SIOKAGE lib a:
Pi(OCiiSoING-ClsH

Lpl-F18D
U.B.C. LIBRARY

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2010 with funding from

University of British Columbia Library

http://www.archive.org/details/reportoncommenceOOagri

^;;^^^^s^.^62J^

SVS?i

m

:A^

REPORT

^

&

©©l^a^illEKKDEI^lIM'ir ^[NIE) [P1R©©[^

OF THE

AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

SOUTH C AROLIi\A,

FOR 1813.

-<^Q^-

BY EDMUND RUFFIN,

AGRICULTURAL SURVEYOR OF THE STATE

t

-^QJ^-

COLUMBIA:

^

PniNTED, THE 32 rCBBT Vk<Sii BY A. H. PEMBERTOj/^ THE REST^BT DUBOSB & JOHNSTON,

V:!'?

.9

INTRODUCTORY LETTER.

To His Excellency, Jamks H. Hammond,

Governor of the State of South- Cafolina :

Sifi: — III tlie ninexei Ropart, T have tlie honor of snbinitting ihc results o(
tli5 coinmcnceinont and progress ofthe Agricultural Survey of the State of South
Carolina, so far as my labors in corilucting it have extenJeJ, and the obsei-va-
tions have been Cnnpletcd, and arc deemed worthy to be reported.

In addition to all other and obvious reasons for the deficieneies and imper-
fection of the operations and incompleteness of results, there have been some ob
Stacles which have necessarily applied with peculiar force to the beginnin,:^ of
this work. These obstacles I beg leave concisely to mention, to serve asexpla-
tiation and apology.

Before accepting the charge and conluctofthe Agricultural Survey, with
which I had been so unexpectedly ami highly honored l)y your appointmcnf, and
in my first correspondence thereupon with your Excellency, 1 stated the reasons
which made it expedient for me, if serving at all, to select from the very wide antl
tliversified field of important suljjccts required to be investigated, and to confine
my labors at first, and mainly, to the one department in which I counted upon
tendering the most early and important services lo the improvement ofthe soil and
agriculture of South-Carolina. This selected object was the investigation ofthe
extensive but heretofore neglected beds of marl and of lime-stone, and other rich
resources for calcareous muiures, in tiie upper as well as in the lower country ;
and it has been my aim, while ascertaining and making known their existence,
<»\lent and great value, also, by personal conference with, and verbal instruction
to the proprietors and others interested, to urge and induce their speedy and
proper commencetneni of applying these manures. And however imperfect
may have been the execution of this plan of operations, because ofthe peculiar
difiliculties of a first investigation of dcposites which had before attracted almost
no notice, it is yet confidently believed that the benefits which have even already
accriici from these labors have t'ully sustained the propriety of that direction of
cffortv Buteven with this course, the examination uf the calcareous beds have
necessarily been superficial, and generally very imperfect, and no where as tho-
rough as was desirable, because ofthe want of time and opportunity, at suitable
and safe seasons for proper exploration, and when the height ofthe waters did
■aot hide the beds from view, or from full examination.

4 INTRODUCTORY LETTER*

The calcareous beds of South-Carolina are so extensive, that as sooo as gefiff--
ral iittection shall have been attracted to their existence and value, and excava-
tions made therein for use in numerous localities, it will be quite easy for aa
observer tosee and learn as much of the kinds and extent of the deposites in a
day, as a previous and the earliest explorer could in two weeks. And my exami-
nations, so far, with a few slight exceptions, have had scarcely any of the facilities
which would have been afforded by the proprietors and neighboring resident*
having previous acquaintance with even the natural and existing exposures ;
and still less, from any actual excavations. Many such excavations have, since my
visits, been commenced for marling operations, and will now be rapidly increased
in extent and number. The difficulties of a first examination will thus be speed-
ily removed, and cannot hereafter be estimated by comparison with what may
be so much better done by future researches, made after these facilities are offered^

But though my attention and labors were mainly, they were not exclusively
devoted to the calcareous deposites. My observations of agricultural facts on
other subjects have been numerous. But they were necessarily superficial and
incomplete ; and the deductions from them too crude to be worth reporting gen-
erally, or in detail. Such information has not, however, been altogether fost ;
but as far as available, has been made use of in verbal and personal communication^
as opportunities offered. A few only of the most important and general subjects-
will be presented, as parts of this report.

But though it was impossible for me, by my own direct labors, to supply all
that would be wanting for a general Survey and Report, I aimed, and made an
early effort to do so indirectly, by enlisting the aid of the many Agricultural So-
cieties of the State. A request to this end was addressed to them, through the Pre-
sident of the State Agricultural Society, which, together with his circular letter,
and the few comraunicatioBS which these requests drew forth, will be annexed to
this report as accompanying documents.

As it is necessary for the action and convenience of the Legislature, that I
should send in this report before the labors of the survey for the year are comple-
ted, as a consequence, I shall hare yet to add such other important facfs and cor-*
rections, as subsequent observations may require.

Very respectfully,

EDMUNB RUFFIN,

Agricultural Surveyor of the StUte of S(/uth- Carolina -■
'Columbia, Nov. 30th, 1843,

REPORT

OF THB

AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

OF

SOUTH-CAROLINA.

<SENERAL CHARACTERS, EXTENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE CALCAREODS FOR-
MATIONS OF LOWER SOUTH-CAROLINA.

