai«torn At^icultiinil Collcfrc, \Vyo, Eii^'laiid, ha.t lx.'eii elected to the jxist.

INTRODUCTION 13

either on a barge towed by a launch, or on a small steamer would be an excellent way of
meeting the problem. If Sleeping Sickness spreads from the Congo it would enable good
work to be done on the Jur river and in other parts. Captain Greig agreed that it would be
the proper way to conduct the study of trypanosomiasis and malaria in this country.

Further, it would enable economic inspections to be readily made. The sites of salt
and lime deposits, the fields ravaged by insects, and certain of the gum districts could be
readily visited and much of the necessary work done on the spot. The same is true if
epidemics scourged the river banks. It is very difficult to transport pathological material
in the Sudan. Given a floating laboratory and this would be obviated in large measure
save as regai'ds museum specimens. If such a barge or steamer can be obtained Mr. Wellcome
has signified his willingness to fit it out as a laboratory.*

There are various lines along which it is intended to pursue investigations given time Future
and opportunity. The bacteria and protozoa of Nile water should be studied. The origin ""'^^'2^'°"^
of that common and crippling disease, Mycetoma, badly wants elucidation. So does the
action of bacteria in the formation of gum, a line of work begun in Australia by Dr. Greig
Smith. Guinea-worm infection is not fully understood. Trypanosomiasis is yet veiled in
clouds of ignorance, especially as I'egards remedial measures. What should prove an
interesting and valuable step has been taken at the instigation of Mr. Currie. The Trustees
of the Carnegie Research Fund have been approached and they have agreed to recognise
these laboratories as a working place for their Research Fellows. It is hoped that, before
the end of 1906, two such Fellows will have been appointed to conduct investigations in the
Sudan, the one working on chemical, the other on bacteriological or pathological lines.

It will be seen there is much to be done, and it must be confessed the Sudan has its Adverse
disadvantages as regards scientific work. Heat, wind and dust are our chief adversaries. '^'"^J'"'^
The accompanying remarkable photograph of a haboub, or dust storm (sec Fig. % page 8),
sweeping over Khartoum North, in June 1905, and taken by Dr. Beam, gives some idea of
the climatic troubles which at times have to be faced during the trying summer. Hence
progress must be slow, and improvements are required, such as double windows, electric
fans and electric light, dust-proof rooms, efficient ventilation, &c., but no doubt these will
come in time, and things are very far from being unsatisfactory. Above all, the siipport
and help rendered one by many officials lightens the difficulties and encourages the worker.
As before, I have to thank the Director of Education and his staff for much kind aid, while
various scientific departments in other countries, such as France, the United States, South Foreign aid
Africa and Australia, have helped us with literature and advice. My hearty thanks are
also due to the laboratories' staff for their co-operation and support, and to all those
who have favoured us with specimens and information.

* It gives me much pleasure to state that this request has also been favourably considered and that ere long
a floating laboratory will be at our disposal.

O

§

u

i

I

1l

•2 S

oS

1^

E

■ V

15

Mosquito Work i.\ Khartoum and in the .VxaLo-ErrYPTiAN

Sudan Generally

111 tlie First Report of these Laboratories an account was given of the starting of a
mosquito brigade, and of its operations.

It was shown that 50 per cent, of the total water collections in Khartoum were found
to be infected, and that six months' work reduced this number to 9"5 per cent., and in
adtlition caused the disappearance of Anopheliues, and a great lessening in the number of
Stegomyia.

These results were so encouraging that it was decided to continue the brigade, and to
bring Khartoum North into the sphere of operations. This was done in March, 1904, and 'n'^r'^ase m
I am now able to give a nearly complete list of statistics of mosquito reduction for operations
Khartoum and Khartoum North. As previously pointed out these figures make no pretence
at absolute accuracy, but they closely approach the truth.

The term water collection is a somewhat arbitrary one. It includes all wells holding Definition of
water in which mosquitoes might breed, rain-pools of sufficient size or depth to remain for a | '■"^■^'^
period of at least one week, similar pools left by the falling Nile, the syphon pits of collection"
irrigation channels, or pools formed by leaking channels, permanent garden pools or ponds,
and bath waste-pits.

Zeers, fire-buckets holding water, and similar cuUectiuus which cannot be regarded as
permanent, are not counted in the monthly returns unless found infected.

This method is about the most satisfactory that can be devised, and gives a fairly
definite basis on which to work.

Collections in boats, barges and steamers are not included in these returns, though
statistics are kept about them for purposes of reference.*

MOSQUITO statistics— KHARTOUM, 1904-1905.
Continuation from First Repobt.

Year

Month

Total

Infected

Percent-
age
Infected

Remarks

Collections

A. A.&C. , C. 1 S.
1 1 1

Total

1904

April

May

709

713

1

77 1
56

79
56

11-1

7-85

Operations began in Oct., 1903, prior
to which, percentage infected was 50.

June

703

31

31

4-26

July ...

689

...

25

25

3-63

August ...
September

689

686

1

43

20

43

21

7-02
3-63

Rise due to heavy rains and formation
of pools.

October ...

684

1

IS

19

2-77

November

686

...

15

15

2-78

Decemlier

613

19

19

310

190.5

January .

652

18

18

2-76

Statistics,
Khartoum

• In the tables A signifies Anophelines, C, Culices and S, Stegomyiae.

B I " <-'

J-I... 4.-pi

'^ S o a t h. B ct ^v k.

■•AN OF K„.,KTUt», N„„l,, .l,.„i„K >.o,„|i,i„„

T 'T^"^" ^'-'l"i>o infection ,|>,ri„„ .M;„,,, ,„„, , ,
had been adopted ^ "'■ '•'"'• '"-'<"•••■ reduction n.ea^urc!,

B L a e N l

I".. 5.- I'LAK

S o ZLt h B a.n 7.-

■"" " ""■'"" '""•■ ■'"'•• tc.v:;=";.r«" — -- -- ....,.-

MOSQUITO WORK IN KHARTOUM AND IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN GENERALLY

17

MOSQUITO STATISTICS— KHARTOUM, 190i-190o~(conlinued).
Continuation Fkom First Bepokt.

Month

Total

Water

Collections

Infected

Percent-
age
Infected

Remarks

A.

A.&C. 1 C.

S.

Total

1905

February

658

19

19

2-88

March . . .

666

26

26

3-88

April

676

1

17

18

2-66

Auophelines found in river pools.

May

666

2

3

33

38

5-70

Anophelines found in river pools.

June

July ...
August . . .

666
666
680

1
1
1

...

12
17
42

13

18
43

1-95?
2-70 ?
6-20

Statistics doubtful ; temporary inex-
perienced inspector.

Statistics doubtful ; temporary inex-
perienced inspector.

Usual inspection resumed.

September

684

33

33

4-82

October ...

733

2

60

62

8-43

Heavy rains ; many pools ; coverings
of wells washed away.

MOSQUITO STATISTICS— KHARTOUM NORTH, 1904-1905.
From Commencement of Operations.

Month

Total '
Water
Collections

Infected

Percent-
age
Infected

Remarks

A.

A.&C.

c.

S.

Total

1904

March . . .

56

15

15

26-78

Prior to operations.

April

55

10

10

181

Operations began this month.

May

55

6

6

10-9

June

55

5

5

9-9

July ...

59

9

9

15-2

Rise due to increase in uuused wells
and infection of leaking irrigation
channels.

August ...

59

6

6

9-8

September

59

6

6

9-8

October ...

59

2

2

3-4

Decrease due to wells being covered.

November

59

3

3

3-9

December

59

4

4

6-8

1905

January
February
March ...

98

98

100

...

...

5
4
6

..

5
4
6

510
4-08
6-Op

Town rapidly extending ; many new
wells.

April ...

103

5

5

4-85

Rain pools formed.

May

98

4

4

408

June

July ...
August ...

100
100
110

1

3

2
7

3

2

8

3-00?
2-00 ?

7-27

Statistics doubtful ; temporary inex-
perienced inspector.

Statistics doulitful ; temporary inex-
perienced inspector.

Usual inspection resumed ; leaking
irrigation channels.

September

113

1

1

4

6

5-31

October . . .

115

1

1

4

6

5-21

Rain pools formed ; syphon pits in-
fected.

Statistics,
Khartoum
North

18

MOSgriTO WOIIK I\ KIIAIlTorM ASM) IN TIIK. \N(i 1,0- lUi YTTI AN Sl'DAN OKNEHALLY

Simultaneous
occurrence of
Anoplielines
and Malaria

Diminution in
cases of
" fever "

Schwcinfurth
on the un-
hcalthiness of
iilil Khartoum

!t will iif si'cii timf the town has ix-eii ki-jit in u fiiirly siit isfiic-tory stiiti-, and one vastly
ilitVcicnt from that which usid to obtain. Anophclinis havf hei-n practiially abolished,
though we are always liable to their recnrrence owing to outside infeetion, ami, latterly, they
have been somewhat jiersisti lit. If, Imwrvrr, iiroiiijit measures are taken as soon as thev
are found, they usually speedily disajjiieur. The only instances where they remained for
some time occurred in Khartoum, when river pools were forming ami Mr. Newlove, the Sanitary
Inspector, who has conducted the work with much energy, was absent on leave, and in
Khartoum North. In tin- latter case the irrigation tdiannels of eertiiiu barracks were in
a leaking condition, and in the pools which had formed the Inspector found the larviu of
/'_iiirli>/>/iiiriix ro^liilis. He had the pools oilid, informed the person in charge of the
occurrence, and received a promise tlml thr necessary repairs wouM be executed,
I'lifDrtimatilw lir nlicil nii tliis jJinniisc aiiil did nut again visit tlie spot till tiic time
came for his customary round. For some reason the work was not carried out, the
Anojihelines bred freely, and what is remarkable is the fact that during this period several
eases of primary malarial infection occurred amongst Egyptian soldiers in these barracks,
all being nil n who liad luver been south of Khartoum. This sliows the importance of
proper supervision. Inspection is often very hot and tiring work in the summer, and
Khartoum North is diflicult to reach, but unless care be taken to see that instructions are
reallv aiul correctly carried out, failure will frequently result. The simultaneous occurrence
of Anophelines and malaiia is very interesting. The same thing occurred at an earlier period
in Khartoum, Anoplielines were found breeding in small numbers, and at that time the
solitarv case of primary malarial infection seen by JIajor Daiisey Browniing and nivself in
Khartoum, during the winter of l!t04-0r), came under observation.

It is not justiliable to make a definite statuiiieiit to the etl'ect that malaria lias decreased
ill Khartoum, because no statistics are available whereby this can be proved, Jlalaria is a
<lisease wlii<di often can only be diagnosed with certainty by blood examinations and there
are no records of such in the past. We do not know exactly how much malaria jn'eviously
existed in Khartoum though we can now obtain some idea of how .much exists at the present
time. There is a very general opinion, however, that cases of "fever" have diminished, a
supposition supported by the experience of those responsible for the health of the large
garrison which contains many highly susce|)tible Egyptians, There can be no doubt that
primary iiiaiaiia is now rarely encountered in Kliartouiii. As, heretofore, numerous cases of
the disease came into the city from both Niles, while ctises of recrudescence of old attacks
are not uneonnnon. but the carriers are usually absent and hence the parasites are not
transferred from tlie sick to the healthy. I have not .seen a living, wild, adult Aiio|dieline
ill Khartoiiiii for iiKne tliaii a year and a half and 1 am always on the outlook for these
insects.

It is instructive to examine old records. Thus Schwcinfiirth* writing of the year 1S71
and ilescribing his return to Khartoum says: " In spite of everything, however, the sanitary
condition of Khartoum was still very unsatisfactory. This was entirely owing to the
defective drainage of that portion of the town which had been Imilt below the high-water
level. In .lulv when I was there I saw many jiocds almost large eiKMigh to be calleil ponds
that could never ])ossibly dry up without the apjilieatioii of jn-ojier means for ilraining them
of!'; stagnant iiiider tlie tropical sun they sent forth sudi an intnliialilr steiidi that it was
an abomination to pa.ss near them. When it is remembered that Khartoum is situated in

• The Heart of Afriai, Vol. II., \i. •-'79.

MOSQUITO WORK IN KHAKTOUM AND IN THE ANGLO-EGVPTIAN SUDAN GENEEALLY 19

the desert zone (for the grassy region does not begin for at least 150 miles farther to the
south), there can appear no necessary reason why it should be more unhealthy than either
Shendy or Berber ; all that is wanted is that the sanitary authorities shouhl exercise a better
management and see that stagnant pu(klles should be prevented. As I have ah-eady
intimated I found that, during my absence, not a few of my former acquaintances had fallen
victims to the fatal climate." How suggestive are these passages ! In those days the role
of the mosquito in malaria was unknown. It was not the stinking and evaporating puddles
which were to blame, though they may have played a subsidiary part, but the Anophelines
bred out in them.

That Schweinfurth's friends died of malaria there can, I think, be little doubt, and I
regret to say that given a wet summer, and it is said comparatively wet summers may
occur in Khartoum, there is nothing to prevent a similar state of matters arising at the
present time. Khartoum has been rebuilt, and much has been done to render it a healthy
city, but there has not yet been time to have its site properly levelled or drained. Because
of recent years the seasons have been dry it has not been necessary to cope seriously Danger of
with flooding by heavy rains. There are no surface drains, the centre of the town pon^'in^^"
lies in a hollow ; there are many depressions. That pools readily form and may persist for
a long time I have myself observed. In October, 1905, very heavy rain fell for about an hour
and a half, amounting in all to 1'8 inches. The pools formed by it persisted in some cases
for from twelve to sixteen days and finally had to be emptied by a fire pump. Fig. 6,
paijr 20. Under favourable circumstances Pi/ri'tojj/ionin costal !■■< will jiass through all its
water stages in a little over a week.

What is to occur if we get repeated showers of torrential tropic rain distributed
throughout several months ? I have no hesitation in saying that malaria would occur
and possibly run riot. Our little mosijnito brigade could never cope with the
conditions, special working parties would fail to get rid of all the water in time, the
amount of oil necessary would be enormous, and it would be blown into heaps at the ends
of the pools. Anophelines would invade us from without and the sickness rate would certainly
rise. Observe the statistics given ! It is always after rain that more mosquitoes are found.
In part this is due to the fact that the rain often washes away the soil from under the edges "°" "^'" ^'^'■^
of the well covers, leaving holes whereby mosquitoes can gain entrance, while it also causes
old wells to fall in. and water collecting at the foot of them, forms very favourite breeding
places. Anophelines, however, rarely breed in wells, and they are very fond of pools and
puddles. The remedy is obvious. Although it may appear to some that I am merely
advocating a waste of money, I believe that Khartoum should either be drained or the
levels improved. At present efficient drainage would be best. No one can say when a
comparatively wet summer may deluge the town. The Blue Nile can be kept out, the rain
cannot, but it can be removed, and provision for its removal should be made. The town
is to be given a water supply, and when this is an accomplished fact better provision will
have to be made for the disposal of slops and waste waters. Whatever scheme be chosen
it might be adapted to deal at the same time with storm waters though admittedly the
problem is a somewhat difficult one owing to the lack of fall in certain directions.* While
discussing this subject one may consider whence the invading Anophelines come and how
they reach Khartoum. I believe they are usually bred out in the pools which form in

* It is satisfactory to note that this question is now uudcr discussion and schemes for dealing both with
storm-waters and waste-waters are being considered.

20

MOSyi'ITO WOUK IN KIIAIITOIM AND IN THE ANaLO-EOYPTlAN SUDAN GENERALLT

Invasion by
Aiiophclinrs

tlif tornici'il liiinks ami saiul-liiiiiks of tlic lUiic Nile ulnivr tlic tdwii. 'I'lic iiiDscniito
lirigiidi' is St) siiiiill, tlli'iv is so iiiiiili to lie done, ami tlnic arc siuli few incaiis of
transit tliut it is liinicuit to control a large area, or ratliiT Uiigtliy strijis, oiitsidi-
the town l)oiiinlari(s. It nm be iloiu- and is done as far as the limiting White Nile
on the west, liut on the east side it is iiioic diDicult, and tluis it happens that
everv now and then poids or other water eollections escape inspeetiou, and inosijuitoes
are either driven into Khartoiiin hy the wind or lirought to it in boats and steamers.
Occasionally Anophelines have been found breeding out in leaky boats or on board steamers,
in water accumulations which are exposed to the light. As previously stated, they do not
breed in the bilges. At present, however, it is coiniiaratively easy to locate them in the tovm

^-^-<^

Vu:. 6.- I'.".l.s r. Khm.i.' m, Id-sc i..<,;s \\rf l.riu'-.l l\ .i r.-iinUll c»t" In inrhi--v, .iini 'iiu- ii.ur.uurM iiiiinn'-^ u..r.ii,.:i - mk;

persisted for over three weeks in October, 190,^.

at an early period, and to cut sliurt tlicir career, but it would be a totally dift'erent business
if Khartoiini was studded with ponds and pools. The belief above expressed has quite
recently received remarkable l>ut nnwekorne confirmation. The fast of Ramadan was followed
by the feast of J?airam. The first lasteil four weeks, the latter one week. Hoth— and especially
Bnirani — interfere<l with the work of the brigade. The men worked badly .luring Ramailan,
M.ilariaout- they Would not work at all during Bairani. The liliie Nile was falling, and the pools
break amongst j,i,y„-n iu Figs. 7 and 8 (/'"'/' '22) formed in the sandbank above the British barracks. No

Brilish troops , ri»4l-

doubt the ('old weather which obtamed was the cause of a reerudeseeiice of a malaria attack in

a solilier who had serveil in India and was resident in these barracks. Seven other eases

(juickly occurred. Attention was directed to the pools, and /'i/irtophoms costalis was found

MOSQUITO WORK IN KHAETOUM AND IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN GENERALLY 21

breeding in some of them. The larvse were destroyed wherever found, and the cases came
to an end. At no time were adult winged Anophelines found, but these must have e.xisted
in small numbers and undoubtedly caused the limited epidemic.

In the future the desert land round both Khartoum and Khartoum North will, no doubt,
be irrigated. Herein lies a great danger to the health of the community, and one would
strongly advocate the preservation of a so-called " dry zone " behind both parts of the town. Necessity for
It should be at least one mile in width, that is to say, a mile of perfectly bare dry land, "dry zones"
a sandy stretch, wind-swept, and affording no shelter to mosquitoes, should be left between
the farthest likely extension of the town and the irrigated area. The necessity for such dry
zones has been strongly urged in India, especially at Madras,* while in Italy their establish-
ment is enforced by law. As is pointed out by Major King, it must ever be a case of asking,
" Is the game worth the candle ? " Personally I think it is — at least, as far as Khartoum is
concerned — while a somewhat modified scheme might be adopted for Khartoum North, where
admittedly the difficulties are greater. I have heard it said that the mosquitoes are preferable
to dust, but such dry zones would never be productive of much dust, and surely none could
prefer mosquitoes plus malaria, and possibly plus dengue, to the small amount of irritating
and annoying dust derived from such dry strips. Of course, a great deal will depend on the
type of irrigation employed.

One has read with much interest Professor Ross's addressf on the subject of " The logical
basis of tjie sanitary policy of mosquito reduction." I believe that if one had time to
devote to it, the matter could be studied excellently well in Khartoum. Conditions are
specialised and simple, the area to be exploited is limited, so are the species of mosquitoes to
be studied. I have had no leisure to go fully into the matter, but I am inclined
to think that the results obtained here support certain of Professor Ross's conclusions,
and especially the one which states that " as a general rule for practical purposes, if
the area of operations be of any considerable size immigration will not very materially
affect the result."

In Khartoum, however, it must not be forgotten that the subject is complicated by the
presence of mosquito-carrying steamers, boats and barges. Were it not for these, greater
success would have crowned the efforts at extinction, or rather reduction.

It may be asked why operations conducted for so long a period have not resulted in the
almost total extinction of mosquitoes in Khartoum. The reasons are not far to seek. They
are to be found in the immigration already considered, in the smallness of the brigade and of Causes of want
the funds at our disposal, in the carelessness of householders and others as regards well success'^ '^ "^
covers, the cleaning of zeers, and the repair of irrigation channels, and also to the imperfec-
tions to which all human labour is liable, and which are always more numerous when the
conditions are tropical and the workers coloured natives. There has to be constant vigilance,
and one must be prepared to make complaints and excite grievances. Memories must
be jogged and offenders punished if any success is to accrue. It is often wearying and
disheartening work, but it is worth doing, for the issues at stake are not trifling. Still we are
rid, and well rid, of the annoying Stegomyia, the dangerous Pyretophorns is kept in
abeyance, and Culex, the ubiquitous, has ceased to be a nuisance.

The work is being conducted on much the same lines as hitherto. Native inspectors are
fined if pupae are found in water collections under their care. The amount of oil used per well

* King. Indian Medical Gazette, June, 1905, Vol. XL., p. 201.
t Ronald Ross. Brit. Med, .Jour., May, 1905, Vol I., p. 1,025.

Fir.. 8. Pools tnrr tiv tiik calling Bli-k Nilh in tiir Sandbank East or tiik Bkitish Bakkacks. Khartoum. Anophclmcs bred out in

lhc»c pooN. The shrunken river chniinrl i% >ccn in Fig. 7.

MOSQUITO WORK IN KHARTOUM AND IN THE ANGLO-EGYTTIAN SUDAN GENERALLY

lias been reduced to lialf-a-pint. Tliis is still much in excess of what is actually required to
kill the larvffi. Two ounces have been found to be ample, but the larger quantity is employed
because some is wasted owing to splashing, and because it admits of a film being formed
which lasts for several days in the case of a well and prevents reinfection.

Several interesting new facts have come to light. Thus, wells which are constantly in
use are very rarely infected by Culices. It is the unused well that is the great nuisance,
and very often the unused well is in the unoccupied and locked-up premises, and therefore

difficult of access.
Sometimes a used and
unused well have been
found alongside each
other, the former un-
infected, the latter
harbouring eggs and
larvffi. Sir William
Maegregor, till lately
Governor of Lagos,
wrote me from New-
foundland, asking if
the depth of the wells
some observations on this

Unused and
deep wells

Fig. 9. — Develoi'Mknt of Mosquitoes. Larv.«, PupvE and Imagines. Both Culex and
Anopheline larvae are shown, the former only possessing respirating sj'phon tubes.

Fig. 10. — Egg-doat of Culex. The straight line indicates
the level of the water.

had any influence on the breeiling operations, as he had made
point in the West Coast territories.

In Khartoum the deepest wells do not exceed 30 feet from ground level to water surface,
and C. fat'ujinifi seem to breed indiflerently up to that depth. The wells at Omdurman are
much deeper. In one of these, at a depth of 70 feet, the larvaj of both C. faf'njdii.f and

P. co-italix were found. It was an uncovered
well worked by a pump, and it is remarkable
that Anophelines were found in it, for there
could be but little light ;it that depth, and as
stated, P. costaU-s does not favour wells. So far it has not been possible to attack the
mosquitoes in Omdurman. The area there is too vast, it is out of the way, few Europeans
live in it, and the distance between it and Khartoum is, I think, too great for infections of
the latter town from the former to occur with any frequency, save, indeed, when the inevitable
steamer serves as an intermediary. Still the task should be undertaken, but it is largely a
question of ways and means. Dr. Doty's recent investigations* go to support the view that
the mosquito is not much of a voluntary traveller. It is worth noting that the wind very
rarely blows from Omdunnan to Khartoum, ij\. from the north-west. The reverse is the
ease in the summer, while in the winter north-east or due north winds prevail.

Considerable improvement has resulted from having as many wells as possible covered
over, permanently if a pump is affixed, with a movable wooden cover if the water is drawn
by hand. Wooden covers are very liable to warp and split in tliis country, but they can
be easily repaired. An attempt was made to procure covers of canvas or sacking fixed to
barrel hoops, like those used with success at Bathurst.f In Khartoum they cost too much,
chiefly because barrels are rare articles in the Sudan, and special flexible metal had to be

* Brit. Med. Jour., Vol. II., 1905, p. 971.
t Dutton. Report of the Malaria Expoditiou to the Oamljia, 1002, p. .30,

Considerations

regarding

Omdurman

Covering of
wells and the
introduction of
pumps

24 MOSQUITO WORK IN KHARTOfM ANP IN THK ANQLO-EOYPTIAN SUDAN GENERALLY

prociiri'tl, also iHriiusi' lul)our is hcttcr paid. Wind cost fonrp-iicf in Hatliiirst sictimllv

cost three shillings ami sixiu'iicf in Ivhartoiini, uikI was not ^ooil at that !

It used to he the rule tinit anyone might sink a well practically anywhere in Khartuuni,

iiiitl when he had finished witii it, hr left it na it was. This state of things has been altered.

Now no one may sink a well for any purpose without submitting a plan, showing the

situation of the i)roposed well, to the (loveriior. Such plans are imssed to the Medical
Rfgistration of • ir i i r'

weiu Otlicer of Health. The well may or may not be sanctioned, but if it is, the ownier is made to

promise, under penalty for default, that he will either fill in the well when no longer
wanted, if it is being sunk merely to secure water for building purposes ; or if it is intended
for prolonged use, that he will aflix a cover to the satisfaction of the Sanitary Inspector,
and that he will keep that cover in good repair. This has been productive of much benefit,
though it requires constant watchfulness to see that the law is not evaded. The cost to the
owner or user is not great, though in some cases it imiy constitute a hardship. The covers
may be fixed, ami then stolen or maliciously broken. It is almost impossible to attain
anything like perfection in this vexed question of wells, but every little helps. Public wells
are all covered and most of them have pumps.

When Khartoum possesses a proper water sniijily witli stand-pipes in the streets it is
proposed to fill in all the wells save such as are re(iuired for the irrigation of gardens. If
this be done C.juliijiiiis will find it very difficult to maintain a footing in the town. The

Proposed rapid extension of Khartoum has recently necessitated the sinking of many new wells for

future action . .... ^^. .

l)Uilding purposes. Ihese have to be permitted, but one is sorry to see the site of the town
honeycombed in this way.

For a long time it was (lilficult to control the breeding places on the steamers, but in
the autumn of 1904 the Director of Steamers and Boats issued more stringent regulations
to engineers and native reises, and tlie nsuit was soon appaicnt. Steamer after steamer
Steamers and arrived free from mosquito larv;e, Khartoum Nurtli became a more comfortable place of
habitation, and the wells in the river zone of Khartoum were less frequently re-mfected.
The engineers were taking trouble and carrying out the plan which had been devised for
treating bilges both in tiie steamers ami in tlie sandals or barges they are accustomed
to tow.

The following arc the instructions which were issueil. Mr. Newlove devised the plan of
oiling the wood holds in rotation. They had always been a dilliculty till this was done.
Regulations for ^' ■^^'f"'"'' leaving Khaitouni tile bilge water in the various sections should be oiled

steamers and by pouriiig petroleum oil the surface of the water aii<l stirring well with a stick. A film will
then form on the surface which prevents access of air to the mosquito larvi*; and pupaj and
so kills them. Kggs deposited by mosquitoes on this oil film will not develop, and many of
the females themselves will be killed. Roughly about one-half pint of oil should be devoted
to each section. A little experience soon shows how much or how little oil is needed to form
a proper film. In addition, the water in the trays under the boilers should be examined, and
if necessary, oiled. (This note was added because Anophelines were found breeding in such
water.)

" A cup or wide-mouthed bottle can be used for collecting water for examination. The
vessel should be quickly but gently dipped under the surface and lifted out without spilling
any of the contents. For somewhat inaccessible places a tin with its bottom replaced by
wire gauze mesh and attached to a stick is useful. The larvae are then found wriggling on
the gauze. Such a collecting dish is easily made and answers well. It should be examined

boats

MOSQUITO WORK IN KHARTOUM AND IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN GENERALLY 25

in a good light. It is to be remembered that any standing water collections will harbour
mosquito larvae, and attention should therefore be paid to the water-closet cisterns, zeers and
tanks.

"2. During the voyage, opportunity should be taken to re-oil the bilges wherever
possible. This should especially be the ease before starting on the return journey. AYood
holds are usually at fault. The difficulty can be got over by emptying these in rotation so
that the water in the hold can be got at and oiled once in every fortnight. Special attention
should be directed to zeers when these are used for storing bottles of drink. All zeers should
be emptied out at least once a week during the voyage.

" 3. The thing to be avoided is returning to Khartoum with mosquitoes on board. If
this is done, wells and water collections in the town which have been cleared at trouble and
expense, are liable to become re-infected. This has happened repeatedly so that it is very
important that steamers should arrive clean and free. It is well to have all bilge water
emptied on arrival, and all steamers lying up should be inspected and treated in the manner
described. Similar precautions are required as regards barges, sandals, launches and any
vessel on which there is stagnant water.

" Note. It has been proved that mosquitoes, as a rule, will not stay for any length of
time on a steamer if they are prevented from breeding out on board. (Consequently, such
preventive methods are effective as has been demonstrated on several occar.ions, and there is
no excuse, in most instances, for steamers reaching Khartoum with their bilge water, &c.,
full of larvae and pupte, and their cabins full of adult mosquitoes."

Sometimes it has been found advisable to employ sulphur squibs* when there were
many adult insects in the holds.

It is largely due tu the efibrts of Mr. Potts, of the Steamers and Boats Department, that
the local launches, barges and ferry-boats have been kept free. Only those who have had to
deal with the laziness, procrastination and inattention of the natives in charge of some of
these craft, can realise how difficult his task has been, and how well he has carried it out.

The Director and Assistant-Director of the Steamers and Boats Department have done
all in their- power to help the mosquito brigade, and consequently great benefit has ensued,
despite occasional relapses. The manager and officials of the Sudan Development and

. II' ^''^ British

Exploration Company have also, as a rule, done their utmost to keep the Company steamers barracks
free. The British Barracks are, in the main, looked after by the Medical Officer in
charge of British Troops. They are, as a rule, kept perfectly free, though it is worth noting
that they are rather subject to re-invasion by Anophelines — confirmation of the statement
that these mosquitoes invade the town from the east.

It is interesting to find that the natives have developed a great liking for petroleum.
They seem to regard it as a panacea for every kind of winged pest, and use it to keep away
flies and midges. This is a curious testimony to the efficacy of Major Ross's method.

No new genus or species has been found in Khartoum. Indeed the only constant
species now present is C faflijanK. P. costaIi.'< is an infrequent, but none the less unwelcome,
visitor. Sfec/omi/in faxfiuta has given up the struggle, and, as far as can be told, has not
been present for many months. It used to be a nuisance in the middle of the day. It is
difficult to say whence came the solitary Mucidux mentioned in the last report. It is the
only representative of this mouldy-looking genus yet discovered in the Sudan. Possibly the
Theobald India .■<pathipalpis were introduced by the train, as they were found breeding near

• Giles. Gnats and Mosquitoes, 1902, p. 221.

2G MosyiiTO wouK in kiiautoim Asn in tiii; ANdi.o-i-.cYrTiAN srnAN c.knkually

tlic station. 'riif cisterns on tin- trains liavc liccii ociasionally cxaniiniil. Imt always

witli iH'gativf n-sults.

We ai-f now in a position to cstiinate the cost of tlu-si- oiicrations. Pnicticiilly the only
Cost of opera- fxiuiisis wliicli liavf to he ronsi(K-n'(l are the wages of tlie men of the hrigacU' and tlic cost of
"""' tluoil emi)K)ye(l.

KXPESSKS KOIl I'.KI.'l.

New Rfnera
and species
found in Ihe
Sudan

No.

1
1
2

2
80
70

30

jCE. MlllN.

Hendninn, nt 120 piastres per month

Mnii at 100 piastres per nioiitli (ttiree niuiiths)
Men at HO piastres per month (three months)
Men at 100 piastres per month (nine months)
Tins of Petriileum, at IG piastres per tin (for town)
Tins of Petroleum, at IG piastres per tin (for

Steamers and Boats) ... ...

Tins of Petroleum, at 16 piastres per tin (for Works
IVimrtmeut Barges)

Total

14

400

3

—

4

800

18

—

12

800

11

200

4

800

69

. 000

Note.— The Egyptian pound is equal to £1 Os. Gd. of Kntclish money ; there are
100 piastres in the £E1 and 10 niilliemes go to the piastre. The oil tins eaeh hold
four gallons.

Tile Saiiitui-v Inspeetor is paiil nutliin^ adilitional fur the iri(]si|uitii work wliidi
constitntes some of his most important duty; the initial outlay was very small — not more
than £E8, and the onlv other expenses are those incurred in crossing and recrossing to
Khartoum North — a ineif Irilic True, this is the second year of operations, hut tlie work
has lieen niucii cxtiiided, anil the estiniati' is a fair one.

Therefore, for something considerahly under illOO per annum, Khartoum is kept
practically free from malaria, and the inhabitants are secured, to a very great extent, from
the persistent and annoying attentions of these winged pests, which, as a rule, add so nnich
discomfort to life in the tropics. 1 do nut tliiidv the ahove is a large sum to pay for such
immunity.

As has heen stated, no new species have been found in Khartoum, but one is able
to announce " finds" ma<le elsewhere.

CVdonei I'enton discovered ,/>//('/////'" .iijiKiiiiiiil/irniKi on till' .lur river and ('illm
siiiiiiiiKisii at Meshra-El-Kek, on the Jiahr-El-tthazal. No .KiHnmiiin has been taken
before or since in the Sudan, and the genus CHin had been represented only by
C. ji/i(ira;iisis. ( '. xi/ikiiiiosh is probably a malaria carrier.

Dr. Neave made a considerable collectinn, wliicli ini indnl two new eulices. These are
described by Mr. Theobald. Jlr. Newlove obtained a vi'ry fair collection, in which occurred
a fine ])Urple variety of < 'iili'.r lliii-iju'x, also secured by Colonel I'enton. Jlr. Newlove also
collected s(jme larva- new to science, whicli have also been submitted to Mr. Theobald.

Captain Hughes sent Culi-.i liir-iii/i/'nlfii" from Kl Obeid. where /'. nis/nlis seems
common, and Captain Elisor and Mr. Crispin have shown tliat Xi<,ji,iniii<i /<isc!,it<i is the
chief mosquito at Suakin.

Mr. Friedri( lis was sent uji the VAm Nile to iuiseires in September, lOOf). Aniong.st
the mo*iuitoes whiih he brought luick I found .Ui/comiiia I'lniial.i. represented chiefly by

MOSQUITO WORK IN KHARTOUM AND IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN GENERALLY 27

the variety ■^ii/'niii/u'oxd, to hv numerous. This well-known malaria carrier had not
previously been found on the Blue Nile. Three malaria carriers are now known on that river,
namely, Pyrftop/iorux coxfall.t, Cflliti pliaramaix and Myzomyia funesta. Mr. Friedrichs also
secured a new and beautiful species of Mansonia, named nifim by Mr. Theobald. It may
yet constitute the type of a new genus. Major Bray brought a small, but good collection of
Cidiridce from the Bahr-El-Ghazal province which included a mosquito representative of a
new genus, Qwinide(jo)ni/i<i.

He also sent some useful notes describing how he^found mosquitoes breeding out in water

" ' ° A tree-breeder

collections in hollow trees, a fact first elicited by Liitz in South America, and he records
the remarkable observation that mosquito larvie destroy the young fry of fish. Murray
has shown that adult mosiiuitoes do so, but I am not aware that anyone has hitherto found
the larvEe so engaged.

In January, 1905, I went to Taufikia on the White Nile, and at Goz-Abu-Guma
founil the missing male of UranotceiiUi /lulfouri, several females of this species, and a
curious mosquito with an expanded proboscis, which I sent to Mr. Theobald. It appeared
to me to be a Mimomyia. I found Cellia phartensis as far north as Goz-Abu-Guma,
while at Renk Myzomyia funesta and Myzorhynchws paludis were taken. In all, sixteen
different genera comprising some thirty-five species of Culicidm have now been found in Sudan
territory.

I regret to say our knowledge is no further advanced as to which of the species of
Anophelines found are capable of serving as hosts in the mosquito-man cycle of the malarial
parasite. Not every Anopheliiie can carry malaria, as witness JA. mssij in India, so that it
is very important to determine accurately those which are pernicious. Of the Nile
Anophelines Myzomyia fiuwMa, Pyi'i'topliornx coMalis and Cellia pluifoeiinix are known
to be implicated in the traffic, but dissections of Anopheles wellconiei, Myzorhynclms Necessitv for
jiahidis, Myzomyia iiili, ('/■Ilia sifKauiDxa, and any new Anophelines are required. It is ''';"^™'"'"g
possible that Myzorliynrlins pidndis, which is rather a different type of mosquito from the theAnophe-
others, and does not bite as freely, luay escape having to bear an evil reputation, but one '^"^arir"^^
cannot tell without making careful experiments and examinations. Probably M. funesta is the
worst of the batch. These Anophelines are found far from Khartoum, and I have had no
opportunity of studying them properly. In this connection one may record a few facts about
malaria itself. Further experience has somewhat modified my view that the quartan
parasite is rare. It is not so common as the other two recognized varieties, but it occurs
with considerable frequency. For example, of the last 50 consecutive cases which I m^j^
examined, thirty-three were malignant (small ring forms or crescent), eleven were benign
tertian, and six were quartan. Ten of these 50 cases came from up the Blue Nile and of
these ten, six were malignant, one was benign tertian and two were quartan. Tlie remaining
cases came from the White Nile and Bahr-El-Ghazal, with the exception of a few occurring
in Khartoum. It is curious that I have never seen a case with many crescents in the
peripheral blood. Severe crescent infection does, however, occur, according to Major Rivers.

The figures given are of some interest, but no conclusions can be based on so small a
number of cases, and in the absence, in many instances, of information regarding previous
history.

liana
statistics

1 .... n. I .n-^ 1 i.^ .\u,

M. ((lov^ina mor»iiarv«. I*. <^ilo^<tina palpalU.

29

Biting and Noxious Insects other than Mosquitoes

In the First Rfpurt of these hiboratories it was mentioned that enquiries had been
set on foot about biting flies in the Bahr-El-Ghazal province. This yielded very little
in the way of specimens though Captain Brakenridge sent some useful notes about
Glossina morsitans (vide infra). Eecently the matter was taken up more strongly when
Colonel Hunter requested me to draw up a form of enquiry to be sent to Governors of , .

Provinces and Mamurs all over the Sudan. Too elaborate a series of questions would biting flies
have been a mistake and the following simple queries were eventually adopted and
distributed together with specimens of Glossina palpalis kindly furnished by Captain Greig. Memorandum

1. Are there any flies of this sort in your district which are known to bite man?

2. Are there any flies of this sort in your district which are known to bite animals ?

3. Do biting flies of any kind exist in your district ?

4. If you find that any biting fly exists please state : —

(a) At what time of year it is most prevalent.

(I) In what kind of country it is found, i.e., in forest land, bush country, near

water, etc.
((■) If the natives in your district attribute any illness to its bite.
(d) If it bites only through the day, or only at night, or both during day and

night.
((') If it is known to attack wild game.
{/) If anything is known about its breeding habits.
((i) If it is numerous or otherwise.
A request was also made for specimens, and directions given as to how they should be
sent to the laboratories.

This memorandum has been productive of good results. Flies have been sent from

IT 1 • ■ • Results

various parts, we have learned their Arabic names and discovered several interesting points obtained
as regards time of prevalence, distribution, etc. One amusing statement, not wholly
uninstructive, was made by a certain official on the Upper White Nile, who on receipt of
tlie notice replied, " What I am looking for is a species of fly which does not bite. Could I
obtain a male and female of such a species I would start immediate breeding operations."

The Tsetse Fly

Pride of place may be given to the tsetse fly, of which, as already mentioned, two
forms have now been found to exist in the Sudan, i.e., Glossina inorsitaus (Plate I.), the
carrier of trypanosomiasis in animals, and G. ^Ja7/j«^j.5 (Plate II.), the agent in the
transference of the human trypanosome, believed to be the cause of Sleeping Sickness
(vide infra).

The most interesting fact elicited about G. morsitans was supplied by Major Morant,
who found it in Southern Kordofan, sent specimens to the laboratories, and whose note upon
it is as follows :

" The Umbogani bogey seems to be exaggerated by the Arabs, by whom it is naturally
very much feared. In the time of the old Government this fly, which appears to be a species
of tsetse, infested all the Koalib Hill and extended to Umberembeita. Early in the Mahdia Kordofan^ '"
they are said to have died off" completely, and the district was exempt from them until three,
or some say, four years ago when they seem to have reappeared at Jebel Ambri, which.

30 niTINO ANIJ NOXIOCS IN8KCT8 OTHEU THAN M0SQUIT0K8

however, tliey luv now siiiil to Imve left, mid to liiive gnuluiilly spreail northwiirtls, until, this
year, they imve rciiclii'il JclicI l)alifir. tli(iiij:;li in siiiiijj niiiiilnTS. It is tliought they go to
rniberenil>eita, tmt no furtiur. Wiuii tiilmte is under discussion they are said to have
killed quantities of eattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs, specially when they first reai)peared.
However, now they seem less numerous, and the Nuhas are not much afraiil of thciii. At
Daheir I was tidd tlicre were very few there, whilst at Nying-Nying I was told exactly the
reverse, and specimens were dillicult to procure. They haunt the rocks ami angal hedges
near the villages, but animals can graze a mile or two away from them by day and lie brought
in after nightfall with immunity. The fly is pnscut tiiroughout the year. 'I'lic tlv licit
extends from a place called Kawaliii to about twenty miles soutii, and is only three or four
miles in breadth. Outside tlie belt no tlics are to be found, an<l there is no evidence as to
their existence in adjoining districts. If asked for, natives went to the villages for them,
and either found them in hedges, or on pigs, or amongst the rocks. The wells are usually
situated iialf-a-mile from the villages."

licplying to a query, Jlajor Morant said there were no .streams or marshes in the district,
the oidy water to be found in the neighbourhood being that in the wells.

On studying the map one found the region to be a short distance to the south of the
12th parallel of north latitude, and nearly midway between the I^Oth and 81st ilcgrecs of
east longitude, being just about 15U miles west of Kenk on the White Nile and nearly
due south of El Obeid, the capital of Kordofan.

Hitherto the lly luis not been known to extend north of the Bahr-EI-Arab, which
divides Kordofan from the Uahr-El-tThazal province, so that this constitutes its most
northerly record for the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and, with the possible exception of
Uathurst and Lake Chad, for the African Continent as well. It is interesting to find
that the nanii' I'mbogani is also that under wliirh it is known in the Hahr-EI-Ghazal.
Captain ]5rakcnbridgc in the note to which reference has been made, informeil me that
the native name i.s Jlboogena, the accent on the oo, which is rather short like oo in good ;
the g is soft. The Golo name is Ngissa, the M'Bari name is Mbili and the Dinka name is
Mow. Only the last of these names is given in Austen's Monograph where it is spelt Mau.*

From data supplied by I)r. Neiive, Major Bray, JIajor Rivers, Captain Percival and

Disiribuiion of others, I have been able to mark on the accompanying map the distribution of (/. iiior.titiiii.t
G. morsitans •iniTti/ii, • i t i ••

in the Balir-Ei-(_iliazal province so far as it is at present known. In some places it is very

numerous and it causes great loss amongst mules and donkeys. A point to which all

the observers have directed notice is that the leading men and animals of a caravan are those

liable to be attacked. Those in the rear escape. The fact seems worth mentioning as the

more valuable animals may gain some protection from the position in which they are placed,

Major Bray ami Mr. Thomas riidrd that the lly bites during the night. Bradshaw,

Scions anil Crawshay, quoted by Austen, all refer to tlie tsetse sonietiiues feeding during

the dark hours.

Presence of It is only receutlv that t-iln.iKlii'i juiljuills has been provecl to exist in Su<lan territory.

• P"!*"* Monsieur Lemaire, of the Belgian scientific expedition, informed me that it existed at Wandi

in the Ladct Enclave and at Mvolo in the Sudan, but it was not until Major Bray sent

a fly, with the following note, that this statement was definitely confirmed, for the fly on

examination, proved to be a /»(//»///.<.

• Auatcu. Muiiograpli of thu Tsetse Flics, 11)03, p. 299.

PLATE I

A. J. E. TERai

Glossina moksitans, Westw. ? ( X 6;
Found in the Bahr-EI-dhazal Province, Southern Kordofan. and on the Baro River in territory le^ised fron
Reproduced by kind fiermissi,?/! of the Tynstees of the BHtish Museum

Abyssinia.

BITING AND NOXIOUS INSECTS OTHER THAN MOSQUITOES 31

Major Bray stated, " I fonvard ... a fly which I believe to be G. palpalis. I
caught it at thirty miles post, lleridi, Mvolo road, in May. I have compared it with the two
specimens kept in the Mudir's office, and have no doubt of its identity. I did not see
any more, but at that time was very busy and it did not occur to me that it was palpalis,
and I did not look for more. At Tembura, in February, I met an iutelligent Arab, one
Ibrahim Ibn Sayd El Nur, from Taweisha, in Kordofan, who had come from Zemios (Zeniios
is about fifteen days south south-west of Temburas). He said, in reply to questions, that
there was much sleeping sickness in Zemios, and that it was brought by the Belgians. The
tlisease is accompanied by enlarged cervical glands. It has been there three years. I did
not hear anything about it anywhere else."

This information is of grave significance, and no doubt Major Dansey Browning's
expedition will serve to show the extent to which the disease exists, and if it has really
invaded the Sudan. He may also be able to map out the fly belts and determine if
(jr. palpalii exists in large numbers. Since this was written Major Browning has not only
proved that morsltans is numerous between ^Yau and Chak-Chak and between Kossinger
and Dem Zubeir, but he reports palpalis in large numbers in the district to the
south-east of Mvolo and writes me to say that he has been informed from a Belgian
source that (J. palUdipes exists at Mangi. As he notes, this requires confirmation. He did
not see the specimens.

I am strongly of opinion that the tsetse exists on the upper reaches of the Sobat.
Mules and cattle coming from Itang and the Upper Baro districts in Abyssinia have
been found suffering from trypanosomiasis. From enquiries made from members of
Mr. Macmillan's expedition I find that about fifty miles south of Nasser a flv, supposed to be
a large tsetse, exists. I should not be surprised if this proves to be Cr. loiKjipenni.s (Plate III.)
A study of Mr. Austen's latest map shows that this species might very well extend thus far
west from Somaliland and north from Lake Eudolf. I hope this question may be definitely
settled before the end of 1906. (Since this was written Mr. Thomas has brought in two
specimens of tsetse taken by Captain C. Sullivan on the Baro in Abyssinian territory
between Gore and Gambela, i.e., about the intersection of the 35th degree of east longitude
and a parallel of north latitude corresponding to 8° 25'. Though they are somewhat
damaged I have little doubt these flies are (t. mor-sitans. They are certainly not lonaipeunis g. morsitans in
and answer to morntanx very closely though theii- abdominal markings are, I think, rather 'Abyssinia
brighter than usual.)

There is no evidence which would lead one to suppose that the tsetse exists on the
Ujiper Blue Nile. There are records of animals dying from fly bite, but other genera are
implicated so far as can be told, not (jloxsina.

Several species of seroot fly have been sent both from the Blue and ^Yhite Niles.
Colonel Penton brought a valuable collection of 'Jalnuiida' from the Jur Eiver. Colonel
Hunter presented several large biting Diptera which he had taken on the Upper White Nile,
Major Bray was the donor of a good collection which he made in the Bahr-El-Ghazal and
some from Captain Eusor also reached us from the same province. Captain Grogan sent
flies and admirable notes from Goz-Abu-Guma and specimens have also been forwarded from
Eoseires and the Eahad. Captain Hughes brought a fine specimen of one of the A.nlidae or
robber-flies from. El Obeid. It is very apt to be mistaken for a biting dipteron.

Fortunately it has been possible to have these flies well illustrated in colour or in
black and white. The object has been both to make complete scientific drawings and to

32

niTlNG AND NOXIOLS INSKCT8 OTIIKK THAN MOStJflTOKS

Notes nnd
Specimens

T.ibanidse

Stomoxys

proiliu-e c'onvft illust rat ions wlicrdiy tliosc (lies can lie rt'iulily i<li'iitilit'il liy luiyoiX' wlm
si'iurrs tlu'iii. For tliis purpose tlic natural colours arc intlicatoij in tlio black ami white
drawings. I believe they will be lielpful in this direction and of considerable value
to Medical Ollicers and Inspectors. Sonic non-biting Diptera which might easilv be
eoufonndcd witli harmful varieties liavc also been illustrated. In this connection I have
to acknowledge the kindness and courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum
with reference to the permission granted for the reproduction of the coloured plates of
G. mor.tllaii.i, (1. jialpiili.i and (J. loiiijijifiniis. ]{oth in the identification of specimens
and the criticism of the drawings we have received the valinible help of Mr. Austen,
Dipterologist to the IJritish JIuseum, who has also contributed a paper on some of these
Diptera written specially for this report.

Seroot is a name applied to several of tlir larger TahantiUv found in llic Sudan, such as
'/'. ilor.tiri/iii, 7' iifriciiiiuK, 7'. sociiiSj miil /'. hiijnlliitiis. Other Arabic names, kindly
translated for me by Sir R. von Slatiu, are given to these. Thus at Goz-Abu-Guma on
the White Nile, 7". i/orxirithi is called Tii-El-Gefitr ("bird of the desert"), while
7'. aofiiis, or a lly very like it, is known as A'/ Aijhi'llnsk ("the grey one").

Captain (Jrogan sent the following note from the Mamiir of (Joz-Abu-Guma regarding
these flies in answer to the memorandum. They seem well worth reproducing in extenso.

1. " They bite both nuiu and beast.

'1. Till y appear for the most part in the tinu of tlu' Kharif (May and June) and when
the dura crops ripen.

8. They are found in thickets, woods and iindcigrowtii near tiic river, also in the
wooded parts of the interior rain lanils.

4. From the eflTect of tiicir bites aiiiiuais lose roiiditioii and become verv lean.

5. They bite during the day-time.

(i. They also bite wild animals sudi as the lion.

7. Nothing definite is kuowu about their breeding habits but tliey are said to be the
same as tlie ioeiist.

8. They are numerous and especially towards the soutli.

In addition reliable information points to the Aiiln'Uiisli being much the worst. Their
favourite places for atta<d<ing animals are in the hairless part under the neck, the bare parts
of the belly, and in the groin of the leg. Animals if exposed to their attacks, which draw
blood, get no peace and eventually die. There is no doubt that they drive wild animals
from Jebelein northwards during the Kharif." Captain Grogan further says : — " There is
also to be found, to my own personal knowledge, a little way south of Goz-Abu-Guma, near
to the river, during the months of April and .Mav a third scjrt of biting Hy, small and black,
something like a house fly which attacks camels and instantly draws biooil. Its name is
said to be El Aijii»ii ('the old one')."

Specimens were afterwards sent, and, as expeeteil, this lly proved to be a species of
Stomiuiis which I had found very prevalent at Taiitikia in January, fiercely attacking mules
and drawing scarlet beads at everv thrust.

It is also common in the Hahr-El-Ghazal and up the Blue Nile. I do not think it can
be a carrier of trypaiiosomes in the Suilan, otherwise many animals would have become
infected at Taufikia. As a matter of fact I only found trypanosomes in mtdes coming from
Abyssinia. Captain Greig's experiments go to prove it innocent in Uganda.*

• Qrvig. Reports of the Slccpiag Sickuesa Commiwion of tlie Royal Society. No. VI., 1905, p. •.'ii3.

PI.ATK H

Glossina palpalis, Ron. Desv. (^ (x 6)
Found in the southern part of the Bahr-El-Gh.-izal Province and in the Lado Enclave.

Ri'/'rodnccd by kind permissimi of the Triistnes of the British Afuseiim

BITING AND NOXIOUS INSECTS OTHEE THAN MOSQUITOES

33

A new species of the vicious and mottled-winged Hirmatopota was brought from the H^matopota
Bahr-El-Ghazal by Major Bray, while a different variety has been forwarded from the
Eahad. This leads us to speak of flies from the Blue Nile. These have been sent by the
Mamurs of Rufaa and Eoseires through Mr. Corbyn.

The most interesting are the Panijoiiin, species P. mofircttu, Fig. 12, from Rufaa, called in pangonia flie.<;
Arabic, Ter-El-Ba(,ger (" the cow-bird ") or DMan-EI-G^far (" fly of the desert "). These
flies, in wliich the proboscis is of great length, are said to be a cause of camel sickness and
the reason for the migrations of camel-breeding Arabs. Seroots were also sent from Eufaa
together with a note that they were worse during the Kharif, and bite all animals, including
man. A quaint sentence may be quoted, as it is very typical of the drawbacks to work in
the Sudan :

'■ I regret I could not get them alive, because the way of catching is by beating them
with a cloth or with a bundle of sticks." No wonder it is, at times, difficult to identify
specimens ! Yet one would rather have the
interest displayed by tliis forcible collector than
the indifference which is sometimes sho\vn.

The notes from Eoseii-es are somewhat con-
fused, several species being sent together under
the same heading. The Blue Nile Ha'matopot<i
seem to be called El Tdkaxhd (" the attacking
fly"), and are credited vdth. causing "swelling of
the lungs" in sheep and goats. They are said to
appear in August, prevail a short time during the
Kharif, and then die. A/m Bahuld (" father of
a stringed musical instrument") is the name
after Auoton, applied without distinction to the
larger Tabanidae, while Sartieh seems also to be
an Arabic term for Seroots.*

Stontoxys were sent from Eoseires, where they are called El Naghuza. The note, which
is quite correct, states : " This fly chiefly bites donkeys, horses and mules. It bites in the
legs, causing pimples which do not cause death. It appears in August."

General remarks on all the flies sent follow, wliich, as they show that interest is being
taken, and exhibit certain peculiarities in translation, are perhaps worth recording :

1. The above-mentioned flies generally live during the Kharif, but they much prevail
in July and August. They are confined to the woods and places where grass grows.

2. The natives are bited (sic) by all the different lands of this fly, but are not injured
The bite does nothing more than bursting blood from the spot only.

3. These flies bite by day only.

4. They bite the fierce animals to death.

5. No person appears to know anything about their breeding habits.

On the whole this information is far from being incorrect, and shows that considerable
trouble has been taken to answer the questions as fully as possible.

In the First Report I stated that sand flies and owl midges were common in Khartoum.
Further experience has shown that the former, the true Sinudulae, are rarely, if ever, phiebotomus
encountered. Small hairy flies of the family Psychodidae, genus Phlehotonms (Figs. 13 and 14), 0«i midges
• The word Um-Ta-dna (" mother of sting ") is also used for certain biting flies.

Fig. 12. — Pango.vi.'^ M.\gretti, Bezzi ? (x 2)

After Austen

Egyptian Sudan, Somaliland, E. .\frica Protectorate

Head yellowish ; thorax yellowish brown ; basal portion of

abdomen ochraceous ; bands on black apical portion whitish

yellow; femora brown, remaining portion of legs yellow; wings

suffused with light yellowish brown.

By kind permission of Trttstees o/ British Mitsetim.

34

lllTlNCi ASM) NOXIors INSKCTS OTHKIt THAN MOSQl'ITOES

art' till' true pt'sts, iiiul arc (ifti-ii very aiinoyiiijj; at iiiglit. I?y slf('])in}^ on the rmif one usually
entirely avoids tlicin, but tliry ha\iut vt-randalis ami IhmI-i-oouis, cspcL-ially wluTe tlicri' art-
gardens in close proximity. They prol)al)ly lined amongst decaying vegetation. The

Ceratopogon goinis C'enitojioiiDit containing biting flics nf tlic midgt! family {('/linmoiiiiiUe) is also
represented ami the.se insects are apt to lie confused with the owl-itiidgcs above-
mentioned, as those which breed on land have hairy wings. I have often heard the sharp,
short, moS(juito-like ping which they are said to emit when settling and recently have secured
specimens.

True sand Hies, the •*>/"///"//(/(/'■, are, however, not lacking in the Sudan. The first t saw-
was .sent by Colonel Talbot from Abu llamed, where at times it is a veritable terror. It is

The • Kumei." knywn US the " Kunteb " and bites fiercely, though, fortunately, not dunng the niglit. It

Simulidae
Sand Hies

The'Nimetla"

Fig. 13. —Owl MlnCH(x I2di.-i

Fig. !4."-Owl Midgr.

Khartoum.

Stomach gorged with blood.

will follow its unfortunate victim several miles back from the river und renders out-door
work impossible. The species has been identified by Mr. Austen as .S. (l<tt>iiio.'<inii, Theob. p. 'y2.

Another species is the well-known Xlinrftd or Xfimtti of Dongola, concerning which
the following notes have reached me from the Jludir of Berber : —

" It occurs in January, February, Marcli and April. It extends from Salamanieh, north
of Berya, to the Berti boundary of tlie Dongola Provinie on the river. It lives near the
river and is not found at a greater distance from it than half a mile. It bites from sunrise
to sunset, attacking any part of man or beast unprotected by hair or clothes. Human beings
are chiefly bitten on the face and hands, animals in the region of the pmlenda. Its luceding
habits are unknown. It is most virulent between the extreme cold of the winter and the
great heat of the summer. The hot weather kills these flies off in thousands, and finally
extinguishes them. On very cold days they are not aggressive." Its habits, therefore,
appear to be mmh the same as those of S. colnmhuxchiiwix, the annoying " Kolumbatz fly "
of Hungary.*

A large number of these flies were sent me, but they had been placed iu u bottle with

• Uraun. Animal ramsites of Man, 3rd VA., 190C, p. 432.

PT.ATF. Ill

A, J E Terzi

GlOSSINA LONCIPENNIS, COKTl. ? ( X 6)

Found in Somaliland and the East Africa Protectorate : possibly occurs near the head-waters ot the Sobat River.
Keprodnccd by kind permission of the Trustees of the British I\Tuseiivt

BITING AND NOXIOUS INSECTS OTHER THAN MOSQUITOES 35

loose cotton wool, and were terribly shrunken and damaged. They presented all the
characteristics of a minute sand fly — the rounded shape, humped back and typical wing
venation. Some of the least damaged were sent to Mr. Austen at the British Museum,
who informs me that the fly is S. griseieollis, Becker, which was originally described
from specimens taken at Assuan. {St:c also p. 52).

The green metallic Pi/cnosoma imtorium is found in the Southern Sudan. Colonel Py<:"oson>a
Hunter brought specimens from Shambe. These flies are filth carriers, like some of the
Muscidce which, of course, are represented and are very numerous in certain places. Musca
cloinextica is not often a great nuisance in Khartoum, though it is busy the moment the
sun rises and often drives sleepers from the roofs. I have noticed that the hot weather in
April soon kills ofi" these common house-flies. They are most aggressive in February and
March.

Of greater interest is Auchmeromyia luleola, the flv whose larva constitutes the now Congo floor

.' . . * . ™aggot fly

well-kno^\Ti Congo floor maggot. This fly exists in the Bahr-El-6hazal pro\Tnce, and
specimens have been taken by Dr. Neave and Major Bray. The latter captured a pair
in coitu. They exactly answer to the description given by Mr. Austen in the Liverpool
Keport of the Trypanosomiasis Expedition to the Congo, 1903 — ^1904. Two specimens
were recently sent me by Yusuf Eft'. Darwish, of the Egyptian Medical Corps. He
took them at Mongalla on the eastern bank of the Upper White Nile.

Specimens of the maggot have not yet reached me nor have I heard of it
being reported as a nuisance or a cause of invaliding.* Bengalia depresm is also of
importance medically {viih' Mr. Theobald's report, p. 83).

Another interesting " find " was made by Mr. Crispin, who sent me a so-called tick from Lipotera
a tame Ibex at Suakin. I regarded this as a MdopluKju^, an insect, which though a true ' If"'
Dipteron bears no resemblance to a fly, yet is allied to the flat and leathery IlippohoKcidw on the ibex
which are so common in the Sudan and are found on horses, mules, camels and dogs. It
turned out, however, to be a Lipoptera, a closely allied form and apparently a new
species (vide Mr. Theobald's report).

I append a list of the Sudanese Diptera mentioned above and in Mr. Austen's special
article (p. 51).
MuscidcB

Glossina

G. morsitans. Bahr-EI-Ghazal, S. Kordofan and Upper Sobat (Abyssinia).
G. palpalis. Bahr-El-Ghazal. Lado Enclave.
G. sp. / Bahr-El-Ghazal. Southern part.

Stomoxince

Stomoxys sp? Upper Blue and White Niles.

Musca

M. domestiea and allied sp. General.

Tjiieilia ? . . ' . .

^ . :- Not yet identified but probably numerous and general in distribution.

Lompisomijia ) i j d

Pyciiosonui

P. putorium. Upper White Nile.

P. marginale. Bahr-El-Ghazal.

. * Quite recently Major Dansey Browning has sent me numerous specimens of the maggot from the Bahr-El-
Qbazal province.

36

BITING AND NOXIois Iv^iKiTS OTHEU THAN MOSgL'ITOES

• Bol" flies

Non-biting
diptera

Jialir-El-(Jli;izal aii<l Wliitc Nili'. I once caught
7'. xi>i-iii.i in tliu hiburatorii'S at Khartoum.

7'. ri rant US and sociits are also found on the Blue
Nile.

.iiic/iiiifriimi/iit

A. luteola. Bahr-El-Ghazal. I'i'Imt Whitr Nile.
TiilMiiiiiite

('/irijsi>j)s

Chrysops (IistiiK'ti|H'uni.s. Hahr-EI-Gliazai ?
TafHuiiiKf

Tahanus dorsivitta or

virgatus (Austen)
„ biguttatus
„ soeius

„ fasciatus nilotieus
africanus
par
gratus
„ ditaMiiatus
II(einii/i>/iiifii

H. sp. nov. }

H. pukhrithoraxi

Beiianliii. B. depressa — really a new genus (Austen), Bahr-El-Qhazal.
Pdiigotiiiice

P. luagrettii. Blue Nile and Kassala.
C'fiironoinuhr

Ceratopogon ? sp. Khartoum.
Pi<i/cliO(il(iit'

Phlebotomus sp. ? Khartoum.

Sim III idee

" Knnteb," S. damnosum

•• Ximetta.

Pupipara

HippohoKciilce

Hippobosca equina

H. cainelina

H. francilloni

Blue and Wliite Niles. Bahr-El-Ghazal.

S. griseicollis

Abii Hamed
Dougola.

H. taurina or maculata

S

General.

Lipoptera ibicis. Suakin.

Flies of the Family (J-Jsfriiliv, which produce "bots" and belong to the genera
Iliipotlermti and Gmttrophilns iirc very common. I expect that specimens of Oc/iromi/ln and
Deriiifilohiti, whose larvfe cause myiasis in man, will yet be sent from the south. Larvie
taken from human subcutaneous tissue were sent me by Captain Cummins and identified by
Jlr. Theobald as those of lieii<i<iUii (leprfsnii.

Flies of less medical interest, but which might be confused with the larger biting diptera
are a species of Helophihin (H. trivittatus). Fig. 16, the genus which produces rat-tailed
aquatic larvie in foul water collections and //ojillsfoiiwriiK sri-rlfn-.i. Fig. 17, one of the genus
Atlliihr (robber-flies) sent by Captain Hughes from El Obeiil. These prey on locusts.
I note that '/'•il>iiiii(l<f are said to be a favourite food of the fossorial wasps of the family
Beinbecidtt* It would be interesting to know if this is the case in the Sudan. So far I
• Sharp. Cambridge Natural History, lusccts, Part II., 1901, p. 482.

BITING AND NOXIOUS INSECTS OTHER THAN MOSQUITOES

37

have iiever noticed wasps preying on the seroot, uor have I heard of this occurring.
Information is desired regarding the larvae of these Tabanids, and especially as to whether
they are aquatic or terrestrial.

Fig. 15. — Dermatobia

Africana

Larva

OJE TKRZI ~^

Fig. 16.— Helophilis Trivittatu,';, Fabr. ?

Europe

Light yellow, with black markings.

'Hie Jlijijer. Colonel Huutt-r has informed me that the Jigger or Chigue-Sa rcopsi/l Id _ .
penetrans has made its unwelcome appearance in the Bahr-El-Ghazal. It is to be hoped
that this crippling pest will not spread North.

M.icTe>tzi

Fig. 17. — Hoplistomerts Serripes, Fabr. ?

S. Africa to Abyssinia and the Sudan

Black, clothed, especially on abdomen, with short, golden yellow hair ; wing markings brown.

Ticks

Year by year the role of ticks in both human and veterinary pathology is shown Ticks

to be of increasing importance. In the case of man, Spirillum Fever, the Spotted Fever of

the Kocky Mountains, the Karapatti disease of the Zambesi and a fever prevalent in Persia

and Beluchistan, have all been attributed to parasites transmitted by ticks. In all

38

llII'IN(i AND NOXIOUS INSECTS OIIIKU THAN MOSQUITOES

Piroplasmosis
in Caltle

|)r(iliiiliility IMiickwiifcr Fi'Vor is also h liiniiiin piroplasmosis, whili' i-vidi'iice is now
ai-i-uiiDilatiug to show tlial the rut tick ami not the rat Ilea, may hv thi- h^vuX in spreading
phigue.

Amongst the lower animals we find Texas or Ked-water Fever, Khodesian Fever or
African Coast Sickness and Trans-Cancasian Fever in cattle, to be <hie to ticks acting as
agents of transmission. So is tiie disease known as Heart-water, in calves, sheep and goats,
80 is " Yellows," the Malignant Jaundice of flogs, so is Hiliiiry Fever in horses, and so is
the fatal Spirillosns of fowls found in I5razil and the Argentine.

Indeed, the more these Antr/iiiiilir iirv studied, the greater seems tlie reason for dreading
them. It is by no nuans an easy matter to identify ticks, chielly iiccause, so far, no
complete and reliable work of reference to tliciii is obtainaMr. 'I'jic iiliratiuf, tliough fairly
extensive, is scattered, and is in a somewhat chaotic condition. Had it not been for the
valuable help rendered by Mrs. Broun, I would have had ilini<ulty ill preparing even the
small list of Sudani'se ticks heri' given.

'I'llc tlinc rniiiiiHillrst in tile SlldaU are: —

Ihinlommii u'lin/iliniii, fonii'l diii tl\ mi rattle, camels, niuiis and diildvcvs.

AiiililiioiiniiH rurli'ijii/iiiii, closely allied to the J?ont tick (.1. Iii'linriiiii) of South Africa,
the male of which has a gorgeously adorned scutum or shield jiicked out in golden
bronze bordered witii gncn. It is conuuoii in the soiitliirn grass countrv and affects cattle,
camels and several species of horned game. I have taki ii it in Khartoinii on cattle with
trypanosomiasis which came from the south.

Ji'/iijilcfji/iiiliis siiiiijiiiiii'iis, the dog tick par excellence, but which also attacks man, the
lion, the buffalo, the roan antelope, the porcupine, and probably many other animals.

Ji/iijiicfji/iidiiy jiinuidtisnliiiii^ has also been fnuud mi tlie o.x, and Ji. /•Jriiisi, the Red
Tick, on nudes.

Mrs. Broun also recogni.sed the spinose nyiiipli of tlir ear tick, < iniilluulnrii.i Mc^iiint,
while I found that fowls in Khartoum were very liaMr to be infected with one of the
Argasidii- , wliiili I believe to be Avijas iiiliiintus. As regards the minute re<l ticks which
I foinid on Mi'iisiiiiiii I'lii/oniils and Af>i:iirliiiii<-liiis /inliidix on the White Nile 1 .see that
Hodges had previously described a similar infestation of these very mosfjuitoes in Uganda,*
while the whole subject of the parasites of the Culicidie has been fully dealt with in an
interesting paper by Dr. Leon Dye.f

The trouble about ticks is that the same species are sent in again and again and it is
difficult to get new varieties. The unskilled collector naturally mistakes the different stages
in development for differences in species.

As regards diseases conveyed by ticks, I liave never seen a case of human tick fever,
nor has (h-ni//i>iiliirii.f iiitiii/iiitn, the tick said to be implicated in its spread, been sent me,
but I am inclined to think that the disease must exist in the 15ahr-KI-(Jhazal I'rovinee.
Quite recently I have found piro})lasmata in the blood of cattle sent nic from Berber by
Captain Head, nf the Veterinary Department. I have not had time to study the parasite
fully, but its apipcarance is shown in Fig. IS. It is very minute and occurs in coccoid,
small ring, and somewhat flame-shaped forms, while as seen in the photomicrograph dividing
(spore forms) are present. No extra-corpu.scular forms were seen. It is possible that the
disease was introduced from Egypt, ami I am not certain but that the parasite is a new one.
As stated, it is very small, and yet it does not answer to J', parviim. At present this brief

• Hodges. Jour, of Tropicnl Mediriuc, 1902, Vol. IV., p. 20.3. f Arcliivcn de Parasitologic, l'J04, Vol. IX , p. 1.

BITING AND NOXIOUS INSECTS OTHER THAN MOSQUITOES

39

mention mnst suffice. Ticks sent from Berber proved to be IIiinkniniKi
jaundice of dogs occurs, and is probably due indirectly tu L'/iijiiiyji/i,i/ii.'<

(rijiijifiHiii Malignant
KdiKiitineus.

I have examined female ticks taken, gorged wi

Fig. 18.— Pikoplasmata i.n Mluml) of Cattle, x 137iS dia

from cattle with trypanosomiasis,
but I have never found try-
panosomes in these ticks. The
parasites were, however, far fruin
numerous in the cattle blood. In
Idood from mites taken from
infected rats I have found try-
panosomes alive 26 hours after
the insects were removed from
their host. The recent work of
Skinner* has drawn attention
to the possible association of
//i/iiluiinim <i'(ji/ptlinii and plague.
He has indicated that there is a
good deal in common between the
distribution of this tick and that
of endemic plague (Brit. Med.
Jour.,26/8/05, 16/9/05, 14/10/05) .
Whether or not his surmises
prove to be correct, it is
important to note here that both

//. wgyptinm and rats are very numerous in and about Khartoum.

Chicken meat in Khartoum is often very tough and unsavoury. I believe this to be due

in some measure to the unfortunate birds being drained of their juices by the loathsome Argas

ticks which cling to them in dozens. Some remedy might be found by oil-dressing the fowls.

or by the erection of tick-proof houses in the market. The pests, however, are not greatly in

evidence, and funds are re(juired for more important matters.

Insects and Vegetable Parasites Injurious to Plants

Aphid.«

Once more one has to record the ravages of Aphis sor<iltl, the " Asal " fly of the Arabs.
It caused great destruction amongst the dura crop on the Rahad, and has been busy up the
Blue Nile and elsewhere. A small quantity of standing dura became infected in the Gordon
College garden in October, 1905. The crop was promptly cut down and the plants burned.
This prevented any spread of the disease. Au application for £E50 was made to enable
experiments to be carried out with lady-bird beetles. It was intended to introduce
Leis coiifofijiis from Tasmania and Hljijioilamia ronvergens from California. The expenditure
was not sanctioned, and perhaps it was just as well, for if such experiments are to meet with
success and be carried to a conclusion they must be conducted with great care, and would
require the services of an Economic Entomologist. I think I cannot do better than quote
some interesting notes by Mr. Lounsbury, Government Entomologist at Cape Town, on a
subject which is peculiarly his own. He saysf : —

" Lady-birds, syrphus flies, aphis lions, and wasp parasites of one kind or another, prey

* Brit. Med. Jour., 26/8/05, 16/9/05, 14/10/05, -2/12/05.

t Report of Goverument Entomologist, Cape of Good Hope, 1900, p. 27.

The Asal Fly

40 DITING AND NOXIOUS INSECTS OTHER THAN MOSQUITOES

on all flio liirti-rcnt apocies (of aphis) and sonic of tlicni, at least, have funf,'us iliseasps as
well to i-ontfud against. Natural clucks of other kimls arc still nioiv potent in oft-setting
their marvellous reproduetive powers; thus, myriads perish on the citrus trees with the
hardening of the young wood, and violent rains dash other myriads to the ground, never to
regain their food plants. The most eonspieuous, as well as the most important in many
cases, of the insect enemies are the la<ly-l)irds. lint no species of lady-bird can increase in
nunihers to compare with an aphis. Few lady-birds have more than three or four generations
a year in even warm climates whilst aphides are often grandparents before their first month
of existence is tinished. Thus it comes about that when conditions favour the increase
of an aphis and it has even a short start of a ladv-liinl enemy, the plant infested may be
severely injured before the aphis is suppressed. To cite a common example: A species of
aphis (Xectaropltitm /lixi) sometimes tiiids nur succt-pca plants early in tlic spring, and, say,
for a week has undisturbeil possession. Tiien the infestation is discovereil by a wandering
lady-bird on the search for just such an occurrence, and she at once proceeds to avail herself
of it. feeding voraciously her.self and laying eggs that her progeny may share the feast.
The eggs hatch in about a week ami tiun a swanii (jf liuii^'ry iarv;e slay the helpless lice right
and left. Doing their best, however, and aided by other lady-birds which have been attracteil
to the scene, they cannot even dispose of the increase. In a few weeks the larv.e turn to pupaj
and then to adults. A second generation of larvie is shortly produced and then the ajdiis is
quickly overcome. Sometimes, of course, the apliis is overcome more speedilv and sometimes
less so ; from the beginning almost there was no doubt as to ultinuite sup|)ression. Th(!
lady-bird larvie wander about when their food supply is exhausted, but not having wings they
do not get very far ; some eventually find food and live to propagate, but the va«t majority
die of starvation or full virtinis to tlicir caiinabiilistic lirotlicrs or to oilier foes. For weeks
at a time there may be practically no aphis of any kind in tiic locality and then the lady-birds
become fewer and fewer, so that when aphides begin to appear again there are very few
lady-birds about to find them. Other enemies of the aphis kind stiffer similarly. These facts
render it somewhat doubtful tliat the injuries to plants from aphides in general could be much
lessened by importing new species of lady-birds since the new-comers would suffer from the
same disabilities as our native kinds. Still, it is possible that the conditions might be
somewhat bettered if the imported species propagated more rapidly than the natives, if they
started to fee<l a few days earlier in the spring, or kept at work through our niibl winters
when there was food ; likewise if they had a wider range of foods that would enable a greater
proportion of them to live through their famine perio<ls, or if they possessed greater vitality
that would assist in carrying them through."

These interesting notes present the somewhat complex iiroliicms which have to be faced
when tackling the question of aphis destruction in a practical manner. Moreover, it requires
care and skill to rear captive lady-birds and it is diliicult to feed them. They are liable to
bacterial infection and doubtless many would perish or ever they reached the Sudan. Still,
this seems the oidy likely way of combating the A/>/iis minilii. and if successful, both the
agriculturist ami the treasury would greatly benefit.

In this connection I may record the discovery of a third species of preilatory huly-bird
which is described by Mr. Theobald (p. 93).

The only real effort to cope with the aphis in the Sudan appears to have been made by
5Ir. f'orbyn on the ]\\w Nile. He employed petroleum washes at an early stage of infestation
and apparently with great success, as he states that the dura crop on the Government farm

BITING AND NOXIOUS INSECTS OTHEK THAN MOSQUITOES 41

was saved. It is probable the mere vigorous washing was the eifective agent in clearing off
the aphides. Petroleum itself is said to have no effect on them.

I have found, and sent to Mr. Theobald, certain other aphides which were present ^^'^ Aphide
on the bamboo in the south, and on diseased melon plants forwarded from Kamlin by
Major Dickinson who takes a keen interest in these matters. Both, I believe, are new
species. Some communications from Major Dickinson regarding his observations on the
Aphis sorghi are here recorded.

" I have noticed that the honey is almost invariably found on the upper side of the leaf
ami the insect on the under side. In the few cases where the insect is found actually in the
honey on the upper side, it can always be accounted for by its having dropped off a leaf
immediately above. Is it known yet what becomes of the fly from December to the time
of its appearance, viz : — in September or early in October ? As far as I can observe with
the naked eye the first appearance of the pest is a faint covering of honey on the leaf of the
plant. I have never seen any insect engaged in depositing tliis honey, nor have I been able
to detect any insects in the honey itself, except as already mentioned, when they have
apparently fallen from another leaf above. If the insect is hatched in the honey it seems
that it must crawl round to the other side of the leaf while still too small to be seen with
the naked <'ye. I have also fouud crowds of the fly in its crawling stage on a leaf that
seemed to be perfectly dry. A great deal of this honey drips off the plants on to the ground.
Is it possible that the insect may be bred in the ground from this honey and spread among
the plants the following season ? The head of dura which I have sent you is the kind
knowTi as Wwl Fuhil. It and two other kinds, Aiiiinn and Fiki MuMchi are said by the
natives to be particularly liable to the attacks of the Asal fly and they certainly seem
to be in a worse plight than some other kinds, such as Fetanta ; though I have not come
across any kind yet on irrigated land that is not affected more or less. I think that this fly
is in danger of becoming a very serious pest. If it cannot be hatched out before the end
of September the ravages might perhaps be lessened by making the natives sow their crops
earlier than they do now." Again and later, " I am anxious to hear whether you discover
any trace of the Asal fly itself ini the infected cotton from Berber. I planted dura at wide
intervals among the cotton on the Government farm here, and some of the cotton plants
which are close to the dura stalks have the honey on their leaves, but I cannot find on any
of them any trace of the fly itself. I do not think that the fly attacks the cotton plant, but
if planted with dura a certain amount of the honey falls from the dura on to the cotton plant,
and this perhaps may injure the plant by stopping up the pores of the leaves. I will be able
to see whether it does or not later on. It does not seem that the plan of wide planting does
anything towards mitigating the injury done by this pest. The dura planted among the
cotton on the farm was sown ;dong each ridge at intervals of 10 feet, and the ridges
themselves are rather more than a yard apart. Yet this dura is as badly affected by the
Asal fly as the closely-planteil dura on the native sakias, and I have had to root up quite
half of it."

About the same time as the above were written a report reached nie from the Eahad
stating that the kinds of dura known there as Fctarita and Mngml were infected. Xajjud
was apparently immune.

The only dura plants recognizable from these native names are Anilriijioijini cennnnn
[Fcfiiritd) which yields a white grain, and Xnjjud or NaijoiH, which is the black and red
variety. As it has been impossible to undertake much field work or to study the Aphis

42 IlITINO AND NOXIOUS INSECTS OTHKU THAN MOSQUITOES

propirly, it is not iiii t-nsy iimttcr to iinswi-r nil Major Dickinson's queries. One ciin, liowiver,
iisstTt tliiit forms are found on tlie lioncy-covcred surfaces. I liuvc discovered eggs in tliis
situation as well as winged forms. liutli these are e.xtnniily niiiiutc and might easily escape
naked-eye observation. The forms found on the under-surfaee of the leaf are usually apterous
females, and the time of year at which they are found will proliaMy indicate wlictlitr they
are parthenogeiietie females or engaged in oviparous or vivi|)an)us repniductiiJii. The
life-history of Aphidi'S is so very coiuiilix and vit of such amazing iiitinst, and the
.1. xonilii is such an important factor in cereal cultivation in tlir Sudan that I here take the
liberty of inserting sonic extracts from Insects, Part II., Camliridge Natural Historv. hv
Dr. David Sharj).

'■ Thr inijiviihia! life fur sivcral gcnrratimis is rrstrictid to constant, or at anv rate
copious, imhiliition of food, accomi)anicd liy an almost uninterrupted produetioii of young by
parthenogenetic females, the young so produced Incoming rapidly (sometimes in the course
of eight or ten days, but nn)re usually in about twenty days*) themselves devoted to a
similar process; so tiiat in the comparatively slmrt ]m ridd of a few months the progeny
resulting from a single individual is almost iniiunicralilc. This nniarkable state of afl'airs is
accompanied by other peculiarities of pliysiology, with the result that the life-histories of
successive generations become very diverse, and <'omple.\ cvi les of series of generations
diflering more or less from one another are passed tliruugh, tiie species finally returning to
bi-sexual reproduction, and thus inaugurating aiintlier cvile of generations. Tlie surprising
nature of these facts has in the last InO years caused an immense amount of discussion, but
no sati.sfactory light has yet been thrown on 1i<o conditions that really give rise to the
exceptional phenomena. These phenomena are: (I) parthejiogenesis ; (2) oviparous and
viviparous reproduction; (3) the production of generations (if individuals in whicii tho sexes
are very uiie.|Ually represented, males being frequently entirely absent ; (4) the proiluction of
imlividuals ditVering as to the aciiuirement of wings, some remaining entirely apterous, while
others go on to the winged form ; (5) the production of individuals of the same sex with
different sexual organs, and liistinctions in the very early (init iHit the earliest) stage of the
formation of the individual; ((i) iliflferences in the life-habits of successive generations;
(7) differences in the habits of individuals of one generation, giving rise to the phenomenon
of parallel series. All these phenomena may occur in the case of a single species, though in
a very variable extent.

The simple form of Aphid life may be described as follows: —
Life History of Eggs are laid in the autumn, and hatch in the spring, giving rise to fenialis of an

Apliida! imperfect character having no wings ; these produce living young parthenogeneticallv,

anil this process may be repeated for a few or for many generations, and there mav be
in these generations a greater or less number of winged individuals, and perhaps a few males.
(There is some doubt on this point, as the I'ariier ob.servers seem to have snppo.sed that a
winged individual appearing in a generation chiefly apterous was ipso fucto, a male; it seems,
however, to be certain that perfect wingeil nuiles appear in some species in generations
producing no perfect sexual females. Speaking geiu'rally, the coiirse of events seems to be
that in summer there exist only wingless and winged parthenogenetic females, and that the
sexually perfect forms appear for the first time in autunni.) After a time when temperature

•This npplicx to what occurs in a tompemto climate. Under tropical conditions production is prol>nl>ly
Diuch more rapid {ridr p. 40) Mr. Loimxliurj-'s remarks. — A.B.

BITING AND NOXIOUS INSECTS OTHER THAN MOSQUITOES 43

falls, or when the supply of food is less in quantity, or after a period of deliberate abstention
from food, sexual individuals are produced and fertilized eggs are laid which hatch in the
spring, and the phenomena are repeated. In other cases these phenomena are added to or
rendered more complicated by the intercalated partheuogenetic generations exhibiting well-
marked metamorphosis, of kinds such as occur in apterous or in winged insects ; while again
the habits of successive generations may differ greatly, the individuals of some generations
dwelling in galls, while those of other generations live underground on roots.

As regards the physiology of production of winged and wingless individuals there has
been but little exact inquiry. Vast numbers of individuals may be produced without any
winged forms occurring, while on the other hand these latter are occasionally so abundant as
to float about in swarms that darken the air ; the two forms are probably, however,
determined by the supply of food. The winged forms are less prolific than the apterous
forms; and Forbes has noticed in Apliix iiiuiiH-niiHria, where the generations consist partly of
apterous, and partly of winged individuals, that when the corn begins to flag in consequence
of the attacks of the Aphis, then the proportion of winged individuals becomes large. The
appearance of winged individuals is frequently accompanied by a peculiar change of habit ; the
winged indiviiluals migrating to another plant, wliicli in many cases is of a totuUv different
botanical nature from that on which the apterous broods were reared ; for instance, . l/*/a'.s imdl,
after producing several apterous generations on apple, gives rise to winged individuals that
migrate to the stems of corn or grass, and feeding thereon commence another cycle of
generations. On the whole, it would ajipear tliat the appearance of winged forms is a
concomitant of decreasing nutrition. It is a very remarkable fact that the sexually perfect
females are invariably apterous, and this is frequently also the case with the males. It is
also highly remarkable that the sexually perfect individuals are of comparatively small size.
There are at least three kinds of males in Aphidae : — 1, winged males ; 2, wingless males
with mouth well developed ; 3, wingless small males with mouth absent.

We have already alluded to the fact that the mode of reproduction of Aphids leads to
an unrivalled increase. This, however, is not due to the prolificness of the individual, which,
in point of fact, appears to be considerably below the average in insects, but ratlier to the
rapidity with which the young begin to reproduce. This has been discussed by Huxley,
Buckton and others. The first-named naturalist calculated that the produce of a single
Aphis would, in the course of ten generations, supposing all the individuals to survive,
" contain more ponderable substance than five hundred millions of stout men ; that is, more
than the whole population of China." It has since been contended that Professor Huxley's
calculation was much below the mark. Although it is somewhat difficult to make a
calculation dealing adequately with the actual facts, yet it is clear that the increase
of Aphids is such tliiit, drawing as they do their nutriment directly from the plant
in its growing state, in the course of two or three years there would be no nutriment
available for other animals, except such as might be derived from plants not attacked
by Aphids. The numbers of Aphidaj would be so great that they could not be expressed by
ordinary numerical methods, and their increase would be actually limited onlv by the
relations existing between different kinds of plants and between plants and Aphids. This
result is avoided by the fact that Aphids are themselves the victims of a whole army of
insect enemies. They have the numerous members of a special group [Braconidrc,
AphiiUides) of minute Ili/ini-iinpteni to live inside their bodies, and manv Aculfntc
IlymcHupfi'm depend entirely on the Aphidte as the source of food for their own progeny, '^phis

Enemies of the

44 HITINO AN'I) NOXIOl'S INSKCTS OTHER THAN MOSQUITOES

The Lmly-binis — Coccinelliilir — live on Apliiils ami (!occiils, an<l tliemsi'lvcs iiicrefise to
such an extent as to lie in many years a conspicuous part of the insect wurjil. Crowds of
the hirvui of lleiiu-roliiiilit antl Si/r/i/iith are constantly engageil in spearing and sucking the
Aphides. Hence tlx- old naturalist RoniU't said that, "just as we sow grain for oiir lienefit,
Nature has sown Aphids for the henetit of multitudes of ditVerent insects. " He might have
adijcd that these difierent insects are for the benefit of iiimu, it being clear that without them
the population nf tile world must rapidly decrease." A short and simpler account given by
Theobald* may also be i|Uoted. He says: "They" (the Aphidie) "live entirelv upon the
sap of plants, which they draw from the leaves, stem, and even roots." After mentioning the
"cornicles "or "honey-tubes" and the waxy substance on the skin, he continues: — "Winged
and wingless females occur, the males being also often winged. I'artheuogenetic reproduction
takes place ; both ovii)arous and viviparous females arc found in all .sjieeies. The wingless
forms are generally asexual, and so are the summer winged females. Ova are usually laiil
only in the autumn bv the oviparous female after fertilization by the male. , . The

reproductive powers of these insects are enormous as well as ptiuliar. The wingless
female, starting in the spring, produces with great rajiidity living young without the
agency of a male; these asexually-produced young or lice, soon grow sulKeiently to start
reproducing again, and so on for eight or nine generations. As a rule, a plant becomes
smothered by these wingless forms; and in the summer sume send out little bud-like growths
from the thorax, rudinu'iifary wings, a pupal stage, and fiom these active pupie come forth
winged females, which Hy off' to other plants. These winged females are also viviparous,
and produce again asexually living young, and so on until the autumn when a third kind of
female appears — the oviparous female, and alsci a male. After the male has fertilized the
female aphis, she deposits a few eggs upon tiie plants, which remain over the winter. These
eggs mostly hatch out in the spring, Eut many also hibernate as (jueen or mother females
and commence to reproduce at once on the return of warm weather. There is often not much
difference between the young (larvu;) or lice, as they are called, and the viviparous female.
but larvie, pupa, and adult may generally be distinguished by variations in colour."

In the light of these notes one must confess that very little is known about the Smlan
Dura Aphis. We are acquainted with the aiitnnnnil forms, and in the spring one has found
eggs and wingeil forms, but we do not know what hajipens to the insect when it leaves the
Dura plants. To tind out, careful field work would be reijuired, continued over a long
period. An iiphis has been found on melon plants, but I believe this to be a different species,
I have also found a very curious aphis on cotton, mounted specimens of which were submitted

Apliis of to jIj. Theobald. It is totally different from tlic A/'/iis sDnjIii. I am inclined to agree with

Major Dickinson that the cotton jdaiit is not liable to infestation by the latter.

Another eonnnon but much less deadly enemy of the dura is a red //I'liiiji/cnm or plant
bug which attacks the grain seeds. Specimens of this pest have also been sent to
Mr. Theobald ((•(>//• p. 95). No doubt it reijuires the same treatment as does . I. vy/om/oyn/*
viilitfiliix, the bug of melons {viilc First Rcjiort). Some cotton pests have come under
notice, amongst them certain of the Ccrcop'ulai or Frog-hoppers and a tiny beetle.

Both Mrs. Broun and myself bred out a Dipteron from certain larvje which caused

A Melon Fly great damage to melons and were sent us by Mr. Durant. The fly could not be identiiied
here, but specimens of larvie, pupa?, and adult insects were sent to England, and Afr. Theobald
describes it fully on p. 93.

* Agricultural Zoology, 1899, p. 237.

BITING AND NOXIOUS INSECTS OTHEB THAN MOSQUITOES 45

Locusts
This year, 1905, the question of locust destruction has come prominently into notice. Locusts
Various parts of the Sudan have been visited by swarms of these destructive insects and
great damage has been done in some districts — notably about Kamlin and in the Berber
Mudiria. Khartuum lias nut been exempt, and the whole question is a very serious one for
Agriculturists. One took the opportunity of the visit of Professor Werner of Vienna to the
Sudan, and enlisted his kind help in the identification of such specimens of Sudan locusts as
had been collected. The following have been obtained :

Acrida variabilis Schistocerca peregrina

Aerida nasutus Acrydium aegyptium

Pcecilocerca hieroglyphica Acrydium succinctura

Phymateus Hildebrandti /Erotylus patruelis

Gastrimargus, sp. ?
In Khartuum the commonest species is PcecUocercn hieroijli/pJnca which haunts the
Ilshar plants (Calotrojn-i j^i'ocera) while the swarms which visit us are usually composed of
the yellow SchiMocerca pevegrina or the bro^\'nish-red Acridiimi atiiiptliim.

I was requested to prepare some instructive notes regarding locusts and locust destruction
and these are introduced in this article. They make no claim to originality save possibly as
regards their arrangement, and care has been taken to include only simple and easily
managed methods of prevention or destruction. The information was derived in part from
the Sudan Instructions of 1901, supplied by the British Museum authorities, from French
and American sources, and from various works and pamphlets on the subject.

Locust Prevention and Destruction

It is verv important that correct information be obtained regarding the breeding places Locust
of locusts in the Sudan, having respect both to locality and season. It is also desired that prevention
prompt preventive and destructive measures should be taken on the appearance of these destruction
pests.

The following items of iufurmatiun are furnished. From a study of these you should p^^^ ^f
be able to educate some uf the natives so that they may help to furnish the requii-ed Memorandum
information and be led to take an interest in locating the breeding grounds and destroying
the eggs and insects.

1. Locusts are : —

(o) Permanent ; (A) Jligratory.

2. Swarms uf locusts alight un the gruund fur twu pui-poses : —

(«) Tu lay eggs; (/-) To feed.

3. A locust dies as soon as its eggs are laid.

4. The eggs are laid in clusters in the soil, preferably in undisturbed land aiul where
there is bush and grass. Moist land is usually avoided but the banks of water courses
constitute favourite localities.

5. With their sterns the female locusts bore holes in which the eggs are laid. These
holes look rather like the pits made by rain drops.

6. The presence of holes does not necessarily mean that eggs are present. It usually
means that the locusts have been disturbed when laying, as when the act is complete the
holes are carefullv covered.

46 BITINO AND NOXIOUS INSECTS OTUF.H THAN MOSQl'ITOKS

7. Tlif l)fst giiidi' to tlic ogfj;s is tlio presence of ilcail locusts lyiii^ on the ground.
S, Tlu- igg clusters iire usually found iit a depth of two inches.
9. Flights and egg-luying may be expected after the rains.

10. Eggs, if not disturbed, are not destroyed by being covered with water. They will
hatcli out when the submersion is over.

11. A single egg soinewhut resembles a grain of wheat in shape. The eggs in a cluster
arc arranged in rows with grooves between them.

12. The numlxT of eggs laid by a well developed locust varies from 100 to IfjO.

13. The time of hutching varies from IT) days to several months, (h-pending on climatic
condition and soil temperature.

11. WIkii tlic cg^s have been laid, a few well-grown locusts are said to remain behind
to guide the young ones. Infornmtion is required on this point, and also as to tin- liiigth of
time egg-laying lasts. In some places this is as much as (i or 8 weeks in the same locality.

If). The young locusts are called " Hoppers." They roo.st at night on grass tufts,
bushes, boughs, etc., and descend to the gnmnil before sunrise.

1(5. The "hopper" stage is said to last about 50 days. It terminates by tlic j)roduction
of the adult winged insect, the " hopper " shedding a scale or sludl wliidi remains on tlie
twig or leaf wliere the transformation takes place and which looks very like a live locust.

17. Locusts only migrate on account of insufliciency of food.

Dkstuuctio'n

The means to be employed niay be (lassed under five divisions: —
((f) Encouragement of natural agencies.
(A) Destruction of the eggs.

(<■) Destruction of the young or unfledged locusts.
((/) Destruction of the mature or winged insects.
(e) Preventive measures.
(a) Eiicoiirdoi'iiieiit ofWiifiiriil Ant'iicii'.i. — In the Sudan all tiiat coidd be done in this
direction would be to protect the smaller birds. The destruction of hawks is advisable for
this purpose. Fowls and turkeys are useful foes. It is wortli noting tliat the large monitor
lizards (U «/•«««) feed greedily on locusts.

(A) Dcslritctioii of till' Emix. — This is usually accomplished in five ways: —
1. Harrowing. 4. Tramping.

'J. Ploughing or spading. 5. Collecting.

3. Irrigation.

2. In the Sudan ploughing to a depth of 2 inches might be tried in certain localities.

3. Irrigation is only of use when the land can be Hooded for a few days, just at the time
when the bulk of the eggs are hatching.

4. Turning animals loose on infected land is a useful method. Cattle, horses, sheep and
goats mav be used in this wav in any area where they can be confine<l in smne measure.

5. Collecting is probaiily the best jilan in a country like the Sudan. Huying eggs at
16 to 30 piastres an oke has been foinid very effective in Cyprus and Tunis, and might be
tried. In any case it would lead to u.seful information being obtained from native sources.

The proper wav to collect eggs, ('specially if the soil is light and the eggs are numerous,
is to slice off about an inch of the surface by trowel or spade, remove the egg-laden earth to

BITING AND NOXIOUS INSECTS OTHER THAN MOSQUITOES 47

a sheltered place where it can be sieved, and thus separate the eggs and egg masses from the
dirt. This method is probably too elaborate for most districts, but might be tried in some.

The collected eggs are to be destroyed by burying in deep pits, taking care to have
the earth packed hard on the surface.

(c) Destnictioii of the Younq or Unfledged Locusts. This may be done by :

1. Burning. 4. Catching.

2. Crushing. 5. Use of destructive agents.

3. Trapping.

1. Burning is useful in a grass country. Where there is no cover for roosting, grass
bundles may be laiil down into which the locusts will gather at night. These can then
be burned.

A simple burning method is to have a stout wire, say 40 feet long, enveloped in rags
which are soaked in oil. A slender wire is then wound round to fix the rags in position.
These are set alight, and two men drag this contrivance to and fro until the fuel is exhausted.
It is not necessary to pass over the same ground more than once or twice, so that a large
field of grain can be thus protected during the half-hour or so that the rags burn.

2. Crnshinff. This is only of use where the ground is smooth and hard. Short of
crushing, beating with palm or other branches is useful, as the smallest injury to a locust
will prevent its obtaining maturity.

3. Trappiiiij. Various kinds of traps have been devised. Simple ditches and trenches
are useful, 2 feet wide by 2 deep and with perpendicular sides. They have to be carefully
dug to be effectual.

As regards traps, reference must be made to the Sudan Instructions of 1901. The same
applies to : —

4. Cdtrhiiuj. Screens and bags are described in the Instructions.

5. Use of destructive iiijeiits. Coal oil is very deadly to young locusts. It may he
employed in conjunction with irrigating ditches. The following useful notes are quoted as
being possibly applicable to some districts in the Sudan.

" The method consists essentially in pouring, or better, dropping coal tar or coal oil on
the running water with which the irrigating ditches are supplied. It is only necessary to
sprinkle a few drops of coal tar on the stream, when the oils contained in the tar are diffused
over the surface of the water, and coming in contact with the insects, cause their speedy
death. The toxic power of coal oil upon the insects is very remarkable ; a single drop of it
floating on the water is capable of causing the death of a large number of insects. A simple
and ingenious mode of keeping up a constant supply of the tar to a ditch is as follows : — •

"A three-quart can is perforated on the side close to the bottom, a chip loosely fitting the
aperture is inserted therein, and the can is then immersed in the ditch. Three-quarts or
less of tar, trickling out drop by drop from this slight vent, are sufficient to keep a great
length of ditch supplied \vith coal oil for 36 hours. The precise extent of ditch which may
thus be rendered toxic to the locusts cannot, of course, be exactly stated. It is in fact quite
indefinite, for the reason that the quantity of oil necessary to kill one of the insects is almost
infinitesimal, and for the further reason that a single drop of oil will cover quite a large
surface when dropped on water, so that taking these two facts together, it is easy to see that
a very small quantity of tar or oil will serve to guard, by means of ditches, a large tract of
territory from the ravages of the young (unwinged) locusts." Creosote oil prepared with

48

BITING AND NOXIOltS INSECTS OTHER THAN MOSQUITOES

The locust
fungus

soiij) iiiiii water ia ufti-ftivf, but 1ms to la- usi-d with sjirayiTS. Poisonous arsi-nieul
prt'iuiratioiis can scarcely he considered suitahle for most parts of the Suilan.*

((/) Dextritction nf tin' innlitrc nr iriiiijed iiinectii. — But little can he done in the caae of
large swarms. C'atching and haj^giug as for the young forms are the most useful methods.
Long ropes perseveringly dragged to and fro over fields have been used to good ailvantage.

(f ) I'rfveiilivf iiifdsiirt:*. — On the approach of a swarm the rules to he observed are: —
1. I'jVery available inhabitant, man. woman and iliild, to be called out and

divided up into bodies of T)!!, eacdi body having its own place indicated beforehand.

'2. Each individual member to be armeil svith some sort of iioisv instrument (old

tin i)ctroleum cans anil thick sticks are the best).

;?. When the flights appear, the various bodies must spread out in line ami march

over the fields in open order, striking the cans. Smoke fires can also be lit. iiut the

above system has been found more efl'ective.

4. The flight should be signalled to neighbouring stations and districts. The

Sheikhs of tribes should be instructed to report the appearance of any flights and, if

possible, to mark down the spots where the locusts alighted fur laving purposes. This

ground should then be examine<l by a competent person, and watchers put over it.

Rewards should be ofTi'red to natives for reports of laying grounds."

These notes seem to Jiave helped the authorities at Kamliii where vast numbers of
hoppers appeared. By a system of purchase 200 okes (5 cwt.) of hoppers were obtained
within 10 <lays, while trenches proved effective. As pointed out by the (lovernor, the trouble
is that fresh swarms inva<le the territory which has been cleared, and naturally this greatly
disheartens the natives. Again I would quote Mr. Lounsbiuy on a very important point to
which he has drawn attention in his report for the half year, ending June 30th, 1904. It is
to the eflTect that locust eggs mav possibly remain in the soil for years and then hatch out.
He says : —

" That locust eggs may hatch after being in tlie soil fur several years is a proposition
that few zoologists would entertain, but I confess that I no longer think it impossible, and
incline to believe there is a basis of facts to the common notion that voetgangers (hoppers)
have often appeared in localities not visited by winged locusts for ten years or more. It
may be that under certain conditions, the eggs on being extruded are enveloped in a substance
which retards desiccation and the absorption of water by them much more than the secretion
which is useil to line and cap the egg-cells ordinarily made. Mr. Stewart Stockman records
the deposition of eggs embe(Idecl in a firm, hard, secretion by miniature unfledged females of
a species of acridium in India ; these egg masses are evidently designed to resist the
desiccating influence of the dry season, which season intervenes before the mature locusts
deposit egg-masses of the ordinary type. If eggs of our ordinary locust do sometimes remain
alive but unhatched for a period of years, it may be this feature of the creature's economy
that is responsible for the sudden appearance of vast swarms. The parasitic and predacious
enemies would practically disappear during the protracted sleep of the pest, and thus there
would be insnfHcient means to prevent the development to maturity of the myriads that
might hatch."

As regards the use of the African looist fungus, Kiiiihikh nn/lli, I wrote Dr. Edington,
Director of the Bacteriological Institute, Grahamstown, Cape Colony, asking him to kindly

* The planting of tlic Onstor-oil Plant (HieinHs communi») round small fields and gardens might also have
been advocated as it is poisonous to locusts. — A. B.

BITING AND NOXIOUS INSECTS OTHER THAN MOSQUITOES 49

furnish me with his views as to its probable utility in a very hot ami dry country like the
Sudan. His reply was distinctly iinfavourable to the fungus, and Mr. Theobald expressed
a similar view. Dr. Edington, however, suggested that it might be well, if locusts were found
dying in large numbers, to have their bodies sent to the laboratories where they could be
examined. In this way a fungus might, perhaps, be found suitable to our climatic conditions.

Acting on this advice I informed the Civil Secretary, and notices were at once
distributed. Two interesting letters have, so far, been the result, one from the Governor
at Dueim, the other from Mr. Nevile, Manager of the Sudan Experimental Plantation
Syndicate at Zeidab in the Berber district. Major Butler wrote, " Some time ago a great
many locusts died at Shatt ; the people ate them and a great many of them were made ill."
An effort is being made in his district to obtain dead locusts for examination. Mr. Nevile,
writing November 6th, 1905, remarks, " I am glad to say that for the time being we are
practically free from these pests, though a little while ago we exterminated a considerable
swarm of small ones. During the last flight, however, we noticed a considerable number
of dead ones killed by the Tachina fly or the local representative of this insect, of which
I forward you a couple of samples bred from the maggots in the locusts." (These proved to
belong to the family Tachinidrp sp ?) " The latter were not dead when the maggots were
extracted. As, from what I read, this fly thrives in dry countries and is a considerable
help in reducing the number of locusts, it may be that in time it vnW wipe them out.
From what I hear there has not been a bad locust year since 1898 in this part of the
country, and this was the last of a cycle of three or four years. Again, I understand that
in tliis part of the country the duration of the present attack is quite unusual. In most
locust years heavy flights occur for a few days, usually in March, April and May, and then
disappear. TMs year they have remained from March to October practically continuously.
The worst locust years appear to coincide in some respects with the high Niles, e.g., the worst
attacks here have been in 1312,* i.e. (1894), 1316,* high Nile years (though there were none
in 1310*, 1314*), and therefore presumably rainy years. The fact that the locusts usually
appear here before the rainy season would tend to show that there was no connection between
the food supply in the immediate neighbourhood and their appearance. Possibly they have
had a rainy season in the Abyssinian highlands the year previously. Locust swarms here
always appear to come from the Kassala district and, according to local report, their visits
coincide with good rains there. Here locusts never appear in the winter which natives say
kills them off. On the Blue Nile, however, I think I have heard of vast swarms in
December, 1900. Any information you can give me on these points will be much appreciated
as they may have a direct bearing on the period for planting crops, and the frequency of their
visits is a matter of vital importance to capitalists flunking of investing in landed property
here."

One was able to give Mr. Nevile some of the information he desired, at least, as regards causes of
the irregularity of locust visits. This is said to depend on three facts : — irregularity of

. . . ... locust visits

1. That the increase of locusts is kept in check by parasitic insects.

2. That the eggs may remain (as already noted) more than one year in the ground and
yet hatch out when a favourable season occurs.

3. That the migratory instinct is only effective when great numbers of superfluous
individuals are produced.

* In the Mohammedan Calendar.

so HITINC. AND NOXIOI'S INSKCTS (1TIIKIC THAN ^fOSQ^ITOI•:s

I apiiii iHKitf |lr. Slijirp, wlio smvs: "It is iml kimwii tliat tlic |iiiiiisit«s liav<' aiiv
|tii\vcr (if rfiiiaiiiiii^' in alu yaiicf, as tlw locust cf^gs may il". ami tlic Mnl distroycrs of the
loi'iist limy j^rcatly <liiiiiiiisli in miiiiiIm is iliiiiiig the yeiir, wlicii tlic insects arc not miiiicrous ;
so that a tlisproiiortion of iiuiuIhts l)i'twec'ii the louusts ami tlu-ir destroyers may arise, and
for a time the locusts may increase rapidly, while the parasites arc much inferior to them in
niiiiihcrs. If there should come a year when very few of the locusts hatch, then the next
year tliere will !»■ vny few iiaiasites, ami if thi iv shniiM then be a large hatching of locustB
from eggs that have remained in aheyanee, the |iaiasites will not he iircseiit in suflicient
fjuantity to keep the destructive insects in check ; conse(|iuiitiy the next year tlii' increase in
number of the locusts may be so great as to give rise to a swarm. '

Fig. 19.— Ft'Ncus op Wheat Grain

Fig. 20.— Kl'ngi's of Cotton

More recently in dead locusts sent from Suakin I have found a fungus which grows as a
white culture on agar slope. It may or may not have killed these locusts, but it is proposed
to test it next locust season. In locusts from Seiiaar a form of acarus was present.

Vegetable
parasites of
plants

Veoet.aiu.k 1'.\r.\siti:s

Vegetable parasites of plants have not been mucli in evidence. Some imported wheat
grains inten<leil f(ir planting were sent by Major Piclcinson. as they had been attacked by
Acari. In the holes formed by the insects I found a very beautiful little fungus of a kind
ipiite unknown to me. The tiny sjiear-lieadcd sporangia (Fig. Ifl) arc very delicate, and
nothing like them is figured in Tubiief ami Smith's standard work on the subject. On old
cotton plants sent from Berber black patches of a mycelial fungus with conidia and
coniiliophores were present (Fig. 20). It may be Murrosjioranii uiijricautium Atks.

51

On Some Blood-Sucking and other Diptera from the Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan Collected During the Year 1905,
WITH Descriptions of New Species

BY

Eknest E. Austen
Zoological Department, British Bluseiini (Natural History^

In the following paper, which contains notes on some of the most interesting of tlie Diptera
Blood-sucking Flies (Diptera) met with during the past year, two species and one
sub-species, all of which belong to the ftimily TabanuJa', are described as new. The list of
novelties might possibly have been longer, had it not been for the damaged condition of some
of the specimens, which rendered determination a matter of impossibility. Those who are in
a position to help to increase our knowledge of the Blood-sucking Flies of the Sudan, by
collecting and forwarding specimens, should bear in mind that a little care and deftness of
handling on the part of the collector may save the unfortunate systematist, whose task it
will be to determine or describe the species, a good deal of trouble and eye-strain later on.
In the case of many seroot-flies and other Diptera, to discriminate correctly between species
is often a matter of no little difficulty even when the condition of the specimens is all that
can be desired ; but when precisely the opposite is the fact, when the antennae are missing,
and thorax and abdomen are more or less denuded of their natural covering, the
determination of species is often impossible, and though they may in some cases be recognised
as new, their description as such is out of the question. To expect the systematist to turn
out satisfactory work with material of this character, is no doubt gratifying if regarded as an
expression of confidence in his powers, but it is scarcely more reasonable than to require a
student of tropical diseases to diagnose a case of Trypanosomiasis from a six months' old
blood smear on a loin-cloth. To become a satisfiictory collector of Blood-sucking and other
Flies is not difficult, and pre-supposes no more delicacy of manipulation than any medical
man should possess. Full directions as to procedure will gladly be sent to all those willing collectors
to assist, who will be good enough to make application to the writer of this paper.* In tlie
meantime the following points, all uf which are the outcome of practical experience, should
be borne carefully in mind.

(i.) Specimens of Blood-sucking and other Diptera intended fur determination should
be in the most perfect possible condition.

(ii.) Specimens collected by nafires seldom fulfil this requirement.

(iii.) Wherever possible Flies should always be pinned, and should be drawn up
nciii' f/ir lioad of t/it' pin, nut left close to the point.

(iv.) If pinning is impossible, specimens are best placed in three-cornered envelepes of
soft paper, after the method adopted by collectors of butterflies.

' Of. " Blood-suckiii? Flics, Ticks, &c., .and How to Collect Them," by E. ^E. Austen. Second Edition.
London; British Museum (N.atural History), 1905. 22 pp., with ilhistr.itions in te.xt.

52

ROME HLOOn-SlTKINO ANP OTHKH DIl'TKIiA KHO\t TIIK ANflLO-EOYPTIAN STDAN

(v.) Flics should never be pliiccil in contuct with cotton wool, since, wlun drv, if is
impossitilo to (iisi-nfiinglf tlicni witluiut pulling off iintcnnic, legs. \-c.

(vi.) If sjifciincns lire iplaccil in spirit, a plug ot" soft paper slioulil always tic inscrtcil
into the tube, and pressed down on to the top of them, in order to prevent the flies from
being injured bv washing about.

(vii.) Tlierc is no necessity to sc^nd off single specimens for determination as soon us
obtained; ideiititication will be facilitated ifu series of specimens, if possible, of both sexes,
be sent.

(viii.) Specimens sIkjiiM always be labelleil witli naiiic of locality and date of capture;
brief notes of interest may lie ailded.

(ix.) lAiOels n/ioulil be legible.

BLOOD-SUCKING SPECIES

Simulitini
daninosum

Simulium
grisficollis

Family SIMULID.E (Sand-Flies)
Genus SiMULiDM, Latreille

Specimens of two species of the troublesome pests belonging to this genus were received ;
for notes see Dr. Balfour's Report, p. 34. The larger of these, the Kuitteh of Abu Hamed, is

Siinuliiim ihmiuoKinn, Theob.
Reports of the Sleeping Sickness Commission, No. III. (1003), p. 40.

This species is from H to 8A mm. in length, and has the ground-colour of the legs
dark bro^vn, with the exception of the hiinl tarsi, where a broad band on the first joint and
the extreme base of tlie seeoiui joint are pale yellow. N. ,l,iiiiiiiixiiiii, which niav be
distinguished from the following species by its larger size and dark legs, also occurs in
Uganda, where its native name is Mlnni. A correspondent writing from Entebbe with
reference to this species recently stated that : " Its bite is very poisonous and irritable, and
causes large swellings which usually end in sores. Localities where this fly is present are
very sparsely inhabited."

The second species, the Xintelta or .\<'iiietli, of Dongola, is

Sim II I lain priseicolliK, Becker
Mitt, aus dem Zool. Mns. in P.. rlin, II. Bd., 3 Heft. (1903), pp. 78-79.

,S'. qrineicotli.-<, tile types of wlii(h were taken at Assuan in the month of February, is
from Ij to 2 mm. in length Since the original description of this species is not likidy to be
generally accessible, a translation is appende<l below.

" ^. Dorsum of tliorax V( Ivety black, but in front broad and grey, as also before the
scutellum and on the sides, so that of the velvety black coloration there remains only a fairly
large median patch ; the anterior grey transverse band is interrupted by three tine black
longitudinal lines, which cmlirace the commencements of two admedian longitudinal stripes ;
the grey transverse band in front of the seuteljum is a little apart from the latter, and when
seen from a certain direction has an almost silvery white sheen, while on the anterior part of
the dorsum of the thorax no silvery white coloration is to be seen. The dorsum of the
thorax is, especially on its anterior half, clothed with a coat of golden yellow, felt-like hair.
Scutellum velvety black. Plcune a.shen grey pollinose. Halteres white. On the head the
face is grey ; the antennie are blaekish-brown, except the first joint, which is yellow ; palpi
brown. Abdomen velvety black, with pale yellow margins to the segments ; the second

HI.ATK IV

^J.C.TCRTl

ClIHVSOPS liISTINCTII'KNMS, Al'STKN ? (X

SOME BLOOD-SUCKING AND OTHEE DIPTERA FEOM THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 53

segment on both sides with a pale grey bloom ; long brassy yellow hairs on the margin of
the first. Hypopygium ashen-grey. Legs pale yellow, with blackish-brown coxie ; tips of
femora and tibise, brown ; on the anterior legs this brown colour is reduced, and on the
femora there is frequently only a ring or a spot on the under side. Front tarsi entirely
blackish-brown ; tarsi of the hinder pairs of legs from the second or third joint onwards, as
also the tip of the first joint, browii. Posterior tibia and first tarsal joint somewhat expanded.
There is scarcely any trace of hair on the legs, and in the same way a whiter coloration on
the tibiae is only very feebly indicated. Wings hyaline, the anterior veins pale yellow.

" $. Thorax entirely ashen-grey, with a coat of pale brassy yellow felt-like hair on the
dorsum, on the anterior portion of which three fine browii lines appear in addition, whereby
are marked oif two admedian grey longitudinal stripes. The abdomen, too, is entirely ashen-
grey, and covered with a thick coat of pale yellow felt-like hair. In other respects there are
no further differences from the male."

Family TABANID^, (Seroot-Flies, &c.)
Genus Chrysops, Meigen
Clirynops distinctipeiiids, sp. nov.
(Plate IV.)

$. (7 specimens), length 81 to 10 mm.

Black; nhdoineii dull oUve-(j)rii, dlrrry-iirey on ba»al anijlcK, hind iminjins of sajmenta Chrysops

,, . , T 1 } T 7 ■ 7 • 7' • ; • 7 distinctipennis

suvery or yellowish, a Idav/c median blotch not reaching kind inaryiii on each of the neyments

except the last : legs ochraceous, with front tarsi, tips of all femora, distal fourth to distal half

of front tibial, and last three joints of middle and hind tarsi brown; coxa- and / rochctnters

liliicli ; brown trnnsversf hand on winij not touchituj fork of third vein, and, near lund nnn-ijui

with a semi-clear space in J ourth ami ff til posterior cells; stigma orange-ochriiceons ; costal

border before it brownish.

Head : shining black, with a cinereous polliuose stripe on each side, from middle of front
(space between eyes) to margin of jowl, and a similar and somewhat triangular median stripe
from base of antennffi to margin of buccal cavity ; on the front the lateral polliuose stripes
are connected by a narrow poUinose band ; antennae moderately stout, but first joint not
thicker than second.

Thorax: dorsum (in denuded specimens) shining black, greyish polliuose in front and
with a pair of admedian longitudinal greyish polliuose stripes on anterior half; a tuft of
bright golden hair below humeral callus, a similar tuft in front of base of wing, connected
with a row of hair of same kind on hind margin of mesopleura.

Abdonwn clothed with minute yellowish hair; dull black median blotch at base of each
of first four segments broad, quadrate, diminishing in size in succession from the front.

Wings: infuscated costal border before stigma not descending below third longitudinal
vein, and scarcely darker than stigma itself ; prolongation of infuscated costal border beyond
transverse band dark brown, sharply defined, and ending abruptly just below upper branch of
third longitudinal vein ; lower portion of apical half of wing slightly infuscated, leaving
outer margin of brown transverse band bordered by a whitish streak (seen also in many
other species), which is interrupted by a prolongation of transverse band to hind margin and
so forms the semi-clear space iu fourth and fifth posterior cells.

Haltcrcs : dark brown.

"<•( SOMK m.OOD-Sl'CKlNO AND OTHKU DIPTKHA I-KOM TllK ANaLO-KOYl'TIAN SUDAN

Disnilnil (V..III ii V' IVoiii Husnga, rgimdii, 19U:S (Clowl J), liruci', CH., H.A.M.C).
TyjH' in Britisli Musi'iiiii (Niitiiml History). A singli- 1^ of this siu-cii-s, without locality liihi'l,
was rei'i'ivt'd lust Vfiir from Dr. Biilfoiir for (li'tcriniiuitioii. In luldition to six specimens from
Busogii {Coliiiii'l liriici), till' British Museum collection contains ii siugle ? from Buruli,
rgiuiila, taken in WWW in a jiatch of forest on tlie ],uki'^e Kiver, halfway between Junda
and Kisiliza (>'. <'. Tomkiiiii per ]>r. .\'iil>iirit>).

< '/i ri/Muj>K iliHliuctlpeuntK is closely allied to ('. KlliiiiinliailiK, Lw., originally dcscribeil
from " Cufl'raria, " of which the Museum possesses specimens from the Transvaal and
Mashonaland ; the difl'ereiiccs presented by the new species are as follows : — First joint of
antenna more slender, of same thickness as second joint, instead of distinctly if aonly slightly
swollen ; costal border of wing as far as stigma brownish (by transmitted light nearly same
colour as stigma), instead of dark brown and continuous with transverse band, leaving stignui
isolated ; outer margin of dark brown transverse band on wing nearly straight, with no
projection to base of fork of third vein ; infuscation in basal cells confined to the tips, their
bases, with exception of au extremely small aud scarcely noticeable fleck in each, entirely
clear.

Genus H.ematopota, Meigeu
J/iriiuitujiotd jiitlc/irilhont.r, sp. nov.
(Plate V.)
^, ^. — ^ (2 specimens), length llj to 11| mm., width of head 4i mm.
H.Tmaioixjia ? (^^ specimens), length tl^ to 12 mm., width of head 3 to 8§ nun.

pulchrithorax jRi'(lifis/i-l>rtiirn; t/ioro.r lonijiliuHiinllii miirki'd with ii brotul iiii'diiiii iji-fii stvlpe, very

coitxplctious ill Kiuhiniiiiieil f.r(impleK, I'nl in ii'libed specimeun liinjcl)/ replaced by brown ;
iibdoiiieii with uinnjiiis of segments and narrow median stripe, greyish ; tibia' with two
yellowixh bandx; winijx brown, light markings whitish in ^, yellowish in ^.

J, ^. — I/ead: greyish; face with a transverse brown stripe below
antenme, less conspicuous in ^ ; first joint of antcnme conspicuously
swollen, towards base lighter in colour and greyish pollinose.

Thorax : median stripe broader and parallel-sided from front margin
until just behind transverse suture, which makes a browu notch on each
side; the stripe then narrows until near hind margin, when it curves
outwards on each side ; each curve carries a forwardly directed tooth-
like angular prominence ; sides of dorsum of thorax with greyish
n'^icHKmJiMM'sTBs)'! markings ; pleune greyish ; scutellum greyish, with a rounded brown blotch
Head and Thorax of i ^^ ^j^^jj gi,j^. usually conuected with the base but sometimes isolated.

Tji-iIS : distal band on front tibiic sometimes absent or indistinct ; first joint of front tarsi
usually narrowly v.llowish at base ; first joint of middle and hind tarsi, except tip, pale
yellow.

W'intis: stigma dark brown ; the usual conspicuous bnjwn patch undenieath it extends
unbroken into first posterior cell ; discal cell largely brown, Init proximal third, a transveree
mark consisting of two curves at commencement of distal tliird, and sometimes a more or less
inilistinct mark beyond this pale ; the pale proximal third sometimes more or less filleii up
with faint brownish nmrkings ; ends of both basal cells, and liases of first submarginai ami
first posterior cells, largely [lale ; in the marginal cell beyond the stigma and extending into
the first sub-marginal is a sijuarish pale area, enclosing a rounded or elongate brownish

PLATE V

flJ.E. TERZJ.

H^MATOl'OTA PUr.CHUXTHOKAX. AUSTRIN S ( X 6)

SOME BLOOD-SUCKING AND OTHEE DIPTEKA FKOJU THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 55

fleck ; ;i sinuous clear mark extending from the under side of the end of the second vein, to
the hind margin below the end of the main stem of the third vein, and a similar but shorter
mark on the inner side of this, starting from the second vein and sometimes fused with the
first mark just above the third vein, usually conspicuous ; for reinainhui u-ing-inarkiii<js,
see plate.

Halteves: knob dark brown, stalk white or yellowish white.

^. — A small brown fleck above base of antennae ; first joint of antennae clothed with
long and fine browTaish hair ; second joint produced above into a dark prominence ; third
joint, especially expanded portion, pale brown ; terminal joint of palpi oval, clothed on outer
side with long and fine brownish hair ; upper three-fourths of eye composed of very large
facets, which extend to hind margin; median portion of dorsum of thorax clothed with long
and fine brownish hair, pleurae thickly clothed with white hair.

$. — Transverse callosity above antennae rather narrow, shining reddish brown, uniform
in width, and, in specimens in good condition, partly interrupted in median line by a yellowish
pollinose depression, which is connected by a narrow dark-brown mark with the base of each
antenna ; uppermost of the usual three dark brown spots (arranged in a triangle) on front
above transverse callosity, smaller than the other two, and sometimes indistinct ; ground
colour of front greyish, with a pair of brown triangular flecks on vertex, and sometimes
a Y-shaped brown mark separating the dark-brown spots, and extending to the transverse
callosity ; basal portion of third joint of antennie, broad ; palpi buiF-coloured, distal joint
long and narrow, on outer side browaiish, except basal fourth and extreme tip, and clothed
with dark brown hair ; sides of first four abdominal segments grey ; dorsum of fourth ami
following segments (in well-preserved specimens) with a pair of rounded greyish pollinose
spots at the base, one on each side of median stripe.

Described from a $ and $ from Salisbury, Mashonaland, November — -December, 1899
{G. A. K. Marshall). Types in British Museum (Natural History).

A single $ specimen of this species, without label showing precise locality, was received
from Dr. Balfour. The geographical range of //. pulchrithonuv, as indicated by specimens
in the Museum collection, extends from Zululand to the Sudan, and includes British Central
Africa and Uganda. In the latter country, the species was met with at Fajao, on the
Victoria Nile, in November, 1904, by Captain E. D. W. Greig, I.M.S.

What is perhaps a sub-species of //. pulchritlwrair is represented in the Museum
collection by a single female from the Lunyina Kiver, Heuga, British Central Africa,
January 29th, 1894 [Captain R. Crawsliay) ; this individual differs from the typical form in
the first joint of the antennae being more slender, and the wing-markings more confluent,
especially towards the hind margin, while the space beyond the stigmatic patch on the costal
border is almost clear. A closely allied species also occurs in Somaliland, and is distinguished
in the female sex, as shown by a single specimen presented in 1894 [Th. Greenfield) by its
paler front, by the greater depth of the supra-antennal transverse callosity, and of the grey
hind margins to the distal abdominal segments, &c.

Ha'iiwtopota 2)ii.lchrithora,i' belongs to a group of species, the members of which resemble
one another very closely in the pattern of the marking, both of the dorsum of the thorax
and of the wings. These species difler in various respects, such as the depth and shape of
the transverse supra-autennal callosity, the width of the basal portion of the third joint of
the antenna, &c. ; but the markings referred to are of the same type in all. The grey
median thoracic stripe, most clearly exhibited by good specimens of //. pukhrithonu: (see

56

SUMK lil,iPii|i-sl ( KINii AND OTllKll KIl'TF.UA lUoM THK ANllLO-KOYl'Tl AN SUDAN

jiliitf) is iiuuli ifiluci'd ill SOUR- of tlio spt-cii's of tliu group, in whicli it is liirgi-ly ri'iiliiceil l>y
the brown of tlu- groiin<l colour, hut its ilmraett'ristii- outhiii', ulheit iiittrruptud, is still
(listiiictlv tnu-fiihli'. Tlu' siiiiK- thonu-if iiiiirking is iilso sei'ii in the case of Hiftmilopvln
iterorit, Walk. (syn. //. lior.salvi, Lw.), which ranges from Natal to Northern Nigeria, hut this
species, apart from its general darker colour, is distinguished at once by the pattern of the
wing-markings, bv the uppiT half of the face being entirely black, and by the marking of the
front and hind tibia-, which consists of but a single broad white band near the base. In the
case also of /Li in-i/o/'n/d riihitn. Lw. (Dipterenfauna Siidafrika's, p. 5(1 [1-"-^], 'rab, I.,
figs. '28-30, 1860), which was described from a specimen from Lake Ngami, the ui)per half
of the face is stated to be black ; this species, however, has wing-markings of the
jnilr/irit/iortu- tvpe, and doubtless belongs to tlu' group, in spite of Loew's somewhat
misleading description iiml tiguic of tlic tliunicic stript'.

Genus Tabanus, Linnieus

Eight species of Seroot-flies belonging to this genus ai'c noticed below ; the Sudanese form
of one of them appears to constitute a new subspecies, whieli is here described. Specimens
of certain other species received during the past year were uufortuuately too much damageil
to be recognisable.

Taliuitiin par, Walk.
(Fig. 21)
Titbaiiits par, ^Yalkcr, List Dipt. Ins. in coll. IJrif. I\Ius., I'liil V., Supplement 1. (1854),
p. 285.

'J'l I hi I II IIS riiiiprx, llac'iuart (//<<■ Jliigcn), Dipt. Exot. I., 1 (1838), p. 124: — iioiiirn
Ilia li'ctniii.

Tiiliaiiiis liitniliis, Loew, Ufv. af K. Vet. Akad. Enrli., 1857, p. 848; Dipl.-Eauua
Siulafr. (1860), p. [117] 45.

(N.U. — This synonymy is new.)

Specimens of this species, with-
out indication of precise locality,
were received during the past year
from Dr. Balfour. Females of 7'<//'(»i»/.s-
/iiir, which vary in length from 'J'^ to
12g mm., are recognisable by their
yellow colour, small size, unifonnly
yellow legs, and clear wings with
yclldw veins. The dorsum of the
thorax is somewhat greyish yellow,
while the abdomen is tawny or
ochraceous ; the third joint of the
anteUHie is ochraceous-rufous ; the
front (space between the eyes) is
narrow. In life the eyes are green,
without transverse bands.
The ran';.' i.l T.i/mnns /„ir extends from Cape Ctdouy ami Xatal to Uganila and
the l{ahr-El-(ihazal.

• jr -rWMgi -.

Kic. 'Jl.- -Taiuni's I'AK, Walk. ?
Natal lo the Itahr-KI-fihaza)
Thorax ycUnwish ; ahdomcn and Icj;* ochraccou>.

SOME BLOOD-SUCKING AND OTHER DIPTEEA FKOM THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN

57

Tabunus tlioracbms, Pal. de Beauv., a species which is common in Uganda, and may
therefore be expected to occur iu the Bahr-El-Grhazal, is closely allied to T. par, with which it
agrees in the colouration of the body, and in the narrowness of the front. T. thoracinus
may, however, be distinguished by its generally larger size (the average length of the
female is 13 mm.) by its brownish wings, and especially by the front tarsi and tips of the
front tibiae being dark brown. Tahanus jMr and T. thoracinus belong to a group of species
(two or three of which, found in the Congo Free State and Abyssinia, have yet to be
described) characterised by the yellow or ochraceous colour of the body, and by the
narrowness of the front in the female sex. No males of these species are at present available
for comparison, but since the eyes in the females are sparsely covered with minute hairs
(often difficult to see when the specimens are not in perfect condition), while there is
no trace of an ocellar tubercle, it is clear that, if thought advisable, the species may be
assigned to the sub-genus Ali/loftis, Osten Sacken.

Tahanus ditceniatus, Macq.
(Fig. 22)

1 (1838), p. 126 ; Bezzi, Ann. Tabanus

dita^niatus

Tahanus ditceniatus (sic), Macquart, Dipt. Exot., I.
Mus. Civ. di Storia Naturale di Genova, Ser. 2a, XII. (XXXII.) (1892), p. 184.

Atijlotus nii/romaculatuv, Kicurdo, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 7, VI. (1900), p. 165

(N.B. — This synonymy is^new.)

The following is a description of
the female of this species. — -^ (11
specimens), length 11 to 14 mm.

Greyish-yellow ; a pair of con-
spicuous shinimj /'lack (hits on f/ic front ;
ahdotuen with three longitudinal hlackish
or hrownish stripes on the centre one of
which is a i/cllowish pollinosc stripe.

Head whitish (vertex buff) ; the
shining black dots on the front one
above the other, the lower just above
the angles of the eyes, the upper about

the width of the front higher than the """" f.g. 22.-Tabanus d.t^n.atus, Macq. ?

former; antenna3 ochraceous-buff. first Natal to the Bahr-Ei-ohazai.

Head and thorax yellowish; abdomen ochraceous-bufF with dark brown,
joint paler" underside of head clothed somewhat serrate longitudinal stHpes ; antenna yellow ; legs yellow ; front
^' i ' tarsi entirely, middle and hind tarsi, except at base, brown.

with whitisli hair ; palpi white or

yellowish white, clothed on outside with yellowish interspersed with minute black hairs ; eyes

in dried specimens usually with a narrow dark transverse band on a level with lower dot on front.

Thora-c : dorsum blackish, yellowish or greyish poUinose and clothed with short golden
yellow hair.

Abdomen ochraceous-buff, with a broad blackish or brownish median stripe (sometimes
with slightly serrate edges) , and a similar narrow stripe on each side ; the lateral stripes are
not in contact ^^^th the actual lateral margins of the abdomen, and all three stripes meet
together at the tip; in tlie midille line, superimposed on the median stripe, is a yellowish
pollinose stripe clothed with short golden yellow hair; this lighter stripe is really composed
of a series of triangles with their apices truncated and directed forwards ; the dark stripes are

58 SOMK IlI.OOD-SUC'KINa AND OTIIKlt UIl'TKRA KHUM TIIK ANOLO-EOYI'TIAN SUDAN

clotlit'il witli bliifk itiid till' iiiliiicdiaii ticlinici'diis-buft" stripes witli yi-llowish hiiir. Ventral
sidf of iibdonifu pinkish ImtV, clotlud with [m\v ycllDwish hair.

Lf<lK luifl' or ochriifc'ous-buff ; front tiirsi and tips of front tibiiu dark lirown ; tips of
iiiidcllf aiicl liiiid tarsi brownish; distal liait' nf front tit)ia' sonicwliiit swolK-n ; frinora
oci'asionully with a bhickish patcli on outsidi' near luise (in ii '^ from Maslionaland in the
Mnsi-nni colU-ction tlu' basal two-thirds of the front femora, and the basal half of the middle
and hind funiora are black).

Wimi-i hyaliue; veins pale yellow ; upper branch of fork of lliinl vein usually with a
small appendix, which, however, is sometimes absent.

I/iillirrs yellowish.

According to Macquart (/oc. cii.) the f of /'. iliin iihihi'i resembles tiie y. A ^ from
Estcourt, Natal, Januai'v IS!I7 (d. A. A', Mursliidl) in ihe IMuseum eolleitioii, wiii<li
possibly belongs to this species, has the upper two-thirds of each eye (except the
hind margin) composed of large facets, and tiie eyes show no trace of a transverse
buinl. There are no dark lateral stripes on the abdomen, but on the dorsal side the
tip of the abdomen from the fourth segment onwards (except the lateral margins), and a
broad median stripe on the lirst three segments are entirely black ; on the ventral
side the extreme base, a median blotch which extends from the base to the middle of the
third segment, a small median blotch on the hind margin of the third segment, and the
last tiiree segments arc black ; the fourth segment is also more or less blackish towards the
hind margin and at the sides. The femora are black with the exception of the tips,
otherwise the legs are as in the ^, but the front tibiie are not thickened.

Originally described from a specimen from Mauritius, 'J'a/iainis <lifa')iiatii.s was
subsequently recorded by Bezzi [loc. cit.) from Somaliland. The series of specimens of this
species in the Museum collection shows that it is found from the Transvaal and Natal
to Somaliland and the ]?ahr-El-(Thazal, where it was met with in February 11)05 by
Major 11. H. Penton, D.S.O. The Museum collection also includes a $ from Angola
(./. ./. ^funtnl■o).

Like the foregoing species, 7". (Ikaiiiutus belongs to the subgenus Ati/lofus, though in
the case of the female the hairs on the eyes are so minute and sparse as to be distinguishable
only with difhculty. It is evident that Talinniis (tijrU-oht, Wied., T. /tilriainis, Lw., and
T. hipniK-liitiis^ V. il, Wiilp, are allied to T. tlifn ui'itns, Macij.. Init without comparing the
types it is impossible to say whether one or more of these names are actually synonyms.

Tabunns ijnUus, Lw.
(Fig. 23)

'I'lilimiiis iinihis, Loew, Ofv. af K. Yet. Akad. Furli., 1857, p. M40 ; Dipt. -Fauna
Sudafr. (18(J0), p. [114] 42.

A female specimen of this pretty little species, unaccompanied by details as to locality
or date of capture, was forwarded by Dr. Balfour for identitication during 1905. Tiihinuia
;fnitii.i $ nniy be characterised briefly as follows: —

^ (3 specimens), length lOA to 11^ nnii.

Head ffr<'i/i'i/i-/iiijf aliovi', with liro conspicitoux ailloBlties on J rout ; third joint of' antenna!
rnfonx ; ilorKUni of' thora.r rinereovs, with pearl ijrei/ ionijitndiiial stripes ; xrutellnm tfreyislt,
rhenlniit; aMonien dark lirown ahore, with three whitish or ifellowish arey lonijitndinid strl/ies^
convenjinij towardg Ihe tip; leijs ochraceonn-buj/' ; win'js hyaline.

SOME HLOOD-SUCKING AND OTHEE DIPTERA FEOM THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN

59

Head: face and jowls whitish poUinose and cdothed with white hair; lower callosity ou
front pale ochraceous, squarish, and occupying whole width of front immediately above
angles of eyes ; upper callosity situated in middle of front, reddish brown and ovate ; first
joint of antennae cream buff, with upper angle strongly produced, and capped with a tuft of
minute black hairs, forming a black tip; second joint very small ; thinl joint rather broad
at base, with conspicuous basal augle ; extreme tip of third joint dark brown ; })alpi
somewhat swollen towards base, cream-buflP, clothed with whitisli hair interspersed with a
few black hairs ou outside.

Thorax : dorsum with a grey stripe on each side, anil a narrow median and a pair of
broader admedian stripes ; the three latter
are rather brighter in tint.

AMoiiwn : median stripe starting from
a somewhat semicircular spot on hind margin
of first and increasing in width from base
of second to fourth segment, where it is
broadest, then narrowing rapidly and ter-
minating ou hind margin of sixth segment ;
lateral stripes with a somewhat zigzag out-
line on outer side ; lateral margin and under
side of abdomen pearl grey. fjg. 23.— Tadanus ceatus, Lw. ?

r i" i. ■ 1 • 1* r -1 ■ South Africa to Nigeria

J^ei/S : iront tarsi and tips 01 irollt ilhuS Head and legs yellowish, front tarsi entirely, middle and hind tarsi,

-.-.^ liP ' ' ± p -111 1 except base, brown ; thorax grey, abdomen brown, the former witii

nark brown; last tour joints Ot middle and light grey, the latter with whitish stripes.

hind tarsi, tips of middle and hind tibiae and of first joints of middle and hind tarsi brown.

Hahcres : knob pale yellow, stalk buff'.

Tabaniis tjnctus is evidently a widely distributed species, for, while the typical specimen
is stated by Loew to have been collected in " Caftraria," the Museum series includes examples
from Fajao, Victoria Nile, Uganda, November 1904. {Captain E. D W. Giriij, 1 M S.),
and also from the vicinity of Yola, Northern Nigeria, April 14, 1905 ( W. F. Goivers).

I'aliauiis socius, Walk.

(Fig. 24)
IIi/hiiiks xocitis, Walker, List Dipt. Ins. in coll. Brit. Mus., I. (1848), p. 16U.

This species can be distinguished from TalHiimx rii-ija/iis, Austen {ilomivitta, Walk.)
(Fig. 26), which it closely resembles in general appearance, by the edges of the median
grey longitudinal stripe on the abdomen being notched or serrate instead of smooth. To
judge from the relative numbers of specimens in the British Museum collection, Tahanus
socius would appear to be the commonest Seroot-fly on the White Nile. In addition to a
very long series of examples taken at Kodok on December 6th, 1900, by the late
Captain H. E. Haymes, the Museum possesses others collected and presented by
Major H. N. Dunn, Captain 8. S. Flower (" about ten miles south of Jebel Ain, White Nile,
March 17, 1900 "), and Major E. H. Penton, D.S.O. (Bahr-El-Ghazal, February, 1905).
The species was found by Colonel G. D. Hunter, D.S.O. in May, 1905, on a boat in the sudd
south of Nal Nusr, between Gondokoro and Tautikia, and Major Pentou also met with it in
Senaar, in 1899.

The type of T. socius is from " South Africa " ; other specimens of the species in the'
Museum collection are from the Transvaal and the Congo Free State.

Tabanus
socius

60

SOME UliOOD-BL'CKINO AND OTIIEK DU'TKUA FUOM Till: ANOl.O-KU Yl'TIAN SIDAN

Talianus

I'I'alianiu
dorsivitin)

Tabanus
biguttalus

Fig. 24.- Tadanus sociis. Walk. ?
S. Africa to the While Nile

Thorax greyish ; abdomen rulou>, with median ^ircyish white longitudinal stripe bordered on each
side with a dark brown zitj-xag stripe ; leys yellowish, front tarsi and tips of front tibia: dark brown,
middle and hind tarsi brownish.

7'ti/Kiiins viriiiitii.t, noni. iiuv.
(For rahitnnt ilnrm-ilhi, Walk., — nuiauii bis lectuni.)
(Fig. 25)
7(j/«//i«)i (/orji/(iV/</, Wiilkcr, List Dijit. Ins. in ((ill. IJrit. Mus., Part V., Supiiifiiicnt I.

(18r)4), p. 231 („ec
T. tlvrs'trillii. Walk.,
Insecta Saiinijrrsiana.
Diptera, part 1.(1850)
p. 89.)

A 1 1 h o u g li 1 h (■
species is apparently
less cummoii in tlie
Anglo-P^gyptian Sudan
than the foregoing,
specimens of 7. tv';'-
ffatiiK were taken on
tlie Wliite Nile in
19UU, by Major H. N.
Dunn, wlio also met
with the species in
Senaar, on the lilue
Nile, in September,
1902.
The range of '/'(i/miiii.-! n'nidlns, wliicli is abundant in the Northern Nigeria and other
parts of Wrst Afiica, imludcs the ivist Africa Protectorate and IJritish Central Africa.

Tubanus liujiUlnInf,

Wied.
(Figs. 26, 27, $ %)
3\i(itiiiiis liiiintliiliis^
Wiedemann, Ausser-
europiiische zweifliige-
lige Insekten, II.
(1830), p. 623.

Ttilianux ri'rlii'riis^
Walker, List Dipt. Ins.
in coll. Brit. Mus., I.
(1848), p. 149.

7'rt /( It II II .1 iiiirl is,
Walker, Insecta Saun-
dersiana. Diptera, I.
(185U), 1.. 42.

'/'iiliiiiiii.i /ii/iiiiii'-
li/rr, Walker, Appeiidi.x to the Zoologist for 1850, p. XCV.

(N.U. — This synonymy is new.)
This is a common species of conspicuous appeurunce and large size, which it is hoped

HjE-mtii

Fig. 'JA.— Tabanis vikgati's, Austen. ?
f iambia and Nigeri.i to Sen.lar .ind the K. Africa Protectorate

Thor.ix Krcyish with darker stripc» ; .ilidomcn retidish, with light grey median longitudiiul stripe ;
legs yellowish, with brown t.-irsi.

SOME BLOOD-SUCKING AND OTHER DIPTERA FROM THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN

61

will readily be recognised by aid of the figures on this page. It may lie characterised briefly
as follows :

$, ?.— ^. (11 specimens), length 16i to 20 mm.

?. (26 specimens), length 18 to 21^- mm. ; wing expanse of largest $ 44 mm.

T.J.e.TERZ.

Fig. 26.— Tadanus biguttatis, Wied. <^

Cape Colonj' to the Sudan, Abyssinia, and Aden

Deep black ; abdomen with two cream-coloured spots ; wings, except tips, dark brown.

« J £ TTKZI —

Fig. 27. — Tabanus biguttatl's, Wied. ?.

Deep black ; front, face, jowls and dorsum of thorax clothed with golden-yellow or whitish-yellow hair ; spot on thorax black ;

nth and 6th segments of abdomen with yellowish hair at sides ; wings as in S .

Deep black; ^ icltli two ereai/t-cohvtreJ spots^ clotlted irtfJt }jeUoiris]i ha'u\ one heldnd
file other on Jorsinn of ahclomen in median Hue; ^ with front (apace hetween eiiea)^ /'"'>',
jowls (part of head heneatli eyes)^ and dorstnn of thorax clothed with qoJden-ijeUow or vhitish
i/elloic Itai)'^ irith an inverted cordt/fe jn/tch of black hair on dorsnn/ of tliorax in median
line ; in both sc'es leqa blacky and icinf/s except their apices (distal fmrth or fifth) whollt/
dark hroirn.

62

SOME HLOOD-SUCKING ANP OTHEU nil'TERA FROM TFIE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN

Tin's spccii's tlius shows a striking sexual dim()r]iliism in the inarkinf^s of the l>odv. A
curious iilpcrriitidn is, however, |iresenteil \>\ two t'riiiales in tlie Muscuin ciillectiim, t'nmi liie
]iahr-El-(}hazul, Fehruiiry, lOOf) {.\/oj„r //. //. /',/,/,.„, />.S.(>.),&ud tli, llawa-li Valley,
Abyssinia, 1901 (A. A". I'fiixe), respectively, whieh actually have their abdomens spotted as in
the male, though the spots in tlie ease of the Abyssinian specimen are somewhat more
triangular in shajx' ; in addition, these two females also sliow traces of a patcli or streak of
yellowish hair in tJic median line on the second and fifth abdominal segments. Judging by the
number of specimens of the two forms received up to the present time, in the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan feniaks with jjule hair on head and thorax would appear to be more etimnion than
those with goldeii-yeilow hair on these |)arts. The same variation is seen in females from
Uganda, and u female from Natal (Umfiili River) in tlie Museum collection also has the
hair on luail and thorax distinctly palti- than in otiier females from the same colonv.

As already mentioned, 'ruhinni." /liiiulttifii.i was met with in the Bahr-El-(ihazal in
February of last year by Major U. 11, IVnton, who also found the species at Kodok in 190U ;
other specimens were taken by Major (i. Dansey Browning, R.A.JI.C, on November 6th and
7th, 1905, on a steamer on thr White Nile near Kodok, and at Molub. Additional examples
from the White Nile have been forwarded to the Museum by JIajor H. N. Dunn, R.A.M.C. ;
Captain S. S. Flower, Superinteudent of the Zoological (iardens, Cairo (March 20th, 1900,
" from about lat. 11.0° N.") ; and the late Captain H. E. Haymes, R.A.M.C. (" on boat on
Nile, 30 miles south of the Sobat River)."

The range of '/'. hiijuttufiis extends from Cape Colony to the Aiiglo-Egvptian Sudan and
Abyssinia ; the species also occurs further to the east in the Peninsula of Aden. In West
Africa (Northern Territories of the Gold Coast and Northern Nigeria) there exists a form
with pale iialjii. wliirji is possibly t'lititled to subspecific rank.

Tabanus
fascuilus
niloticus

7',i/,iii,iit<j'ii.sciafiiK, Fabr., subsp. ui/o/lnis — subspecies nova
(Plate VI.)

?. — Length 15 to 17 mm. ; wing-expanse 32J to 33i mm.

Head find thorax ochraceoua-hiijf a/iofi'^ liiiff hi'low, J rout soiiietimen ochno'i-oim ;
ahdomen (hi drii'd xpi'cimt'riK) pah' mnizi' yidhnr^ xomi'what tiiiruy towards the tip, and on
banal half iisuntti/ ii-ith a .iinjiiesfiou of (/reeii ; abdomen in life probablii larf/elii, if tint
eiitirelif, apple ifreeii ; iriiii/s with costal border n.t fur ns end of stii/ma, and a transversa lunid
acrosH middle, brown.

//(■'/(/ clothed beneath witii golden-yeliuw iiair ; frontal callus of same colour as ground-
colour, in width eciual t(j aliout half tile front ; aiiteiiiue yellow mottled with green, tips
tawny; palpi rather slemler, pale yellow and clotiuil witli pale goideii-yelluw hair, sometimes
with a few minute black hairs towards the tips.

Thora.r clothed above with short black hair, pleura' with longer pale yellowish hair.

Abdomen clothed above with minute golden hairs, towards hind margin of third segment
and on median area of f(dlowing segments with minute black hairs.

Legs: femora and middle and hind tibia* yellow or greenish-yellow; front tibia' dark-
brown, swollen, yi-llowish towards base above, and on lighter area clotheil with short close-
lying golden hair, elsewhere clothed with black hair; front tarsi black, middle ami hind
tarsi reddish-brown, lighter towards base; hiutl tibije fringed on outside with golden hair,
inside clothed with shorter hair, yellowish on basal, black on distal half.

fl'iin/s: transverse band darker brown than costal margin, eijual in width to length

PLATE VI

/IJ.E.TEfiZI

Tadanus fasciatus, Fabr. — subsp. niloticus, Austen {x 4)

SOME BLOOD-SUCKING AND OTHER DIPTERA FROM THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 63

of discal cell, and dying away on fore border of fifth posterior cell, before reaching hind
margin ; discal cell with a more or less conspicuous longitudinal pale streak ; alula and
squamiB dusky, margin of latter sometimes green.

Hfdteres : knob pale green, stalk yellow.

Described from a specimen from the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1905 (received from
Dr. Andrew Balfour). Type of subspecies in British Museum (Natural History).

Ta/ianiis fasciatus }iiloticu.'< seems to be common on parts of the White Nile and of the
Bahr-El-Jebel. It was taken at Kodok in December 1900, by the late Captain H. E.
Haymes, R.A.M.C., and, in the early part of the same year, also by Major R. H. Penton,
D.S.O., RA.M.C. Colonel G. D. Hunter, D.S.O., met with it on a boat at Abu Chok (between
Gondokoro and Tautikia), on May 29, 1905, and Major Penton also took it in numbers in
the Bahr-El-Ghazal in February of last year. Owing to its characteristic colouration and
wing-marking it is easily recognised, and cannot be mistaken for any other species.

The new subspecies differs from the typical form of Tahanus fasclatnx, Fabr., Systema
Entomologite, p. 788 (1775), a common West African species found from Sierra Leone to
the Congo Free State, in the colouration and hairy covering of the front tibiae (which in the
typical form are entirely black and clothed exclusively with black hair), in the colouration of
the middle and hind tibiae (yellow or greenish-yellow instead of black or dark brown), and in
the hind tibiae on the outside having a golden instead of a black fringe. The front tibiae in
T. fattciatitu inloticus appear to be slightly more slender than in the typical form, the anterior
curve being less abrupt. The wings in the typical form usually show no clear space in the
discal cell.

The range of T. fascia fit -t nilofirK.'i extends at least as far south as Uganda, whence the
Museum possesses a series of specimens from the Botanic Gardens, Entebbe, September 18, 1904
[Captaiit E. D. W. Grng, /.jI/'.«S'.), Bugaya Island, Lake Victoria, and Ankole, August, 1903
(Colonel D. Bruce, C.B., R.A.M.C). A specimen from Ankole, May 16, 1903, belongs to a
form intermediate between the subspecies niloticns and the typical T. fa.iciafiiti, Fabr., since
although the front tibiae are pale at the base, the fringes on the hind tibise are on the distal
half mainly composed of black hairs. A transitional form (as well as the typical one) is
also found in the Congo Free State, where specimens are met with showing no golden hairs
on the basal half of the front tibiae, but with golden hairs, interspersed with the black or
more or less predominant, in the fringe on the inner and outer side of the basal half of the
hind tibiae. A specimen of this form was also taken at Fajao, Uganda, in November, 1904,
by Captain E. D. W. Greig.

Tahanus africanus, G. .R. Gray
■ (Fig. 28)

Tahanus africauus, G. R. Gray, Griffith's "Animal Kingdom" (Cuvier), Vol. 15, p. 794, 1^^^^^^^
Plate 114, Fig. 5 (1832).

Tahanus latipes, Loew {nee Macq.), Die Dipteren-Fauna Siidafrika's, p. [108] 36 (1860).

The identification of this species rests upon Gray's coloured figure, which is
fortunately recognisable, for the original description consists of the single word '' Fulvous."
It therefore seems advisable to re-describe the species, more especially since the careful
description of the $ by Loew (loc. cit.), besides being in German and published by its
author under the name of the closely allied Tabanus latipes, Macq., can scarcely be
accessible to the majority of those interested in the Blood-Sucking Flies of the Sudan.

64

SOME BLOOn-BrCKINO AND OTHER DirTF.RA KllOM THE ANOLO-EOYPTIAN SUDAN

Fig. 28. Tabanus afkicanus. Gray. ? ( x 2). .After .Austen

Natal to the White Nile

Tawny ochr.-u:fon.s : lejjs black : winj; m.irkinKS brown.

/»> ki»it ^fiitission of Trusti-fs n/ Hrilish Musnim.

$, $. — $ (2 siK'cimi'Us), Ifiigtli 17 I til 18^. mm.

$ (SI spi'ciiiu'iis), U'ngfh Ki^ to 17 mm. ; wing-expanse not exceeding 36 mm.
Tiitrmi ocllliicfoiis ; ti piitc/l i>J hriUidiitly ir/ilfr lunr iit Imsf of iriinj on rilc/i aide, iiinl
anolhiT mill liinji'r /iiitr/i ii lilllr Miiiiil litis, /u'linr jniKlrrior iDiiilf of //lorii.r ; li'i/s Iddrk, frinit
lihiiv sirollfii, eitpeciaUii in ^; wingn willi liiisi>, tiro trinixrrrsf /iinu/s^ mul roa/nl /larihr us fur
ii:i uftjier liiinirh of third vein, or (dmosi to ti/i, In-oini.

//"Ill Diiinge-ochract'oiis, ilotlicii witli similarly coloured hair; antennie and last joint of
palpi (except Itasc of latter) lilackisli ; third joint of antennie long and narrow, Imt little
cxpamlcil at liasc.

Tliora.r entirely without markings ;
in $ clothed with orangc-ochraceous hair,
ill '} with short Mack liair above, and
longer orange-ochraccous hair on sides
and lielow.

Hull, rrs : Iciiul) yellowish - white,
stalk lirnwiiisli.

Aliiliniiru clothed above

with short ochraceons-
rufous hair, in the case of the ? inter-
spersed with black hairs in median area
towards tip ; sides of fourth to seventh
segments inclusive marked with a squarish black patch, clothed with black hair ; posterior
angles of these segments clothed with silvery-white hair ; eighth segment entirely black :
ventral surface — a black patch on sides of third to sixth segments inclusive in f and third to
lifth inclusive in $ ; last two segments in $ and last three in $ mainly black ; hind margins
of third to sixth segments in $ and third to seventh in ? whitish.

Lefin: hind tibia; fringed with black liair mi inside ami outside.

W'iiiijs: first transverse band terminates on fifth vein and runs across proximal half of
both basal cells, learimi n rh'iir spot at tlu'ir nfrrmi' l>ii.fi>.<! ; second transverse band runs across
middle of wing, is e»]ual in width to length of discal cell, reaches hind margin at tip of fourth
posterior cell, and dies away in fifth posterior cell ; discal cell often entirely brown, but some-
times witli a more or less conspicuous longitudinal (dear streak; anal cell generally more or
less tinged with browii, especially at tip ; alula brownish ; browni costal border dies awav
for some little distance beyond second transverse band, but broadens again above extreme
tip of wing, the tips of second longitudinal and of ujiper braiuh of third vein being often
conspicuously suflFused witli bniwii.

^. I/i'iiil : eyes with upper three-fourths, except hind margin, composed of much
larger facets than those below; terminal joint of palpi cylindrical, pointed ami clothed with
black hair at tip, ochraceous at base ; penultimate joint orange-ochraceous.

?. //.'/./. front broad, widening below and relatively short, its height equal to about
two and a half times its width at the angles of the eyes; transverse callosity at angles of
eves brown, oblong, extending right across front and touching eye on each side; no trace of
any other tubercle or line on front ; terminal joint of palpi slender, under side of base
orange-ochraceous and clothed with similarly coloured hair, elsewhere clothed with minute,
black hairs.

Li'ijs : front tiliia' iriuidi thicker tiian in T, anterior margin very convex.

SOME BLOOD-SUCKING AND OTHER DIPTERA FROM THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 65

Redescribed from a $ from Delagoa Bay, and a $ from Buvuma I., Lake Victoria,
Uganda: types of redeseription in British Museum (Natural History), and specially labelled.

This easily-recognised species, perhaps the handsomest of the African representatives of
the genus Tabanus, was met with in the Bahr-El-Ghazal, in February, 1905, by Major R. H.
Penton, D.S.O., R.A.M.C. A second specimen in the Museum collection, labelled "White
Nile," was taken by Consul Petherick about 1862. As shown by the extensive series of
specimens in the possession of the Museum, the range of T. afrkanus extends from Natal to
the East Africa Protectorate and the Nile Provinces of the Egyptian Sudan, and westwards
at least as far north as Angola. Although the possible distinctness of the two species was
hinted at long ago by Loew [op. cit., p. [109] 37), T. afrkanus has hitherto been confused
with the closely similar T. latipes, Macq. (Diptferes Exotiques, I. 1, p. 119 (1838) ), which
was originally described from Senegal. The latter species agrees with T. afrkanus in the
coloration and markings of the body, as also in the general arrangement of the wing markings,
but is distinguished by the brown on the costal border not being continued beyond the
stigma (no infuscation at the tips of the second and of the upper branch of the third vein),
and by the brown band across the middle of the wing not reaching the hind margin.
Jahanus latipes, Macq,, does not appear to reach South Africa, but apparently extends across
the Continent from west to east, since the Museum possesses two females taken in Senaar, on
the Blue Nile, in September, 1902, by Major H. N. Dunn ; it is therefore possible that both
T. latipes and 7. africanus will be found existing together in Kordofan or the Bahr-El-
Gliazal. It may be worthy of note that a female of T. latipes in the Museum collection,
from the neighbourhood of Pawa, on the Katsina-Sokoto Boundary, Northern Nigeria, taken
in August, 1904 [the Acting Resident of Kano, per Sir F. D. Lugard, K.C.M.G.), was
received with four specimens of Tahanus virgatus, Aust., and a fifth Tahanus too much
damaged to be determinable, with the following general label by the Acting Resident of
Kano : " Wayam fly ; kills horses."

Tabanus africanus and 7! latipes are members of what may be termed the " Tabanus
fasciatus group," the species belonging to which, in addition to the general yellowish,
ochraceous or ferruginous colour of the body, are characterised by the possession of swollen
front tibiae and banded wings. Besides the species mentioned, the Museum collection
includes representatives of three others which have yet to be described. Tabanus macu-
latissimus, Macq., which is found from Natal to British Central Africa, may be regarded as
an offshoot of the group in question, since, although the front tibife are distinctly swollen,
the groimd-colour of the body is dark brown, the legs are pale instead of black as is usually
the case in the T. fasciatus group, and the wings instead of being banded are blotched or
speckled with brown.

NON-BLOOD-SUCKING SPECIES

Family MUSCID^

Genus Ptcnosoma, Br. and von Berg

Although the species of the genus Pycnosoma are incapable of sucking blood, they may
very possibly play a part in the dissemination of such diseases as cholera and enteric fever,
since their habits are similar to those of the House-Fly*. They swarm about filth trenches,
and breed in fsecal matter and offal of all kinds.

*Cf. E. E. Austen, "The House-Fly and Certain Allied Species as Disseminators of Enteric Fever among
Troops in the Field " : Journal of the Eoyal Army Medical Corps, June, 1904, pp. 1-16, Plates I. and II.

E

66

SOME BLOOD-SUCKINO AND OTHER DIPTF.RA FROM TUF. ANOLO-EOYPTIAN SUDAN

Pycnosonia
inar^inatc

Pi/ntOKOiiKi nmrijiiKili',

Wii

Pycnosoma
putorium

(Fig. 29)

Afii.sni iiKiiujiiiiili'i, Wiiilciiiaiiii, Ausscrtniroijiiiselu' zwi'iHiigt'ligc Insektuii, II. (1830),
p. 305.

I'jicnasomii iiiiirijiiKilf, Austell, Aiiiials ami Jliignzine of Natural History, Ser. 7,
Vol. XVll. (Mairli I'.IUC), \>. 302 : ,/.,-. for lull syuoiiyiuy.

In November IQlIf), this spi-cit-s was loiind by Major G. Danst-y Browning, R.A.M.C.,
to be common on the Jur Hivi-r, liaiu-EI-Ghazal (Long. 8'' 2' N.), at ortlnre. Pijnionoiiia
iiKirijiiKtlr is " a tliic'k-set, stoutly built Hy, with orangc-buff-colouri'il face, and sliining,
nu'tallir iijuiu-iiurplr (U- metallic green body, recognisable at onee liy llie dark brown trout
border to the wings." * The species is distributed throughout Trupieal and Sub-Tropical
Africa, and is also abundant in the Transvaal and Natal ; eastwards its range ini hides
Arabia, and even extends as far as Quetta.

MJCTVU —

Fig. 29— Pycnosoma marginalr, Wied. 9
Tropical, Sub-Tropical, and S. Africa, and eastwards to Quetta.
Face, orange-bufT: front, ochraceous-rufous ; body, metallic plum-purple or metallic green, with dark bands on abdomen ;
legs, black ; wings with a dark brown basal patch and stripe along fore border.

Pycnosoma lyiitovium, Wied.
(Fig. 30)

Muscn piiforin, Wiedemann, Ausser-
europiiische zweifliigelige Insekten, II.
(1830), p. 403.

I'^ciioKnma putorium, Auiiit'n. Annals
and I\Iagazine of Natural History,
Ser. 7, Vol. XVII. (March lOOti), p. 303.

This common West African species,
which is found from Sierra Leone to the
Congo Free State, was met with by
Col. G. I). Hunter, D.S.O., in May,
1905, on a boat on the White Nile,
a few miles north of Melut, and also to
the south of Lake No.

Fig. 30.— Pvcsosoma putoru-m, W'icd. ?
Sierra Leone to the Congo Free Stale and the Egyptian Sudan.

Body metallic blui%h-green. la<^t two itegmpnt<* of abdomen bras!iy ;
transvente bands dull blue-bl.ick.

• Austen, Journnl of the Roynl Army Medical Corps, loe. eit., p. 13.

67

Report on Econobiic Entomology

/o

«

Fred. V. Theobald, ]\I.A.

Vice-Principal and Economic Zoologist to the S.E. Agricnltural College ; President of the
Association of Economic Biologists of Britain ; Foreign Member of the Association
of Economic Entomologists, Washington, U.S.A., etc.

PART I

Second Report on the Mosquitoes or Culicidte of the Sudan

Several mosquitoes new to the Sudan have been collected during the past year, including
a representative of a new genus and three new species. The males of three species
described in the last report have also been found.

A slide has also been sent of some aquatic larvae which were said to be preying on
the mosquito larvse in pools. This cannot be reproduced, nor can the larvae be identified.
Some are young Dragon Flies (Odonata).

The new genus described here comes near Stegomyia and has been called Quasistegomyla ;
the species much resembling the East Indian Stegomyia snttellaris (Walker).

Another new species is placed in Mansonia, but I am not sure if there are not
traces of flat scutellar scales, if so, it must be excluded from that genus and must
constitute the type of a new one.

The species new to the Sudan but previously known in Africa are CilJia squamosa,
Theobald ; Cule:i, luteulatn-alis, Theobald ; Culex hirmdipaJjus, Theobald ; the males of
Myzonnjia nlli, Theobald, and Uranotania balfoiu-i, Theobald, are described, and two
other new Culex, named Culex ruhinotus and Culex nectvei.

j^deomyia squammipenna (Arribalzaga) should have been included before as it was
recorded in my Monograph in 1903, and now Colonel Penton, P.M.O., has found it
again. Dr. Balfour has also bred Culex tiyripes of Grandpre.

There are probably a great number of Sudanese Culicidai, but they must be systemat-
ically collected and bred and their larva; and pupa3 kept, so that they can be properly
described before we shall make much progress in the matter. Damaged material is
useless, so are larvaj if we do not know the adults they give rise to.

Genus Anopheles, Meigen
Syst. Beschr. I., 10. (1818)
Mono. Culicid. I., p. 115 (1901) and III., p. 17 (1903)
Auopheles welleowei, Theobald. First Kept. Gord. Coll. Well. Labs., p. 64 (1904) weUcomef

Fresh specimens of this species have been taken by Colonel Penton on the Jnr and at
Meshra.

It has also occuiTed in the Aden Hinterland, specimens having been sent me by Captain
Patton, I.M.S., who, however, does not agree that they belong to any species. I can only
say that they are the same as the specimens I described from the Sudan.
The male has not yet been found.

68

REPORT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

Myiomyia nili

groy

tlu

Genus Mvzomyia, IMinicliiucl. (Guassia, Thcubahl)

Myzomijiii nili. Tlioi)l>al,l. First It.pt. Gmvl. ('..ll. \\\W. Lalw., p. (56 (1904)

The female of tliis speiies was desirilnil in tlic last rcjiort. No niiiles Imil then been
found. Three hiive since been sent iiic by Dr. JiiiUour, but no more females, tliere is no
doubt, however, as to the species.

.\fiili\ Head brown with bright grey sheen, the median upright-forked scales creamy
lateral ilark brown, a nuMlian tuft of grey scales between the eyes; antennie
bright oehreous brown with deep brown verticiilate hairs, the
long apical segments brown, tiie large basal segment deep brown ;
proboscis long and tliin, iliij) bitiwn, the scales closely appressed ;
paipi (Fig. 31, A) witli tile last two segments swollen, the apical
one ends bluntly aiiiniinatc and is about half tlie Kngtli of the
penultimate ; tlic palpi arc Innwii except the apr.x on which
there are grey scales, there are also golden browii hairs on tlie
last two segments ; clypeus brown ; there are also two bright
golden chiette projecting between the eyes.

Thorax deep brown with a greyish sheen, the deep brown
also appearing as indistinct lines on the grey area ; in front
projecting over the head is a tuft of long, narrow-curved grey
scales, the surface of the thorax ornamented with golden curved
hair-like scales and scanty golden brown bristles; scutellum
brown, paler at tlie edge with numerous pale golden brown
border-bristles ; metanotuni brown ; plcune oehreous brown.

Abdomen brown with u median darker line, shiny, with pale
golden hairs.

Legs deep brown, thin and long, with traces of pale areas
at the apices of the tibiie ; fore ungues une(]ual, the larger
uniserrated, the smaller very minute, simple, looking like a
second spine to the larger one ; mid and hind equal and simple.

Wings mostly black scaled, with three creamy white costal spots spreading on to the
first long vein across the subcostal ; the scales are also pale on the base of the fork-cells and
at the cross-veins, also on the lower branch of the fifth and on its stem and on the sixth;
fringe duskv, traces of pale area at the lower branch of the fourth anil upper branch of the
fifth; first fork-cell considerably longer, very little narrower than the second posterior cell,
its stem about two-thirds the length of the cell ; stem of the second posterior longer than
the cell by about half the cidTs length ; mid cross-vein a little nearer the apex than the
supemunierarv, the posterior not (juite its own length nearer the ba.se than the mid
cross- vein.

Male genitalia (Fig. 31) with the claspers (<■) euivcd apically where they are slightly
swollen, a longish median process between the two lias.il lobes with three broad swonl
shaped chictie on each side, near the apex (n).
Length. 3 to 35 mm.
IJahiUit. Lado. (Sheffield Neave, Esq.)
Time of capture. February.
OOservationn. Described from three perfect males.

Fk:. 31.— MvzoMviA NILI, Tlieob.

A Male palp ;

B Process on m.'ile genitalia ;

c Clasper.

EEPORT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

69

The females were taken at Jebel Akmet-Aga on the White Nile, also on the Middle
Sobat.

Myzomyia
funesla

Cellia
squamosa

Miizomi/ia funesla, Giles. Hand Bk. Mosq., p. 162 (1902), Giles ; Mono. Culieid. I.,
p. 178 (1901), and III. p. 34 (1903) ; First Kept. Gord. Coll. Well. Labs., p. 68 (1904).

Dr. Balfour writes that this common African species has been taken in numbers on the
Blue Nile. Colonel Penton also took it on the Jur and at Meshra.

Genus Cellia, Theobald

Mono. Culieid. III., p. 107 (1903)

Cellia sijnamosa, Theobald. Anopheles squamosa, Theobald

Mono. Culieid. I., p. 167 (1901) and III., p. 109 (1903)

This Anopheliue has been taken by Colonel Penton, P.M.O., at Meshra, in the Bahr-

El-Ghazal.

It has been recently sent me from Godokoro as well, by Dr. Aubrey Hodges. It also
occurs over Uganda, Mashonaland, and the Transvaal. It was originally described from
specimens taken in Mashonaland by Mr. Marshall and in British Central Africa by
Dr. Daniels.

This Cellia is very marked and can at once be told from the other member of the
genus found in Egypt and the Sudan, viz. C. pharosnsis (Theob.), by its black colour
and white markings. There are white scales on the thorax, three white lines on the pleurae,
and black, bronzy and ochreous scales on the black abdomen, which has also black lateral
tufts of scales. The dark scaled wings have three prominent, and two small basal white
costal spots, and the legs are mottled and banded with white. I have not yet seen a male
of this Cellia. It will probably be found all along the Nile.

Genus Myzoehynchus, Blanchard
Comp. Rend. Hebd. Soc. d. Biol. No. 23, p. 795 (1902)
Mono. Culieid. III., p. 84 (Theobald)
Milzo)-h>pu-hus paludis, Theobald. Repts. Malarial Comm. Roy. Soc. Eng., p. 75 p^'""*'"
(1900); Mono. Culieid. I., p. 128 (1901) and III., p. 86 (1903) ; First Rept. Gord. Coll.
Well. Labs., p. 70 (1904).

This species has been taken in
abundance by Colonel Penton on the Jur
and at Meshra during the past year.

It is evidently common in the Bahr-
El-Ghazal.

Myzorhynchus

A— -1

V^^^l

Genus Quasistegomyia, uov. gen.

Head (Fig. 32, a) clothed with flat
scales ; palpi short and spatulate in the ^ ;
clypeus with a distinct carina and lateral
prominences. Second segment of the
antennae much larger than the following
ones. Mesothorax (b), with narrow-curved
scales of two sizes and with two pronounced
areas of flat scales before the scutelluni (((),
one on each side of the bare area in
front of it; scutellum (c) with flat scales.

I. -■

K^r* (

B.-

.C'Cr,

"^

L.-

Fig. 32. — Quasistegomyia unilineata, n. sp.

A Head; b Mesothorax; 5 median silvery line ; a Flat scaled area
of the mesonotum ; c Scutellum

70

REPOKT ON KCONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

AlxluiiU'ii mill legs HDnmil. W'inj^s dciisi'ly scuIimI, witli long, struiglit, nitlu'r broad, liiu'iir
Kcali's. luiil short, liroiiil, Hal, niciiiiin ones; the liniiiclu'S of tin- fifth long vein iiciirly as
long as till' sttiii ; tiic fringe loii^, thr iiK'diaii sizeil scali-s ajipari-utly all crossiug the largo
ones ; costal bonier spiny.

The "^ palpi are apparently eomposed of three segiiii'iits, the basal one very siiiull ;
the seeond smaller than the third, whieh is as long as the rest of the palp, swelling
apieally, the apex triineated, ami on tin- inner side are two slight notches (Fig. 38, it). In
Stegoiiiyia they are the same size apieally, tapering to an abrnpt acute end (a). This
genus comes close to Stegoniyia, but difTers in (1) the marked flat scales on the mesonotum,
(2) the wing scales, and {'^) in the peculiar ^ palpi and also in (4) the swollen seeond
nnteunal segment. The only species yet found occurs in tiic Sudan.

Quaxistegomyia unilineut<i, n. sp.
Head black witli a iiirdiaii whitr line; palpi Mark willi wliite apex ; proboscis, black.
Thorax deep bnnvnisii idack witii a iiudian wiiite line, divided by a very narrow dark line,
which extends about half the length of the mcsutlnirax, tliere are two small white spots
where it ends and a white patch in front of the roots of the wings, also a few white
scales before the white scaled scutelluni. Abdomen black with traces of narrow white basal
bauds anil large white basal lateral spots. Legs black, base of femora wliite and with
some of the segments with basal white bauds. Wings brown scaled.

$ Head black, clothed with Hat black scales with a broad median ana of Hat wliite
ones about three and four scales wide, and a few snow-white small Hat scales projecting
between the eyes, bristles black.

iid)j;c whicii ends in a lateral prominence on each side ;
proboscis wide, decji black ; i)ai[)i black scaled with
snow-white apical scales, swollen apieally ; antenuic
black, basal segment black with a patch of snow-white
scales on the inside.

Thorax black, clothed with deep bronzy-brown
narrow-curved scales, ornamented with a median line
of mirrow-eurved almost hair-like white scales, with
a verv narrow bare line in the middle showing as a
narrow dark line. This extends about half across
the mesonotum. Just in hind where it ends are two
small white-scaled spots, one on each side ; over and in
front of the roots of the wings is a patidi of broader snowy-white scales ; behiiul, bordering
the sides and overla})ping tlir \>:\vv space in fnmt of tiic scutelluni, numerous, irregularly
placed, broadish narrow-curved scales, and on each side of tluni near the scutelluni a large
patch of Hat black scabs; the whole niesonotum is very bristly, the chictie large and black;
scutelluni ochreous with Hat white scales ami with a few (3 '!) black border-bristles to the
mid lobe ; metanotuni dusky black ; pleune dark brown with flat white scales. Abdomen
black with dusky black scales, each segment with a more or less narrow band of white scales
which are most pronounced laterally. There are also very prominent large white basal
lateral patches, separated from the abdominal bands; posterior border-bjistles small, very
pale golden.

Legs black, bases and venter of femora pale grey to white ; metatarsi and first two tarsi
of all the legs basally banded with white ; in the fore legs the banding of the second tarsal.

Clypeus black with a distinct

A.

Kig. 33. I'alpi ami ba-al ?«cj;incnt>of antcnnii; ut
Str^0$nyia a^titeUarii, Walker (a and a), and of
Qutuiitfgottiyia ttniliMfata, n. ^p., li and b

EEPORT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

71

almost imperceptible (hist tarsi of liind legs absent). Ungues equal (simple?). Wings
rather densely scaled vvitli lung lateral, rather broad, scales, and with short broad median
ones, first sub-marginal cell longer but scarcely any narrower than the second posterior cell,
its base about level with that of the second posterior cell, its stem about two-thirds the
length of the cell ; stem of the second posterior cell nearly as long as the cell ; posterior
cross-vein sloping towards the base of the wing, about three times its own length distant
from the mid cross-vein ; the branches of the fifth long vein very long, the cell being nearly
as long as the stem ; fringe long and dense, especially at the apex where the scales are broad
and sword-shaped ; the median sized fringe scales slope across the long ones.

Length. 3'5 mm.

Habitat. Bahr-El-Ghazal (Major Bray).

Time of appearance. September (1905).