The term //lorZ, when properly restricted in its application, would
designate a calcareous clay, compact and firm, as well as smooth and
soapy to the touch, and usually homogeneous in texture and general appear-
ance. But if insisting to thus limit its application, it would be necessary to
banish the term altogether from the ordinary nomenclature of this country.
For, there is so little of this kind of marl found, that it has not yet been used
alone as manure, nor is it known to be available for use. Therefore, not-
withstanding all the proper and strong objections to new and popular and in-
correct applications of this term, it is necessary to yield to them in part, as
1 have heretofore done, and shall now in this report. * The name marl,
then, will bo here given to any compound or mixture of earths of which
carbonate of lime m uny form constitutes either the sole or chief value as
manure, and is in such large proportion as to be an important value — and of
which compound the mass is soft enough to be excavated and broken down by
ordinary digging utensils. This definition is sufficiently plain and precise ;
and it includes the true marl, as found in Europe, the dej)osiles of the gene-
rally loose fossil shells in earth and the looser shelly sands of lower Virginia,
and also the compact and rich calcareous beds of lower South-Carolina ;
while it excludes all the soapy non-calcareous clays of England, which have
been so often applied in practice, and referred to by writers, ,as marl, and al-
so the extensive and valuable though non-calcareous green-sand beds of
New Jersey, which have more recently, and as incorrectly, been called marl,
not only by unlettered cultivators, but also in scientific publications. When
considerable portions of a calcareous bed, or any separate layer or mass is
not earthy in texture, but assumes a stony hardness, and is not capable of
being dug, or pulverized enough for manure by ordinary implements, and re-
quires for such use to be burnt to lime, then such calcareous rock will not be
termed marl, but marl-stone. I

* See extended observations on the improper applications of the term "marl," at pp. 68, 69,
and at 181 to 193 of " Essay on Calcareous Manures," 3rd edition-

t Thus the term limestone is withheld from both mnrl and marl-stone, to which it has been so
generally applied, and by scientific writers as well as in vulgar lano;uage- It is proper to con-
fine the term lime-stone to the peculiar compact-stone well known as such in mineralogy and
the arts. If we depart from this particular meaning, and deem everything limestone ihat i'?
stony, and composed principally or entirely of carbonate of lime, then chalk, and masses ot
coral or madrepore, of travertin, of stalactites, all muat be considered as lime-stone, and the
term, by such extension, would lose all precision and value.

6 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

Tlic marl region of Soulh-Carolina is of great extent, even if it were liin-
ited b}' my actual observations already made of easily accessible localitic-s,
and by inevitable deductions from these observations. But it can scarcely
be questioned that the principal formation is continuous, and also of immense
thickness, and that this one bed alone underlies much the larger portion of all
the country below the falls of tlie rivers ; though it may not be accessible for
profitable and practical use through the larger ()art of its wide extent.

The marls of South-Carolina which are sutTiciently abundant to be valuable
for use, are of four different formations, or geological ages, and each of dis-
tinct and marked character in regard to certain minor peculiarities, though
all agreeing in the main chemical and agricultural characteristics, as defined
above, and which only are of importance to the value of marl.

Before proceeding to describe these different classes of marls, it is proper
10 state generally and concisely what is understood by the great geological
eras, and successive formations, and also such of the subdivisions of these
ages and foriDations, in which it is decmcid proper to place either kind of i-he
South- Carolina marls. This reference of de[Kjsites to their relative geoVjgi-
cal ages is not a matter merely of curious or .scientific interest, nor without
practical utility to agriculture. On the contrary, tliere is a general character
and quality j)ecu]iar to eacli of the well designated subdivisions in South-
Carolina ; and such character may be inferred from merely knowing the.
geological period to which a particular formation belongs ; and th.at age may
often be known by the exhibition of a single shell, or ccM'tainly by two or
three distinguishing shells from each great bed. And thus,, from such slight
indications as u hand-specimen of marl would often furnish, or a few shells
of it most surely, an investigator might infer certainly the formation to which
it belonged, and from his previous practical acquaintance with the general
quality and circumstances of the formation :is seen elsewhere, he might de-
duce something like the probabh.' thickness of the stratum, its general texture
and strength in carbonate of lime, and value to ajiriculture.

Geologists divide all the rocks and interior strata of the earth into the
three great classes ofprhniLve or primary, ^eco^zJart/, and terliary formations.
The primitive rocks and strata contain no trace of fossil or organic remains,
and therefore are inferred to have been deposited before the existence of ani-
mals. The secondary formation contains numerous organic remains, both
animal and vegetable ; but of races of animals all of which are now e:;thict. and
of which no living representative is kuov/n in the habitable \n)rld. And this
great formation is composed of sundry other minor successive formations^
or subdivisions of diflerent ages of deposition, each of which has a distinct
fossil character, and exhibits the shells and otlier remains of races different
for the greater part from each of the others. The tertiary formation is more
limited in extent, and in the number of subdivisions. Still it has three of
distinct and marked character. Ofthese, the lowest and oldest belongs to what
is termed the eocene period. Of this the fossil shells are nearly all of extinct
animals, and mostly of such as are peculiar to this period ; but a very few
species (supposed to be in number about 3^ per cent, of all yet known,) arc
of animals now in existence. The next minor formation of the tertiary be-
longs to the/n/ocewe pt^riorl, which is still a newer dcposite, and the shells gen-
erally of races distinct from those of the eocene, as well as from those of re-
cent shells, (or of animals now existing;) but still a larger proportion, though
yet a minority of the miocene shelU, arc of existing animals. The next

OF SOUTH-CAROLINA. 7

subdivision is the pliocene^ of wliich a majority of the shells are also recent.
Mr. Lyeli, the author of this arrangenient, divides the pliocene into newer
and older. All these strata are supposed to have been formed or deposited,
before the surface of the globe had its present form. And there is a stili
newer iormation, of note and importance in South-Caroiina, ihe post. pliocene,
of which the shells are altogether recent, or of such races of animals as are
now in existence, and which mostly, if not wholly, may bo found now on the
neighboring sea shores.

These marls will be first designated generally, in the order of their age, or
original formation, and afterwards described separately and particularly.

ist. That which I shall term the Peedee bed is the oldest marl, and is part
of the great secondary formation, (and that division called the cretaceous, and
wiiich is so fully developed in New Jersey,) as is manifest from itscharactei-
istlc fossils, (principally belemnites Americana and exogyra costafa.) This
ix^d, so far as I have yet ascertained, is limited to the land bordering on part
of the great Peedee River and some of its tributaries, as Black River ; ail
the formation being connected and lying in Marion, Williamsburg and
Georgetown Districts.

2nd. The next oldest formation of marl is that which I shall designate as
the Great Carolinian bed. It extends from east of the Santee to far across
the Savannah. Its western limit is a line not far varying from parallel to, and
from 25 to 35 niiljs below the , falls of the rivers ; and eastwardly it
stretches to and beneath the ocean.