Observations. In general appearance this species is just like the Stegomyia Scutellaria
of Walker. It was nearly placed on one side as such, but luckily the flat scales on the
mesonotum at the sides of the bare space in front of the scutellum were noticed. The
median silvery line also shows a central, dark, thin line, not seen in the Eastern species, nor
are the two small thoracic spots. There are also marked peculiarities in the wings, palpi and
antennas, so that it must clearly be placed in a new genus. The specimen bears a note,
" bred from a tree," presumably from a larva taken in a hollow tree. It is said to be a very
irritating species.

The hind legs were too damaged to describe. The specimen was collected by
Major Bray. Stegomyia scutellari.-i (Walker) is also a tree and bamboo breeder.

Fig. 34.- Larval siphon of Theobaluinella siATiiii'ALris, Roiidani.

Genus Theobaldinella, Blanchard.
Theobaldia, Neveu-Lemaire

Comp. Kend., d. Ss. d. 1. Soc. Biol.,

29 Nov. (1902)

Mono. Culicid. III., p. 148 (1903)

Theobaldinella spathipalpis,
Eondani

Dipt. Ital., Prodro., I. (1886) ; Mono

Culicid. I., p. 339 (1901), and III.,

p. 151 (1903)

First Eept. Gord. Coll. Well. Labs.,
p. 73 (1904)

This species has been found again
in the Sudan, and Mr. Willcocks sends
me many from Egypt.

Larva; and pupae have been foimd
in Khartoum, and are described here
as they have not previously been
examined and figured.

The specimens are badly mounted
so that only a few characters can be
given.

Theobaldinella
spathipalpis

72

UKl'OllT ON Kl'ONOMlC KNTOMOLOGY

Culcx
hirsutipalpis

Tlu' larva when nititiirc is 8 mm. long. 'I'ln' liciid is ln-iglit clu-stnnt lirowii, with Muck
I'Vi's and hand across tlic nape, not so wide as tlic tlioi-a.\. Tliorax and alHlonicn
gnn-nish-hrown ; sijilmn ln-owii. 'I'lic antciiuiL' (Fig. S.*), n) arc simple and tuhular, and end
in a short spine or two ; on the side towards the apical half is a three-rayed bristle, in a
line between the antenna- are two-median single bristles, and one on each side composed
of three rays; projecting from the front of the head are two Hat cnrved spines ending in
three digit-like processors (b) ; the clypcus (c) is ai iitcly triangular, the bases are <lrawn
down on each side, the lateral serrations nnmerous and small ; just in fnjnt of the eyes is
a fonr-rayed bristle.

The thorax bears long ilense lateral iiliunosc tufts, witii smaller short simple tufts in
four rows dorsally.

The first three abdominal segments iicar a tuft of siviial plumose ehietic on each side,
the fourth three seta-, and the next three two seta'. The siphon (a) is short and thick, and

bears two combs of seven long,
thick, thorn-like spines; the axial
])apill;e are bluntly acuminate.

The impa is 5 mm. long, the
two thoracic air siphons (o) are
large and much expanded, one
free border being raised into a
prominence, the segments are
deeply indented ventrally ; the
two anal plates are very broad
(f), am! the free end finely
ciliated along the border, the
axial roil is asymmetrical ; there
are simple bristles on the head,
compound tufts on the thorax,
that on the posterior doi'sal surface
of the last segment most
prominent.

Genus Culex, Linnaeus

Syst. Nat. Linn. (1735) ; Mono.

Culicid. L, p. 326 (1901)

Culex hirsutipulptK, Theobald.

Mono. Culicid. I., p. 379 (1001)
A single female fromEIObeid,
in Kordofan, .sent by Dr. Balfour,
and collected by Captain Hughes.
Tt is ijuite typical but does not
Fig. s.'.. i.;ir>..iai..i iM.,..ii chAr.Tcier»of /■*»<^/,//w//,ii/,./*,>,.//>,i. K.,,,..,,M •■^howtlie two pale thoracic spots

A l.arviil siphon; a 1 ^pinc of >iphon: a '1 of coml> : li Anterior region of

head ; c C'lypou» ; \, Arucmia ; K An anal plate of larva ; f .\iiiil pLitc o( pupa ; SCefl HI HlOSt SpeCimeDS.

c Sijihon of pupa.

This Culex was originally

deseribeil from .Alashonaland, it al.so occurs connnonly in
Coast, and is probably existing all over Africa.

the Transvaal, Gambia, noM

PLATE VII

m

^S

^^

*^s

~v«

^^

■"^^!7^

■^^^^

'*^

Sf^iT^

''"^whraw

>5

^^

Stegomyia scutellaris, Walker ?
Quasistegomyia unilineata, n. &p. ?
Myzomyia niH, Theobald c?
Mansonia nigra, n. sp. ?
Cellia squamosa, Theobald ?

Wings of Sudanese Mosquitoes

6 Culex luteolateralis, Theobald ?

7 Culex hirsutipalpis, Theobald ?

8 Culex palHdocephala, Theobald t?

9 Culex neavei, n. sp. ?

10 Culex rubinotus, n. sp. ?

71

HEl-ORT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

Tile tlionix is bniwii, ((ivcrccl witli clic|) golden lirowii scales, anil some pale ereaniy
ones, the latter usually form two mon- oi- less distiiut spots on the mesonotum, there are
also paler seales in frnnt of tlic seutellum, over llu- mots of the wiiij^s, three rows of hlack
bristles anil numy over the hase of the wings. The prohoseis is deep hrown at the husu
and towards the end, the middli' forming a liroad pale hand, the extreme apex is testaceous.

Tile ahdomen is brown with basal semi-circular median yellow patches und basal
lateral white spots.

The legs brown, the segments with apical and basal pale bands, except the last tarsal
in tile fore and mid legs, which are all dark brown. rngues in female all equal and simple.
Ill the male the proboscis has a narrow nicdiaii pale band; the jiaipi are brown, longer
than the proboscis by nearly the last two scgiueiits, apical scgim iit acuminati' with a narrow
yellow apical band an<I a broad basal mu', the piiiultiinatc segment also with a basal yellow
band, the antepenultimate with a broad, pale ImihI and a narrow one towards its base, hair
tufts on the last two segments and the apex of tlir antepenultimate, long and black ; fore
and mid ungues uii('i|ual, i'otli miiscrratc. hind iiiual ami simple.

Tile Siiclan s|)ecinieii measured ")■."> iinri.

Culex
Iulc<ilatfr.-ilis

Cul,:,- Inteohdendis, Tiu ub. Mono. Culicid. II., p. 71 (1901)

A single ^ of this very marked species, in bad condition, has been sent by Dr. ]?alfour.
The only variation from the type is that the distribu1ii>ii of the ycljuw and black vein scales

is slightly diflferent.

Tile species can at once be told
from any other known iSudauese
mosquito.

Tlie liead lias naiTow-curvcd
golden scales in the middle, flat
ocjireous and dusky ones at the
sides; the proboscis is black and the
palpi orange sealed at the base, black
at the tip.

The thorax is deep black with a
iiroad line of lirigllt orange-yellow
scales on each side of the mesonotum,
there are also a few scattered gold
scales amongst the narrow dull brown
liiiis tliat adorn the middle of the
mcsouutum.

The abdomen is black with violet
nilretions and with basal creamy
K.r.. 36.--CULKX LUTHOLATKKAL.s, Thcob. ? yellow bauds to ths segments, and

also small lateral basal spots.
Legs dull ochreourt with brown scales, unhanded, but the base and venter of the
femora are oehreons; fore and mid ungues equal and uniserrated, hind equal and simple
in the female. In the male the fore and mid ungues are unequal, both uniserrate, hind
ei]Ual and simple.

The wings, in the type, are clothed with black and yellow scales, black on the costa and

PLATE Vni

Enlarged Wing Scales

1 Stegomyia scutellaris, Walker ?

2 Quasistegomyia lineata, n. sp. ?

3 Myzomyia nili, Theobald <f .

4 Cellia squamosa, Theobald ?

5 Culex rubinotus, n. sp. ?

6 Culex neavei, n. sp. ?

7(5

REPORT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

on all till' lliinl loiij; Vein, on thu briinclu's of the fuiirtli ami sonic on tin- sixtli, all tlie rest
(lull yi'llowisli with a few ilusky scales In re ami there. First suhniurginul cell longer and
inirrower than tiu- second posterior cell, its base nearer the base of the wing tlian that of
the second posterior cell, its stem less than one-half the length of the cell; posterior
cross-Vein more than its own length distant from tiie mid cross-vein.

In till' Sudan specimen the yidlow scales are confined In tin I'.isc of the first
longitudinal vein and along tlu' stem of the (iftli long vein, and a fiw may be detected
here and there elsewhere.

Li'initlt of !j Sf) to \■^^ nnn. ; T If) to 5 mm.

Iliibittil. Masjiciiialund, Natal, Transvaal, (iairdiia. Sicira liCone, Malav States.

The Sudan specimen came from the JMue Nile (Mr. Friedrichs). This insect has
evidently a wide distribution for I can sec no difl'erence between those from Africa and
those from the JIalay States. ])r. Aubrey J lodges has recently written me that it is
common around Gondokoro.

Ciili'.r iieurel, n. sp.
Cuicx neavei Head bniwn with H grey patrli cju each side ; proboscis deep brown, uidiandcd. Thorax

adorned with ricli golden-brown scales. Abdomen brown, unhanded, but the segments with
few scales at their base giving a (]uasi-banded appearance, all the segments with basal
lateral white spots. Legs brown, unbaiided, the femora pale grey ventrally and at the base ;
the hind metatarsi and tibiaj of ecjual length ; wings of typical Culex form.

Fi'iiKilr. Head brown, clothed with narrow-curved pale grey scales amongst wlii(di are
numerous uj)right black forked scales (the general eit'ect being brownish when seen with the
hand lens only), on each side a patch of flat white scales ; clypeus, palpi (Fig. 37, B 1) and
proboscis deep brown; antennae browiiisli blaik, the basal segment paler with a few pale
scales. Thorax deep brown with narrow-curved goldi'ii-brown scales all sloping backwards
with two more or less distinct parallel median bare lines, brown bristles which are numerous

over the roots of the wings; prothoracic
lobes with grey scales; scutellum pale
brown willi narrow-curved greyish scales
and brown liordcr-bristles ; metanotum
pale clustnut-brown ; pleune pale grey
with a few pale scales.

Abdomen pale greyish - brown
covered with deep brown scales, which
are thinly disposed at the base of the
segments which thus present a faint
false banding; basal si'gmcnt pallid
with two patches of dark bro«ni scales
from which arise two groups of short
golden-brown hairs whiidi curve out-
wards, and numerous longer pale-brown
hairs from the body of the segment ; posterior bnrdtr-bristles of irregular sizes, indistinct,
dull, pale and dusky-brown ; each segment has prumimnt basal white lateral spots.

Legs deep brown, nnbaiidi d, fi nmra all pale grey below, the hind ones grey above at the
base as well, apex of the fcniura with a pale grey spot ; hind metartarsi and tibiie of equal
length ; ungues all equal and simple.

Ftg. 37.- ? Palpi .-ind AntcnnnI Segment of (a) CnUx rtihiHotus,
n. »p., and (r) iSuUx M<avfi, n. sp.

PLATE IX

/

, (/

^

^^

I'-: 'V

X

/

vV, t

c

\i

1

1^

'1

&

Heads of Sudanese Culicid^e

1 Stegomyia scutellaris, Walker. ? 3 Mansonia uniformis, Theobald. ?

2 Quasistegomyia unilineata, n. sp. ? 4 Culex neavei, n. sp. ?

5 Culex rubiiiotus, n. sp. ?

7S HEPORT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

Wings witli typiciil Imiwii CuU'X scales; the first sub-marginal cell considtrnlily longer
hut only sliglitly narrower tlian flu- seeonil posterior cill, its base slightly nearer the base of
till- wing tliiiii that of tlie swoini posterior fell, its stem less than one-third the lengtli of the
eell, stem of the seeond posterior eell about two-thinls the length of the eel! ; posterior
cross-vein nearly twice its owni length distant from the mid. lialteres with grey stem and
fuscous knob.

LriKjl/i 4 nun.

Jfii/iitat. liUala's; Ludo, Upper Wliite Nile; (Sheflield Neave, Esq.).

Jhiie of Ciipliiri'. January (28, 1,05), and February.

Obsertuitions. Described from three females, all in perfect condition, one gorged with
blood and quite black.

The species comes near Cuh'.r riridis (Tiuoli.), but can at once be told by the
different wing venation, pale grey pleura>, and from tlic luxt allied species by the hind
metatarsi and tibiie being the same length, ami by the ditlerences of the palpi and antennaj
shown in Figure 37.

One specimen shows the stem of the first sub-marginal cell slightly longer than the rest.

The scales on the basal lobe of the antennie I have not noticed before in any true Culex.

The species appears to be eoMiinon. and may easily be confused with C. riridis and the
other allied species described liere.

Culf.r ruhinotuK, n. sp.
*-■"'" Head browni with dull golden scales, creamy at the sides. Proboscis, palpi and

antenna% brown. Thorax, bright reddish-brown with scanty narrow-curved blackish scales.
Abdomen clothed with deep blackish-bro^Ti scales and with traces of apical creamy-white
lateral spots, no basal bands. Legs yellowish-brown clothed with dusky brown scales;
liind metatarsi longer than the hind tibia;.

9 Head brown witli small narrow-curveil dull golden scales, some rather long; iilack
upright forked scales and Mack bristles, pale creamy flat scales laterally ; clypeus brown
with an apparent median transverse sulcus indented in the middle ; palpi (Fig. 37, A 1)
denselv scaled with deepbrowni scales and with numerous deep browni bristles, base testaceous,
the scales being scanty ; proboscis deep brown, swelling apieally.

Thorax bright reddish-brown, with scanty, small, narrow-curved blackish scales
(somewhat denuded) and with black bristles; scutellnm the same colour with similar ihirk
scales, posterior border-bristles of the mid lobe, six in number, three on each side with a
wide median space ; nietanotum, pale ochreous brown ; pleura', pale ochreous with a few
flat dusky scales and siniill curved bhick cli;e1a'.

Abdomen clothed with deep, dusky, blackish-brown scales, with ti-aces of apical lateral
creamy spots; basal segment testaceous with a median patidi of black scales from which
proceeds a line of a few dull brown (dia-fa-, numerous other longer ones proceed from the
nude part of the segment ; posterior border-bristles dull golden-bro«ii, long at the sides,
shorter in the middle ; venter with many pale creamy scales.

Legs unbanded. yellowish brown, covercfl with dusky brown scales, the ground colour
showing through basally ; ungues small, equal and simple ; the hiutl nietatai-si a little longer
than the hind tibise.

Wings with the fork-cells rather short, the first sub-marginal cell much longer and
narrower tlian the second posterior cell, its stem about one-thinl the length of the cidl,
its ba.se nearer the base of the wing than that of the second posterior; second posterior cell

EEPORT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

79

wide, the branches turning out ut the apex, its stem about two-tliirds the k-ngth of the cell ;
cross-veins large, the mid longer than the supernumerary, about the same length as the
posterior one, which is distant from the mid nearly twice its own length ; scales at the apices
of the veins somewhat broader than is usual in Culex.

Halteres with pale stem and fuscous knob.

Length. 4 to 45 mm.

Habitat. Lualas, Upper White Nile (Sheffield Neave, Esq.).

Time of Capture. January.

Obsei'vations. Described from two females. The species is very marked, the bright
reddish-brown thorax contrasting strongly with the dark unhanded abdomen. The thorax in
both specimens is slightly denuded, but what scales remain are distinctly black and small.
The structure of the second posterior cell is also characteristic. The abdomen shows (very
indistinctly) apical lateral creamy spots. The female palpi are composed of four segments,
the three basal ones are small, the apical one is as long as the basal three and ends bluntly ;
the apical segment is spinose, the penultimate has one long and several small chstae, the
antepenultimate has two long and some small ones.

Culex viridis, Theob.

Mono. Culicid. III., p. 212 (1903)
First Report Gord. Coll. Well. Labs., p. 73 (1904)
A female and two males which resemble the type in all characters. C\i\e\ viridis

There are no structural differences from the type. They resemble specimens I have
seen from Gambia and Uganda. The abdomen is unhanded, otherwise the species looks
at first much like Culex fatigans, Wied., or Culex pallidocephala, Theob.

It has been recorded from Uganda, Gambia, Sierra Leone, and before from the Sudan
(Fii-st Report, p. 73). The pleura are very green just as described in the type. The colour
was not due to verdigris showing through the pale grey pleura as I at one time thought.

The rich green pleura? are very
characteristic of the species. The
female palp and second antennal
segment show the difference between
the two allied species and viridis,
which I undoubtedly placed all as
one in the previous report.

Culex pallidocei^hala, Theobald
First Report, Well. Labs., G. C,
p. 73 (1904)
The female only of this species Cuiex
has been previously recorded.

Several males have recently been
taken, from one of which the present
description is drawn up.

^ Head deep brown, with
narrow-curved grey scales, with a
median dividing line, numerous up-
right black and ochreous forked

pallidocephala

Fig. 38. — CuLE.\ pallidocephala, Theo. d"

80

REPORT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

Mansonia (?)
nigra

scales and some black bristles; palpi iluskv brown, almost Mack almiy the two apical
segments and on the apex of the antepenultimate, traces of a pale band (very narrow)
towards the base ; hair-tufts deep brown ; proboscis deep brown, thin.

Thorax mudi as in the female, l(Ut the scanty ornamentation not so distinct ; plcunr
pale with imlistinct patches of grey scales.

Abdomen deep brown, hairy, the segments witli tiasal white lateral spots, the last
segmi'Ut with a basal whit*' band, posterior border-bristles pale golden, short ; lateral hairs
very long, golden brown ; basal segment testaceous, with two ])roniinent tufts of black scales.
Owing to scanty sealing the abdomi-n appears to be basally pale banded.

Legs deep blackish-lirown, unbanded ; the coxjo an<l base and venter of femora creamy

white ; a faint, pale, knee spot and a small spot at
the apex of the tibiie. Ungues of the fore legs and
mill legs unequal, both uniserrated ; the larger fore
unguis more curved tluiii tlic mid; liiinl ones ciiual
and simple.

Genitalia (Fig. 39), with broad flat claspers, ending
abruptly in a narrow portion; the foliate plate very
bruad and witli longitudinal striae ; three long flattened
processes at the side, between the clasper and the
foliate plate; the middle spines are the largest, the
third of these are the shortest; there is also a single
spine bent like a fish hook.

Tile two apical segments of tlie i>alpi of nearly
(M|iial length.

The vein scales on the apices of the veins rather
broader than usual. First subniarginal cell longer
and narrower tlian the second posterior cell, their bases
about level ; stem of the first subniarginal rather less
than half the length of the cell ; stem of the second
posterior not quite as long as the cell ; posterior cross-vein nearly twice its own length
distant from tlic mid cross-vein.
I.i'uijtli. 4 mm.
Habitat. Upper White Nile.

Observation. Described from three nudes. Two have been dissected. Tlic male
genitalia are very marked, otherwise the male might be mistaken for Culex riridis, Theobald.
The iiale i)leura' difl'crs from the female tyjie in which the pleunc are dark, but the
latter effect is undoubtedly due to the body being filled with blood.

The pale scaled head and scutellum should easily separate it without microscopic
examination.

Genus Mansoni.\, Blancliard

Comp. licnd., Ilebd. Soc. d. Biol., 37, T. liii., p. lUlO (UJOl)

Mono. Culicid. II., p. 173 (1901)

Mansonia (?) nigra, nov. sp.

Thorax very dark brown, with dark brown and golden scales forming an irregular

ornamentation. Proboscis black, with a narrow white band towards its ba.se. Abdomen

black, with narrow, somewhat irregular, white bands and a few scattered white scales

KiG. 89.— Ci:lkx pallidocrpiiai.a, Theob. S
Left side of genitalia

EEPORT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

81

and golden bristles. Legs deep blackish-brown, with some of the segments with narrow
white basal bands, and a few scattered pale scales over the larger segments. Wings with
very deep brown and white scales.

$ Head deep bluckish-brown, clothed with rather broad pale narrow-curved scales on
the occiput, smaller narrow-curved golden ones around the eyes and pale upright forked
scales, the sides with grey and black flat scales. Proboscis black scaled with a narrow white
band towards its base, and a few white scales here and there on the apical part ; palpi rather
swollen apically, clotlied witli deep lilaek scales, and with two irregular narrow bands of
white scales on the basal half ; clypeus black ; antennas very deep brown with brown
verticillate hairs ; basal segment deep black \\'ith grey sheen around the summit, and with
some small flat creamy scales.

Thorax deep blackish-brown, clothed with narrow-curved, bronzy-brown scales and
irregularly ornamented with broader narrow-curved golden scales, with broadish narrow-curved
white and black scales at the siiles, just before the roots of the wings; a marked pale area in
front of the roots of the wings, and pale scales on each side of the bare space in front of
the scutelluni, nnich denuded, deep blackish-l)rown with curved pale golden scales on the
mid-lobe, with, apparently, a few Hat pale ones basally, side lobes with a few flat black
scales ; metanotum deep brownish-black ; pleuras deep brown, with small flat creamy scales.

Abdomen densely clothed with flat black scales, with irregular apical, very narrow bands
of white scales, the last few segments with traces of median lateral creamy patches, and a
few scattered pale scales over all the segments.

Legs black scaled, the metatarsi and first three tarsi of all the legs, with narrow white
basal bands, and a few pale scattered
scales on all the femora and tibia; ;
ungues equal and simple.

Wings with large black and white
Mansonia scales, those on the sixth
vein large and irregularly heart-shaped ;
posterior border scales of the fringe
large, with long apical serrations,
continuations of the scale ribs ; first
sub-marginal cell longer and narrower
than the second posterior cell, their
bases nearly level, stem of the first
sul)-marginal rather more than one-third
the length of the cell ; stem of the
second posterior rather more than two-
thirds the length of the cell ; posterioi-
cross-vein about twice its own lengtli
distant from the mid.

7-7 1 o Fin. 40. — Mansonia nigra, n. sp. 2

jciKjtli. ±6 mm. ^

Hahltat. Sudan, Bine Nile (Mr. Friedrichs).

Ohxi'rrafioiis. A very dark species, looking almost black, witli paler markings. The
wing scales present a slight modification in certain areas to the true Mansonia type, but
most are normal. Those on the sixth vein are very large and irregularly heart-shaped.

Unfortunately the scutellum was partly denuded, but as far as I can detect there are

82 REI'OUT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

a fow lint 8calus on tlic latunil lobus left iiiid a IfW at tlio base of thu iiiiil lulio, if tlu'se are in
their normal position tlic species must form the type of a new genus. As there were some
other detached scales on the scutellum, clearly head scales, it may be that the flat ones are
also stray ones from another part of the body.

The species is very marked, but the exact generic position must be left pro lem.

Dr. Halfour, who sent the specimen, pointeil out that there were bluish-purple and
green scales laterally on the abdomen. I eouM not detect these, probably owing to
fading after death.

Genus iEDEOMYi.\, Theobald
Mono. Culicid. II., p. '218 (19U1)
ACdivtinjia mjuammipeiiita, Arribalnaga
Mono. Culicid. II., p. 219 (1901)

itdcomyia This (juaint iEdinc was taken some years ago by Dr. Loat on a snu\ll lake eight miles

squammipennn r i i i

11(1111 ( loiidokoro.

It lias since been taken by {lolonel IViitoii, I'.iM.U., on the Jur river, a tributary of the
Bahr-El-Ghazal, in November.

This .^dine can In told at onre by tlie Mansonia-likc wing scales.

The thorax is brown, witii scattered creamy scales, which become white at the
sides and behind ; the scutellum is ochreous with black scales on the side lobes, ochreous
ones on the mid lobe.

The brownish alidoiiuii has two patches of cicaiiiy scales on the apices and two patches
of white scales on tlic base of tlie segments, the apical segments are often all yellow sealed.
The legs are mottled ami banded with creamy, purple and white scales, the apices of the
mid femora having dense tufts of dark scales.

The wings have mottled yellow and deep purple-brown scales with normally three white
costal patches, the two mi<Idle ones forming two bands going partly across the wings, the
apical one also continues as a broken banil around the end of the wing, and there is also
a pale patch between each band in the middle of the wing field.

The length varies from 35 in the male to 4"5 in the female.

Dr. l^alfour points out that the specimen taken by Colonel Pcnton has four silvery
white wing spots, and the dense femoral tufts project forward anteriorly.

This insect occurs in South and Central America, West Indies, India, and Malay, and
I expect Skuses' ^Udes venuxtipes from near Sydney is the same insect.

It seems to inhabit houses and open country indiscriminately and bites, but not as a
rule very severely.

Genus ru.VNOT.iONl.A, Arribal/aga
Dipt. Argentina, p. 63 (1899); Mono. Culicid. II., p. 211 (1903)
Uranotcenia ba/fiiun'. Tlicdbald
First Kept. ^Y(■ll^onl.■ Ites. Labs., p. 82 (1904) .
Uranoi.x-nia The female oiilv lias been descril)ed. In a recent small consignment sent me are two

baUouri

more much nibbed females and a nearly perfect nuile which is described here.

i Head deep brown, clothed in the middle with flat dusky scales, the sides with flat
grey and blue scales, deep bro\ni behind ; there are also a few iijiright deep brown forkeil
scales; cephalic idia'ta' black.

Antciime |ilumose. the segments half brown, half grey; plume-hairs dark brown; basal

EEPORT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 83

segment very large, deep brown ; clypeus prominent, black ; palpi very minute, deep black ;
proboscis black, swollen apically.

Mesothorax deep brown with narrow-cnrved bro\vn scales, apparently a line of blue
scales before the root of the wings as in the female ; scutellum brown with deep-brown small
flat scales and four bristles to the mid lobe ; metanotum pale brown basally, dark brown
apically ; pleurae brown with some pale and azure blue flat scales.

Abdomen as in the female. Legs deep brown with bronzy sheen (ungues absent).
Wings with brown scales very similar to those of the female, and with a row of flat white
scales at the base of the fifth long vein ; the upper branch of the first fork-cell not as close
to the first longitudinal vein as in the female ; the stem of the second posterior about one and
a half times the length of the second fork- cell, the mid cross-vein longer than the others.

Lefigth. 2 mm.

Habitat. Goz-abu-Guma, White Nile. (Dr. Balfour).

Observations. Described from a nearly perfect male, but with somewhat rubbed body.
The two females are just the same as in the type. The male wing venation cannot well be
made out as only one wing was left on the specimen and that was crumpled, but the general
appearance is that of the female.

PART II
Human and Animal Pests

depressa

The Maggot Fly
{Bengalia depressa, Walker) Bengaiia

Dr. Balfour has had this insect sent him from the Bahr-El-Ghazal province, and has
also given me a larva from the back of a native, which is undoubtedly the maggot of this
fly. The iVIaggot Fly [Bengalia depressa. Walker), is a well-known human and animal
pest in parts of Africa. It is also known under the generic name Anc.hmerovv/ia. The
larva is, however, very different from that of Aitchmeromyia luteola Fabricius, the Congo
Floor Maggot.

The larva or maggot, which resembles a small "bot" or larval oestrid fly, lives under
the skin, producing so-called cutaneous myiasis. There are other instances of cutaneous
myiasis, notably in the Cayor Fly {OcJiromyia anthropopliaga, Blanchard) which attacks
man in Senegal, especially in the south in Cayor. The larvae called " ver du Cayor "
develop in the skin of man, eats, dogs, jackals, etc.

A closely related species occurs in the South East of Africa. The larva of this fly is
very similar to the one described here, which is evidently that of the Bengalia that occurs
in the Sudan. The Bengalia occurs in numbers in Natal, but according to Fuller (1) the
range of the fly seems limited to the coast and no further inland than the 1,000 foot
elevation. It is common from the Tugela downwards, and is particularly abundant about
Verulam and Durban, but not so much so to the south of the port. It is also recorded
further up the coast from Delagoa Bay.

Mr. F. P. Mennell of the Rhodesian Museum, Buluwayo, informs (2) me " That like
most undesirable insects, it seems to have its headquarters in Rhodesia." It also ranges
into British Central Africa and Uganda.

84

nErOUT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

Till' saiiio forrt'spoiiiliiif says tluit iiriiiiinl liiiliiwnyo, 4,500 feet above sea level antl
400 mill's froni tiic nearest point on the const, it is coniiiiun, while at Salisbury,
5,000 fi'i't. it is an even more serious nuisunce.

As it has now been fouiul in tiie Sudan it is iirubulilc that it (Kcurs all over Ciiitral
Afriea us well us on the Kast Coast.

Tile tiv is lialf an iiuii luiin; with wing expanse of about an inch. 'Die heail is large,
with two prominent ilark eyes, brown in eolor with yellowish brown between the eyes. The
thorax is rusty- to yellowish- brown with dark lateral antl dorsal elnetie. The abdomen is
pale browii, darker at the apex with two dusky buixls, pale below. The legs of a similar
tint to the pale eolor of tile tliorax. The transparent wings are tinged, especially at their
ba.ses, with dusky brown. The fleshy moutli parts are not ada{)ted to pierce the skin, on
the other hand the female has a sharp needle-like ovijMisitor.

The om according to Fuller, are elongated and wliite and aiiuut :!-.")Uths of an inch in

length.

The hirrit, which Was obtained
by Captain Lyie Cummins, is
creamy white in color with deep
brown si)ines. (Fuller describes
the maggot as " of a white or
dirty-whitish color and much be-
sprinkled >vith minute black spots
which, as a matter of fact, are
really spines.)

When mature it reaches half-
an-inch in length. The larva .sent
by ])r. Balfour, described here, is
evidently iiniiiature being only 8 mm.
long.

The cephalad area has two
blunt processes, each of which bears a sniall blunt niannnilliforni process. The two
mandibles which project ventrally, are very thick, curved and biaik, there being apparently
a serrated basal plate to each one.

The first segment has on the dorsum short brown thorn-like spines on the anterior moiety,
the posterior area being nude, and there are also two lateral pairs of short jiapilla'. At the base
of this segment is noticed a small reddish-brown spot on each .side ; the second and third
.segments have short dark spines on their anterior moieties, especially pronounced on the
second ; the third, fourth, tiftli and sixth segments have many similar spines all over them,
the seventh has verv much smaller, paler and scanty ones, the eighth and ninth have none.
The anal segment bears two gronjis of s])ira(des, arrangeil three in each group ; tiiese are all
curved, the two outiT ones outwards, the middle curveil towards the outer one ; spiraeular
areas brown. The segments are deeply constricte<l and the spines are particularly prominent
on the lateral borders.

Ventrally the larva is spiny just as it is dorsally.

The jiiijiariiiw, according to Fuller, is stout and oval, dark purple in color, and as a
rule covered with a mealy downi.

According to Alennell the fly deposits its eggs in tlir iiair or clothing, the latter being

Fig. 41. -I1k.ngai.ia nnpKK.'isA, Walk.
Niital to the Bahr-Kl-Ohazal

Vt^llowi>h brown. marKins of abdominal segments dark brown; legs same
color .'IS body ; wings brownish.

BEPORT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 85

apparently often selected when hanging uut to dry, so imieli su tliat in certain parts of Africa
it is dangerons to wear woollen clothing next to the skin.

Fuller mentions that it is averred that the flies lay their eggs upon bedding. The
sharp ovipositor seems to point to their being able to lay their eggs directly in the skin.

The eggs when laid in the former position hatch out rapidly, and the larviE bury
themselves under the skin. They at first produce a boil or swelling which leads to
inflammation, which becomes most painful owing to the accumulation of excreta and the
rasping movements of the spiny maggot. Occasionally this throws the patient into a violent
fever.

In one case, recorded by Fuller, a child under six months had between twenty and thirty
maggots taken from its scalp. In the majority of eases, Fuller states, the scalp seems the
part most subject to invasion. They are, nevertheless, frequently found in the nose, back,
chest, arms, buttocks and legs, and one case is recorded where the maggot occurred in the
finger of a baby, and in two cases in the scrotum.

Mennell says that he believes that " if undisturbed, the larvaj emerge in the course of
about a fortnight." Information on this point is given by Fuller, who was informed by a
correspondent that he " noticed a maggot fly in his tent on the Tuesday of one week, and on
the following Saturday suffered from an itching in the arm and chest. On Monday the spots
had taken the form of blind boils, with a black speck in the centre of each. A week later
maggots measuring one-third of an inch were expressed from the boils. The fly observed was
caught and UvIikj magijoU extruded from the abdomen when squeezed."

I have added the italics as this statement seems to point to the fact that the fly is at
times viviparous.

Infection may take place either at night or during the daytime.

The adult is very sluggish in nature and does not move about on windy days.

Mennell has had the flies settle on him in the daytime and found them very difficult to
drive away, but easily killed when thev settle.

Pupation fakes place on the ground just as in the (JEstrldcc

After the maggot leaves the skin the wound heals rapidly if treated with antiseptics,
but a very pronounced scar remains for a long time.

Besides man, Bemjalia depressa attacks dogs, rabbits, and other animals.

BiBLlOGEAPHY

1. Fuller, C. : The Agricultural Journal of Natal, Vol. IV., No. 21, p. 656 to 658,

Dec. 20 (1901).

2. Theobald, F. V. : Second Report on Economic Zoology, British Museum (Nat. Hist.),

p. 112 (1904).

3. Mennell, F. P. : Proceedings of the Rhodesia Scientific Association, Vol. IV., Pt. 1.,

pp. 7-9.

4. Peringuey, L. : Transactions of the South African Philosophical Society, Various.

The Congo Floor Maggot
[Auchmcromyia hiteola, Fabricius)
A specimen of this fly was taken by Dr. Sheffield Neave, in the Sudan. The fiv is Auchmeromyia
well known and is widely distributed in both tropical and subtropical Africa.

Its interest lies in the strange habits and blood-loving propensities of the maggots of
the fly which have been recently shown by Drs. Dufton, Todd and Christy (Reports of the

86 UKl'OUT ON KCONOMIC KNTOMOLOOY

TrypuiiosDniiiisis Kx|)c<liti()n to tlio Coii^'o, I'.td.i-I'tit I. .Mciiioir XIII.. i,ivi iinuil Sdiool of
TiDpiiai .Mtiliiiiic. I'.tli4).

Tlif iiliuvf - iLiciitioiici! geiitli'iiK'ii showed that tlie niugjiots occur in numbers in tiic
native liuts in tlie Congo region. At niglit tliey crawl out uf the crevices of tin- muii floors
am! from umlcr the sleeping inat.-s, ami suck tlic liioud of mu'M, women ami cliiiiln-ii, ami then
J ntuni tu tlieir siielters.

Tiu- nuiggots are normally dirty white, but after a meal of blood they become red in
colour.

The following is the original description : " Tlie larva is broadest at the ninth and tenth
segments, is roughly ovoid in transverse section, and has, distinctly, dorsal and ventral
surfaces. At the junction of the two surfaces is a row of irregular protuberances, two or
more being placed on each segment. On each protuberance is a small posteriorly directed

I

FlC. 42. .\l'ClfMKKOMYIA LUTIioLA, Fabr. ?

Nigeria to Natal.

Body antl legs ycllowbh buflT ; bruad dark band across abdomen bluibh-black.

By kind p^rmiision o/'* Htit. M^d. Ji'tirn,"

Spine ami a small pit. The central part of the ventral point is Hattuueil, and at the posterior
margin of each segment is a set of three foot-pads transversely arranged, each covered with
small spines directed backwards. These aiil tlie larva in its iiioviiiients, which are fairlv
rapiil and peculiar in that the iiimitli parts are protruded to the utmost aii<l the teiitacula
fi.\ed, as a purcha.se, first on one sitle and then on the other, while a wave of contraction runs
along the body as each segment is contracted and brought forward. The last segment is
larger than the others. Its upper surface is flattened, and looks backwards and upwards at
an angle of about 45 degrees with the longitudinal a.xis of the larva. This surface is
roughly hexagonal and bears anteriorly, one on eitlier side, the posterior spiracles, which are
seen with a pocket magnifying glass as three transverse, parallel, hruwn lines.

" Around the flattened surface towards its border are placed groups of ratlier pniniimnt
spines. The ventral surface of this segment is also flattened, and is thrown into folds by
muscular contractions. The anus is situated in the anterior portion of this segment in the
midille line, and is seen as a longitudinal slit surrounded by a low ridge.

" Posterior to it, and on either side, is a large conspicuous spine. The anterior segment
is roughly conical, and bears the mouth parts in front. Posteriorly, on the dorsal surface, are

EEPOET ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

87

two spiracles, seen with a low power as small browu spots. Two black hooks protrude from
the apex of this segment. The apex of each hook is blunt, and its base surrounded by a
fleshy ring. Between them is the oral orifice. Paired groups of minute spicular teeth are
placed around the two tentacula so as to form a sort of cupping instrument.

" The arrangement of the teeth is as follows: — A rather large tubercle situated on either
side of and above the tentacula ; each is mounted by two or more groups of very small
chitinous teeth. Just above each tentaculum is another small group of teeth. On either
side of these black tentacula two irregular rows of small teeth are placed one above the other."

Their larvae do not occur in the same way as those of the Bcmjalia, namely, under
the skin causing true myiasis.

Annoyance caused by Stingless Bees
(Melipona f<pp.)

Mr. Harold Brown, of the Imperial Institute, sent me some bees from the Sudan which Mei'pona spp.
cause considerable annoyance. They prove to be Melipona breccavii Gribodo. Mr. Brown
found them in numbers in the Bahr-El-Ghazal during a recent visit for the purpose of
investigating the rubber vines of the country. They occur in enormous numbers in those
parts of the forest where large trees occur. They do not sting but settle on one's face in
considerable numbers, and unless constantly removed they persist in crawling into one's eyes,
ears, and nose, and cause much irritation. When crushed they emit a very strong aromatic
odour, something like very ranlc oil of rose geranium. Mr. Brown could not find any flower
possessing a similar odour.

The nest was observed by Mr. Brown who described it in his letter to me as follows : —
" The nest is situated in the trunk of a large tree
about seven feet from the ground ; it had a short
tubular opening apparently made of wax and about
the thickness .of a pencil which projected about
three-fourths of an inch from the bark and was
curved downwards. Through this passage there was
a constant stream of insects going and coming."

The genus Melipona has a very wide distribution
in America, Africa, Asia and Australia.

The members of the genus occurring in Burma
also cause much annoyance to travellers by creeping
into the mouth, eyes, and getting into the hair.

None of the genus possess stings. The annoyance
is solely caused by the irritation produced by their
movements and by their bites.

Bates, in his well-known work on the Amazon
River, gives an account of one of this genus Melipona
fasciculuta, Smith, in America. He states that the
workers may generally be seen collecting pollen, but
many collect clay. They construct their combs in
any suitable crevice in the trunks of trees or perpen-
dicular banks, the clay is used to build up a wall to
close the gap, a small entrance hole only being left.
One species he mentions forms a trumpet-shaped entrance

Fig. 43. — Hind leg of Mcli/>ana brcccarii Gribodo
(enlarged)

A Enlarged apex of tibia; n Wax cutting organ at

apex of the first tarsal segment ; c Ungues

and pulviUus

to the hive as Mr. Brown

HK

UKl'OUT ON KC'ONOMIU KNTOMOI.OOY

Fig. 44. —Apex ol' Antcnnii of MclipPHa
^rvrcftrif Gribodo (enlarged)

t)l)si'rvc(l. At this fiitrimcc scvrral nf tlusc [li^'iiiy Ixis iirc .statiunol to net as scntini'ls.
,)A7iy(o/;(( _/((.<(•/(•»/.(/.( proiliici'S a |jlcii.siiiit lii|uiil lioiicy, tn tin- (xtciit of alioiit two (|uarts
ill inch lU'st.

They l>itc furiously wlicii disturlMil. A large iiuiiilicr of s|iicics occur iu America —
Hates t'liuml no less than forty-tivi — tiie largest i)eiiig half an inch in size; tlie snuilletit

one-twelfth of an inch, am! he says "these tiny fellows are
often very troublesome on account of their familiarity ; they
settle on one's face and hands, and in crawling ahunt get
into the eyes ami mouth or up the nostrils."

The Soiitli AiMnican Siianianls call tJKiu '■Angelitos"
(little angels) hecau.se they do not sting.

These Melipoiiiv^ nevertheless, cause great annoyance to
man.

In a [lajx'r on Jices, liy Riley (Insect Life, Vol. VI.,
p. HtjO) we learn that the MrH/KiiKr construct cells of a dark unctuous wax in regular combs
and are somewhat imperfectly hexagonal. They are, liowever. in single horizontal tiers,
separated and supported by intervening pillars, more
like the n<'sts of the social wasps, and tin- cili is sealed
after the egg is laid upon the stored food, just as in
the case of solitary bees. The honey is stored in
moilitieil Hask-shaped cells, -auA oidy one (jueen is
allowed to protluce eggs.

Sir Alfreil Moloney, writing from British Honduras
to Professor Kiley in 180;^, said, " a considerable
industry might be locally developeil in tlie wax."
The species referred to was Mi'lijidim j'lixcicii/'dii,
Smith.

The species from the Sudan have been named by
Colonel Bingham, one of the chief antiiorities on
Aculeate Hymenoptera, and he informs me they are
MelijiiiiKi Inrcciirii, Gribodo (Ann. Mus. Viv. Gni.,
XIV., p. 840, 1871)). This bee
described from Abyssinia.

There was also a single speeiuien (jf Mill/iiiini
nixjfoia, Mayrette (Ann. Mns. Civ. Grn., XXXIX., p. 27, 1898)
The structure of the hind legs is verv marked (Fig. 43).

'^^^^^

Fig. 4.S.— I.ipoptera ibicis (n. sp. ?)

Front of head yellowish brown; thor.-ix, median area
. . II of head, and ba-T of .ibdomen brown; rcm.iinder of
was originally abdomen dull yellowish or brownish, with median row
of shining brown patches ; legs yellowish brown.

V yellowish brown ; n brown ; u dull yellowish
or brownish

Kipopler.!

ibici.s

.\ I'l IH'AIIOlS DllTKUON
/.ijiiiji/irii 1/iirl.t, nov. sp. (?)*
/•'riiiiilf. Deep brown, with testaceous brown legs. Head wider than the anterior,
narrower than the posterior part of the thorax, deeply sunk into the thorax. Antcnnii'
completelv imbedded in the sucki'ts with three teriiiiii;il bristles, the me(|ian slightly the
longest. The two |)lates forming the sheath of the proboscis short and l>liiiit, terminating
in several short and two lateral long bristles; eyes narrowly oval, between them on each side

• This m»y Ix: L. ehnleomelnun, Speis, fuuud at Sunkin, on Ibex and dtwcribcd iu 1904, but without
i-uiii|uiriiii; tlu' fiKit with this «|)Cfic» it is uot ijossililo to sjiy. A series in the Uritish Mnsunm from l\vx at
Suakiii 1i:ls uut iK'eii named.

EEPORT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

89

a -,

Fig. 46.— Ungues and bristle of hind leg of Lipoptera ibicis
n. sp. a Ungues ; c basal process ; b and ^1 bristle

are two groups of three, equidistant thick spines, two ocelli on the basal region of the head.

The thorax is narrowed in front, widening out posteriorly ; the prothorax is a small plate

extending across the thorax, openly wedge-shaped posteriorly. The mesothorax is the

major area, and has numerous long thick needle-like spines ; it has a distinct humeral

swelling over the mesothoracic legs. In front, just behind the prothoracie legs, are two

swellings, somewhat ragged or irregular apically, the remnants of the wings. The

scutellum is uni-lobed with apparently six large

black bristles on the posterior border. The

whole of the thorax is fused into one piece.

There is a distinct median and transverse suture.

The abdomen is oval, deeply indented apically,

the apical segments being enclosed in .i pit

formed by the prolongation of the anterior

segments as two blunt processes on each side.

The whole abdomen is covered with thick,

black thuru-like spines, which are particularly

long on the apices of the lateral lobes ; the

small imbedded apical segments have fine hair-like chcetie.

Anterior legs with the short thick femora spinose ; the tihite with a few fine hairs and a
strong internal apical spine ; basal tarsal segment spinose, the rest hirsute ; ungues much
curved, thick, the inner edge finely serrated with a large blunt basal process ; the median
process short and thick, with hairs on each side, terminating bluntly ; mid legs very similar
but shorter and thicker than the fore and the ungues thicker ; in the hind
legs the tibiae are also spinose and the ventral tarsal spines are more
pronounced than in the anterior legs, and the ungues are less curved, and
the median plumose spine is acute
Lfii'ith. 4 to 4-5 mm.

Mule. Three ocelli present. Thorax narrower and smaller than in
the female, the scutellum relatively larger and three lobed, and the
spines on the thorax are fewer. Abdomen more rouiiiled apically than
in the female, and the external genitalia (Fig. 47) are prominent and consist of two
chitinous lateral valves with the penis projecting between. The ungues are rather shorter
and broader, and the median bristle is thin and acuminate with a few hair-like spines
pointing forwards on each side.

Length. 4 mm.

Locality. The Sudan, Eed Sea Province.

Ohservatioiin. This Pupiparous dipteron was found by Dr. Crispin on an Ibex. It
resembles MelopIuiyHa but does not belong to that genus on account of having ocelli.

The IJpoptents* are winged at first but their wings are cast when they take up their
abode on their host. In this species the areas to which the wings are attached are very
marked.

The male has quite a ilitt'erent shaped process between the ungues to tlie female.

The description is drawn up from a male and female mounted in xylol balsam. It
is closely related to fJiniptcni cervi, Nitzsch, but differs from the specimen I have.

Fig. 47. — Lipoptera

ihicis n. sp.

Male genitalia

The geuus is usually called Lipopte«a, but it should uudoul»tcdly be Lipoptera a;> yiveu by

Siebold aud Loew.

90

KEl'OUT ON KCONOMIC KNTOMOLOOY

1 1 ippoboscidor

'rill. l'"oi;i.sT KiiKs (Hii>i>i>lii>sriilii) ov Tin: Sihan and KcivrT
Four sntrii's iif //i/'juit'osiii uccnr in tlif Sinlaii :iii<l K^'yiit, iiuincly :— //''/'/'"''"•""■(t

e</iliii<i, ]>iim, //. riiiiirliiiii, Ijcacll, //. iiiniiihilii, Ja-iic1i mill //.Jiuiiiilllniil, lil'lll-ll.

Tlusc II its liiivc all siiiiiliir liabits, lieing partially imrasitic on animals. Tlii-y have

(at least, tlirei- of tlu-ni) a very wide distribution.
Till' sjn'cies found most frequently on
liorsi'S, asses and unilcs, //. <■<//(/;/« occurs in
Europe, Asia and Africa. It is also recorded
from America by Loew and Lugger (" Silliman's
.loiiiiial " and 2iid Kiport Minn., 1896, 143) ;
but Aldrich states that it must be very rare
there, as he has never seen it in any collection
nor known of its capture by any entomologist.
(Catal. N. Aiiicr. J)ii.t., p., O.W, 19U5.) It
also occurs in New Ciilcdoiiia.

The FoH'st or Spider Flics arc llattened,
leathery ami lousc-likc in aj)pearance, and
have tluir aiitcnnai embedded in pits. Round
or oval eyes ; no ocelli, thus clifferiii}; from
/.ijio/i/ii<i. The abdomen is sack-like, and
shows iiut fiiint traces oi segmentation ; and
tlieir siuirt and stout spiny legs end in
various appendages. They are all provided
with a pair uf ample wings during the whole of their life. The structure of tlie claws and
other foot appendages as the pulvilli and feather-bristles is very marked. Some of the
chief differences are shown in Figure 53.

These parasitic diptera i)roduce their young in the puparium stage.
These puparia are passed out of the body of the female, often only a
short time before the flies are ready to escape, and are of relatively large scitkuh m of //. ^<./«-i
size compared to the .iiinensions of tlie adulls. vcnrrli.rbro.n'^r

The adults fly with short (piick movements and hold to the hair
of their host with great pertinacity.

They produce great irritation on the animals ^
tliey iiiva<le. The nioiitli is in tlii' form of a short, \-.^
sJiiirp sucking and piercing proboscis.

Thev are not only of iiiinortance as parasites,

•' / ' . Kig. !>0

but thev niav be connected in some cases with the pi:i'AKitM<.f//. ..i«-

* . ' r/lHit

dissemination of Trypanosomiasis. Dark brown

The Spotted Forest Fly {/liji/i<i/io.ic<i imtfu-
latti, Leach) occurs in Africa and India. I lui
received specimens from the West Coast, Egypt ^^

and the Sudan. It lives upon the horse, cattle, scitelu m of //. /"■«•
and will attack dogs. This species can be told Paicydio.-

by the scutellum being dark with three yellow spots, of which the median one is much

the largest.

Fig. 48. — IlippoBO.sCA camhlina, Leach

Arabi.i and S<)m.ililand to Algeria

Body and 1ck> reddish to dark brown ; light markings of

ImmIv. \'rllow

mm

Fig. 49

m^^tr €iL

Fig. 52.— Hirp. maculata

THORAX

I.tffht markinK^ pale yellow ;
rem:tuitler rcddUh ■ brown nr
brown.

PLATE X

1^

--. __

-

iU^^^^

■-=:

^^^^^ '" ■ '^jfSf-

*

y

-.^

^^1^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

•^

Wings of Hippoboscid^e

1 Hippobosca francillo

2 H. camelina.
(Magnified seven times.)

3 H. maculata.

92

HKI'OUT OS KCONOMU; KNTOMOLOOY

'I'lic |)(ig f^pidiT FIv ( //. i'niiirilliiiii Iji'iicli {=riiiiiii<i l\i)ii<liiiii) is [paler ill ciiidr and
siiuillcr, mill the Hcutt'lluni is ciitinly \»i\v y^'Huw. inortoviT the win^-vciiis arc rusty-nd.
Altliuiigli it is I'ssi'iitiitlly a caniiu' pest, it may also !"■ fDiiiid on otlur aiiiiiials. It occurs
in Africa. India, Persia and in Southern Europe.

The Horse Forest Flv ( //. tqniiKi \j.) differs from tlie former in lieing darker, and in
having the scutellum dark with a median pale patch (riilr Fig. 49).

The Camel Forest Fly ( //. r,iiii<liiiii, Iiea<h> is miirh larger than the preceding, and
can also lie distinguished liy its seutellar markings.

This species has also beeu sent nie from the West Coast (Seuegainbiii).

Fi^. ^3. -I'nKUCs, pulvilli, etc., of Hippohoscidte

K Itiftpflbinca cnmftitia ? ; n\ fcathcr-brislle ; u //. macutata ? : h, h\ and h2 feather-bristle ;

( and i I pulvillu> ; r H.taniMa ? ; (/feather-bristle; r And t\ pulvillus ; l» H.fguiHa\

yandyl feather-bristle ; £ pulvillus of ? ; ^-I of <^

The •■ featlier-liristle " between the ungues in //. ruiiifHiiii is simple except at the base,
not spiny as in the others, nor can I detect the pad-like pulvilli seen in the rest. The
diflferences are very marked in the claws and central processes, as shown in the figures
(x 1! (■ and II, Fig. 58).

The pii|)aria of all these four species are jilaced amongst the hairs of the host. They
are all very similar in form (Fig. 50). The color is deep brown when mature.

The markings on the scutellum are constant in all the Northern African specimens I
have seen, but according to Austen they are variable, so cannot be relied on to separate
the species. Tlii' (igiires of the wings and the feet will, iiowever. sntlice to separate them,
and I have invariably been able to do so niy.selt by the seutellar markings.

REPORT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

93

PART III

Vegetal Pests

Notes on some Vegetal Pests

Several interesting vegetal enemies have been collected by Dr. Balfour.

These include a new (Jutton Pest — a small Halticid beetle — known as Ni.wtni imifoDiiis
of Jacuby.

A land or shield bug (Li/(jiru.-< niiUfnrig, Fab.), which does much harm to dura, is
also briefly reported, and a new dipterous enemy of midons, which is likely to prove a
serious pest.

The Cotton Aphis of the Sudan will be described later. It proves to be the same as
that foun<l in Egypt, which as far as I can at present make out, is the Aphis malvce,
Koch, described many years ago.

A new enemy of the dura Aphis, a lady bird, is also added to the list of those mentioned
in the previous report, namely, Ecochroniiix vigromacuJatux, Goeze.

Other Aphides Inive been received, but time has not allowed their being worked out.

At present we must acknowledge we know nothing of the Vegetal enemies of the Sudan,
and these can onlv be properly worked out by ii resident entomologist. My remarks are
purely tentative.

The ]\Ielon Fkuit Fly

(^J)acnx^ sp.)

Amongst the Diptera we find }>csts of every possible description. Those that attack Dacus, sp.
fruit are the most difficult to cope with of all, and unfortumxtely they are easily distributed
from country to country. Thus we find the Mediterranean Fruit Fly (Ci'ratiti.i cajntafu of

Wiedermann) even in Australia
where it is reported as doing
miTch harm in Western Aus-
tralia, etc.

This pest has also been dis-
tributed to South Africa where
it is the source of much loss
to fruit growers in the Cape
and Natal. This fruit fiy
attacks a great variety of
fruits ; apples, peaches, nectar-
ines, guavas, persinnnons, etc.

The Apple maggot ( '/'rnjif/n
pvmonclla, Walsh) is another
which occurs in America where
it does much harm.

The Mediterranean Fruit
Fly is most dc^structive of all known species, for in Bermuda it entirely stopped the !
cultivation of peaches ; in Malta it has been most harmful to oranges. For a time it did
so much damage in the Azores that one-third of the oranges sent to London were found to

YH

Fig. 54. — The Melon Fruit Fly i^Dacns, sp.)
: yellowish ; BY - bright yellow ; SO = slaty grey : Y = yellow ; B - brown ;
DB = deep brown ; PY = pale yellow.

94

REPORT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

ho unsound. Tlic Queenslnnd Fruit Fly (/>'/'».< li/ronl, Froggatt) also does much damage.
Closely related to it is the Guava Fruit Fly ( Dtieun piKulll, Froggatt^, which attacks
Guavas in new Caledonia, and the South Sea Fruit Fly (Triijiflu niiinfr, Froggatt)
which is fouml in bananas from tlic New Iltliridi's. A well-known species, Ifucun
I'trniijiiirii*, attacks fruit in India.

Now we have to add another species attacking the melon in the Sudan.

The larva- were sent to Dr. Balfour ami to Mrs. IJroun liy Mr. Durrani, and the (1y
was bred out by them. Dr. Halfour sent me the laboratory specimens.

This insect comes very near to Froggatt's species, /funis ti/roni, the Queensland
Maggot Fly, but it is quite distinct.

The genus /hirw, differs from Crnil'itit, in having a less reticulate basal area to
the wings, and from Trypcta in having the wings unadorned witji dark anas over their

Fi^;. .''.''. -TiiK Mklon Fkiut Fi.v {Dactts sp.)

A Larva (enlarged five limes) ;_ <?! Spiracular plate ; tt2 further enlarged spiracle : aZ ventral

process ; rt4 and aG side view and front view o( head ; ah mandibles ; l» puparium ;

c further enl;irge<l (losterior end of D

greater surface. The rot these maggots cause in fruit is very serious and according to
Dr. IJalfour the Sudan Melon Fly will probably prove a very serious enemy just as
the others do in various parts of the world.

The Sudan iiieioii llv is soiiicwliat wasp-lilce in general appearance. The head is
yellowish between the eyes, wliieh are large and dark, there is a dark spot on the occiput and
two oval black spots on the face below the antenmc, which are yellow with dark apex ; the
arista is simple. The thorax is slaty grey with minute deep brown specks and fine, pale,
backwardly-directed shmt hairs, a bright nude yellow area at each shoulder, a yellow nude
plate on each side in front of the base of each wing which passes as a narrow, wedge-shaped,
area into the median transverse suture, the lower an a of this spot is formed on the pleurie,
and there is a snniller one below it and another on tlic iiieura' just behind the wings; the
scuttdlum is yellow and nude, and the metanotuni ileep slaty grey.

The abdomen is much contracted basally an<l acute ajiicallv, the basal segment is brown,
the second has a yellow apical border, the remainder deep brown.

The legs are dull pale yellowish, somewhat transparent basally ; the feet dark brown,
the apex of femora and base of the tibiaj reddish-brown.

EEPORT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

95

The transparent wings are dark brown along the costa, and there is a dark brown vein
below, as shown in the figure (Fig. 5-4).

The chaetotactic characters are very marked, there being four bhick bristles on the head
four on the front of the thorax, two on each side of the median suture, one behind the root
of the wings, and two long ones on the scntellnm. The whole abdomen has tine, pale,
backwardly-projecting bristle-like hairs.
Length. 10-5 mm.

The lavva- (Fig. 55, a) are creamy white, and 11 mm. long. They taper to a point at
the head end and are bluntly truncated posteriorly. The mouth parts consist of two curved
black mandibles (.\5). The truncated apex carries two spiracles, as shown in the figure.
The puparium (b) is 6 mm. long, deep brown, and elongated oval in form.

The life-history is probably as in the closely-
related D. tyroni and other species. The female,
by means of her pointed ovipositor, lays her eggs
in the skin of the young melons.

The larvffi on hatching tunnel into the fruit,
and so cause it to decay. When mature they
leave the fruit and pupate around it, either
beneath leaves or in the earth.

These pests are easily distributed in cases of
fruit, when the larvte are found pupating in the
paper and other packing in the cases, and in the
cases themselves.

Infested imported fruits showing any signs of
fruit-fly attack should at once be condemned.

There can, of course, be no remedy for this
kind of attack. At present all that can be done
to protect fruit from fruit-fly attack is to net the
fruit in fine muslin bags.

Lighter markings of head and thorax, vermilion, except VarioUS Uietliods of attracting the flieS with
large median square spot on thorax, which is yellow ; lighter

parts of basal portion of wings vermilion ; membranous apical g^eet aud DoisOnOUS baitS haVC prOVcd of UO

portion brown, with median yellow spot ; tegs and dark ^ ^

markings on body black j^^^;i ^j] ^iscased frults should at oucc be

V vermilion ; v yellow ; b brown : s yellowish spot

burnt.
Froggatt and others have confuseil the genera Dacux and TcjiJirilis, and erroneously
described the Queensland Fruit Fly under the latter genus.

Fig. 56. —Dura plant bug

The Dur.\ Pl.\nt Bug
{Ly(ji:viix iiiilit(iri.<:, Fabricius)

This large brilliant Hemipteron has been found to do much damage to dura in the Lygasus
Sudan. The piercing apparatus punctures the plant and thus the insect draws out the sap.

Very many of these land bugs occur ami often do much damage to cotton in Africa and
America as well as to other plants, especially those belonging to the genera Oxycarenus
and Dysdercus.

The same insect has been sent me by Jfr. Willcocks from the Cairo ilistrict where it
seems to feed upon a number of plants.

9() IIF.PORT ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

It is fairly widi-ly distribiitcil ovit Afrifii and is readily noticiMl owiiij; to its red and
metallic- green hue. Nothing is known regarding its life-history, imt it is probably similar
to others of the same grouji. The lurvii- ari' wingless and the impa' have wing-buds.

Dfit.x Ai'iiis Knkmii'.s

DiiraAohis Sinee the last re|)ort anotiler liady-liinl IJeetie lias iiecn found to feed UjioM Aji/ils

i.neniies siinj/ii, Tlieobalil it is kuowu as /•'j'oc/iiiDiiiiis iiifiroiiKiriiliitiis, (toe/.e. It is very similar

in size to ('/iIIoiiu'ih-k ririna Muls, ligured in the last report (Plate c, 14).

In colour the head and thorax are bright shiny orange-yellow; the elytra are deep
verv shinv blaekish-ldue to almost blaek. The legs are orange-yellow. It also occurs in
Lower Egypt in some nundiers.

The larva of one of the Lace Wing Flies, ('liriisiijiida-, has also been sent, which was
taken amongst a colony of this Aphis.

TiiK SuD.\NKSE Cotton Fi,i:.\ Hkkti.k

{Ninoliii loiifoniiis, Jaeobv)

As fiir as I know tiiis is the oniv llalticid vet nciinled as attacking cotton. It is a
unifomiis small Iptowh lieetle, wlii( h lias Imcii identitied l>y Jacoliy as his species described from

Sierra Leone. It probably occurs widely over Africa. No notes were sent with the insects
except that they were damaging cotton.

97

A H.«MOGREGARINE OF MaMMALS*

H. Ralfouri (Laveran)l

While carrying out work in connection with trypanosomiasis I have liarl occasion to make
nnmerons examinations of the bloud of the jerboa or desert rat (Jacnhis jcrnlnx, or./, (jonloni,
as I believe it has been renamed). (Fig. 57.) Mr. Butler, Director of the Game Preserva-
tion Department, whom I consulted, was not certain as to the species. It is worth noting
that the hair pads of the hind feet are of a uniform browmish-white colour. In the first blood
examined I was surprised to see that a large proportion of the red blood corpuscles harboured
an unpigmented and non-motile parasite. In the stained specimen it was at once apparent
that we were dealing with some kind of trophozoite. Sixtv-twd jerboas liave up to the
present been examined, and in all of them, with the exception of two adults and three very

Species of
Jerboa

Fig. JS7.--Jhkbo.^ ok Deshkt Rat (.\t)uiit Two-Thirds Size)

young animals, one of which was newly born, this parasite has been fomid. The bluod of
two fcetal jerboas yielded a negative result. Specimens were sent to Professor Laveran,
who at once declared the parasite to be a hiiemogregarine, and has Icindly iiiforined me that
the discovery is one of much interest.

The Appe.\r.\nce of the Parasite

The trophozoite in the fresh blood appears as a pale, hyaline, homogeneous body, slightly
curved and with rounded ends (sausage-shaped), lying either apparently free or in the renuiins
of a red blood corpuscle. Occasionally one finds it broader at one end than at the other,
and the latter is then bent upon itself for a short distance. The erythrocyte may be
represented only by a bow uniting the two poles of the parasite, just as it is sometimes seen

* Part of this paper appeared in the Journal of Tropical Medicine, and I am indebted to the

Editors of that journal for their kind permission to reproduce it here.
t Laveran. Cumptes rendus des seances de I'Acad. des Sciences. Vol. CXLI., p. 295, 1905.

98

A H.F.MOOKEOARINE OF MAMMALS

Dimensions of
pamsitr

ill tlif cast' of niiiliirial crescents. \Vlnii tlie reel cell is reco}j;iiisiil)le it is fouii<l to lie of a

Very pale colour, iml 1 it looks as if no liicnioj^lohin were present in its spon^ioplasin. 'Die

free forms. 1 ImIJcvi'. onvc their conilition to a total ilestniction or alisorptloii uf the suhstanee
of the ervthroeyles which once contained them. As .stated, the parasite is non-pigniented and
non-motile, and I have found it to lie rather resistant, remaining to all apjicarance miciianged
in sterile eitrated hlooil for a perio<l of seventy-two hours, hotli when kept at room
temperature (about 'Mi" C.) and at 22'' C. It is to he noted, however, that it altered
somewhat in its staining reactions. As a rule, it measures from HO to 7 f> in length, and
from 14 to 2H /I in breadtli. The number jiresent has been found to vary considerably.
There nmy be six or seven, or even more present in each mi<-roscopic field (Leitz oc. 4, oil
inna. ,'..th), or onlv a few may 1m- found in the wlmli- Mood smear.

Appearanrr on
staining

Diffcrrni
forms

Staixino tiik Pahasite

On staining by the lieishman-Romanowsky or the Gienisa niethoil in exactly the
same way as for malaria protozoa, the structure of the parasite becomes at once apparent
and tlie shape, as described above, well detined. (I'late XI., Fig. a.) A large oval nucleus,
constituting, as a rule, about one-third of the organism, is seen to be present, sittnited
generally in tin- cmtrc of tlic parasite and stntching right across it, so that there is a deep
blue staining area (the nucleus) in tiie middle, and a faintly staining blue area with a
rounded end on either side. Sometimes, but infrec|uently, forms with a ta|)ering doubled-over
end, i.i\, a "tail" flexeil on the body, can be demonstrated. (Plate XL, Fig. l>.)
Occasionally but lanly. and tlun nsnuiiy under special conditions, spherical chromatin
dots may be fouml in one or other of these pale polar areas. In stained preparations
one often notices that no vestige of the red blood corpuscle which originally harboured
the parasite remains, but it is quite common to find parasites with portions of the
red-staining erythrocyte adhering to them. All that may lie present is a thin. rid.
curved line stretching from pole to pole across the slight concavity of the parasite. The
corpuscles are often mucli deformed an<l take the eosin stain poorly. Sometimes, especially if
the blood be eitrated, the relation of the parasite to the blood cell which contains it is
beautifully shown. A process of absorption of the cytoplasm of the reil ct 11 evidently goes
on, and in a severe infection there must be a considerable destruction of erythrocytes. The
animal host, however, does not seem to suft'er in health. I have kept a jerboa with a
consiilerable infection for three months in the laboratory, and it renuiined well and lively
throughout the whole period. Three others dieij in captivity, exhibiting violent inih-mortiin
convulsions, and it is worth noting tiiat these rodents do nut staml handling w.ll anil
must not be supplied with water.

In the peripheral blood it is customary to find all the parasites at or about the same
stage of development. Tnir. tiny ditl'ir sunicwhat in aspect. Thus it is not nnconnnon to
find the nucleus situated at one pole, so that half the parasite stains a deep blue and the
other half a very faint blue. Again, one end of the parasite may be pointed, so that the
body is club-shaped. This is |M-obably due to alteration during the |U-eparation of the blood
smears. In the heart's blood of a jerboa which died naturally I found two distinct forms,
a large swollen variety (11 2 ^ by 42 p), in which the greatest increase had taken place in
the light staining part of th<' protoplasm, ami a form like those already described.
It was very noticeable that the nm lei of the former, often of a triangular shape, stained a

PLATE XI

t

^ •

■■?#^

^1^

54

/

KiraiRD ilDiR

HvEMOspoKiDiA OF THE Jkkuoa {Jociilus goniofii) AND THE Rat {Mus decumanus)
(rt) peripheral blood of jerboa showing endoglobular forms of H-i'VWgregarina Bal/ouri.

Two of the corpuscles exhibit what is cither granular basophilia or the condition recently described in the erythrocytes
of moles by nrahani-Smith.
(/>) Free forms of trophozoite, one being of the typical haimogregarine shape with flexed tail. In the centre is a vermicule form

from the peripheral blood,
(f) Free forms from a liver smear.

{<i) Appearances presented in the heart's blood. Ordinary and swollen forms. Note the ditTerences in staining reaction.
((■) Parasites apparently engulphed by the mononuclear leucocytes of the red bone-marrow.
\fi LeiicocytozSon muj'is from peripheral blood of the Norway rat.

Note that one parasite lies between the halves of a divided nucleus.

Leishntnn Stain

All X 1000 drau

A H^MOGREGAEINE OF MAMMALS 99

deep Romanowsky purple, anrl frequently did not stretch wholly across the parasite, and in
tile large pale-staining area three or four spherical i-liromatin dots were often to be oliservcd.
(Plate XI., Fig. ,1.)

Professor Laveran has seen this [ireparation and points (lut tliat sncli [)ecnliaritics in
morphology frequently occur. He does not regard these as special sexual forms. At first I
\vas inclined to consider the parasite as being allied to the halteridium of birds. I noted,
however, that it was not pigmented, was not curved so much as the halteridium forms, and
never exhibited the spore formation at either end as iloes Hdlti'ruHnm (Innilcwsh/i.

Endoglobular H^mogregarine of this Class not Found Previously in
THE Eed Corpuscles of Mammals

As Professor Laveran kindly pointed out to me, and as indeed was soon apparent from -Apparently the
a study of the literature, especially Professor Miuchin s treatise* on the sporozoa, this garine found
parasite of the jerboa closely resembles the ffceinoi/rcgariiiidce of cold-blooded vertebrates. '" mammals
This fact is of extreme interest, as at the time I encountered it, I am unaware that any
endoglobular parasite of this class had been described in the blood of mammals. Since then
I have seen Christophers' descriptit)nt of a very similar parasite which affects the red cells of
the Indian Gerbil (GiThilliis iii(Ilcii.t). Bentleyij: in 1905 produced a paper on a leucocytoziion Various
of the dog in Assam, and it has been more fully described by James. § Another leucocytoziion ™'^°'^^
of mammals has been found by Patton in the palm squirrel of India, while I will shortly
make reference to a similar parasite which I found in rats at Khartoum. The classification
of tjiis onler of jiarasites given by Professor Minchin is as follows: —

" Order Ihvmosporidia (Danilewsky).

" Sub-order 1. Hcemofsporea .

"Genus i. Lanl-CKtrrdIa (Labbe, 1899) f(ir Dri'jKinuliitm (Lankester). The
hajmogregarine is not more than three-quarters the length of the blood corpuscle it inhabits.

"Genus ii. Karii<)lii!<u!< (Labbe, 1894). The hiemogregarine does not exceed the
corpuscle in length.

" Genus iii. Hceinof/rivariiic (Danilewsky, 1897) (syn. Danilewsky-Labbe, 1895).

" The body of the parasite when adult exceeds the corpuscle in length and is bent on
itself within it in a characteristic manner like the letter V."

Now the parasite of the jerboa in question does slightly exceed the corpuscle in length,
but is only slightly curved. It looks, as a rule, as if it had outgrown its corpuscle, and
sometimes the remains of what has evidently been a distended and distorted corpuscle can be
seen lying around it. The large swollen and bloated forms are much larger than the
corpuscles which originally contained them and are found lying free. On several occasions,
and especially in fresh preparations from the bone-marrow, I have noted forms slightly
turned up at one end and looking like an incomplete letter V. (Plate XL, Fig. //.) As True haemo-
stated, I have not often been able to demonstrate this appearance in stained specimens, ibr'm'"^'
Christophers saw forms of his parasite in the act of leaving the red cells. I have never
witnessed such exits. Like Christophers I have failed to find forms in the act of invading
the erythrocytes, but like him I have often seen two forms lying in such close apposition
as to suggest that fission had occurred. Each, however, possessed a separate capsule and
doubtless the appearance was due merely to the infection of two neighbouring corpuscles.

• Minchin. A Treatise on Zoology (Lankester), 1903. Part I., Sporozoa.

t Scientific Memoirs by Officers of the Medical and Sanitary Depts. of the Gov. of India, 1905, No. 18.

t Brit. Med. Jour., May 6th, 1905, p. 888.

§ Scientific Jlemoirs, India, 1905, No. 14.

1(JU A h.i:mogi{F.oakink of mammals

Liivcruirs cliissificiitioii,* in wliicli the gcmis If<iiiio(/i-i;iitrini' is niinlc to iiu-liide
Drfpiiiiitliiim ii!icl Kari/uli/KHK, is mure sinipli', but wliichcviT hv uilupted, it would seem that
this parasite is nndouhtedly a lia'inogregarine, and I liad proposed to give it the provisional
name of //. Juriili, tliougli it is i|iiitc |ii)ssililc it may lie fmnid in otlier muiiiniiils. I'mfessor
Laverall. wliose nunn'inliiturc takes precedenee lias, however, detinitelv named it //. /Sii/jniiri.f
A study of its life-history has fiirtiier indieated its relation to the Uii iiuiyniiariiiiilii . fur 1
Imve sneeeeded in liuding two further stages, ix. : —

(1) The free, motile verinicule form.

(2) The stage of sehi/onts in the form of eytoeysts.

I. In three instances only have I found the free tropliozoite. I diseovereil two
sueli forms in the peripheral hlood of a jerliua, wliiili slu)wer| the endoglohular trophozoite in
fair nuiiiliers and wliirh liad sduie injections of the serum of a water-buck in connection with
trypanosome work; I caiiu' across a vermicule in the fresli heart's blood of another of the
desert rats, and in the peripheral blood of a case with severe infection I noticed several of
these forms. This free form is in length about three times the diameter of a red blood
corpuscle, is pointed at both tinls, and moves very slowly through the blood, progressing by
a series of contractions of its cytoplasm, the so-called '" eugleiioid " movements. As a result
constrictions appear in the body of the parasite, as many as three having been seen present
at one time. These, so to speak, run along tlie body of the parasite, which thereafter
a.ssunies its usual cvlindrical shape and glides steailily across the titdd, always proceeding in
one direction ami with the same end in front. It pauses for greater or longer periods.
The vermicule undergoing various alterations in shape. If it encounters a clump of red blood corpuscles
it disappears amongst them, producing only a slight agitation amongst the erythrocytes,
which it pushes out of its way. (iranules are visible in the posterior part of the body. No
flagellnm has been seen nor anything to suggest the extrusion of a gelatinous thread, as
occurs in the case of .some of the gregarines. I was able to secure several stained
preparations of this free trophozoite, the appearance of which further demonstrates its
resemblance to a hiemogregarine. (Plate XI.. Fig. li.)

Anteriorly there is a somewhat sharp-pointed area staining a light blue in which,
close to the nucleus, a chromatin dot is visible. Following this clear area conies a very
lengthy, oblong, deeply-stained nucleus. At one point it showed a constriction similar, no
doubt, to those seen in the fnsh preparation. It had been killeil. tixe(l, and stained in the
act of progression.

Behind the nucleus is a lengthy, light-staiuing area, terminating in a pointed extremity.
This area stains a light blue with the Leishman stain and exhibits a cluster of chromatin
dots, arranged in a somewhat rosette form immediately behind the nucleus. I noted a single
central dot with six others arranged in a circh- around it. A few similar dots, irregularly
arranged, are also visible close to the posterior extremity.
Measurements : —

Total hngth 155 ft

Length of nucleus .'. .. .. .. '' f

Length of anterior light area . . . . 2"8 /j

Length of posterior light area . . 57 /i

(ireatest breadth . . . . . . . . . . . . 2'8 ^•

• C. U. Soo. Biul. (I'liriH), I'.lol, \>. 79S.

t C. R. Acad. Siitiici-s, Vol. CXLl., p. 295, 1905.

PLATE XII

«

g

ti'

C^^

- . ^..<>'

.»>

*f5

^ "* %

^

<7>

#•1

» ••

^

^

/

RicnARD Mdir

Development of //»■//

'.Kiiia Baljoiiri in the Liver. C

IN THE L,v:K Cltl °' SCHUOGONV. CVTOCVSTS ANO M.KO.O.THS

Gic/nsa Stain

I'lG. l.-.M.M' OK Africa sfiowing British Possessions and the Boundaries of the Anglo-Egyptian Si dan

A H.EMOGKEGAKINE OF MAMMALS 101

The nucleus, it may be said, stretches completely across the body, entirely separating
the anterior from the posterior moiety. The broadest part of the parasite is towards the
posterior end of the nucleus.

2. In most cases a third stage can be readily demonstrated. This is chiefly seen in
tile liver and kidney, organs where the circulation is slow, and will probably be found also
in the bone-marrow and brain. Indeed, some smears of the bone-marrow have shown what
were probably empty cytocysts. In thick smears from the liver and kidney well-defined
cysts are found, the walls of which are apparently formed by the remains of cells of these
organs which have been destroyed by the parasitic growth.

These cysts vary much in size. The largest I have noted occurred in a liver smear and Cytocysts and

" " . 11.1 merozoites

measured 396 /x by 336 ^. A common dimension appears to be about 224 p, by IBS i^, but
many smaller cysts occur.

It is usual to find some of these cytocysts empty, or at*the most containing a little ^'^§^ °^
residual protoplasm, but a certain proportion are found to contain merozoites, readily
recognisable by their shape and nuclei, and somewhat resembling the trophozoite stage in
the blood. Their nuclei, however, are compai'atively small, and in many cases the merozoite
appears to be longer and more pointed at the ends than the endoglobular trophozoite. Early
schizont forms also occur, in which the protoplasm contained within the cyst wall has not
become differentiated and stains more or less uniformly. Sometimes darker-staining portions
indicate the future nuclei of the merozoites. When complete division has taken place some
residual protoplasm remains behind, and the whole condition is very like that which has
been described by Labbe* in the case of Kari/ol/jsux laccrtarum . Sections of the liver stained
by the Giemsa method show all stages of the schizonts. Mitosis of the nuclei and the
formation of daughter nuclei are well seen.

Appearances very like those presented during the schizogony of some of the Coccidia, Resemblance
notably Adelca ovuta, are exhibited and the whole condition from the invasion of the liver to the Coccidia
cell to the bursting of the cyst and the freeing of its contents can be traced.

By what channel the hepatic cell is invaded has not as yet been determined, but it is
probably through the capillaries. (Vide infra.)

The interesting appearances presented by these liver sections (Plate XII.), which were
kindly prepared for me by Mr. Richard Muir, of the Pathological Department, University of
Edinburgh, from embedded tissue which I took home \\ith me, have been further studied in
sections prepared and stained in the laboratories. These sections were stained, by
haematoxyliu and eosin, by the Giemsa and Leishman methods, and by Heidenhain's iron- "'^' ^^"^"""^
hsematoxylin process. Ordinary free forms of the hfemogregarine such as are met with in
the peripheral blood could be seen, and on one occasion I found such a form lying in close
apposition to the nucleus of the endothelial cell of a capillary, which observation probably
indicates the channel of invasion. As regards development the earliest appearance seen is
that of a large, pale-pink (Giemsa or Leishman stain), body of an oblong or nearly spherical
shape occupying a cavity which has been formed in a liver cell. The body varies in size.
One which was measured gave the following dimensions : Greatest length, 12 fi ; greatest
breadth, i.e., at nucleus 7'5 n. Another measured 12 /n x 6 /i. The nuclei of these bodies
are small and spherical, centrally-placed, and stain chromatin red. They are found to be
undergoing mitosis. I believe these bodies to be trophozoites which have become enlarged

• Arch. Zool. Exp. ct Gen. (3) ii. 1894.

102 A H.KMOOnEOARINE OF MAMMALS

iuxl .swiillcii |>ri(ir to ilivisimi. As a n-siilt of its iiicri'iisc in sizi- within tin- liciiutit- cell, a
snntll cyst is fornifd n\ tin- i-xpcnst- of tlu- sulistanci- of tlif cell, tlic nncleiis of which ^cts
|pushiil ti) line siilc. Till' wall of this cyst, foiincil from the compressed cell |iroto|iliism.
licconics Very well dcfincii, and as a rnle a space is left hctweeii the liody and the cyst wall.
What I lielievi' to lie the next stage is evidenced by the presence of one or more cnrveil
bodies in these snnill cysts, together with what I take to he the remains of the original hoily
from which these ciirvcil forms iiavc been derived bv a jiroccss of micliar division.
(Plate X 11.)

'rilese cUrMil fiiriil.-i rather rcseliiliji' the trophozoites of tile blood, but tiiey diti'er from
these latter in having small sjiherical nn( lei, often seen nndergoing mitosis, and in the fact
that as a rnle they are more curved and somewhat lai-ger. 'I'liey were found to measure from
!• fi to Id") f, in length by 'A ft in breadth. They arc often somewhat club-shaped and their
cytoplasm stains a bluish-purple and their nuclei take on a chromatin reil colour. What
I think represents the residual cytoplasm of the mother body is usually seen as a pale pink,
non-nucleated spherical nuiss lying in the concavity of one of tiie.se curved forms. (Plate XII.)
It rather suggests a so-called polar body and is not seen when more than three of the curved
forms e.vist in the cyst. When several of tlie curved forms are present one finds that they
are lying at dilt'erent levels. Thus only two nniy be visible at first, but on focussing either
up or down a third comes into view lying, it mav be, across the otiier two. J)ivisiou has
evidently taken place in different planes.

The stage which follows is that of the undiflcreutiated .scliizont. (I'lalc Xil. A more or
less spherical mass of protoplasm, staining a dark blue colour, is found lying in the cyst, which
has become larger. Cysts at this stage, often measure 12 /i in diameter. The contained
scliizont nia.ss varies in size and is often about 8 ft across. Differentiation takes place,
evidenced by the appearance of nuclei which arc seen studded, so to speak, all over the
schizont mass or arranged round its periphery. (Plate XII.) When the latter is the case a
very pretty appearance is exhibited. Tiie cyst is found to have undergone further enlargement,
connnon measurements at this stage being 2"i'5 /» to '2h-^ n in greatest diameter. Sometimes
no space exists between the substance of the hepatic cell and the dividing mass. In such cases
the cyst wall is ill-defined. As a rule, however, liotli unstaiiu'(l space and wall arc widl marked,
while the nucleus of the hepatic cell has citlier wIkiHv vanished or has liecoiin' nnuli llatteueil
out and in conseiiuenee has taken on an oblong or spindle shape. Very little of the liver cell
is left, and in the next stage, that of division resulting in the formation of the mcrwzoites, it
is common to find it represented merely by the cyst wall which is often thicker in some parts
than in others.

The final division is seen at several different stages, and it appears to be complete, no
residual protoplasm being left. The nierozoites all present the same ai)pearauce and are
much the same size. (Plate XII.) Those which 1 have measured were abiuit (i ft in length
by p.')/! in bnadtli. They stain a [lale red m- |iiid< aii.l tlnir nu<lei tal<r nii an intense
ehronnitin red colour with Giemsa or Leishnnin stain. Tluy are very slightly, if at all,
curved and are found crowded together, lying at different levels and in divers directions,
or arranged synniietrically round the periphery of a portion of the schizont nuiss which
has not yet proceeded in division.

The final stage is evidenceil by the bursting of the cyst and the freeing of the nierozoites
which doubtless pa.ss into the blood stream and invade the red blood corpu.scles, thus starting
once more the cycle of schizogony. (Plate XII.) Emjity and shrunken cysts can be seen

A H.EMOGREGAHINE OF MAMMALS

103

in the liver sections, as can merozoites lying free and easily distinguisliable by their colonr,
size anil nuclei. (Plate XII.)

Laveran * has pointed out that the SL-hizont stage of hiemogregarines in reptiles is passed
in tlie liver, and Labbe has given much attention to this subject. As indicated, I have not
yet been able to ilccide wlictlicr diniorpliisna occurs, and if micro- and macromerozoites can
be distinguished.

Before seeing the liver sections I was under the impression that the non-sexual cycle
was probably as follows : The trophozoite is set free from the erythrocyte as the travelling
vermicule, which eventually penetrates a cell of the liver or kidney, and gives rise to
schizonts in the form of cytocysts. In these the merozoites are formed which, after certain
changes, eventually escape into the blood stream, invade red blood corpuscles and so restart
the cycle of schizogony.

So far, however, one has not been able to see anything like the travelling vermicule in
the liver sections. One jerboa was chloroformed, a post-mortem performed immediately, and
samples of the liver blood taken by means of a hypodermic syringe. This procedure, however,
yielded no fresh information. Only the ordinary trophozoites were found. Squash
preparations of the liver were made, but failed to aid one. The cytocysts and merozoites
were clearly seen, but no preliminary stage could be observed, and no changes took place
under the microscope. The form invading the hepatic cells looks like the trophozoite of the
peripheral blood, or, at the most, one of the swollen forms already mentioned. Is it, then,
possible that the travelling vermicule plays no part in this cycle ? Such is possibly the case,
or again, as Labbe asserts, for Lanlrstcrdla and Kari/olt/sii.'i, an isogamic conjugation may
take place between two of these free forms, and it may be the zygote so formed which can be

seen penetrating the liver cells. Many,
however, disbelieve Labbe's conclusions,
which have not been confirmed by the
observations of Hintzef on Lanhestcrdla,
so possibly the freed trophozoite directly
iuvades the liver cell and becomes the
schizont, while the free vermicule is in-
teuiled to play a part in an extracorporeal
sexual cycle. This leads us to consider
the habits of the jerboa and the parasites
which it harbours.

The rodent is a nocturnal animal. Nocturnal
living in holes in the desert, remaining habits of

. ? jerboa

invisible throughout the day, but found
hopping about in the evening and on
moonlight nights. It exists far from any
water, which it does not seem to require,
and its food probably consists of the minute seeds of the small plants which contrive to
exist in sandy wastes. The animal is easily caught in traps baited with millet.

Both fleas and mites are found on the jerboa. The species of tSiphunoptcra present is

Fig. 58. — Fle.\ of Jkkboa J (x 35 diam.)

* 0. R. Soc. Biol., Paris (10) v. [i.] 1893 and (11) i. [li.] 189'J.
t Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Anat. xv. 4. 1902.

I'l.ATE XIII

\ ) •*

•:^

• ■ • •

A h

\ ll^J

i^ ^) ..

VQ

I

Klagkllatkd and Vhrmic( lak Pakamtrs ok tiik. Klka {/'u/fx i/io/^t/rir). Roths, ti'.mit/y Kn/nr^rd)
(/>nilvM hy Khhani M uir /rem original skftihei by A. /V.)

(ft) Colonir r.iiiit-i- ; iitiot;iituil.

(A) Vcrii)ii'ulc and ain<i-l>ul;i: fi)rin> ; unslaiiiiil.

(() Vcriiiiciilc, llaMi-Uaicrt and either fu^nl^ ; LrishtNan stttin,

(*/) Colonic radit'c ; l.eithman stain.

(r) Posterior \\.\xx of inid-Kul •diowing ain'cbuUc t>ccuiniiit{ trarisfornicd iiitu llaKcllatctl |i>rtn>. Sumc of the latter arc in pruccs»

(.f di\isi..i. Lv ri--.iMn.

(y) An iinsi.ij' .'•dfnrni.

(/) An uii^t.ti rIaKL-llated form.

(4j All uiikt.ti: .., .LH >ecn tii the pu^icriur |»urtion xti the niid-^ut. It apiiruxiiniiiL-s tu the typical form uf a lla:nK>i;rei;arinc.

A HiKMOGREGAKINE OF MAMMALS 105

usually Pnlc.i: dcupatrcv (Eof/ischilil),* und I have dissected and examined the internal organs
of engorged fleas taken from infected animals. At first my observations were limited to the
stomach of the flea in which at first I only found the trophozoites which had been sucked up Possible stage

• ' in Hea

With the peripheral blood, and which I was able to stain in smear preparations. Some blood
containing eudoglobnlar trophozoites was placed in the acid citrate solution devised by
Kogerst to simulate the conditions present in an insect's stomach. Though kept in this
medium for over 48 hours at room temperature, no change took place in the parasites,
save that tlieir cytoplasm became more granular.

Later, on two occasions, in the Malpighian tubes, I found bodies identical in appearance
with the free trophozoites of the parasite. In one tube, only a few were present, the other
contained a large number. It was quite easy to distinguish them and they appeared to have
undergone no change beyond a liberation from the ervthrocvtes which originally contained
them. I do not think they indicated any stage in a developmental cycle, but believe
they were merely undergoing a process of elimination. The flea may have been a male.
The sex was not noted.

Probable Cycle of Development in the Flea

At a later date a more systematic examination of fleas by means of fresh dissections aiul
stained parafiin sections was conducted and is still in progress. The results, so far, have Results of flea
been most interesting as not only has a true cycle of development apparently been found, but
bodies resembling very closely those described by Schaudinn]: in the supposed development of
Hi(ltcriduim d(niileirs}.-//i in C'v'/r,'.' /);}j/(7« have been encountered. A very brief mention of
what has been noted must suffice.

A flea ^ was dissected thirty hours after removal from its infected host. After
pressure had been made on the cover glass there were found lying free, close to the
termination of the rectum, spherical forms, vermicules, rosettes of vermicules and tiny
flagellates. It looked as though these had been squeezed out of the alimentary tract of Forms of flea
the flea.

(rt) Spherical (gregarine) forms. These at first suggested altered trophozoites, were
small and indefinitely granular. They were not numerous. (Plate XIII., Pig. /*.)

(h) Vermicules. These were small, contained retractile spots, and in several instances
showed at one extremity an accumulation of what looked like pigment in active motion.
This was cut off from the body of the vermicule by a slight constriction, and the whole
appearance markedly resembled certain of Schaudinn's diagrams. (Plate XIII., Fig. h.)

Some of the vermicules were united end to end, and some possessed short flagella.
Many were in active vibratile motion. Forms somewhat swollen at one end (club-shaped)
were also noticed. (Plate XIII., Fig. h.)

('■) Rosettes. These were very remarkable consisting as they did of clumps of
vermicules in a state of very active vibratile motion. They varied much in size and in the
number of vermicules which formed them, and resembled nothing so much as crowtled clusters
of tiny petals. It is possible that these " vermicules " were really flagellated forms, the
flagella being very minute. (Plate XIII., Fig. a.)

* The Hon. N. Charles Rothschild, F.Z.S., has kindly identified this and other species of fleas which have been
seut him from the Laboratories.

t " Lancet," Juue, 3rd, 1905.

X Geueratious uud Wirtwechsel bei Trypauosuma uud Spirochaete. Arbeit aus dem Kaiserlicheu Qestmdheit-
samte. Band XX., Heft 3, 1904. Trans. Brit. Med. Journ., London, 1905, Feb. 2oth, p. 422.

106

A H.KMOnHF.r.AItlNE OF MAMMALS

Mcasurt'nienls
of vcmiiculcs
and flagellates

Kic. 69.— CouoslB KAUlttL (x 2000 diam.)

Possible
explanations
of appearances
observed

(</) Kliigfllatrs. 'I'lifsi' luxlifs wciv <ir 11 (listiiicl (r\ |PMii(>s(iiiic or tr\ |i:iiii>|ilasiiia I y|ir.
Fliigfllit cillicr at oiic or both imhIs, wen- clrarly visible, ami tlicy wcrr in a state of very
lU'tivc viliratile nuitioii, tlioiigli tliev ili<l not seem to possess mneh motion of translation.
(Plate XIII., Fi- /..)

All the forms were waUlncI for several liours
amino clinngcs were noted, save that some of the
VcriuietlleS heealne motionless anil others a|i]ieareil
to change into typical llagellatcti forms.

Stained preparations were seoireil of all these
forms, and a rosette of vermiciiles is shown in
Pliite XIII., Fig. '/, and in Fig. 50. Tluse were
ohtaineil from a Ilea, dissected si.xteeii hours after
feeding, in which sjiherical forms and vermiciiles,
either free or in small rosettes, were the only forms
foMiid. It will be noted that the blephuroplasts are
large and are towards the centre of the rosette, /.(.,
towards what are probably the anterior extremities
of the verinieiiles.

These veniiicules measured 75^, to 9^, in length.

The stained forms from Flea 1, Plate XIII., Fig. r, gave the following measurements:
Vir III hulls — 75 /I, '.I /I, and \'l /i in length.

If) /I, to '1 n iu breadth at nuclei.
/'A»</.//rt/<.s— Total length .. .. IdS ,. to I 15 ^.

Length of Hagella . . . . :'. /i to 45 ,i.

Some ol' I lie trvpaiioplasma forms were found to contain two small spherical chromatin
masses in addilinn to the nucleus cu- karyosome. These may represent the " diplosome " of
Prowazek.* (Plate Xlll., Fig. c) In neither the vcriiii<iilcs nor the tlagcdlated forms was
there any indication of an undulating lueiiiliiaue.

The spherical forms po.ssessed well-marked uu<lei. and there were also seen what
appeiired to be intermediate forms between them and the vermiciiles in which blc[iliaroplasts
had develoi)ed. (Plate XIII., Fig. '.)

[Ordinary iinchangeil tro}ihozoites of the Ifn iiiiujnijnrini' and a few large vermieules
like those found in the peripheral blooil of the jerboa were also met with in the .stained
preparation. They had not been observed iu the fresh disseetiou.]

It seemed to me that these appearances might represent one of three things:

1. A special parasite of the Ilea of the nature of /fi r/iiti)Wiiiiiis or ('ri//iii/iii.

•I. A development of trypaiiosomes in the Ilea which, though taken from a jerboa,
might possibly have fed on a gerbil with trypanosomiasis, but vide "3."

X A cycle of development of the luemogregarine of jerboas, somewhat aiialagous to that
de.seribed bv Schaiidinii for Hulti riilnim i/miiliirdi/i in Ci'/'.r jiijii'ii-'i. That the last was the
correct explanation I at Hrst thought i)robable. Supposition 2 was put wholly out of
account, as several fleas in which these appearances were found could not have fed on a
trypanosome-iufected animal, while in one flea dis.sectetl twenty-four hours after removal
from its host, I observed in the posterior part of the mid-gut auiceboid-looking forms, some

* Arlj. aii.s d. Kuis. QchundbuiUamtc XX., 1904.

A HSMOGREGARINE OF MAMMALS 107

ut' whicli ill size and shape very closely resenilileil luemogregarine forms. (Plate XIII. ; Figs.
c and h.) These were seen to change into flagellated forms which were attached by their
short flagella to the epithelium lining tiiu gut, and kept lashing from side to side in active
motion. Some of them were watched undergoing longitudinal division while still attached to
the gut. (Plate XHI. ; Figs, c and ij.) It is worthy of note that this division began at the
end opposite the flagellum, and therefore presumably could not have been dependant on a
binary division of the luiero-nuclens, unless, ami this is interesting, these forms were
identical with some of the stained forms to which Fig. <■ refers. There at least one parasite
will be seen resembling a trypanosome in all but the absence of an undulating membrane, for,
as will be noted, the micro-nucleus is at the opposite end from the flagellum.

Total length of living vemiicules . . 12 fi.

Breadth . . . . . . . . 2 /i at broadest, i.e., anterior part.

Length of flagella . . . . . . 3 /n.

Amceboid forms . . . . about (i fi in either diameter.

It was curious that at first I only found these various forms in female fleas which had
been fed on infected jerboas. This, together with the descriptions given by Schaudinn,
naturally led one to think that the third supposition was correct. Further investigations,
however, have served to confute this idea, for I soon began to And these appearances in
male fleas fed in the same manner, and finally, my assistant, Mr. Friedrichs, discovered
similar forms in fleas taken from freshly-caught gerbils with normal blood. It was,
therefore, apparent that the first supposition was the correct one, i.e., that these bodies were .^.^^^ ^^^^
in reality parasites of the flea itself. That they belong to the family known as the solution
Crithidiii* I now have little doubt, especially after reading the interesting papers by Koss,
on the intestinal parasites of mosquitoes. f

It is evident that the rosette forms are the colon ici radiees, the spherical amu'boid forms
are the ameehuhv, and the flagellates are the JfagelUda' which he describes, and which Leger
termed " formes mouadiniennes." It seems to me that these results tend to support his
contentions, and those of Novy and McNeal,^ against Schandinn's work, and are therefore of
considerable interest. Sections of fleas show clusters of the parasites, which are easily
recognisable. Apparently, judging from Bii't's§ list, these protozoa have not been previously
found in lleas. Further proof has been obtained by the discovery in one female flea of what
seems to be the real cycle of development of the Hamoyre^jarine, whicli proves to be precisely
similar to that described by Christophers for Hivinogregarina gerhdli in the louse.

It was some time before I could obtain Christophers' paper. I then found his very
interesting account of the cycle passed by that parasite in Hcematopinus Stephemi.Ji This
is very briefly as follows : — A first stage of free verraicules is found in the mid-gut,
intestine, and occasionally elsewhere. This is succeeded by the formation of large cysts
which are found lying free in the body cavity. These large cysts contain numerous small
oval cysts, and these in their turn contain crescentic bodies (sausage-shaped when liberated).
These bodies Christophers believes to be of the nature of sporozoites. He records a
curious observation to the effect that contact with fresh blood plasma apparently caused

* Leger and Dubosq. Comp. rend. Cong, de Montauban, 1902. L%er. Comp rend. Soo. de Biol., 1902. L^ger.
Comp. rend, del' Acad, des Sciences, 7/4/02.

t Joum. of Hygiene, Cambridge, January and April, 1906.

I Journ. Infect. Diseases. Chicago, March, 1905.

§ Joum. E.A.M.C, June, 1906.

^ Thompson Yates and Johnston Laboratories Report Vol. VIL (new series), Part I., Feb. 1906.

108 A H.KMOOREOAKINK OF MAMMALS

soiiii' of tlii'Sf crescent bodies to lieiiuui' lriiiisfiiriiii(l into large vermicules which, after
being kept in the incubator ut ;i7 (!., were found to possess the curious property of
rotating the red cells by means of their niirniw extremities, ('hristophers regards this
bi'liiiviour as very significant of the proliuldc nutiiod of infection. Up to date I do not
know that iir lias added anything furtliir tn I Ik sc ulisi rvations, which, as he points out, are
of special interest, "since ulthough the transmission of nniiiy protozoa by biting insects has
been demonstrated by experiment, the only instance, of which we have actual knowledge
of the stages gone tlirough in tin- carrier, is that relating to the developmental stages of
certain parasites in the mosijuito.''
Dcvdopmcniai In the case of the ha'mogregarine ol' jrilidas and tin Ilia it was tduiid that the hirge cyst

lyssin e.i |^^^ I ,.,||,(,,,.|,||^ .,.^ evidenced by its burst and shrunken wall. Certain parts of the Held were
crowdcil with the smaller " daughter " cysts, most of wliii li were nearly spherical in shape
and varied in size, nu asuiini; iVinu l(i I /< iit 'irrCt /< in their greatest diameters. Each
possessed a well-markcii wall with a ii<juiili- outline, and tlicv containeil slightly curveil
sporozoites with rounded ends. These latter mcasureil about Ui (i in length by 4'20 /j in
breadth and tlie whole ajjpearance was, as I have indicated, precisely similar to the small cysts
described by Christophers. It was evident that a great multiplication had taken place, the
first stage of which is no doubt the production of travelling vermicules. I kept these cysts
under observation for 24 hours but no marked change took place in them or in any of the
freed sporozoites. At the end of that time a stained preparation was made, but the sporo-
zoites were found to have degenerated in the citrate solution an<l took the colour badly.
They were distimtiy of a sau.sage shape. Tlie cysts also diil not stain well ami it is
unfortunate that a fresh jirejiaration could not be obtained lor staining. My ob.servations
have not proceeded beyond this point. It is curious that though a large number of tieas
were examined these appearances have only been foinid in one case. It is possible the flea in
question was not /'. r/nijin/nr but belonged to anotlur species whi( h alone may be capable of

acting as host. This, and the further develop-
ment, are (juestions reijuiring elucidation and
wliicli I hope may ere long be settled.

I have also examined the small ndtes

wliicii intVst jerboas. They are never very

nuiiu r(ius (iU the rats, but, as a rule, three

or four can be obtained from each animal

ii\' careful scarcli. I fnunil tiny luloiii^iil to

the genus /Ji'iiiiiiiii/Ksiis, and believe them to

be identical with />. iihIHiki , which, though

liriiiiariK a parasite of fowls, is known to

attai'k niamiiials and even man. In the female

tlir cliclicera' were seen to be in the form

of l(jng thin stylets (Fig. 60). I proceeded to

dissect these mites and their larvaj, no very

easy task, at lea.st when tluir diverticula are

gorged with blood. If a nute is dissected imnicdiattly after it has been feeding on

its infected ho.st the blood whii h has been sucked up presents no differences from that

in the jerboa. In other words, the trophozoites, either free or still contained in the

erythrocytes are to be seen. If such blood be citraird and kcjit for twenty-four

Fii;. 60.— MiTK OF Jkkmia ( X 42 diam.)

A H.EMOaREGARINE OF MAMMALS 109

hours or more, either at room temperature or in the incubator at 37° C, no change
results.

If, however, sonic tinit^ elapses, say twenty-four hours, hcforc the mite lie I'xainineil,
numerous vermicnle forms are sometimes found in fairly active motion, together with many
unchanged trophozoites. These vermicules bend themselves from side to side and also
progress amongst the altered or disintegrated blood corpuscles. They do not exhibit
the "euglenoid" movements shown so markedly by the free vermicules found iu the jerboa,
but mertdy glide about. On staining it was noticeable that their cytoplasm was quite
free from chromatin granules, though it stained a pale blue as in the "jerboa" vermicules.
This agrees with the characters of the vermicules from the louse described by Christophers.
On the other hand, from measurements I have made, I hud these "mite" vermicules just
about the same size as the '•jerboa" vermicules, whereas Christophers found the "louse"
vermicules distinctly larger than those present in the gerbil. I have now examined a
considerable number of mites both gorged and ungorged, and at various times after feeding,
and have carried out a few experiments similar to those conducted by (Christophers with
lice, but [ have not so far been able to absolutely satisfy myself that cyst formation occurs.
One is apt to be deceived, as large cysts, looking to the naked eye like minute white
spheres, are sometimes obtained from the mites, and on examination these cysts are seen
to be packed with spherical bodies. The latter, however, appear undoubtedlv to be some
form of fat cell. They are highly refractile, somewhat resemble large oil globules, and their Possible stage
contents dissolve on the addition of ether. Once, and once only, in a case where no large
cyst was seen, I found small bodies like cysts and apparently containing crescent-shaped
forms, the whole appearance being rather like Fig. 16 in Christophers' monograph,
which illustrates zygotes containing sporozoites. There was, however, nothing so definite
as the well-marked cysts found in the flea, and I am not inclined to lay any stress on this
observation. I kept the slide of citrated blood from the mite for sixteen hours in the
hot incubator at 37° C, and thereafter could not find any of these cysts (?) in the
preparation. Captain Cummins, to whom 1 showed them, agreed that they resembled
Christophers' illustration.

A fact of interest is that, in one case on examining comparatively fresh citrated
blood expressed from a mite which had fed five hours before on a jerboa with a moderate
infection, I noticed several large vermicules dragging small clumps of red cells after them,
there being a distinct interval, possibly bridged by an invisible gelatinous thread, between
the narrow extremity of the vermicules and the corpuscles. Continuing to watch one of
these vermicules I saw it start curious rotatory movements exactly like those Christophers
describes in the case of the vermicules derived (?) from the sausage-shaped bodies in the
small cysts found in the louse. I watched it for quite a long time. As a rule it was
the parasite itself which rotated, using the red cells as a fixed point on which to turn.
After a time motion ceased and the vermicule changed in shape, becoming swollen at one
end. Many ordinary free trophozoites were also present in this blood in which no vermicules
could be seen after it had been kept all night at 37° C. These results, though by no means
conclusive, are somewhat suggestive, and I believe the mite may yet be found also to serve
the part of an intermediate host. Latterly I have been unfortunate in not being able
to secure jerboas with large infections of the h£eniogregarine. Given a good ease, it is
possible that one might find the same cystic stage as Christophers has described for

110

A H.KMOOREOAniNE OF MAMMALS

Dillerences

from

//. gfrhlli

(Christophers)

//. iifr/illll in tho louse ( nfniintopi>ni.i Strphrnxi), iind wliirli I have seen in tlie (lea in the
case of //. Iliilfiiiiri.

As the ji'i'lida is niictiirnal I tliou^lit it \\i\\ to c hlniiirciiiii mie iliiring the niglit,
anil at unee examine its hhxiil and oi'i^'ans. 1 [ailiil to liii>l thi' virniienle fni'in. m-
anvtliinfj; l)nt tlie free and eiidoj^hiliular tni])li()Zoites.

It slionid lie said that to the lial<( il i Ve there is nil linill'id aji|iea|-anie pl-esentid hv
anv iif the viseera. 'I'lir spleen Seems never to lie enlarged, and, as far as ean he told,
the liver does not apiiear almornial. Neither do the uninvaded hejiatie eells present any
pathidogieal eonditioTi heyond a slijj;ht degree ul elondy swelling. 'I"he vessels and
capillaries are usnally full of Idood.

Fnrtlier, it iniiy he stated that nunierons free forms (tropliozoites or nierozoites)
(Plate XI., Fig. <•) are, as a rnle, present in smears made from the liver, kidney anil
hone-marrow, and to a less extent in those from the spleen. Once in the hone-
marrow 1 notiiid parasites which had lucii liikiTi ii]i hy the large iiiononuelear
leucocytes. (I'late XL, Fig. <). Several gerliils have heen inoi-ulatid from infeited
jerhoas hut al\va\s with negative resnlts.

Professor liaveran writes nie to say tliat lie lias now found the same parasite in
jerboas (./. orictit<i/in) from Tunis, so that, no donht, nimh information will soon he
fortliconiing regarding this interesting parasite of niamnnils. Tluinks to the kindness of
Captain Patton, I.JI.S., I have received one of Lient. ('hristojjhers' smear preparations of
the infecti'd hlood of the (u'rlii/hm IikHchs. His parasite closely resemhles that found
in jerhoas, hut i)resents some points of difference. Thus it exhihits idiromatin dots much
more frii|Uintlv and in more aliundaucr. l''urthir, forms sliowing a ta|icring md turned up
.so that tlir ]iarasite apjiroachcs a V shajie. are much moi'c in e\ iileuce.

A Lkucocytozoon ok Mammals

.*\ new

leucocylojijon
A. OTwrii

In May, 190"), while examining the hlood of a Norway rat {Mux <lirii»iiniiix). to nee
if the animal was the host of T. Lewisi or harhoured the luemogregarine I had found in
jerboas, I came across a parasite very similar in appearance to the latter, but situatid in the
extra-nuclear portion of the mononuclear leucocytes. The jiarasite, which is ovoid in
shape, has a well-marked nucleus separating two lightly staining portions. Its ends are
rounded and its dimensions in stained specimens hit ween it /i and lur) ^ in length hy
4'r) /I in hiiaijth.

Although it is usually found in the light staining portion of the leucocyte I have come
across it lying hetween the lohes of a divided nucleus. (Plate XI., Fig. ./'). Thus it
appears to he of the nature of a karyolysus such as has heen descrihed in lizards. 1 have
examined the bloods of twelve Norway rats, six of tlnni being young animals, and 1 have
found the parasite in two instances. In the case of the first rat it was found in the hearts
hlood and in the spleen. In the latter, free forms were present in addition to those lying
in the leucocytes. The liver was congested, but neither in smears nor in sections were any
parasites visible. Section preparations revealed a condition of early chronic venous
congestion resulting in pressure atropln of hepatic cells whiih stained badly and had lost
their nuclei.

No parasites were present in smears made from tin- kidney or bone-nnirrow. The

A LEUCOCYTOZOON OF MAMMALS 111

animal died suddenly on the morning of the day following that on which it had been brought
to the laboratories. It was lively and apparently xininjured the previous evening. Hat
niunber two also died the morning after capture. Parasites free and in the leucocytes were
f'onnd in smears made from tjic sj)leen, liver and kidney, but they were not at all numerous.

Smears made from congested areas in the stomach and small intestine, and from the
bone-marrow showed nothing abnormal. No free motile trophozoite and no cytocyst or
other stage has been found.

I have examined the bloods of many Egyptian rats [Muk Alcxandrinu») with negative
results. The species examined has numerous yellowish-golden hairs on the snout.

This parasite is interesting in the light of the leucocytozilon found by Bentley in dogs
in India, and described by him and by James. It is closely allied to, if not identical with, the

\

I

Fig. 61.— Changks in EkviUkocYTts of jtKDOA (x 1000 di.-tm.)

parasite recently discovered by Patton in one of the Indian palm squirrels. Captain Patton
has very kindly sent me a blood film containing his parasites, which very closely resemble
those in the Norway rat at Khartoum. I notice they are frequently found splitting the
karyosomes of the mononucleated cells. He has also sent me specimens of a similar parasite
found in the domestic cat at Madras.

I propose to give the name of Lcucociitozoon muris to the rat parasite, which evidently
requires further study on the lines which have been followed in connection with the
haemogregarine of jerboas.

Changes in the Erythrocytes of the Jerboa

As stated elsewhere, granular basophilia is common in gerbils. In the blood of several
jerboas a somewhat similar condition has been observed, and it is shown in Plate XL,
Fig. «, and in Figs, (il and 62. In the last figure, besides the intracorpuscular dots and rods,

\V1

CHANOES IN F.RYTHHOCYTES OF

■•.lUtOA

fici' fiiniis ciiii lie •icci). At tirsl sii^lit the iippciimiiccs presented seemed to me rather diiTirciit
IVdiii the j^raimhir hasuphilia fminil in gcrliils, aiiil :i shdi- wiis sent to I'rol'essor Liiveruii.
He pive it lis his opinion tlmt tlie condition was merely one ol" hiisie degeneration. Later
\\\(> free t'ornis were seen, and |)r. (irahani Sniitli's* paper on a new blood parasite of the
mole ap|ieared. The |ih(itoniicrot;raphs of int'ectcd mole's lilood presented an appearanee
preeisely similar t(i wliai had heen seen in llie lildiid nl jriliiia-;. ! ihi w I'rorissin- Laveran's
attention to this, and he replietl that he regarded Dr. (rraham Smith's preparations, some of
whicli he had seen, as mendy containing a pseudo-hiemanneha, and that he saw no reason to
alter his opinion reganling the Mood eoiiditioii in the jerhoa. I also wrote to Professor Nnttall
on tile sidijeet, lint have not iieard IVdiu liini. It is dillienlt to aeeoiiiit for the free dots and
rods wliieli have eviilently escaped from infected erythrocytes, init at present one need not
enter more fully into the mattei-, wlii( h. huwever, is of some interest, anil seems wurthv of
mention.

FlQ. 62. — Chascks in kkvtiikocvtks of jrkboa (X 833diam.)

.lourii. Hyififnc, tlcf. 19li.''>.

PI.ATK XIV

r

U

(

r ^

/

i.

a

«

- •

>i

rf

O

KtcBj^HD Uotn

TKVrANOStl.MIASlS

(d) T. nanum. the cittlo tryfxinosonic of the Sud:u).

(fi) T. K*^'"^*>*^'>'*<^' from hI(K«J of monkey itKK:iil:ited from the I'g.incla boy, Wariea.

(c) IrrcKutar formn nf the trypano-wmii of mule> .-is seen in the blood of the gerbil and monkey. Note ihe chromatin granules.

the small " t.ulfn.Ic" fnrm. ;ui(l the "shadow" form.
(t/) DeKcneraiiil and vactii>late<l forms of mule trypanosomc an found in the peripheral blood of monke>-B treated by chrysoidine

and the hjiMMl scrum "f water-burks.
(«•) Spirilla found in the n-t-iric ami inioiina) lesions. From ^JLstric ulcer in a dog.
(_/") •• Kuddy " forms of tr^patUisome found in the gastric le>ion in an inoculated jerboa.
(c) Torula (yca»l-ccll»). apt to be mistaken for I-cishman-l>onovan bodies in st^uned preparations. From >>tomach of an inoculated

ierboa.

LriihmaN Stnin A'i x 1000 diam.

113

Trypanosomiasis in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan*

I.— Prevalence and Distribution
II. — The Disease in Cattle

In the British }[eilmiJ Joiiriial of 26111 November, 1904, I published a preliminarv note
on the above subject. This article referred to the fact that I had found trypanosomes in
the blood of a donkey from the Bahr-El-Ghazal, that Head f had discovered similar
parasites in mules from the same region, and that in smears from the blood of Shilluk cattle
.vliich he had submitted to me for examination I had found these flagellates. Since that
paper appeared, a considerable amount of information has been obtained, and a good deal of
research work has been carried out in the laboratories, upon what is a very important subject
in a country like the Sudan. The following are the chief points to which I wish to
direct attention : —

1. The prevalence and distribution of trypanosomiasis in the Sudan.

2. The presence in cattle of a small trypanosome which Laveranj has declared to be a
new species, and which he has named T. nunum.

3. The question as to whether equines, or at least mules, are liable to a double infection
by two different species of trypanosomes, or are the hosts of a T. Jimorjilnnn or dimorphon
resembling that which aflfects horses in Senegambia.§

4. The great frequency of hajmorrhagie ulcerative lesions of the stomach in
trypanosomiasis ami their significance, also the comparative frequency of intestinal
ulceration.

5. The occasional presence of spirilla in these gastric lesions, both in the blood clot
adherent to the ulcers and in the ulcerated surfaces.

6. The action of chrysoidine as a therapeutic agent in trypanosomiasis.

7. The therapeutic action in trypanosomiasis of the blood serum of wild animals (big
game) whose habitat is in trypanosome-infeeted areas, a line of research suggested by
Dr. Sheffield Neave [ride infra).

I. As Begards Prevalenrr (did Distribution. — There can be little doubt that in the Prevalence and
Southern Sudan, that is to say, in the region south of the tenth parallel of latitude,
trypanosomiasis exists to a very considerable extent. An illness known to be due to the
bites of tsetse flies, and affecting donkeys, horses, mules, and possibly camels, has been
recognised in the Bahr-El-Ghazal province since that distant region was visited after the
reconquering of the Sudan. Expeditions have experienced considerable losses in transport •'^5^°'^'^"°"

. . ' ' with the tsetse

animals from this cause. Again, and more recently, sick and emaciated animals have been fly
coming from the Upper Sobat district, and especially from the neighbourhood of Itang,
a station on the Baro River in Abyssinian territory. This is explained by the discovery of a
tsetse fly-belt between Gore and Gambela Fig. 11 (p. 28) and the disease will do much to
hamper the trade with Abyssinia which is largely conducted by means of pack mules.

Old records also speak of animals dying from fly bite on the upper reaches of the Blue
Nile, but accounts are so vague, both as regards the nature of the illness and that of the fly

•Portions of this p.iper have already appeared in the " Journal of Tropical Medicine," the ".Journal of
Pathology and Bacteriology," and the " Edinlnirgh Medical Journal." The Editors of these journals have kindly
permitted their reproduction hero.

t Journ. Comp. Path, and Therap. Edinburgh and Loudon, 1904, Sept. •30th.

t Comp. rend. Soc. de Biol. Paris, 190.5, Feb. 24th.

§ Duttou and Todd, First Report of the Trypanosomiasis Expedition to Senegambia, 1902 ; Liverpool, 1903.

H

Ill

THYPANOSOMIASIS IN THK ANft I,n-F.(i YPTIAN Sl'PAN

Trypanosomcs
in birds anil
lisli

Investigations
on the White

Nile

T. nanum,
the cattle
trypanosonic

Siiiij tti ciiiisc it, tlial lui ililiiiitc concliisioii ciiii lie narlicij nj^aniiiij^ tlic privaliiicc iif
trvpiiiiosiiiiiiasis in tliiit rt'j^iini. No cuscs liavc Iktii sent me from tlic liliic Nile iiroviiices,

allil I liavr Mot Irciivcil saiii|ilis iif (srtsr lliis frmii llnsr [lalts, liiir snli tliilri liitwrell
Ivosciri's anil Wad .Miilani, wlici'f the river is iiiore or less liordircij liv Imsli ami forest. In
the Nortliern Suilan, tlie rej:;ion of sandy wastes, as pointeil out in tlie preliminary note,
trypanosomiasis Inis not been foinid to exist, Imt no fi;reat nnmlier of examinations liave been
nnide, ami investigations upon frogs, lizards, and a large iiuiidici- of liiids have yet to be
condueted. Captain Head, of the Veterinary Service, however, informs me that he has
examined the blood of a large number of cattle an<l camels, botli in the Herber district and
on the borders of Abvssinia, and has not encountered a single ease of trypanosomiasis. In
some of the ilistricts in wliieli lie worked, I'lniijiuiiii Mi'e prevalent. ])r. ShefHeld Neiive,
travelling pathologist to tlie laboratories, worked down Nile from (iondokoro, ami the
reader is referred to his report for accounts of the tiyjiaiiosonies wliich he has discovered and
described. His tinds in birds are specially interesting in the light of Novy's and McNeal's
recent researches.*

For tlie purpose of gathering information and material regarding the trypanosomiasis of
Shillnk cattle I accompanied Colonel CxrilHth, the principal veterinary otlicer, to Tautikia,
near the month of the Sobat River, and 5'J() miles south of Kliartoum. The journey was
undertaken in .lanuarv. I'.Hlf), and at Melut. fifty miles noi'lli (jf Kodok (late Fashoda), a
lierd of Shilluk cattle was inspected. Three sick aninnils were picked out and examined.
In the blood of one of these I found a trypanosome identical with the parasite found in
Shillnk cattle at Khartoum which had come from the Kodok region. f Nothing was found in
the lilood of tile other two aiiiiiials. liut it is proiialile they were sntVering from the disease,
as tliev jii'i-seiited tile characteristic symptoms, i.e., extreme aiia'iiiin of the mucous
membranes, weakness, emaciation, and some running from the nose. At Jlelut we received
vague information as to the presence of a tly belt a eoiisideralile distance inland, and were
tidd that the rattle became iiifecti'd after tlu' iMinv season, /.''., in August. On these cattle,
as in those at Khartoum, large minibers of the tick calleil Aiiil'lii<nniii<i raricgntum were
found, as well as flies of the genus Ifijij)(i/iO!<ra. It may be said at once that examimition of
these insects has alwavs proved negative, but, as will be shown, the tryi)anosomes are never
very numerous in the blood of cattle.

A herd which had just been imported from the north showed no signs of disease.

At Kodok a small herd was seen, and one sick cow, which eight months previously had
come from Jleliit, was examined. It was distinctly thin and amemic, but no parasites were
found in its blood.

At Taufikia, six separate herds of cattle were in.spceted, the bloods of 12 sick
beasts were examined, and trvpanosomes were found in one animal only — a cow from
Abvssinia, which had iccently aborted, and was in a dying comlitioii.

This trypanosome proved to be 7'. nuinnii. Three sick mules, coming also from near
Itang, were found to harbour trypanosomcs. These were not the sanu' species of parasite as
those fmind in cattle, but ajipcar to be identical with those iliscovered by Head in mules
from the riahr-El-(ihazal. A ilog was inoculated from tmc of these mules and brought to
Khartoum, where it developed trypanosomiasis. It was from this strain, carried on i)y

• .lour. Infec. Dis., Chicnf;o, 190.'>, Mnrirh,

t The recent discovery of (1. murnilniix in Soutlicrn Kordofnn prolnlily cxplnins the prevalcnec of tsetse
disea.-"*; in this dintrict.

PLATE XV

<■: >-<• -^ ^; -.1.
C.I *3 ^■ittr ^>,
P.

I

fit Sk

s.«a«i^-^

Rk;HAKD ilDIR

Okuinaky and altered fokms of Bloou Plates from Peripheral Blood of (.'attle

Some of these, in stained preparations, are apt to be mistaken for parasites as they possess chromatin dots and n)a\- simulate
flagellated bodies.

Lfishinan Stain X 1000 liinm.

TEYPAN'OSOMIASIS IX THE ANGLO-EGYrTIAN SUDAX 115

successive passages tlirougli animals, tliat I liave bci'ii able to study the parasites tif tlie
disease in nuiles. The cow from Blelnt was also brought to Khartoum, and will be again
mentioned in due course. At Taufikia, a monkey [Cercojiifliefiis sd/iaits), a bat. and a black
and white crow were examined, with negative results.

Out of three sparrow-like birds examined, two showed halteridia in the blood.

It is difficult to base any conclusions on such limited observations. The trypanosomiasis
of cattle is a chronic disease* to all appearance, and it will be some time before its prevalence
is correctly gauged. In eqnines the malady appears to be common in the Bahr-El-Ghazal,
where G. mnrsitaiis is found, and probably exists to a considerable extent on the Upper
Sobat, wdiere, as stated, it is quite possible that (t. longlpcnnix exists. On the mules at
Taufikia large numbers of a species of Stomxvya were found, biting fiercely, specially in the
evenings. No opportunity of properly examining these flies was afforded. In one, which
was dissected, no trypanosomes were found, but several hours had elapsed before its stomach
contents were examined. One may here refer to human trypanosomiasis which so far has
not been encountered within the confines of the Sudan,* though, as previously noticed,
Dr. Neavef found Leishman-Donovan bodies in the spleen of a boy coming from Meshra,
in the Bahr-El-Ghazal. This is of especial interest in the light of the subsequent discovery of
G. paljialis in the Bahr-El-Ghazal province and the Lado Enclave, albeit Meshra is hundreds
of miles away from these infected regions, and the relationship of Leishman-Donovan bodies
to trypanosomes has not yet been definitely settled. At Taufikia I found that the Sudanese
battalion was being recruited to some extent from Uganda, and discovered that twelve
men had come from Kampala, close to Entebbe, a centre of the disease. Some of these
men exhibited enlarged cervical glands. They were tested by blood examinations, glanil
puncture and, in one specially suspicious case, inoculation into a monkey [Crrcopithccna),
but with wholly negative results. Later they were sent for observation to Khartoum,
and were re-examined, but no trypanosomes were found. The presence of these men at
Taufikia, however, served to draw attention to what was undoubtedly a source of danger.
Recruiting from Uganda was at once abolished by order of the then Principal Bledical
Officer, Colonel Penton.

Captain GreigJ has shown that the country immediately south of Gondokoro is not of
the kind likely to harbour G palpalii, but later information has been obtained by Dr. Neave
and is included in his report, together with his own observations on the Tapper White Nile
and between Shambe, Eunbek, Tong and Meshra-El-Rek.

II. Thr Diseaac in Cattle. — Cattle trvpansomiasis has been studied at Khartoum, Melnt, t,, ,.

• J- ' ' 1 he disease in

and Taufikia. The disease appears to be of a chronic nature, the principal symptoms being cattle
extreme anaemia, especially visible in the blanched, glistening conjunctival surface ; weakness,
emaciation, ninning from the nose, and, occasionally, dribbling of uriue. The last condition

, , , . . Symptoms

IS probably dependent on muscular weakness. Fig. 63 gives a good idea of an animal
suffering from the disease. Notice the dull, listless, half-closed, and sleepy eye, the prominent
ribs and hip bones, and, what is rather constant, the atrophic line in the shoulder hump. In
the later stages the head is held low, and towards the end there is complete collapse, the
animal lying down and refusing to rise, the skin cold, the coat roughened, urine and
faeces passed involuntarily, and the respirations noisy and rapid. At this stage the animal

* It is important to note that Todd mentions the occurrence of a case of Sleeping Sickness in the Lado
Enclave. Thompson Yates and Johnston Labor.itories Report Vol. VI., New Series, Part II., Liverpool, 1906.
t Brit. Mod. Jour., London, Vol. I., 1904, May iSth, p. 1252.
X Lancet, London, Vol, I.. 19li5, Fcl). 25th, p. 5-34.

iir.

TltYPAN'OSOMIASIS IN THK. ANTiI.fl-Kri YPTIAS Sl'DAN

iiiiiy tiiki' fodil, mill, iiiili'i'il, failure of apiictitc ilocs not at any time seem to lie ti symptom,
('an-fnl cxamiiiafioii failcil to ilctcct enlarged j^lands towards the root of tlie iieek, but one
is apt to lie deceived liy feeling tlie siiliiiitaiieons, ^^elatinous exudation wliitdi is found to

FlC. 63.— SlllLLi X ()\

l-l'KIM. hti'iM ('

exist post-niurteni. The first ox from which specimens were obtaiuid died some fifteen miles
from Khartoum. Smears of the peripheral Mood, liver, and spleen were submitted to me by
Captain Head. In all of these I found the small trypaiiosome, since named 7'. iniinnii by

Fio. G4. .Stomach of Ox, >howinK ulcerated patchc* of mucous membrane

Professor Laveran. Captain lleml also lironi;ht in sonic of tlic eerebro-spinal fluid, which
WHS centrifiiged, and in the sediment streptococci, possibly due to contamination, and altered
and anmboid forms of the parasite, were found. The latter rcscndded those described by

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN

117

Pliiiimer aud Bradford* iu bonu-marrow in cases of nagana, and by Castellanif as
occurring in the cerebro-spinal fluid, in sleeping sickness. They were few in number and
stained feebly. A somewhat pear-shaped, flagellated form was the most striking.

The second ox also died at a distance. In smears made from its blood trypanosomes
were fairly numerous. The stomach, which had been placed in spirit, was the only organ
brought to the laboratories. Attached to it was a small piece of omentum. On opening the
stomach a very curious condition of pigmented ulceration was disclosed, affecting the mucous Gastnc

. --iii-i, ulceration

membrane (Fig. 64). Scattered about were dark areas with thickened edges raised above
the surrounding mucous membrane. The surfaces of these areas were flat and slightly
depressed, and consisted of what was afterwards found to be altered blood clot. No smears
■were made from these areas, but sections were cut and examined. Beyond a severe bacillary
invasion aud the appearance of considerable erosion and destruction of the mucous membrane,
nothing was found.

The following are my notes on the condition : —

"Exatnination of Ahomasnin nr Fourth tStomach — Cardiac end. — Nothing noticeable
externally. In a small piece of attached omentum there are two enlarged glands about the
size of peas, rounded, elastic to the touch, purple in colour externally, and deep purple on
section. The mucous membrane is of a uniform dark slate colour, no eccliymoses are present,
but there are some dark patches, possibly due to post-mortem changes. Studded over the
surface of the mucous membrane are spots of intensely black pigment (Fig. 64). Each
of these, in most instances, seems to surround a tiny punched-out-hole, and the pigmentation
is most marked in the central depression. A few black granules can, as a rule, be squeezed
out from the central pits. These granules were found to consist of altered blood. Where
the patches are more advanced, they present the appearance of ulcerations. Most of
these are more or less circular and depressed, but some are in the form of ulcerated streaks,
and all are intensely black. In addition there are a few patches of superficial pigmentation
in which there is no ulcerative process.

Central 2>ortion. — -The condition is very similar, but the patches are larger, some of the
ulcerated " streaks " being f inch in length. In one or two places the ulcerations appear to
have healed, leaving depressed and whitish scars surrounded by areas of slight pigmentation.

Pyloric end. — Nothing noted externally. The mucous membrane shows a general
pigmentation of the surface in the form of little circular shallow pits with pigmented
walls, the pigmentation being very slight. In addition, pigmented ulcers, similar to those
previously described, are present in considerable numbers, and in some instances a regular
plug of the black material fills up tlie ulcer and rises above the surface of the mucous
membrane. There are also present the superficial pigmentations already mentioned, some of
which are associated with slight erosion. Where the ulcers are marked, their edges are
thickened. The ulcerative process and the pigmentation are confined to the mucous layer.
In no instance does perforation seem to have occurred. Size of largest ulcer, f inch by
I inch."

At the time I did not think that these ulcerations, which rather recalled the lesions
produced by the swallowing of a corrosive poison, were in any way connected with the
trypanosomiasis. Since then I have had reason to alter that opinion, as will be seen when we
consider the experimental work with the trypanosomes of mules. Captain Greig, whom I

* Brit. Med. .Jouru., Loudou, Vol. I., 1903, Juue 20th.
t Journ. Tropical Medicine, Vol. V., 1903, p. 167.

ll"^ IKVrANOSOMI ASIS IN Till'. ANdhO-KOYl'TI AN SIMIAN

met Oil liis way to Kiij^laiid froni U^aiiila, iiifor il im- tliat lir liail rcci'iitly finiiul a siiiiilui-

foiiilitioii iif iilcciatioii ill tin- stoiimclis of natives ilcail of sleeping sickness. Ilf lias
il(S( rilicil aiiil lijiurcil tliis conilitioii in liis report to tlie Koval Soeiety.*

The third ox is that shown on pa<;e IKi, Fig. (JM. 'Die lilooil was taken at Khartoum
on .■>(Mh Oetoher, ami as iriaiiy as two trypanosonies were foiiml in some (ields. The animal
was kept ami well fed. (hi Itli NovenibiT fresh luid stiiined blood films were exiimined, but
no parasites eouhl 1" di iiionstrated. Thereafter, though the Mood wiis centrifuged and
examined, und though the animal was sulijeeted to four days' partial starvation,
trypanosonies were not again found. Eventmdiy, as the owner wished to slaughter the ox, it
was exehiinged for o.x No. 4, wliieh was exaniine<l on "JMrd Novemlur, when a considerable
iiiiiiil);'r of trypanosonies were found, as many as six per eover-ghiss preparation being
jireseut. This ox lontiniK d to .slmu the parasites in its blood, and grailiially beeanie
thinner and weaker.

On 8rd December it was fdiiml to lie verv weak with marked aiia-mia and driliMing
urini'. Tile urine and fa'ces were examineil U>v KIikhI. liiit none was present. The fwces
were slightly tarry in eoiisistcnee, ami this and their colour suggestecl the examination.

l)n 4tli Deeeiiilier the ox was found to lie in extremis. Trypanosonies were slightly
iiKU'e numerous in the blood, and as it was feared the animal might die during the night, it
was slaughtereil. and an aiitopsv performed imineiliiitidy.
Posi-mortcni The principal points noted were ; —

'"^^ (ii) The extelisivi' sulieutaneous, gidatillous. ami pale yellow exudation. Nearly every

part of the snlieutaneons connective tissue was ill an nMlematous, watery condition, wlii(di
was most iiiarkeil where the skin was loose, i.e., in the dewlap, lieliind the shouhlcrs, ami in
front (jf the haiineh.

(/') Till' preseiici' of enlarged purple lucmorrhagic glands ahout the root of the neck.

((•) The gri'at and general enlargement of the mesenteric glands, which were also,
though to a less extent, hwniorrhagic in nature.

{(/) The presence of a certain amount of chronic meningitis atVecting the pia arachiioiil,
the pia being somewhat adherent to the surface of the convolutions. There was little
thickening of the iiieiiiliranes, and no a[)pearance of encephalitis. Indeed, the brain
appeared markedly anajniic. The stomarli, which was distended witii food, presented no
ulcerative condition, but contained "bots'of a dirt'ereiit kind to any I have seen in the
Sudan. Till' intestinal tract was normal. There was nothing special to note with regard to
the siileeii and liver, wliiili were neither conge.sted nor enlarged. The heart's blood showed
trypanosonies. Fluid from the lateral ventricles of iIk brain and from the eerebro-spiual
tlnid showed nothing in the way of trypanosome infection. Jiile taken with aseptic
precautions from the gall bladder contained a short stout bacillus in considerable numbers,
but no Hagelhiteil parasites.

The cow at Melut was picked out by the natives as being ill. The blood was
collected in tubes containing citrate of soda solution. Such blood showed trypanosonies,
though these were only found after some scan hing.

The Abyssinian cow which aborted at Taiifikia. and was in a dying condition, also had
trypanosonies in its blood, but they wi re not at all numerous. Time iliil not admit of a
post-mortem ixamination in this case.

• ItvjMjrU of tlic Slevpiii); ■Siekucs.s Comiiiis.'.iiiii of thu Koviil Sih-.. LoikIuii. No. VI.. |>. "iCG, PlaU: VII.

TKYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANOLO-EOYI'TIAN SUDAN 119

The trypanosome coucerued is a small oue. (Plate XIV., Fig. k.) It is not very active Morphology of
in fresh films, and I have never seen one traverse the whole field of the microscope. The
motion is undulating, combined with a vigorous lashing to and fro of the anterior part of the
body, which tapers to a very tiny flagellum. Rippling, and what may be termed spreading,
movements have also been observed. The parasite advances usually with the narrow end in
front, but this motion is often i-eversed, and I have seen one move a considerable distance,
pushing aside the erythrocytes with its blunt posterior end. A fact which is very noticeable
is that the trypanosome tends to adhere to the red blood corpuscles. Even in a thin field
this is seen, the parasite seeming to take a delight in butting and boring at the erythrocytes.
Frequently it gets beneath them and is lost to view, the agitation it produces being the only
clue to its presence. Having studied this trypanosome, both in the living and stained
condition, and having conducted a few inoculation experinieiits on laboratory animals [ride
infra), I became convinced that this was either a new and undescribed trypanosome, or was
identical with the parasite of cattle found by Bruce, Nabarro, and Greig on the shores of the
Victoria Nyanza in Uganda. Stained specimens were sent to the Liverpool School of
Tropical Medicine, but I learn that unfortunately the stain had faded and could not be
repeated with success. In the meantime I had sent unstained films to Professor Laveran,* to
whom I am much indebted for his kindly interest, and who, in the Proceedings of the

Biological Society of Paris of 24tli

•

February, describes the stained try-
panosome, which he regards, provided
further experiments prove it to be

^^^1 peculiar to cattle, as a new species, and

■f':

^

,J5*^, which, on account of its small size, he

'is^'' has named 1\ nainiiii, i.e., the dwarf

trypanosome.

His interesting description of these
parasites is as follows : —

" The trypanosomes measure 10
^j,^' j^^- ^j^ to 14 ^ in length, by i to 2 fi in

breadth. Their structure is that of the
flagellates of the genus trypanosoma,
although, contrary to the rule, the
protoplasm is prolonged on the anterior
part in such a way that there is no
free part of the flagellum, or the free
part of the flagellum is extremely
short. The undulating membrane is very straight, and in consequence but little apparent.
The posterior extremity is conical, not drawn out, and in other resjiects varies somewhat.
The oval nucleus is situated near the centre of the body of the parasite. The rounded
centrosome, rather large, occupies a position close to the posterior extremity. The
protoplasm is homogeneous without granules.

"Some forms a little longer than the others show two centrost)nics and a flagellum,
divided to a greater or lesser exti'ut, proceeding from the ceutrosomic insertion."

Fig. 6.5. —T. Nanc'm. x 17.50 di.ini.

* Compt. reud. Soc. Biol., Paris, 1906, Feb. 24th.

1-20 TllYl'ANOSOMlABIH IN TIIK ANGLO-EQYl'TIAN SUDAN

111' prooi'iMls tu jKiiiit imt liuw ililV.iviit in morphology is this tryimnosonu' fmin
T. /Iriirri iiiul T. h'nni.ti. He foiupiires it with T. Thnln-i, the giiiiit trypuiiosonie of South
Africiiu cuttle, and coiuludes by reinurkinf^ thiit while very distinct from T. Tlniliri,
T. ittiiiiim iiiiproiiilies it in being peculiar tu cattle, so far as is at present known.

I have little to add to the above description, {riifr Piute XIV., Fig. >i.)

'I'll.- photo-micrograph (Fig. 65), for which I am indebted to Dr. Beam, chemist to the
Laboratories, gives a very fair ideu of one of the shortest forms of 7'. luiintm. It shows it
to be u short trypanosome with hardly uny free ilagelluni visible, but is not (juite typical in
that the po.sterior moiety is rather broa<ler than is usually seen.

I append measuremeuts I have made of a form whose total length was 14 /i.

From posterior cud of body to centre of ccutrosomc I - /'

From ooutre of ceutrosomc to nucleus I-/'

Nucleust I !■ >«

From iiudeuH to begiuuiug of Uiigellum .'>(;/i

Free llngellum 1 I /i

Breadth Ijcliiud micleus l! /i

I agree tluit tlic pnitoplasiri is homogeneous, though it sometimes stains irregulurly, as
evidenced in Fig. (35, while in forms kept /// rltru granules appear, for the most part
anterior to the nucleus. In such forms tlic Viicuole in the neiglilioiuliood of the
ccutrosomc may be found large and very evident. Sometimes a portion of tlu' free edge of
the undulating membrane is clearly visible, liuiKlird as it were upon llie back of the
trypanosome and looking like a loop. As a nilc. howivcr, tlie undulating membrane can
scarcely be seen save in the living j)arasite. I havi- workeil witii specimens stained by the
Leishman-Komanowsky method, which answers admirably if the stain be strong and staining
prolonged. After fixing with the alcoholic stain in the usual way I am in the habit of
ailding an equal (juantity of distilled water and allowing the stain to act for from twenty
minutes to half-an-hour or even longer.

I have carried out a few experiments in ri/ro wliich may be mentioned here, tiiough
the study of the trypanosome is yet far from complete, owing to lack of material and press
of other work. Hence cultivation experiments have not been attempted.

In citrated blood kept at a temperature of 22^ to 23' C, no change in the trypanosomes
was vi.sible after twenty-four hours. They remained lively and stained well. After seventy-
two hours at a temperature of 25° C, changes were observed to have occurred, the posterior
en<ls of the parasites having become swuiKn, whiii' the organisms were sluggish und
evidently degenerating.

Trypanosomes disappeared in 21 iiours from sterile citrated blood which had been
exposed to a temperature of Ki' ('.

The trypanosomes from tin' Mrliit cow remained alive in non-sterile citrated blood at a
temperature of about 35 C. for twenty-four hours. They unilerweiit longitudinal division,
forms with two centrosomes and two nuclei being seen. In these the unilulating membrane
was more apparent than usual.
Inoculation Iiioriiliitloii K.ij)frliii(iits. From <>.i- \ii. 1. — 0'5 c.c. citratrd lijoiid, i.e. about 0'25 c.c.

exiwriniunis l,),,,,,]^ was inoculated subcntaiieously into a moidvey {Cirri'pitliniis .v((/i/M(\) on ."lOlIi October,
I'.KM.

On the same date a rabbit received 1 c.c. of citrated blood. These animals never
showed any symptoms of the disease, und though their bloods were repeatedly centrifuged

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 121

in the luEmatoerit tubes, and carefully examiued both iu the fresh and stained condition, no
trypanosoines were found.

From Ox No. 4. On 23rd November a rabbit received 2 c.c. of blood containing a
considerable number of trypanosomes, six to the microscopic field (employing Leitz, obj. 6,
oc. 4, without ocular diaphragm), aud a monkey (Cermpifhecm) received 1 c.c. The result
in the case of these animals was also negative, though they remained under observation for
two months.

On 4th December a brown pariah dog received 2'5 c.c. of fresh blood subcutaneously
at a time when trypanosomes were fairly numerous.

A black pariah dog received as food large pieces of the liver and spleen aud several of
the enlarged glands, all soft food be it noted.

These experiments also proved absolutely negative.

On 29th December the last-mentioned rabbit happened to be killed accidentally. A
post-mortem was performed immediately, but no trypanosomes were found in the blood or in
any of the organs. It would appear, then, that dogs, rabbits, and monkeys {Cercopithecua)
are not liable to infection with T. nanum, though it must be confessed that the number of
experiments was too small. As it was desired to institute further experiments, the cow from
Melut was brought to Khartoum, arriving there on 4th March, 1905, along with her calf.
The blood of both animals was examined, but no trypanosomes were present

The cow, and there was no doubt as to her identity, was in very poor condition and
presented all the symptoms of the disease, but repeated centrifuging of considerable quantities
of blood failed to reveal the parasites. On 7th March, 1905, 4 c.c. of the cow's fresh blood
was inoculated subcutaneously into her calf, but though numerous examinations have been
made of the blood of the latter, T. nanuin has nut once been found. Nor has the cow again
exhibited trypanosomes up to the time of writing (December, 1905). She was well fed and
steadily improved in health and appearance. In this connection one must note that the
Uganda experiments indicated that there is no transmission of immunity from a trypanosome
infected animal to her offspring and that an apparently recovered animal may months later,
as a result of lowered vitality, again exhibit infection [ride Lancet, May 14th, 1904).

A sample of her milk was analysed by Dr. Beam and yielded the following figures : —

Total solids 21'5 per cent.

Fat 11-2 ,, ,, (a very high figure).

Solids not fat ID'S ,, ,,

I had neither the time nor the means at my disposal to conduct an extensive series
of cattle inoculations, nor was I able to secure other cattle suffering from trypanosomiasis.

Taken m conjunction with what was found in Ox 3 it would, however, appear that
T. nullum is in the habit of disappearing for long periods from the peripheral blood, and j
I am strongly inclined to think that spontaneous cui'e may occur. It is possible that, under ,
favourable conditions, such as removal from an endemic area and plenty of good food /

ensured, a trypanosomicide is produced in the blood which proves fatal to the parasites.
Supposing for a moment that this be the case, it may prove possible to utilise the sera of Possible
recovered cattle as a therapeutic agent. I hope yet to be able to exploit this field of research sp°"'aneous
which, though already explored to some extent in the case of other trypanosomes, seems
Well worth investigating in the case of a new and uudoubtedly somewhat benign form like I
2'. ininnm. A proper animal house, however, would be required, and more assistance than is '
at present available, while the undertaking would be somewhat costly, as I have not yet

122

TUY1-ANOS0MIA8I8 IN TIIK ANOLO-KCi Yl'TIAS tSlDAN

fouiul a lulM)nit(HT niiiiiml liiiMc to iiiffctioii with lliis tiyiiiUiosuim' i>f caltlc Oiii' rallnr
iiitiTi'Sting I'xpiTiiiK'iit Ims, liowcvcr, liccii trii-il. On Novcnilifr ITtli, llKlf), tlif i-alf whose
blood \vii8 fxaiiiiiu'd ami fuiiiid, as bi'fort', free of panusites was inoculated with I'T) c.c. of
liliiod from a iiumkcv. This liluod was swaniiiiifj; with the long and short forms of the
trviiunosolile of liiuh'S ([irolialilv '/'. (/////I'/y/i '(</»), to lie presently dcserihed, and the experiment
was earrii'il out to see if the short form in mules was T. iiiiiuiiii whieh it resembles. It
would have been better to trv llie experiim iil fmiii this puiiit of view on a elean animal, but
none 'was available.

On Novendier 23rd, for the tirst and. as it turned out, the last time, a few long forms
weri' found in lijood taken from tiir ( ar. Since then tiie eaif has renuiined fat and well, and
its blood is free from parasites.

The disease in
niuivs

111. — TilK Dl.SKASK I.\ .Mll.KS

IV. — PUOI'HYLAXIS AM) TnKATMKNT, etc.

III. For the study of trypanosomiasis in mules there have been available the stained
slides of blood prepared I ly Captain Iliad fioni mules wliiiii were brought from the lialir-
El-Ghazal. The main source of material was, however, found in the three mules sufifering
from the disease at Taufikia. As stated, a dog was inoculated from one of these animals
and brotight to Khartoum, where it developed the disease. The symptoms and post-mortem
appearances in mules have been very carefully described by Captain Head.* The
accompanying photographs, Figs. (56 and t)7, kindly given me by Colonel Gritlith, I'.V.O.,
demonstrate the aspect of an affecteil aiiinial in an advanced state of the disease.

Symptoms

Vui. 66. -Milk Afkkctku with 'rnvrAsoMiMlAMs.

Note the hanging head, tlir dull and listless eye. the rougheiu-il, staring coat, the
prominent ribs, the general asjiect of hope less resignation, and the hind leg iirojeited fnnn
the bud v. a sign of Weakness or of giddiness.

• Journ. Comp. Path, and Therap., Ediuburgb iiud Glasgow, 1904, Vol. XVll., p. 200.

TEYrANOSOlIIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN

123

The blood of the mules seen at Taiifikia literally swarmed with trypanosomes, and
was thin, greasy, and ditticult to spread on the slide. One animal died but had decomposed
before we got word of its decease. The death of a second enabled a post-mortem to be
performed. The most marked change was in the meninges whicli were miuh thickened, the
dura being very adherent to the skull. The brain was congested and the cerebral vessels
gorged with blood.

Otherwise but little was found, the spleen not showing any increase in size or marked Post-mortem
congestion. The liver was fatty. Unfortunately the stomach was not opened, a regrettable

Fig. 67. -Mi ll. Aiii-.crhu \mtii TKVf.\NUbu.%:l.\bl-s.

oversight on my part. It looked healthy viewed externally. There was no gelatinous
subcutaneous exudation nor was the connective tissue cedematuus.

From the third mule the dog was inoculated, about 4 c.c. being given subcutaueously
on January 16th, 1905. On January 22nd, 1905, trypanosomes were for the first time
found in this dog's blood. Slides of the mule's blood were sent to Professor Laveran, who
describes the forms found in the same article as that in which he deals with 7'. nanum,
the trypanosome of cattle.

After remarking that the parasites were verv numerous, he proceeds to distinguish Morphology of

" ^ ^ ' I ° the mule

two types. trypanosomes

"a. Small forms measuring 12 to 14 ^ in length by 1'5 ^ to 2'5 f-i in breadth.
These trypanosomes recall very much the appearance of the small forms of
T. <runorphon. The protoplasm is prolonged as far as the extremity of the fiagellum,
which in consequence does not exhibit a free part. The undulating membrane is
more developed than in T. nnniun and causes the parasite to present an even more
"stumpy" aspect. The nucleus is situated sometimes at the centre, sometimes at the
junction of the posterior with the middle third. The protoplasm contains chromatin
granules and these are sometimes very numerous. Forms in pro^'css of division are
encountered with two centrosomes and one nucleus, two centrosomes and two nuclei, etc.

I'il TllVl'ANOKOMIAHlS IN THK ANCiLO-KO Yl'TIAN Sl'DAN

" II. Laij^f forms iiii'iisiiiiiig 21 tu '.iO fi in liiigtli by 2/i in brcinltli. Thusc fdiiiis,

ill which tlif ihigilluiii ixliihits a vi-ry long irw. portion, betir u great resuniblanee to

T. Jimiisi. Thv postt'rior uxtrumity is usually tlongattd, tlic protojilasiii is homogenous

anil with but fiw granules. Forms uiulergoiug division by separation into two elements

are lounil.

" It is to be noted that intermediate forms between the small and the largo

trypanosonies are wanting."

From a study of numerous preparations both fresh and stained I am in a position
to add a few additional notes to the above.

Ill fresh blood botii forms of trypanosonies ean be elearly made out. The long forms
arc iiuirli tlif inure aetive, darting rapidly bitlur and thither, lashiug vigorously witli tluir
llagella, and disphieing the red blood eorpuseles. They ean advance with either tlie anterior
or posterior end in front, tiiough their lunger excursions are mailc with the flagelhini "going
on before."

Occasionally one of these long aetive forms may be seen to traverse the field of the
microscope, but this is not euiiinion. The body of the trypanosome freipiently bends upon
it.-<elf so that it {iresents the a}>pearanee of a tiny corkscrew for the fraction of a second, and
then, stretching out, the parasite shoots across some space amongst the corpuscles, and
plunges writhing and lashing amongst a group of startled erythrocytes.

In tlir fresh state the undulating membrane is not very well defined in these long forms.
They do not j)resent a granular aspect. The short forms on the otiier hand are, as a rule,
ilistinctly granular and are much more sluggish in tluir movements. They tend to hang
about the same spot and their excursions are limited, rather re.seiiibiing those of 7'. niiiiiim.
They also can advance witli either end in front, but tluir body nioveiiiciits are more of a
rippling or undulating type. It often looks us tliougli a series of shivers was riiiining along
the protoplasm.

Their undulating iiieiiibranes are well marked, and llie rounded posterior ends are very
distinct. On staining with Leisliman-liomanowsky, used strong and for a considerable time
as in the ease of 7! uaniim, the differences in structure between the two forms are well
emphasized. Points to which Laveran in his short note does not refer, are the well-known
" pike-head " form of the posterior end of a typical long trypanosome, and the fact that the
centrosonie of tlii' long form is not as large as that of the small.

In some of the short forms the nucleus seems almost to touch the centrosonie, while
" biiiudiing" of the undulating membrane is often well seen. I have noted curious forms,
jiossibly distorted, with stjuare-cut posterior ends, and more than once have seen a short
form witli no granules visible.

As a rule the granules are in the posterior moiety, i.e., between the nucleus and tlie
centrosonie. In some iustances the possession of these chromatin granules is almost the
only point enabling one to distinguish this trypanosome from T. naxum. I have also noticed
ilividing forms, and it is not uncommon to find two short forms lying with their posterior
ends in close contact — possibly a pndiminarv stage to conjugation, more likely the terininal
stage of a division.

In the mule's blood T did not observe conjugating or agglnfiiiating. or involution forms.

1 agree that the long foiin< asure from '21 to 3U fi, but some are as narrow us r4 fi ut

their thickest portion.

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 125

I appi-'iiil a very average set of measurements : —

Prom posterior Gud to centrosome ... ... ... ... .. .. 2'8 /ii

From ceutrosome to imclous ... ... ... ... ... ... 7 ^

Nucleus 2-8 /i

From nucleus to root of tiagcllum .. . ... ... ... ... ... 4'2 u

Flagellum 6 to 10 ^

There is much variation amongst these long forms, but as a general rule the flagella
stain admirably, and complete uieasurements can easilv be made. Here are the figures for
one of the short forms of a total length of l-i n, in which the nucleus was at the junction of
the posterior and middle third : —

Prom posterior end to centrosome ... ... ... ... ... ... lifJ-

Prom centrosome to nucleus ... ... ... ... ... ... 14 /j

Nucleus 'IS n (large)

From nucleus to root of flagellum ... ... 7 /^<

Flagellum 14 f

I have found short forms to vary in length from 12 /j to 15'4 /<, and in breadth from
1-4 /. to 2-5 fi.

As Professor Laveran points out in T. dimorphtm, the trypanosome of horses in
Senegambia there also exist two forms, a long and a short. He asks if this and the mule
trypanosomes are identical. He regards it as possible, but mentions the fact that, while the
short forms of the mule trypanosome resemble the short forms of T. dimorphiim, the long
forms of the former differ a little from those of the latter, mainly as regards the flagella
which, as a rule, are short in T. dinwrplmm. He adds, however, that variations occur and
that Button and Todd* have described free flagella in the largo form of T.dhniii'phimi. Not
only are they described, but they are figured both in photo-micrographs and coloured plates,
and I must say tliat my first impression was that I was dealing with T. dhnorphum or some-
thing very like it. To my mind the long forms more resembled the long forms of
T. d'tmorphum than they did T. Kvansi, but then my comparisons were made from photographs
and coloured drawings. Laveran goes on to advance another hypothesis, namely, that the
mules may have been infected with two different species of trypanosome, and he cites the
work of Cazalbouf who in the French Soudan found horses to be the victims of a double
infection.

There seems no reason why this might not occur, and as regards the short forms one
at once thhiks of T. nitiuim, as the mules had come from the Itang district along with the
herd of cattle, amongst which was the cow harbouring those flagellates. This cow aborted
and died as already described.

In order to try and settle this vexed question and to enable one to test certain
therapeutic measures animal inoculations have been conducted.

As mentioned, a Shilluk dog, whose blood was previously tested and found normal,
was inoculated from one of the mules at Taufikia, receiving 4 c.c. of undiluted blood
subcntaneously. It was brought at once to Khartoum, where a fly-proof animal house has
been erected, and there it developed trypanosomiasis, the parasites appearing in the blood
after an incubation period of about seven days.

From this dog, whose blood exhibited the same state of things as was fouml in the mule,
various passages of the parasites have been made. Those performed up to the present time

* First Report of the Trypanosomiasis Expedition to Senegambia, 1902, Liverpool, 1903.
t Rec. de Med. Vet., Paris, 1904, Oct. 15th.

126

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANT, I.n-rri YPTIAN SUDAN

arc shown in flic aimcxcil fiiMi' (p. 127), ainl it is |iriiiMisiil td iliiil witli cinli cxpcrinnmt in
turn ninl tlicii to consiiliT tlic nsnit as u whole.

In larh instaiirc, with one i-xcuption thie to a niistakr, the Mnuil df the cxiMiiiiicntal
animal was canfully cxainini'il prior to inocnlation.

Exp. 1. Doj,' 1. — Young Shillnk dog, ahont fight months ohl.
Jiiniiiini Ht//i, IIKI.'). 4 I'.c. fnsh iiluoil of mnlc injcrti'd subcutiineuiisly.
Jiiiiiiiiri/ '22iiil. Trvpanosonifs funnd in the peripheral blood.
Ffhruiiri/ Htfi, found dead.

This dog ran wliat proved to he a very typical conrse for the disease in dogs
characterised liy progressive ainemia, weakness and emaciation witii, in tile hiter stages,
double corneal opacity. Towards the end the creature hail become a veritable skeleton.
The appetite (lid not fail til! just before dcatli and no ucrvous svmptoiiis. except increasing
drowsiness, were noted, nor was there aiiv ledema or etliision.

At the autopsy, the most noticeable feature was a large cll'usicjii into tiic pericardium.
Being ill at tlie time I ilid not see tile post-iiiorteui, liut 1 understand ti:at no gastric
ulceration and no enlargement of glands was found.

I believe tliis may iiave lieeii due to the fact tiiat tile dog, a yoniig animal, died at a

coniparativ(dy early stage in the disease. The blood was noteil as being very thin ami greasy.

The following is the temperature record from January 30th, taken per rectum, about

noon of each day, 1028° F., 103°, 102°, 104-6°, 101-6°, 103-2°, 98-8°, 984°, 101-2°. It will

be noted there was a lowering of the boily lieat towards the end of life.

Kxp. 2. Dog 2. — Inoculated subeutaneously from Dog 1 on danuary 23rd, about
2 e.e. eitrated blood being given. Blood examined for tiie first time on February Itii, when
trypanosouies fnuiid. For a few davs prior to fiiis flic dog ii.'id sliown signs of commencing
emaciation. At a slightly later period it exhiiiited to a sligiit extent the so-called "bull-dog
hea<l " appearance, but this cephalic u-denia passed off", possibly under treatment for this
animal was given chrysoidine {vide iufrn).

Some (edema of the fore-legs and paws was noted on February Otii. imt if was also transient.
Double conical opacity was observed on February 12th. Despite treatment the di.>*ease

progressed and the ilog was found deail,
stiff' and colli on the morning of Feb-
ruary 20th.

Post mortem the only thing of
note was the enlarged spleen, which
measured '.• inclus (23 cm.) in length
and ill wiiirli flic f(dlicies were en-
larged and prominent. A fuller
aeeoiinf of fiiis dog will be found later
when tile chrysoidine treatment is
discussed. There was no gastric ulcer-
ation. The trypanosouies before treat-
ment was commenced presented no
differences from those found in the
mule. Both forms were present.

( JJixi-ri/ilidiis of ij/ii null Ills n>n-
liiiiii'il ml j>. l.3;>.j

Fig. Sd. Mumikv .Ah^kcikh mum Tkvi'Amosomiams of Mulbs

"?.

03

1— <

05

<^

-/3

H^

H

".

!5

c

H

02

S3

O

HH

|2;

K

<;

W

n*

?-(

>-i

K

a

w

H

^

o

w

g

^

p-^

o

fe

Q

^

HH

03

(JH

W

O

S

H

OD

1^

o

ra

;?;

<j

^

■-,

H

Ph

^

cs

H

kj o

,*\ o

"^■e
'S^

^ c "
k] o

-yt-

.■SJf

_-B 00-

,1 o

.'•'Sp ''I>, "^j- '^>.

lyg bJJ '*i-2 '*J-2

'^O '^tS

^11

^l '^l ^&

"^■■e"
^r^

1 c

£;„

— SiiS

— . 4J —

a

a o!
•■3 .Si
a S-.
o o

° g

I-"

^ o

"S-
B

128

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANQLO-F.OYPTIAN SUDAN

Inoculation in Dotis

i'UYl'ANdSOMK OF Ml'LKS
FiiisT I'assaoe

Animal

Dale, Source and
Mode of Inoculation

Dale of
Appearance
of Rtrxvitc^

in lltood

Number of
Parasites seen 'rrc-itinrnl Result
and Pcrioilicily

Pcst-mcriem

Remarks

Exp. 1.—

June 16, 1906.—

Jan. 22,

Swarming ;

Nil

Death

Blood grea.sy ;

Comealopncity

Shill Ilk

SiilKMit. injec-

1905

constantly

no gastric

present ; fal'l

n o K 1.

t iun. From

present

ulceration ;

of temperature;

Y o 11 11 (.'

Mule (Tnuli-

no enlarged

aiite-iiiorteiii

Animal

kia) 4 c.c.

glands ; peri-
cardial effu-
sion

Skconi) Pas.saoe

Exp. 2.—

Jan. '23.-2 c.c.

F 0 H n (I

Swarming ;

C h r y-

Feb. 19.—

Enlarged

Corneal opacity

OoL'. 2

Iiy sulK-ut.

Feb. 4.

constantly

suidine

Death

spleen ; no

present and

i 11 jcc t i (111.

Fin<t Kx-

present

(Merck's)

gastric ulcera-

transient

From Dog 1

a m i 11 a-
tiun

tion

(cdema

THinn Passage

Exp. C—

Feb. 18—2

Feb. 2-,

Swarming;

C h r y-

March3.—

Enlarged liver,

Slight corneal

IX«3

p.r. by siil>ciit.

constantly

soid ine

Death

s])leen, and

oi)acity; jxwsi-

i 11 j e (• t i o u.

present

(Merck's)

thymus; nc-

bly overdosed

From Dog 2

]ihritis; serous
effusions ; no
gastric ulcera-
tion

with clirysoi-
dine

FonnTH Passage

Exp. 9.—

Feb. 2f>.— .') CO.

March 4.

.\boiit one

Nil

March 23.

Enlargedsplecn:

Corneal op.icity;

Dog4

l)y sulHMit. in-

—First

per field

— Chloro-

gastric ulceni-

catHract pre-

jection. Prom

Examin-

at first;

forracd-

ation : spirilla

sent

Dog 3

ation

swarming
later; con-
stantly pre-
sent

in ex-
tremis

in blood clot,
and ulcerated
surface

Fifth Passage

Kxp. 13.—

M.nrrh l.<*.—

Marc li

About 12 C h ry-

April l.-

Enlarged

D«« r>

2r» e.c. by 9ul>-

23.— Not

per field

soidinc

Chloro-

spleen, liver

out. injection.

prese n t

at first;

(Merck's)

formed

and mesen-

From Dog 4

Mar(^li22.

constantly

in ex-

teric glands ;

Inciiba-

present

tremis

gastric con-

t i 0 n ft

gestion. Spir-

days

illa present

TRYPANOSOME OF MULES
Second Passage
Irocclation in Monkevs {Cercopilhceus sabacus)

Dale, Source,

D.itc of
Appear.tnce

Number of

Anim.ll

and Mode of

Par.-i.sites seen

Tre.itmcnl

Result

Inoculation

in Blood

and Periodicity

Splcenand liver

Exp. 3.—

Feb. 1.— 1 c.c.

Fcl).12.—

2 or 3 per

Nil

Feb. 15.—

Sudden aggra-

Monkey 1

by sub cut.

First ex-

ficldat first

Sudden

enlarged; ga.s-

ration of

injection.

am 1 n a ■

then nu-

daath

tric ulcera-

symptoms on

Prom Dog 1

tion

merous;
probably
constant

tion ; altered
blood in
stomach.

F e b. 1 5 ;
marked som-
nolence.

Exp. a.— Feb. 15.-2 5 Feb. 21.
Monkey 2 <•.<;. by sulx-ut.
injection.
From Monkey

Tiiiui) Passage
Swarming. Chrysoi
•JOperfield;
constantly
]iresent

dine

Mar. 8.—
C h 1 o r o-

(Merck's) formed in
extremis

Qa-stric ulcera-
tion and ulcer-
ation in the
circiim and
lower end of
ileum ; .spleen
congested.

Marked ccdcma
of scrotum
present.

TEYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN

129

Inoculation in Monkeys — continued

Fourth Passage

Date, Source.

Date of

Appearance

of Parasites

in Blood

Number of

1

Animal

and Mode of
Inoculation

Parasites seen
and Periodicity

Treatment

Result

Post-mortem

Remarks

Exp. 10.—

March 8. — Ic.c.

Mar. 13.—

Few at first;

Serum of

Mar 19.—

Congestive

Convulsions

Monkey .3

by subcut. in-

For first

swarming

Water-

Chloro-

patches in

following

jection. Prom

time. In-

later; cou-

Buck

formed in

stomach.

treatment.

Monkey 2

cubation

stantly

extremis

Spleen and

5 days

present

liver con-
gested.

Sixth Passage

Exp. 17.—

March 27.-1

Apr. 3.—

2 or 3 per

Serum of

May 1.—

Ulcer in

"Tadpole"

Monkey 4

c.c. by subcut.

For first

field at

Water-

Pound

C£ecum. Bac-

forms present

injection.

time

first ; dis-

Buck

dead

terial invasion.

at one stage.

Prom Dog 5

appeared

under

treatment

Sixth Passage

Exp. 21.—

AprillO.- Ic.c.

Apr.17.—

1 or 2 per

Nil

May 15.—

Ulceration of

Typical spirilla

Monkey 5

by subcut. in-

Nil on

field ; nu-

Chloro-

stomach,

only found in

jection. Prom

15th

m e r 0 us

formed in

caecum and

smears from

Rabbit 2

later ; con-
s t a n 1 1 y
present

extremis

small and
large intes-
tines ; spirilla
present.

ulcers in
ileum.

Seventh Passage

Exp. 25.—

April 24. — 1

Apr. 29

Consider-

Serum of

Jlayll.—

Congestion and

Cerebral haem-

Monkey 6

c.c. by subcut.

able, swarm-

Water-

P o u n d

blood clot in

orrhage (su-

injection.

ing later

Buck

dead

stomach;

pra-cortical)

Prom Monkey

ulceration in

5

ileum; spirilla
seen in fresh
smear; not
in stained

Seventh Passage

Exp. 30.—

Jlay 15.— -25

May21.—

Consider-

Nil

June 10.—

General e n-

Corneal opacity

Monkey 7

c.c. by subcut.

Examined

able ; con-

Pound

largement of

present

injection.

for first

sta nt ly

dead

mesenteric

From Monkey
5

time

present

glands

Eighth Passage

Exp. 32.—

May 23. —-25

June 7. —

6 or 7 per

Chry-

June 24.—

Ulceration of

Somnolence not

Monkey 8

c.c. by subcut.

Examined

field ; con-

soidine

Found

lower end of

well marked

injection.

for first

s t a n 1 1 y

(extra)

dead

small intestine;

From Monkey

time

present;

soluble;

brain not

7

diminished
in number
during
treatment

? form;
discon-
tinued
June 20,
1905

yellow

Ninth Passage

Exp. 34.—

June 15. — '25

June 21.—

Fairly nu-

Nil

July 16.—

Gastric ulcera-

Monkey 10

c.c. by subcut.

Examined

merous;

Found

tion ; conges-

injection.

for first

constantly

dead

tive patches in

Prom Monkey

time

present

ileum ; smears

8

negative

Tenth Passage

Exp. 35.—

Aug. 14. — '5

Aug. 24.—

Large infec-

Nil

Aug. 29.—

Apical pneu-

Monkey 12

c.c. by subcut.

Examined

tion

Pound

monia; no

injection.

for first

dead

special points

...

Prom Monkey
10

time

noted

Eleventh Passage

Exp. 36.—

Aug. 2 9.—

Never

Failure to

Mookey 13

Prom heart's
blood of Mon-
key 12

infect

130

TIIYPANOSOMIASIS IN THK ANQLO-EOYPTIAN SUDAN

Elevknth Passaoe

Inoculation in Monkevs— roiifiiiiirrf

I)alr. .'Njiircc

Dale of
Appciiraiicc
of Foriuiiia

in Blood

Xiiinhcr i>t

Aniiniil

uiid .Mode uf

IWfisiirs MCcli

'rrtMiment

' KrMill

I'oM-inortcln

Kemark.s

liMKuUtiun

and Pcriudicily

Nil

Sept. 3.—

Marked gastric

Exi>. 44.—

An^. 17.-

Aug. 22

Severe in-

Disease ran

Monkey 14

Proni Gerbil

fection

C h 1 o ro-

ulceration ; no

rather a rapid

24

Twelfth

Passjaoe

f ornied
in ex-
tremis

spirilla

coarse.

Kxp. 4.").—

Sept. 3. —"if.

Sept. !;'>.—

Cons idcr-

Nil

Oct. 14.—

Ulceration and

Monkey 1.1

e.e. by snlK'Ut.

Pirst ex-

able; none

P o n n d

inllamiiiatory

i n j e r t i 11 n .

amination

found on

dead

indnnitiuii In

Prom ilonkev

Sept. 30

s ill all a II d

14

large intestine

Thirteenth PA.ssAOf

Kxi'. 40 —

Oot. rt.— r> c.e.

Oct. 17.—

Swarming;

C h r y -

Oct. 22.—

Ij i V e r and

Krai n a ii d

Monkey 10

by siibciit. in-

Pirst ex-

constantly

soidine

Died

spleen I'lilari;-

spinal cord

.iection. Prom

amination

present

(Men-k'»;

ed and con-

stained slightly

Monkey l.'i

gested; no
ulceration

yellow

POUUTKENTH PaSSAOI

Exp. 48.—

Oct. 22.— Prom

Oet. 28.

Large num-

Nil

Nov.lf).-

In bone mar-

I.. 1). forms;

Sloukey 1!)

heart's bloo<l

ber pre-

Died

row; L.-D.

prol>ably the

of Monkey 10

sent ; eon-
stant ly
present

PiFTEENTI

I Passage

forms present;
no ulceration

young forms
of Lingard

Exp. 49 —

Nov. 15.— Prom

Nov. 29.—

Consider-

C h r y -

C h 1 o ro-

M e s e n t e r i <•

Brain, s|iiiial

Monkey 20

lieart's hlixxl

Examined

able

soitUne

f ornied

glands lia'iii-

i^ordand nerve

of Monkey 19

for lirst

^Mer.-k's)

in ex-

orrhagic;Ij-D.

trunks a bril-

time

tremis :
d e a t li
probably
liasteiied
by chry-
soidiiie

forms present

liant yellow

Sixteenth Passaoe

Exp. .11.—

Nov. 21. — -.I

Monkey 21

c.c. injected

sulwnt. Prom

Monkey 20

TRYPANOSOME OF MULES.
Inoculatios IN Jerboas {Jncu/ita Oordoni) Second Passage

Aniin;il

Date, Source, and

Mode of Inocula-

lion

Date of

Appearance

of Parasites

in Blood

Number of | ~
Par.-usite5 seen ' ""V Result
.ind Periodicity """"'

Post-mortem

Remarks

Exp. 4 —

Jertma 1

Feb. 3. —Few
drops by sub-
i-iit. in.jection.
Prom Poi; 1

Never

Nil

Death
in 48
hours

No evidence of try-
panosomc infec-
tion

Harboured Hmno-
IfrrgnrinnBalfoiiri
(Laveran)

PouRTH Passage

Exp. 11 —
JerlxKi 2

Peb, 22, — A
few dro|)s by
siibcut. injei--
ticiii Pniiii
M..likcy •>

Pound
post-mor-
tem on
Peb. 28;
not pre-
sent Peb.
20

Nil Feb. 28-
Found
dead

Sixth Passage

Oastric ulceration;
t rypa nosomes
found in blood
from heart

Ditto

Exp. 19.—
JerlKjn 3

Mar.li 22— A
few drops by
Hulicut. injec-
tion Prom
(lerbil 2

March 2.1
— Porfirst
time

4 or .1 iK-r
tield : con-
s t a n t 1 y
present

Nil

March 28
Death

(lastricnli'enition;
curious " ruddy"
forms in stomach
smears

Ditto

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN

131

Inoculation in Rabbits

Third Passage

Date, Source and
Mode of Inocula-
tion

Date of
Appearance
of Parasites

in Blood

Exp. 7.—
Rabbit 1

Feb. 18.— 5c.o.
by s u 1) c u t.
injection.
Prom Doi? 2

Exp. 12.— March 4.— lo
Rabbit 2 | c.c. by subcut.
injection.
Prom Dog 4.

lNOonr,ATiON IN Goat

Never

April 4—
Por first 1
time 1

Number of
Parasites seen
and Periodicitj-

Treat-
ment

Post-mortem

Remarks

Nil

March .3—
Died dur-
ing night

1 per cover-
slipatfirst;
increased

Fifth Passage

Nil

m nunil
later

April 11—
Killed by
accident

Fifth Passage

Exp. 1.5.-
Goat 1

March21. — Ic.c.
by subcut. in-
jection. Prom
bos 4

Marc;]i 30 '
— For
first time

1 per cover
slip ; never
more than
2 present ;
often ab-
I sent

Nil

May 31—
Chloro-
formed
in extre-

Exp. 23.-
Rat 1

Exp. 23a.
Rat 1

- 1 Aprill2. — Ic.c.

From Gerbil

10.
-i April22 — Ic.c.
j PromMonkeyS

Inocul.vtion in Calf
Exp. 47.— I Oct.lO— 1-;

Calf 1

by subcut. in-
iection. From
Money 16

Never
Never

Oct. 23—
Por first
time I

April 23—

Found

dead

Fourteenth Passage

A few pre-
sent ; van-
ished later

Dec. 10—
Animal
well and
fat

Decomposed ; bac-
terial invasion:no
trypanosomes in
smears

Decomposed; bac-
terial invasion ;
no trypanosomes
in smears

I ncrease of cerebro-
spinal fluid which
was cloudy ; en-
largedmesenterie
glands

I

Inoculation in Rat (Mus decumanus) Seventh and Eighth Passages

Bacterial invasion

Only symptom was
progressive ema-
ciation

Marked conjunc-
tivitis and
Ijlepharitis ; fall-
ing out of hsir
round the eyes

Myelocytes and
eosinophile myelo-
cytes present

Failure in both
experiments

No infection save
temporarily

trypanosome of mules.

Inoculation IN Gerbils {Gerbifliis pi/iyaiyxs) Second Passage

Animal

Date, Source and

Mode of Inoculation

Date of
Appearance
of Parasites

in Blood

Number of
Parasites seen
and Periodicity

Treatment

Result

Post-mortem

Remarks

Exp. 5.—
Gerl.il 1

Peb. 1.— A few
dro]is by sub-
cut, injection
Prom Dog 1

Never

Failure to infect

Exp. 5a.—

LaterfromDog

?

Swarming ;

Nil

Death

No gastric

Error in inoc-

Gcrliil 1

2 and Dog 3 ;
second and
third i^assages

constantly
present

ulceration

ulation

Fifth Passage

Exp. 14—

March 4.— A

Mar. 7.—

A few at

Serum of

Mar. 24.

Stomach decom-

Slight illness

Gerbil 2

few drops bv

Fur Hrst

first ; then

Water-

— Pound

posed ; spleen

compared with

i n t r a p c r i -

tinic

swarmmg;

Buck

dead

enlarged

intensity of in-

toneal injec-

constantly

fection

tion. Prom

present

Dog 4

Fifth Passage

Exp.lC—

March IS.— A

Mar.22.—

Fairly nu-

Nil

Apr. 3.

Areas of con-

Granular baso-

Gerbil 8

few drops by

For first

merou s;

— Pound

gest ion in

p h i 1 i a of

intraperi-

time

constantly

dead

stomach ;

erythrocytes

toneal injec-

present

curious invol-

tion. From

ution forms in

Dog 4

smears

1.3-2

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN TIIK ANQLO-EQYPTIAN SUDAN

Inoculation in Ubrbius (coniinufil)

Sixth Passage

Animal

Dale. Source and
Mode of Inoculaiion

Dale of
A|)ncarance
of Parasile*

in Blood

Number of
Para»ii« «en Treatmeni
and Periodicity '

Reiuli

Fosl-morlcm

Bomnrks

Exp. 18.—

March 26.— A

Mnr.29—

Fnirly nu-

Sum in of

Apr. .3.

Altered blood in

Oerl.il 11

few drops by

For first

111 e r o n s ;

Water-

—Found

Btomneh ; con-

siilx'iit. injec-

time

constantly : Hnck

dead

gest ion ; bac-

tion. From

present

terial invasion;

Dog:.

no trypnuo-
somesinsinears

Seventh Passage

Exp. 20.—

April 4.-2.')

Apr. 8.—

Fairly nu- Clirysoi-

Apr. 19.

Bacterial in-

tliTliil 10

r.r, l»y sulieiit.