This great dtjposite has been by different geologists considered as belong-
ing to different formations. Vanuxem first, and also Conrad and Morton,
afterwards supposed it the *• upper cretaceous," or equivalent to the upper
and newest of the chalk f )rmation (secondary) of Europe. Lyell, from '
recent inspection, includes it in the eocene, or lowest tertiary. It becomes
me to yield to the lowest scientific authority in geology, and much more to
the deservedly exalted name of Lyell. Nevertheless, my personal ex.
aminations have been perhaps more extensive than any other person's, and
thus I have been enabled to detect mistakes as to the presence or absence of
particular fossils, which had misled other and more scientific students of the
bed, by its supposed specimens. Thus Bartram reports that he saw belem-
nites at Silver Bluff, on Savannah, and Morton speaks of them as found at
Nelson's Ferry on Santee, both of which places are within the limits of the
Great Carolinian bed, and in all which there is certainly no such fossil, if my
personal observations can be relied on. I undei stand from verbal report
that Mr. Lyell deems the presence of the oslrea scllaformis^ which is abun-
dant near and all above Eutaw Spring, as determining the bed to be eocene.
[f so, however, it is in general character, and in most of its fossils, very different
from the eocene of Virginia ; and in all the basin of Ashley River, and else-
where in the lower or more eastern part of this great dcposite, I have not
been able to find a s'mglc oslrea sellccformis. If then, indeed, this is eocene,
it must be an older eocene tlian elsewhere. The still remaining uncertainly
as to the age of this great dcposite will serve as my excuse for adopting for
It a provisional name, that is merely and truly descriptive, and afilrms noth-
ing that may be hereafter necessary to retract. The ** Great Carolinian bed"
of marl will serve every present purpose of designation and distinction, aa
well as if it were definitively settled, and the bed named either " upper ere-
taceous" or eocene. The ascertained fossils of this bed, as well as the oth.

8 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

PA'Sf will be stated hereafter, distinguishing those believed to be peculiar to
particular sections or localities.

3rd. The next oldest marl is miocene, or middle tertiary, which occurs in
thick and extensive patches lying upon and immediately in contact with the
older Peedee (secondary) marl, on the west side of that river. It also ex-
tends into Darlington district, and is exposed there along the course of Swift
creek, and along Black creek, beyond any appearance of the secondary
marl which underlies the miocene along the Peedee.

4th. The next and the latest formed of all marls, here or elsewhere, is
i\\e post pliocene, found in Edisto Island, and sundry other parts of the land
not far from the sea shore.

Dismissing the foregoing order, and also all scientific arrangement,
I will begin with the second and the most important of the above list of marly
formations.

GENERAL CHARACTER, POSITION AND EXTENT OF THE GREAT CAROLINIAN BED

OF MARL.

Throughout the whole extent of this great deposite, and not only withm
the bounds of South-Carolina, but also in the adjacent parts of North-Caro-
lina and Georgia, where I have seen parts of its extension, there is a remar-
kable uniformity of texture, color, general appearance and qualities manifest
to the senses, and also of chemical composition. In these respects, through-
out the vast surface and depth of this bed, there is less variation of appearance
and quality than is always found in the different exposures of Virginia in the
same neighborhood, and even in the same excavation. Still there are minor
and well marked differences, belonging to different localities, and also to
different depths in this formation, which will be stated as each shall come
under consideration.

In general, and with but few exceptions, this marl, as seen in the bed, is
of a dingy, yellowish white color, or pale buff, of different shades. The
exceptions, showing the greatest departure from this general character, in
some cases are parts almost white, and others of brown, colored by ferrugi-
nous matter. Sometimes a dull greenish tint is added to the ordinary shades.
The texture is close and firm, and the fracture something like that of chalk;
though the mass is generally softer, and in some few cases more i-ndurated,
or approaching to stony, than of true chalk. The fossil remains are very
few, except in some particular localities ; and even there not of many species,
and mostly very imperfectly preserved. Indeed, except a few of the oyster
family, and others as remarkable for hardness, the shells have been almost
entirely dissolved or disintegrated, leaving however in some cases their forms
in perfiect casts of the firm marl, which had filled their hollows, as well as
enveloped them closely around. But so 'lqav are the fossils altogether, compa-
red to the great extent of marl already exposed, and which was wholly formed
by shells originally, that it is not surprising that many persons to whom such
localities had been longest known, had not observed the existence of any such
remains, and that but few others, either from that or any other indication, had
ever suspected the earth to be calcareous. The general appearance to the
eye, or to ordinary loose observation, is that of a poor clay, very largely mixed
with silicious sand ; though in fact there is usually but a very small proportion
ofeand.

OF SOUTH-CAROLINA. 9

Whether the marl is hard or soft, it breaks into lumps or crumbles more
or less as it is dug. However moist in its bed, it is not plastic like fine clay,
or yielding in the manner of moist clay to the blows of the digiring utensils,
but rather as firm sandy earth, and the hardest marl as very soft sand-stone,
or very compact and dry clay.

The proportion of pure carbonate of lime in this marl, for much the larger
number of exposures, yet seen, and of many analyses made, (which will be
stated particularly hereafter,) varies from fifty. five to eighty. five per cent.;
and more of others riss above ninety than fall below fifty per cent. This is a
degree of richness, compared to the marls of other regions, as remarkable as
is the great extent of this bed. The ingredients of tli^ marl, other than the
carbonate of lime, are mostly fine clay and silicious sand, colored by oxide of
iron. No magnesia has been found. In many specimens there is a very small
proportion of green-sand, which alone may be considered as of any notable
fertilizing value in addition to the main and important ingredient, carbonate
of lime. *

In some particular localities I have found green-sand forming so large an
ingredient of this marl, that it must add a very important value to the marl as
manure. And it is most probable that deeper excavations will show still
richer and more abundant exposures of green-sand mixed with the calcareous
marl, than I have yet been able to find. While I hold the green sand lo be
of inferior importance by far to the calcareous ingredient, still it is certainly,
as an addition thereto, of very great agricuhural value, however little is un-
derstood of the cause and manner of its remarkable and yet uncertain fertili-
zing action.

The dip, or degradation, of the surface of the great calcareous bed, or its an-
gle with the horizon, is generally from north to south, and does not differ greatly
from the general slope of the country, and the consequent courses of the rivers ;
but is greater than either. This greater general dip of the surface of the
marl (or irregularity of surface) is much more marked on the Santee than on
the Cooper, and on the Cooper than on the Ashley and those rivers still farther
south and west, passing through this region. And the entire body lies
deeper below the surface of the rivers as we proceed south-westward, in
any line parallel with the sea-coast, with some exceptions from this general
rule (on and near the Savaimah,) which will hereafter be stated. Nor is it cer-
tain that this declination or irregularity of the surface indicates the true dip
of the stratum ; as it may have been produced by denudation,or the washing
away of the original surface of the marl, subsequently to its deposition.
There are no distinct marks of stratification to be seen but in {cvf places,
and for small extent. And when such marks are seen, they are either so perfect-
ly horizontal, (to the eye,) or are so obviously and irregularly contorted by some,
violent and partially operating ancient convulsion, or upheaving of the bed,

* The marl of the Great Carolinian bed is not more remarkable for uniformity of character
throughout its great extent, than tor difterence from all the marls of Virginia, numerous and
widely difTering as are the varieties of the latter. It is enough to say here that the marls of Virgi-
nia are gcnerallv much poorer than those of the body described above, the bed s ccmparatively
very thin and limited in extent,fmd composed for the greatest part of shells and their Iragmente
of more recent formation, (middle tertiary) in good preservation, imbedded in a looser and
softer earth, principally and generally of sand. The marjy varieties of marls known in Virginia
were described at length in a Report to the Board of Agriculture of that State, g-iving a full
** description and account of the different kinds of marls, and of the gypseous earth, of the tide
water region of Virginia," which forms part of the " Csaay on Calcareous Manures," com-
mencing at page 194.

10 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

that no correct knowledge of the true dip could be learned from the lines of
s' ratification yet observed.

Marl of Ashley anil Cooper Rivers and their Branches.

In a.-^ccnding Ashley river for the purpose of tracing the marl, it was first
s^i-en exposed above low-tide on th.e land of Mr. John S. Brisbane, about 9
miles above Charleston. The land bordering on the Ashley, for much the
greater part, is tide m:ir sh, formed by comparatively recent river alUivion,
and wliich, therefore, cannot contain and show anytliing of the much more
ancient calcareous deposite. But at every bluff, or wherever the high land
reaches to, and has been partly washed away by the river so as to present a
precipitous cliff, there the marl is exposed to view. Thus it was traced and
t\xamined along the w^hole course of the river to Bacon's Bridge, the head of
8loop navigation, a distance of 20 miles. The lieight ol the perpendicular
exposures of mail on tliis river, above the lowest point, vary from 4 to H feet
above high tide ; and when excavations shall have been made, no doubt the
elevation of the surface of the marl, a little back from the river, will be found
much iiigher than as first seen.

Though the natural exposures of the marl above water were few compared
to the sp;iccs whore it was not visible, still it required but little investigation to
infer with certainty that the body of marl is continuous, and of very regular
grade of surface. Hence, it was manifest that the bed could generally be
reached at moderate depths on any of the neighbouring lands, as none are of
mucli elevation; and, as certainly, at greater depths under the river and its
upper cret.'ks ar.d tributaries. The entire beds of Dorchester and Engle
creeks are of marl, which is left mostly bare at low tide. And the bed of the
river generally, where clear of the alluvial mud, whenever I could reach and
examiiie it, is so firm that it is manifestly the bed of marl. By using a steel
gouge fixed to the end of a very long measuring rod, 1 was enabled to bring up
specimens of the bottom for examination, of which the lowest was 20 feet
beneath the water at low tide; and showing positively at least so much depth
of the marl stratum. But subsequent developements showed a thickness so
very far exceeding this, that it was no longer necessary to attempt such partial
and imperfect measurements for that object.

The law of continuity and level of the marl, which my earliest observations
thus enabled me to ascertain, however obvious it may now seem, was very
recently not suspected by the proj)rietors most interested in its practical appli-
cation. And by inducing th(;ir attention to these general indications of the
position of the bed, where it was not visible, I enabled many persons to find it
at once, and easily, by boring or digging through but a few feet of over-lying
earth. And if the indications are thus [)ursued generally, and with but little
effort by each individual, the accessible and available exposures of marl will
be increased very far beyond all that is now suspected of their abundance.

Immediately on the margin of Coper river, the lowest exposure of the marl
above low tide is believed to be at Strawberry ferry. Above that place, it is
exposed at every bluff; and within two miles above,at Mepkin, the marl bhows 8
or 10 feet above high tide. At Steep Bluff, near the iuad of Cooper, is the
highest and most remarkable exposure on this river. The p(;rpendicular
height here, above high tide mark, I found by measurement to be 2G feet, or 31
above lowest tide. I^lxcept one horizontal layer of about 18 inches thick, (of
marl-stone,) all this cliff is of compact homogeneous marl, not so hard as to

OF SOL'TII-CAROLIjVA. 11

be very dlfTiCuU to be dug. Rut this luiglit is not preserved nl;ove. And
even the lower elevations of Mepkin BlutT on Cooper, and at Magnolia on
Ashley, are nbso but slighter exeej)tions to the general degree of dip, or law
of position of the surface of the bed of marl ; whicii law seems yet more
unilormly preserved throughout tiie area occupied by the waters of Asliley
jind Coojjer rivers, than elsev.here.