For first

merous; dine

— Found

v.asion ; success

i n j ei' t i o n.

time

mostly (Merck's)

dead

negative

Fronillonkey

long forms

4

a t fi r s t ;
varied un-
der treat-
ment

EioRTR Passage

Exp. 22.—

April 10 —A

April 12 —

One per Clirysoi-

April 20.

L.-D. forms in

Brain and sp.-

Oerl.il 12

few ilrup< by

For first

cover slip dine

— Pound

liver. Altered

cord stained

Nulx-ut. injec-

time

at first; (e.\tm)

dead

trypanosomes

yellow

tion. From

swarm i nx

soluble ?

in smears

Qerbil 10

by April
15

Seventh Passage

Exp. 26 —

Mny 4. — A

May 8.—

Consider-

Nil May 10.

Bacterial inva-

DecomiK>sed

Qerbil 13

few dro))< by

K X u m •

able mim-

— Found

sion

sulxMit. injec-

ined for

l>er.

dead

tion. From

first

Monkey 5

time.

Seventh Passage

Exp. 27 —

Mny 4 — A

Mny 8.—

Consider- Nil

May 21.—

No ulceration ;

Cultures on

Qerbil 14

few drops by

E.xn ra-

able num-

Chloro-

many para-

blood agar

sulxMit. injec-

ined for

ber

formed

sites, long and

failed

tion. Prom

first

for cul-

short forms in

5Iuiikev .')

time

ture work

heart's blood

Exp.28.—
Qerbil 10

Seventh Passage
Mav 11. — A May 16.— Only a few Serum of May 21.

few drops by
sulsrut. injec-
tion. From
Monkev .'>

Exam-
ined for
first
time

present

Wnter-
B u c k :
begu n
May 21

Chloro-
formed
in con-
vulsions
G p.m.

No ulceration ;
spleen and
kidneys en-
larged; degene-
rated trV])ano-
somes or nil in
smears

Was there liber-
ation of toxines
from tryiiano-
some destruc-
tion ?

Seventh Passage
Exp. 29.— May 11. — A May 16.— Numerous; Chrysoi-
Oerbil 17 few drops by Kxamin- constantly dine

sulx,-ut. injec- edforfirst present i,Extra)

tion. From time i soluble?

Monkey 5 |

Slay 22. — Spleen e n-
Died 1 a rged; bac-

terial invasion

Brain and spinal
cord a brilliant
yellow

Eighth Passage

Exp. 31 —

Mav21— Inoc-

Never

Failure t

Qerbil 18

ulated from
Qerbil 14 by
scratch in-
oculation

infect

Exp.Slrt —

Mav '27. — A

.tunc 4.—

Swarming

Nil

?

Qerbil 18

few drojw bv

E.\a min-

Record

sulicut. injec-

ed for first

lost

tion From

time

Monkey 7

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN

133

Inoculation op Gekbils (continued)

Eighth Passage

Date, Source and
Mode of Inoculation

Date of
Appearance
of Parasites

in Blood

Number of
Parasites seen
and Periodicity

Treatment

Pobt-mortem

Remarks

Exp. 33.—
Gerbil 19

Exp. 37.—
Gerbil 20

May 27. — A
few drops by
subciit. injec-
tion Prom
Monkey 7

June 28.-25
c.c by subcut.
injection.
Prom Gerbil
19

Exp. .38.— July29.— oc.c.
Gerbil 21 ; by subcut. in-
1 jectiou. Prom
Gerbil 20

Exp. 39.—
Gerbil 22

Aug. 8. — 2.TC.C.
subcut. by iu-
jectiou. From
Gerbil 21

Exp. 40.— Aug. 20. — By
Gerbil 23 subcut. injec-
tion. Prom
Gerbil 22

Exp. 41.— Sept
Gerbil 24

-By

subcut. in-
jection. From
Gerbil 23

Exp. 42.— Sept. 14.— By
Gerbil 25 subcut. injec-
tion. Prom
Gerbil 24

Exp. 43.—
Gerbil 26

Sept. 21.— By
subcut. injec-
tion. Prom
Gerbil 25

Exp. 50.— Nov. 8 — By
Gerbil 27 subcut. injec-
tion. Prom
Monkey 19

June 4. —
Ex a m i n-
edfortirst
time

July 7.—
Examin-
edforfirst
time

Fairly
numerous
at li r s t ;
swarming
later

Nil

Ninth Passage

Not many
present

Nil

Tenth Passage
Aug. 2. — I No note at | Nil
Exaniiu-i first; swarm-
edt'orfirst ing later
time

June .30.—
Chloro-
formed in
extremis

Aug. 3.—
Found
dead

Aug. 19.—
Pound
dead

Eleventh Passage
Aug. 17. — Swarming i Nil Aug. 28.-

Examin- i Died

ed for first I
time

Aug. 22.—
For first
time

Twelfth I'assage
Slight infec- Nil Sept. 13.-

tion at first

Died

Spleen enlarged

No ulceration

Decomposed

Spleen enlarged;
no ulceration

Nothing special
noted

Never

Nov. 19.—
Ex a m i li-
ed for first
time

Thirteenth Passage

Sept. 20.-
Died

Fourteenth Passage

[Oct. 6.-
Died

Fifteenth Passage

Failure to
infect

Fifteenth Passage

Numerous

Nil

Dec. 10.-
Died

Spleen enlarged

Exp. 3. Monkey 1. — {Ceiropithecus soba-uii, or green grivet monkey.)

Fehruarv 1st. Inoculated siibc-utaneously with 1 c.c. blood from Dog 1.

Ffhruarii 12th. Trypanosomes found.

Fehruavii 15th. Death occurred.

The symptoms presented were those of progressive anemia, emaciation and weakness.
The mucous membranes became very blanched. Towards the end there was marked
somnolence, the monkey frequently taking up the position shown in Fig. 68, which is very
like the photographs of the monkeys inoculated with T. gambiense, and figured in the

134 TRY1'AN080MIASIS IN TIIK ANOLO-EO YTTIAN SfDAN

Ugulida Kr|iiirts nf llic Kuyiil Socii'ty's ('ollllllissioli. In lliis liKiliki'V tllf sVMi|itiiiii8
undtTWi'iit a sudiliii aggraviitioii on February ll^tli, ami ilcalli oi-currf<l ratluT suddciilv.
Trypaiiosoiiii's swaniu'il in the IiIhimI, Imt nont' of tlic lonj^. tliin, \vliij)-lik<' funns were seen.
Tllf long forms all secmi'd to have iiK'rease<l in hreadtli, prolialilv as a preliminary to
longitudinal division. Typical short forms were present.

/ 'oi:t -1110 rl trill. — Splei'n anil liver lioth enlarged. Jla-niorrhagie nieeration present in
the stnmacli. whieh eontaincd glairy mucUs and altered lilnod. Unfoit iiiiatcly smears
were not made. There was no pericardial or pleural etlusion.

In a smear of a mi.xture of lilood and ccrehro-spinal fluid olitaincd from one of the foss.u
of the skull after renmval of the brain, trypanosonies, numerous bacteria, ami a short, stout
spirillum weri' found. The last looked like two thick clioiera vibrios joined end to end,
was rounded at the extremities, and iiuile unlike tiie spirillum found in gastric nieeration
(ride iii/rii). The animal had been ilead some jiours before the examination coidd be made.

E.Xp. 4. — Jerboa J {.luculnx ijonloiii). Inocldated sidicutaueously with a few drops
of blood from Dog 1 on February ;?rd. inu"). This aninial. which liiirbnun d tlie Inenio-
gregarine alriady de.scrilied, became very ill after forty-eigiit hours and was chloroformed.
No evidence of infection with trypanosonies was found post-mortem.

Exp. 5. — Gerbil 1 [(lirhillns p!l<J<n'<Jii'<, the common desert mouse). Feluiiarv :!rd.

liiiKulatcd subcutaiieously witli a few ilrops of bl I fiuni Iln^; 1. This mouse was e.xamined

several times with negative results. At a later period it was re-inij<ulatt'd from Dog 2, and
still lati'r from ])og M, owing to an error. (/•/</<• tal)le).

It deveUiped trypanosomiasis and died during the night. Sluggish and degenerating
trypanosonies were found in tlic In art's

blood. There was no gastric ulcera- _ Xl ^5
tion. The experiment was unsatis- ^^ ^D 1^
factory owing to tlic mulliide inocula- ^^ ^^
tions performed. Tlie blood showed ^ ^^^ ^Bk
both forms of tiypaiiosonie, and in \W ^ ^i -SL
this case, as in that of other ijn-liih^ ^kfl^ ® '^^^V' O ^^
there was noticed an increase in length '*»^ ^^ __ ^ ^^
in tliat part nf llir long t rypanosoiues ^ J^ ^ ' L. ^^ ^k ^^<
extending behind the centrosonie (Fig. A" ^^^^P^- ^^ A

69). lu some instances the nieasure-

lueiit from the posterior end to the

centre of the centrosome was as much

as 4"2 ft approaching the appearance &

found in 7'. /.ein'sl. This portion of

the body in ifeMla is occasioiiallv

curved.

Exp. Ij. Dog 3. — Inoculated sub-
cutaiieously on February l><th. with 2 e.c. blood fnuii Dog 2. Trypanosonies weiv found
in the blood on 2.'Jtli February, lilDf). This dog iv.-.ived intravenous injections of
chrysoidine, and will be mentioned later. J)catli occurred on March :^rd. Slight corneal
opacity had been noticed during life. At the autop.sy the spleen was found to !..■ cidargeil,
and the folli(des prominent on the surface. The liver was enlarged ami congested.

The kidney exhibited signs of subacute nephritis, the capsule being slightly adherent.

'Si vV

I'h.. t»3.— Kl>K.MS IS OkKHIL. NuTH lung rt►^TKKI(^K KNIi (X K3.1 diaill.)

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 135

There was no gastric ulceration.

In the thorax the periccirdium was foimcl much distended with serous effusion, and the
heart muscle was very flabby. The thymus gland was enlarged.

Although the post-mortem was performed immediately after death, and smears made
from all the organs mentioned, no trypanosomes were found — a point to which reference will
be made when experimental treatment is considered (p. 155).

Exp. 7. Babbit 1. — Inoculated subcutaneously with 5 c.c. blood from Dog '2, on
18th February, 1905.

Blood examined 28th February, 1905, with negative results.

This rabbit became emaciated, but showed no other symptoms of the disease.
Trypanosomes were at no time found in its blood, nor was subcutaneous tedema present. It
died during the night of March 3rd, and was found already somewhat decomposed on the
morning of the following day. Post-mortem digestion of the stomach had set in together
with a general bacterial invasion of the tissues. No trypanosomes were found post-mortem.

I am inclined to think this animal died of trypanosomiasis, and that more frequent
examination of the blood would have revealed the presence of the parasites during life.

Exp. 8. Monkey 2. — Inoculated subcutaneously on February 15th, with about 25 c.c.
blood from Monkey 1.

Blood examined, 21st February, 1905, when it was found to be swarming with
trypanosomes of both forms, there being 15 or 20 to each microscopic field. This monkey
was also treated with chrysoidine {vir/e p. 155).

After running a somewhat peculiar course it was found in extremis and chloroformed on
March 8th.

Post-mortem. — Swelling and cedema of the scrotum present in a marked degree.
Extreme anjemia of the mucous membranes. Gastric ulceration present, and ulceration at
the lower end of the ileum and in the caecum. In the stomach a flat blood clot was found
adherent to the mucous membrane towards the pyloric end. On removing it a red congestive
stippling was found. Similar congestive patches were present in the ascending colon. The
stomach and intestines were preserved for colour museum specimens, and smears were not
taken. The spleen was firm and congested ; the liver showed nothing beyond slight
congestion ; there was early nephritis present. The brain and cerebro-spinal fluid were
examined but nothing peculiar was noted.

Exp. 9. Dog 4. — Inoculated subcutaneously with 5 c.c. blood from Dog 3 on
26th February, 1905.

Blood examined, March 4th, 1905, when trypanosomes found, about one per field. The
temperature taken at noon on tliis day was 104-8 F. Both forms of parasite were present
in the blood, and were very lively and active in their movements. This dog was not treated
so that its symptoms may be described here.

Corneal opacity was first noticed on March 11th. It attacked the left eye, the other
remaining unaffected at first. On March 22nd, both eyes were found affected and an opacity
of the lens of the left eye was noted. The other symptoms exhibited were the customary
anaemia, emaciation and drowsiness. There was no oedema. At all times trypanosomes
in large numbers and of both kinds were found in the peripheral blood.

On March 23rd, the dog was found collapsed and cold. There was rigidity of the
limbs, and the respirations were laboured and rapid.

About twenty trypanosomes per field were found, nearly all of the short form, and it

136 THYI'ANOSOMIASIS IN TllK ANOLO-KOYI'TIAN SUDAN

was notici'il tliat tlicir iiiovciiicnts wt-rc slugf^isli. As it was cviilcnt tlie <log wmiM die
(luring tlu' night it was t-lilin-Dfornu'il and an autopsy pi-rfornicil iininciiiatcly.

The tenijHTat ure recunl from tlic day wht ii trviianosoincs were found in llu' lih)od was
as follows :

l()4-8 ., Uir)-8"., lon-S'., U)3-l°., 10Ur)°., 108-5^., 105°., I(l31l)„ 1U3"., 102-4°,
103-8°., 104-3°., 103-6°., 10-2-4°., 102-8°., 103-5°., 1036°., 103°., 103-2°., 1016° F.

Gorged female tieks {Itltipireplmlus sdii'/nineii.i) were jiri'seiit on tliis dog, and the
blood from their stonniehs was examinee! on several occasions, hut trypanosouies were never
found.

Post-mortem. — Very little gelatinous exudation jirescnt, enuiciation extreme. Muscles
pale and tialdiy. Kyes exhihited doiiMi' corneal opaeitv. A complete soft cataract was
present in the lens of the left eye — a sym[itoni whi( h I think has not hitherto heeu noted,
'rime inifortunately did not admit of an examination of the hrain.

//<<ir/ largi' and flahliy, with pale mu.scnlar tissue.

Lniiiis blanched, dry and bloodless.

Sjili'i-ii : length 7;l in. ; marked enlargeineiit of folliilcs. so tjiat thi' surface of the
congested, but dry and tirm organ, was rough to the touch, and exhibited numerous small
elevations.

lAfer. — Large, fatty and congested.

Stomach. — The vessels passing to ami fiom tjie lesser curvature and distributed
externally upon the stonnich walls wen^ gri'atly engorged. The organ was full of dark
brown very tenacious mucus. The streaks of coffee-coloured mucus owed their hue to
altered blood.

A large ulcer found at the junction of the smooth ;ind rugose; jiortions of the mucous
membrane. Its length was :,' inch, its breailth jith iiu h. Edges of ulcer irregular and
soft, its surface was covered by a slightly adherent blooil (lot. In additi(Ui to this large
erosion seven small liicmoi-rhagic looking ulcers were found scattered about throughout
the rugose portion of the mucous membrane. One or two n[ these looked as though they
were undei-going a healing process. In no instance were the tinv central holes, mentioned
as having been observed in the ulcerated areas of the stomach of an ox, present in this
case.

Smear preparations were made both from the blood (lot covering the surface of the
lai-ge ulcer and also from the ulcerated surface after removal of the clot. These were
stained by the Leishinan-lionianowsky method, and in both instances large numbers of
spirilla were found (Plate XIII., Fig. <•). These spirilla, which were somewhat blunt
at the ends, measured from 28 /j to 7-7 /' in hngtli, ami possessed from four to seven short
undulations. Nothing like Leishman-])onovan bodies were seen thougli thev were carefullv
looked for, but tryj>anosonies of the short form, whidi stained badly ami appeared
degenerated, were present in small numbers. No involution forms were observed.

Iiiti'.'itiiii.t. — They were searched throughout their whole length but no ulceration was
detected.

The stools were dark, lii|uid ainl otlcnsive. \ snieai- was made of them, which, when
stained, showed in addition to bacteria, numbers of spirilla. These latter, however,
presented an appearance somewhat different from those mentioned above. Their
undulations were longer so that they had m)t th(! saw-edge appearance shown in Fig. ',
and they were more pointed at the ends. They may have been merely altered forms.

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN

137

J^<

There were also present thick spirillar form lii^e two vibrios attached end to end, very
similar to those found in Monkey 1.

KUhifi/s. — These exhibited a subacute nephritis, and tlie capsules were slightly
adherent.

Boiie-iiKirrair. — Not examined.

Curiously enough in smears made from the splenic pulp there was not a vestige of a
trypanosome to be seen, while in the liver specimens both forms were present in
abundance.

Exp. 10. Monkey 3. — {C'emijiif/icciix sahenx) weight 2*7 kilos. Inoculated
subcutaneously with about 1 c.c. blood from Monkey 2 on March 8th. Peripheral blood
examined each day thereafter and trypanosomes in small numbers found for the first time
on March 13th.

The incubation period was, there- V^

fore, just about five days.

Afiirch lith. — Both long and short >

forms were seen, the former greatly ^^■-

preponderating. In the cover-glass
preparation they appeared to be of
exceptional length and extremely
active. On staining in the usual way
no increase in length was manifest.
Probably some shrinking had taken
place during the preparation of the
specimen. Both forms were well seen
but the short ones were very much in
the minority.

A considerable number of very
broad trypanosomes were present.
These were probably parasites in the
stage prior to longitudinal division (Fig. 70). Some granules v/ere noted in the short
forms, and in one of these latter the nucleus was observed to be at the junction of the
middle and posterior thirds.

M(tri-h 18///. — The monkey was found to be very ill. It was lying in its cage in a
semi-prone condition.

The blood on examination was found to be swarming with parasites, short forms being
now as numerous as the broad forms previously mentioned.

This monkey was then treated with blood serum injections ami its further history will
be considered under the heading Treatment.

Being in extremis it was chloroformed on the following day (March PJtli). It had
lost half a kilo in weight.

Post-inurtiiii. — Stomacli, congestive patches towards the pylorus. No ulceration.

Intestines. — Normal.

Mesenteric glands enlarged, giving a beaded appearance to the mesentery.

Sjileen. — Weight, 23 grams. Large, congested. In a smear from the cut surface of
the organ curious involution forms were found, one closely resembling the figure of a dead

V

Fin. 70.— Dividing Vaclolateu Fokws, Monkey 3 (x 1750 diam.).

138 TRYPANOSOMIASIS IS THK ANOLO-EOVPTIAN SUDAN

tiiul iiltirril tivpanosoine, givi-n in tlic pliitc illustrating tin- iiiticlf liy M. Thiioiix* on
7'. Paihhr. Thest' forms will \n- nioii- fully duseribed wlu-u tlu- sirum treatment is
coii8i<lfrf(l.

Liver. — Congest I'll

Brain. — Slight thiekciiing of the nieniuges and longcstion. The cerebro spinal fluid
showed no peculiar forms.

lioiie- Marrow taken from the femur showed no trypanosome forms whatever.
It inav he mentioned here that the method of preparing smears of marrow reeomniended
by I'riee Jonesf has been emploveil an<l has proved satisfaett)ry.

Exp. 11. Jerboa 2. The blnod of this animal, on examination iMfoic inoculation, was
found to harbour ha'inogregarines.

It was inoculated on Fel)ruary 22nd with a few drops of blood from Monkey 2.
Frliriiuni 26//i. lilooti examined. No trypanosomes fouiul.
Febnttiry 'liitli. Found dead and cold.

Ulceration of the stomach present. No smears made as specimen kept for colour
preparation.

Trypanosomes found in thr heart's blood. Involution forms present.
Exp. 12. Rabbit 2 '^. M>tn-li Alh. Inoculated snbcutaneously with about 1 n c.c.
blood from Dog 4. This rabbit had its blood frecjuently examined, with and without being
centrifuged, up till the eiul of March, but no trypanosomes were found nor were any
symptoms of trvpanosomiasis visible save a slight but jirogressive emaciation. About the
beginning of April it was noticed that the rabbit's eyes were becoming infected and in a few
days a similar condition to that described and tigured by Musgrave and CleggJ as occurring in
rabbits after inoculation with the horse trypanosome of the Philippines was apparent, namely,
a severe blepharitis with some conjunctivitis, a narrowing of the palpebral fissure, cedema
of the eyelids and falling out of the hairs surrounding the eyes.

April \tlt. Blood from ear examined. After prolonged search one trypanosome (a long
form) found in the cover glass preparation. A considerable number of parasites were present
in a drop of fluid taken fmni the ledematous tissue of tlic lower eyelid after a slight incision
had been made. No trypanosomes were present in the tiiick, ginnniy discharge from
the eyelid.

April 8fh. Blood film stained. A considerable number of trypanosomes found. Both
forms present.

On tliis day it was noticed tliut the respiration haci become rapid and wheezing,
somewhat of an asthmatic ty[ie, po.ssibly due to a congi'stivc condition of the iia.sal
mucous membranes.

April 1th. Baldness very niarkcd round the eyes. Respirations rapiil, wheezy and
laboureil. Animal looks very ill but takes food freely.
April Will. Habliit in much the same condition.

April Will. Animal unfortunately killed during the night by a mongoose, which ciscapcd
from a cage in the fly-proof house. Found stiff, cold and decomposing. Autopsy performed
as soon as possible, but bacterial invasion of the tissues had occurred, and in smears nnide

• Am. dc I'liwt. Piwtcur, Pnrin, 1905. Vol. XIX., p. 66. f Brit. Med. Jour., London, Ftb. i^Ah, 1906, p. 409.
J Trji>ancj!ioniaiimlTrj|mii(»,<iiiiiii«is with i-iMicial rvfcrcui-c to Surra iu the Fbilippiuc Ulandb. Ku 5. Fulilku-
tioiis of Hiirctiu of fli.v, T,.ili. Manila, lOOn.

TBYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 139

from spleen, liver, stomach surface, blood of vessels of stomach, lung's and heart's blood, no
trace of trypanosome infection was detected.

There was no ulceration of the stomach, but the gastric vessels were engorged. At one
point there was a congestive patcli on tlie mucous membrane.

Exp. 13. Dog 5. A pariah suggesting tuberculosis.

Mitrch IStli. Inoculated subcutaneously with about 2'5 c.c. bluod from Dog 4.

March 2'2n(I. Blood examined. No trypanosomes present.

Mdir/i 23^'/. Blood examined. Trypanosomes present, about 12 per microscopic field,
nearly all long forms and very lively. The incubation period was, therefore, 5 days. This
dog was treated by injections of chrysoidine intravenously and its case thus falls to be
described when treatment is considered (p. 156) bvit the post-mortem examination was very
interesting and the results may be here described.

April l.s/. Animal in a dying condition in the evening, chloroforiueil ami kept in the
ice chest till the following morning.

April 2wl. Autopsy perfornu^d, no external signs except emaciation.

Stotmirh. — -The vessels passing to and from the lesser curvature and distributeil
externally upon the stomach well were much eugorgetl. The gastric contents consisted of
altered blood and glairy mucus. There was no ulceration, but along the ridges of several
of the ruga; there were areas of congestion presenting a dull red tedematous appearance.
Smears from these shewed spirilla similar in every respect to those shewn in Fig. c.

Smears from the stomach contents also shewed spirilla. No trypanosome forms
present.

Infest inrs. — Full of altered blood and mucus. Beyer's patches congested, exhibiting
an appearance somewhat like that seen in early enteric, approaching to the " shaved beard "
aspect. There was no ulceration.

A smear from the surface of a congested patch shewed neither spirilla nor trypanosomes.

There was great enlargement of the mesenteric glands, especially in the appendicular
area where there was a regular buncli of them, the largest being 3 inches in length. On
section they shewed no caseation, but as they may prove to be tubercular, they were put
aside for microscopical examination.

Lnnjr I/ifestiiir. — Wholly unaffected.

Spleen. — Large and congested smear. No signs of trypanosomes.

Liver. — Also large and congested. Smear shewed numerous curious involution forms
probably due to the treatment adopted.

Kiihiei/x. — Slight congestion .

Brain. — Engorgement of superficial vessels. Some excess of cerebro-spinal lluid.
Smear of fluid made. No trypanosomes present.

JJoiie niarroir. —Dark red in colour. Smear, negative.

Lungs. — Smear, negative.

Heart's blood. — Smear, negative.

The absence of trypanosomes in all the smear preparations except the liver is a peculiar
and interesting fact.

Compare with the findings in Exp. 6.

Exp. 14. Gerbil 2.

March 4:th. Inoculated intraperitomally with a few drops of blood from Dog 4.

March 1th. Trypanosomes found for the first time in blood taken from the tail.

110

THYl-ANOBOMIASIS IN Till; ANOLO-EOYPTIAN SUDAN

Afiirr/i 10///. Alliliial ill. Kycs [.ailiiillv clnscd. II, a, I h,!,! |,,w. Cmt rullgllclliMl,
rcsiiirutioiis raiiiil. 'I'lif Mnud was swuriiiiii^' with tryiiiuiosoiiics, cliii tlv jimg forms, and in
this fiisi- till' prolongiitioii (.f the iin.tnplasni uf thf i.amsites bi-hind the centrosome wjis very
nnirki'd.

Miiirli l{')//i. Hhuid litfiiilly alivi- with parasites. There .seemed to be as many
trypanosomes iis there wore red Mood corpusejis. 'rii.y were extremely active, and a great
variety of forms were seen due to the propagation wliieli was proceeding. Dividing forms,
both long and short, were numerous, as were broail forms ami forms united bv tli.ir posterior
ends (Fig. 71).

Some of till' parasites presenteil a very curious aspect, their undulating membranes
being of great size.

Considering the great infeetioii, the gerbil sliowed remarkably little sign of illne.ss.

Treatiiii^nt with tlie blood serum of a
water liurk was begun on Mareh 'JOtli,
so that (Jidy the ])ost-mortem signs
need be here eonsidered.
^^^ g a 'riie animal was found dead on

^Pf ^^H ^r\. - riifortuiiatrly tile stomaeli had

^^^ ^^ undergone dicomposition. The spleen

was enlargeil, its length being lith
inches, the total length of the gerbil,
(Xcludiiig tile tail, lieiiig 1 inches.
Xotiiing ei.sc of interest was noted.
Tile lieart's blood and liver showed
degeneration forms of trypauosonies.

Smears of tlie spleen, brain, spinal
cord, bone marrow ami intestines,
showed nothing peculiar.

Exp. 15. Goat li^. Weight,
18 kilos. Mai-cli 2Ist. Iniiciilalcii sui" utaucoush- witii 1 c.c. blood from Dog 4.

The blood was examined every day with negative results down to March 3Uth. On that
day one trypanosome, a long form, was found in the wliole cover glass preparation. The
goat presented no sign of illness. Thereafter the blood rcnniined free till April Kith, when
two trypanosonies were found in a cover-slip imparation. They seemed to be long forms.
At this time the animal showed no signs of emaciation. Nothing was found in the blood
examineil on A|)rii 20111. After this date it was noted that tlie animal was beginning to get
thinner. Not till .Iiine "JOth was any sign of weakness exhibited. On that date the goat
was found lying down. Tln' appetite was fair. No enlarged cervical glands couhi be
fletected. Tryjianosomes, as before, were very scarce in tlie peripheral blood. On
June 22nd the goat weighed !)-8 kilos; on May :^ 1st, when in extremis, 88 kilos. No
parasites in peripheral blood. The animal was extremely emaciated. There was no oilema
and no affection of the eyes. Cliloroform was administered, and a post-mortem pnformeil
imme(liately, but little of interest was note(|. There was, however, a marked increase of
cerebro-spinal fluid which, moreover, was cloudy, and on standing ileposited much .sediment.
The brain was cedeniatous. There was no ulceration in the stomach or intestines. The

Fig. ;i, Kokms with tiikik 1'ostkkiok li.\u^ in Contact (x I7S0di.ini.)

TRYFANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 14:1

liver was congested, but the spleen looked normal. The mesenteric glands were enlarged and
one of them was hsemorrhagic. Bone-marrow, pale. Lungs, anaemic and retracted. Smears
were made from the heart's blood, liver, spleen, intestines, bone-marrow, glands and cerebro-
spinal fluid. In the last mentioned only were trypanosomes found — a few unaltered,
apparently long forms, being present, but they did not present a characteristic appearance.
In the heart's blood myelocytes and eosinophile myelocytes were present.

Exp. 16. Gerbil 8. March 18th. Inoculated intraperitomally with a few drops of
blood from Dog 4.

Blood examined daily and found to be infected on Marcli 22nd. Incubation period,
31- days.

Trypanosomes of both forms fairly numerous. No " tadpole " fuvnis, like those described
in rats by Button and Todil, found. Punctate basophilic degeneration of the red cells was
present. It is connnon in gerbils, as is
polychromatophilia. '^^^

Trypanosomes were constantly t^^ ^"^

present in the blood in fair numbers
till death occurred on April 3rd. The
symptoms were drowsiness and pro-
gressive emaciation, no cedema, April ./-^^ m^i ^ ft ■ O
ird. Animal found dead in the

p^' v%. J^

morning. O' Q »^ V ^ 0^\

Fost-movtem . — A bunch of nema-

xs^

todes found in the stomach. That ^ ' (f * O ^b ©

organ contained altered blood and T O ^^* k^ C3

thick, tenacious mucus. There were ~ '"^

congested points on the surface of the

mucous membrane which looked as

though they might have gone on to

ulceration.

Smears were made from these p,^ 72.-Forms seen in Blood. Monkev 4 (x 833 diam.).

small areas. In these no spirilla
were found, but some very curious forms of trypanosomes were present.

Thus there was a pear-shaped form, the bulbous part almost wholly surrounded by the
looped free edge of an undulating inembrane which sprang from a centrosome situated close
to the root of the long flagellum. The protoplasm was slightly granular, and there was a
distinct vacuoloid area beside the centrosome. Another quaint form was fish-shaped, with
a thick, short, blunt anterior extremity, a well-marked centrosome, vacuoloid area and a
nucleus which had lost its differential staining, and was indefinitely marked. The whole
parasite stained in a peculiar manner and was probably an involution form.

In addition to these, tiny forms shaped like trypanosomes were seen. I am doubtful if
these are parasites at all.

Their protoplasm stained a faint violet-pink or ruddy hue, quite a peculiar colour
while the centrosomes and nuclei were stained deep Ilomanowsky red. They possessed no
visible flagella and were fairly numerous. Plate XIV. ; Fig. ,/'.

Faintly staining forms, with their posterior ends in contact, were also seen.

Heart. — Ordinary trypanosomes, both forms present.

142 TRVPANOROMIASIR IN THE ANOLO-KOYPTIAN SUDAN

f.lriT, Sftlieii mid Luiiijs. — Smears showed onliimry trypiinosonifs iiinl splicrical mul
oil<ily-sliu|HMl iiiV()hitii)ii forms. Tin' s|ilciii was I iiicli in It-n^'tli. tlu* fjerbil from simiit to
root of tail 4 inrlu's.

('trelnii-S/iiniit Fliiiil. — Miiliv t rvpaiiosoiiii's wtTr fciMiid ; a l)inl-slia|iiM| furiii with it
iiiU'hMis mich'rgoing st'gmfiifutioii was initid. IMati- XI\'., l-'i^^. r.

lioiie-uKirroir. — No trypunosomi'S present.

Exp. 17. Monkey 4 {t'l-no/'il/nrus i>ii/i<rii.i). Weight 24 kilos.

Miiri-li '11 til. Inoetihiteil siihcutaneously witli 1 c.e. lihjoil from I)og f).

Trvpanosomes of I'oth kimls fouml for tlie first time on April Mnl.

.l/-/;7 5///. Treatment with blood serum eonnneneeil ((•/<//' p. Kiti).

K.xji. 18. (Terbi! 11. No liasophiliu present in the erytliroeytes.

Afiirc/i 'liit/i. Inoeuhited suhiutaiieoiisly with a few drops of hlood from Dog T).

March 29///. Both forms of trypanosome present (Fig. I'l). This animal was also
treated with serum ((•/</(' infra).

The animal was found dead on .Vpril 'Mi\. Its stomach contained nematodes and
altered blood.

There was some congestion at the cardiac end.

Unfortunately a bacterial invasion of all tlie tissues had occurred, and tlie smears made
sliowed no trypanosome infection.

The spleen measured 1^ inches in length wiiile the gerbii from snout to root of tail
was 4J inches.

Kxp. 19. Jerboa 8. The blood contained a few Inemogregarines.

Miiri/t '22)1(1. Inoculateil sulieutaneously with a few drops of blood from Gerbii '2.

Miircli '2f)tli. Trvpanosomes present, four or five per microscopic Held. Very typical
long and short forms. Emaciation set in, and the jerboa died on the morning of Marcli 28tli.

An autopsy was at once performed.

StoiiKirh. — Ulcerated, tliere being several small Inemorrhagic erosions, and, in addition,
tiny areas of congestion. There was the same sticky, coffee-coloured mucus present, as in
Dog 4 and the other cases quoted.

Smears were made botli of tlie blood clot covering the largest ulcer, ami from the surface
of tlie ulcer itself.

The same condition of things was found in both, i.e., (</) ordinary short trypanosomes ;
(/<) involution forms of various kinds ; {<■) the curious small " ruddy " forms which were present,
in Gerbii 8 (Exp. 16). The intense staining of their relatively large nuclei, and centrosomes
was again evident. Some trypanosomes looked as though they liad undergone involution,
nucleus and centrosoine remaining well marked, but the general sliaiie having entirely altered.
A number of these forms looked extremely like Leishnian bodies, but in none of them were the
short chromatin rods so characteristic of the parasites of Cachexial Fever seen. A .splierical
ilot, however, was present, and tliese are evidently the young forms described liy liingard.*

The tiny " ruddy '" forms occurred in groups or singly. The largest found of a typical
trvpanosome shape measured 98 ft. in length, by '2 8 f. in breadth at the broadest part, i.e.,
the nucleus. Plate XIV. ; Fig./.

Ifi'iirl. — Hlood ; trvpanosomes present. Both forms seen, also involution forms like
tho.si' found in the stomach. None nf the small " ruddy " kinds seen.

Iiiilinii Mnl. <!nvllf, C.-ilciitt,i. Si-pt. ami 0<'f., igO.V

TBYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 143

Lung, Bone-marroiv and Liver also showed altered trypanosorae forms.

Spleen <tiid Brain. — No trypanosomes preseut.

Exp. 20. (Terbil 10. — Weight 34 grams. This gerbil's bhjoil contained some red
cells infected in the manner to be described,

April i/Ji. Inoculated subeiitaneously with •2.5 c.c. blood from Jlonkey 4.

AjJril 8f/i. Trypanosomes, mostly long forms, found in the blood. Some short forms
showing granules were also present.

Ap?il 8th. Treatment with chrysoidine begun [vide p. 157).

Exp. 21. Monkey 5. {Cercopithecus sabwus).

April lOfli. Inoculated with 1 c.c. blood from Eabbit 2 (Exp. 12).

April 15f/i. Blood examined. Nil.

April Vltli. Trypanosomes present. One or two per field. Mostly long forms.

Ap7'il 22nd. Many parasites seen. Dividing forms noticed.

April 24:th. Conditions the same as on April 22nd.

Mai/ 8th. The animal has been getting thin. Mucous membranes somewhat anaemic
but blood of a good colour. Four or five trypanosomes seen in most fields. Faeces
examined microscopically. No spirilla or trypanosomes found. A few red cells and a good
many leucocytes present.

Ma)/ 15//i. Monkey very ill and evidently nearing its end. Appetite still preserved
Trypanosomes not so numerous in the blood as formerly. Some apparently degenerated
forms showing vacuolation. Chloroformed at 3.15 p.m. and autopsy performed at once.

Body emaciated. No scrotal oedema or eye infection. Mucous membranes markedly
anaemic .

Heart.t blood. — Both forms present. The long trypanosomes extremely active, rapidly
traversing the field, and moving almost like spirochaetes. Nothing special noted in stained
preparations.

Splcin. — Slight enlargement only. Malpighian bodies not visible on the surface, but
seem to be enlarged when section made. Some congestion present. On staining a smear
no vestige of a trypanosome could be found, a somewhat remarkable fact.

Liver. — Slightly congested. Both forms found in smear.

Stomach. — Vessels from smaller curvature engorged. Two areas of congestion shewing
early ulceration. But little necrosis present. A smear was made from one of these surfaces
but neither trypanosomes nor spirilla were present.

Intestines. — Congestion and ulceration of Beyer's patches. In smears made from these
areas a few spirilla were found, similar in appearance to those discovered in the stomach
ulcer of Dog 4 (Exp. 9).

C'cecHin. — A large punched-out ulcer was present, its surface covered with blood clot.
Smears made from the clot and from the ulcerated surface shewed neither trypanosomes
nor spirilla.

Large Intestine. — Ulcerated areas present in the transverse and descending colon,
These ulcers are more advanced than those in the small intestine. One ulcer measured
\ inch in leiigtli and was markedly hajmorrhagic. A smear showed many bacilli, red and
white blood corpuscles and a vast number of very thin, lightly staining vibrios ami spirilla.
Some of the latter were of considerable length possessing from four to six undulations, but
they did not resemble the spirilla found in the ease of Dog 4 or those present in the smear
made from the small intestine.

m TKYPAN080MIA8I8 IN THE ANOLO-EOYPTIAN 8UDAN

Fcrrrii. — These were soft, yellow iiiul not offensive.

Afesi-ntrrir ijliimh. — Tllese were eliliirgeil ami yellow (fiitty ?). TIley were neither
congested nor hicmorrhiigie.

Liiiii/n. — Jliirkeclly antemie.

Kitliu'i/ii. — Tiiere iippeareil to he a very early lupiiritis. 'i'lieir capsules stripped easily.

Jiitiif iiiiirroir. — Red iind rather Huid in eonsistenee. Simar showed no parasites.

Bniiii. — ^llather ana-niic. A slij^lit increase of the eereliro-sjjinal Hiiid wliicdi contained
trvpanosonies. A stained smear of the tiuid showed nothin^^ Imt long forms. Some of the
parasites liad completely disintegratnl, |iiissilily as a result of tin- spreading out on the slide.
Only the centrosomes ami free edges of tli<' undulating nieniliranes, the latter prolonged into
the flagella, renniined.

Some experiments /;/ vitni were condueitij uilli the trvpanosonies derived from the
heart's blooil of this monkey, as it was thought that a means of telling whether we were
dealing with only one or with two species of parasite, might thus be foun<l. Equal parts
of infected hlood and sterile citrate solution were placecl in sterilised glass tubes and
incubated at ST'^C, and at a temperature varying between 21()^C. and •24°C. respectively.

.\ftcr '1\ hours a few somewhat sluggish trypanosomes were demonstrable in the warm
tube. In the cold tube lively forms were present.

After 48 hours, living forms were found in both tubes, but those in the cold tube were
much more lively and also more numerous. Dividing forms were present in both tubes. In
the cold tube, baby try[)anosoiues were seen separating off from the panut parasites in a
manner resembling that fignreil in Laveraii and Mesnil's Treatise, Fig. XX., p. 211. 1
also noticed appearances suggesting those shown in Fig. II., p. 888 of the Journal of the
K.A.jr.C. for JIarch, 19U5, in connection with tiic cultivation of the Leishnian body. In
other words, slender siiirilla looking forms could be seen separating from the tiagellatcil
parasites. In stained preparations only the long forms were clearly recognisable, though
what might have been short forms were seen. It was very difficult to be certain. A general
appro.\imation to spirillary form was evi<lent. lioth ends of the parasites were pointeil and
the chromatin was somewhat diffused. Nuclei and centrosomes were apparent, but the
staining reactions lial altered, and in the specimen kept at 37"C., differential staining hiid
been lost to some extent. The flagella stained indifferently well.

After 70 hours no trypanosomes were found in the tube kept at 87'-'C. In the cold
tube a considerable number of lively forms were ju'esent. A few motionless parasites were
also noteil. The trvpanosonies approached still niore closely to tln' spiiillar type, being
very attenuated. A ru<ldv staining of the cytoplasm was also noticeable.

After !)2 hours the same condition of things was found. There was a still greater
approximation to the spirillar tvpe but no true spirilla were found. On staining, no flagella
were visible. Curiously altered forms were also present.

After 110 hours it was found that bacterial invasion, always a difKcidt factor to
exclude in Khartoum, had taken place. No living parasites were found, but degenerated
forma could be seen.

Exj). 22. fierbil 12. Weight 15 grams. This was a small dark gerbil, apparently a
different species from those hitherto employed. Its blood did not exhibit basophilia.

A/iril H)l/i. Inoculateil with a few drops of blood from (Jerbil 10.

Ajiiil Vlth. One long trypanosome found. Very lively. No " tadpole " forms seen as
described in T. dimorphum in rats by l)utton and Todil.

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 145

April 15///. Blood swarming. Treatment with so-called solnble chrysoidine begnn
and case therefore considered under treatment {vide p. 157).

Exp. 23. — Rat (Mas decumanus). Blood free of parasites.

Aji/il I'ltli. Inoculated subcutaneously with "25 c.c. blood from Gerbil 10 to see if
" tadpole ■■ forms developed. The blood was examined daily after April 14th till April •22nd,
but no trypanosomes were found. Accordingly Exp. 23a was performed, the rat being again
inoculated, this time from Monkey 5.

April 23rd. Rat found dead. Spleen enlarged. Bacterial invasion of the tissues had
occurred and no parasites were found in smears made from the heart's blood and various
organs.

Exp. 24. Jerboa 6. — This animal was used for an immunisation experiment with blood
serum and its case is accordingly considered under treatment (p. 170).

Exp. 25. Monkey fi. — {Cercopifhecvs sahcrus.) Weight 1'3 kilos.

April 24//t. Inoculated with 1 c.c. blood from Monkey 5.

April 29tli. Trypanosomes present in peripheral blood. Nearly all long forms.

May 5fh. Both forms present and lively. Twenty to thirty in each field. On
staining, the short forms were found to predominate. Many of them were very broad and
exhibited chromatin granules, vacuoles and large undulating membranes. Some of the long
forms were dividing. This monkey was treated by blood serum injections and its history is
therefore considered later (p. 1(38).

Exp. 26. Gerbil 13.— May 5th. Inoculated from Monkey 5.

Ma>/ St/i. Both forms present in tjie blood, the long forms predominating.

Mill/ lOf/i. Animal funiul ilead and decomposing. Bacterial invasion of tissues.

Exp. 27. Gerbil 14. — May 4th. Inoculated from Monkey 5.

Map 8t/i. Both forms present in the blood, the long forms preponderating.

Afau 21.'<f. Animal chloroformed and blood-agar tubes inoculated from the heart's
blood, in wliieli both forms were numerous, and incubated at 22° C. All the tubes became
contaminated.

Stomach and intestines examined but no congestion or ulceration found.

Exp. 28. Gerbil IG. — May 11th. Inoculated with a few drops of citrated blood
from Monkey 5.

Mai/ 16///. Trypanosomes present in the blood but few in number.

Maif 20///. Many fields devoid of parasites. Two, the greatest number seen in
one field.

This gerbil was treated wth blood serum and so it is considered fully later (p. 169).

Exp. 29. Gerbil 17. — J/"// 11///. Inoculated with a few drops of citrated blood
from Monkey 5.

Ma>/ 16///. Trypanosomes present and numerous.

AIay2Qth. Trypanosomes present and numerous, 6 to 12 per field. 'A stained film
exhibited both forms and, in addition, strange short forms dotted all over with chromatin
spots. There were also curious amorphous masses, showing vestiges of their having once been
trypanosomes. These apparently were the result of a natural degeneration. Those mth
the abundance of chromatin possibly exemplified an effort to cope with this destruction,
This was thought to be a suitable case for treatment by solnble chrysoidine which was begun
on May 21st [vide p. 158).

Exp. 30. Monkey 7. — [Cercopithents mhaux). Jlay 15th. Inoculated subcutaneously

K

nn

TUYPANOBOMIASIS IN THE ANOI.O-EOYrTIAN SIPAN

witli 'J") c.c. l)lo(icl from Monkov T). This moiikry wus untrciitiMl uikI its fciiijH-niturf takin
■laily (witli one cxcfption) ilnriii^ the rcsultinn illness.

ii< i; iM I!)

May

■JJ 24 Vi 211

2; 2H 29 no 31 1

Jl'NK

» 4 It i

IW

-d

f^.. 1 --

^^ J : i-^^"~-i- z^-

::==7 ^u Ai__^=__L_

"'' [ _ _ L

::::::::::::_: i

Vu:. 73. TKMrHKATt'RK Rp.aiKI>. MoNKKV 7.

■lAn/ '2].<tt. I'lcMul (Xiiniiiuil fur tlic first time. A fair miiulitT ut trypanosomes fdiuni.
ViTV lu-tivf loii^ forms must in I'viilcmc. On stiiiiiin^ initli forms were wt'll seen.

Mtn/ 'I-^nl. ]ilou<l inuciilatiMl into Jlonkfy S.

Afiiii 21th. No trypanosonies fouiul in a fresh lilm. Note that tliis coincideil with a
fall in tile teniperatiirc. Hlooil inoculated into Gerbils IS and 10.

Mail •l'!Mh. Fresh film. After a long seareh one short form found. It was sluggisli,
exhibiteil vacuoles and was apparently somewhat degenerated. TemiK-rature still low.

.]f<ii/ 29t/i. Fresh film. Full of trypaiiosomes, especially long ami very active forms.
It is worthy of note tiiat tin- temperature hail risen 4° F. since the previous day.

Mai) 'M)'/i. TMuud in nuich the same condition.

Jiiiif lU//(. In the interval the disease had steadily jirogressed, ami tlie animal had
shown the usual symptoms of anaemia, emaciation, liejeetiDn. and drowsiness. There was
cedenia of the left eyelid, corneal opacity, and some Mepjiaritis.

On the morning of June 10th the animal was found dead liut not decomposed.

J'ost-murloii. The only special point noted was a general enlargement of the
mesenteric glands.

Peyer's patches were well markeil at the lower end of the ileum. No congestion or
ulceration found here or in the stonuich.

Portions of the lung, liver, spleen, whicii was slightly enlarged, kidneys and supra-
renals were preserved for section preparations.

Exp. 31. tterbil 18. — May 21st. Inoculated hy scrati h inoculation from Gerbil 14.

Mai/ 21lli. Examination of the blood having proved negative, the animal was
re-inoculated on this ilatc from Jlonkey 7, the blood of whi( h it will be remembered showed
no trypanosomes on this day.

Exp. 31.\. — ./»>)<• i\tli. Fresh tilm found to be swarming with trypanosomes ;
agglutinating ami ilividing forms present.

This animal ran a course and died some tinu' after .luiie.

Exp. :!J. Monkey 8 {Ciirnpif/nrus salioux). Weight, 2 kilos. — May 23rd. Inoculated
with ^r) c.c. blood from Monkey 7.

Jiiiii' 1th. Animal lively ami well. Hlood examineil for the first time. Both forms
present, long ones predominating. There were 6 or 7 per field. Weight 2 kilos.
Treatment with soluble ehrysoidine begun. Case considered later (p. 158).

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 147

Exp. 33. Gerbil 19. Weight, 42 grams. — Red cells showed granular basophilia.

May 21t](. Inoculated with a few drops citrated blood, in which at the time no
trypanosomes were found, from Monkey 7 (page 146).

June 6fh. Trypanosomes present but not numerous, and only long, lively forms seen.

June 28th. Many trypanosomes, mostly long forms.

June SOffi. In extremis, chloroformed. Weight, 23 grams. Posl-morteni. Slight
conjunctivitis of left eye. Spleen enlarged. No ulceration in the- stomach, but non-
adherent blood clot present, as well as a bunch of nematodes.

In a smear made from one of the clots degenerated trypanosomes were found (Note by
Major Dansey Browning).

The following experiments were partly or wholly performed by Mr. Fricdrichs, my
laboratory assistant, when I was absent on leave. They were performed merely for the
purpose of carrying on the strain, but some notes were kept both by IMr. Friedrichs and by
Major Dansey Browning, who from time to time kindly supervised, especially when post-
mortems were performed.

Exp. 34. Monkey 10 [Cercointhecus mhnus). Weight, 23 kilos. — June 15th.
Inoculated subeutaneously with "25 c.c. blood from Monkey 8.

June 2\sf. Blood examined for first time. Trypanosomes, both forms, present, the
majority being long forms.

July ]4M. Animal weak and ailing.

July 16th. Found dead. Weight 12 kilos.

Post-mortem. — Only points noted were erosion of stomach and congestive patches in
the small intestine. Smears from these areas proved negative as regards trypanosomes or
spirilla.

Exp. 35. Monkey 12 [Cercopithecus sabceus). August 14th. Inoculated from
Monkey 10, '25 c.c. subeutaneously.

August 24:th. Large infection found.

August 29th. Found dead. Weight, 22 kilos.

Post-mortem. Apical pneumonia present. Trypanosomes in heart's blood degenerated.
An attempt to continue the strain by injection of this blood into Monkey 13 failed, this
constituting Exp. 36.

Exp. 37. Gerbil 20. July 2Sth. Inoculated with 25 c.c. from Gerbil 19.

July 1th. A few trypanosomes found.

July 29th. Very weak.

August Srd. Found dead. Bacterial invasion. No ulceration.

Exp. 38. Gerbil 21. July 29th. Inoculated subeutaneously with 5 c.c. blood from
Gerbil 20.

August 2nd. Blood infected.

August 8th. Blood swarming with trypanosomes.

August 19th. Found dead — decomposed.

Exp. 39. Gerbil 22. August 8th. Inoculated subeutaneously with 25 c.c. from
Gerbil 21.

August nth. Blood swarming.

August 28th. Found dead. Spleen enlarged. No ulceration.

Exp. 40. Gerbil 23. August 20th. Inoculated subeutaneously from Gerbil 22.

August 22n(l. Slight infection.

14H TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANQLO-EOYPTIAN SUDAN

Sfpli'iiiliiT l',\t/i. Pt'iiil. Notliiiig notfwortliy fuiiinl post-mortem.

Exp. 41. {Jcrltil '24. S,-j)tnii/'i-r r)th. Iiioculiitcil siilicutiim-onsly from Gcrbil 23.

(htoher 'KMIi. Dii-d. No notes.

Exp. 4'J. (xcrliil 'if). Si'jiti'iiihir Wtli. IiiiMiilatcil siiliciltiiiicoilsly fioiii ftcrl>il -M.

Oi-tohtr {\lli. Dii'd. No notes.

Exp. 4:5. (lerbil 'Jli. Sr/ilrmlier '2l-il. IniiculiitiMl subflltiillcousl y from (icrliil "i").
Fiiilure.

Exp. 41. ]\r(inl;rv 14 {(^ervojtithecus gahii'us). Aiitinsi Xlth. Inoculuted from
Gerbil 21.

Aiojiist 'I'liiil. Severe infection.

Septeiiilur '.^nl. Very weak, ("iiloroformed.

/*o.tt-inortei)i. Stomiiili much inflameil aiid eontaineil three hirge ulcers. No spirilla
found in smears, ("uriously altered forms of trypanosonie fomid in a smear from tiie liver.

Exp. 4f). Monkey IT) (Cercopithecm .salmns). Weight, 2 kilos. September IJrd.
Inoculated suluiitaiuoiislv witli about '25 c.c. bl 1 from Monkey 14.

September X-Uh. 'I'rvpanosomes present.

September 'Mlh. None found.

October ritli. Two or three present per field.

October \\t/i. Found dead. Weight. 12 kilos. Having returned from leave I
performed the post-mortem on this animal. The stomach was nornial. In both small and
large intestines, ulcerated areas were found surrounded by inflammatory induration. Raised
red nodules could be seen under the peritoneal lining when the gut was viewed externally.

Smears were made frmn tliese ulcers but iiu sjiiriila or trypauosoines were found.
Portions were kv\>\ for section preparations.

Exp. 4t'). Monkey KJ {Cercopil/weus saUviis). Weight, 2S kilos. October Titli.
Inoculated witli '.'i c.c. blooil from Monkey If).

October \~ili. IJloiid swanuing with trypanosomes, liotli forms being present and
easilv recognisable, especially on staining.

On this date If) c.c. of tliis monkey's blood was inoculated into Calf I, constituting
Exp. 47, which has already been considered in tlie article on cattle trypanosomiasis.

October I'.U/i. Treatment with clirysoidine in suspension was begun on this date, and
the case is accordingly considered later (p. 159).

Exp. 48. Monkey 19. (Circopitlieni.'^ .labreiiK.) Weigiit 17 kilos.

October 22)1(1. Monkey inoculated with heart's blood from Monkey 16.

October 28//(. A large number uf trypanosomes, nearly all long forms, present, three
or four per fiehl (oc. 1, oil 'nmii. 1 12. Leitz.)

Xiicewber [)lh. Roth forms. Many vacuolated.

Xoreiiiber l^ult. Animal dinl in the afternoon. rost-mortem performed at once.
Spleen enlarged but firm. No ulceration of stomach or intestines, but slight congestion of
mucous membrane of lower part of ileum note<]. Otherwise nothing noteworthy. In heart,
spleen and liver smears, onlinary, unaltered trypanosomes were seen. In a smear of the
bone-marrow, forms like the Leishnian body were present, presumably the young forms
described by Lingard and already mentioned.

Exp. 49. Monkey 20. {Cercopithmis mhwuti). Weight, 13 kilos.

November IT^tb. Inoculated subcutaneously with lieart's blood from monkey 19.

JVorimber 20///. Examined for tlie first time and found to be infecteil. Hoth forms

TEYl'ANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 149

present and full of chromatin grannies. Some seen undergoing longitudinal division.
Animal looks ill and emaciated, but weight was 1'2 kilos. Treatment with chrysoidine begun
so considered later (p. 160).

Exp. 50, 51 and 52 have not been concluded at the time of writing and so need
not be considered.

I append tables giving details of these inoculation experiments, so that the results
obtained can be readily noted (p. 128 et seq.).

Having described these, we are in a better position to discuss the identity of the
trypanosome or trypanosomes in question. It appears to be always a matter of considerable
difficulty to come to a definite decision on such a point, and indeed it may be impossible
without the aid of cultivation and immunisation experiments. Koch* has recently raised
the question as to whether it will not be possible in certain cases, and especially in the
pathogenetic trypanosomes of mammals, to decide the species by a study of the developmental
forms in the (rlussinn. The question at issue, it will be remembered, is whether we are
dealing with 'J\ diinorij/timi or with an infection by two different species of trypanosomes,
one of these being presumably 7'. Evansl. For purposes of comparison I would direct
attention to the standard treatise on Trypanosomiasis by Laveran and Mesnil, which deals
fully both with T. diiJtorj)hiim and T. Uvansi; to the work of Dutton and Todd, on
the former parasite, found in horses in Senegambia, and to the very full report of
Musgrave and Clegg, which refers especially to Surra in the Philippine Islands.

Dealing first with the morphological aspects of ?'. iliinor/ihiiiii as described by Resemblances
Dutton and Todd, who discovered it, I think it will be apparent to anyone who compares
their photomicrographs of the horse trypanosome of the Gambia with those of the mule
trypanosomes of the Sudan, Fig. 69, that they are extremely alike. This applies at least
to their Figs. 2 and 3, on Plate 1. There, long forms exactly similar to those shown in
Fig. 69 appear, while their so-called " stumpy " parasites correspond closely to what I have
described as short forms.

Again comparing their long forms in the coloured plate with those in my stained
specimen, I find a great similarity in structure.

On reading the descriptions of their long and " stumpy " forms, one finds their account
of the former agrees with that I have given of the long forms in mules with one
possible exception.

They state that these forms are most numerous in the blood of an infected animal a few
days before its death.

In my untreated cases they occurred early in the infection, persisted throughout the
disease and were not specially numerous ante-mortem.

Taking next their " stumpy " forms. These appear to answer fairly closely to my
short forms — at least, as seen in experimental animals. In the original mule's blood I never
found them so broad as they describe. They note that the stumpy forms survive for a
longer time in fresh preparations than the long forms. I have found this true of my short
forms so far as cover-glass preparations go. Sometimes it is very difficult to say if a
trypanosome is really a short form or a long form which has become much broader than usual
prior to division, and in which the flagellum has not stained well or is not well developed.
This leads to confusion, and possibly may account in some measure for the intermediate

to

'r. diniorphum

* Sitzungber d. Kaiser pr. Akad. d. Wiss., Berlin, Nov. 23nl, 1905, p. 958-962.

loO TIIYI'ANOSOMIASIS IN THK ANGLO-EQYPTIAN SUDAN

forms mentioned by Dutton iiud To(l<l. I may also have mistaken altered and dividing long
forms for short forms in process of division. Dutton and Todd state that they never
witnessed their stumpy forms undergoing fission.*

At the same time I have certainly seen in crowded slides what I should call intermediate
forms, another point of resemblance between their T. tlimor/i/nim ami the trypanosomes of
mules. I have, however, never st'en the faintly staining hyaline form they describe, nor
have I met with the ' tadpole forms " they describe in rats and mice. This may be because I
have not employed the same kind cif iiiiinials as thev did. However, in the case of Monkey
No. 4 when undergoing the .•^cruiii treatment, I saw small forms whii-h eertainlv answered
very closely to their description of the "tadpole" forms. (I'late XIV., Fig. >.) Indeed,
their "tadpole" form is not at all unlike the 7'. namnn of cattle, save that it has a longer
rtagellum. Occasionally, and more especially in blood smears from internal organs, I have
.seen the round forms figured in their colduml plate and which may be altered female
trypanosomes, macrogametes.

On the whole then, from a niorjiliological staiulpoiiit. llir mule trypanosomes approximate
very closely to the disiriptiiiii uf 7'. diinorpluiin given by Dutton and Todd.

Let us see how they fare when compared with the account given by Laveran and Mesnil.
These observers did not see a long free Hagellum in the long forms of T. (liiiior/i/iuin. I
have alreaily (juoted Professor Laveran on this point. They never observed the "tadpole "
forms, nor the pale hyaline variety. The French savants state that the undulating
membrane is never vtry will developed, and that in tiie short forms it is united very closely
to the body, pro[ierly so-called. In the trypanosonie of mules, as found in the blood of
experimental animals, the undulating membrane is often very well niark( d. and. as has been
pointed out. is frcipicntiv " bunciuil " on tiic ImkIv of a sliort fnriii in a wav which reminds
one of what is found in tiic Irypaiiosonies of lisli and reptiles, though it is never extremely
prominent save in involution forms.

The French authorities do not recognise liiu intermediate forms ami state that
granulations are rare.

There is, however, nothing in their observations wiiicli woui<i lead one to declare that
the trypanosonie of mules is not 7'. ilinior/i/iiiin. It is well known that in different animals
the same trypanosome may present very differeut aspects, an<i if some variation can be ailmitted
as regards Hagella it can also be admitteil for the undulating membrane and the presence of
chronnitin granules. Further, at clit^Vrcnt stages of the disease dif1\ rent appearances are
exhibited, and it is only recently that attention lias been directed to the existence of tisexual
and sexual forms.
,. As regards the parasites of Surra, the long forms in mules eertainlv resemble 7'. /■A-aimi.

Comparison o i o

with T. Kv.insi It would Seem that the latter is more mobile, frequently traversing the field of the microscope,
but little can be based on such an observation.

If the long form be '/'. h'van.ii, what is the short form ? One naturally thinks of
T. luvium, the cattle trypanosome found in the same regions, but from a morphological
standpoint I do not think the two are iilentical. The ipiestion could onlv lie satisfactorily
settled by inoculation of the mule trypanosomes into cattle, and so far I have neither had

* It is pomiblc in both castes thnt these short forms really represent feninlc trvpanosomcs, while two forms of
loni; p-ira^ite m.-ty exist, an asoiual form whirh iiiidergoes longitudinal division and a male scxnal form, a
mirroirnmeto, represented by slender trypanosomes with a hyaline rytoplasm and very long Hagella.

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 151

the means nor facilities for conducting this work on a large scale. The single experiment
performed {vide p. 122) goes to show that the short form is not T. nanum.

On the whole, considering the matter from a morphological standpoint, I am strongly
inclined to think the mule trypanosome is T. dimorphum. Nor when we turn to compare
the result of experimental inoculation is there anything forcible to be urged against such a
view. I have not been able to carry out so admirable a series of experiments as that
conducted by Drs. Button and Todd,* but so far as they go my results approximate very
closely to theirs. True, they did not note any affection of the eyes in dogs, but no doubt
this is a variable symptom. Laveran and Mesnil f state that it only occurs occasionally in
the case of T. Evansi in dogs. It seems more constant for T. Brucci than for any other
variety. The Liverpool observers found gland enlargement constant in rats ; I have
not observed it either in gerbils or jerboas, but I have now worked with rats proper to a
small extent and have found this to be the case.

In their solitary rabbit the conjunctiva and eyelids remained normal. In one of my
cases a condition exactly similar to that found by Musgrave and Clegg,| by Sivori and Lecler
and by other investigators, developed.

Button and Todd employed monkeys of different species to those with which I worked.
In one of them, a baboon, thev found the stomach congested and containing altered blood
and mucus.

They seem to have obtained very similar results in goats to what I found in the
solitary goat I employed.

It is scarcely worth while to pursue the argument. Granting that T. dimorphum is a
distinct entity, I think the trypanosome of mules in the Sudan approaches it more closely
than any other trypanosome of which I have records. The tendency is to follow Koch
and pay less attention to differences in species and more to the presence or absence of
pathogenicitv. I have attempted cultivation experiments, but so far without any success.
Either nothing developed in the blood-agar tubes or contamination occurred. Had I
known that drjihruuitcd blood is not essential in preparing the culture media, this accident
might have been avoided. As regards the trypanosomes found in blood smears from a
donkey in the Bahr-El-Ghazal, I may note that the specimens were old and stained badly.
As far as one could tell, the parasites rather resembled T. Bnicci. Only one form appeared
to be present. I have not yet been able to work out the small trypanosome I have found
in mules, but I am nut at all sure that it is not T. nanum. I know of two instances in which
recovery apparently occurred. It will, perhaps, be of greater interest to consider the special
post-mortem lesion to which I wish to call attention, namely, the affection of the gastric
and, to a less extent, the intestinal mucous membrane.

References to such a contlitiou are not wanting in the literature. Button and Todd's Gastric and
note in reference to a baboon has been mentioned, Musgrave and Clegg record the presence of '"'<=5tinai

° _"*- / lesions and

intestinal ulcers and ulcers in the C(_eca of animals dead of Surra in the Philipi)ines. As a their
rule, however, attention does not seem to have been paid to the condition of the alimentarv ^"^^l

' ' ^ " significance

tract, and so far as I know, when lesions have been noted, smears have not been taken nor
any further examination performed. Greig's recent observations on human trypanosomiasis
have been mentioned.

• First Report of the Trypanosomiasis Expedition to Senegambia 1902, Liverpool 1903.

t Trypanosomes et Trypanosomiasis. Paris, 1904.

t Trypanosoma and Trypanosomiasis with special reference to Surra in the Philippine Islands, No. 5 Publicatiuu.
Bureau, Govt. Labs. Manila. 1903.

152 TRVPANOSOMIASIB IN THK ANGLO-EOVl'TI AN KfDAN

My miiiilii'i' uf post-iiiurteiiis in tlu- ciisu of i'xi)i'i'iiiii'iitiil iininiiils now totiils forty-nine,
tinil in sixti'L-n of tlu'Sf gastric or inti-stinal uifi-nition or niurki'il conj^fstion was jirust-nt. In
one ease (Exp. 8) tluTe was severe ulceration of the c i-iiiiii nwA lower ciiii of the ileum.

I do not tiiink that this tan bf a mere coincidence. A similar condition was found in
the stoiiiarli of a Shiiluk ox infected with 7! nnniiiii, and I am inclinid to think that such
lesions will be found to be common in trypanosomiasis.

As to their significance, one scarcely likes to hazard an opinion, but tlic thungiit that
naturally arises is whether tliis condition may not indicate an effort on the part of the
parasite to leave its host. Biting Hies are regarded as the usual media by which
trypanosonies leave the body of an infected animal, though Kogers* has shown that the
ordinary house fly will serve the pur})ose in the case of open wounds, ami fieas ami other
blood-sucking insects are said to lie eflFective as agents of transmission. In this connection I
may state that I have found trypanosoines in blood expressed from a mite (/>«(•;««;/ j/.'isiw sp. i*
jirobably i/iilliii<r) twenty-six hoiirs after it had fed on an infected rat. Many of the parasites
were lively, but some were dead. A fine rosette form was also seen. On staining, unchanged
parasites were seen together with brokeu-down forms showing only centrosomes, free edges of
their undulating membranes and tlagella. Nothing to suggest a developmental stage was
seen nor were dividing forms noticed.

At the same time the life-history of the trypanosoines of mammals is still obscure, and
it is only recently that attention has been directed to the mult i{>licat ion of 7'. pantbienae
in the stciinuiji of fi. pdljiiili.t.] while it is only since the above was written that Koch's
rcmarkalilo observations,! carried out in German East Africa have been made public, which, il
confirmed, will mark a great advance in our kiiuwKdgi-.^ Is it not possible, however, tliat if
flies are not available, the parasite may escape from the body in some different manner '
If so, may tlie gastric an>l intestinal lesions not lie evidence of such exit ? The condition
found in (la(diexial Fever due to the Leishman bodies|| will at once occur to aiiv interesteil
in this important subject. At the same time we are immediately met witli the argument
that no one has ever found t rypanosomes in the stools of infected animals, nor have such
stools been definitily shown to be capable on injection of reproilucing tlir disease; Lingard,
it is true, states the contrary, but he is generally regarded to have been mistaken, and
JIu.sgrave and Clegg, who pai<l special iitteiition to this point, <leny that the stools can
convey infection. Kogers also refutes Linganl's contention. Moreover, ulcerated conditions
of the alimentary tracts in the lower animals is, I believe, far frcuii nncoiuuion in hut
countries.

In the face of all the evidence wiiieli has been accumulated, and in the absence of any

experiments with the stools of inoculated animals, one is not justified in putting forward

Thcoccurrence .^jj^. ))„.,„.y \\ (),^. sauii' time the occurrence of spirilla in the gastric lesions mav or niav

of Spirilla • • . " '

not be regardeil as a fact worthy of note and there certainly seems to be a general
impression that trypanosoines and spirilla will be found to be very closely related, if they
are not indeed merely different stages in the life of one parasite. This was first suggested

• Hrit 'S\e>\. .luurn , London, Nov. 26th, l'J04, )i. 1,-1.')4.

t KeporU of the Sleeping Sickne*. C'ommi&sion of the Iloyal Society, No. VI., juirt H.
; DeutM'h. Med. Wochcnschriff, Leipzig, Nov. 23r(l. lOo.i.

!S Sef however the recent paper liy Novy (.loiir. Inf. Diseases. 18th May, 1906\ which diiicrcditt> this work as
do the results obtained liy Miiiihin.

II Christopheni' S<'ientilic Memoirs. Med. and Saiiit. Pepnrt., ludui, Nos. 8 and 11.

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 153

by Scliamlinn's work* on the developmental cycle of the Homu undid or S/jiiiir/wfc
Zicmanni of the Stone Owl in Cuh-x pipienf, but it is worth noting that Novy and McNealj
have not confii-med his observations, while quite recently Koss| has suggested a possible
source of fallacy in Schaudinn's allied researches. § Now, I have no wish to commit myself
to any theory. It does not seem likely that a trypanosome would change into a spirillum
in the blood of the same host, and I have seen nothing which would lead me to suspect
that it does, but Theiler|| has recorded both forms of parasite as occurring in the blood of
cattle suffering from ordinary red-water and Khodesian red-water fever. Petrie has**
also described a Spirochsete in the blood of a Martin which at the same time harboured a
trypanosome in its bone-marrow. Further, the spirilla, which I describe, are shortish forms,
and have not the typical pointed ends of, say, Spiro'luvtc Obermcieri. For all that they are
undoubted spirilla, and I have found them on several occasions in gastric lesions of animals
dead of trypanosomiasis. I think it is an interesting observation. At present it is nothing
more, but it seems worth while following up the matter. With the highest powers at my
disposal, it looked as though these spirilla were possessed of something like undulating
membranes. Further observations lead me to doubt this. I believe these organisms to be
of a bacterial nature or at least true spirilla as distinct from protozoa.

I have never found such spirilla present in the stomach or intestines of animals
uninfected with trypanosomiasis. Another question arises. What is the nature of these small
"ruddy" forms (Plate XIV., Fig. /) found in the gastric lesions present in Gerbil 8
(Exp, 16) and Jerboa 3 (Exp. 1!)) ? I confess I am unable to answer the query. They
are possibly related to the young resistant forms described by Liugard, and which closely
resemble the Leishman-Donovan bodies found in Cachexial Fever.

IV. PkoPHYLAXIS and TrvE.\TMENT

As regards tlie former little need be said, as in a region like the Soutliern Sudan but prophylaxis
little can be done of any practical value, and the country is not yet sufficiently developed to
make the presence of the disease severely felt. At present the big game is probably of
greater value than the native flocks and herds. Steps have been taken to limit the trade
with Shilluk cattle, though apparently 7'. iiuniiiii has never been introduced into the
Northern Sudan. As stated. Captain Head has recently examined the blood of hundreds of
cattle in the Berber district and elsewhere, in connection with the rinderpest outbreak, and
he has not come across a single case of trypanosomiasis. Mention has been made of the
fact that the animals in the rear of a caravan are likely to escape being bitten by
Tsetse flies.

Treatment has so far been conducted on two lines. Having noted ff that the best Attempts at
results in the treatment of trypanosomiasis had been obtained by the use of certain anilin 'herapeutic
dye-stuffs, namely, trypan red and malachite green, JJ whether combined or not with arsenic, it

• Geueratious und Wirtwechsel bei Trypanosome und Spirochaetc. Arb. ausdein Kaiser. Gesundheit.,
Bond XX., Heft 3, 1904. Translation in Brit. Med. .Jouru., London, Feb. 25th, 1905, p. 442.
t .Journ. Infect. Dis., Chicago, March, 1905.
X Jouru. Hyg., Cambridge, Jan. 1906.

§ See also the recent work of Novy and others (Journ. Inf. Diseases, 18th May, 1906), and for a review of
he whola subject the articles on HaemoflagcUates in the Quart. Journ. of Microscopic Science, April and June, 1906.
Il Fortschritte der Veterinarhygiene, 1903, Heft IV.
•• Journ. Hyg., Cambridge, 1905, Vol. V., p. 191.

tt Laveran. Compt. Rend, de I'Acad. des Sciences, Paris, Vol. CXXXIX., p. 19.
IX Brit. Med. Jouru., Londou, Dec. 17th, 1904, p. 1C45.

measures

Reasons for
employing

154 TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANOLO-EOYI'TIAN SUDAN

occurroil tn mo that it mi^'lit lie well to test tho tliciaiMiitir action of another anilin colour,
/.'•., chrvsoidiiic, the hyiinichloridc of rii-uiiiido-azo-bi'nzene (C,j H,, N4 HCl.). Though
I liail no proof of its value yit I lunl ohtained gomewhat suggestive results with it in
<-oii(litions other than trypanosomiasis. Tims, some years ago. I fouinl that it was extremely
lethal to fish even in very dilute solutions. Further, of all the dyes used in experimenting
it seemed to have the greatest penetrating jiower. appeareil to pass very readily into the
lilood stream, and iiiidoulitedly possessed a marked athnity for the central nervous system,
chrysoidine staining the bruiii and spinal cord a hrilliant yellow colour. Although so toxic to fish,
comparatively large doses could he given with impunity to raldiits. Wevl,' who experimented
with dogs, regards chrysoidine as non-poisonous, hut states that it causes a notable reduction
in liody-weight and slight aibitiiiinuria. Its toxic action on tish probably depends on its
being an azo compouml. but its effects were very similar to those of methylene blue. It
proved, however, more poisonous and more speedy in action. As methylene blue is known
to benefit cases of bilharzia disease and to exercise a lethal effect on the ciliated embryo of
S<-histiiK(>iiiii)t, /i,ini>i/i>/>iiiin, 1 first of all tested chrysoidine on this myracidium and found
that in a strength of 1 in 20,000 the dye killed the embryo practically instantaneously,
while a solution of 1 in 200,000 proved lethal in 17 minutes. Keniembering that methylene
blue has been exiiibitcd witli some benefit in malaria, it seemed to me that possibly
chrysoidine might be found bi ncfic jal in cases liarbouring protozoal blooil parasites. Further,
its aftinity for the nervous system seenieil to point to a possible value in a disease like
trypanosomiasis where the late and really lethal effects are pro<luced by an invasion of the
eerebro-spinal system— at least, such is the view at present held as regards human
trypanosomiasis. I admit such reasoning is none too conclusive, or even hopeful, but many
tlrugs have been tried in many diseases with still less reason and often merely empirically.

Dr. Slictlield Neave, impressed by the experiments on bilharzia embryos and acting
wholly on his own initiative, took some of the dye up the White Nile with him and had an
opportunity of testing the drug on a ease of human trypanosomiasis, the history of which will
be found fully detailcil later. Jleanwhile. I proceeded to carrv out .some tests in vitro,
mploying Jlenk's product, a black or dark purple, shining crystalline powder which is
somewhat insoluble, 1 gram in 10 e.c. distilled water constituting a .saturated solution
which is of an intense orange reil colour.
Experiments in Such a Solution addid to trypauosonie infected IjIoimI in a proportion of 1 to 500, killed

all the trypanosomes present practically instantaneously. They weri' stained slightly by the
yi How dye. On staining such dead trypanosomes by the liomanow.sky method they were
found to take the colour badly, and to have swollen posterior ends. They looked as if they
had shrunk into them.selves.

In a strength of 1 to 6,UUt) some try}»anosomes were observed to die in five minutes.
Others, though retaining their motility, became rounded, and these also die<l after forty-five
minutes. After four hours only one living trypauosonie could be found. Though lively it
had changed in shape, and looked like an involution form. Although weaker mixtures, even
1 in 30,000. killed some of the parasites, many were found to survive. In all cases controls
were performed, and the blood was mixed with sterile citrate solution. No agglutination was
observed. The dye was not so lethal as I had hoped, but I resolved to give it a trial. The
following are the records of cases treated with it.

• The Sniiitary Kclntioii of the Coal Tnr Colours (Lcffmnii). p. liC.

e:

viiro

TBYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 155

Exp. 2. Dog 2. — Fefiriian/ 12t/i. Weight 9 kilos. About 80 trypanosomes per field,
1 c.c. sat. sol. Chrysoidine (•! gram in 10 c.e. aq. dest.) injected subcutaneously.

February 13^/;. 2 c.c.

February lAith. 2"5 c.c. Animal livelier.

February l&h. 2-5 c.c.

February liith. 2"5 c.c. Blood examined. Only two trypanosomes per field seen at
the most. Many fields ban*en. The parasites seemed to be rather sluggish, but no special
change was noted in them.

February 11 th. 25 c.c. Animal ill and very weak.

February Vith. 2'5 c.c. Blood examined, and found to be simply swarming with
trypanosomes which had greatly altered in appearance. Nearly all of them had become
more granular, and exhibited swollen posterior ends. In addition, curious involution forms
were present. One apparently unaltered form showed extreme activity, jerking and twisting
very violently, and having also a considerable movement of translation. Many forms were
sluggish, and a number became motionless forty-five minutes after the slide was prepared,
Agglutination on a small scale was also seen to take place about this time. A certain
number, all lung thin forms, remained active and lively. Further, dividing forms were
present, and many were seen united by their posterior ends.

On staining, the above points were emphasized and vacuoles were found tu be present,
the vacuoloid area close to the centrosome being very well marked in the short forms.

February 19t//. Dog distinctly better, though still very weak.

Weight, 6-25 kilos.

3'5 c.c. given.

Blood much as above, but no agglutination forms seen.

Long forms very active.

The animal did not take food well in the afternoon, and appeared to be thirsty.

February 20th. Found dead, stiS" and cold in the morning.

The post-mortem has been mentioned (p. 126). Bacterial invasion had occurred, and no
trypanosomes were found in any of the smears.

Exp. 6. Dog 3. February '11th. 5 c.c. sat. sol. given intravenously.

February 28th. 1 c.c. sat. sol. given intravenously.

March 1st. 2 c.c. sat. sol. given intravenously.

March 2/1(1. 2'5 c.c. intravenously.

No change in the dog's condition had been apparent. Owing to great press of work the
examination of the blood was put off from day to day, and the dog was found dying on
March 3rd. A post-mortem was performed immediately after death, and no trypanosomes
were found in anv of the smears made from heart's blood, liver, spleen and thymus gland,
which was enlarged. The urine was of a very deep yellow colour, and though I have no
proof of it, I am not at all certain but that the chrysoidine was the immediate cause of
death in this case. There was slight nephritis. I have, however, given a control dog
considerable doses, about 2 c.c. daily, intravenously, for a prolonged period without any ill
effects resulting.

Exp. 8. Monkey 2. Weight, 2"5 kilos. February 21n^ Blood full of trypanosomes,
about 2U per field — -3 c.c. sat. sol. (1 gram in 10 c.c. aq. dest.) given subcutaneously.

February 22nd. Animal seemed livelier. Only about six parasites per field.
3 c.c. given.

Records of
cases

156 TllYl'ANDSOMIASIS IN TMK ANGLO-EOYl'TIAN SUDAN

Feliriitiiy 'I'Anl. 'A ex. given. Six to Iwilvc ]iir ticid.

Ffliriiiiri/ 'l\tl,. 85 c-.e. given.

I'lhriiiii-y 'I'uii. t! i-.c. givi n.

/■'thriiiiri/ '2(>//i. (i f.e. given. No npimrent change.

FrliriKirii 'llllt. () c.c. given. Weiglit "JSt kilos.

Feliriiiini •JH^/i. G c.c. given. Jllooil e.xiiniined, no t ry pauosoines founii after a
jirolongeil search.

Mnnh Ixl. (5 c.c. given. Blood examined, a few trypanosonies found.

Mdir/i 'ln<l. (i e.e. given, as many as four trypanosomes seen in some fiehls. Several
motionless and disintegrating forms visilile.

Miirr/i Wnl. !• e.e. given. No change.

Miin/i illi. 9 C.C. given. No change. Weight, 25 kilos.

Miii-rh !Sf/i. !) c.c. given. Not more than two trypanosomes seen per field, iiotli kinds
Well shown. Many were vacuolated, vacuoles licing siiecially numerous in the short, Idimt
forms. Plate XIV.; Fig.'/. 'I'lir animal aii|i(iiriil tn lie less sleipv, and seemed to lie
suffering from itciiinrss as it kept tugging at its coat.

Miirrh i\lh. Increase in luunlier of parasites. I'rine a marked yellow.

March Ith. IJIood swarming with jiarasitcs. 12 c.c. given. Weight, 1 kilo.

March 8//(. Jlonkey in extremis and chlnrofdniicd.

Although tint r\ panosomes altered somewhat in appearance and for a day disappeared from
the peripheral Mood, I do not think the treatment in any way influenced the course of the disease.

There was no staining of the lirain, spinal-cord or nerve trunks in this case. It does,
however, occur when larger doses are given {ri<le iii/ra).

Exji. !•'•. l)og5. Miinli 'l?u-'l. liloiid contained about 12 trvpanosomes per field.
Nearly all were long forms, and they were very active. lU minims (/.<•., •5'.( e.e.)
sat. sol. chrysoidine injected intravenously.

Same dose employed on Mm-rh ^l\th, 'l^)ili and 2(>///, without any efl'ect. Blood
swarming with parasites.

Miircli 27lh. 2(1 m. given. Blood remarkable.

Trypanosomes agglutinating, many motionless. Remainder sluggish. Within four hours
they were all dead and most had broken down into debris.

Mnnh '2Sth. 211 m. given. Hardly any trypanosomes seen in the fresh blood. After a
long search three sluggish forms found in the whole cover slip preparation. A larger
number evident in the staint'il tilm, but very few compared with what was found previously.

March "I'Mh. III! m. given. A slight increase ni the number of trypanosomes. The
parasites were sluggish and lackeil definition of (Uitline. Several motionless forms seen, and
curious "shadow" forms. Plate XIV. ; Fig, '•.

Animal very thin and weak.

March SOth and .Sl.s/. 3U m. given each day. No change.

.1/))/'/ l--'. Blood in much the same condition. A few agglutinating forms. 20 m.
given. In the afternoon the dog was found lying on its siile with neck outstretidied an<l eves
fixed. The conjunctival reflex was present. The limlis were rigiil, and every now and then
the dog kicked, as it were, with its hind lees. Tim limbs would remain passive and rigid
and then be thrown into convulsive movements. Respirations were rapid and noisy. As it
was late in the dav when this seizure was developed the animal was chloroformed, kept in
the ice chest over-night, and the autopsy performed the following morning. The results of

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 157

the examination liave already been described (p. 139). Is it possible that a rapid destruction
of the parasites occurred, resulting in a liberation of the toxines, the stress of which fell
upon the central nervous system ?

Exp. 20. Gerbil 10. Weight 34 grams. April Sfl>. Found infected. Mostly long
forms.

April 9ffi. 10 in. sat. sol. chrysoidine snbcntaneonsly.

Apnl 10th. Fresh and stained films examined. No change noted. 10 m. given.

April llth. No change noted. 15 m. given.

Apnl 12th. No increase in number. Very few long forms present. No marked
change in appearance. 20 m. given.

April I'Sth. Marked change. Many involution forms. In the fresh blood few forms
were seen and these were very sluggish, not moving about at all, but all stationary, and
presenting what may be called " rippling " movements. Vacuolation and change in shape
noted on staining. Animal well. 20 m. given.

April lith. Only two trypanosomes found per cover-slip preparation. These were
long but sluggish forms. On staining, a decrease in number was evident. 20 m. given.

April Ibth. An evident increase. Trypanosomes more lively. Some involution forms.
20 m. given.

April IQth. Animal well and lively, 20 m. given.

April 18fh. Blood swarming. Forms with broad posterior ends and huge undulating
membranes —probably prior to division — found. Animal fairly well.

April 19fh. Found dead — decomposing.

Foxt-nwrtfm. Bacterial invasion. Spleen enlarged. It may be mentioned here that
these chrysoidine solutions were centrifuged before use.

Exp. 22. Gerbil 12. This animal was treated with the so-called soluble chrysoidine —
chrysoidine extra of the Anilin Manufacturing Company of Berlin, being the same preparation
as employed by Weyl in his pharmacological experiments.

April 15fh. 10 ni. of a saturated solution of soluble chrysoidine given on this the
r)th day after inoculation. Blood swarming.

April Idfh. Blood full of trypanosomes, mostlv broad, sluggish forms. On staining,
forms in process of division and some with huge undulating membranes seen. 15 m. given.

Ajiril llth. Motionless forms present in the blood. Also curious involution types.
Many active parasites seen. 20 m. given.

April 18'//. No change. 20 m. given.

April 19th. A very interesting blood. In fresh films many motionless forms seen
On staining, normal looking trypanosomes were apparent together with many curious
dead forms ; some spherical, some with very blunt posterior ends, and many vacuolated.
Leucocytosis was present, but no phagocytosis was observed. 20 m. given.

April 20th. Much as on the 19th, but the peculiar forms still more abundant. The
animal died in tlie afternoon.

Pust-morfeiH. The tissues generally, and specially the brain, spinal-cord and nerve
trunks were stained yellow. The spleen was slightly enlarged. No redenm or hypertrophieil
glands.

Smeors. The heart's blood contained the remarkable forms above mentioned. These
were also present in the liver smear together with forms very like Leishman-Donovan bodies
and apparently the young i-esistant types described by Lingard. The nuiin rlifterence from

158

TRYPANOSOMIASIS I\ THK ANOLO-EOYI'TIAN SIDAN

Leishiium-nuiiuvaii lnnlics oonsistud in tlu' luicruiiiu-k'Us or hlcpliiirupliist lu-iiig a round dot
and nut a small rod, like a stout bacillus, such us is found in the human parasite.

Exp. 29. Gerbil 17. — Mini 'IQth. Hlood remarkahlf in tliat while it contained both
forms us usual there was a lar^^'e nunilier of curious short forms jjussessin^ numerous dots
of chrumatin scattered throUj^liuut their cytoplasm, spiicrical, vacuolated and granular types
were also present. Some were .so altered that they bore very little resemblance to
trypanosomes. 1 c.c. of a saturated solution of sniulilc chrvsoidine was given subcutaneously.

.!/<(// 'llnl. Animal well. IMood swarming witii both forms of trypanosome. The
parasites were very active. 1 c.c. given as above.

May 2inil. Fresh blood swarming. Many curiously broad forms with large undulating
membranes. No motionless parasites seen. Tlu' trypanosomes ilid not stain well. 1 c.c.
given as above. The animal, which seemeil ijuite well and livelv, unfortunately died during
the night, and was found much decomposed.

The post-mortem examination revealed an enlargeil sjiKi ii and a brain ami spinal-cord
stained a brilliant viiinw. Snicars were negative as regards the presence of trypanosomes.

Jink

7

8

9

ID

11

12

1.1

14

Ih

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

1 00°

^

r

\

^

/

V

r

^

V

\

n

104"

V

(\

\

103"

\

r

V

^

^

^^

102-

_

V

Fig. 74. — Tkmpekatirk Rf.cokii. Moskbv No. 8

Exp. 32. Monkey S. Weight 2 kilos. — June 1th. Six or seven trypanosomes per
field. 1 c.c. soluble chrysoidin by intramuscular injection.