The natural exposures of the marl on the Cooper are not confined to its
borders, or to cliffs on the river and its large tributaries. It is also seen in
various places in bordering lands, arid along the public roads which pass on
both sides of ihe river. The great Biggin Swamp, iho source ofCoc)per riv-
er, which with all its branches consists o several thousands of acres, secnris
to be throughout undeilaid by the bed of marl, and of which the surfiicc id
generally within 3 to 5 feet of the surface of the swamp laiul. This in-.por-
tant fact, (as of many other swamps,) might be very safely inferred from the
above stated law of position of the bed. But it is also sustained by more di-
rect evidence. The lower l(;vel of the Santec canal, for three miles, passes
through a higher part of this swamp land ; and every part of it was dv*:;, into
the marl, as appears from its remains still lying on an J by the bank. It also
apjK;ars at the different excavations for locks on higher levels, to Wanloot,
seven miles up the canal. Further,! have made borings, and induced other
persons to make tiiern in sundry places in head branches of the swamp, at:d tlie
marl has been always found as above stated. Tlie Uiost northern and re-
mote exposure known of marl on any swamp leading into the Cooper, is in
Deveaux's old ujill pond, about 2 or 3 miles east of the Santec canal, and 5
miles due south from Pinevilie. And nearly as far north, about C miles west
of the canal, in other head swamps of Coo})er, the marl has been recently
reached on the lands of Mr. Philip Porcher, and of others in the same licigh-
borhood. This swamp, (according to th.e district map,) connects with Green-
land swamp, which empties into the Santec, and which swamp also has marl
under it ; and Deveaux*s old mill-pond is barely separated from another swamp,
(Buckhall,) which is also connected with the Santec, but much hnver down.
Under the extensive Wassamasaw swamp, the marl is so near the surface,
that it is exposed and brought up by the fall of trees uprooted by the winds.*
Anrl though the great Cyjjress swamp, which lies between and connectjj
Wassamasaw with the he.'id of Ashley, where my personal examinations stop-
ped, has not been yet explored tor this purpose, there can scarcely be a ques.
tion that, hke all the explored upper swamps of Ashley and Cooper, it is bot-
tomed by marl, and that lying near the surface. Thus, these lines of exposure-
offered by nature in tlic numerous and extensive swamps, and also of mail eas-
ily accessible for use, will serve to exhibit the actual connexion of the nuiri
of the Ashley and Cooper and the Santec. And also, if this mode of exam,
ination were pursued, it is likely that th.e calcareous bed would be in like
manner found not only to 1>e connected, but also accessible from the Ashley
to the Stono river, and perhaps to the Edisto. But however easy it is for such
examinations to be n)adc by the numerous proprietors, each one operating
on his own ground, it will be obvious on the slightest consideration of tho
circumstances, that my time and opportunity for such examinations could
not extend far. Each proprietor, having full knowledge of the general local-
ities and particular features, could bore into and find the level of the marl un.

♦For this fact, and for a specimen of the marl, I am indebted to Mr.fl. W. RAVF.Nia,, aa
well as ("or making at my request some otiier accurate examiuatioiiB, to which I could iioi attend
personally.

12

AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

der his inland swamp with the labor of a few hours. And if the general facts
of the presence of the marl be such as I infer, the discovery will have a most
important bearing, not only on the enriching by use of the marl of adjacent
ands, but also on schemes of extensive and perfect drainage of swamps, and
even of greatly extending inland navigation, by the same general plan of oper-
ations. If the Santee canal, instead of rising at once, as it does, to a higjher
level, had been carried from the Cooper river through the lowest part of the
swamps, and without a lock, as far as the level and height of water would
have permitted for good sluice navigation, there might have been obtained,
in addition to the navigation, the perfect drainage of more than as many thou-
sands of acres of rich swamp, as there are now kept overflowed of swamp and
high-land, as reservoirs to supply scantily with water the summit level of the
canal. And the marl obtained by the excavation, if applied as manure,
would have produced value as great as the cost of the digging. Subjects for
the like mode of combining the three great improvements of marling, draining,
and inland navigation, (and to which perhaps may be added, in a very impor-
tant degree, lessening the diseases from malaria,) are ofTered in the head
swamps of Ashley river, and perhaps in many other such swamps, which are
now but the producers of pestilence, and are among the greatest, and almost
only grievous natural evils which oppress lower South -Carolina. It seems to
me not unlikely that the very existence of the numerous swamps of this region,
and of their great extent, may be owing to the stratum of marl lying general-
ly beneath, and not far below the surface of the land. For this earth so
strongly resists the washing by water, that both continued action and great
force of current would be necessary to scoop out channels of sufficient depth
and width for the passage of the rivers. Where the bottom is of marl, even
though there be abundant fall for drainage, it is difficult to conceive how the
rivers should be otherwise than they are — the larger bordered by numerous
swamps, and the smaller rivers and streams being scarcely anything else than
swamps. Yet their courses are so rapid as to show very considerable
fall. If the underlying strata had been altogether of sand and clay, without
marl, (or with but a thin and comparatively poor stratum of marl, lying high,
and easy to be cut through by currents, as in Virginia,)then the rivers of South-
Carolina, a'5 those of Virginia, would have scooped out their channels so deep
as to bring the tide up to the falls, and thusotfered sufficient fall and outlet to
drain all the swampy margins, below as well as above the falls.

It may safely be presumed, and would perhaps be inferred from the forego-
ing observations, that the original surface of this great bed of marl, at the time
of its being first formed under the then ocean, by the death of shell-fish, and
the gradual deposition of their shells, was as uniformly even and level across
the present beds of the rivers as elsewhere. But when this former bottom of
ti)e ocean hadbnen upheaved, and had become high land, then the receding
waters sought and found passages by scooping out and washing away fas much
as their force could effect) channels in the surface of the before even and level
marl sub-stratum, as well as through the more recent and looser deposites
above, which now constitute the entire soil and sub-soils of this region, and thus
formed the present courses of the rivers. Therefore, whenever the surface of
the marl can only be reached in the bed of a river, by sounding to a great
depth, that depth is no indicaton of a greater than the general original depres-
sion of the marl ; but only that so much of the original thickness of the stra-
tum had been swept off* by the current. Thus, calcareous stones, which are