Jutii' 8fh. Many lively trypanosomes, both long and sjuirt. Some vacuolated and
some exhibiting large undulating nieinbraiies. Animal had diarrhoea. A smear of the
fieces showed spirilla somewhat resembling those found in lesions of the stomach and small
intestine. 1 c.c. given as above.

.Utiit 9t/i. Animal lively, no change seen in fresh blood film. In the stained
preparation many long forms in [iroctss of division were seen. JIaiiy of the short forms were
broad with large undulating nicnibranes and contained numerous vacuoles and chromatin
granules. 1 c.c. given as abovi'.

Jiiiif \Olh. Animal lively. Blood in much the same condition. 3 c.c. given. Urine
markedly yellow.

./iini' lll/i. No (hanges noted. 5 c.c. given.

Jiiiif I'ltli. JIany dividing forms in the blooil. Appetite excellent. Urine and faeces
both stained. 5 c.c. given.

Jnni' I3t/i. Jlonkey lively. Degenerating and dead forms present. Apparently only
the short forms aft'ected. Some strangely altered in shape. 10 c.c. given. Blood examined
two hours after this inoculation but no further change observed.

June 14/A. In much the same condition. 10 c.c. given. This dose was continued

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 159

every day thereafter till June 19tli. About June 18th the animal began to show distinct
signs of weakness. Emaciation set in but there was very little somnolence. Towards the
end the trypanosomes increased in number in the peripheral blood. The monkey was found
dead on the morning of June 24th, and slight decomposition had occurred. The temperature
record during treatment is shown. Fig. 74.

Por.t-mortem. The only marked change consisted in an ulcerated area at the lower end
of the ileum. It was not haemorrhagic in nature but there was a good deal of congestion
present. A smear was made but unfortunately was mislaid, and I have no notes of the
condition found. There was no gastric ulceration. The spleen was not enlarged nor was
the liver increased in size or congested. A smear was made of the semi-fluid contents of the
large gut but it shared the fate of the intestinal smear.

As from results obtained with T. Gainhicuse by Dr. Neave it seemed possible that a
better result might be obtained by injecting the dye as a suspension ami in larger (juautities
than hitherto given,

Exp. 46. Monkey 10 (Weight 3 kilos.) was conducted, beginning on the fifteenth day
after inoculation.

October' nth. Blood full of trypanosomes. Both forms present.

Octohi'r 19//i. 2 grains of Merck's chrysoidin given as a suspension by intramuscular
injection.

Octohff 20th. Trine markedly yellow. Colour test with HCl. positive. Blood
swarming. Short forms showed vacuoles and many chromatin granules. 2 grains given.

Ocfolicr 21st. Monkey very weak. Some rosettes of the short forms seen, and certain
of the long forms appeared to be degenerated. 2 grains (if. 13 gram) as above.

October 22nd. Monkey very ill, the head held low and a general aspect of e.xtreme
depression presented. 2 grains given in the morning but the monkey died in the afternoon,
being the 18th day after inoculation.

Pmt-mnrtem. — Spleen enlarged and very much congested. Smears made from this
organ showed a very remarkable state of affairs, in that many of the trypanosomes ha<l
almost completely broken down, nothing being left but the centrosomes, the free edges of the
undulating membranes and the flagella. Curious spherical and faintly stained "shadow"
forms were also present. So were vacuolated forms as well as apparently unaltered
trypanosomes. Sections were prepared for further study.

The liver was enlarged and congested. There was no gastric or intestinal ulceration.
A smear from a congested area of gastric mucous membrane proved negative as regards the
presence of parasites. The brain and spinal-cord were slightly yellow. A smear of the
cerebro-spinal fluid exhibited the presence of unaltered trypanosomes in considerable
numbers. No streptococci were seen.

In the bone-marrow some altered trypanosomes were present. Most of these were the
faintly staining and probably moribund " shadow" forms. They were not numerous. There
is little doubt but that the administration of chrysoidine hastened death in this case, though
whether the dye proved fatal by reason of its own toxic action on the tissues, or on account
of the great destruction of parasites, I cannot as yet say. No convulsions were seen, and it
will be noted that the trypanosomes found in the cerebro-spinal fluid were of normal aspect.
This case served to confirm mv view that the drug was of no value in infection with
T. dimorphiim, but a last trial was made in the following experiment.

Exp. 49. ]\Ionkey 20 (weight 12 kilos) which had been inoculated on November 15th.

160 TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THF. ANOLO-EOVrTI AN SITIAN

Novfiiiliir 'l\Uh. IJotli furiiis |ins('iit an<l nimurous, some undergoing longitudinal
division. Monkey ill aiul eniaciuted. Given 2 grains Merck's ehrysoidin subcutaneously in
suspension.

Sorniihei- W//i. Found in a curious, giddy, sttiporosc condition. Pupils slightly
contracted. The aiiiiiiul kept swaying to and fro and the head was held low. Though dull
and dazed it could be roused to attention.

Blood examined. Some dead and " shadow " forms found. Dividing forms present.
No inarkcil disintegration. .'? grains given as above. Shortly after their ailiniiiistration the
animal <(dlapsed and lay upon its side in the cage. After tlie lapse of an hour as it was
apparently in extremis, chlorofonn was administered.

Post-mortem . — Liver and spleen enlarged and congested. The latter organ had an old
puckered cicatrix running across its anterior surface. Some congestive patches were present
in the stomach, probably of a physiological nature.

Intestines healthy. A small deep purple gliiml was fonml in the mesentery. Hrain,
spinal-cord and nerve trunks were all staineil an intense yellow colour. The cerebro-
spinal fluid was blood-stained but not yellow.

Micrtiscopif e.iiuni nation. — Cerebro-spinal fluid. A fresh prcjiaration showed living
and dead forms of trypanosome. The former were sluggish, or speedily became so.
On staining, dead, altered, and degenerated forms were seen, as well as an unaltered
trypanosomcs.

(ilanti .linear. — As above, and young forms as ilcscribed by Liiigard,* resembling
Leishman-Donovan bodies.

/train .linear. — Some altii'ed anil nianv uualti reil f(inns.

/.leer snwar. — Mostly unchanged forms. Some dead and altered forms.

Sjileen smear. — Not so many trvpanosomes as in the liver smear, but a very large
proportion of the curious spherical and "shadow" forms showing segmented nuclei,
Centrosonies well marked.

Jfear/s hloinl. — Most of the trvpanosomes staine<l well, and were unaltered. A few

changed fnnns were present. Portions of the liver, spleen and brain were kept for .section

work.

Chnsoidinca It will be Seen that in the case of what is probably T. lUmorjihum, a trypanosome

aiureint e i„lii|jttedlv verv resistant to anv of the known modes of treatment, chrvsoidine has proved a

somiasisof failure. In no instance has it prolonged life, while on several occasions, when given in doses

large enough to j)rofoundly aft'ect the parasites, death of the host has resulted. Two forms

have been tested, nine cases in all have been treated, the dye has been given in varying

doses, both in solution and in suspension, and though interesting effects have been observed, it

cannot be said that these have proved of a beneficial nature. Dr. Chauvin of Mauritius

writes me to say that he has tried chrysoidine there in horses suffering from Surra, but with

no success whatever. Whether a eiind)ination of the dye with an arsenical preparation, such

as has been emidoved along with trvpan re(I, would \ield better results, I cannot say.

Time has not admitted of a trial of this nature.

As already mentioned. Dr. NeavefJ had an opportunity of testing chrysoidine on a case of
human trypanosomiasis from Uganda, in the case of the boy Wariga mentioned in his report.

• Iiidinn Med. Oazette, Calcutta, \^;>, Sept. Vol. il., pp. .3.33 et $tq. and 381.
t LniH-et, Londiin, June 13th, 190,1, p, l.f>4.'l.
X For Dr. Nciive's accouut of the case, sec p. 18.").

mules

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN

I have continued his work, and extended the observations to monkeys,
was so encouraging tliat it seemed justifiable to go on with the treatment.

161
Dr. Neave's report

Case of Human Trypanosomiasis

April 29th. Dr. Neave performed gland puncture on the boy who, owing to the
exigencies of travel, had not had a dose for ten days. On examining the gland juice I found
two somewhat altered trypanosoines answering in morphological detail to f. (jamliiense. The
superficial cervical glands along the anterior margin of the sterno-mastoid were enlarged,
though not markedly so, and were somewhat shotty to the touch. The boy was fairly well
nourished, but had rather a sleepy and stupid aspect. An arrangement was made with Case of human
Captain, now JIajor, Dansey Browning, whereby the boy was to be kept at the Military j'^^^^^j'^j
Hospital, and to receive \ grain chrysoidine every second day by intramuscular injection.

On May 5tli. Captain Browning reported that the boy's speech seemed affected. He
was seen on May 6th and examined. He certainly seemed to have some difficulty in
enunciation, his speech being almost of a " staccato " nature, Init we found afterwards that
this was merely a natural defect and due in some measure to his not understanding any
Arabic, in which language he has since made considerable progress. He seemed dull and
heavy, but no tremors were noticed. Neither peripheral blood nor gland juice showed any
trypanosomes. His case was carefully gone into, but it was difficult to take as he was
ignorant of any language with which we were acquainted, and we were ignorant of his
tongue. We were unable to detect any abnormality in the nervous system. Indeed, the
only sign of disease about him was the cervical glandular enlargement.

He was well clothed and well fed, and his dose was increased to ^ grain daily. It
produced no local ill-effects.

Mai/ 25t/i. Gland puncture performed. No trypanosomes found. Boy fat and well.
Has been making himself useful about the hospital. Glandular enlargement as before.

Jii))i> 9t/i. Very well. Blood and gland juice negative. An attempt to make a full
lilood count failed, owing to the atmospheric conditions prevailing.

A differential leucocyte count was conducted with the following result : —

Counted 500

Eosinophiles Polymorphonuclears

Mononuclears

Lymphocj'tes

Transitional

B.isophi!es

Number

133
26-6

84
16-8

101
20-2

175
35

6

1-2

1

Percentage

■2

The high percentage of eosinophiles is notcwui-tliy. It was probably due to intestinal
parasites.* On this day about 1 c.c. of venous blood was taken, eitrated, and inoculated
subcutaneously into Monkey 9 [cidi- in/ru).

Jinii' lStl(. Blood count made.

K.B.C. 3,900,000.

Leucocytes 6,000.

Hb. 70 per cent.

A photograph of the patient taken on this date is shown (Fig. 7r)). Gland juice

• This proved to be the case, as later on the patient was found to harbour a tape-worm.

162 TUYPAN080MIA8I8 IN THE ANOLO-EOYPTIAN SUDAN

negative. Glands still enlarged. No ill-effects fri)iii the clirysoidint' which was continiUMl
in the same doses.

Jiiiii' 'l'•^l•ll. Very well, save for the fact that he had cleveloped condylomata on the
scrotum and roinid the anus. He had again to he put on anti-syphilitic treatment.
Kxamination of peripheral hlood negative.

H e.e. venous blood inoculated subcutancuusly into Monkey 11 ('•''/'■ in/ni).

Jnhr^nl. lilood count. K.R.C. M,HO(l,(IUU.

Jieucocytes 9,(J00.

The treatment was continued till about the middle of .Inly, when Captain Browning
Went 1)11 leave, and the patient was sent to the Civil Hospital to be treated for syphilis. I
retunieil from leave in October, and the boy again cainr under my personal observation.
Chrysoidine had not been given in the interval.

(Moh,;- Mill. Looks well. Weight lltTi lbs. Glands in neik still enlarged. (Jlan.l
juice negative. No trvpannsDiiies idinnl in imr IiIikmI lilni, Imt a [v\\ were present in a
second.

()r/,i/»'r 20///. (liven h grain Merck's chrysoidine in suspension. This was lontinued
ilaily diiwn to October Hist, when it was stopped because albumin was found in the urine
wliidi iiad become of an intense orange-yellow colour. No casts were present. |)nring the
interval trypanosomes were not found, but owing to press of other work the lunnber of
examinations was limited.

<>rloli<-r 81.\7. After a long seanli one tryiianosome was finnid in a blood film. It
presented a normal a|ipraranee. Clirvsoiiline stop|icil as albumin ratiur copicjus. I'p to date
(December ISth) the drug has not been resnmeil.

.Viirriii/iiT -il/i. It was noticed to-day that the glands above and behind tlu' jaw angles
iiad income enlarge(l. this constituting a new symptom. The boy seemed well and continued
so till NoveiiiliiT ]")th, when an attark of diarrliiea pullcil liini down to sonic extent. No
trvpanosoines had lni n loiind in his blood and the albumin was gradually disappearing from
his urine. Its colour also gradiuiUv lessened in intensity. No casts were foninl at any time.

.\nr>'iii/H'r 1-illi. I)iarrh(ea checked. Weight 1(12 lbs.

Xnninhir -l^^lli. Weight Idti lbs. Boy looks W(dl and is fatter. No trypano.somes
found in ju'ripheral blood.

Nori iiilicr 'I'U/i. To-ilav the patient had fever and a headache. On examination of his
blood, ring forms of the malaria parasite, appanntly ijuartan from their shape ami structure,
were found. No trvpanosomes were present. 10 grains of c[ninine sulphate were given.
The malaria was probably a recrudescence of .an old attack.

\i>ri-iiilifr 'liMli. Temperature flflS" F. 10 grains quinine given.

Niimii/ii-r 'Ill/i. Temperature normal. JIuch better. Irine now quite free from
albunun, Idooil free from parasites.

Xoii'inbfr 80//(. Gland puncture negative. Boy looks fat and well.

IJi'ct'Hi/ier iKt. A single trypanosonic found in one film. A second film proved negative.

/>eri'iii/iiT V}f/i. A distinct increase in size of the glands bchiml the ascending rannis of
the left jaw noted ; otherwise the patient seemed well and lively.

Ihci'iiiln'i- \lili. Weight lOf)^ lbs. No trypanosomes found nor had they been present
since December 1st. (Jlamls still big. The case is still under observation, and I do not
think we can form any conclusion from it, though I have recorded it at some length.
Dr. Neave seems certainly to have found that a rapiil and marked decrease of

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 163

trypanosomes and a general improvement in healtli followed the exhibition of ehrysoidine,
and his observations were confirmed by Dr. Baker. I have observed that the dye does
seem to cause a disappearance of the parasites both from the peripheral blood and the gland
juice, but then the patient has been removed from a trypanosome area and the chance of

Fig. 76. — Uganukse Buy " Warig.-i "
(Photographed at Khartoum during treatment)

of further infection, has been well-fed and wtdl-clothed and has been carefully treated for
syphilis. Further, human trypanosomiasis in its early stages is, as a rule, a very chronic
affair and the parasites appear and disappear of their own accord in the peripheral blood.
I feel that I cannot commit myself to any opinion so far, though I have also a
monkey experiment as a control. It would seem that ehrysoidine is distinctly irritating to
the kidneys and has to be used with caution.

164 TKYPANOSOMIAfilS IN THE ANQLO-EOYI'TIAN SUDAN

Fi'hruiin/ I'lth, 1906. TrypiiuosoUK'S weri' uguiii iuuiid in the glunds and begun to increase
in number in the peripheral blood. Chrysoidine has, therefore, been started once more. It
is being given by the niontli in tlu' same doses. The boy's general condition is excellent. If
marked improvi'ineiit dues not result it is proposed to exhibit arsenie and trypan red possibly
combined with atuxyl.
Inoculation Monkey 9. (Cercapithecnx mhceitx). Weight 31 kilos.

rxperinirnis " . .

with .Iitue 9tli. Inoculated with 1 c.c. venous and citrated blood from above case.

.'■"" '">«• fpj^^ blood was examined with negative results down to June 14tli, when the temperature

of the animal was found to be high.

June 15//(. Found dead. Poxt -mortem. Pulmonary congestion, and an acute
pleurisy were found. There was no evidence of trypanosome infection. Bacterial invasion
had occurred.

Monkey 11. Weiglit -l-l kilos. Tciup. HI4-4 ' ¥. at midday.

Jiiiii' '2'iiril. Blood examined and foun<l free of any para.site infection. Inoculated fiuni
case of Wariga with 8 c.c. venous and citrated blood given subcntaneously.

./nil/ 1th. Trypanosomes found for the first time. Afternoon temperature 108-3" F.
In the interval the temperature (rectal) had ranged from 1U31 ' to lOoP F. There were
not many parasites present, but on August 17th an increase in their nnmber was noted by
Captain Ensor and Mr. Friedrichs, who were making observations in my absence.

Sfpteiiilter 5t/i. No trypanosomes were found by Mr. Friedrichs after a long search.

Si-ptt'inliiT 30/A. One trypanosome was found after a long search. My next note was
made on

Ortotiev 18///, wluii I found trypanosomes present and, as a control, inoculated Monkey
18 with ■5 c.c. blood. It may be stated here that this monkey's blood, when examined on
November '28th, showed a few trypanosomes. None had been present twenty days previously.

OrtoliiT 19//(. Tnatiuent with chrysoidine begun on Monkey 11. C4iven I grain (•0(!48
gram), Merck's product in 1 c.c. sterile distilled water. Weight, '1 kilos.

(Ictohi'r 20t/i. Urine yellow. A few trypanosomes present, (i or 7 in tlic staincil film
No change apparent in them. 1 grain given.

Ortobfi- 21x1. Animal did not get a full do.se. About 4/5ths of a grain given.
Trypanosomes appeared to be slightly less numerous. (Plate XIV.. Fig. I>).

(h-tofifr 22)1(1. A distinct diminution in the nnmber of trypanosomes. Only two were
found in the film after an exhaustive search. They were ap])arently muliangeil. 1 grain
given.

thloh)-r2^ril. No trypanosomes foiuul after prolonged search. 1 grain given.

Orloln'i- 2-it/i. Several trypanosomes fonmi in lilin. 1 grain given.

tirttilii'r 2^illi. Moidvi-y appears to be git ting soincwliat thinner. lilood showed a few
trvi)anosomes present which seeme<l to take the stain fe<-bly. 1") grain given.

<htoIii^2iSlh. As above. Aninnil lively, l'") grain given.

Ortolirr 27'//. One unaltered trypanosome found after a long search. l'/) grain giv6n.

Oc.lohi-r 28'//. One film showed no parasites. In a second, one trypanosome was foinid.
\'^> grain given.

( Ir/olirr 29///. One trypanosome fomid in film. TT) grain given.

I h-tii1ii>r 30///. A drop of blood which exuileil from the needle |)uneture ami was mixed
with chrysoidine was examined. The nd rorpnsc les were found to be disintegrated. No
parasites were seen. I'G grain given.

TEYPANOSOiUIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYI'TIAN SUDAN 165

October 3Ly^. A large tiliu carefully exumiiied. Nu trypauosoiues fuuiiil. 1'5 graiu
given.

Xoveinher Isl. Weight, 2 kilos (uo loss). 1"5 graiu giveu.

Novemher 2nd. Blood examination negative. Animal well aud lively. 15 grain
giveu.

November Srd to 5tli as above. Chrysoidiue then stopped.

Novembei i5th. Blood negative.

Nomiiber 1th. One trypanosoiue fuuud iu film.

Xovemhev '6th. Blood negative. Urine examined aud uu albumin found. 15 grain
given.

Noneiidier 9lh. No dose given.

November lOth to 13th. 1'5 grain daily. No trypauosumes fuuud. Myelocytes noted
for the first time. Monkey well and strong.

November lifh to 18//i. Same dose given daily. Occasionally oue trypauusume found
per film. Weight on November 18th, 1'9 kilos.

November IQth. Two grains given.

November 20th. Two grains given. Blood negative.

November 'il.s-^ Two grains given. Blood negative. Animal well.

November 22nd. Two grains daily. One trypanosome found per film on "i'iud and
'24th. At this stage considerable auiemia of the mucous membrane, as evidenced by pallor
of gums and palate, was noticed. There was some oedema of scrotum and sheath.

November 25th. Two grains given. Blood not examined.

November 26tli. No dose given, ffidema of scrotum marked. Weight, 19 kilos.

November 21th. There was apparently some slight septic infection of the foot following
the needle puncture made to secure blood for examination. The mid-day temperature,
however, was only 102'8° F. No dose. No albumin in the urine.

November 2Sth. No note.

November 29th. Monkey better. Blood negative after exhaustive search. No dose
giveu.

November '30th. One trypanosome found in film. No dose given.

December 2nd. One dividing form found in the blood. A slight necrotic patch
apparent at the common seat of inoculation. Though the animal was well and lively, despite
the local sore, it was thought better not to resume treatment. The blood was not again
examined till December 20th, when it was found that a distinct increase of trypanosomes had
taken place. Four were found in a film after a very brief examination. The monkey looked
well, and the wound which had suppurated slightly had nearly healed.

The animal remains under observation, but I think that, taken iu conjunction with
Wariga's case, the results are of such a nature that chrysoidiue might be given an extensive
and thorough trial in places where human trypanosomiasis is prevalent. It seems to cause a
lessening in the number of the parasites present in the peripheral blood, and the general
condition possibly improves under its use. Its tendency to bring on albuminuria is a
disadvantage. I admit, however, that no definite conclusions can be drawn from
these two cases in man and monkey. Trypanosomiasis due to 7\ ijambiense is generally
a very chronic disease, and the action of chrysoidine would have to be observed over long
periods, and in a large number of cases at different stages of the disease and under varying

166

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN

The blood-
serum of big
game as a
mctho<l uf
trentmeni

c-uiulitiuiis. 'I'lic tcinpcnif lire of tlic iiionkfV, wliicli was taken daily, appeared to bear no
reference to the miinber of trypimosomes present in the periplieral circuhition.

TisKATMKNT WITH Bi.ooD Skuum. — Dr. Sheftield Neiive un arrival at Khartoum
infonneil nie that he was anxious to test the thc-rapeiitic efl'eet of the hluod-seruMi of wild
animals from trypauosome iiifeeted districts on experimental animals inoculated with
trypanosomiasis. He liad prepared a special apparatus for collecting blood and permission
was obtained from H.E. The Governor General to shoot some of the more common buck for
till' purpose of obtaining their blood serum.

It was not long before Dr. Neavc sent lue a sample uf Liluuil serum from a water-buck
(Cofiii.1 tle/asxa), free of trypanosomes, shot on January 27th. The serum arrived in good
condition, a small quantity of carbolic acid having been added to it as a preservative.

I proceeded to test it in vitro and found that added in ei|ual quantities to eitrated blood
containing the trypanosomes of mules, it caused agglutination in the form of irregular
rosettes, the motility of the trypanosomes making up the rosettes remaining. After 30
minutes there was marked agglutination. Disintegration and death of the parasites also
occurred. 1 was unable to employ the serum until JIarch IHth when it was used in

Exp. lU. Jlonkey 3. Marcli ISl/i. Animal very ill. Blood swarming with trypan-
osomes. 1 c.c. blood serum injected subcutaneously.

Miin-li 18</t. Monkey suffering from s|}iisti<ity and trniiurs, Collapsed. Reflexes
increased.

Eyes fixed, no strabismus or face twitching. Hamstrings retracted. Jjluud showed
conjugating '. (possibly dividing) and agglutinating forms, the agglutination masses being
small. 2 c.c. serum given. The trypanosomes thereafter underwent disintegration. In
many cases, on staining, nothing was to be seen except the centrosomes with flagella
attached. Involution forms were also present. Two hours thereafter there was a general
increase of the spasms and the animal was chloroformed.

The post-mortem findings have already been detailed to some extent (p. 137/ In
smears made from the splenic pulp strangely altered forms were found, some, probably young
resistant forms, approaching very closely to the Leishman bodies in appearance, but the short
chromatin rods were not found in any of them. Some were clearly dead or degenerated forms.

Exp. 14. Gerbil 2. .Unrch 20l/i. Blood swarming. Animal wuiiderfully healthy in
appearance. Weight 29 grains.

5 minims serum of water-buck injected subcutaneously.

Miinh 21SI. 5 111. given. Slight agglutination noted.

.\fnrch 22iitl. 5 111. given. Both fcjrius present. Sluggish. Many soon became
motionless. After the inoculation a ninarkable agglutination and breaking down of
trypanosomes occurred.

.)fiirc/t 2'^ril. Gerbil looked thinner. Not so well. In fresh film many motionless
forms found. Disintegrated forms not so marked in stained specimen. 10 m. given.

March 23;v/. Found dead. In the heart's blood curious spherical forms, some showing
marked vacuolation, were found. The same were present in smears from the liver.

Exp. 17. Monkey 4. April ith. Blood full of trypanosomes. Both forms well
marked.

April 5tfi. 1 c.c. serum of water-buck injected subcutaneously.

April 6lh. 15 c.c. given. No change in blood.

April 1th. 2 c.c. given.

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 167

April Sth. A lessening in tlie number of trypanosomes noted. Mostly short forms
present, which were sluggish. On staining, these were found to show many granules, and
to possess vacuoles. 2'5 c.c. given.

April 2th. Not a single trypanosome found, either in fresh or stained preparations.
2'5 c.c. given.

April lOt/i. Monkey well. Shows no sign of the disease. A few trypanosomes found.

April llf.h. Condition much the same. Three distinct forms observed, (a) Typical
long forms. {l>) Typical short forms. (o) Intermediate forms with rather short flagella.
A few involution forms, some with swollen posterior ends. 3 c.c. given. The long forms,
some of which were in process of division, all appeared to be of the same kind as regards
general shape, length of flagella and size of eentrosomes and nuclei. There was nothing to
lead one to suppose that male sexual forms were present in the blood. The intermediate
forms (c) were probably merely some of the usual short forms in which the flagella were more
developed than is customary. None of the short forms were dividing, and in no case was the
flagellum of any great length.

Ajiril 12th. No change. 4 c.c. given. 2 c.c. in morning, 2 c.c. in afternoon.

April ISl/i. No change. 4 c.c. given.

April lifh. Only 3 c.c. given in one dose to-day.

Apiril 15th. 5 or 6 lively trypanosomes per field. Appearance as of " tadpole " forms.
4 c.c. given in two doses.

April li\tlt. No change. Mostly long forms in blood. 6 c.c. given in two doses.

April nth. In fresh film one sluggish long form found after a long search. In stained
preparation some short forms evident. Most seen three per field. G c.c. given.

April 18th. Much as above but more numerous, there being as many as 12 in one field.
(Leitz, Oc. 4, oil imm., iVth.)

April 12ih. No change. No increase. Vacuoles very apparent. 8 c.c. given
in two doses.

April 20fh. In fresh film no parasites found after a long search. In stained
preparation a few unaltered forms found after a considerable hunt for them. Animal well.
Weight 2 "6 kilos, being a gain of '2 of a kilo from commencement of experiment.
8 c.c. given.

April 2lst. A single morning dose of 6 c.c. given.

April '22ml. No change. 10 c.c. given, in two doses.

Ap>ril 2?>ril. Trypanosomes as numerous as ever. 10 c.c. given.

April 21th. Trypanosomes apparently ■ increasing in number. 12 c.c. given. The

serum, which had acquired a peculiar odour, had probably undergone some change, and

-» become inert. Treatment was accordingly discontinued. Thereafter a steady increase took

place in the number of parasites, and the monkey began to lose weight (2 kilos on 29th) and

go down-hill.

Mill/ 1st. Found dead. Bacterial invasion. An ulcer was found in the cfficum. No
erosion of stomach. Liver and spleen not markedly congested. Mesenteric glands
enlarged.

Smears from spleen, liver, lung, bone-marrow, and glands negative, owing to bacterial
invasion.

Exp. 18. Gerbil 11. March 29th. Both forms present and numerous. 10 m. given
subcutaneously.

168 TUYl-ANOSOMlAslS IN THK ANOLO-KGYPTIAN HIDAN

Miirr/i .'Ul/Zi. Trypiiiiosomcs more numerous. Long typical forms, tliiek intermediate
forms, without flugellii ami blunt, or somewhat pointed at posterior ends, and tiny short forms
seen. 'I'lic distinctions were well marked. 15 m. given.

Mtirc/i 3lsr. l.*) m. given. No change.

April l.it. 20 m. given. No change.

Ajiril 'Inil. "iU m. given. Animal very ill.

A/trll SnI. Fouiiij ilciiil. Altliipiij^li 11(1 iibscess formiitiiin IlhI (niiuiiil. fiDin tlic
state of the tissues round tlic site of inoeuhition I am inclined to think this animal may
liave died of sepsis. The post-mortem results have been reporti'd. Nothing was found save
a bacterial invasion of the tissues.

Exp. 25. Monkey 6. Weight 13 kilos.

.Vai/ 5tli. Trypanosomes numerous, 2U or 'W per field. Both forms present. Long
forms in process of division.

.)/(((/ (U/i. On this date, being the thirtccntli diiv after inoculation, 7 c.c. of blood
serum nf water-buck of date January 27th, 1905, wen- injected subciitaneously. lilooil taken
5 hours after inoculation. Fresh blood swarming with very active parasites. Animal's
condition unchanged. On staining, it was found that, wliile the majority of the trypanosomes
Were unclianged, some hail completely broken down, their centrosomes, free edges of tlie
undulating membranes and llagella alone persisting. .Many curious forms, some with huge
undulating membranes were seen. Vacuolated and ■ sliadow " forms present. Short forms
chiefly art'eeted.

Mill/ "till. JMood exaniiiU'(l <luriiig the afternoon. Nearly every trypaiiosome much
vacuolated. Not so many curious degenerated (?) or involution fnrnis present but a
greater number of trypanosomes affected to some extent. No change in general condition of
monkey. Given 10 c.c. blood serum at 4.15. Blood taken at 5.5 p.m. No change.

AjirilBf/i. Fresh lilm showed living and active tryj)auosomes of both forms. Long
forms do not now appear to be affected. r2'5 c.c. given. Blood examined 4i hours after
inoculation. Extreme vacuolation of short forms noticed. Some of the [parasites seemed
almost to consist of vacuoles united by thin strands of cytoplasm. Many greatly
degenerated forms (Plate XIV., Fig. '/).

Afdif 9th. Blood in much the same condition. Some lo.ss in differential staining as
regards the parasites. About 19 c.c. given in four separate doses. After half an hour the
monkey was evidently suffering from giddiness. It ap))eared to be ill. and made strange,
aindess efforts to climb up the side of its cage. Some tremors were ob-served, together
with a transient rigidity of the hind legs. No twitching of face or fixity of gaze. The
unimul several times fell over on its si<Ie but (juickly recovered itscdf. This condition of
affairs lasteil for 1^ hours. Thereafter recovery took place and the monkey took food
freely. The blood examined during the attack and also 4i hours after the inoculation
showed no change in the state of the trypanosomes. The attack was probably due
to the large amount of fluid which was given causing a disturbance in the semi-circular
canals.

Mii;i [(Uh. Small rosettes of trypanosomes found, many resembling the I^Ianx Coat-of-
Arms. Dividing forms present. On staining, degenerate or dead forms were seen. The
monkey was better and took its food well, but was somewhat somnolent, ami kept its head
down as if depressed.

Mat/ lllli. Serum treatment stopped. From this time the monkey rapidly went down-

TRYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANULO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 169

hill. Degenerating forms disappeared in large measure from the blood, and normal
trypanosomes increased.

May lAth. The monkey was found dead in the morning.

Post-morte)n. Stomach. Congested areas found near the pylorus with blood clots
covering them. These probably indicated a commencing erosion. Ulceration, blood-clots,
and general congestion found in connection with sis Peyer's patches. In a scraping from
one of these ulcerated areas lively spirilla were seen.

No ceecal ulceration or erosion of large intestine. No enlargement of mesenteric glands.

Spleen. Moderately enlarged, firm but congested.

Liver. Only slightly enlarged.

Hearts Blood. A few sluggish trypanosomes. Dead, motionless forms present.

Bone-Marrow. Red, not very diffluent.

Brain. Supra-cortical haemorrhage over and rouml about the right Sylvian fissure.
The condition was curious, like a thin sheet of blood spread out over the convolutions.

Smeara. Heart's blooil. Myelocytes, a few normoblasts and a few much altered
trypanosomes.

Spleen. A few young forms — as described by Lingard — found. Bacterial invasion.

Liver. Normal trypanosomes present. Marked phagocytic action of the polymorpho-
nuclear leucocytes. Frequently two trypanosomes engnlphed in a white corpuscle were seen
Macrophages present.

Brain-clot. Spherical forms of trypanosome noted. Also curiously altered and
vacuolated types.

Bone-marrow . Bacterial invasion. No trypanosomes seen.

Intestinal ulcer. No spirilla or trypanosomes found in the stained preparation.

Stomach I'lot. Negative.

Exp. 28. Gerbil 16. April 20th. Slight infection on this, the tenth day after
inoculation. Given 1 c.c. serum of water-buck of date January 27th, 1905, by subcutaneous
inoculation at 4 p.m. About 5.10 p.m. the animal was found to be in violent convulsions,
lying on its side and kicking vigorously. The cardiac action was rapiil. Blood was taken
from the tail at 5.30 p.m. Some rounded forms of trypanosome were seen. Chloroform was
administered at 6 p.m., and a post-mortem performed immediately.

Spleen and kidneys much enlarged. Liver not enlarged, but soft in consistence like
the spleen. No ulceration or congestion of stomach.

Smears. Heart's hlooJ. Ordinary and degenerating and broken-down forms. Changes
not extensive.

Spleen, liver and bone-marrow negative. In kidney smear, ordinary unaltered forms
were found. Death probably the result of over-dose and intoxication.

The study of such a work as that of Nuttall on Blood Immunity and Relationship,
demonstrates how numerous and how complicated are the problems which arise when one
conducts serum experiments.

Questions relating to haemolysins, agglutinins and precipitins present themselves. True,
these may have no direct bearing on the action of sera on blood parasites, but they have to
be considered in relation to the effects produced which may possibly modify such action.
Perhaps some of the symptoms noted were due to intoxication, the result of overdosage wliich
is always apt to occur. There seems little doubt but that the serum profoundly afiFected the
trypanosomes, but here again the number of cases was very limited, and no conclusions can

170

TUYPANOBOMIASIS IN Till'. ANOLO-EG YI'TIAN SUDAN

be ilniwii. Tlu' dilliciiltv is to liiul tiiiio whuiviii tu luiidiRl .sullicii'iit i-xperiiiR'iit.s. Oiif is
often iiiti-riupteil by work coining in which iluiniimls immuiliiite attention, imd there is no one
lit present to whom sndi wmk ciiii be passed.

A eonple of iiiiniiiiiising e.xperiiiH'nts were tried. In one the uniinul, ii gerbil, died ; in
the other ii jerboii received lU in. of serum tor two (hiys, and tlieii '2U m. every (hiy for eight
days, after wliich it was inoeuhited from Monkey 5. After an incubation period of two (hiys
trvpanosoines appeared, ami the disease ran its iisuiii cour.-^e wliolly iiiiimidifieil by tlie
previous inocuhitions.

NoTKS (i.N rili: r.\ riKlLOGICAI. .\nATuMV ()!■ 'I'kVI'.\NiiSiiMI.\SI.S.

Until lialdwiii* in l!tU4 directed his attention to tiiis matter in the ea.se of experimental
Nagana it had rect'ived but little attention. Work by Mott.f Warrington| and Low,^
lias been carried out un the coiKJitioii uf tiic brain and cerebro-spiiial Huid.ll Ijavcraii
and Mesnil deal with the gross appearances in Nagana, Siiira. ."\Ial-(lr-( 'adcnis, ami tin
human disease, and the observers of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine have
collected iiuudi material, but, so far as I know, Baldwin's remains the most important and
coiuidete work out he subject. Since this was written I have seen Mi muir XVI. f of the
J.iiverpool School of Trojiical Jledicine, which deals very fully witii the pathology of
trypanosomiasis, and is well illustrated.

As opportunitv ofl'ered I have studied tiie microscopic changes induced in several of tlie
organs by the trypanosomes of cattle ami of mules respectively, and a few notes on these
observations, which are bv no means exhaustive, may lie of intinst. 'Die sections of live r.
spleen, lung, tlivmiis, brain, i\ nipli-Lilands, gastric hiucdus iiiriiilnaiii', and conna have been
for the most part stained by the hieiiiotoxyliii and cosini' metliud. The cornea sections have
also been coloured by the Gieinsa process. There has not been time to carry out staining
by Leishman's new method though it has been tried in one or two instances.

In the cast' of Ox 4 tin- f(jli(iwing iiarticiilurs were iiottMl.

/,/■(■/•/•. Theri' was a slight degree of cloudy swelling resulting in a loss of outline of
some of the liver cells. These in some instances contained masses of golden-brown pigment
which was also present, and to a greater extent, in the endothelial cells. There was marked
congestion of the vitKn rnjiilhiria.

Splet'ii. This presented a very acute congestion of the capillary spaces in the pulp.

The trabecnhe had undergone hypertrophy as had the Jlalpighiaii corpuscles. Some
golden-brown pigment was present in some of the Malpighian bodies, but it was chieHy found
in the pulp.

Liiiitj. Congested. A cellular exudation, chiefly lymphocytic, had taken place into
many of the <ilreoll. Others contained a stringy or granular exudate. Certain of the ulveuli
were much compressed and in some the walls were in contact.

Liiiii/>/i-;ihiiii/. An enormous increase of lymiiliiMytcs was noted. Many young blood
vessels were present. Large round cells like those met with in thi' mesenteric glamls in
cases of enteric fever, and containing fat droplets and sometimes two nuclei, were observed.

* Journ. of Infect. Dioeasex. ChicaKo; Vol. IV., pp. 544-550.
t Brit. Med. .loiirn. Vol. II., p. 1,6GG. 1S99.
; Brit. Med. ,I(,iim. Vol, II,, p. 029, iyo'2.
§ Low and Mott. Brit. Med. Journ. Vol. I., p. 1,000. 1904.
I Mott. Brit. Med. ,Iourn. Vol. II., p. l,.')r>4. 1904.
^ Thonuu and Brienl. Memoir XVI, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, 1905.

TBYPANOSOMIASIS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN 171

111 tile sinuses large moiionucleated cells containing golden-brown (iron-containing?) pigment
were present. Pigment was also seen in the endothelial cells of the capillaries.

There was a general and marked hyperplasia of the stroma.

Stomach ulcer. This section merely showed a destruction of the epithelial layer, the
erosion extending to the submucosa which had undergone a bacterial invasion and the vessels
of which were congested. The specimen was stained by the Leishnian method but no
trypanosomes could be discerned.

Brain. This was not stained by any special method and did not present any pathological
appearance as far as could be told. I did not find any infiltration of leucocytes round the
blood-vessels.

In the case of the trypanosomiasis of mules, the organs and tissues of experimental
animals such as the dog and monkey were examined.

Liver. Much the same conditions were seen as existed in the liver of the ox, but there
was an entire absence of pigment, at least, in the case of Monkey 21 which died on the
sixteenth day after inoculation. There was slight fatty degeneration. Congestion was most
marked in the sub-capsular region.

Spleen. Extreme congestion of the splenic pulp together with an increase of connective
tissue in the Malpighian bodies constituted the most marked changes. Large mononucleated
cells containing fat droplets were seen in the splenic sinuses and there was a general
hyperplasia of stroma.

'Iliynuis. Examined in the case of Dog 3 and showed a simple hyperplasia of the
lymphoid tissue. The stroma was not much increased.

S/oinach ulcer. There was considerable erosion affecting the basement membrane.
Tiirombosis was present and some obliterative endarteritis. In a cross-section of one of
the pyloric glands I noticed a tiny cyst? containing oval nucleated bodies which stained
quite differently from the surrounding tissue. They had taken on the eosin stain strongly,
and their rounded nuclei were deep purple. They somewhat resembled the encysted
merozoites of some sporozoan but were difficult to examine properly, some being on a
different plane from the rest of the section.

Lymph-<jhmd. The condition was precisely similar to that found in the lymph gland of
the ox with the exception that pigment was absent.

Brain. No small cell infiltration of the perivascular spaces.

Cornea. The opaque cornea of Dog 4 was sectioned and examined. Swelling and Corneal
erosion of the epithelial cells was found together with an infiltration of leucocytes into the '^''^"S^s
inter-lamellar spaces. As a result the lamellas in some parts had become more widely
separated. In addition a pigment deposit was found confined to the more superficial
inter-lamellar spaces, but stretching right across the cornea. It was less marked at the centre
than elsewhere.

As Baldwin and others have pointed out these changes are evidently the result of an
intoxication and probably due to the action of a specific toxine generated by the trypanosomes.

Conclusions.

1. Trypanosomiasis in cattle in the Sudan is due to T. uanum, a small trypanosome of
distinct type which is probably, but not certainly, peculiar to bovines. It produces a disease
which runs a chronic course and may prove fatal. On the other hand, spontaneous recovery
may result, especially if the affected animal be removed from the infected area and be well

172

TIIYI'ANOKOMIASIS IN THE ANlil.O F.dYlTIAN SIDAS

Genpral

conclusions

and

suf!f:cstions

rcf;ardini;

lry|>ano-

somi;isis

fell. 'I'lu' I'liK of !i i-ow wliii'li liiiil thus refovci'fil iliil not aci|uiri' tin- ilisi'iisi- on being
inoculiitcd witli blood from tlu' cow, iiftcr rrcovcry of tliu liittcT. So far it litis not been
fouiiil possible to rc-|iniiliiic tlie disease (■Xjitriiiiriitaliy.

■J. Trypunosoniiasis in mules in the Sudan is uhieHy dui- to a trypanosome whieh one
has not been able to distinguish from, ami whieh is probably identieal with, 7'. iliiiiDrfi/iiiin,
of Seiiegambia. The disease prodiieecl by this parasite is invariably aeute and fatal, is
uceompanied by iliaracteristie symptoms and hads to widl-marked pathological changes.
Inoculated into dogs, monki'ys (rrn-u/iil/ifnt/i), rats, gerbils and jerboas, the parasite rapidly
multiplies, producing an aeute and fatal disorder. Death also results in the case of rabbits
and goats, but tlie disease runs a much more chronic course. Successive ami prolonged
passage through animals markeilly heiglitcns tin; virulciur nt' tliis trypanosome, more
severe infections occurring and death resulting witli inurii greater rapidity. A solitary
expi'rimeut seems to show that cattle are immune.

Mules also harbour another trypanosome closely resembling T. iianum. Owing to lack
of material tliis trypanosome has not been fully studied, but mules alTected with it may
apparently recover when placed under favourable conilitions.

The trypanosome of donkeys is possibly dit^erent to any of the foregoing, but material
has not been available for its study. The specimens observed suggested '/'. lirucfi.

3. Tsetse flies are the chief, and j)r()bably the oidy, carriers of these trypanosomes.
Diseased animals have chiefly come from districts where the tsetse {G. morsituuii) has been
found to exist. Some have come from a region which it is probable that G. /^nDf^ii/irmiin
inhabits. Stomoxys flies appear to play no part in the distribution of the disease.

4. Ulceration of the gastrie and intestinal iiiueosais commonly found in animals dead of
trypanosomiasis. It is often liieniorrhagic in nature, and is in all [)robability due to the
action of a toxine. It mav indicate an efl'ort on the part of the i)arasite to leave its host.

5. The occasional occurrence of spirilla in these hicmorrhagic lesions is of interest, but
their true significance has not yet been determined. In all probability they bear no
relation to the disease.

6. Chrysoidine has failed as a theraiieutic agent in infection due to the trypanosome of
mules. Its use has been attended with mon? hopeful results in the disease produced by
7'. ijamhienxe, and it appears to merit a more extensive trial, with or without arsenic, in this
latter condition, but it must be given with caution owing to its ten<lency to irritate the kidneys.

7. The blood serum of unafl'ected animals from a trypanosome infected area ajjpears to
produce a profound effect on the trypanosomes of mules in experimental animals, but the
subject is very complicated, and the number of cases observed has been limited. It is
probable, however, that the most satisfactory results in treatment will be obtained by
experiments with serum, which either naturally contains a trypan()somiei<le or is induced to
manufacture such an anti-body. The use of the sera of cattle which have recovered from
infection by 7'. vatunn is indicated. The recent work of Schilling* and the results obtained
by Klein and Midlers f in this direction are more encouraging, though Laveran's f warning
regarding latency and danger of infection has to be borne in mind. Klein's § recent state-
ment regarding a new prophylactic for plague, prepared from the dried organs of animals

• Zeiterlir. f. Hy^., Vol. IJI., 1905, pp. 149-160.

t Ibid. Vol. Lli., 190G, i.p. 229-237.

X Assoc. Scicnfif. Intcrnat. Il'.Xpronomie Coloniale, Paris, 1906.

% Brit. Med. Journ. nud Luucct, Jau. 20. 1906.

EOUTINB WOEK 173

dead of that disease, has suggested that experimental work on similar lines might be tried in
the case of trypanosomiasis. In several particulars the two diseases are far from dissimilar.
Each exhibits a blood and glandular infection by a living organism, in each toxines are
produced, and there are other points of resemblance which need not be cited here. It is,
therefore, proposed to make some investigations in this direction. Preliminary experiments,
however, have not yielded any good results, and Herzog has rather upset the prevalent ideas
regarding the precise nature of plague (Journ. Trop. Med., 15th Feb., 1906). While dealing
with this subject I may say that I intend to test the value of the Malay fish poison
Dcrris dliptica as a therapeutic agent in trypanosomiasis. Daniels states that it is very
inimical to all low forms of life, while at the same it appears to be comparatively harmless
to man. It is therefore just possible that it might prove useful.

Preventive methods on the lines indicated by Todd * and others will be required to
check the spread of Sleeping Sickness from the Congo Free State.

Routine Work

This has varied very much in amount. At times it bulked so largely that it was difficult
to cope with it properly ; at other times considerable intervals would elapse during which
very little had to be done.

The number and nature of the examinations performed, and concerning whicli reports
were furnished, are herewith detailed. The period covered is one of fifteen montlis.

A. Morbid secretions and e.xcretions 30

B. Blood examinations ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 197

C. Bacteriological apart from (A.) ... ... ... ,31

D. Parasites apart from (A.) and (B.) ... ... 10

E. New growths .. . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7

P. Other pathological conditions ... ... 11

G. Plant diseases 12

The above figures do not by any means indicate all the cases which have come under
notice. In a considerable number, especially of the blood examinations, a verbal opinion has
been given, and these are not included. In several directions the value of having a central
place where examinations can be made has been shown, as in the case of glanders and
strangles in horses, in several cases of diphtheria, in malaria, and in suspected cases of
hydrophobia.

Some notes on the cases listed may be given with advantage. Taking first infectious Smaiipox
disease, the accompanying photographs (Figs. 76 and 76 a) of a case of small-pox which came
under my care as Medical Officer of Health, exhiljit very well the appearance and distribution
uf the pustules. Their confluent condition is well shown upon the face. This case
contrasts admirably with the accompanying photographs (Figs. 77 and 78) of chickeu-po.x and
an ecthymatous secondary syphilitic rash. All these were taken by Mr. Newlovc. The
cases were under the care of Mr. Waterfield, and I am much indebted to him for his kind
permission to photograph them and reproduce the prints. The case of small-pox has a
further interest in that I made an effort to obtain from the pustules the protozoon discovered
and described by De Korte.f I found some amceba-like forms characterised by the possession
of the highly-refractile, greenish particles (spores f ) which he mentions. My efforts at
staining, however, were not satisfactory, and I was unable to carry my observations to any

* Lancet, London, July 7th, 1906.

t Brit. Med. Journ. London, Nov. 11, 1904, also Lancet, London, Dec. 24, 1904.

EOUTINE WOEK

175

definite conclusion. The examination was difficult owing to the vast number of leucocytes
of different kinds present in the variolous matter. It was not easy to distinguish the
amceba-like forms from some of these cells " ,, . .

Hydrophobia

Kabies has occurred in Khartoum, and there has been one case of human hydrophobia.
The value of keeping and watching any animals bitten by a rabid dog was demonstrated

Fig. 77.— Woman with Chicken Pox
Note the tribal marks on the arms

when a rabbit, inoculated with an emulsion made from the medulla of the rabid dog, died,
apparently of latent rabies, just before it might have been expected to show symptoms^' The
test thus failed, but two lutten dogs which had been preserved alive developed typical
symptoms, and so put the diagnosis beyond doubt.

Several cases of diphtheria came under notice. The Klebs-Lr,ffler l.icillus was found Diphtheria

176 ROUTINE WOUK

together witli streptococci. The disease was of a very severe type and proved fatal in every
instance. Its incidence was limited to native infants and young children.

Till' Widal test has had to be doiie in ;i fi w instances. As previously stated enteric
fever is at present a rare disease in Khartoum, despite the fact that the present water-supply

Fig. 78.— Ectiivmatous Skcondarv Svphilitic Rash

can readily become contaminated, and tlnit tlie system of sewage-removal is otVcnsive and
dangerous, and re<|uires to be thorougldy remcilic d.
Knicric Kever The native Sudanese niust suft'cr but rarely, if at all. fmni the disease, and Egyjitians

are not liable to infection. S:indwitli.* however, has shown that they may become so, and
now that the mw railway to I'ort Sudan is an accomplished fact, and the isolation of

• Til.' Morlical Diseases of Egypt, 1905, pp. M and 53.

ROUTINE WOBK

177

Khartoum less complete, the danger of an increase in enteric fever as well as of un invasion
by cholera and plague, must be seriously considered. Happily this has been recognized
and funds are forthcoming for carrying out an iniprovement in the existing conservancy
system.

Dysentery of a bacillary type is not uncommon amongst the Egyptian soldiery, though Dysentery
bilharzia of the rectum is apt to be mistaken for it. In a specimen of the large intestine
from a rapidly fatal case of dysentery sent by Major Rivers, an acute congestion of the
mucosa closely resembling a measles rash vi^as very evident.

The malaria cases have already been discussed. I have found the accompanying table
compiled from various sources, so useful in distinguishing between the various young forms of
parasite, that I introduce it here :

DiFFEBENCES BETWEEN EaRLY PORMS OP MALARIAL PARASITE

Quartan.

Benign Tertian.

Malignant.

Size, shape and colour
of rod corpuscle . . .

Normal.

Enlarged, pale, distorted.
Schiiffncr's dots.

Circular. Colour often
deeper. Smaller.

Pigment

Seen early. Coarse.
Often peripheral and
opposite chromatin.

Not easily seen in ring.

Not easily seen in young
ring. May be marked
and gritty in old ring.

Position and shape
of chromatin

Well inside periphery,
at first in a lump,
then in diffuseddust.
Four separate dots,
evenin young spores.

One round lump situated
exceutrically but not on
edge of parasite. Most
frequently close to, or
surrouiided by, the un-
stained nucleus or vacuo-
loid space.

Splash or streak on peri-
phei-y of parasite. Angu-
lar look. Sometimes two
small dots like door-
knocker hinges. Kuocker-
shaped ring as sign of
special malignancy.

Size

Moderate.

Large.

Small.

Protoplasm

Most.

Thin. Thinnest opposite
chromatin. Often badly
defined margins.

Thin. Well-defined.

Numbers

Single.

More than one is rare.

Multiple infection common.

Stippling

Nil.

In all but very young.
• Schiiffncr's dots.

Sometimes dark stippling,
not red Schiiffner dots.

Position

Central. Oftenstretches
across corpuscle as it
grows.

Not peripheral. Irregular.
Eye-form common after
ring stage.

Hangs on to edge. May be
only a red streak of
chromatin. Looks as if
stuck on.

In one instance, a ease apparently of malaria epileptica under the care of Captain P. Evans,
R.A.M.C, we found a condition recalling the conjugating forms wliieh liave been described by
Ewing.* The parasite in question was benign tertian. Another interesting case, from the point .-\ question of
of view of diiferential diagnosis, was also in the charge of Captain Evans, and I have to thank ,' '""'^""^

^ ' or' diagnosis

him for pei'mission to make mention of it. A sputum was sent for examination, as its peculiar

Clinical Pathology of the Blood, 1903.

M

178

IlOl'TINK WOKK

cortV'i-tuldund iiiiiiiiiniia'f, its foiisisteiuc iiiul tin.' alisuiu'i' of frotli siigm'sliil that it iiiiglit be
(luf to a liver alisecss rupturing into the tlioriieic cavity. The syniiiltuns (if tlie case were
indefinite ami niiglit easily havr lieen inilueeil by sueli an hepatic contlition. On examination
some pulvgonal <'eils Were fi>unii and (dnnips of stapliylocoeei. Klasfie filires were not seen.
Viin Jak.seh' states tliat if free Iwematuidin be present in eonsiilerablc ipiantity tlie inference
is tiiat an abscess Inis discliarged from some neiglibouring organ into t\\i- Inng. Free
hienuitoidin was present in tliis ciuse but only in very small amonnt. No definite opinion
conlil be given but it was admitted that tile ease was suspicious. It i)roVfd rapiilly fatal,
and the historv, which had at first not l)cen easy to obtain, and the post-mortem e.\amination
revealed the true state of afl'airs. The i)aticnt had received a kick on the calf of the left leg
and this had resultetl in thmmliosis of one of the deep veins. In sonic tinl<nowii way the
thrombi had become septic and had been carried by the blood stream to the lungs.
I'ulmonary embolism with rapid breaking down of one of the embolic areas had taken place,

Kic. UK lIvi'ATlu ijt- Fli.MlK, c.LU>)nK cxlciisivc LTo>ion of llic boiiL-.

both lungs being infected. I do not think that such a condition has been previously
mentioned as occurring in connection with the difFereutial diagnosis of hepatic abscess. As

I'.irasites regards the larger parasites, Strviiijt/loi</ei< iittexliiialix has come under notice, but the most

interesting observation was made in a case seen by Captain Hughes at EI Obeid in which the
patient passed two worms in his urine. These were sent to the laboratories and proved to be
'I rirhocipliiilitx irir/iiurii.i. I did not know that this nematode had ever been discovered in
the urine, but I found that ]?oston,* in his recent work on Clinical Diagnosis, mentions the
occurrence of its eggs in human urine. There was no doubt in this case but that the worms
had been expelled )»'r urrt/imin. The accompanying photograph (Fig. 70) is that of a human
teinur which was infected by hydatid disease. The si)ecimen was .sent by Captain Cummins,
who intends to describe the case in the U.A M.C. .bmrnal. I lydatid of bone is sufficiently
rare for this instance to merit attention here, and Ca])tain (junnnins has kindly granted me
permission to mention it. The photograph was taken by Dr. Beam, and the specimen is in
the laboratories" museum.

Aviandbcasc I" '"rkiys dying in Khartoum tuberculosis and aspergillary pneumycosis have been

llyclatiil of
Ijone

• Clinical DiagDoaitt, 1899, p. 136.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

179

observeil. In the latter disease the curious bossy white plaques produced by Asjienjillns
(jlaufus were present, not only on the pleurae but also on the pericardium and peritoneum.

Miscellaneous Notes.

The blood of a considerable number of bats, birds, and fish have been examined. In
the case of the barn owd (UtrU jlwnineu) caught in Khartoum, and in the bloods of sparrow-
like birds at Taufikia, Halteridia were present, as also in the blood of a guinea-fowl brought
me from the Blue Nile by Mr. Broun. In the blood of another guinea-fowl sent from the
Bahr-El-Ghazal by Major Dansey Browning an Hiemamceba, like that described by
Dr. Neave (p. 200), was present, while in a blood film from the Blue Jay, also sent by him,
another and possibly different Hagmamoeba was found. I am inclined to think that
Leucocythemia may be found to be a fairly common disease in Egypt. I have seen two
cases in Egyptian soldiers in Khartoum, and several others at Abassieh, Cairo, along with
Captain Cummins, E.M.S. The bloods of these cases were typical and the symptoms were
fairly well-marked, splenic enlargement being constant.

The testing of chrysoidine on the ciliated embryo of Schidosoinum haitiatobiiiin has
been mentioned. A solution of 1 in 20,000 was found to kill the living and active embryos
instantaneously, and it was noticeable that, on death occurring, the stomach became everted
and protruded from the motionless parasite like a beak. 1 in 200,000 proved fatal in
17 minutes.

It was found that, despite the addition of solutions of 1 in 10,000 and 1 in 100,000 to
urine samples, the embryos developed from the eggs but these embryos were innnediately
or speedily killed. It was curious to note that in some cases the nervous system of the
myracidium took on the stain more intensely than the surrounding tissues. The solutions Experiments
were made in distilled water, the effect of which had been previously tested on the embryos ""*' ''"'

^ ^ckisfoso/nu/fi

and found to be negative. Controls were carried out in every case. At my request hamatobium
Captain Ensor, E.M.S., tried chrysoidine in two cases of bilharziosis and he reported
favourably on its use, telling me that the men had greatly improved. I then tested it
on two cases kindly placed at my disposal by the S. M. 0. Khartoum, but I failed to find
that any benefit resulted. I had hoped by observing the eosinophile count to see if any
effect was being produced on the parasites. In one case the number of eosinophiles did
lessen markedly ; in the other, slight increase occurred. It was, perhaps, hardly to be
expected that enough of the dye-stuff to affect the parent worms could be introduced into
the system without pushing the remedy to a dangerous extent.

Some other observations have been made in connection with Bilharziosis. In the
First Report the prevalence of the disease amongst the boys attending a primary school in
Khartoum was mentioned. Many of these boys drank water from the school well and this
water was submitted to examination. A tiny but very active Entomostracean probably
belonging to the Order (Mrai:oda, just visible to the naked eye, was seen, and it was
thought worth while to place some of the myracidia along with these crustaceans in a watch-
glass and observe what happened.

Six active embryos were placed in water along with three of the lively crustaceans and
left over night. In the morning one dead embryo was found lying on the foot of the watch-
glass, the other five had wholly disappeared, and the crustaceans remained alive and active.
What had become of the missing five'' Presumably they had entered or been taken up bv

180 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the crustufeans. These latter were watelied for several iliiys, till they died in fact, and
were tlieii exainiiieil. Nutliiiig developed from them, ami iiothiiij; was seen on separation of
tlnir slulls. One has not lieen able so far to make any further experiments in this
direction. Assuming that the initial observation and deduetion were correct, anil there was
no opportunity for error tn creej) in as far as one can see, these crustaceans, which have not
been fully identified, wouhl rei]uire to have their hard shells decalcified, and then be
examined in serial section, before ami alt( r being in contact with the bilharzia embryos.
The method of examination would be both ditlicult and tedious, but it might repay the
time spent upon it. I liope to repeat the original experiment and investigate the suiiject
more fully. In this connection Loos's suggestive work on ISilharzia has to be remembered,
wliile, granting that these crustaceans are (Mracwla, one must not forget that the members of
this genus are said to be flesh-eaters, which might account for tlw apiiarent act of ingestion.

I had intended giving details of calculations carried t)ul at the reijuest of the late
1'. .M. (). of the Egyptian army with the object of discovering whether a dietary of meat,
vegetables and dura (millet), could with advantage be substituted for one of meat, vegetables
ami wheat flour, for the mi'U of Sudanese battalions. I Karn, however, that the recent
researches of Chittenden embodied in his work entitled " I'lnixinliKtiail Kfoiiomii in Xiitril'mn"
have "clearlv shown tlie necossitv of matt'rially modifying the views on diet reiiuirements
in health that are given in nld and recent standard works on dii't " (Chalmers Watson).
Conseijuentlv, until one becomes fanuliar witii lliese ailered views it would probably serve no
purpose to introduce the tables and deductions wliiiii I had prepared.

In concluding this, the part of the Second lieport. — for wliiili 1 am personally
responsible — I would take an opportunity of expressing my indrhteilness to |lr. lleaiii fur
his exet'llent photographic work, and t(j Jlr. jiutlci'. I'ireetor of the (iame I'reservation
Department, for kindly identifying various mammals ami birds for me. ilr. Friedriehs has
rendered useful assistance in animal experiments and latterly in museum and histological
Acknowicdg- work. Jly thanks are due to Mr. Theobald and Mr. Austen for much kind help, and to

mcnts

Mr. Richard Muir for the great care and trouble he expended in the preparation of the
numerous plates. Mr, JIacduff Simpson has been good enough to aid me very considerably
in the correction of proofs.

^ I', N'_',-- Ki'i Th iiy Ikwumsi. i'ATiiiiM'i.isT, It»04-5

EErOET OF TRAVELLING PATHOLOGIST 183

Report of Travelling Pathologist and Naturalist

BY

SHEFFIELD NEAVE, M.R.C.P., M.R.C.S.

Gexeral

I left England un 11th Nuvenilier, 1904, having spent some six weeks in collecting
outfit. Scientific apparatus is very diffienlt to collect hurriedly, makers are few, and
independent in their methods, and it was only with great exertion that I got most of it
shipped before I started. Much I was unable to inspect and consequently some of it
was not satisfactorv.

On arrival in Cairo I wished to get hold of my outfit and urge on its despatch to
Khartoum, as shipping and railway delays are proverbial. I was, however, ordered to
Khartoum at once.

On arrival at Khartoum, I had to wait for my outfit for 23 days; this delaved my start
till the 16th of December, and necessitated my taking with me the whole three years' supply
nnsorted and much of it in bulk, with parcels not labelled. Some packages were missing and
did not reach me till my return.

While in Khartoum, besides the necessary preparations, I spent most of my spare time
in studying the mosquitoes known to the Sudan.

On 16th December, 1904, I left by the " Dal," S.W. for Gondokoro under orders to Plan of
meet Captain Greig, I. M.S. of the Royal Soc. S.S. Commission in Uganda, and confer with
him as to the investigation of the distribution of (Udsxiuii ji(ilpiilit<, and then to proceed to
carry out the same in conjunction with him. I was also to take every opportunity of
examining the blood of men and animals as regards infection by blood parasites and to secure
specimens of biting flies, etc. I was also to study disease generally and collect specimens of
animal and vegetable life and articles of interest, and to obtain any information likely to be
of medical or economic value, and to observe and note native customs, etc., as far as possible.

To this end I was to commence by camping in the neighbourhood of villages and obtain
the confidence of the inhabitants by means of gratuitous medicine and surgery and otherwise.
After exploiting the Bahr-El-.Tebel from Gondokoro to Shambe, I was to proceed to the
Pongo River, etc., in the Bahr-El-Ghazal.

To have done this properly would, I reckon, have taken some two vears, but owing to
delays and to the necessity as I then thought of returning to the Sudan by the following
November, I only had some four months to spend between Gondokoro and Meshra-El-Rek.
It is a matter of regret to me that I was not aware that this was to be mv onlv journey, as I
would have prolonged it by two months at a very small expense compared to the total.

My assistant, on whom I relied for collection and skinning, etc, did not consider himself
qualified for the work, liut was very useful and obliging in every other way. Later he had
to return, seriously ill. Thus my power of carrying out these directions was verv limited,
and it is due to the richness of this field for investigation that I achieved such results
as were attained.

I was 127 days absent from Khnrtuum, and of these I only had 40 for actual scientific Duration of
work, the remainder being occupied in travel and search for tsetse fly, and this although I
did not miss a single day for work, thanks to being fortunate enough to keep my health.

181

REPORT OK TUAVELLINO PATHOLOOIBT

Mwlical work

amongst

Natives

The iilcii of iiit^ilii'iil Work among tlic natives as a means fo an cnil liail to lie largely
abandoned, in faet, given np almost altogetiu r, us jiatients paid Imt one visit, or at the most,
two, and expected to receive the necessary cnre without further attention, and it \vo\dil
have required a residence of some montlis in one place hefore rcallv gaining their conlidciice.
An exception to this lay in the case of those who received a special sort of cough lozenge,
the taste of which w:is much aijniircd. ()n<' sh<'il<, I am sure sent half-a-dozen of his
subjects every day to complain of coiigli, in order that he might have them as swictmeats.

Fir; h:!.— (IvAssAs of Ok. Nkavk's K

xrihi 1 iiiN

The result of this position was tjiat [ jiad to adopt, a ilitl'crciit mcthnd of iiroccdure
for wlii<']i I was nut so fully prc]i.ir((l aiiii wliidi I IimcI intciidcil to lir im rciv sulisidiarv.

Arrival at
IJomlolifiro

I'.A II u-EL-.Ti'.RKr.. Glossina

Oapt, Oreig had arrived at Gondokoro from Entebbi' the day before my own arrival.
He told MIC that lie had found (! Insxinn /i,il/>tilix to within 80 miles south of Gomlokoro.

We arranged that lie should proceeil on the steamer allotted to him for that purpose down
stream, and that later he should return ami find me camping on the river bank. I was to go
inland some miles from Gondokoro and see if I could find the flv awav from the river, and then

REPORT OF TRAVELLING PATHOLOGIST 185

proceed down it. Our respective investigations were made, but I later received a letter from

him telling me that he had gone on to Khartoum without finding any "fly." My No "fly'

investigations yielded the same negative result, though much time was occupied in arriving

at it. I had special permission from Brussels to investigate the bank of the Lado Enclave,

but I received instructions to confine myself to the Sudan, so that I only investigated

the right bank.

I found no " fly " between Gondokoro and Shambc, although I was always on the look-out
for it and had with me a Uganda boy who had been specially trained to catch " fly," and
whose business it was to do so. It was only when I got to the Bahr-El-Ghazal country that
I found Glossina of any species. It would appear that a river with vast swamps is not a
suitable habitat, but that trees with water in proximity is what is preferred by these diptera.

During the above search I made expeditions in two directions from Gondokoro, and
received great assistance from Capt. Tufnell, who saved me much expense.*

Bahu-El-.Tebel. Trypanosomiasis

Capt. Greig left the Uganda boy above referred to at Gondokoro after trypanosomes
had been demonstrated in the juice of his neck glands, and handed him on to me for
treatment. I had brought up some chrysoidine on the chance of having this opportunity, as
Dr. A. Balfour's experiments with this substance on mosquito larvae and bilharzia ova
already reported, had suggested to me that it might be useful in trypanosomiasis.

I at once began injecting chrysoidine hypodermically, giving /jths of a grain and injections of
increasing to half a grain wdien I found no untoward results. As this was probably the first
time it had been used other than by the mouth, I had to proceed cautiously, but found that
it appeared to be quite harmless to the patient. f While I went and came on the aliove
expeditions, the boy had to remain at Gondokoro for treatment in respect to gonorrhoea and
syphilis, and it was in consequence of Dr. C. J. Baker's kindness in continuing the injections
of chrysoidine that I was enabled to carry out this experiment.

A fortnight after the first injection, on examination of gland juice, only one trypanosome
was found after much searching. Many had been found previously. Subsequently Dr. Baker
made several examinations and found none between this time and the end of January, when
the boy was sent on to where I was camping on the Bahr-El-Jebel, at Luala's. Until the
first week in jMarch I remained on the river and inji'ctcd the patient at first every day, but
gradually diminished the dose to twice a week, and I often examined the gland juice without
result. The boy rapidly improved from the first, got fat and only suffered occasional pangs
from over-eating. I made a blood count in February, when the boy appeared quite well. Blood Count

Lyniphocytes ... ... ... ... ... 486

Lar^e Monoiinclear.s ... ... ... ... ... Gl

Polynuclears ... ... ... .. ... ... -H-

Eosiiiophiles ... ... ... ... ... ... 7

Myelocytes... ... 4

1,000

My march from Shambi' to Meshra-El-Eek later on was rather a trying one, and the
boy only got his injection about once in ten days.

• I have lately been informed that Dr. Hodtfes has found rHos.Hua palpalis at Gondokoro further inland
than I wont.

t See, however, note. on p. IG'2. (A.B.)

18G IlKI'OnT OF TRAVELLING I'ATHOLOGIST

His work was liiinl ;imi1 «itli less food liis cuinlition got Iuwit, su that on arrival at
Kliartuiiiii at tiic i-ml of Ajnil 1 was (lisa|)])oiiitfii wlu-n two trypanosoincs (of an altiTed
uppi'arancc, possililv iluc to ilcvolutimi) were (IciiionstratiMl in tlic glaml juiic I at once
begun to iii)i'i-t iiini as Ix'forc, ami lie again bt-canu' fat ami will. I licanl of him as being in
good lualtli till .Inly, bnt that a monkey injected from his blood siiortly after his arrival had
got trvpanosomiasis. l)r. iJaifonr will, no doniit, report on his snbseijnent career.
Kffcct of It appears to me that chrysoidine in this case controlleil the disease, at any rate, for a

time, more easily than arsenic, trypaiirotii, etc.

Camps on BahkMi.-.Iehel

After leaving (Jundokoro I made five caiiiiis in ;ill im the liahr-El-.Iebel, which,

inclusive of !l davs moving from camp to camp alisorlied lit days from lltli January to

4th March, when I received urgent orders to visit tlie l'.alii-Kl-(tliazal district. During tiiis

Examination time I was chieHv engaged on the personal examiiialion uf bloods and the securing of iilood

of Motxl lilnis .", , , .

films together witii some work among the natives.

In all I made some 800 blood slides and it has been a matter of great labour e.xaniining
them. While at work in camp the thermometer was often up to 1W° F. and over in the
tent. This, together with numberless flies attacking one's face and M//ztrmi/ifi attacking
one's legs, etc., made life unpleasant, especially when it is remembered that two hands are
required when examining a blood slide under the microscope.

T also made a point of catching, examining and mounting nio.s(iuitoes ami occasionally
other insects. I had also to select and store the specimens, such as they were, brought in by
tile men. These, though not so nuiuerims as cihiM be dcsiriil. rciiuii-ed nnicli icjoking after.
.\ few dissections were also made as well as a few birds skinned, but I soon found I had no
tiiiii' for the latter j)ursuits. As a means of collecting bloods of interest, photographs and
other matters of value, I used to attend at 12 o'clock every day to see any patients from the
neighbourhood. I regret to say that photographs were not successful as I had no time to
work with plates, and my lilms were unfortunate.

It was asserted that I shouhl be able to move up and down the river in the gyassas, but
I found the first quite impossible as sails were of little use and it was only possible to drift
with the stream, perhaps not making more than two miles or even less than that an hour.
Conseiiuently, I made use of the steamers to tow the gya.ssas as much as possible. Time was
also occupied in going to see and in interviewing the various sheiks in respect of native
drugs, customs, etc., and a little information and material was collected, i)Ut the Haris,

among whmn 1 was for the greater jiart of the ti , ar<' the most ignorant, negative race

possible, living in idleness, taking no thought for the morrow, and enduring rather than
taking trouble to tight against any ditiieulty that may arise. As a siieiiinen of their most
Native u-liffs advanced ideas, I may mention a conversation I had with a sin il< on tlu' subject of the
drought. He gave me the following information. There an' bad spirits culled " Geioch "
and a god called " Deiidi." The bad spirits are umler the earth. Asked if (bid was one or
many, he said he dirl not know, but his wise men knew. Men stop the coming of rain, being
possessed of the bad spirits. Asked what would hapixn if these men were killed, he said the
one that had done all the damage was at Coulin's ; he had been in good health but after his
imprecations could only go on all-fours and now could hardly move. At present he eoulii do
no harm. They were awaiting his death when all woiihl be well. It was no use killing iiim.

'5?^^''"^!

I

EEPOBT OF TRAVELLING PATHOLOGIST

189

it would make matters worse, as he would then come back and do more damage in some other
form. It appeared that this magician was considered to have suffered for his ill-doing at
the hands of the good spirit. (Although the above answers do not always appear to be
replies to my questions they are given as spoken.)

Everywhere throughout my sojourn on this river I found a famine of dura grain, the
harvest having been a complete failure. The natives were much emaciated, especially the Famine of

T» • 1 1 • 1 1 ' 1 dura grain

women. On remarking on the emaciation of his women to a Ban, he explained that the
men went out hunting and fishing, but it was not the custom to bring home anything to
the women, who were dependent on the grain ; besides, " A man's belly is easily filled, but
a woman's requires much."

Bahr-El-Guazal

At Shambe I took, amongst others, the blood of seventeen cattle doing transport between
tlus and llunbek, but neither then nor subsequently did I find any parasite in the peripheral

Fig. 88.— N.\tive Br.\ssfounder with App.aratus

blood in the transport cattle, but I was unfortunate in being unable to procure any with the
disease at all advanced.

I saw here a native brassfounder making ingots fi)r future use out of cartridge cases and Native

. 1 i\r TT- brassfounders

other brass objects, and I eventually secured most of his apparatus for the Museum. His
method was as follows : He had a hole in the ground and a basin-like crucible in it surrounded
by charcoal. Also two bellows of earthenware, each worked by a small boy. These were of
the following nature : a basin-like apparatus with a wide tube taking origin from the bottom
of it at an angle, was covered with skin in the middle of which was a strip of hide which the
boy pulled up and down. This caused an intermittent draught down the pipe, which was
communicated to the bottom of the fire by another earthenware pipe or tuyere. The
interval between these two pipes acted as a valve, causing the intermittent current of air to
flow only towards the fire. I was surprised to find how easily he got enough heat to melt
the brass.

The ingot was about 5 inches long and about 1 inch thick, and was made b\- pouring the
metal into a hole of the requisite shape in the ground. His pincers consisted of a piece of
strong strap iron, as used for boxes, turned over double. The operator's hammers were pieces

100 KEl'OKT OK TllAVKMJNli I'AIIK ll,OG18T

of iron, niiiiid iiiiil iHiiiittil like :i peg, ;iii(l his anvils W( ic lianl piiccs of stoiif. lie liail
(lono wi'll for hiiiisi-lf, us, liy maliiiig briicclets, lie liail a(i|uiii(l ciioiigli culllr In imv a wife.

The iii'gotiiitioii for pinciiast' of liis apiJanitus WHS a long oiii-, iiml uiiioiigst other
iiifoniiatioii lie giivt- was a religious opinion far in ailvanee of anything I Iiad previously
fouml. lie thought the drougiit was due to tlu' evil liuing of mkii in tiie neiglihourhood, and
that the goodness of nun like himself was not sutlicient to proihiic tlie i-ain.

I left ShaiidM' on 12th Mareh, having reeeived orders to loeate the lly Ixdts of the JJahr-
Kl-Cihazal, take blood films and eollect biting flies of all sorts. I had, however, to be soniu
(lays at Meslira, to try and find some eattle lik(dy to be suffering from piro|ila8musis, and to
start from tlnre on l-'ith April, 'i'lnis 1 had onjv time to hurry tlirough the eomitrv, and
that 1 made the best use of luy time is, 1 think, shown iiy the faet that I walker! some
4Ul) miles in twouty-seven days, intduding the distance from point to point. Results,
however, were necessarily poor.

r)AHi;-l']i,-nH.\z,.\i,. Oi.dSSINA

I failed to fin<l "fly" near Sliaiiibi% iuit had no time e.xeept to walk straight ahead. It
••Fly" found was not until I reached Balir-El-tJuk that 1 found any. This was about 5 miles up
the rivir from the station — undoubtedly Moi-Mtam [(ilomtinu) — though there appeared to
be none actually do.se to tiie station. Here I secured the fly. Fig. 21, p. 56, whicii is
the female of 7'ii/>i(iiiis /mr. I was informed tiiat all tlie cattle died off here last year with
what was thought to b;' lung disease of some sort. Here also I foiuid the government
convoy, and took the iilooil of the six draught cattle which looked well, but found no
parasite.

This tallies to some extent with wliat the cliiefs wliom I i|nestioned at llmibek told me.
Tiuy said tiiat tliere was a large fly between that place and 'i'lmj, whicli did dannige to
cattle, and that all rattle died at (iok. They also volunteered the infornnition tliat there
was a cattle Jiestilence about 5 years ago, and that at the iiiniiient they were losing cattle.
which they ascribed to intercommunication* of cattle between there and Tonj. As '"flv"
will accompany cattle a long way out of u fly-belt I shoukl think their story may be
correct.

They only eat their cattle when the latter die, as they are currency among them chielly
for wife-buying. This custom thus gives them opportunity for post-mortem examination,
and they say they find the heart enlarged and full of dot, anil a distended gall bladder.
They also state that in life the animal suffers from cough and diarrhcea, with stools like
water.
Native One of the .sheiks had large patches of leucoderma on his hands, which he said was due

opinions . . .

to his having walked over his uncle's grave by mistake. This illustrates his ideas of the
origin of diseases.

Hefore reaching Tonj, I slept the night about 5 miles frum that station and secured
another specimen of Mnrsilinis. In the morning ''fly" followed the caravan right into Tonj
and into the rest-house. In the afternoon I wanteil more specimens and sent out the Uganda
boy to catch them, but they were not to be had. Next morning I made a long inarch down
the river on the left bank but saw none. Eventually 1 had to march back to the camp
where I had previously found them, before I could see any. This shows how they exist only

* Tbc QoTcrameat bullock w.kggoa ruiis rcguliirly botweuii tlieso plaocD, I uuderstaad.

REPORT OP TRAVELLING PATHOLOGIST 191

in patches, how they will follow a caravan but disappear again, and accounts for the
discrepancies in the reports of dift'erent people as to the areas of fly-belts.

It also explains why flies have not been sent into Khartoum from Tonj itself. Further,
it has been stated that in search for " fly " on a lake or river, all that is necessary is to land a
boy, who can recognise them, for a couple of hours occasionally to catch a few ; but these '
facts tend to show that a patch such as I have described might thus be easily missed,
and also demonstrate that before declaring a country free of " fly " a very careful search
would have to be made, which, in the case of the territory of the Bahr-El-Ghazal would take
one man at least a couple of years.

In addition to the above, I found another patch about two hours march on the road to
Wau from Tonj. Here (Tonj), the mamur told me the government cattle die at the rate of Tonj to Wau
one a week, which, from the foregoing is easily explained, but unfortunately there were none
sick at the moment for me to examine. From Tonj I determined to go straight to Meshra
without going along the well-worn track to Wau, as I thought there was more chance of
finding unknown patches of " fly " than if I travelled where many, capable of recognising the
" fly," had jirobably been. The track, however, to Meshra, along which the government wells
existed, was impossible owing to their being dry. Hence I had to go by byewavs from sheik
to sheik according to the information they gave me about water.
My path lay through the following places :

Police Station

Village, Bilhega, Sheik Tonj an

Aliat . .

Cajungo, on Tonj River

Temporary fishing camp

Elwaitch

Quaitch

Akok

Taba

Teek

Depeek

Lan

Meshra
Thus my road was necessarily of a zig-zag character. During this part of the journey I
met with no " fly," and passed tiirough an immense alluvial area of very rich grass, affording
forage for large herds of fine cattle. The latter had been collected from the high ground,
which is at this time of year parched up. One evening while camping, I counted eight herds
being driven in, averaging some 100 in each. The bulls, if fattened as in England, would
turn the butcher's scale at from 85 to 95 stone. Even as it was, fed as they were on grass
alone, there were some that would, I think, weigh out near those figures. There was a large
population here living in the temporary villages engaged in tending the cattle and catching
the fish in the pools which were gradually drying up. No doubt this part of the country is
under water in the rains, and is probably quite free from " fly."

At this time of year the natives here dry a quantity of fish for future consumption, and
from what I saw must eat a quantity of it half rotten, but I did not see a case of leprosy, Leprosy
though my hurried march did not give much opportunity for observation. On the other
hand, I came across two cases at Luala's on the Balir-El-.Iebel. Figs. 89, 90 and 91.

General

dir

ection

N.

N.E.

N.E.

N.

N.W.
S.

E.

N.E.

N.

N.E.

N.E.

N.E.

192

KEl'OKT OF THAVELLINO I-ATHOLOOIST

IxKalilies
infected bv
••flv"

III iidilitioii to tin- iilujvc tliiLi' juitclies of "fly" located by myself, I was told of the
following localities us infected : —

1. Nearly all the road from Wan to Toiij.

2. Wt'st liank of Jna Wau to Kojali.
M. Klior ] >inji.

4. River Mongo, near Tainbnra.

f). 1") iiiilis N. of Wan at Maeliioaliii's.

(i. A few miles onf of Wan on niaii to Mcslira.

7. Poiigo Uiver.

8. Sonth of Tonj towards Minnobolo.

KiG. 89

Flc. 90

Kic. ai
Leprosy of Hands

MeSIIHA Ti) KlIAUTorM

Mv journey from Meshra to Khartoum was' witlioiit special interest, except that I
Hippopoiamiis witnessed u hii>popot!imns hunt by natives, and as I have never seen their tactics reported it
may be of sufficient interest to recount here.

I saw them lirst with a stout rope attached to a three-parts grown hippo., with
some 50 to lUH men hauling on it, dragging him into shallow water. The rope broke and
the beast got away, but he still had two spear heads trailing two ropes, with half-a-dozen
large wooden floats attached. This conhrliniipx gave me the o})p()rtunity of seeing how they
put the noose on him again.

The hippo, was allowed to swim about for some time with the floats attached, and
exhaust liimstdf somewhat. His position was thus known, however long he might remain
under ami however little nose he might put out of water for breathing purposes.

EEPORT OF TBAVELLING PATHOLOGIST 193

After a time three men in a boat paddled up to liim, and as he rose one of them in the
bows tried to throw the noose over his liead, but failed several times. The next time he rose
this native jumped out of the boat with the noose held in the hands and with the arms wide
apart, and tried, while in the act of jumping, to place it over the creature's head. He failed
and scrambled back into the boat with marvellous rapidity. Nevertheless he made a second
attempt and succeeded. The essence of the matter seemed to be to get the boat behind the
head as it came up, and the man appeared to be safe while in the water behind it. If this
surmise is correct, safety would probably lie in the animal not being able to make a sharp
turn while swimming. However, I never saw a proceeding that appeared so foolhardy. The
noose was drawn tight, and the other end attached to the cable-like rope in the boat, which
was paid out till arrival at the shore, where the crowd seized it and gradually drew the
animal into shallow water, wjiere he received many spears and eventually succumbed. That
the native sometimes gets the worst of it is shown by one whom I was called in to see, three
days' journey the Meshra side of Tonj. He had a severe gash in the chest and had been
awkwardly squeezed by the jaws of a hippo. To cure this his friends had made many gashes Native
all over him, and he was in the most horribly septic state imaginable. treatme

Antelope Blood-Serum

I had thought it wouhl prove useful to investigate the action of the blood-serum of
antelopes as a curative for trypanosomiasis, and in England had consulted various authorities
as to the best way of extracting blood from a newly-killed animal so as to retain the serum
aseptic. I also received much assistance at the rinderpest camp at Cairo. I had armed
myself with an air-pump, some sterilised bottles into which to aspirate the blood and sterilised
canulas to insert into a bloodvessel. All this was very bulky. I made several attempts, and
after some practice succeeded in the case of three waterbuck in cutting ilown quickly on the
jugular vein and getting a good quantity of blood. This was allowed to clot with the bottle
in an inclined position and carried to camp. The next day the serum was drawn off into
other sterilised bottles, and after having 4 per cent, of carbolic acid added to it was corked up.

Of course, the difficulties were to carry all this apparatus about the place and have it at
once on the spot after the victim had been stalked and shot, and then to prevent contamination.

Two or three dissections are sufficient practice to enable one to get down on the jugular
quickly. The serum was forwarded to Khartoum, and Dr. Balfour, I understand, has made
some interesting preliminary experiments.* I did not, however, get his letter asking for more
serum until after I had left the boats and the apparatus to march across theBahr-El-Ghazal,
and was consequently unable to comply with his request.

I had hoped to take with me from Khartoum a donkey with trypanosomes in his blood,
to make my own experiments with antelope serum, but the authorities considered it
dangerous to import trypanosomes into a country which had not been investigated for tsetse
fly. The above would form a subject for a special investigation which might lead to
important results, as the destruction of domestic animals in the Sudan from this pest would
appear to be very large indeed. No place of which I am aware gives so good an opportunity
as the Sudan for thoroughly investigating these matters, the outside fringe of which has only
been dealt with hitherto.

* See p. 166, et neq.

(.."oUection of
serum

104 BEl'OKT OF TllAVELLINCi PATHOLOQIST

'Peciiniqie 111 Uldiid Examinations

Sliilfs wiTf kt'j)t in [>mv lysul, iiml after a tiiiu' ciirofully wasliiil and placed in the
boxi'S where they were to be stored when Hhns had been nuide. Any tinlling of the surface
of the !,'lass improved tile lilni.

In tlieease of niainmals it was comparatively easy to secure good blood films, but in that
of birds, reptiles and fish, there was considerable ditliculty. Unfortunately, owing to an
error in the desiiateii of my iMittil. I had to rely mi my Ti-bore with No. 8 shot only, and
if a smallish bird was siuit it was nsiiallv ■jUitr deail, and the cutting idl' the head on the spot
yielded but little blood. At first I had a man carrying test tubes of citrate solution, but I
fouml it very dillicult to have him on the spot at the moment I ran to pick up the bird.

Later I hit on the plan of carrying three or four '.^ inch by \ inch specimen tubes in the
waistcoat pocket, whi( h appeared quite satisfactory.
Methfidsor In adijitidii, I always made one or two slides from the blood direct.

securing blood j ^ ^^^ ^_,, .^f^.,|. j^^- j^^j^j ,^^. ^j^^, ^^^jj ^^ .^|,^^^. ,^|] ^^.^^^^,^. ^^^ ,,,,.^j,| ^^^^ jj^^

films ' 1^ 1 .

large arterv supplying tlii^ gills \vas cut, or in the case of a sniall fish decapitation was
pertbrnieil.

Slides were always used for films to the exclusion of cover glasses, they give a larger
area and necessitate much less time and care in making the film. They were all stained with
J.,eishman's stain in troughs of the size of the slide, tilm (lownwanls, thereby avoiding deposit.
If any ileposit occurs I find it easily removed by leaving the slide in xylol 'M) minutes
to "2 hours and tlun wiping gently witii a sniaii linmii of silk handkerchief and rinsing again
in the trough.

Citrate appears to mix with tiie blooil of liii-ijs and tisli ipiitr ditlerentiy from tliat (jf
mammals, making a glntinons mixtuie iiiueli nmre dilliriilt to nianipulate bcitli in tlie
centrifuge ami in making tilms.

Before making any similar expeditions I liope to conduct experiments with a view
to tinding a better iiu'dinm. I varied the strength of solution, but found none really
satisfactory. <lii the otlier hand, on returning iiome, I fo\nid tiiat slides that had been
made a long time iigo, and had endured a higii temperature, stained mucli more easily in the
ca.se of birils and fish than in that of mammals.

The .sy.stem of making thick films and deinemoglobinizing to detect extra-corpuscular
parasites is not successful with bird (jr fish bloods, in consequence of the mass of nuclei which
prevents anything being seen.

There is also a ditlii'ulty which seems to be due to the temiierature at which one works.
It is that when a film dries quickly the cytoplasm of the red corpuscles becomes often filled
with little blisters, and this obfuscates anything else contained therein ; so far, I have not
found any way of avoiding this when films are made in the midille of the day.

The citrate difficulty also caused a difference in centrifngalising. I hnve been much
di.sappointed in examining films for extra-corpuscular parasites that I knew should exhibit
these, and that were made from the usual layer (/.<■., the layer just above the erythrocytes
usually occupied by most of the leucocytes) for them in the case of mammal blood.
I think there is no doubt that this layer ilifi'ers in bird's blood, and owing to viscosity
does not lie at the same level.

It is a matter of great regret to me that there was no time for systematic dissection,
and the obtaining of the blood from the heart, et<-., in a pure state, ami tlie examination of

PI.ATK \VI

••

V

Bl.UOD OF VtiLTUKE. DEGENERATIVE CHANGES IN EkVTHKOCYTES. ETC.

(a) Normal. /■ / ^ l- j i j < ■

(/.) ChronnatolvMs of nucleu. and chromatophilic degeneration of cvtopla^m. f) l'mmau,r?ernhrol1aS"''"-

M Same as ^ together wth alterations in shape of nucleu-.,. \J) L 'mphocvS ,

W. e a„d/) Further stages of .. f/.) Endothelial cdls.

REPORT OF TRAVELLING PATHOLOGIST 195

a series of hanging drops, nor for cultivation of trypanosomes ami other such investigations.
In consequence, most of my results are merely taken from stained blood films, which however,
often included blood that had been allowed to stand in citrate for various periods with a
view to detect development. This however, is a poor substitute for watching them on a
warm stage.

I deplore the absence of further opportunity to verify and work out the indications many
of these matters give.

Sources of Blood Collection

About 750 films were brought home in addition to those examined " in the fresh."
These were made from the blood of : —

55 human subjects.
118 other mammals, 16 varieties.

69 birds, 22 varieties.

38 iish, 8 varieties.

(i amphibia, 4 varieties.

18 sheep ticks.

XdRMAL FlSlI AND BlHDs' BlOOD

The bloods of bii-ds and fish have a number of peculiarities of their own, of wliirli I
have failed to find any description, so tliat I here note some of them.

1. The red corpuscles appear to alter as soon as the blood is shed, that is to say, all Peculiarities
slides show more or less the following phenomena. The majority of the erythrocvtes stain °f j'°°''! °'^,

" '^ J . J J birds .md fish

in the ordinary way, exliibiting a violet blue nucleus, and if the Leishman stain has been well
managed, a red cytoplasm, though the latter colour is often not easy to obtain in slides that
have been kept for months at a high temperature. In fact, the cytoplasm not unfrequently
remains blue unless special trouble is taken. A slide with the majority of erythrocytes
wholly stained blue (as well as those with red stained cytoplasm), will show a nuiidier of
other red corpuscles stained thus : —

1. The nucleus red, the stroma a very deep purple. (Plate XVI., b).

2. The nucleus red, the plasma lightly stained red. (Plate XYL, c).

(Many of these are round with a round nucleus).

3. Many free nuclei swollen, stained red, and \ni\\ ragged edges.

(Plate XVI., g S: h).

Again, the whole of the above process as far as the nucleus goes, may be carried on
inside the corpuscle before bursting ; and in this case after becoming reddened, and a kind of
growth taking place, the nucleus continues to disintegrate until it is a ragged mass. All
the above changes are shown in plate XVI., d to f, and are much exaggerated when
the blood has stood for an hour or two mixed with citrate, the most extreme case showing
nothing but these swollen and escaped nuclei. I consider that these changes occur in the
blood between the time of its being shed and of its being made into a film. Endothelial
cells from the capillaries are also fairly often seen in the films. (Plate XVI., k.)

In a slide of marabou stork's blood (containing ffaltfridi/nn), I found some cells which Marabo
are probably an early form of erythrocyte, either passed prematurely into peripheral blood or stork s blood
subsequently changed. The cytoplasm is contracted nearly up to the nucleus on each side,
with a small vacuole at each end. The nucleus is swollen and flattened. Plate XVI., i.

19G

REPORT OF TllAVKLLINO TATHOLOOIST

I.enscs u-icd

Tlu're iin- ulsn u iiiiiiilx'r of lift'ply bluf ami [JUrpK' stiiincd objects, nbuut '^^A fi in (liiiinctiT,
(iftfii to 111' fiimul ill groups, wliidi may be leucocytes or (tis wus suggested by Mr. Muir)
who drew tllelll) uildevelolied erytlinicvtes. Pbite XVF., j.

The |)olyiiiorphoiiueleiir eorpuseles are reiimrkuble for the variety of tlieir granules. In
Plate XVI 1. will be observed three varieties in shape, small round, ovoid and rod-like,
together with transitional sliapes between tlicsr two extremes. Tliere is also a form with a
round nueleus and granules of various sizes eolleeteil often to tile periphery, these usually are
baso|)hile and stain a deep bhie-jiurple though rarely they appear as eosinophile. I'late
XVII., e.

A mast cell is represented at e.

There are lymphocytes of mueh the same appearanee as those in human blood.

Contnirv to the usual teaching, I find i" object lens sutlicient when searching for the
trvpanosomes in the blood of the averaged sized bird and fish, and \" for trypanosomes and
lliilti riiliinii in mammalian blocjd. This, of course, is a great saving of labour, but is oidy
satisfactorv when the obst rver knows exactly wli:it lie is looking for.

Parasites
found

Su.M.MAKY OF I'aK.XSITKS FoUXD

Trypanosomes were found in the mule, four species of fish and two species of birds, as
well as in the case of human trypanosomiasis already mentioned.

The blood of the shilbaia {Schilhc in)/.sliij<, Enfrojniis nHoficus) was frequently examined
without success, and two specimens of the karesh fish [MormiirKx) with the same result.

Filiirid- Were found in five species of birds, IIn/li rii/iinn in eight, and a new Hccmumteha,
somewhat resembling H. Zkiiuitmi, in one.

H.illeridium

Filarix

Trypanosomes

ProlozOon

Hxmanuetu

Whcatear

{Siuricola oenanthe)

Guinea-fowl

Mule

Karesh fish
{Afurmifriia)

Quinea-fowl

Marabou Stork
{Ltjiluptilus cruincniferia)

Vulture

(XrophroH pcrcnoplerus)

Bagara
(Bnyeiis bayard)

Kite (Melviits cctpjpliu)

Shrike

{Laniariits ej-cubilorius)

Gargur
(LynodonlU schal)

Red-breast Shrike
(Lnninrius cnienliis)

Hornbill
(Lophoccros nn.iitl u.i)

Noke {Afiujil)

Red Hawk

{AcciftUcr rufiventris)

Maralwu Stork

Dabib (fresh only)
(Polyplerus)

Krown Ibis

{llitijitlnshifi hagnltish)

Rcd-brea.«t Shrike
{Liniiii rills rrmiiliix)

Koran {Liaaolis Imrtlandi)

Vulture

Guinea-fowl

( Nil in ilia iililorhijiiehii )

The guinea-fowl {Xniiilihi /ill/orlii/iirfi.i) seems to be very liable to blood parasites, as
in one slide I found llnlli riiUmn, an Ifa niniiKcliii and two types of Filiirifr, as well as the
object delineated in I'late XXI., b.c. The latter, 1 am informed by Mr. U. Muir who made
these drawings, occurs in the corncrake in Englaml, but 1 am unable to give any explanation
of it, and merely append the drawing. Length varies from 50-58/1 and it occurs plentifully.

PLATE XVn

■c

I

•

iS&^

*,•*.*'.;•'*

d

t

^m
'ii#

nfi^fv

/

54-

« to / Various forms of Leucocyte.

Blood of VuLTrfRK
Ltishinan Stain

CHARD Mdir

REPORT OF TRAVELLING PATHOLOGIST 197

It would appe;ir to consist of u slieath pointed at each end whicli contains protoplasm
segmented into two or more portions.

In reference to the Halfcridiinn found in this bird, the development of the parasite is
but small, and the number of corpuscles affected scanty, and it has occurred to me that the
appearance may after all not be Hnltcridium but the commencement of the growth of this
ITa'mamceba, though the simultaneous occurrence of H. zicmciiiii and ffirltcriiUum has been
previously reported.

Trypaxosomes

Plate XVIII. d. Trypanosomes found in the Noke [MikjU) fish, measure on Noke fish
an average : —

Length, 50/i. Greatest breadth, 4/i.

Length of flag, Ti/i

Nucleus, -i/i in diameter.

Centrosome, 5/* from end.

Corpuscles 12 to 13fi.
This fish has a gizzard and is a species of gray mullet.

Trypanosomes were found in the dabib (Poh/pfenis) fish when examining the
imstained blood on three occasions, but no stained specimen was secured. Dr. A. Laveran
informed me that this was not an unusual occurrence* owing to the parasite being rolled
up and hidden by the corpuscles.

Plate XVIII. a. The trypanosome found in the bagara fish {Baijeiis hayard) Bagara fish
measures : —

Length, 51 to 58^( on an average. Greatest breadth 5/ii.

Length of flagelhim, 8^.

Nucleus, 3/i in diameter.

Centrosome from end, '2n.

Corpuscles, 9 to l"2/i X O'o to 6'5/<.
Plate XVIII. b. The trypanosomes found in the gargur fish {Lt/iiodunfis .^cli'd) cargur fish
measure on an average : —

Length, 24 to 43fi. Greatest breadth, 2-5yu X 4^.

Length of flagellum, 8 to lO^i.

Nucleus, 2^1 X 3fi.

Centrosome, from end, "5/i.

Corpuscles, 11 to 12^ X 6 to 7fi.
Plate XXI. a. In the blood of the karesh fish {Monni/i-ns) a deeply stained organism Karesh fish
was found, measuring 70^ in greatest diameter, and resembling some protoziion ; (tbraminifera ?)
It is nearly circular and its protoplasm arranged in a vortex-like depression, has a circle
of cilia. It is probably a contamination from the gills, or the alimentary canal. The
organism is plentiful, and from the way the fish was treated I think it highly unlikely
that anything off the scales could have got into the blood. It is more likely a parasite of
the gills and as trypanosomes have been found by scraping these with a spatula, it is worthy

* Since m-iting the above I find Novy and McNeal report this as also their experience. They tell of a canary
examined for 11 days in succession, when trypanosomes were found in the fresh blood and none iu the stained
and on its death 7 slide films were examined iu vain for 20 hours, though the heart's blood revealed them
in quantity.

198

KKl'DKT OK TUAVKI,l,IN(i TATHOliOGIST

uf rt'i'ortl, si'i'ing tliul \]\r liff-historv "f try|iiiiiosoinHtii is unknowii. It will lie rciiicmbered
tlmt Lingiml has infi'tteil ii horse by introducing trypanosoines into tin- ulimentary canal,
ami it is ilirtii-ult to sec how tish can l)c otherwise infected.*

The tryjmnosonu's found in tlie mule appear to be 7'. iliiiiDr/i/ium both long and
short forms being found, and a trypanosome resembling 7'. nuniiiii. As these will be described
by Dr. Halfonr it is not necessary to give measurements, etc. 'Pile Mood of (3 mules
examined on board the steamer returning from Meshra-El-Kek from the war expedition
all contained the above in more or less quantity. The blood of a mule examined just
before death was crammed with them, four or live under tlie Held of ,'._," object glass with
No. 4 eye piece, being common. It was remarkable that many of the animals appeared to be
in good condition.

Tryi)anosonies were found in two birds, viz., the common vulture of Egypt (Xeoj>/iroii
pfiviiofitenix), aiiil tlic red-breasted shrike ( L(iiii<irinK rmi'iitiiK) ; they appear to be exceedingly
sparse in the peripheral Muud uf these avians, and tiicre was no time to liu nxirc than examine
this. Thus I only discuvered two stained specinn^ns in vultures, thougli I iiave examined a
large number of slides from Id iliU'erent birds since my return. Tn the fresh, however, I saw
them in 4 birds. In the red-breasted shrike I only found one specimen in three birds shot,
and none in the fresh.

Plate XVIII., e. and e". The vulture trypanosome (Xeojihron /it'rnioji/i-riix) measures :
Length, /iS to tiO^i. Greatest breadtli, 4 to 5^.

Length of flagelluiii. K'/i.
Distance, centrosome to end. 7/(.
Nucleus, -ii X 4/i.
Corpuscles, 12 to 15^ X •"' to (i/i.

The undulating membrane is only well marked in one of the two specimens found, and
assumes the regular crinkled shape common to Tri/pa nosoma avium. There is a vacuoloid
appearance in both specimens; that in Plate XVIIL e. bulging the blunter posterior eml, while
that in f. does not alter the shape of the outline. It is V shaped with a small tongue of
protoplasm projecting into the apex. The centrosome can only be seen in e'. and that very
indistinctlv. In e. there is another spot (circular) unstained, rather nearer the anterior than
the posterior end. The posterior end has a short flagellum 4/i in length.

The specimen e' tapers from both ends, and the posterior appears to have a tiagellum as
Wei! as the anterior, some 6/* long. So difiFerent are these two organisms that it is a question
whether they are identical. It will be noticed that these measurements are greater than
those of the Tn/jiniiiisoiii'i ininiii previously described by others, but about the same as the
larger form described by Novy and McNeal, in the article referred to above.

Plate XVIII. c. The red-breasted shrike ( Ldnuiriiis critentiix) is a black bird with a
red breast, about the size of the English blackbinl. It lives in the thickest bush it can find,
feeding on the ground below. Only one specimen of trypanosome was found, which
mciisures :

Length, 28^. Greatest breadth, 'Sfi.

Length of flagellum, lO/i.
Nucleus, ifi.

* Snmbon, however, hax referred to flics feeding on Nile fish and Lavcran has suggested the infection of fish
by mean!* of the lice panutitic upon them. — (A. B.)

HLATE XVIII

Rica&RD ilnii

Tkypanosomes in Fish and Birds
(a) Trypanosome of Baoara fish {Ba<^eu^ hn.vn9',i\ { \ t^ ^ ,

U, T.,pa„o.o™e of Oar,,,. .^h^l^Vto. ^ U S??S=: tl l^ ^^'^^^ ^^""^■^

U and e ) Trypanosomes of the Vulture (,V«.//„-,w /,mno/,le,;,s). ^ '"'■
Leishiiian Stain

ins cruentiis).

KEPORT OF TEAVELLIXG PATHOLOGIST 199

Centrosome, which is rod shaped, to end, 4/;.
Corpuscles, lO/i to 12/j X 6 to 7/i.
I am unable to identify this with any trypanosome already found.

FiLARI.E

The Fihtricv here described are all embryos and were found after staining the blood for
trypanosomes, the discovery of which was my main object in making these slides.

In Laninx excnhitor'nut only I searched for the parent worm, having seen embryos in
the fresh blood, but failed to find them.

None of the six embryos here described appear to have been previously found, though
two of them somewhat resemble others mentioned below. It would appear that there are an
euunnous variety of unstudied Filuria- in birds in all climates.

Plate XIX., /'. In several specimens of guinea-fowl blood {Xuinida ptilorhyncha) a Guinea-fowl
Filarid was found in quantity, 8U to lOO^i lung, and ibfi broad, having the appearance of a disc
necklace, or artificial serpent, as sold for a toy (Plate XIX., h), the granulations being
arranged in disc-like sections which project on each side with great regularity.

These Filaria: are often arranged somewhat in a circle, and not as in the illustration
(which was chosen as a specially fine specimen) ; they taper at the tail end to a fine extremity,
while at the head the taper is much less, and the end bluntly rounded. There is a
translucent spot at this end, and the stained cell nuclei finish in this spot in two divisions
after bifurcation. There is no sheath, but there is a highly refractile translucent containing
membrane. There are four spots, two of which only are constant. Tliis Filari<( much
resembles the description of F. calalfai-eiimix in the report of the expedition to Nigeria by the
Liverpool School of Medicine, except for the regularity of the granulation.

Spot 1, at '24'3 per cent, of length . . . . . . Often absent.

Spot 2, at 33-4 ,, . . . . . . Constant.

Spot 3, at 59-3 ,, . . . . . . Constant.

Spot 4, at 80-5 „ Often absent.

Plate XIX., (/. Another /V/ff/wV/ in the same slides has the tail end tapered and pointed,
while the head end is slightly tapered but bluntly rounded. It has a sheath nearly double
the length of the filaria. In the stained specimen the head is pushed to the furthest
extremity of the sheath, the excess of which trails behind. The sheath stains a deep red
colour, making the protoplasm withiu look purple. As a rule the Fihirin lies fauiy straight,
without much undulation. It has a containing membrane, the contents of wliich appear to be
segmented at the tail end and granular at the head end.

The length is from 48 to 85 fi by 38 fx. There are five spots of which three are
constant. At the head end there are two clear spaces, the more anterior of which is at the
extreme end, communicating with the other by a narrow channel between two sides formed
by the splitting of the mass of the cell nuclei. This is probably an embryo which has not
been previously described.

Spot 1, at 11 '2 per cent, of length . . . . . . Often absent.

Spot 2, at 341 „ Constant.

Spot 3, at 539 „ . . . . . . Constant.

Spot 4, at 77-3 „ Constant.

Spot 5, at 90-5 „ Often absent.

200

HEl'OKT OF TUAVEliMNc; rATHOLOOIST

I'lalu \1X., (. Ill tlie uoiiimun vulture (.\'iii/i/iriiii /ifrriinfiliTiis) a single lilariii wiis
fouiiil in tho lilooil, iilso of the iliac necklace variety, though this arrangement of granulation
is not so well niarkcil. It measures 12U /i hy '.V'! /< in lircadtii. The illustration shows
two curious large hyaline structures at about the midille of the parasite, which would
apparently distinguish it from any descrihed variety, hut it is unsatisfactorv to make
deductions from one specimen. In another bird a single specimen (KiO /i in length) of some
Filnriir was found, hut tm] irnicii Imrieii in corpuscles to describe.

Plate XIX., '. In the shrikes ( /yunius f.rriiliitoriiia) a Fihirin is found, 7") t(j 20")/!
long, with hlunt cuds, an<i about 3 to 4 ^t at broadest part. It takes the stain very badly,
with a rather hyaline appearance, but is slightly granular. Especially granular areas
occur arounil two si)ots, wliiili arc fairly constant, at 30'3°/o and (111-? ,, of its length.
Other spots sometimes occur but not at regular intervals. From its outline it would appear
to have a containing membrane, but no sheath.

A Fi/iiriii was four times seen in fresh s{)eciniins of this blood, whiili ditfered from the
iibove in being about 200/i long, and 5.i broad, having one end of ii pointed shape with a shoulder,
while the other end tapere<l somewhat. Unfortunately no staincMl specimen was obtaineil
although 31 slides in all of the blood of tliis species was e.vamined. Movements were both
wriggling on its own ground and advancing across the field. There was a V spot near the
middle, with granules posterior to this.

Plate XIX., '/. Only one s[)ecimen of the hornbill {/^oji/iocerox nayiifiix) was shot,
and in the blood was found a Filurin, (55 to l(J5/i long and 3^ wide, with one pointed and one
round end, and with disc-like granulations but no sign of sheath. This is probably identical
wth that found in Ximiiiln jii'iUirJiinirlin.

Plate XIX., y. Ill the marabou .stork ( Lejitoiitilna irimuiiifi'ntK) a Filnrin was found
70 to 10-i/z by 3/i, taking the stain badly and faintly granulated, round at the head end and
pointeil at the tail. The granulations divide at the head end an<l terminate in a bay
leaving a portion unstained. There are three spots all constant. There is a hyaline
containing membrane.

The first spot at "iG'tiS ° ^ of length consisting of a transverse bar.

The second at 38-71 ° „ of the length.

The third at 60-14 % of the length.

This somewhat resembles an emiiryo Filarin found by Dr. G. C. Low in the Java sparrow
which he has kindly shown to me.

New H.kmamocba

Plate XX. An Jf/rmnwnjiii was found ill the blood of the guinea-fowl {\niiiitlii
ptilorliiiufhti) which somewhat resembles //, ■.li-inninii. There are two varieties probably
Description (as in /fiil/criiliiiiii), male and fiinalc, the former hardly taking the stiiiii, while the latter
takes on a very deep blue colour (even when the blood eleiiu-nts generally are so liglitly
stained as to hardly exhibit any colour) and shows itself to be markedly granular. There are
in some cases two more transparent portions, one on each side of the centre of the parasite,
which in the male especially are dotteil with chromatin spots. Tlir parasite is from I.") to
'iO/< long and about fi/i broad, in addition to which the ends of the corpuscle are drawn out.
each sometimes being as much as Id/i in length. The female jiarasite as it grows, wholly
alters the shape of the corpuscle, pushing the nucleus of the corpuscle on one side, while the

FI.ATK MX

Richard ilctR

FlLAKI.-E IN Bllv

(rt) In the Guinea-fowl {Xiiti/ida ptilorhyntha).

\jf) Another species in the Guinea-fowl,

{c) In the Vulture i,S'eophron percuoptetus).

((/) In the Tree-Hornbill {Lophoccros nasiittis).

(<■) In the Shrike {Lattius Ejccubitarhis).

{/) In the Marabou Stork {Ltptoptilus crumeiii/erns).

Lcishiiimi Slain

All X 1000 tliam.

REPORT OF TRAVELLING PATHOLOGIST 201

eiiils of tliL' *"L-uut;iiuiiig iiieiubmiie uf tlif curpusele are drawn out to tlie finest filament, so
fine in some instances that a flagellar-like appearance is caused. The contents uf the
corpuscle appear to be under great pressure. At first the wliole is crescent-shaped and
uniform in outline, later the pressure against the nucleus creates a lobe in the middle, with
an expanded portion bulging on either side ; beyond these again are the drawn out ends and
fiagellar-like terminations of the corpuscle. So close does the parasite lie against the
corpuscular nucleus that it cannot be distinguished as a separate entity. The nucleus of the
parasite [iresents some difficulty. In some cases it appears as if flattened and pushed hard
agamst that of the corpuscle, the line uf demarcation being difficult to detect ; in others the
staining is so similar to the rest uf the parasite that the outline is difficult to detect.

In several instances, two of which are illustrated in Plate XX., the parasite is seen
' pushing a portion of itself through the containing membrane of the corpuscle, and appearing
as a globular hernia.

In one of these the corpuscular nucleus is also being extruded, and appears to the eye
as if included in the parasite ; in another, the globule is found at the opposite side, and
again, in other specimens, the extruded globule is seen arising from either end of the
parasite. It is possible that this is the commencement of the globular form described by
]\[. Laveran in the case of Zicinnniii, or the process might be one of ordinary fission, or even
perhaps a pathological state induced by shedding of the blood and spreading it out as a film,
though I do not think the latter likely.

It is to be noted that Laveran and Lucet (L'Academie de Sciences, 30tli Oct., 1905)
speak of the nucleus being expelled from the corpuscle by II(i:maiiiah<i rcVu-ta.f

There is a long narrow form, Plate XX., c, without any visible nucleus, corpuscular Long narrow
or otherwise, which may be the parasite after parting with one of these globules.

It will be remembered that Schaudinn has stated that tliis parasite has a trypanosomatic
stage (as well as Haltn-iiliinn), and that in that form it attaches itself by its posterior end
to an erythrocyte which it then draws into itself. He asserts also that after it has digested
the plasma the nucleus is pushed off to one side as an elongated halter-shaped body,
eventually to be thrown away as waste. This however, is combated by Novy and
McNeal,| who show that trypanosomes are very common in birds, and believe that the
occurrence of the two parasites in one blood is fortuitous (viz. H. zieinaniii and trypanosomes) .
Although my specimens tend to show that the parasite is endo-corpuscular, yet it is hard to
explain why the ends of the containing membrane of the corpuscle should be drawn out to
fine points, even resembling flagella. The suggested passage through a capillary is an
insufficient explanation.

The description by |Laveran and his illustrations, as well as those of ||Schaudinn, show
in the case of Z'unnanni the nucleus of the corpuscle flattened out, being elongated to at
least four times its normal length, so that the ends surround the parasite ; in the case of
my films, the parasite surrounds one side and both ends of the corpuscular nucleus,
projecting in most cases beyond it at each end to an extent equal to the length of the
flattened nucleus.

* '■ Containing membrane " is a term only used for the purpose of description, though those who argue that
such a membrane does not e.\ist should examine this class of specimen.

t Since writing the aljove I have fouud specimens with the globule just freed from the element. Plate XX.

X Novy and McNeal. Journal of Infectious Diseases. Chicago, 1st March 1905.

§ Soc. de Biol., 16th May, 190.3.

II Arbeiten aus dem Kaiserlicheu Gesundheitamte, Band XX., Heft 3, 1904.

202

ni:ri)nr ok tuavem^inci pathologist

It wiiiilil ii|iiPiar tlipreforc. tlmt tliis piinisite is not identical witli Jl. Zii uinnni, but is
a luw s|H(its. Dr. liaviiiin lias kinilly oxaniint'tl it and considers that I may safely treat
it as such. I'r. JSMlfmir has suggested that it lie provisionally named H. Neavei.

Miimnn bloo<l

Hlootl of wild
maniinals

Mammalian IJi n

'I'lic iiivcstigatidiis iiiadc ill respect nf Miiiiimiaiiaii M I yitlilcil negative results,

except in the case df malaria in man, ami t r\ ]ianosonies in the iiiulis from tlie war
expedition.

Miin. — No extracorpiiscular parasites were fouinl with the exception of tlie trvpaiiosoines
already mentioned in the L'gaiida boy. Nearly all the chililren's blood exaiuined, contained
a few tertian malaria parasites, and these were also present in a few of the adults. At the
hospital in Tautikia the blood of six soldiers was taken, in wlmli tin- typiial tertian parasite
was found, and one with both tertian and ipiartan.

All the men, except myself, in my expedition, were down from time to time with inaluna,
but answered at once to (piinine treatment.

I txaiiiiiicd a lar-^c numlicr of slides of liluod fi-um tiic aiitrlu|i(S and iitlici- wild
maninials that existed on my line of march, but found no parasites in the peripheral blood,
either in the regions of the O/osnina moi:sitnii-% or elsewhere. I strongly suspect that the
main reservoir of nagana exists in the young of these animals, exactly as malaria does in the
young of ihr huiriaii being.* It is reasonable, 1 think, to suppose tliat the infection takes
place earlv, and that the adult attains a large measure of imiinuiity thereby. It is unlikely,
but possible, that voung calves might have mort' resistance than ohler cattle and might acquire
an immunitv in the same way. An expenineut with a few young calves, donkeys, etc., might
easily be made in Khartoum,

Amongst the animals examined were: —
Kongoni. Uribi.

hush liuck. Rat.

llipiHiputamiis Donkey

(loat. lieil.

Dog.

Water Buck

Sheep.

Ox.

Mule.

Tiang.

Wild Pig

Wart Hog.

Insects

A collection was maili', but nut in tlie i|iiaiitity I had hoped, in consequence of my
having to attend U> MikmI \\(]rk, and being unable to make the natives collect.

This colleetion was more tjnin half destroyed in its transit to England, but there still
remains a residue of which I hope to render an account in time for the next ' liaburatories'
Keport. I hope also, to include details as to a private collection I made the year before.

Specimens
secured

DirTKKA

The following Diptera in good condition were secured. Although a few others were
obtained they were much damaged in their transit to England, and are useless for description : —

1. Tuhitniis (lorsivilta or viri/atiis (Austen).

2. Tabanns par.

• Koch hiui ngtkin drawn attention to the paucity of trypauoBomcs in the blood of infected big game, and
quite recently liu," migKChtcd that a itpccial developmental form adapted for the tsetse tiy may yet be found in
antelopeii or buOaloea, — (A, B,)

PLATE XX

♦ (

m

RICB4RD MUIR

(a) Male parasite.

H.«MAMCFBA OF THK Gt'INEA-FUWL

(/') Female parasite.

Lfiskman Siahi

(//. X.-avef)

(t, t'. fi and 1-) Various stages of division.

AU X 1000 diam.

REPOET OF TRAVELLING PATHOLOGIST OQ.S

3. Chrysops distinctipennis.

i. Bnj^to. A species also known in Uganda, but not yet named
5. Auchmero>„,,;„h<f.ola;i\hr. The Congo floor maggot fly
and H^. ^""^° '' ''' ""''''' ^~ ''^''y ---» ^'- f- - (m. p, 53, 56, 60

Mosquitoes

While on the steamer, however, I secured a number of males Tl. .i

eiemn to Mi. J) . V. TheobaU wh„ has „r-1,„I„| ,1,h„ ;„ ],;, „ -.. ' "

.ppea, to be two „e„ „b„.„ ,,,„. „, ,„^ ,„.,^ „, ,,„. , t,; ! , '., ' ort'"' '""'•"'"

.s o„e .e., tot: ::' , ■ ir s ;::l''' ™ "-"rr '- ""-'■■« ■"">"■•-

for the laboratory collection. ^ ^ " '"^^^ '° "■"» " «"<• "Pporlunity

Plaxts

them for one disease while in the n.vt '7'^*";^^"'^^- One village, however, would use -ed.cnai
lu.ease, \vniie in the next, one found the same plant beino- „..^ f„ .i infusions

purpose. Professor E. M Holmes of thp Pi .• , /^"^ fang u^ed for another

.0 .ve ...c »..c „.tor,.,.,io. abo.x '".crrHr.rx.'airr'- ' ^- ^■"•">^ —

Medicine, Surgery, Anthropometry

be a,t„bu,c,l to ,21 21 Z ' r'"'' ^"-■»-. ««=l' i„ Eogl,.„,, „„1,| co.,„„.

■l.se»» I was „lle.l „„ ,0 trca, '^ ■'' "■"''»"'>■ "'» "» i.' tl,e co„„„„„c.t

ef i.J^"e::::r::.:':::;r::v'"°^: °: '°*™"' *""^ *■' - •■- »«—
big » . r„ii..e. football, co„t.i„4 ^c g^L ^t . ::« ™"'ri:;T'" '"'" -

H. load on her head quite comfort^iblv Sl,I ■ 1 v Juiestmet,. i met her carrying

-, «.. wo„M ..t Lr „, .:;rLore::'i;\r::nt "" " "' -* '°""™"

Xnere is a wide field for the «tn,K. ,f r , '

• Named by Mr^T^^^^^W^ii^^^T^^jT^^i^^ ^

204 IlKl'OBT OF THAVKl,l,IN(i PATHOLOGIST

It strikfs one iit (dice liow iniuli iiii^'lit lie Itariil if only hy the study of the bh)()il in

tlu' (lisc'iiws of thi'se iiu-n, alxnit wliosu lialiits of life it is not ililHcult to iif<|iiire inforniiition.

I still hope to recover tlie uliove journiil in wliidi I ricordcii iiieiusurenients of ii good

ninny natives on the Hiihi-Kl-Jebel.

Aniliro- What strikes the eye is the length of leg in comparison to that of the Irnnk, and a very

iwmctry narrow pelvis, observations which the measurements seemed to confirm to some extent.

The ehililren up to sixteen years of age, espeeially the females, have a marked lordosis
in excess of the white races, suggesting that the erect attitude was attainccl at a later period
by them than by us.

CdNIM.rSIoN

In eonclnsion I have to tender my thanks for all tiic courtesy anil help 1 received at the
hands of tliose I met both at Khartoum and uj) country, which diil much to ndieve the many
disappointments and ilitliculties encountered in my endeavour to achieve some success in
this expedition.

As in many expeditions I have previously made I return with the feeling that liail I
better known the country and circumstances, I could have done twice the work at half
the expense.

HLATE XXI

.^C

I
1

•

r

:?

Richard Mrrtit

Unknown and Peculjak Bodies in Fish and Bird Bloods

ifj,'^ ^1 t'^.T'";^- <\^^(-Y'"-"'y"s). Ciliated organism possibly from tlie srills
(/' ana r) In the Guinea-fowl (.V„„„Wa fit!/orln„c!m). ^

Lei sf I man Stain

All X 1000 lilan,.

205

REPORT

OF THE

CHEMICAL SECTION

OP THE

WELLCOME RESEARCH LABORATORIES,
GORDON COLLEGE, KHARTOUM

WILLIAM BEAM, M.A., M.D., F.I.C., F.C.S.

The following is a summary of the analyses and examinations undertaken in the Summary of

Chemical Laboratory from October, 1904, to the 15th of November, 1905 :-

Analyses

Eiver Waters
Well Waters
Grains

Milks

Dried and Condensed Jlilks
Oils and Fats
Beverages

Salt

Gums

Drugs, etc.

Rubber . .

Urine

Calculus . .

Arrow Poison

Soils

Fertilizers

Lime

Limestones

Other Minerals and Ores

Miscellaneous

Total

42

15

20

18

6

4

3

6

14

9

3

4

1

1

4

2

7

21

24

3

207

206 HKPOUT OF r HEMIC AL LA MORATORY

In many cases the examinations were not carried as far as was desirable, not only
liecause of sin^Ie-liamicdncss * in the lulioratory lint cspociiiliy on aeconnt of the want of
special tiiemieals ami apiiaratns, atid of the loii),' time wiiicli liad to expire (three to four
months) hefore material ordereil from Enf^hiiid or the Continent could be received. Another
source of vexation was the continual failure of gas and water supply. Much of the work had
to be repeated, in some cases several times, becaiise of this and of the overwhcjiiiing efrccts
of sudden sand-storms. Fdrtiiiiatcly tlic latter are not common except in tlu^ Spring and
Summer montiis, and as the water and gas supply are now both more constant, it is hoped
that the intense annoyances of the past will not be repeated.

It might not be ann'ss here to sound a note of warning to those who may have to

undertake the construction of laboratories in out-of-thc-wav iilaccs like the [)rcsent. The

ihsadkumages nfftvleue gas svstciii. wliili- so altractivelv simple, has, apart fnmi the iiuestion of cost of

of acclylcne '. . . i > > i i

for iai>oratory carbide, several disadvantages. It was found that the Hame of the acetylene bunsen is so

"** hot that breakage of glassware was a very considerable item. This may often be avoided by

the use of sand-baths or liot plates, or by the interposition of two pieces of wire gauze,

in place of a single piece, between the glass vessel and the flame. All this entails a

Efffci of waste of heat. A more serious idijectioii is tlir ell'eit mi |ilatinuiii ware. After exposure

acelvlene on ..in i * ^ii-

platinum *" ''"^' """'i'- <"<' surface of tile iilatinuiii in icjiiies of a scalv crystallnie appearance; the

metal becomes haid and brittle and ultimately cracks. If used in conjunction with a blast
the flame is so hot that tlie metal, if thin, may even be melted.

Our present system is to employ the spirit (alcohol) bunsen for platinum vessels and
the acetylene gas for otlier purposes. This is not entirely satisfactory, as alkaline fusions of
silicates are dillicnlt by such means.f Later it is hoped that funds may be available for the
installaticm of a proper gas system of the ordinary pattern.

Chemical Composition of the Nile Waters
A series of examinations of the waters of the Blue and the White Nile was mnlertaken

w

itli a view more especially to (litcniiiiic tlie comparative amounts of suspended matter
carried at difl'erent seasons of the year. During my absence in Kurope my instructions in
regard to the collection of samples were not carried out, and no determinations were nnide for
the month of September, except of a single sami>ie of the White Nile water collected
independently by the Depaitiiicnt of Irrigation. The lark of examination of the lilui- Nile
during this nuinth is greatly to be regretted, but it is liopcil that it will be possible to nnike
a more complete series of observations this vcar.

The samples from the White Nile were taken from a point about two miles above the

junction with the Itluc Xjlr. Thosi' of the itlne Nile Wcl-e takill opposite t lie far elld of

Burre — about a mile beyond the i>uilt-up portion of Khartoum, and about three miles from
the junction of the two rivers. In future the samples from the White Nile, especially during
the flood, will, if possible, be taken from a point sulFiciently far up the river to avoid the
disturbing influer.ce of the Bhm Nile water.

The figures, which are in many cases the mean of several determinations during the
month, express parts per million.

• This wn» written liefore the a|)poiDtment of Sir. Goodson ns Aatintant Chemist.

t Wm-e the nlxjve wnx written fusions Imve tioeii efTectcd liy means of Ix;n7.ine and an ordinary blast-lamp
The apparatus extemporized for the i)ur|)ose is liKiired and descrilicd on pa^fe 244.

EEPOET OF CHEMICAL LABOBATOEY

207

White Nile

1904

1905

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

March

April

May

June

July 1 Aug. 1 Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Solids in suspension

82-75

74-02

70-84

67-00

65-00

56-19

52-20

49-00

76-7'

142-6»

26-5

32-00

44-00

Solids in solution

16fl-00

16-2-70

160-00

177-50

196-00

199-00

140-00

142-00

'' Free Ammonia " (NHj)

0-020

0-012

0-020

0-020

0-024

0-023

0016

0-019

" Albuminoid Ammonia " (NH3)

0-240

0-272

0-340

0-230

0-260

0-300

0-260

Oxygen absorbed in 10 minutes,

at 100" C.

n. d.

6-76

6-15

8-53

8-00

8-70

6-00

Nitrites (N)

Nitrates (N)

0-085

none
0-070

none
0-095

none
0-091

none
0-098

none
0-089

none
0078

none

Carbonates (CO9)

49-92

51-00

57-60

85-80

90-48

94-00

5423

Chlorides (CI)

4-80

4-55

6-39

9-15

11-41

11-50

5-58

5-58

Sulphates (SOJ

none

none

none

0-95

1-00

1-22

none

none

Bloe Nile

Solids in .suspension

Solids in solution

" Free ammonia " (NH3)

"Albuminoid ammonia" (NH3)

Oxygen absorbed in 10 minutes,

at 100° C.

Nitrites (N)

Nitrates (N)

Carbonates (CO3)

Chlorides (CI)

Sulphates (SO,) ...

1904

1905

Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb.

March

April May June | July Aug. I Sep.

67-59

105-00

0-010

0-140

n. d.
none

0-030
40-84

1-64

4-95

19-42 6-61
109-15 116-00
trace i 0-006
0114 0-076

1-70
none
0-022

0-80
none
0-015

41-40 47-45

1-56
5-10

1-60
7-00

8-95

120-00

0-020

0-160

0-65
none

0-029
66-80

2-68

7-23

I

6-5 7-0 I 7-0 |472-0* 993-6*

... '130-00 135-00

0-030
0-180

0-03
0-198

0-84 0-89
none ,' none

0-050' 0-054
57-09 69-89

4-51
7-6O

Oct.

7-70
7-69 I

Nov.

no-0
110-0

-018
0169

3-6.1
none
0-040|
44-52
2-64
4-97

6«-0

103-00
0015
0-138

2-20
none

0-035
40-28

1-86

4-80

* Determination made by H. R. Friedrichs

308 KEPOKT OF CHEMICAL LAnORATOUY

More complete exnmiimtioiis won- inudi' on tlir foUowiiifi; dates : —

WIIITK NII.K

BLUE NILE

Pec. 20lh.
1804

Jan. I'ith,

Jundth,
1906

Dee. flkh.
IMM

Jan. 12th.
IM»

CIMI

June 4th.

Solids in MiHpoiiKion

fir.-od

74-IKI

4y(KI

7(111

Solids ill sulutiun

IWi-U)

ICDOO

198-00

11000

Il.-.IHI

1 (■..'■ -(M)

" Frou Ainnioiiin " (NHj)

•016

•020

•023

trace

-006

-032

'• Alliiiiniiioia" (NH,)

•280

•340

•300

-098

-075

•198

Oxytjoii nlisorliod at llX) C. in 10 minutes ...

0-65

G-15

8-70

1-40

0-80

0-89

Nitrites (N)

none

none

none

none

none

none

Nitmtcs(N)

•085

•095

-089

-020

-015

■OM

Chlorides (CI)

4-90

5-39

11-50

1-65

VM

4-70

Carbonates (CO.)

.'■)2-80

57-CO

94-00

42-00

47-45

59-89

Sulphates (S0<)

none

none

1-22

5-40

7-00

769

Calcium (Ca)

12-30

13-20

20-96

18-40

21-81

25-53

Magnesium (Mg) ... ...

3-81

3-98

6-49

4-37

4-65

5-89

Sodium (Na)

22-70

23-40

36-89

5-57

GOl

7-81

Pota-s-sium (K) ...

9-14

8-90

14-27

1-40

1-.V2

1-90

Silica (Si OJ

2400

25-00

2100

26-00

24-00

23-50

The proportion of CO., recorded represents simply
titration with acid.

the measure of the alkalinity determined by direct

Suspended Solid matter in siispni.fion. — For iiiort' reudy loiiiparisoii, these figures have been

maiter in Nile tabulated Separately as follows :—

waters

Novemljcr, 1904
Decemlier „
January, 1905 ..

February „

March „

April „

May „

June „

July

August „

Scptcml)cr „

Octol)er „

November „

WHITE NILE

BLUE NILE

For the greater portion of the year the White Nile carried from 50 to 80 part.s of
suspended matter per million. In August it rose to 142 parts, but this may have been
derived in part from the lilue Nile, the Hood i>f which is so much greater that in July,
August and September it may actually flow up the bed of the White Nile for a short
distance.

REPOBT OF CHEMICAL LABOEATOKY

209

During the period of flooil of the Blue Nile, the pent-up water of the White, which has
a very slight slope (only 1 in 100,000 in flood) forms an immense lake or storage reservoir.
The effect of the slowing up of the current is apparently seen in the proportion of
suspended matter in September and October, when the figures drop to 23-5 and 32-0
respectively. The grosser particles have settled, and there is present chiefly the finer
clayey matter.

The White Nile was thus never found free from an appreciable amount of suspended
matter. The Blue Nile, on the contrary, although carrying in flood an enormous amount of
mud, later, from January till June, becomes almost clear. The contrast between the two
rivers in this respect is best shown by the following diagram, in which is charted, as well,
the flood of the Blue Nile from readings of the river levels taken daily by the Department of
Works. The figures represent these levels and not the actual volumes of water discharged,
but will sufliee for the present comparison.

Chart Shewing Rel.'^.tion of Flood to the Extent of Suspended Matter
Carried by Blue and White Nile Rivers near Khartoum

Suspended
Matter

Parts

Million

1904
Nov.

1905
Jan.

Feb. Mar. .^pril May June July .\ug. Sept. Oct.

Nov.

1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

J^^

P"

s.

1

\

/

\

/

\

/

\

/

)

1

/

y

/

\

i^

— —

.......

^-

f-'"'

\,

V

Blie Nile

Fig.

White Nile

Height -

/.A

A^

OF

4

/

\

Blue Nilb

IN ■'•

/

/

\

Metres

N

V

/

\

\^

1

^

^

/

/

^^

/

Mean Low Level

^

KiG. m.

•2in

REPOnr OF CHEMICAL LAnOnATORY

Colour ol
■■ Blue" anil
"White"
Nile waters

Cause of
difference in
colour

While practiciilly ilt'iir tlnring tlu' months iiu'iitioiu'd above, the Blue Nile water was
never found iilisolntclv frei- from suspi'iuli-ii mutter. The lii|^liest proportion found was on
August I'Jtli, l,l(i(i parts per million, and the lowest t/u January Tith, 4 parts per million.
When nearly clear, the suspended matter was not elay, as in the ease of the White Nile, but
coarser partieles, probably sand and other niiitrriiil Miiwii into the river iiy the hij^h winds
whicli prevail during the winter and spring months.

rite colour of llie " /i/ite" ami tlie " W lii/e" Xili- ini/er. — It has been mentioned that
the White Nile water, while it carries a comparatively small amount of suspended matter, is
never clear. The material in suspension is in great part very fine clay, and, especially after
the larger partieles have settled, the water when examined in a glass vessel has a slight
milky-white colour or opalescence. This clay remains in suspension a very long time :
samples which remained undisturbed in the laboratory for weeks were still distinctly opalescent.
The Blue Nile water, on the cmitrary, especially in the season of lower water (from
January till June) is comparatively — for the greater portion of the time, almost (piite — clear,
and like other clear water containing little organic matter, has a blue colour when viewed in
deep layer.

The reason for the different behaviour of tlic two waters becomes apparent by reference
to their composition. The White Nile water contains but a very small amount of calcium
and magnesium compounds, and a comparatively large amount of sodium and potassium
carbonates and bi-carbonates. Blue Nile water contains on the one hand, more calcium and
magnesium compounds, and on the other much less of the alkali carbonates.

In order to appreciate the bearing of tlie above upon the condition of the water, it will
be well to rehearse some of the facts which have been determined as to the suspension of
clay in water, and its precipitation by various agents.

Ordinary clay contains a certain proportion of wliut lias been called true or " colloid "
clay. When clay is mixed witli pure water, this jelly-like colloid clay remains permanently
suspended in it, no matter how long the mixture is allowed to .stand at rest. Certain clas.ses
of bodies have been found to cause the precipitation of this clay, while others have a
tendency to favour its ditfusion. Among the bodies which cause coagulation and
precipitation from suspension, are acids, calcium and magnesium compounds, and certain
salts — especially common salt. Alkaline substances, on the other hand, favour diffusion
of the clay in water. Ammonia is especially active in this respect, but sodium carbonate is
also very effective. Schloesing has pointed out that the clearness or turliidity of river water
depends essentially on the proportion of calcium and magnesium compounds present.
According to him, for a stream to be able to clear itself of the clay brought into it, the water
must contain 7U to SO jjarts of lime and magnesia per million.

Both Blue and White Nile waters contain a higher proportion of soluble matter during
the .season of lower water, especially from March till June. This is due not so much to the
evaporation and concentration of the water as to the fact that at this time the river derives
its supply in part from the water which has passed into the soil during the period of flood.
At this latter season, both the waters contain leas caleium and magnesium compounds, and in
addition, the White Nile contains a comparatively high proportion of sodium an<l potassium
bicarbonates and carbonates. Neither river is therefore able to free itself from the clay
brought into it, and their svaters remain turbid, even though allowed to stainl at rest for a
long time. When, later, the iiiHux of subsoil water takes i)lace, the proportion of lime and
magnesia increases very appreciably. Thus in June the sum of the lime and magnesia in

REPORT OF CHEMICAL LABORATORY

211

Blue Nile water was equal to 45 parts per million. This is less than Schloesing's limit (70) ; Absence of
nevertheless, by reason of the long distance over which the river passes, the, at this season, ^" ^ ^'" ^^
more moderate speed of the current, and the fact that no additional clay is brought into it, water
the river is able to cdear itself almost completely of its suspended matter, and the water
appears blue. In the same month tlie White Nile water contained but little less lime and
magnesia (40 parts per million), but the proportion of alkali and bicarbonates was so
high (equivalent in alkalinity to 90 parts of sodium carbonate) that the clay remained
obstinately diffused in the water, which thus continued turbid (',' white ") throughout the
entire vear.

Absence of Sulphates from White Nile Water

Blue Nile water was found to contain a small proportion of sulphates, ranging from
about 5 to 7 parts of 8O4 per million. White Nile water, on the contrary, was found to be
quite free from them. From March till June a minute proportion (about 1 part of SO4 per
million) was detected, but this was doubtless derived from the subsoil water which had
filtered into the river during the period of low water. The explanation of the above
exceptional condition was found during the examination of a series of samples of White Nile
water collected by the Irrigation Department. These samples were unfortunately too small
in bulk to permit of many determinations, and, moreover, the corks used had evidently, in
some cases, contaminated the water. The results, so far as they went were, however,
instructive, especially as regards the question of the sulphates.

Sample taken at

Nature' of region

Sulphates, parts per
million (SO«)

Gondokoro

South of sudd region

5-70

Mongalla

n n

575

Lake Powendael

Region of grassy swamps

Traces only

Ghaba Shambe

Region of papyrus swamps

None

Hellet Nuer

)) »i

J)

Sobat River

Swampy

„

Khartoum, up stream

Far north of swamp region

n

It will be seen that the White Nile water, before it reached the sudd region, contained
about the same proportion of sulphates as the Blue Nile water at Khartoum. By the time
it had reached Lake Powendael, after having passed through a long stretch of grassy
swamps, the sulphates were reduced to mere traces ; and after having traversed the sudd
region as far as Ghaba Shambe, they were removed altogether and failed to reappear even as
far north as Khartoum.

•il-J

UErOnT OF CHEMICAL I.AIIORATORY

Cause of
absence of
sul|>ha(es

Precipitation
of clay by
organic matter

Till- cxiiliinaliiiM (if tlic ilisaiiinaraiicc uf siil|>liiitcs in tlic swamiiy ri'i^'idiis is, no iloulit,
till- siinie us that wliii-li ai-<iiUMts for tlic formation of sodium I'arlioiiatc from soiliiim sulplmtu
in tlie alkali lakes which arc coniiiioii to I'l^^yjit ami similar Imt, dry countiics. In the
presence of a larj^e excess of organic matter, uiul the consetiuent limited supply of oxygen,
sulphates are readily reduced to sulphides umlcr tlie influence of micro-organisms. These
sulphiilcs are converted into carlionatcs hy the carbonic acid formed at the same time, and
the hydrogen sulphiile is set free. Otlur decompositions also take place, and inflaniniaMc
gases in considerable amount are constantly given otf in these swampy districts.

A sample of the mud taken from the bed of l?ahr-El-Zcraf by a dredger, was recently
submitted by Mr. Dupuis, Inspector-(Teneral of Irrigation, for examination. When freshly
brought to the surface the mud had a greenish-black colour, due to the presence of iron
sulphide, formed as a result of the reduction of the sulphates. On exposure to the air
oxidation (>f the iron sulphide takes place, and the mud becomes reddish -yellow.

The Sobat Hiver water is also .seen to be free from sulphates. This is to be expected,
as the river derives its water from extensive swamps in wliiili all its tributaries meet.

Since the above was written, the following analyses of waters from the White Nile, in
the Sudd region, have been made. The point furthermost south from which it was possible to
take samples was at Bor. This is in the beginning of the marsliv regions, and it will be seen
that the sulphates have already been reduced to a very low proportion — about one part per
million. A little further on, and the last trace of sulphates is found to disappear. The
amount of " oxygen absorlied," which is a nieasure of the organic matter present, is seen to
increase steadily during the river's passage througli the Sudd, up to the point at which the
Sobat River joins the Nile, where there is a sudden marked fall. The effect of the decom-
position of the vegetable matter and the solution of its mineral constituent is also traced in
the proportions of potassium and sodium, whi(di are subject to a steady rise, and a fall at
the point mentioned above. It will be noticed that these waters, when they had arrived at
Khartoum, with the exception nf the first, were all able to clear themselves; a certain
amount of sediment, largely organic, was present, but tlie water itself was clear. The organic
matter present had eviilcntly acte<l as a precipitant to the clay, just as do acids, calcium and
magnesium salts, and those already mentioned. After the river passes a point beyond Kodok
the large amount of alkali carbonates, resulting from the decompositions in the Sudd region,
cause clay to be taken up from the soil in the river bed. The river again iieeonies turl>id,
and remains so for the rest ofitscour.se, except at the time of lowest water and after its
junction with the Blue Nile, by which the proportion of alkali carbonates are rc(iuced, by
dilution, and the relative proportion of calcium and magnesium increa.sed at the same time.

Fig. 94.— Map of Slud Region
Swamps or Sudd Country indicated by shading.

214

REPORT OF CHEMICAL LABORATORY

ANALYSES OP WATER PROM THE WHITE NILE. IN THE SUDD REGION

Number.

307

308

309

.-ill)

.-in

312

Point of collection

Bor

Between

Kenissa aud

Qhaba

Sbambc

Hcllet Nucr

Down

stream
of Lake
No

Between

Taulikia aud
; mouth of
1 Sobat R.

Kodok

Analyses of
river water in
Sudd region

Condition of water wlien

Slightly

Clear.

Clear, with

Clear, with

Clear.

Clear, with

sample arrived at KtiarUium

opalescent.

Faintly

coloured.

Hrowuish.

Some

sediment

dark brown

sediment.

Water

dark l)rown

sediment.

Water

; Some
i sediment.
1 Water

sediment.
Lighter in
tint than

Some

darker

darker

lighter

No. 311.

sediment

in colour

in tint than

in tint than

Only faintly

than No. 308

No. 30U

No. 310

coloured

Oxyjrcnalworlted in 10 minutes

1

at UK)" C

4-40

4-G4

552

6-08

5-36

556

Chlorides (CI)

7-74

7-18

7-50

8-88

3-59

5-48

Sulphates (SOJ

112

None

None

None

Nouc

None

Carbonates* (CO,)

58o6

5993

67-46

74 9G

5541

4947

Calcium (Ca)

9-74

0-7-J

9-34

10-53

9 74

1018

Magnesium (Mg)

4-41

454

3-61

4-28

3-49

3-85

Sodium (Na)

24-32

2383

3559

30-29

12-70

23-45

Potassium (K)

13-21

15-30

17-39

17-56

7-48

11-21

• See note in connection with Table on page

Mii.K Supply of Khartoum

.Milk adultera-
tion

A dairy under Government niana^ciiniit exists in Khartoum, aud during the five colder
months a limited amount of milk and Initter of <;ood (jnality is olitainable from it. For the
rest of the year no butter is to bo had, and the only milk available is that supplied by the
native vendors. Most of this is goat's milk, but a few cows are also kept for the purpose.
In UKU, a number of samples obtained in the Khartoum Silk were examined, but these,
while leaving much to be desired as regards eleanliness, were evidently whole milk, undiluteil
and unskinune(l. Recently, attention was called to the poor quality of the milk supplied to
the Civil Hospital, and examination showed it to contain about 25 per cent, of addeil
water. Once started on this apparently royal road to fortune, the native milk-seller could
see no reason for moderation in his pace. The milk supplied to the Grand Hotel, for
instance, gave the following resiilts on analysis : —

Oct. 17

Oct. 18

Oet. I'J

Total Solids. .

8-5.')

3-36

3-20 per cent.

Fat ..

1-35

1-30

1-22 „ „

Solids not fat

•2-ill

2-0(i

1-9X .. .,

The average total solids of the goat's milk already examined was over 13 per cent.
The above milk (?) evidently containeil something like 75 per cent, of added water.
Whether, ultimately, delicate tests would have discovered as much as a faint trace of fatty
and non-fatty solids in Khartoum milk, hatl not the Medical Oflicer of Health stepped in and

REPORT OF CHEMICAL LABORATORY

215

by punishing and registering the milk vendors, cruelly put a stop to such sources of
income, would seem to be doubtful. One of these worthies, when accused of carrying her
worship of the Nile to undue lengths, naively replied " Malum ! I make more money
like that."

Systematic examinations of the milk of individual cows and goats, as well as of the
mixed milk of herds of each of these, have been begun, and it is proposed to continue them
in order to accumulate data which will enable one to establish a standard or standards,
applicable to all seasons of the year. The fact that the milk supply is derived partly from
goats and partly from cows introduces a difficulty, since the " solids not fat," of goat's
milk is, as a rule, at least in other countries, considerably higher than that of cow's milk.
So far as the present results go the milk from Khartoum cows appears to be quite equal to
that from goats ; but it is not anticipated, when all the results are in, that these high
proportions will be maintained.

The following are some of the results which have been obtained from the examination of
milk of individual animals : —

Analyses of
pure milks

No

27.5

280

283

284 ! 278

279 282

Milk from

Goat

Goat

Goat

Goat

Egyptian
Cow

Sudanese
Cow

Cow

Quantity

—

1 pint

— ^

—

4 pints

14 pints

—

Period since calving . . . j — 4 mouths

1 ' t
— — 8 mouths G mouths —

1 1

Total solids

... 1 13-6

14-80

13-6

14-81

13-0

16-51

15-01

Fat

... 1 40

4-35

4-7

0-.35

3-5

7-40

6-35

Solids not fat

96

10-45

8-9

9-46

9-5

9-11

8-66

Samples Nos. 280, 278 and 279 were collected by ]\Ir. W. A. Davie ; the remainder by
Mr. Newlove.

One sample from a cow brought north from Ivo<lok, suffering- from trpyanosomiasis, but
since apparently cured, gave the following exceptionally high figures. The yield of milk
was not noted. The cow had calved eight munths previously.

Total Solids . . . . . . . . 21-5 per cent.

Fat 11-2

Solids not fat lO'S

Dried Milks

Milk powders, prepared by evaporating milks to dryness on a revolving cylinder, Otied milks
heated to 230° F. have been on the market for the last two years or more. Milk in this
form would appear to be exceptionally suited to use in the Sudan, especially by those
journeying in the interior where ordinary milk is frequently not obtainable. As a result of
the heat used in manufacture these powders have' been found to be bacteriologically sterile,
and samples kept in the laboratory for five months at a temperature of from 85° to 98° were
still found to be in fairly good condition.

216

HKI'OUT OF CIIKMUAI, lahouatouy

Digestiliilily

Analyses

PiTliaps tlif lu'st iiii'thuil uf ivi-oiistitutiiig milk fiuiii .such powili-rs is to bring water
to boiling iiml allow to cool to about IGU"^ to 180" F. ; tin- jjowiKt is then made into a paste
with a snnill portion uf tiic water; more iit tiie water is tiien added until the milk has the
strength desireil. Milk so rec(institutf(l is dilliiiilt to ilistinguish from ordinary milk, and is
of very agreeable flavour and odour.

Press of other work has prevented an e.xhaustive examination of this reconstituted milk,
but sullicieiit evidence was gathered to make it extremely likely that it would be found
considerably more digestible than ordinary milk. Thus it was noted that when the milk was
curdled with rennet the curd formed was in fine flakes, and not iu one large clot as is the
case with ordinary milk. The curd formed by dilute acid was also more finely divided.

Till' natural inference from this is that its digestion would be facilitated. This was
borne out by the experience with a patient with whom ordinary milk was found far less
readily digested. Recently Somerville* has noteil similar eflects as regards the action of
rennet on ordinary and reconstituted milk, and, in a series of artificial digestions, has found
both the fat and proteids in the latter i>e in iiiorc digestible form.

Analysis of (.'ommekciai. Duikd Milks

Hr.ind

Form

Moibture
4G1

Fat

26-62

Lactose and Proteids

Ash

" Golden Vale Full Cruain "

Talilets of 30 i^ramincs

62-G7

1

700

" Qoldcn Vale Full Cream "

. Powder in tins

4-82

24-52

63-69

6-79

" Lacta. Dried English Full Cream " ..

Powder in tins

.0-00

24-30

C4-05

6-65

" Qalak. Half Cream '■

Powder iu tins

1

G-10 1

16-35 1

1

70-33

1

7-22

All of these are of the strength claimed for them by the makers. The last sample,
" Galak," made from milk from whicli half of the cream has been abstracted, keeps in good
condition longer than the other in powder fcjnii, but is not economical in use. For most
purposes, as, for instance, in tea and coflFee, about double the quantity has to be used in order
to proiluce the same apparent eftect as with " full cream " milks. The tablet form of
" Golden Vale " kept sweet longer than the powder of the same milk, is much clieaper and
from its small bulk more convenient for transport ; but it was found more difficult with it
to reconstitute the milk free from lumps and flakes of considerable size.

Some Analyses of Sudan Grains

Sudan wheat
for I'^yptian
consumption

The following analyses of wheat grown in the Sudan are of interest, not only because
of the excellent quality which they disclose, but especially in view of the possibility of
utilizing for its cultivation extensive areas where the sup|)ly of water is at present
insufficient for the .successful production of cotton. .V murkct fur tliis wheat could lie found
in the neighbouring countries bordering on the Ked Sea and possibly in Egypt as well.
Tn Egypt, by reason of the extension of perennial irrigation, the cultivation of wheat,
already insufficient to meet the requirements of the country, has decreased in recent years.
A rapidly increasing population has caused a still further shortage and the demand for
bread stuffs has to be met by imports from abroad.f Since it is contemplated bringing still

• fjilionitory c.t|K-rimeiit)i on the dijjestibility of dried milk. Piililie Ifenlth,Ovto\)Ci, 1905, p. 40.
t The importM of wheat as grain and Hour amounted in 1906 to i;El,215,243.

REPORT OP CHEMICAL LABORATORY

217

more land under perennial irrigation, the shortage is likely to be very considerably increased.
There seems to be no good reason why this demand should not be met by the Sudan.

Analyses op Whkat
No. 219. Seed unknown. Bought in Omdurman market. Sent by Bimb. Hnskisson,

Staff Officer Supplies, Sudan, S.
No. 220. Indian. Reproduced at the Experimental Farm for three years.
No. 221. Indian (Mozafitarnagar). Reproduced at the Experimental Farm for two years.
No. 222. Egyptian. Reproduced at the Experimental Farm for two years.
No. 223. Sudani. Sowu on the Experimental Farm for two years.

Nos. 220 to 223 inclusive were sent by Mr. Broun, Dir. of Agriculture and Lands.

Number

219

220

221

222

223

V.'iriety of seed

UiiktK)\vu
Omdurmau

Indian

Indian I Egyptian

(Mozaffarnagar) i

Sudani

Moisture

Fat (Ether extract) . . .
Allmmiuoids (N x 5'68)
Non-nitrogenous extract

Crude fibre

Mineral matter (ash)

Weight of 100 grains (in grammes)

4-37
1-50

11-01

77-74

2-90

2-48

2-813

4-87
1-70
17-87
69-66
3-40
2-50

2-716

4-50
1-58
14-83
73-82
2-98
2-29

2-795

4-60
1-55
2100
69-20
3-35
2-30

3-139

4-95

1-70

21-53

66-37

3-35

2-10

2-465

Analyses of Millets and Maize

Number

200

201

202

203

2.39

240

297

Description

Maize
Dura

Shami

Dura
White Feterita

Dura
Bed Peterita

Dura
Brown
Peterita

Telebun

TefE

Dukhn

Zea Mays

Sm-i

ihum vulgare

EUusine
Corocana

Poa

Abyssinica

Pencillaria
spicata

Where produced

El Halawin,
Ghezireh
Province,near
Kamlin

Goz Abu
Goma

Blue Nile
at Singa

Wau

Kassala

Kordofan

Moisture

4-97

6-20

4-90

617

7-35

5-69

4-40

Fat (Ether extract) ...

5-17

3-02

300

2-77

1-25

. 2-80

3-30

Albuminoids (N x 6-25)

13-02

12-31

14-18

8-93

5-28

5-91

16-71

Non-nitrogenous extract

70-47

74-57

73-77

78-67

81-26

80-60

70-49

Crude fibre

2-15

1-80

210

1-72

2-85

2-70

3-55

Mineral matter (ash)...

2-20

210

2-05

1-67

201

2-30

1-51

Weight of 100 grains...
(in grammes)

17-37

3-60

3-787

2-567

0-215

0-025

0-757

and maize

218

UEPORT OK CIIKMICAL LABORATORY

Leoumimous Seeds

leguminous
seeds

The following uniilyses were nmtle at tlic request of Colonel Asser, former Civil
Secretiiry, with the object of finding a grain, grown in the Smlan, which might be
substituted for the Kgvptian lentils issued as a ration to the native troops: —

Numljcr

177

178

179

180

Grain

Egyptian Lentils

Sudan Lentils

Kashraugcck

Lubia

Lms rteulmta

Cajnnus inilieun

Vigna sineruu

Dvlirhos lalilnh

Moisture

G-22

G-20

G-35

5-70

Fat (Ether extract)

0%

1-37

0-90

093

Albuminoids (N x 6-25)

! 27-30

1

2103

25-52

20-00

Nou-nitrogenous extract

' 5740

(;i-80

54-23

5802

Crude fibre

ol2

G40

y i.i

490

Mineral matter (aslO

300

3C0

3-85

385

It will be seen that the Sudan lubia are almost identical in composition with the
Egyptian lentils, and much more nearly so than the variety of lentils grown in the Suilan.

A sample of gram grown at the Kxiicriiiiciital Farm, from Inrlian seed, had the
following composition:—

Moisture

Fat (Ether extract) ...
Albuminoids (N X 625)
Non-nitrogenous extract

Crude fibre

Mineral matter (ash) ...

Weight of 100 grains ...

... 395 per cent.

... 3-75

... 19-47

... 02-51
8-20

... 3-82

... 15417 grammes.

Native made
salt

Salt

The greater portion of the salt used in the Sudan is manufactured locally. The
methods of extraction used are crudr. wwA the ([U.ility nf the worst. In most cases the salt
contains a considerable proporticm of insiduldc matter — sand and clay. This is especially
the case with the article sold in the form of cones similar to loaves of sugar, which are
generally in use. In addition to this, cone salt often contains such a large proportion
of foreign salts, especially soilium sulphate, as to make it distinctly aperient or purgative.
This fact is reeognizeil by the mitive, ami the salt is sometimes used medicinally. An example
of such salt is had in the sample from Ivubatali coinitry, in which the sodium suljihate
amounts to over IS per cent.

REPORT OF CHEMICAL LABORATORY

219

Analyses of Salt of Native Manufacture

—

Small cone,
Rubatab country

Large cone,
El Darner

Loose salt.
El Darner

Loose salt,
Rufaa

Clay ami other dirt insoluble iu water...

0-53

5-84

0-40

0-31

Calcium sulphate

0-54

2-70

1-70

1-16

Calcium chloride

—

5-26

3-20

4-60

Magnesium chloride

0-44

1-99

2-63

5-30

Sodium sulphate

18-64

—

—

—

Salt (and moisture) by difJ

80-05

84-21

92-17

88-63

100-00

100-00

10000

10000

The process of extraction consists in treating the salt-containing earth with water, Method of
drawing oif the more or less clear li(juiil and boiling down in small pans. The cone extraction
salt is made by boiling down in a clay mould. It will be seen that the loose salt is
both cleaner and purer, but at best is of very poor quality. The sample from El Darner
has a dirty appearance. That from Rufaa looks cleaner, but has a brownish colour.

The salt used by the Government for issue to both men and animals is that imported
from Egypt, obtained by the evaporation of the salt lakes near Mex. The analysis of one
sample gave the following results :

Analysis of Salt from Mex

Insoluble m water ... ... ... ... ... 0-05 percent.

Calcium sulphate ... 0-62 „

Magnesium chloride 008 „

Sodium sulphate 0-27 „

Sodium chloride (and moisture) ... ... ... 98-98 ,,

Halt obtained from this source varies somewhat in composition, but will rarely contain more
than twice the amount of impurity stated above.

All the above samples were kindly furnished us by Jlaior Coutts, Assistant Civil ^

i^ •' J J > Dongola salt

Secretary, to whom we are indebted also for the following sample of exceptionally good salt
from the desert in the Dongola district, where it is said to exist in considerable quantity.

Analysis of Salt from Desert near Dongola
Insoluble in water ... ... ... ... ... 005 per cent.

Calcium compounds Traces only.

Magnesium sulphate ... ... ... ... ... 0-22 per cent.

True salt 99-73

The above figures are calculated on the salt free from hygroscojiic moisture.

I am informed that natron is also found iu the district, and probably the two are derived ^^^^ tionaii
from the bed of a natron lake which formerly existed there. When in charge of the Wady pure salt from
Natron, in Egypt, it was noticed that at certain seasons of the year it was possible to scrape
from the beds of some of the lakes a salt of almost absolute purity. The impurities present
were only minute proportions of sodium carbonate and sulphate, not even a trace of calcium
nor magnesium being found. The freedom from these was evidently due to the presence
of a very large proportion of sodium carbonate in the mother liquor. Salts of the above
composition attract moisture from the air only when the latter is excessively damp. The

natron lake

220

UKrOKT OF I'llKMICAl, l,A»0«ATOUY

' Male" and
' female " sail

fulluwiiig is till uiiiilysis uf suit urystuls tukt-ii from tiic lnil u[ liiike liuuziiiiii'li, in the
Waily Natron.

SiKliuiii Kiil])linU: 004 jut cent.

Sodium onrbounte o U „

True Kiilt (by diff.) 09 85

The iihovi' iiiiimrity, .slight as it was, was (lerivi'il hirgely from the hiki- water wliieli ainR're<l

to the surfaff of the crystals. After slight washing in eomiiaratively fresh water, the

crystals, after drying, had the following composition :

Sodium Hulplmtc 004 percent.

Sodium cjirbouiitc ... ... ... 0'04 „

True salt 9992

" .\f,i/i" (Hill " /•ViiKilf" Soil. — We are indebted to Mr. Tiirstig of the Egyptian Survey
Department for the following samples which were collected near Khor Tomat, several
hundred miles up the Atbara river. At this place salt is extracted from earths wiiiidi
contain only a little over two per cent., by leaching with water and boiling dnwii in tlie
usual way. 'I'lie interesting point was notid tliat the natives employ for tin ])uipiisf two
different earths, one containing what tliey term "male" and the other "female" salt.
Neither of these, it was stated, was edible if taken alone, but if the earths are mixed they
furnished a salt of good quality. The results of analyses bore out these statements. JOU
grammes of each of the earths were found to contain tiic following proportions of soluble
salts :

—

Male

Female

Sodium chloride ...

Sodium sulphate

Calcium chloride

Calcium sulphate

Magnesium chloride

Per cent.
1-580

0-443

0-292
0-135

Per cent.

1178

0-821
0170
0174

Total

2450

2343

As will be seen, the " male " salt contains such a large proportion of sodium sulphate
as would render it of little use as a table salt. Similarly the "female" salt contains an
excessive proportion of calcium chloriile. By combining the two in about the proportion
of say two parts of male to one part of female, tlie two impurities would unite to form
calcium sulphate, and the })roportion of sodium chloride would be notably increased. On
boiling down, the calcium sulphate would separate, in part, and from the concentrated
mother liquor a good quality of salt could be obtained by further evaporation.

Limestone .\Nn T/Ime

The extension of building operations in the Suilan has created an increasing
demand for lime of good cpialitv. Beds of what woulil usually bo considereil to be good
limestone are not plentiful, especially in the neighboiu-hooil of Khartoum. Jlost of
the deposits are of very irregular character and mixed with more or less, usuaH\- very

EBPOET OF CHEMICAL LABORATORY

221

considerable, sand and clayey matter. The Department of Works experienced considerable
difficnlty in employing the lime made from this material, especially in interiors where the
plaster was found to blister and peel. Mr. F. Blurphy, of the same Department, called my
attention to the exceptionally poor ciuality of the mortar used in the construction of certain
buildings. In places, I was told, the mortar could not only be scraped away with the
greatest ease, but once the outer covering was removed, the interior was found to run away
almost as readily as loose sand. Samples of lime from several sources, used for this purpose,
were sent to the laboratories for examination. One of these was only tested qualitatively.
It was found to contain no lime at all — evidently a mistake in the sampling. Two other
samples gave the following results : —

Marks Pasquali Lolos

True Lime (a O) 58-.3 ... o4 7

Sand, Clay, etc 28-1 ... 31-8

Undet 13G ... 13-.')

Cause of bad
quality of lime

Total 100-0 1000

There was nothing in these figures to account for the unsatisfactory results obtained.
Ultimately the explanation was found in the method of working. As already mentioned, the
limestone near Khartoum is of very irregular quality and contains a considerable amount of
foreign stone. As it is not easy, by mere inspection, to detect this useless material in the
burnt lime, nor to estimate the amount present, it has been the practice of contractors to
purchase the lime only after it has been slaked and the worthless material sifted out.
There would be little objection to this method provided the lime were used at once ; but, as
a matter of fact, it was delivered, or used, in many cases, days and even weeks after slaking.
With lime of like composition such a practice is fatal. In the presence of so large an
amount of clay, the lime " sets" to a certain extent, like a cement, and the best results can
only be liad by using as (juickly as possible after slaking. Of course, where the lime has
been allowed to stand, slakeil, and in dry powder, for weeks, not only is the eifect of the
hydraulic character of the lime lost, but absorption of carbon dioxide from the air takes
place to such an extent that the lime becomes practically worthless. These points were
quickly grasped by Mr. Murphy ami the energetic measures taken to insure the use onlv of
freshly-slaked lime were followed, we are informed, by satisfactory results.

The ideal method of employing lime of this hydraulic character is that which, as I am
informed by Mr. Dupuis, obtains in India. The lime is derived from a so-called " kankery "
formation, consisting of nodules and root-like masses containing, in addition to calcium
carbonate, a considerable proportion of clay and sand. This is burnt with wood in rather
shallow kilns. After cooling the entire mass is ground, and the powder so obtained furnishes
an excellent hydraulic lime. In use, water is only added at the time the admixture with
sand or other material, is made. The maximum hydraulic effect is secured in this way. ■' Kanker'

Foreseeing the need for lime for building purposes throughout the Sudan, a number of
samples of limestone were collected by Mr. Dupuis, Inspector General of the Sudan
Irrigation Service. Some of these are "kankery" formations, similar to those of India, and
there is every reason to believe that excellent results would bo had by treating the lime
produced from them either in the ordinary way, or, if hydraulic lime is required, by the
Indian method detailed above. Others are more nearly pure limestone and would furnish a

222

REPORT OF CHEMICAF, LABORATORY

good quulity of whiit is known us '
tukon from luanv loculitics and runL'f

' flit " liiMo. As will 1)1' seen, these sninpluH have been
DVtT priietifally the whole of the Sudan.

C. 1..

J

No.

i

Character

I^ocality

Analyses of l*''!
limestones

l.'.l

1

152

2

163

3

154

4

IBS

6

181

—

182

—

183

—

198

—

265

1
6 1

266

7

267

8

268

9

269

10

270

11

271

12

272

1
13

273

14

Hltiolc nodnlnr m.-i^'-i's luiMni in "in
White „
Boot sha])cd
II II 11 II II

II II n

Nodulas from river lank
„ in soil
„ on surface of soil
Nodules

White crystallino limestone
Pink
Coarse granular stone

Crystalline

Nodular ...

II

„ from river hank...

II t) •■ '..

11 II II II ..•

Blue Nile banks

Hor

Binney and Patoyitch
Bet. Tnufikia and Bor
Sobat at Abwong
Near Roseires

II II ■ • ■

J. Qereiris.sa ...
Sabdemt near Kassala
Bor Wood Station

QhabaShambe

near Tantikia . .

I, Mehit

Lower Bahr cl Qhazal

^•8

82-57
78-48
46-47
50-27
59-45
73-70
72-95
66-40
75-62
87-50
94-45
43-15
66-25
72-30
69-5U
71-55

is

s

1

.9

h

u

3

<

.a
1

1

P

3-70

2-72

1.78

6-80

8-80

4-lC 2-C9 1.97

4-83 5-00 2.66

5-00 6-88

2-66 5-20

3.45
2.87

2-78 I 3-14 1.84

3-00
2-88
4-25
0-22
1-21
2-34
3211
41G
3-02
4-84

3-04
5-43

2.16
3.52

77-95 4-18

72-23

4-12

3-24 ; 2.56
0-50
0-65
2-70
0-.30
.•i-80
3-10
4-10
2-77
5-30

7-20
28-35
22-65
18-05
16-85
17-65
20-50
12-85
11-35

3-00

ll.">

I

10-20
35-65
29-85
23-55
20-80
22-35
20-75
16-40

;")l-70

19-30
23-80
18-70
14-20
17-40

No. 198 was furnished by Kaiin. It. TI. Wilson.

Sl'dan "Gum Arabic"

Gum arabic has been known from the remotest antiquity. Nearly 2,000 years B.C. it
was used by the Egyptians in the fabrication of colours for painting. The gum was collected
in the valley of the Nile from the Arnrid Arahim, whidi formerly grew there in abundance,
but the greater portion was imported into tlir lountrv liv vessels coming from Aden, which
port probably derived its supply only in part from the interior of Arabia — -a portion having
its origin along the .Somali coa.st. J^ater, under Roman domination, and in the I\Iiddle Ages,
the gum exported from Aden was chiefly, if not entirely, that from Somaliland. JIuch larger
quantities were produced in Arabia and exported from Jcddah, on the Red Sea to Europe.
At the present time the Arabs pay comparatively little attention to the production of gum,
the two great gum producing countries being the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and the French
Colony of Senegal.

During the years of tlic ])(rvisii occupation, trade in gum ceased; but with the
reconquering of the Sudan it was renewed, and it is expected that thr Sudan product will
regain its former place in the front rank of tin- trade of this article.

In the Sudan, as in Senegal, gum is extided from a innnber of varieties of acacias, but,
in both countries, the chief variety, ami tliat furnishing the class of gum which has the

324 nEPOBT OF CHEMICAL LABORATORY

Source or gum highest fOinilMTcilll Villtlc, is the .1 '•';,(.» IV;-,/- klluwil ill St'IU'gul as thf Ariicltl Sfnfijdl, mu\

in the Su(hiii iis //ns/nilio (pi. //<n/tiif>). A much snmller i]imntity of gum called Tulh is
eolleete<l in the Sudiiii from the .1. Sri/nl. Tlie .1. Anih'ini (Siiiif.i, j)l. S,iiit) iin<l other
varieties exist and exude gums, hut these, either because of thiir dark colour or otlier
objectionable qualities are of no commercial importance.

Growth and Collection — The conditions of cultivation and collection of ^'iim liavc
been note<l by C. K. Muriel.* former Director of Forests, as follows: —

" Hasiiab Gum. —The best gum CHashab") comes ehieliy from Kordofan ; a siiuill
quantitv, is collected on the Blue Nile, and is known as ' Hashab Gezireh." llashab
gum is also reported as pleiitifiil in KassuJa. ' Hashab Gencina,' is the term applied to the
gum when it is obtained from tlie specially worked trees which constitute the Konlofan
Geneinas. Soon after the rains have ceased, bark is removed in strips from the principal
branches of all llaxhah trees of three years old and upwards in the Geneina.

" The operation is performed by men armed with the common axe of the country, with
which the bark is cut through transversely and then torn off in a strip by hand : if carefully
done a thin layer of the inner bark (liber) is left covering the wood, and the tree is
not much injured.

" Strips of 2 to 3 feet in length, and 1 to 3 inches wide — more or less according to the
size of the branch operated on — appear to give best results.

" In some cases where lone strips of bark (J feet or more in length had been torn oti", less

Collection t> t ^

of gum gum seemed to exude, than where short lengths of bark had been removed.

" The removal of bark down tu the wood and cutting into the wood itself should be
avoided ; in such cases, less gum exudes, and tiie tree is injured. Dead ])ranches, and small
side branehlets are cleared away when barking is done to facilitate approach to the tree, for
collecting the gum.

" Some sixtv davs after barking, tlic first collection of gum is made, and thereafter the
Geneina is completely picked over every fourth day, until the flush of new leaves soon
after the rains set in, stops the exudation of gum. Gum picking is chiefly done by
women.

'"Hashab Wady ' is the name applied to gum which is exuded naturally from //'/.-7«i/<
trees not indudeil in Geneina.

"This gum is slightly darker in colour than ' Hashab Geneina,' but it is po.ssiblc to
select clean pieces of 'Wady' gum which cannot be distinguished by tiie gum pickers
themselves from ' Geinina " gum.

" ' Wady 't gum is usually in pear-shaped pieces of variable size, proportionate to the
length of time that elap.ses, between con.secutive collections (ten days to a month, and the
more distant Wady forest is only picked over once a year).

" ' Kadab ' is the name given to a dirty gum which is .sometimes found exuding from
IFashnh trees. Tt is of no value, and if found in a jiarccl of gum is picked out. and
thrown away.

"The conditions favourable to the production of Hashab' gum are: — Ferruginous,
sandy soil, with a good mitural drainage; dry heat during the gum collecting season, and a
moderately heavy rainfall (40 to 70 inches) during the rainy season.

• Keport on the Forests of the Sudan. C. E. Muriel, October, 1901.

t In a recent report Mr. Hroun, Pire<-tor of WtMid" nnd Forests, notes that the term " Wndv " i< now
Applied to certain larjfe roloured tears of either Wady or Ocneina origin.

r.ErOIiT OF CHEJIICAL LAECrATOKY 225

" Excessive moisture in soil, otherwise suitable, appears to prevent the production of Conditions
eum. Near Agari, where the Khor Agari loses itself in the sandy soil, there is a good f^*™'''"" ?>""

" ^ o J ' >D production

growth of Hashal), but on these trees no trace of gum was found, though on either side
there is good gum producing Geneina. Trees on such moist soils preserve their leaves,
and it seems probable that shade is in such cases, the main cause preventing the formation
of gum, just as the flush of new leaves, when the rains commence, stops the further
production of gum for the season, on gum bearing trees.

" Protection from fire is essential to success. Burnt Geneina is unproductive for the
rest of the season. This is known, and acted on by the people, who are extremely cautious
in the use of fire, so that although they do not take more active measures of fire protection
only a comparatively small area of burnt Geneina was seen.

" The main causes of such fires as do occur, seem to be the careless burning of grass
on the paths by camel men, and malicious firing by gum pickers (living in villages not
frequented by gum merchants) of Geneina, near the villages at which the merchants reside
during the gum season ; the object being (by lessening the supply of gum at the latter
places) to induce the merchants to move on to the other villages.

" The clearing of fire traces would safeguard the Geneinas from accidental fires, and
would render the detection of malicious firing less difficult, as incendiaries would have to go into
the Geneinas to set fire to them, instead of merely lighting the grass to windward at a
distance. Adequate punishment in proved cases of malicious firing is the only means of
stopping the offence. Regarding the age of gum producing trees 3 to 15 or 20 years may
be taken as the limits ; the lower limit is essentially one of size rather than age. Young
Ha»hah 8 to 10 feet high, with a girth of 6 to 8 inches, will produce gum.

" From an examination of trees in various localities which were producing little or no
gum, and in Geneinas considered past bearing, it appears that at about 12 to 15 years of
age the Ilashah tree forms a dark brownish black heartwood, and thereafter the production
of gum diminishes, and subsequently ceases. Probably trees of 8 to 12 years yield the
best return of gum.

" Much might be done to increase the production of gum by filling up blanks in Geneinas.
It would be easy to collect seeds from the other trees in the Geneina, and drop them
about at intervals of six yards in the blank spaces. Such sowing had best be made just
when the rains commence, so that the seeds may germinate as soon as possible after
sowing — if made earlier many of the seeds would be eaten by rats.

" Crowding of trees in a Geneina is not desirable, as it is gum, and not timber, that is the
marketable produce. A complete canopy would give too much shade and lessen the exudation
of gum, also a much-branched tree has a proportionately greater gum-bearing surface.

" A stock of 18 to 100 trees per acre would be dense enough, and sowings as indicated
above would (allowing for failures) produce sufficient seedlings.

" In addition to the advantage of maximum yield obtained by having a fully stocked
Geneina, the risk of serious damage by fire is much less than where trees are scattered, and
the absence of shade allows a thick growth of grass to spring up.

" As population increases, areas of Wady will come to be treated as Geneina, yielding
a purer gum and more of it.

" The management of Geneinas is best left in private hands, the operator is then directly
interested, and uses all care in the barking of the trees and the collection of gum.

" The present needs are more people to take up Geneina, and wells to enable them to

226 REPORT OF rnEMicAr, r.AnoRATouY

cstalilisli villages noar suitalik- tracts of Waily. Food stuffs ciiii lie liouglil or cxcluiiigctl
for gnni, lint often some diikhn is cultis'uteil liy Geneiiiit owners.

" Tile i|iiiUitity of gum produceil on a given area varies very much (aieording to the
stock of trees).
Vifici of gum " On an average (Jeneina near Sliergeila, area ulniiil in acres, the owner stated that

the first collection yielded ahout 100 Ihs. of gum, droi)iiing to Tf) lbs. and (!0 llis. at
the second and third picking. After that it averaged ahout 50 lbs. each for several
collections, and goes on diminishing to 10 lbs. at the close of the season. He estimated
the annual yield at I'i nr IT) Kantars (1,200 to l/)00 lbs.).

" Near Agari, where the fJeneina were much better, the estimate for 'M) Geneiiuis for
the sea.-<on was 700 Kantars (70,000 lbs.), of which 470 Kantars had then (7th Aja-il)
bei'U collected.

" For equal areas the out-turn at Agari, would be about double that at Shergeila, due
chiefly to the want of density in the stock of trees in the Shergeila Geneinas.
■'■'»"' " T.\LH Gum.— Talh gum is collected chiefly from the JMue Nile forests; these were

visited before the gum collecting season had commenced, consequently the work of
collecting was not seen.

" According to the information obtained the 7'iilh trees are not barked or wounded
in any way by gum collectors, who take such pieces of gum as they find exuding from the
trees. It is impossible to form any estimate of the immense area over which the Talh
Acacia grows. There arc twcj varieties of trees, one witli a led powder which so covers
tlie bark of the tree as to uudvc it appear entirely red, is called Jii't/ Tulli, the other is
similarly coateil with a white powder, has a staring white appearance, and is generally
called White Titlh, but bears also tlie name •'^offur, from the fact that the base of its
stipular spines are usually enlarged by llie [miicture of smiie insect wln'ili dijiiisits its
eggs there, the larva emerging makes a small hole through the globular enlargcna-ut
and the wind blowing on this produces a whistling .sound.