OF SOUTH-CAHOLINA, 13

manifestly but the harder parts of the marl stratum, are found, either fixed or ia
loose fragmeiits,io form nearly the covering of the whole bed of the Ashley, and
are exposed on the bottom at many places. This hard or stony bottom is found
as low as the lowest ferry, within a mile or two of Charleston. Tiie occurrence
of the hard bottom here, impenetrable to the piles, which were used under the
supposition that the bottom was of deep mud or penetrable clay, caused the
bridge which was formerly constructed there to be carried away by the first
storm. It is said that far out in Charleston harbor, and in deep water, soft cal-
careous rock is often drawn up by the anchors of fisiiing boats. Of one of
these, from the depth of 42 feet, I was furnished with a small specimen by Dr.
Edward Ravenel, which, though the mass was penetrated and inhabited by-
recent boring shell-fish, seems to be certainly a part of this great marl forma-
tion. The same gentleman informed me that he had found hard bottom, (of
course the marl,) by an anchor more than 40 feet deep ofTCote-Bas on Cooper
river. Though not able to reach and obtain specim.ens of the solid marl any
where under the deep waters of this river, in my attempts, another not less in-
teresting fact was ascertained. This was, that wherever the ordinary dark
gray mud of the river bottom (similar to the marsh mud) could be pierced
through by the instrument used, there was found beneath a soft yellowish clav,
which npon being tested was found to be calcareous, and was evidently deriv-
ed from the marl stratum. This bottom of marl, formerly in part taken up
by the washing of the current, and again deposited by the more tranquil state
of the water, I found offCote-Bas, and below Red Bank, in other deep parts of
the river, so as to induce the belief that this feature is not rare, and perhaps
is universal under the more deep and still waters.

In Virginia,the beds of marl which I have there worked, or examined through
their depth, have rarely exceeded fourteen feet in thickness; and it is seldom
near so deep before the marl becomes so poor as to be not worth removing.
It was therefore erroneously deemed necessary for me to learn the depth of
the stratum here, as well as its superficial extent. And to this end, the facta
and indications above stated, showing by actual observation and testing a
thickness of rich marl of twenty six to thirty one feet, and inferences of much
more, were deemed valuable, while no nearer approach to certainty was
known, or expected to be obtained. But more recently, other and surer meana
of information have left no doubt of the solid and uniform body of marl beioff
at least one hundred and eighty-nine feet thick under the city of Charleston, and
probably two hundred and forty-two feet. Having learned that of the earth
obtained from various depths in boring three hundred and thirty-five-feet for
water, in 1824, samples had been preserved and were in the Medical Collej^e,
I sought and obtained permission to examicie them, and to take smaller
portions of each one for testing. The samples were formed in the shape of
small bricks, and each marked with the depth from which it had been taken.
There was no sample seen from nearer the surface than one hundred and
twenty feet, and none deeper than three hundred and nine feet. Within their
extremes, embracing one hundred and eighty-nine feet, I examined a suffi-
cient number to be assured that they were all parts of the same
great stratum of marl of which the upper portion only is exposed
to sight and examination, as it ranges higher up the country ; and
which conclusion may be deemed certain, not only from the texture of the
samples, (however altered in appearance by being worked up when soft by
the auger and by the hand, to mould them into their present form,) but still more

14 AGRIClTLTURAL SURVEY

from their proportions of calcareous matter, which will be stated hereafter in
connexion \vit!i trials of sundry specimens of marls obtained at or near tlie
upper part of this and of other formations.

Hut thi-i kno'.vn and certain thickness of the stratum, of one hundred and
eigiity-nine feet, is not all that may be safely inferred. The published
report of Dr. Moser, vvho conducted the boring,* is by no means clear enougli
as to the precise nature of ilie kinds of earth passed through. But it is how*
ever distinctly stated that the boring was in precisely the same kind of
c ):np:ict, yet easily penetrable stratum of earth, from the depth of sixly-seven
feet to two hundred and twenty. tlirce teet. And, therefore, to the one hun-
dred and eighty-nine feet, (between one hundred and twenty and three hun-
dred and nine,) which the samples tested enabled me to ascertain, there
may be added with as much certainty, the previous b;)ringfrom sixty-seven to
one hundred and twenty feet, or in all two hundred and forty-two feet of
marl, rich, and not anywhere of stony hardness, except of a few very thin
layers, of what from its h uvlness m ly be considered as marl-stone. And the
highest of these diin and hard layers are as low as two liuadred and sixty-three
feet below the surt^aee, or one hundred and ninety-six feet below the top of the
stratum of marl. Further; bdo.v t!ie dept'i (if three hundred and nine feet,
which furnished the lowost of my samples, it appears from the words of Dr.
Moser's rep )rt, (however indelinite and obvioudy incornu't in application,)
ttiat the eartii passed through afterwards m:i-U have been a continuation of
the same marl, (thouj^h he d )es not aj)p!y to it that name,) merely altered ia
sensible qualities by admixtures of other earths, shells, and the excess of
water. f

The marls of the Ashley and the Cooper, vary somewhat from eacli other
as well as fro 11 those of otiier localities hereafter to be described. The
Ashley maris arc generally softer and more easy to dig than those of the
Cooper. The latter more generally lie higher and better exposed, and on the
general average are riciier. But in regard to the comparative stretigth, (S^c,
h should be observed that not a single excavation had been made for man-
uring, and remained open, nor any deep digging for aiiy purpose, at the times
<.»f my first ex iminations ; and my obicrvations and solections of specimens
were lheref)re generally and necessarily confmed to the upper surface, or the
n iturally cxp )sed sections. Tnis may have caitse 1, in the results of analyses
of specimens, m»re apparent difFu'ence than really exists. If a section were
taken at any one place, for say twenty feet depth, or the marl were excavated
to that depth, perhaps the general average \Vould not vary as much by half, ai
d )the particular specimens taken from such parts, souie high and others lo^v,
as were then accessible. But on trial, all t'le sp.jcim itis from this region, \,\
tt)eir cont(M)ts of carbonate of lime, vary from fifty-four to seventy-eight per
cent, of which the poorest may be deemed rich, compared to the average
strength of the marls of Virgmia which h ive b^en used so largely and so ben-
eficially.

Tiiere are very few f )ssil remains and still fiwer shells, in the marls of the
Ashley and Cooper. But about live or six mih.vs above the head of the latter

*Copicd ill .Mills' Statistics of Souih-Carolina, "

tTiic words arij these :— " 300 teet 8 iucbeH to 303, hard limc-stonr, 30*J to 308, 5 soft car*-
b^nntc. of limy ; nf;xt 6 iiichiis hard crust;3)S-ll to 311. soft carbonate and nuid ; 311 to
31i 3, firstfoot lime, balance a very Kmacious cla\' and flot't Vuwi : 314-3 to 317-'2, shell, niar-
bU', sand, clay and some thick solid marine shells broken ; 317-2 to 331 blue lime-stone rock,
vl3l to 331 chalk, clay and mnd; thence a solid Hme.>*tonc rock to 335-4, in which the auger
was broken, and the boring cefised.

r I)

OF SOUTH-CAROLINA. 15

rIver, along the swamps leading thereto, the fossils become more numerous,
tmd in kinds are generally like those of the Santec river. The area from
and through which these highest sources of the Cooper flaw, agrees in otlier
respects connected with the calcareous bed with the borders of the Santee, to
which it joins, and which peculiar characters will be hereafter described.