" Both varieties produce gums, which appear to be indistinguishable, but the llid TnUi
being very nnieb nuire almndaut than the White, it is fnjiii that variety that most of the
TiiUi gum is obtained.

" The localities where this gum is collected in quantity ai-e in the Karkoj JIamuria,
and the South part of the Wad-lOl-Abbas Mamuria. A small ipiantity is also collected
in th(' Roseires District. A eonqiaratively small (|Uaiitity is extraete(l fnun tin- for<'sts
West of Kaka on the Whit.' Nile."

Origin of glim OiiioiN OF GuM. — According to the recent researches of Greig Smith* the production

of gum is due to a specific microbe, which he has named lUirt. tiniriir. The gum has been
shown to be formed from the wandering sugars, levulose and maltose, in the sap. Another
organism, />. iiii-/<ini/'iiiiiiii, was also isolateil. This was foiuid to produce the form of gum
which swells up in water, but does not dissolve. Further, it was found that the host plant
was able to convert /i. acuritr into /{. iiiffnriiliiiinin. thus proving that the latter organism is
sinqily a variety of the former. It appears evident from these rescandics that /i. iinirin is
the prime cause of the formation of gum in all varieties of acacias, the character of the gum
formeil ilepending upon the nature of the sap of the host. This would explain the
uniformity of the gum from certain species of trees.

• IVuceudings of the Linncan Society of New South W.-ilof, 190'.'-.1-4 ; .1. Soc. Cheni. In<l., Feh. .'ukI Oit., 19o|.

s
o

228

REPOnT OF CHEMICAL LABORATORY

Us*s of gum

So called

■• Khartoum'

and

■■ Kordofan"

gums

Gum funiiiitiun, ijiiiiinioniK, iiuin finr, in plunts has long been held, iit least in some cases,
to Ik? the result of a pathological condition. Maiden (I'hiir. .Tour. 8, XX. (1890), 869), who
consiilered it to be the general rule, ijuotes an observation of Trecul to the effect that Acacias
and Rosacea' yield their gums most abundantly when sickly or in an abnormal state. So far
as regards the Su<lan, and, it would appear Senegal as well, it is in sandy, not very rich soils,
moist in the rainy, hut iltticiiiit in moisture in tlic drvir season, that the trees seem to yield
gum most abmidaiitly. A plentiful supply of moisture at all sea.sons appears to result in a
condition of vigour in the plant which enables it to resist infection. This would explain the
state of aflairs mentioned by JIuriel (see page 'I'!!}), who found a good growth of " Hashab"
trees bearing no trace of gum, and yet, on either side, in dryer soil, there was a good
gum producing Creneina. This also appears to be the case in the Blue Nile Province.

As Dr. Greig Smith {lor. cit.) states, while every susceptible tree does not produce gums
it might be made to do so by an artificial infection, either with pure bacterial cultures or with
the fresh juice from a selected and infected tree. The case cited above would .seem to
indicate that infection would only take place under certain favourable conditions. It seems
little likely that the group of trees referred to would have remained uninfected, situated as
they were, had they been susceptible ; but it is quite possible that other acacias, differently
situated, might have remained uninfected, and inoculation might be practised with profit. In
any case, as Dr. Smith further notes, all branches of a tree may not be producing gum, and
an artificial infection of these might increase the yield. There is, possibly, a very profitable
field for research in this direction.

Uses of Gum Akabic. — Gum arabic has a very wide application in the arts. The
better grades are used in confectionery, in dyeing and finishing silks and other fabrics, in
water colours and in pharmaceutical preparations. The lower grades are used in the
manufacture of inks, matches, stationery, etc. The t'ommeri'ial value of the gum will depend
principally upon its freedom from colour, odour, taste, and foreign matter, and upon its
strength, as measured by the viscosity of its solutions.

GKADrso. — At the present time by far the larger portion of Sudan gum is exported in
the crude state. A small amount of it is partially picked, and some of it, already of a light
colour, is further bleached by exposure to the sun. The result is an almost perfectly white
gum, yielding a nearly colourless solution, odourless and practically tasteless, or of a slight
agreeable flavour. This grade is highly prized for use in confectionery.

Although all the gum from Kordofan is collected from the AcacUi Wrek; the gum
presents certain differences in quality. How far these differences are due to soil, to tilt
amount of rainfall and to season of collection, to the barking and iige of the trees, etc., etc.,
has not as yet been worked out ; the last mentioned, the age of the tree, seems to be a most
important factor. Generally speaking, the stronger gum is the product of young, and the
weaker variety of the more fully matured trees. In Trieste, where much of the gum goes
for sorting and cleaning, the giun is divided into two main classes — " Khartoum ' and
"Kordofan." "Khartoum" is the hard gum, presenting more the characteristics of the
Senegal product. The surface is smooth and shiny and the pieces are hard and tough. This
gum yields a solution highly viscous, and, as a rule, of light colour.

The grade known as " Kordofan " is a softer gum, which in drying quickly becomes
covcreil with innumerable cracks and fissures, so that after even a moderate exposure to
the Sim the tears lose their transparency and appear whitish and opaipie. As a rule this
variety of gum furnishes a very pale, clean solution of good flavour. The viscosity may be,

REPORT OF CHEMICAL LABORATORY 229

and usually is, lower than that of " Khartoum " gum, but whether because this is
overbalanced by its other qualities, or because of different methods of working, this gum
fetches in Trieste a higher price for use in confectionery than the harder and so-called
" stronger " gum.

Senegal gum is picked to a great number of grades.* In the following tables of Grading
results of examinations, the Sudan gum was in some cases picked to the same grades
in order to afford a better comparison. The latter was possible only with Kordofan
Hashab, this season's gum from Gedaref and Ghezireh not yet being available.

The proportion of moisture was noted to be closely dependant upon the size of the
tears, the smaller ones offering more evaporating surface and containing less water.

The amount of acidity varied but little. The sourish taste which some samples
possess is not always associated with higher actual acidity. The determination of ash has
little significance. In gums from the same variety of tree and the same immediate
neighbourhood the darker tears have as a rule a very slightly higher ash. These darker
gums are, as a rule, stronger, but not invariably so.

The colour of the Sudan hard gum picked as large white tears {grouse blanche, Senegal)
was a shade darker than the corresponding grade of Senegal gum ; the colour of the
mucilage of equal strength was, however, almost identical. All the other grades of the
Sudan gum and of the mixed (crude) gum were very considerably lighter than the same
grade of Senegal gum — a point which tells strongly in favour of the Sudan product.
The average strengthf of the picked grades of hard Sudan gum is appreciably higher
than that of the same grades of Senegal gum. All the crude (unpicked) Kordofan gums,
that is, both the hard ami the soft gums, show a higher strength than the unpicked
Senegal gum. Thus the soft variety, unpicked, was found to possess a strength of 92"5,
as against an average of 83 for the three samples of " Bas du Fleuve " tested.

• Crude Senegal gum is divided into three main classes : —

1. Hard gum. Gomme du, bas du ftcuve. This consists of largish round, vermiform or irregular shaped tears,
varying from almost colourless to dark yellow.

2. Gomme du haul du fleuve. This, the second grade, is obtained from Upper Senegal. The tears are smaller
than those of " Bas du fleuve " and, on the whole, darker.

Both the above are derived in the main from the A. Senegal {Acacia verck), but they are often mixed with
pieces of reddish colour, glassy, of bitter taste, due to the gum of the A. arabica and its varieties.

3. Gomme friable. This is the product largely of the A. albieda (White tree. Cedra beida or by corruption
Sadra-beida and Salabreda).

The gum resembles coarse salt. It is very friable, and its solution has less viscosity than that of the gums
already mentioned. It is usually in small fragments or vermiform tears. The latter are often almost colourless,
but the fragments are usually dark coloured. The variety corresponds in quality to the Talh gum of the Sudan.

Senegal gum is picked into a great number of classes of which the principal are : —

(a) La gomme grosse blanche, in rather large tears, unbroken, colourless or slightly yellowish.

(6) La gomme petite blanche, which differs from the above only in that the tears are smaller.

(c) La gomme grosse blonde, in tears about the same size as those of gomme grosse blanche, but yellowish or
reddish yellow.

(d) La gomme petite blonde, like the above but smaller.

(e) La gomme d^usciemc blonde, of a reddish colour.

(/) La gomme vermicelle, vermiform or branched tears, usually of light colour.

(g) La gomme fabrique, of which the pieces, of larger or smaller size {fabrique and petite J'abrique) are not
suitable for classification with any of the above.

(A) La gomme marron, dark coloured, very impure, containing much foreign matter — bark and other
impurities.

(i) La gomme friable — already described above.

Broken gum is also sorted by sieves into Gomme gros grabeaux, Gomtne mm/ens grabeaux, Gomme menus
grabeauT, and Gomme poussiere grabeaux.

t This is measured by the viscosity of a solution of given strength, as compared with the viscosity of an
average hard gum of the best quality. The method of determining the viscosity is detailed on pp. 232 and 233.

230

Ill'.l'cUtr ()|- nlKMlCAL LAllOUATUUV

KOKDOFAN QUM. CROI' OK 1005—6
Habd Variett

Large while lean

Small white lear»

LarKc faintly
coloured tears

Small faintly
coloured tear>

More deeply
coloured tean

Crude
UDiortcd

Grade acoocding to French
Syttem

Gomme Graoe
BUnche

11-90

Gomme Petite
Blanche

9-89

Gomme Groaae
Blonde

Gomme Petite
Blonde

Gomme Deuxiteie '
Blonde

MoiKturc, JKT cent.

11-82

9-91

12-15

11-37

Acidity (iiiilliKmmnies
of KHO required per
gramme}

2-78

2-86

2-93

2-67

2-86

2-66

Ash, per ccQt

2-77

318

3-06

3-24

3-28

2-90

Strenfrtli, as measured

bv visrositv of 10 j»cr

ccut. solution

111

"95

112

98

105

94

Ditto, ditto, 20 per eent.
BolutioD

102-5

98-5

111

95

103-5

935

KORDOFAN GUM

SOFTKIt VaWETY

Crude, unpicked

Selected, white tears

Selected, !.lightly darker tears

Moiiiturc

1214

11-69

11-95

Acidity (millif^rammes KHO
required for 1 grm. of gum)...

2-48

2-53

2-57

Ash

2-86

2-80

2-77

Strength, as measured hy the
vi.s<'o«ity of 20 per cent,
mucilage

92

90

87-5

Character of 10 per cent,
muuilagc

Lifxht yellow. No marked
odour nor taste

Pale straw colour. No
marked odour nor taste

Straw colour. No marked
odour nor taste

SENEGAL GUMS. Picked

Gomme Growc
lilanche

Gomme Petite
Blanche

Gomme Gro&»e
Blonde

Gomme Petite
Blonde

Moisture, per cent

11-20

10-50

10-48

9-18

Acidity (milligrammes of KHO
required for 1 gramme of gum)

2-90

333

3-21

245

Anh, per cent

2-90

3-33

3-21

2-45

Strength, as measured by the
viscosity of solution of 10 per
cent

98

83

90

85

Ditto, ditto, of 20 per cent. . .

104

92-5

99

93-5

Character of 10 jior cent, miicil-
age

Very
colou
tairtc

light 8traw
r. No marked
nor odour

Light straw colour.
No marked taite
nor odour

I>ark straw colour.
No marked taste
nor odour

Dark straw colour.
No marked taste
nor odour

KEl'OKT OF CHEMICAL ]j.\BOK.\TOKY

231

SENEGAL GUM. Csude

GOMME DU BAS DU FLEUVE

GALAM

H. R. & Co.

H. R. Sl Co.

Soc. I. et T.

Collected in com- Collected higher up

paratively moist the river unde;

atmosphere near more normal

the sea conditions

II. R. iS: Co.

Soc. I. et T.

SALABREDA

Soc. I. et T.

Moisture,percent.

9-60

10-50

10-42

10-19

10-57

11-51

Acidity, expressed
as milligrammes
KHO required
for 1 gramme . . .

214

2-50

2-27

2-54

2-50

3-56

Ash

3-41

3-36

3-33

3-22

3-39

2-81

Strength, as meas-
ured by the
viscosity of a
solution of 10
per cent.

92

96

68

64

63

68

Ditto, ditto, of 20
per cent.

83-5

86-5

79

83-2

82

85

Character of 20
per cent, mucil-
age

Light brown.
Slight sourish
taste. Large
amount of
reddish brown
sediment

Dark straw
colour. Very
slightly bitter
taste

Darker than
the former.
Bitter, sourish
taste

Sourish,
slightly bitter
taste. " Light
coffee colour

Dark yellow.
Slight sourish
taste

Deep coffee
colour. Astrin-
gent, sour taste

It -would appear that the Kordofan gum is more uuifurm in rumpusitiou, and tliat
the Senegal crude gums contain a notable proportion of weaker gums, possibly from
varieties other than ^1. Seneyal.

Both hard and soft Kordofau gums are obtained from the A. Verek (Hashab). The
hard variety is collected as noted above from young, and the softer from older trees. At
the present time the two are collected together ; but abroad they are picked out, the
hard variety, it is said, for dyeing and finishing silks and other fabrics, and the softer
for confectionery and fine pharmaceutical products, etc.

Notes on the Determination of Viscosity of Gum Solutions

Several samples of Sudan gum tested at the Imperial Institute were subsequently Determination
examined in this laboratory. The comparative viscosities obtained were so much at variance ° "^'^"^"y
that a number of experiments were instituted iu order to determine the conditions affecting
this determination and the possible sources of error.

The instrument employed at the Imperial Institute might be described as a minute
pipette, the bulb of which had a capacity of about one half a c.c, and the outlet being a capillary
tube ten centimetres long. The determination was made by filling the bulb with the liquid to be
tested and noting the number of seconils required to discharge through the capillary tube.
This averaged something like ten seconds.

There are several objections to such a form of instrument, among which maj' especially
be mentioned the want of provision for controlling the temperature, the shortness of the time
of observation, and the tact that it will not permit of observation on any but comparatively

232

KKI'OUT OF CHKMIIAI, I,AHOHATOKY

weak iiiucilagos. (Jmii is, for many [Hiriioscs, uscil in \vr\ strong solution, and it is highly
ili-sirahli' tliat a t'orni of instninifut In- ailoptcd wliicli will allow of coin|mrisoiis at the same
foiK'i'ntratiun. Thi' sinipli- lorm of instnuncnt tlfscrilK^d l>y Ostwald,* which is c^.-ifntially
that in Fig. HT, couM he inailc to answer the imrpose if the tiihe eoniieeting the two liullis lie
made of sullieiently large bore, A fimdy eapilliury tube will not allow the stronger solutions
to jiass. The determination is nnide by introdueing u known (juantity of the li(iuid at C,
and sueking up at I) until the liquid has risen above the mark at A. The times occupied by
the liijuid in (lowing from A to the lower mark at H is noted. The arrangement has the
advantage that the bulbs maybe submerged in water in a beaker and the temperature kept at

Fig. 97.- Glas,s Viscosimktkk

Dcvi-scd hy O. S. Doolittle, for

use ill lab. of Philadelphia and

RcidinK R.iilroad Co.

Ton Ion
V'ucoiimctrr

whatever point desired. Repeated tests can be made without alteration of temperature or
fear of entrance of dust — a serious matter when working at some seasons in the Sudan.

The objection to all such funns ot' iiistruiiiciit is that tiicy arc not wholly satisfactory
for wide ranges of viscosity. A tube snituljjc for 3U per cent, gum solutions will be
coniparativelv insensitive when used to compare solutions of only 10 per cent, concentration.
If, however, solutions of moderate range of concentration only are to be conniared, and the
tube is of suitable bore the results are all that could lie desired.

The Torsion Viscosinieter of Doolittle designed especially for the determination of
the viscosity of oils at varying temperatures, has been applied to gum solutions, with
very satisfactory results. One great advantage which the instninieiit otVers is that the
indications are not alTected by suspended matter unless the amount present is excessive.

• Physico-Cliemical Mea»urciiicDt«, Ostwnld, p. 163.

KKPORT OF CHEMICAL LABOBATOEY 233

With it determinations over very wide ranges of viscosity may be made, but for the stronger
solutions the method of observation recommended by the makers must be modified or very
serious errors may be introduced. The instrument, which deserves to be better known, is
shown in Fig. 98.

A steel wire is suspended from a firm support and fastened to a stem which passes
through a graduated horizontal disc, thus allowing the torsion to be exactly measured. The
disc is adjusted so that the index points to zero, showing that there is no torsion in the wire.
A cylinder, 2 inches long by li inches in diameter, having a slender stem by which to
suspend it, is then immersed in the oil and fastened by a thumb-screw. The oil is surrounded
by a bath of water or paraffin, according to the temperature at which the observation is to be
made. This temperature being observed while the disc is resting on its supports, the wire is
twisted 360° by means of the knob at the top. The disc being released, the cylinder rotates
in the oil by reason of the torsion of the wire. The action is analagous to that of the
pendulum. If there were no resistance to be overcome, the disc would revolve to zero, and
the momentum thus acquired would carry it again to 360°. In reality, the resistance of the
oil to rotation causes the revolution to fall short of 360° in proportion to the viscosity of the
liquid. The retardation thus produced is a delicate measure of the viscosity.

There are a number of ways in which this retardation may be read, but the simplest is
the number of degrees retardation between the first and second complete arcs covered by the
rotating pendulum. For example, suppose the wire to be twisted 360° and the disc released
so that rotation begins. In order to obtain an absolute reading which shall be independent
of any slight error in adjustment, the start from 360° is ignored, and the first reading taken
at the end of the first swing. The next reading, which is on the other side of the 0 point, is
also ignored, as it belongs in common to both arcs. The third reading is taken, which will
be at the end of the second complete arc and on the same side of the 0 point as the first
reading. The diiference between these two readings will be the number of degrees
retardation caused by the viscosity of the oil.

Suppose the readings are as follows : — Methods of

First reading, right-hand ... ... ... ... 356'6°

Second ,, left-hand — ignore —

Third „ right-hand 338-2°

reading

17'4° retardation
In order to secure freedom from error, two tests are made — one by rotating the
milled head to the right, and the other to the left. If the instrument is in exact
adjustment, these two results will be the same ; but if it is slightly out, the mean of the two
will be the correct reading.

The above method will answer for comparing solutions not too strong, say up to 15 or
20° retardation. Beyond this a gradually increasing error is introduced which becomes a very
serious one when testing solutions of gum of 30 per cent, strength, and especially when the
viscosity in weaker solution is compared with that in stronger. It is evident that the extent
of retardation will depend upon the point at which the first reading is taken.

In the example given above, the first reading was at 355-6°, at which point the wire was
under almost complete torsion. In the case of a very viscous solution this first reading may
be only, say, 200°, obviously the wire is under much less torsion at this point, and the
subsequent degree of oscillation being less, the retardation observed will be very considerably

•2.H

KKroitr OK CHEMICAL I-AIIOUATOUV

ln88 tliiiii tlir true figurt'. It luiiy liiippcm that a .'50 \»r cent. Bolutioii, rcu'l in this way, may
show littlu more or even less viscosity tliiiii unv u( :i(J jkt criit., tin actual viscosity of which
is vi-ry nnich p-eiitcr.

Obviously in order that a correct observation may he maile, the first reading should
always be at the same point. In the stronger solutions the number of degrees of retardation
is so great that the error introduced by starting from zero, nniy be ignored. The reailing will
then be the retardation noticed at the end of one conipK-te swing and the return to the same
point, thus : —

First rending

Second „ (K)

Third „

Hvtardatiou ...

And again First reading

Second
Third

(L)

360

(or zero)

280

(ignored)

•220

140

360

281

(ignored)

221

139

139-5°

Ilctardation ...

Average retardation ...

Fur dilute solutions, it has been fi)unii more satisfactory to allow the disc to swing back
and forth a number — say 5 times, and note the total retanlation. In the case of 10 per cent,
gum solutions the total retardation divided by 4(38 has been found to give a much more
reliable figure than that derived from an observation on a single swing.

In order to overcome the variations in different instruments, each one is standardized
against pure cane-sugar solutions, and the viscosity is expressed in the number of grams of
pure cane-sugar contained in 100 c.c. of the syrup at 60'^ F., which will give the retardation
designated at 80 ' F. These readings are obtained by making a number of solutions
containing knowni amounts of pure cane-sugar, and determining the retardation of each. A
curve is then marked out on a piece of plotting-paper, the number of grams of sugar in
100 c.c. of the different syrups representing the abscissas, and the degrees of retardation the
ordinates. This curve enables us to interpolate the value of each degree of retanlation in
terms of pure cane-sugar, and in this way a table of viscosities is drawn up and liirni.shed
with each instrument. This table renders the results obtained by the diflfereut instruments
strictly comparable.

The above method serves to standardize the instrument, but as the curve of viscosity in

the case of sugar is markedly different from that of gum, a second curve has been plotted

Viscosity and which enables one to express the viscosities recorded in terms of average gum arable of good

compared quality (sec chart). These figures give a much juster idea of the comparative strength of

gums than the figure representing their viscosity. Thus, comparing crude Senegal gum

" Gomme du bas du fleuve" with the best grade picked from it, we have the following

figures : —

Crude gum, TiM;osity in degrees of ret^irdatiou ... 31
Picked white gum ,. „ -, - ^6

From which it would appear that the second gum was twice as strong as the lirsf.
Ai-tuallv, as niav be ascertained from the chart, the aniount nf gum n<|uircd to produce
the above viscosities were

Crude j,'mii S-l

Picked 100

iZQ

iiO

/

<'00

/

/^O

/

'SO

/

,/0

/

/

t6V

/

/

/

/

-C

/

1

>

70

60

JO

/

t/0

/

3 0

/

-iO

/

/ 0

^^^

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

Gum, per cent.
Fig. 39.— Chart of Viscosity of Gum Solutions

SO

250 seconds

240

„

234-5

„

232-3

J,

230

„

225

J,

225

>t

225

23G REPORT OK rHKMH-AI, LARORATORY

If is this figure, repreBcnting the true strength of the gum, which is recorded in the
tallies on pages 2'M\ ami 2'M.

Precaulions m I'UKCAUTIONS TO HE OHSEItVED IN DETEUMININti THE VISCOSITY OF til'M 80I,UTI0NS —

be observed fm i

1 lie results of numerous experiments have indicated clearly that great care must be exercised
to make the deteruiinations under exactly similar conditions, if trustworthv and comparable
figures are desired. iSlight, apparently unimportant, variations in the method of procedure
may be followed by very considerable alterations in the viscosity. For example, a solution
was made by adding water to the powdered gum, and allowing to stand, without shaking.
over night. The solution was tlien agitated until apparently homogeneous and tiltcred
twice — once through cotton wool, and again througli paper, by the aid of a vacuum pump.
The results of successive determinations were as follows, the figures representing the number
of seconds required for delivery of the same quantity, througli the same aperture at the same

temperature : —

First trial

Second

Third .,

Fourtb

Fifth

Sixth

Seventh „

Eighth

An hour elapsed between the first and the sixth determination, all this time being
required, after filtration, before the solution had reached a condititin in which if would furnish
constant results. The effect was apparently connected with the fact that the gum remained
all night at the bottom of the flask, in a state bordering on that of a jelly.

Temperature, not only at the time of the observation, but more especially of the li(]uid
at the time solution fakes place, has a very marked influence upon the viscosity of the
Effect of mucilage. A solution made at ordinary temperature (90- F. in tiiis laboratory) will have less

sohirion'"'^' ° viscosity than one made of the same strength in ice cold water, and higher viscosity than a
similar one made with hot water, all the solutions being, of course, brought to the sfandanl
temperature at the time of testing. In some cases the alteration is slight, but in others it is
astonishingly great. The following are instances. The figures represent retardation in
angular degrees, in the torsion viscosimeter at 90° F.

Variety or OuM Solution made Solution made

Senegal " Has du flcuvo "
»' »• »i

" Qrossc blanche "

„ " Petite blanche "

11 n M •■•

„ " Qrosse blonde "

II " "

„ " Petite blonde "

Kodofan white

,, " blonde"

,, ,, ... ...

„ unpicked

at 90' F.

at 212 F.

30 % solution

96

69

10%

1.-5-7

10-7

30%

140

46-8

10%

141

10-2

30%

82-7

81

10%

12-37

11

30%

102-3

98-5

10%

13-1

11-1

,30%

101-3

95-8

10%

12-7

11-7

30%

137-

94-7

10%

1.5-2

11-2

30%

138-7

98

10%

14

11-8

30%

125

97

10%

13-85

11-37

direct.

i^y

dilutiuu.

29-5

29

33-4-

31-6

•25

24-2

28-7

28

27-5

25-2

31

28- 5

REPORT OF CHEMICAL LABORATORY 237

If heated after solution had been completely effected the reduction was found to be much
less, and in many cases practically nil.

A solution of Kordofan gum made at 90° indicated a viscosity of 10 degrees retardation.
The same gum dissolved at 32° and then brought to 90° showed a viscosity of 11.

Effect of Dilution. — A solution of given strength made by dissolving the gum in the ^"^^^ °'

dilution

requisite quantity of water will have a higher viscosity than one made by diluting a stronger
solution to the same point. The difference in viscosity is slight in most cases, but in some it
is considerable. Thus: —

Retardation in angular degrees.
Solution made Solution made

Bas du fleuve No. 1

„ No. 2

„ No. 3

Galam „ No. 3

., No. 12

Salabreda

Finally, the viscosity of gum solutions is very much affected by the temperature at
which the observations are taken. The liquid should not vary more than about a quarter of
a degree Fahrenheit from the temperature chosen for the comparisons.

Method of preparing Gum Solutions for Viscosity Determinations. — The Method
moisture having been determined by heating the powdered gum to constant weight in an air
oven, at 105° to 110° C, an amount is weighed out equivalent to 40 grammes of the dry gum.
This is placed in a bottle of 250 c.e. capacity and sufficient water weighed out in a beaker to
bring the total weight to 200 grammes. The gum is well mixed with the water by means
of a rod provided with a well-projecting rubber tip, until no more particles can be seen. The
bottle is then closed by means of a perforated rubber stopper through which the rod passes,
and the mucilage allowed to stand for 5 or 6 hours. If a 30 per cent, solution is made the
solution should be allowed to stand over night.

The distilled water used for solution should be at about the temperature at which the
observation is to be made, and the mucilage should be well mixed again before it is brought
to the standard temperature and tested.

TUREBA

An earth of this name is very generally used in the Sudan as a remedy for syphilis.
The most highly prized is that from the vicinity of Berber ; and the wonderful effects
ascribed to it are attributed to the presence of mercury. How this idea originated is not
known — probably simply by inference from its supposed anti-syphilitic effect. So general
is the belief in the presence of mercury that the native hakims even employ small cones for
treatment by fumigation.

Five different samples of tureba were purcliased in the Onidurman market. Although Absence of
in most cases as much as a pound of the earth was employed in the test, not the faintest ^"'^'^'J .f""'
trace of mercury could be detected. The same result was had from the examination of one
of the fumigation cones mentioned above. Dr. Balfour reports one case in which mercury
was found. This sample was obtained from a native hakim and possibly the mercury was
added tu it.

\

Figs. 100 & 101.— Bkn Naca, Distant and Nrak Vmws

REPOET OF CHEMICAL LABOEATORY 239

The usual method of employment appears to be as follows : A couple of pounds, more
or less, of the earth is treated with hot water and, in the morning, the clear dark brown
supernatant liqnid is poured off and drunk. An examiuation of the watery extract prepared
in this way showed it to contain a considerable proportion of sodium carbonate and
bicarbonate along with a certain, usually smaller, amount of sodium sulphate and chloride.
A large amount of organic matter — humates, etc. — was present in all the samples, as well as
a trace of iodine. The last was however in far too small proportion to have any medicinal
effect.

The exhibition of such a quantity of fairly strong saline solution was naturally
followed by purgation. The average native does not require more than this to convince
him of the potency of his medicine.

A Novel Use of Asbestos

A material, taken at first to be feathers, found surroumling the bones of a human being ■' ^ ^^^^
in an ancient grave at Naga, proved on examination to be finely fibrous asbestos. The
asbestos was of yellowish colour, due to the presence of a small amount of organic matter,
but on heating in the flame it became a pure white. The loss on heating — water and the
trace of organic matter — was 149 per cent. Mr. Crowfoot, Assistant Director of Education,
by whom the discovery was made, kindly furnishes the following particulars : —

" When I had the honour of accompanying the Governor-General to Naga last spring,
we saw, like Lepsiiis, signs of an old burial place on the rising ground to the north-east.
The graves are marked by flat burnt bricks arranged, some in rough circles, some in more or
less regular rectangles. On a second visit, therefore, last autumn, in the company of
Mr. Sterry, to inspect the progress of the well, I determined to utilize the services of one of
the well-sinkers in investigating the spot.

" We selected one of the most regular of the oblong graves and removed the bricks
which had been simply laid in a single course upon the surface of the ground. As we dug
down the earth proved to be loose and soft, obviously the filling of a narrow shaft, the sides of
which were firm. At a depth of 4 feet we came upon fragments of bone and a substance which
looked like mouldering feathers. Continuing, we found that these belonged to a skeleton
lying from north to south, with the head to the south, and originally wrapped completely in
the same feathery substance, which Dr. Beam has shown to be asbestos. Of funeral
offerings, of beads or jewels, there was no trace, and the bones were too much broken to
enable us to say exactly how the body lay, that is, whether it had the eastward tilt which is
characteristic of Muslim burials. None of the men with us, two Arabs and a Sudanese,
recognized the grave as Mohammedan and there is no tradition about the place among
the people?

"As to the period to which the burial belongs our only clues at present are the
following : —

"Naga was still a flourishing town in the third and fourth centuries, A. D.; this is proved
by the style of temples remaining. The bricks set round the grave undoubtedly came from
some building connected with this town. The burial, therefore, cannot be more than
l,.'iOO years old. but whether it belongs to the Christian period (up to. say, 1,500 A.D.), or
to the Muslim period (after 1,500 A.D.) we cannot say.

" The single line of bricks which marked the grave has not been covered ; from this one
might argue that the bui-ial was very recent, but the accumulation even on the lower parts

240

REPORT OF THEMICAL LABORATORY

of the site, has been very siiuill — about a foot in a thousand years — and this is on high
ground, whii'h is niori' likely to have bcconic denuded than eovereiJ.

" The use of asbestos as a funeral shroud is, so far as I know, unparalleled ; it suggests
that the deeeasud looked forward to some fiery ordeal, but these grim expectations are
coMinion to both (Christians ami Muslims.

" The absence of traditions about the place shows that it is not iiuite recent, but we know
so little about the history of the Sudan that one cannot say at what period the people who
lived here Well- so advanced as to have learnt the properties of asbestos, and how to weave it
into a winding-sheet.

" Further excavation will nrtainly tell us whether this cemetery is Muslim or not."

Ancient Gilukd Pottkuy

" Gilding " of

ancient

potiery

Mica as gilding
material

Two fragments of ancient pottery covered with a dull golden coloured substance were
submitted for examination by Jlr. Crowfoot. The gilding was found to consist of a rather
tine scaly powder of golden-coloured mica. So far as I am aware this is the only instance of
mica having been employed for such purpose. The following notes have been furnished by
Mr. Crowfoot : —

" Both these fragments of pottery came from the Haifa province.

" One was found inside the small temple on Gezirat Al Malik, an island near Senna.
This temple was probably begun under the middle Empire, as a stele of Usertses III. was
found against it, but the decoration, and at least one figure found inside it, belonged to the
18th Dynasty. The vase from which this fragment comes was a long-necked wheel-made
vase of red well-levigated clay, and was painted with the gold coloured dust inside and
outside.

" The second fragment was picked up inside the walls of the old fort at Shelfak, between
Senna anil Sarras ; it is of rather coarser clay than the first. Nothing is known as to the
date of this fort, but it probably belongs to old Egyptian days."

Gunpowder madk hy thk Khalifa

Khalifat
gunpowder

The following results were obtained from the examination of a sample of gunpowder
made in the time of the Khalifa. The sample was obtained from the Department of Works,
the powder now being used for blasting.

Cluircoai . . . . . . 13'9 per cent.

Sulphur . . . . . . 10'5 „

Nitn 75-6

Tota

lOUil

The nitre is of very fair quality, containing very little impurity. The powder is well
mixed, but the grains are rather irregular in size.

The above figures are well within the limits of ordinary gunpowder, which is usually a
mixture of 75 parts of nitre with 12* to 15 parts of charcoal and lU to I'iA parts of
sulphur.

EEPORT OF CHEMICAL LABORATORY

241

Benga. — A Magic Powder from the Bahr-El-Ghazal
We are indebted to Major Bray for au interesting sample of "benga," a powder used in "Benga" ;
the Bahr-El-Gliazal district for divinations. Major Bray writes as follows : " It is said to be p^^^^,.
very valuable, and to be obtained from somewhere south of Yambios. Only big ' Sultans '
can use it properly. I understand that a chicken or fowl is selected, given some of the
powder and tied up near a lire. If the chicken dies the omen is bad, and the war (or what-
ever the omen concerned) is not made ; but some of the feathers of the dead chicken are tied
up on a stick, or on a sort uf candlestick made of wood, split and forked, about 4 feet high,
and put in the road or outside a tukhl. Many of the tukhls have the sticks, apparently
permanently fixed, outside them. Sometimes there is a little clay pot inside the forks in
which there are chicken bones. The powder is said to be deadly poison."

On examination, the powder was found to consist of a brownish-red oxiile of iron, with a
small amount of fine sand. It contains no organic matter and nu trace of arsenic, mercury
or other metallic poison. In all probability the powder was selected because of its bright
colour, and when a bad omen was desired poison of some sort was added to it.

Iron Ore from the Bahr-El-Ghazal
In the Bahr-El-Ghazal district the natives reduce their own iron from ore which is iron ore.
found plentifully in that locality. The reduction is effected in small furnaces by means of Qhazai
charcoal. A sample of the ore brought from Wan by Col. Penton, the former P.M.O., had
the following composition : —

Jloisture aud small amount of organic matter ... ... ... 15'4'2 per cent.

Sand, etc.. insol. in acid ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 28'24 „ „

Ferric oxide 53-20 „ „

Equiv. to metallic iron ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 37"24 ,, „

The iron reduced from this ore is said to be of excellent quality.

Nyam Nyam Arrow Poison

The coating of arrows with poison is common among the Nyam Nyams. A fairly large Nyam Nyam
quantity scraped from some arrows furnished by Captain Bethell was dissolved in water and
injected by Dr. Balfour into a rabbit, but \vithout effect of any kind. However poisonous
the material had been originally, it had evidently become inert by age. Later it was learned
.•that the natives recognize this fact and re-coat their arrows before each engagement.

The substance scraped from the arrows was to a large extent soluble in water. Some
resin-like residue was left which gave reactions recalling those of euphorbia resin, with which,
however, it did not appear to be identical. Euphorbia is much used in some parts of Africa
as an arrow poison.

As the poison originally present had become inert, it was not thought advisable to carry
the investigation further on this sample.

Laboratory Notes

A New and More Accurate Form of Hydrometer
In measuring the specific gravity of a liquid by means of the ordinary form of
hydrometer it is difficult to make a rigidly accurate reading. The point which should be
read is that at which the surface of the liquid intersects the stem of the hydrometer. In the
case of opaque or semi-opaque liquids, e.g., milk, this point is not visible, as the li(]uid is
drawn up the stem by capillary attraction. Even in tlie case of transparent liquids, the

arrow poison

New form of
Hydrometer

Fig. 103.— Floaiing Index showing Method
itf Reading

A Point at which reading is taken

u I-cvel nf liquid

C Stem <jf hydromtrler

Fifi. ItM.— Cross Section of Floating Index

o Point at which reading i<^ takrn
/• Level nf liquid

Fin. 102,- Complete In»trumcni in ii»»e

A NbW and MoKK ACCt'RATK Form of IIVDROMICTBtt

EEPOBT OF CHEMICAL LABORATORY

243

presence of the meniscus just mentioned introduces a difficulty. In order to obviate this, the
arrangement showTi in Fig. 102 has been devised, and has been found to answer the purpose
admirably. It consists of an ordinary form of hydrometer provided vdth a float which is
used in the graduation of the instrument. The reading is made, not at the surface of the
liquid, but at the point where the top of this float cuts the stem of the hydrometer. See
Figs. 103 and 104.

The float consists of a hollow ring of glass supporting an upright short section of amber-
coloured glass tubing, cut oft' at a slight angle, the uppermost portion of the tube being used
as the index. (An alternative arrangement is a short section of colourless glass tubing with
a straight line etched on its surface.) In this way, error arising from the presence of the
meniscus is avoided, and fractional parts of a degree may be read with the greatest ease.

The float has a fragile appearance, but the one made for us by C. Kob and Co. has been
in use over a year and remains unbroken. It could doubtless be made of thin metal, gold
plated, if desired.

When only small quantities of li(piiil are available the form of jar shown in Fig. 102 may
be adopted with advantage. The upper portion is flared in order to receive the float but the
lower portion of the jar is only slightly larger than the bulb of the hydrometer.

In use it is essential that the stem remain dry in order that it may not stick to the
upright tube of the float. Wetting of the stem may be avoided by proceeding as follows : —
The stem of the hydrometer being dry the float is passed over it and allowed to rest on the
bulb. The hyilrometer is then lifted by the point of the stem and gradually let into the

liquid. If there is any doubt as to the instru-
ment having found its proper level, the base
of the hydrometer jar may be held firmly to
the table by one hand and the jar gently tapped
with the other.

When removing the hydrometer the float
should be taken out first, in order to keep the
tube dry and ready for a second test if required.

Determination of " Crude Fibre."

Fig. IO.S.— a Simple Arrangement for Determination
OF " Crude Fibre"

The method of determining crude fibre
most generally in use consists in boiling the
fat-freed material fur half an hour with 1'25
per cent, sulphuric acid and 1-25 per cent,
sodium hydroxide solution successively. The
boiling is effected in a flask provided with an
inverted condenser, in order to avoid concen-
tration of the liquid. The method is usually
very troublesome, as the Liquid foams and the
solid is carried up into the condenser tube from
which it is dislodged only with difficulty.

The simple arrangement exhibited in
Fig. 105 is free from the above defect, and the
manipulation generally is much easier. The

Determina-
tion of
Crude Fibre

244

REPORT OF CHEMICAL LABORATORY

lk*nzinc
Itl.l^l I Jimp

lioiling takes place in a beaker on wliidi rests a semi-spherical glass evaporating dish nearly
tilled with cold water. Very little steam escapes uneomlc used. If the material to he
analysed is carried up the side of the beaker it is readily dislodged and brought back into
the liijuid by means of the rubber-tipped rod.

A SlMl-LK FoHM OK Bl.ART I, AMI' KOU FfiK WITH HkNZINE

As already noted, the acetylene gas employed in these laboratories has been found very
destructive of |>latinum ware. After .several unsuccessful attempts to etlect fusions of
silicates, etc., by Micaus of spirit bunseiis and aicoiiol blast lamps, the arrangement shown in
Fig. 106 was finally adopttd. Tlic blast from a Fletcher blower is divided into two by means
of a Y tube. One of these is connected directly with the air inlet of an ordinary blast lam|i.

I'iG. 106. — .\ SIMI-LI-: lOKM OF RlAST I.AMI' FOR I'SK WITH BrNZIN

ami the other maile first to pass through one or two bottles containing benzine. Each of
these blasts is controlled by means of a stopcock. The air jet of the lamp should be the
largest of the three nsuallv sui)i)lied.

\Yith a little practice in adjusting tin' air su|)plv, fusions mav ]«■ made without difficulty.
The Hanii' i-; found to have no lianiiful liVnt on iilMtinniii.

Conclusion

In conclusion I wish to acknowledge the very great part whi(di Mr. (roodson has taken
in the work which has been done since the beginning of the year. T)i addition to the Nile
water examinations, wliirli will be ]inblisheil in the next nport. lie has lent a very hel))ing
hand ill practically all the analyses and investigations which have been made since his arrival.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

245

Fig. 1. — Map of Africa, showing British Pos-
sessions AND THE BOUNDAUIES OF THE

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
Fig. 2. — Dost Storm sweeping over Khartoum

North
Fig. 3. — Plan of Khartoum and Environs
Fig. 4. — Plan of Khartoum North, showing con-
dition AS regards IIOSQUITO INFECTION

DURING March, 1904, before reduction
measures had been adopted
Fig. 5. — Plan op Khartoum North, showing the

MOST favourable CONDITION OBTAINED IN

Mosquito Reduction Operations during
November, 1904
6. — Pools in Khartoum

1}

Pools left by the falling Blue Nile

Fig

Fig

Fig

Fig. 9. — Development op Mosquitoes

Fig. 10. — Egg-boat op Culex

Fig. 11. — Tsetse Fly Map

Plate I. — Gloss/xa mors/ta.w, Westw. j

Plate U.~Glossina palpalis, Rob. Desv. j

Plate III. — GLoasiNA loxgipkxnis, Cohti. ?

Fig. 12. — Pasgoxia magretti. Bezzi. $

Fig. 13. — Owl Midge

Fig. 14. — Owl Midge. Khartoum. Stomach gorged

with blood
Fig. 15. — Derhatobia africaxa. Larva of
Fig. 16. — Helophilus tr/i'/ttatcs, Fabr. ?
Fig. n.—HoPLisTOiiERrs serripes, Fabr. $
Fig. 18. — Piroplasmata in Blood op Cattle
Fig. 19 — Fungus of Wheat Grain
Fig. 20. — Fungus op Cotton

Plate IV. — Ciirysoph orsTixrTipExxis. Meigen. ?
Plate V. — H.ematopota pr/j7/RiTJ!(jRAx. \tjstes. j
Fig. 20a. — H.ematopota prLiinuTintUAX. Head

AND Thorax of
Pig. 21. — Tabaxvh par. Walk. ?
Fig. 22. — Tabaxvs dit.exiatch. Macq. ?
Fig. 2Z.—TABAXUS gratus, Lw. j
Fig. ^i.—TABAXC.s socics. Walk, j
Fia.2o.—TAaAsr.<i virgatcx, Av&ten. ?
Pig. 26. — Tab ax as biguttatus, Wied. j
Fig. 27.—TABAXUS biguttatus, Wied. j
Plate VI.—Tabaxus fasciatus. Fabr., subsp.

xiLOTicus. Austen, j
Fig. 28.— TABAXUS africaXUS. Gray, j

Fig. 29. — Pivxosuma maro/xale, Wied. $
Fig. 30.— PycxosoA/A pctor/cm, Wied. ?
Pig. 31.— JlrzoMr/A xili. Theob.
Fig. 32.— Qcas/stkgoj/ 17 a ixu/xeata, n. sp.
Fig. 33. — Palpi and Basal Segments of Antenna
OP STEGOiiriA scutellaris. Walker ;

ASD Qu.lS/STEGO.UrjA UXJllXE.iTA.N. SP.

Fig. 34. — Larval Siphon of Tueo/ialoi.vella

SPATHIPALPIS. RONDANI

Fig. 35. — Larval and Pupal Characters of TiiEa-

BALDIXELLA SPATHIPALPIS, RONDASI

Plate VII. — Wings op Sudanese JIosquitoes
Fig. 36. — CuLEX luteolateralis, Theob. j
Plate VIII.— Enlarged Wing Scales of Sudanese

GVLWlb.E

Fig. 37. — Palpi and Antennal Segment op (a)

CULEX RUBIXOTUS, N. SP., AND (b) CULEX
XE.IVEI, N. SP.

Plate IX. — Heads op Sudanese Cclicid.e
Fig. 38.—CULEX pallidocepiiala

Fig. 39.— Cl'LEX PAL UDOCEP/j ALA. TasoB. <j. Left

side of Genitalia
Fig. iO.—MA.sox/A xigra, n. sp. j
Fig. H.—Bexgalia DEPRES.fA. Walk.
Fig. i2.—Ar(7/jjER0.\ii7A luteola, Fabr. j
Fig. 43.— Hind Leg of Melipuxa uueccaru, Gribodo
Fig. 44. — Apex op Antenna op Melipoxa breccarii.

Gribodo
Fig. io.-LiPOPTERA iniris (n. sp. ?)
Fig. 46.— Ungues and Bristle op Hind Leg op

LiPOPTERA inicis
Fig. il.— LiPOPTERA inicis, n. sp. Male Genitalia
Fig. 48. — Hipporosca camelixa. Leach

Fig. 49. — SCUTBLLUM op //. E(JI7XA

Fig. 50. — Pupabium of H. camelixa
Pig. 51. — Scutellum op H. fraxvilloxi
Fig. b2.— Hipporosca maculata, thorax
Plate X. — Wlvgs of Hippuuosciu.e
Fig. 53. — Ungues, Pulvilli, etc., op itipponosciu.E
Fig. 54. — The Melon Fruit Fly. {Jjacus, sp.)
Fig. 55. — The JIelon Fruit Fly— (Bacus, sp.)—
Larva op

Fig. 56. — Dura Plant Bug
Fig. 57. — Ierboa.Jaculus goruoxi
Plate XI. — H.^mosporidia op the Jerboa {Jaculus
GORDOXl) AND the Rat {Mus ueclmaxus)

!ti;

LIST OF II.M'STR.VTIONS.

I'LATE XII. -OkvELOPUENT OK II J.MOOIiKCAKl.VA
IIAI.mriil IN THE LiVKll

Fio. 58.— Plea ok Jehhoa. <f

I'l.ATE XIII.— Flagellated and Veiuiiculau I'aiia-

BITEii OK THE FlEA

Fio. 59.— Colonie Radi(:e

Fio. CO.— Mite ok Jeuiioa

Fio. 61.— Ciianoes in Eiiythiiocvtes ok Jkiiiioa

Fio. G'J. — Changes in Kuythiiocytks ok Jeuuoa

I'L.VTE XIV. — TllYPANOSOMIASlS

Plate XV. — Blood Plates kkom Peiukheiial

Blood ok Cattle
Fio. 6'i. — Suilluk Ox with Cattle TiiYrANososiiAsis
Pio. 64.— Stomach of 0.\ showing Ulcekations
Fio. C5. — Ti!r/\ixosi>.}f.i sam'm
Fio. 66. — Mole with Tuyi-anosomiasis
Fio. 67. — Mcle with Tiiykanosomiasis
Fio. 68. — Monkey with Tuyi'asosomiasis ok Mulj3
Fio. 69. — Tbykanosomes in Blood ok Oeuiiil
Fio. 70. — Tuykanosomes, Dividing Vacuolated Poiuis
Fig. 71. — 'ruYi-ANOsosiKs with Postekiou Knds in

Contact
Fig. 72. — ^Tuykanosomes in Blood ok Monkey
Fig. 73. — Tkyi-anosojiiasis. Temi'euatuiie Kecoud.

Monkey 7
KiG. 74. — Tbypanosomiasis. Tempeuatuue Uecoud.

JIONKEY 8

Fig. 75. — Case ok Human Tuyi'anosomiasis

Fig. 76. — Case ok Small-pox

Fig. 76a. — Case of Small-pox. Back View ok

Patient.
Fig. 77. — Case ok Chicken-Pox
Fig. 78.— Ecthy-matous Seconuauy Syphihtic Hash
Fig. 79. — Hydatid ok Femuu
Fio. 80. — Camp at Luala's
Fio. 81. — Camp at Lcala's

Fig. 82. — Map. Houte ok 'I'iuvelling Pathologist,

1904-5
Fig. 83. — Hyassas ok Dr. Neave's Expedition
Fio. 84. — Camp at Luala's
Fig. 85. — Camp at Luala's

Figs. 86 and 87.- NATivtM Sukkeuino kiiom Famine
Fig. 88. — Native Biusskoundkh with Appaiiatus
Figs. 89, 9U, 91.— Lepiiosy ok Hands
Plate XVI. -Blood ok Vultube. Cuanues in

EllYTIIlMXIYTES

I'LATE XVII.— Blood ok Vultuue. Leucocytes
Plate XVI 11. — Tuypa.vosomes in Biuds and Fish
Plate XIX.—Fii.aRIJ: in Hikds
Plate W.—II.kuauikiia ok the Quisea-Fowl

(//. St: A VEl)
Plate XXI. — Unknown and Peculiar Bodies in

Fish and Bird Bloods
Fig. 92.— Relation ok Flood to Suspended Matter

IN Blue and White Niles
Fig. 93.^Heioht ok Blue Nile in metres
Fig. 94. — Map ok Sudd Region
Fig. 95. — Gum SLmjket on Foreshore at Omduruan
Fig. 96. — N.itive Women Picking Oum at Omduuman
Fig. 97. — Olass Viscosimethii
Fig. 98. — ToiuiioN Viscosuieter
Fig. 99. — Chart of Viscosity of Gum Solutions
Figs. 100 and 101. — Ben Naga. Distant and Near

Views
Fig. 102. — New Hydrometer. Complete instrument

IN USE

Fig. 103. — New Hydrometer. Floating Index
Fig. 104. — New Hydrometer. Cross - section of

Flo.vting Index
Fig. 105. — A Simple Arrangement for Ueteioiina-

TiON OF "Crude Fibre"
Fio. 106. — A Simple Form ok Blast Lamp kor use

WITH Benzine

INDEX

247

A

Abyssinia, tsetse fly in

... 31

Acacia alhieda

... 229

Acacia arahica

... 224

Acacia seiieyal

224, 231

Acacia seyal

... 224

Acacia verek

224,

228, 231

Accipiter rufiventris

... 196

Acetylene gas, Disadvantages of ... 206

Acetylene gas, Action of, on platinum . . . 206

Acrida nasutus ... ... ... ... 45

Acrida variabilis ... ... ... ... 45

Acrydium xgyptiuiit. ... ... ... 45

Acrydium succinctnin ... ... ... 45

Actinomycosis ... ... ... ... 203

Adelea ovata ... ... ... ... 101

^deomyia, sqiiaiinniiKUiia ... 26, 67, 82

.^des venustipes ... ... ... ... 82

^rotylus patruelis ... ... ... 45

Adulteration of Milk 214

Amh!i/o>nina hehrieuni ... ... ... 38

Amblyomma variegatutn ... ... ... 38

Analyses, List of ... ... ... 205

Analyses of Dongola salt ... ... 219

Analyses of dried milks ... ... 216

Analyses of gum 230,231

Analyses of leguminous seeds ... ... 218

Analyses of lime ... ... ... ... 221

Analyses of limestones ... ... ... 222

Analyses of maize ... ... ... 217

Analyses of millet ... ... ... 217

Analyses of Sudan grains ... ... 216

Analyses of water in Sudd region ... 214

Analyses of wheat ... ... ... 217

Analysis of iron ore ... ... ... 246

Animal pests ... ... ... ... 83

A7iopheles squamosa ... ... ... 69

Anoplieles ivellcomei ... ... ...27, 67

Anoplielines and British Barracks ... 20

Anophelines and Malaria ... ..18, 27

Anophelines, Breeding places of ... 19

.\nophelines. Invasion of Khartoum by 20

Anophelines on steamers ... ... 20

Aphidae ... ... ... ... ... 39

Aphides, Enemies of ... 39, 40, 43, 44

Aphides infecting dura ... ... 41

Aphides, Life-history of ... 42, 43, 44

Aphides, Eeproduction of

Aphis and lady-birds ...

Aphis malvie

Aphis of cotton ...

Aphis sorghi

Aphis sorghi, Enemies of

r.\GB

43

39,40

93

44

39

96

Apparatus for determining crude fibre

243, Fig. 105
Apparatus of brassfounder ... 189, Fig. 88
Apple maggot ... ... ... ... 93

Appointment of Chemist ... ... 9

Appointment of Dr. Sheffield Neave ... 9
Appointment of Dr. William Beam ... 9
Appointment of Travelling Pathologist

and Naturalist ... 9
Anichiiidx ... ... ... ... 38

Anjas miniatus ... ... ... ... 38

Arrow poison ... ... ... ... 241

Asbestos 239

Asbestos shrouds ... ... ... 239

Asilidx ... ... ... ... ...31, 36

Aspergillary pneumycosis ... ... 178

Aspergillus glaucus ... ... ... 179

Atylotus nigroiiiaculntus ... ... ... 57

Aiichmeromyia luteola, 35, 83, 85, 86,

87, 203, Fig. 42
Austen, Report by ... ... ... 51

Avian tuberculosis ... ... ... 178

B

Bacterium acacise

226

Bacterium nietarahinium

226

Bagara

197

Bageus bayard

197

Baris

186,

203

Barn Owl...

179

Beam, Dr. William, Appointment of ... 9
Beam, Dr. W'illiam, Eeport of, ... 205

Bees, stingless. Annoyance caused by 87
Bembecidse ... ... ... ... 36

"Benga" 241

Benrjalia depressa 35, 36, 83, 8i, 85, Fig. 41

Ben Naga 238, Figs. 100 and 101

Benzine blast lamp ... 244, Fig. 106

Bilharziosis ... ... ... ... 179

Bird's blood. Parasites of ... 195, 196

Biting flies — Memorandum ... ... 29

•J4K

I'AliK

Hlust huiip for IjL'ii/.iiiL' :ill, l''ig. 106

Uluotl L'Xtiiiiiiiiitiuns, Tucliiiitiuu of ... 194
Blood films, Sources of ... 195

Blood Mainiiialian ... ... ... 202

Blood of l.irds 195

Blood of birds, Unknown bodies in

19(), I'liite XX.

Blood, Fish 195

Blood, tish, Unknown bodies in

197, Plate XX.
Blood of marabou stork 195, Piute XVI.

Blood parasites 179, 196

Blood plates of cattle ... .. Plate XV.

Blood-sucking, diptera ... ... ... 51

Blood-sucking diptera, Report by Austen 54

Blue jay 179

Blue Nile flood 209, Fig. 93

Blue Nile water. Colour of 210

Blue Nile water. Composition of 207, 208
Blue Nile water, Suspended matter in

209, Fig. 92

Bot flies 36

Brassfounder, Apparatus of 189, Fig. 88
Breeding places of An()j)liclines ... 19

British Barracks and Anoplielines ... 20
Brown ibis ... ... ... ... 196

Browning, Major Dansey ... ... 10

('<ija>iu.< iiidicHu ...
Camel forest fly...
Carnegie Research Fellows
Cattle in Bahr-Fjl-Ghazal
Cattle trypanosomiasis...

218

92

13

191

115, 116, 117

Cattle trypanosomiasis, Gastric ulceration

in 117

Cattle trypanosomiasis. Inoculation

experiments ... 120, 121
Cattle trypanosomiasis. Post-mortem

appearances . . 117, 118

Cattle trypanosomiasis, Propliylaxisof 153
Cattle trypanosomiasis. Symptoms ... 115

Celliu pluineiigig 2G, 27, 69, 203

I'vlli'i sqiiamoM 26, 27, 67, 69,

Plate VII., VIII.
Veratilif capitata... ... ... ... 93

Ceralopoijiiu ... ... ... 34, 36

Chemical composition of Nile waters... 206
Chemical Report ... ... ... 205

Chemist, Appointment of ... ... 9

Chicken-pox 173, 175, Figs. 77

I'liiliimenes vicitia
Chiijue

Vhiruiiiimitlw
Cliri/siipiihc

I'.Mi K

96

37

34, 36

90

Chri/mi/is iliftinctiprniiU 36, S3, 64, 203

Plate IV.

('Iiiijsiips aliiimniiailix ... ... ... 54

Clay in water ... ... ... ... 210

Clay, Precipitation of by organic matter 212
Climatic conditions ... 13

Colloid clay 210

Colonic radiee, 104, 106, Plate XIII., Fig. 59
Colour of Blue Nile water ... ... 210

Colour of White Nile water 210

Commission of Royal Society... ... 10

Compsumijia ... ... ... ... 35

Congo floor maggot ... ... ... 85

Congo floor maggot fly... ... 35, 203

Congo Free State ... ... ... 10

Cotton aphis ... ... .'. . ... 93

Cotton flea beetle ... ... ... 96

Cotton fungus ... ... ... 50. Fig. 20

Cotton pests ... ... ... ...44, 93

Cntliiiliu 106, 107

Crude fibre. Determination of, 243. Fig. 105

Culex 67,203

Culex, Egg-boat of 23, Fig. 10

('ill,:,- faliyaiig 21, 22, 23, 25, 79

Cidex hirsittlpalpis, 26, 67. 72. 74. Plate VII.
Culi:c luteolateralis, ... ... 67, 74, 76,

Plate VII., Fig. 36

Culex neavei 67,76,78,203

Plates VII., VIII., IX., Fi-. 37
Culvx pallidocepJuila ... ... ...79.80

Plate VII., Figs. 38, 39
Cnlex pipiens ... ... ... ... 153

Ciihx rubiiwtu:^ 67, 76, 78, 79, 203

Plates VII.. VIII., Fig. 37
Culex tiyripes ... ... ... ,..26,67

Culex viridis 79,80

Culicidaj of the Sudan, Second Report

on ... ... ... ... ... 67

D

Dacus

Dacun ferruyineus
Dacus pisidii
Dacun lyriiui

Dabib

l)ennaiii/.isu.i ijdlliiite
IJermatobiu

93, 95

... 94
... 94
...94,95
196, 197
.. 108
. . 36

249

PAGE
Dcnnatiiliid africnna ... 36, 37 Fig. 15
Determination of Crude Fibre, Appara-
tus for 243, Fig. 105

Dietetics 180

Digestibility of dried milks ... ... 216

Diphtheria 175, 176

Diptera

Diptera, Blood-sucking...

Diptera, Directions for collectors

Diptera, Non-biting

Diptera, Non-blood-sucking

Dipteron, Pupiparous ...

Divination powder

Dog spider fly ...

Dolichos lablab

Dongola salt

Dongola salt. Analysis of

Doty's investigations

Drepanidiuvi

Dried milks

Dried milks, Analysis of

Vryxo

Dry Zones in India and Italy

Dry Zones, Major King on

Dry Zones, Necessity for

Dukhn

Dura

Dura aphis. Enemies of

Dura plant bug ... ... 95, 96

Dura shami
Dust storm
Di/adercus ...
Dysentery

31, 202

... 51
...51,52

... 36

... 65

... 88

... 241

... 92

... 218

... 219

... 219
22

99, 100

... 215

... 216

... 203

... 21

... 21

... 21

... 217

... 217

... 96
Fig. 56

... 217
13, Fig. 2

... 95

... 177

E
Economic entomologist, Appointment of
Economic entomologist, Value of
Economic entomology. Report on

Ecthyma 173, 176, Fig.

Egg-boat of Culex ... ... 23, Fig.

Egyptian lentils...

12
12
67
78
10
218
Egyptian wheat ... ... ... ... 217

Eteusine. corocana ... ... ... 217

Emaciation due to famine 188, Figs. 86, 87

Enteric fever 176, 177

Euphorbia as arrow poison ... ... 241

Eiitropiiis niloticHS ... ... ... 196

E.vochroiniis iiigroinacidatiis ... 93, 96

Expedition of Dr. Neave ... ... 10

Expedition of Sudan Commission on

Sleeping Sickness ... 10

P.\GE

188,

Figs'. 86, 87

... 217

18

26

... 195

... 196

... 191

... 199

Plate XIX.

... 105

Plate XIII.

... 65

... 96

... 12

... 90

... 39

93, Fig. 54

50, Fig. 20

50, Fig. 19

F

Famine, Effects of, on natives,

Feterita ...

Fever in Khartoum

Fish and mosquitoes

Fish blood

Fish blood. Parasites of

Fish-eating

Filaria calahart'niiis

Filaria in birds ... ... 196,

Flea dissections ...

Flea, Parasites of 104, 105,

Flies and filth

Flies, Lace- wing...

Floating laboratory. Value of..

Forest flies

Fowl ticks

Fruit fly

Fungus of cotton
Fungus of wheat grain...

G

Gargur ... ... ... ... ... 197

Gastrimaryus ... ... ... ... 45

(Jastrophilus ■ ... ... ... ... 36

Oerbillus iiidiciia ... ... ... ... 110

Gifts to the laboratories ... ... 11

Glass viscosimeter ... 232, Fig. 97

Glossina 186, 190

Glossina and trypanosomes ... 149, 152
Glossina longipennis 31, 115, Plate III.

Glossina inorsitans 10, 29, 30, 31, 35,

115, 190, 202, Plato I.
Glossina morsitans in Abyssinia ... 31

Glossina pallidipes ... ... ... 31

Glossina palpalis 9, 10, 29, 30, 31,

183, 184, 185, Plate II.
Grading of gum ... ... ... 228

Grains, Analysis of Sudan ... ... 216

Gram, Analysis of ... ... ... 218

Greig, Captain ... ... ... ... 10

Gum, Analyses of 230, 231

Gum arable ... ... ... ... 222

Gum arable. Growth and collection of 224
Gum arable, Uses of ... ... ... 228

Gum, Conditions favouring production 225

Gum Flux 228

Gum, Grading of 228

Gum, Hashab Geneina ... ... ... 224

Gum, TIashah Gezireh ... ... ... 224

Gum, Hashab Wady ... ... ... 224

250

INDEX

r.\oK

Gum, Kluvitoum

228, 229

Giiiii, Koidofim ...

22H, 229

Gum market

223, Fig. 9G

1 ittmuu}jiis

228

Gum, Origin of ...

226

Gum, Senegal ...

228, 229

C!um, Strengtli of

234

Gum Solutions, chart of viscosity

235, Fig. 99

Gum Solutions, Preparatic

n of ... 237

Gum, Source of ...

224

Gum Talk

226

Gum, Viscosity of

231

Gum, Yield of

226

Gunpowder of Khalifa ...

240

Guava fruit Hy ...

94

Guinea-fowl

179, 196, 199, 200

H

Ilnshult

■ i-Ii, 228, 231

Jlimlidli llfiirina ...

224

Ilashiih (li-zlrch ...

224

Ilnxhnl Wailij

224

llashaUi ...

224

Hie ma nrneba

179, 196

JheiiKimtehii, A new

200, Platu XIX.

Jlivinuinoiba iifdvri

202, Plate XIX.

Hieiiianweba of guinea-fowl

179, 202

Plate XIX.

lltevuivuvha relicta

201

Hiemainecha zicmanni, 153

196, 197, 201, 202

llietniifojiiuu*- sti'phensi

107, 110

]Iiemati)pt)ta

33,54

Uiematopota decora

56

Ilxmatopiita dorgalix

56

llminatopota pulchritlwrax

... 36, 54, 55,

Plate v.. Fig. 20a

Il/ematopnta vittata

56

Jliemoijri'ijan'iia halfoiiri

... 97, etseq.,

Plate XI.

Ilwmoqreqarina yi'rhilli ...

107

Ilaamogregarine of Mammals, 97, 99 to 100
HiBmogregarine of Mammals, Cytocysts 100,

101, Plate XII.
Hajniogregarine of Mammals, Different

forms of, 98, Plate XI.
H^emogregarine of Mammals, Merozoites

101, Plate XII.
Hsemogregarine of Mammals, Morphology

of ... 98
Hsemogregarine of Mammals, Stage in

Ilea, 105, 108

IWCiE

Hiemogrcgarine of Mannnuls, Staining of 98
Ilicmogregarine of Mammals, Stage of

schizogony, 101, 102, 103, Plate XII.
Hiemogregarine of Mammals, Schizonts 100

Plato XII.
Utcmogregarine of Manunals, Vermieule

form ... 100
Plate XI.

UmiiiiinfjDri'ii ... ... 99

y^«'»(((.«y»w/(/('(/, classilication of... ... 99

lldijidiisliia hinjfdiish ... ... ... 196

Ualleridium 195, 196, 197, 200

Halticid beetle 93, 96

Heads of Sudanese mosquitoes... ... 77

Jlcliipliilns trivillntus ... ... 36, Fig. 16

Hemipturon attacking dura ... ... 44

Jlrijutiimiiua,'! ... ... ... ... 106

llippidiDsca caiiu'liiia 36, 90, 92, Plate X.,

Fig. 4K, .'53
Ilippobunca aiiiiiin 92, Plate X. and Fig. 53
llippobosca equina ... 36, 90, 92 Fig. 53

Hippobosra fraiic'lli'iii ■■■ .. 36, 90, 92

Jlippobiisca vMcitidhi 90, 92, I'late X.,

Fig. 52, 53
llippobiifca tanrina
Hippoboscidaj
Hippoboscida;, Wings of
llippiulamia cinirinjcns ...
Hippopotamus hunt
lliijili.<tniii('rus sfrripi'f

Hornbill

Horse forest fly...
/fi/(il<iinma n'ljijpllniti
Hydatid of femur
Hydrocele

36

. 35, 3G, 90

.91, Plate X.

... 39

... 193

. 36, Fig. 17

196, 200

... 92

38, 39

. 178, Fig. 79

... 203

Hydrometer, New form of 241, 242, 243,

Figs. 102, 103, 104

Hydrophobia 175

Ifi/pvdfntia ... ... ... ... 36

Human and animal pests ... ... 83

Human trypanosomiasis ... 161 et seq.

Human trypanosomiasis. Case of ... 185

I

Indian Wheat 217

Insects 202

Immigration and Mostpiito reduction 21

Iron-ore from Bahr-El-Ghazal ... 241

Iron-ore, Analysis of ... ... ... 241

Irrigation, Influence of ... ... 21

INDEX

251

PAGE
J

Jaculns gorilimi ... ... ... ... 97

Jaciiliis jacidus ... ... ... ... 97

JcighIhs orientalis... ... ... ... 110

Jerboa 97, Fig. 57

Jerboa, Blood of, changes in ... ... Ill

Jerboa, Changes in erythrocytes of

111, 112, Figs. 61, 62
103, Fig. 58

103

108, Fig. 60
37

Jerboa, Fleas of...
Jerboa, Habits of
Jerboa, Mites of...

Jigger

K

99, 100,

" Kadab "

Kankej' limestone

Karesh fish

Karyolysus

Karyolysus lacertaruin

Kashrangeek

Khalifa's gunpowder

Khartoum, Disposal of waste-waters in

Khartoum, Drainage of

Khartoum, Fever in

Khartoum, Flooding of...

Khartoum Gum ... ... ... 228

Khartoum, Invaded by Anophelines ...
Khartoum, Malaria in ...
Khartoum, Milk supply of
Khartoum, Rainfall in...
Khartoum, Uuhealthiness of old

Kite

Koran

Kordofan gum
Kordofan gum, Analysis of
Kordofan, Tsetse Hy in
" Kunteb" fly

... 224

... 221

196, 197

103

101

218

240

19

19

18

19

229

20

... 18

... 214

... 19

18

... 196

... 196

228, 229

230, 231

29, 30

... 34

Laboratories, Gifts to the
Laboratory notes
Lace- Wing flies ...
Lady-birds

Lady-birds and aphis ...
Laniarius cruentiis
Latiiaritis excuhitorius
Land bug...
Lankesterella

Laveran 97, 110,

Leguminous seeds

heis coiifonit i.t

Leishman- Donovan bodies

11

241

96

.. 39, 40, 96

39, 40

196, 198

196, 199, 200

93

99, 100
123, 125, 201

218

39

115

PAGE

218

218

218

203

91

200

... 179

... 190

Plate XI.

99, 111

110, 111

99, 111

191,

89, 90

196,

Lens esvulenta

Lentils, Egyptian

Lentils, Sudan ...

Leprosy ...

Leprosy of hands 192, Figs.

LcptiiptiliLi crumi;niferus ...

Leucoeythemia ...

Leucoderma

Leucucytuzooit maris 110, 111,

Leucocy tozoon of dogs ...

Leucocytozoon of mannnals ...

Leucocy tozoon of palm squirrel ..

Leucocytozoon of Norway rat 110, 111,

Plate XI.
Locusts

Locusts and parasites ...
Locusts, Destruction of
Locusts, Fungus of
Locusts, Habits of
Locusts in Berber district
Locusts, Irregularity of visits of
Locusts, Memorandum on
Locusts, Preventive measures . . .
Lophoceros nasutris
Lordosis in natives
Library
Lime

Lime, Analysis of
Lime, Causes of bad quality of
Limestone

Limestone, Analyses of
Limestone, " Kankery " formation
Lipoptera cerri
Lipoptera chalcomelceiia
Lipoptera ihicis ... 35, 36, 88, 89,

Fig. 45, 46, 47
Lissotis hartlandi ... ... ... 196

Liver abscess. Differential diagnosis of

177, 178
Lucilia ... ... ... ... ... 35

... 45

... 50

46, 47, 48

... 50

45, 46

... 49

... 49

45

45, 48

196, 200

204

11

220

221

221

220

222

221

89

Lubia

Lygeeiis militaris
Lymph scrotum
Lynodontis schal

M

Macgregor's, Sir William, obser
Ma c rosporiu in u iy rica n t in m
Maggot, Congo floor

Maggot fly

Maggot fly. Habits of ...
Maggot of apples

... 218

93, 95, 96

... 203

196, 197

vations 22
50
85
83
85
93

252

INDKX

PAGE

MuXKiil of Melons ... .95

Millie powder ... ... 241

Maizo '217

Malaria 177,202

Malaria aiiioi))^ British troops ... 20

Malaria and .Xiiophclines ... ...18,27

Malaria in Khartoum ... ... ... 18

Malaria parasites — differences between

early forms ... ... ... 177

Malaria statistics ... ... ...26,27

Mammalian blood ... ... ... 202

Maiiiriials, Iliemogre-iarine of ... ... 07

Mammals, Leucocytozooii of ... 1111,111

Maiisoiiid ... ... . ... ... 80

Muiigoitiii uiijm, 27, 80, 81, 82, Plate VII..

Fig. 4U
Minisiiiiiii uiiifiinii(.< ... 203, Plate IX.

Map of Sudd region 213, Fig. 94

Marabou Stork 196,200

Marabou Stork, Blood of ... 1',).")

Medicinal plants ... ... liO.'J

Mediterranean fruit-lly... ... . . Ilii

Mclipuna hreccaiii ... 87, 88, Figs. 43, 44

MeUpoua fagriciiliilii ... ... ...87, 88

MvUpomi riispiilli ... ... ... 88

Melon fruit-Hy 41, 93, Fig. 55

Melon maggot ... ... ... ... 95

Mfltipltaijits ... ... ... ... 35

Mel fins a'ljyjitun ... ... ... ... 196

Memorandum regarding biting flics ... 29
Memorandum regarding locusts ... 45

Mex salt 219

Hex salt. Analysis of ... ... ... 219

Mica, as gilding material ... ... 240

Milk, .\dulteration of 214

Milk, Analyses of ... ... ... 215

Milk, Dried 215

Milk, Dried. Digestibility of 216

Milk supply of Khartoum ... ... 214

Millet, Analyses of 217

Miscellaneous notes ... ... ... 179

Mite of .lerboa 108, Fig. 60

Mites and trypanosomes ... 39, 152

^fol■,„;|,■„s 196, 197

Mosquito Brigade, Cost of ... ... 26

Mosquito Brigade in Khartoum North

15, Figs. 4, 5
Mosquito Brigade, Results of work of 15

Mosquitoes 203

Mosquitoes and fish .. 27

Mosquitoes and wells ... ... 22

Mosquitoes at Suakin ... ... ... 26

I'.MiK

23, Fig. 9

... 77

75

73

27

21

21
23

21

67

15, 17

15

Mosquiiois, Development of ...
Mi)S(piitoes, Sudanese, Heads of
Mosquitoes, Sudanese, Wing scales of
Mosquitoes, Sudanese, Wings of
Mosijuitoes, Tree breeders
Mosijuito reduction. Influence of

immigration on
Mosquito reduction. Influence of

steamers and boats on ...
Mosquito reduction. Influence of wind on
Mosquito reduction. Professor Ross on
Mosquito reduction, Second report on ;

Theobald
Mosquito reduction, Statistics of
M<)S(]uito work in Khartoum ...
.Mxciiliis ... ... ... ... .. 25

Mud of Bahr-El-Zeraf 212

Miiyil 196, 197

Mule trypanosomes. Morphology of 123, 124
Mule trypanosomiasis ; inoculation

experiments ... ... 126 tl

Mule trypanosomiasis ; post-mortem

appearances
Mule trypanosomiasis. Prophylaxis of
Mule trypanosomiasis. Symptoms of
Mule trypanosomiasis, Treatment of...
Mug alexattdrinui
Miisca domcgtica ...
Miiscii martjinalig
Miisca putoria
Muncidie ...

Mus deciimaiiHii, Parasite of
Museum ...
Myiasis ...

ili/Zdtiiiit I'niii'sla ...21, 26, 27

Myzuinia JiDiestu ttnhuiitbrosa
Myzomia nlli 27, 67, 68, 203,

Plates VII., VIII.
Myzorliynchiis piihidis

69

7-

. 123

153

122

. 153

. Ill

35

(;6

66

35, 65

. 110

11

83

203

26

Fi
•2

-. 31
7, 69

N

239,

Naga

Nagana ...

Native brassfonnder

Native ideas

Neave, Report of Dr. Shellield

Xe^lplu■lm perciKipteruii

Nile waters

Nile waters. Colour of ...

Nile waters. Suspended matter in 208, 209

"Niinetta" 52

"Nimetta" Hy ... ... ... ... 34

Figs. 100, 101

... 202

189

186

183 it svq.

198, 200

... 206

... 210

INDEX

253

Nisotra uniformis

Noke

Non-blood-sucking diptei-a
Nu m idit i^t ilorh y n clia
Nyani-Nyani arrow poison

O

Ochromyia

Ochromyia n>ithrnpop]niija

CEstrida'

Old Khartoum, Unhealthiness of

Organic matter in White Nile ^

Origin of gum

Ornithodorus megniid

Ornithodorus mouhatn

Oftracrida ...

Owl midges ... 33, Figs. 13 and 14

Oxycarenus ... ... ... ... 95

93

, 96

197,

196

36, 37

, 65

199,

200

241

36

83

36

18

vater

212

228

38

38

179,

180

PAGE

Q

Quasistego/iiyia ... ... 27, 67, 69

Qiinninff'qomt/ia loiiliiieafa 69, 70, 71,

Plate VII., VIII., IX., Fig. 32, 33
Queensland fruit fly ... ... ... 94

Pangonia ...

... 114

Paiicjonia magretti

33,

36,

Fig. 12

Parasites ...

... 178

Parasites of flea 104,

105,

Plate XIII. 1

Parasites of palm squirrel

... 99

PenciUaria spicata

... 217

Pests, Human and animal

... 83

Pests, Vegetal ...

... 93

Petroleum, Cost of

... 26

Petroleum, Use of by natives...

... 25

Phlebototnus

33, 36

Phytnateiis hildebrntidti

... 45

Piroplasmosis in cattle...

38,

Fig. 18

Plague and ticks

... 39

Poa abyasinica

... 217

Poecilicerr.a hieroglyph ica

... 45

Polypterus

196, 197

Pools in Khartoum

20, Fig. 6 1

Pools in river bank 22,

Figs.

1,

7 and 8

Pottery, Ancient gilded

... 240

Protozoon

... 196

Protozoon of fish

... 197

Prowazek

... 106

Psychodidie

33, 36

Pidex cleopatrse ...

... 105

Pupipara...

... 36

Pupiparous dipteron

... 88

Pycnosoma

... 65

Pycnosoma flies ...

... 35

Pycnosoma margiuale ... '

35

66,

Fig. 29

Pycnosoma putnrium

35,

66,

Fig. 30

Pyretophorus costalis 18, 19

20,

21,

22, 25,

26,

27, 203

E

Eabies

Eainfall in Khartoum ...

Eed-breasted shrike

Eed hawk

Eegistration of wells

Eegulations for steamers and boats

Eeport of Austen

Eeport of Beam

Eeport of Chemical section

Eeport of Neave

Eeport of Theobald

Eheumatism

Rhipicephalus evertsi

Rhipicephalus punctatissimus

Bhipicephalus sanguineus

Eobber flies

Eoss and mosquito reduction . . .

Eoutine Work

24

175
19
196
19G
24
25
. 51
. 205
. 205
. 183
. 67
. 203
. 38
. 38
38, 39
. 31
. 21
. 173

Salt 218

Salt, Analyses of ... ... ... 219

Salt from natron lakes... ... 219,220

Salt "male" and "female" 220

Salt, Method of extraction ... ... 219

Salt, Native 218

Sand flies 34,52

Sant 224

Santa 224

Sarcopsylla penetrans ... ... ... 37

Saxicola oenanthe... ... ... ... 196

Schaudinn 105, 106, 107, 201

Schilbe mystus ... ... ... ... 196

Schistocerca peregrina ... ... ... 45

Schistosomum haematobium ... ... 179

Schweinfurth 18,19

Senegal gum 228,229,231

Senegal gum. Analysis of ... 230,231

Senegal gum. Classes of ... ... 229

Seroot flies ... ... ... ...31,53

Seroot flies. Habits of... ... ... 32

Shield bug 93

Shilbaia 196

Shrike 196,198,200

Shrouds, Asbestos ... ... ... 239

254

INDEX

PAGE

Siniulidffi 33, 34, 36, 52

Simiiliitm columba«cht'iniig ... ... 34

Simulium tlamnmiiui ... ... 34, 3G, 52

Simitliitm grineirollis ... 35, 36, 62, S3

SiphdiiDptiTit ... ... ... ... 103

Sleeping Sickness . . 173

Sleeping Sickness in Uganda... .. 9

Tahatiun cvrlu-rus ...
Tiihnnus dilieniatug
Tiilxniiis dorgivitla
TnlMinns fnscialus

PAGE

60

.36. 87, 88, Fig. 22
32, 30, 60, 202

63

Small-pox...

Soffar

Sorghum vulgare...
South Sea fruit fly
Spider flies

173. 174, Figs. 76, 76a

. 226

217

94

90

Spirilla

136, 152. 153, Plate XIV.

Rpirochaate tiemanni ... ... ... 153

Spotted forest fly 90

Staff, Increase of ... ... 9. 10

Statistics, Malaria ... ... ... 26

Statistics of mosquito reduction 15, 17

Steamers and .^nophelines ... ... 20

Steamers and Boats, Regulations for, 24, 25
Stegomyia ... ... ... 21, 25

Steguinyia fasciata ... ... 25, 26

Stegomyia scutellaris 67. 70, 71,

Plates VII., VIII. and IX., Fig. 33
Stingless bees ... ... ... 87

Stomxixiiue ... ... ... ... 35

Stomoxys 32, 33, 35. 115

Strougyloides intestitinliit ... ... 178

Suakin, Mosquitoes of ... ... ... 26

Sudan grains. Analysis of ... ... 216

Sudan "gum arabic " ... ... ... 222

Sudan lentils 218

Sudan lubia 218

Sudan mai;;e ... ... ... ... 217

Sudan millets ... ... ... ... 217

Sudan wheat ... ... ... ... 216

Sudd region 213, 214, Fig. 94

Sul])imtt's, Disappearance of ... ... 212

Sulphates in White Nile water ... 211

Suspended matter in Nile water

208, 209, Fig. 92
Syphilis 203, 237

TalHinidfe 31,32,53

TahiniiiK 32, 36

Tahnnus 56

T'lhauun afriranus 32, 36. 63, 64, 65 Fig. 28
Talmntig agrirnia ... ... ... ... ,58

Tiihmiuf higuttaluD 32, 36, 60, 61, 62,

Figs. 20 and 27
Tiihiiiiiiii hifitincliitidi ... ... ... 58

Tiihanuii fnnciiitnn uiluliciis '.Hi, £2, 63,

Plate VI.
TaUinits fitlfiaiius ... ... ... 58

Tabanus gratng 30. 58, 59, Fig. 23

Tdhnuns liitipfs ... ... ... 63, 65

Tithaiius liiteolus ... ... ... ... .56

Tahanus maculatissimiim ... ... 65

Tiiliiintig noclis ... ... ... ... 00

Tabu, ms par ...36, 56, 190, 202, Fig. 21

Tabanus riijipes ...
Tiihiinus SDciiis ... 32, 30.
Tabanus ihoracinus
Tabanus tripunctifer
TiihariHS vinjalus 36, 59, 60,
Tachina fly

Talk

Tmniorhynchus lenaje

Teff

Ti'lebnn

Trphrilis ...
Theobaldinella
Theobaldinella spathipalpis

56

59, 60, Fig. 24

57

00

05, 202, Fig. 25

49

226

203

217

217

95

71

25, 71, Fig. 34

TheobalditivUii uptilhipnlpis. Larva and

pupa of

Ticks

Ticks and plague
Ticks and mosquitoes ...
Ticks and trypanosomes
Ticks, Diseases caused by
Torsion viscosimeter

. 72, Fig. 35

... 37

... 39

... 38

.. 114

37, 38

232, Fig. 98

Torsion viscosimeter, Methods of reading 233
Travelling Pathologist and Naturalist,

Animals examined by ... ... 202

I Travelling Pathologist and Naturalist,

Appointment of ... ... ... 9

Travelling Pathologist and Naturalist,

Camps of 181, 187, Figs. 80, 81, 84, 85
Travelling Pathologist and Naturalist,

Report of ... ... ... 183 et gpq.

Travelling Pathologist and Naturalist,

Route of ... 182, 191, 192, Fig. 82
Travelling Pathologist and Naturalist,

Work of 186

Trichiici'phnhis trichiurns ... ... 178

Trypanosoma brncei ... ... 120, 151

Triipiiiiiisiimn di'morphum 113, 122, 125,

149. 1,50. 151. 198
Trypanosoma evansi 120, 125, 149, 150, 151

255

PAGE

Trypanosoma gambiense 161, 165, Plate XIV.

Trypanosoma nanum 112, 114, 119, 120,

121, 124, 125, 150, 151, 152, 198,

Plate XIV. Fig. 65

Trypanosoma^ paddae ... ... ... 138

Trypanosoma theileri ... ... ... 120

Trypanosomas 196, 198, etc.

Trypanosomas and glossina ... 149, 152
Trypanosomas and mites ... 39, 152

Trypanosomas in big game ... ... 202

Trypanosomas in birds 114, Plate XVIII.
Trypanosomas in fish 114, Plate XVIII.
Trypanosomiasis... ... .. 11, 185

Trypanosomiasis, Chrysoidine in 185, 186
Trypanosomiasis, General conclusions 171,

172
Trypanosomiasis and tsetse fly ... 113

Trypanosomiasis, Human ...161, Fig. 75

Trypanosomiasis in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,

113 et seq.
Trypanosomiasis in mules 122, 123,

Figs. 66, 67
Trypanosomiasis in ticks ... ... 114

Trypanosomiasis, Inoculation experiments
12G et seq., Figs. 68, 69, 70,

71, 72, Plate XIV.
Trypanosomiasis investigations on White

Nile 114
Trypanosomiasis of cattle 115, 116, 117

Figs. 63, 64
Trypanosomiasis, Pathological anatomy

of 170, 171

Trypanosomiasis, Prevalence and dis-
tribution of... ... ... 113

Trypanosomiasis, Suggestions for

treatment 172, 173

Trypanosomiasis, Use of antelope

serum in ... ... ... ... 193

Trypanosomiasis, Use of blood

serum in ... ... ... 166 et .teq.

Trypanosomiasis, Use of chrysoidine

in ... ... ... ... 154 et seq.

Trypeta miisie ... ... ... ... 94

Trypeta pomonella ... ... ... 93

Tsetse fly 29, 183

Tsetse fly belts ... 191, Fig. 11

Tsetse fly in Abyssinia ... ... 31

Tsetse fly in Kordofan 29, 30

Tsetse fly, Northern limit of 30

Tubercle 203

Tuberculosis, Avian ... ... ... 178

Tureba 237

PAGE

U

Uganda, Sleeping sickness in... ... 9

Umbilical hernia ... ... ... 203

Uranoteenia ... ... ... ... 82

Uranotmnia halfouri ... 26, 67, 82, 83

V
Vegetable parasites of plants ... ... 50

Vegetal pests ... ... ... ... 93

Vigna sinensis ... ... ... ... 218

Viscosimeter, Glass 232, Fig. 97

Viscosimeter, Torsion 232, Fig. 98

Viscosity of gum ... ... ... 231

Viscosity of gum compared with strength 234
Viscosity of gum. Determination of 232, 233
Viscosity of gum. Determination of,

precautions ... ... ... ... 236

Viscosity of gum. Determination of

effects of dilution ... ... ... 237

Viscosity of gum, Determination of

efi'ects of temperature ... ... 236

Viscosity of gum. Chart of ...235, Fig. 99

Vulture 196, 198, 200

Vulture, Blood of 195,

Plates XVI. and XVII.

W

Wady Natron salt 220

Water collection, Definition of ... 15

Waters, Nile 206

Wells and mosquitoes ... ... ... 22

Wells, Coverings of ... ... ... 23

Wells, Depth of 22

Wells, Registration of ... ... ... 23

Wells, Use of oil in 22

Wheat, Analysis of 217

Wheat, Egyptian 217

Wheat grain. Fungus of ... 50, Fig. 19

Wheat, Indian 217

Wheat, Sudan 216

Wheatear 196

White Nile water. Colour of 210

White Nile water. Composition of 207, 208

White Nile water. Sulphates in ... 211
White Nile water. Suspended matter in

209, Fig. 92

Wings -of Sudanese mosquitoes ... 75

Zea mays .

217

l^^^ (U^^-A.^. ^i^^ww^- tc/^^i^cA ■ Ca^^IwoJ

-Vvv^S^A.