The surface of the marl bed near the Asiiley and Cooper rivers seems
generally approaching to level, or to a horizontal plane. There are no cer-
tain marks of stratification seen* There are but few if any fissures, crevi.
ces, or other passages for springs issuing from the marl, so far as visible
at first.

Besides the great body, there are three varieties which should be noted.
At Col. James Ferguson*s plantation on Cooper, and also a few miles distant
at a hill in the Monks' Corner Road n( ar Bronghton's Swamp, there are expo*
sures of a difTcretit and peculiar kind of marl. The stratum wns exposed in
the road by the washing of a gully, and at Col. Ferguson's by the recent dig*
gingof a canal, as well as formerly on another part of the same plantation bv
the diuirin^ of a well, which was sunk to the depth of eij:;h!een feet throuirh tiif
marl, wiliiout reaching its bottom. It is a grayish clay, not toUgh or adiiesive,
but which crumbles easily, and the lumps arc entirely reduced soon after being
exposed to the air. It has no signs of fossils, and no resemblance to any other
known marl of this country, and agrees more nearly with the European des*
cripti(3ns of marl, and with marl proper, as defined in the beginning of this
report. In that at Col. Ferguson's, there are many nodules, enclosed in the
general mass, of pure white, and though firm, yet of soft and line chalkv tex-
ture and apparent qualities, and which I found to be composed almost entirelv
of carbonate of lime.

This mail, though so veiy difTorent in appearance, I infer was derived from
the ordinary kind, by a part bt-ing washed off by the rush of waters which
acted to denude the whole body of marl, and was suspended in that manner,
mixed with fine clay, and then ag\in deposited.

Another peculiar marl is seen at Mr. il. Mazyck's plantation near the Santec
Canal. This differs from the ordinary kind in having its upper part, for the
depth of above two or two and a b.alf feet, intermixed with a large and
valuable marl of green sand. Below this, the gren sand nearly disappears,
and the marl is white and very hard, or changes to marl-stone.

.\ third but slighter variation from the marl characters is seen :;t th(; Grove,
Dr. I'Mmund Ilavenel's plantation, three miles from the river, and Iburtet-n
only from Charleston, being the most south-eastern, or lowest exposure yt:t
known on or near the Cooper River, and above water, of the Great Caroli-
nian bed. At this place the marl is granular, and .softer than the great
body ; and there is also a difTerence in the prevailing fossils. A very sin*,
ilar marl in texture I afterwards observed in one place only, Gen. Erwin's
mill, Barnwell, near the Savannah River.

Before this year, not one trial of the marl had ever been made on or near
the Ashley River, nor on any one of the Cooper River plantations.* On

* It was not until lonff after my ob.^ervations and careful inoiiiries had br-cn made in thi«
neighborhood, and written as above, that I Icnrned when far distant, and by an accidental
communication, contrary to all previous information, that Dr. Philip Priolceaii, a former repi-
denf, had some years ago made an unsatisfacR)ry oxporiinont witii marl at Sportman's Re-
treat. The entire ignorance in reference to this fact, among the near nei'^hbors, presents in
even a stronger point of view the general and total du'^regard to thw mode of improvement.

16 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

plantations on tributary- waters of this river, there had been two individuaU
who had marled, and with satisfactory results. These were Dr. Edmund
Ravenel and Mr. Frederick Porcher, who each had some years ago, applied
marl to something more than twenty acres.

Maris of the Santee River and its Branches.

The lowest pari of this river where the marl of the Great Carolinian bed
is first seen, is a mile below Echaw Creek, which emptier from the southern
side into the Santee about five miles above where the river divides into two
passages (forming the North and Souih Santees) to the ocean. The marl is
also seen in the high land on the northern side, back of the swaa:p which
there borders the river, somewhat about the lowest locality on the opposite
side, and along the lands on Cedar Creek, which empties just above, and four
or five miles below Lenud's Ferry, Thence, it is seen on most or all the lands
up the river to Baggy branch, which enters the Wittee Lake, (one of the
passages of the Santee,) about six miles above the ferrj'. No exposure is
known above this limit in WiUiamsburgh district.

Higher up the river, in the southern and lower part of Sumter, the marl
ahows in many places in and along the borders of Potato Creek, or has been
formerly reached and excavated for lime-burning. This creek empties into
the Santee nearly opposite the northern end of the Santee canal. The marl
on and near Potato Creek is exposed to view only about three feet high above
the water. Higher up the river, there is no known exposure of the body of
marl in Sumter, its depression being coo great. Across Scott's Lake, below
Wrig.'it's Bluff, (the ancient bed of the Santee,) only, the surface of the marl
may be traced quite across. I found it there nowhere less than four feet
below low water of the river, and varying; from that to eight feet. The marl
at this place was traced across the lake, which is about one hundred and
twenty yards wide, and was felt some eighty yards in the other direction, or
that of the general course of the rirer. It seemed to be most elevated in the
middle, or as a gently rounded ridge, of which the sides were depressed untii
lost to observation under the mud which is rapidly filling the lake.

On the southern and western side of the river, the marl is seen from War.
ren's, below Echaw, (above mentioned) on every plantation to Dr. John S.
Palmer's plantation above Lenud's Ferry, and still higher at sundry different
places along the river as high as the lower part of Mattasee Lake. This
whole distance on the map is about twenty-two miles in a straight line. Of
all these localities, I examined personally only the extensive exposures on the
lands of Dr. John S. Palmer and Col. Samuel J. Palmer below in Charles-
ton District, and Dr. Robert Gourdin's, Georgetown, and also the highest
known exposure, (on Glass' land) in WiUiamsburgh, and at and above
Scott's Lake. For the other localities of actual exposures, I relied on the
information of the above named gentlemen, (and on specimens furnished by
them,) who were all among the most extensive marlers of the few in the
state, and who were well acquainted with the marls and the localities of their
neighborhood. From the highest exposure named, at Mattasee Lake, the
marl sinks to a much lower level, and is no more seen along the river, until
reaching Greenland swamp, where it is again invisible, but still lying loose.
This interval is about fifteen miles in a direct line. On the two branches of
Rock's Creek, I again saw the marl and in abundance, and extending several
miles back from the river ; and it continues to Eutaw Spring increasing in

OF SOOTH-CAROLINA. 17

visible quantities and in clevution. From this place itjs abundant, or ea.sil,y
available, on every plantation to Half-way swanjp, in Orangeburgn. It is as
abandanl, and also rises higb on the hill sides on the southern side of that
stream ; but disappears entirely on the northern side, (so far as known,)
though the hills are as high, and there is no apparent difference in them in
other respects. This remarkahle and obvious difference had caused the long
and yet continuing prevalent belief that no marl existed anywhere above
Half-way swamp. But this is a mistake ; as it is seen on a southern branch
of Stout's Creek, some three miles above Half-way swamp. This is the high-
est known exposure near tne Santee.

From the lowest exposure on this river, to above Eutaw Springs, the marl is
the richest known. It seems generally to be formed almost entirely of frjg^
inents of minute corals, scarcelv distin^jjuishcd from a homo£:eneous mass of
close texture, except where the long exposure to rain has washed the surface^
and made its peculiar structure and materials obvious. The usual proportions
of carbonate of lime vary from eighty. six to ninety-four per cent. In some
cases, as at Eutaw and Rock's Creek, the marl of this description is as white
as chaik; but generally, as in the neighborhood of Lenud's Ferry^ it is colore(i,
and in some cases deeply, by ferruginous matter.

At the cliHs about Vance's Ferry, the marl loses the peculiar character
just described, and becomes more clayey in appearance, and like the richest of
the Ashley and Cooper. Again, at Adam Felder's, and thence to Half-way
swamp, the marl is more like chalk in texture, though still of the general pale
buff color.

In connexion with the Santee marls (including those of the upper branches
or swamps of Cooper, which as already stated, seem alike,) there is a smaller
proportion of marl-stone. This is not always richer than the softer marl, and
sometimes is poorer ; and therefore the stony hardness is owing to some other
cause. The marl-stone is generally highest, and in detached blocks or
masses. These are often separated from each other, as well as from the marl
below, by interposed red clay. Extensive observations of the hard marl-stone
induced me to believe at first that it was always above the marl, and always
detached from it, even when in contact. But afterwards, at a low state of
water, I found the marl-stone in some cases below the upper marl, as ai Lenud's
Ferry. Also, it appears in layers passing horizontally through and connec-
ted with the marl in the cliffs above Vance's Ferry. These stony layers
are there principally composed of large saddle-oyster shells, {ostrea sellafor-
mis) held together closely by a stony cement. These oyster shells are also
scattered there more thinly through all the lower and softiu* stratum. But none
of these remarkable shells were found lower on the Santee than a few miles
below Eutaw ; and not one on the whole extent of the Cooper and Ashley
rivers. And when these shells are left protruding from the face of the liver
cliffs, near Vance's Ferry, (where generally covered by the water,) by the
softer marl having been gradually washed away by the river, the shells appear
as if corroded and mostly dissolved, and the outside of what remains is coated
with and penetrated by oxide of iron, and is as black as iron. This effect
may be produced by the decomposing action of sulphate of iron, (copperas)
held insolation by the river water. And if so, sulphate of lime (gypsum or
plaster of Paris) is formed, and carried off dissolved by the water. The
wasted appearance of the hardest marl, and even of murl-stone, below the

18 AGRICULTURAL SURI^EV

usual level of the river, would indicate that this chemical action has been oi
very extensive and coniiriued operation.

The nmrlof the Santee, or at least all below the neigh.borhood of Vance's
Ferr}', has a very uneven upper surface, presenting continuaHy high rounded
elevations, and deep depressions between ihem, both of various sizes and
irregular occurrence, just as if a violent and long continued torrent of water
had1:orn away the softer parts. Generally a fine red clay is the covering of
such parts, and also forms a complete coat surrounding detached masses,
whether of marl or marl-stone.

At the Rocks creek, below and near the Eutaw Springs, the upper marl
and limestone are such as have been described. But at tlie lowest excava.
rion, (and as low as the rising of the water permits its examination,) the marl^
thouffh still composed principally of minute fragments of coral, is very soft
and I'oose, contains a notable quantity of green-sand, and has many of the 05-
irea panda, in good preservation, a remarkable shell wliich I found but
larely elsewhere in South-Carolina.

At Eutaw Sprin<^s, the marl is about twenty-five feet above the level of the
tiver at low water. At Vance's Ferry, nine miles above, (in (3rangeburgh
district,) it is full thirty-five feet where highest, which is somewhat back from
the river. And it ma"^intains a height generally as much or more then twenty-
five feet as far up as Half-way swamp. At the only exposure above this
stream, and the highest yet known near the river, on the branch of Stout'd
creek before mentioned, the marl is only about four feet above the stream*
No excavation had been made to show its depth below. It there has a large
and valuable proportit)n of jrreen-sand. The lower stratum at Halc-y old
mill, is also rich in green-sand. A thin middle stratum at Dawshee cave,
below Eutaw, and the upper layers of marl at the deserted site of the old R\u
n-uenot village, Jamestown, (on Col S. J. Palmer's land) have also green-
sand in considerable proportion, though less than those marls previously
named, and near the upper boundary of the bed. In sundry other sj)ecimens
elsewhere, veiy small proportions of green-sand are discoverable.

Another striking peculiarity of the Santee marls, and especially seen more

marked as descending the river, is that they are full of crevices, fissures, and

even some considera'ble caverns are seen, and many m(;re doubtless have

existed in remote times, which no longer exist for causes to be stated. In

consequence of this chai-acter, water passes fVeely through this marl in every

direction; so that where the bed lies lower than the surface of the j-iver, in

freshets, it is impossible to dig it lower until the. water subsid s, as the water

rises in every natural sink or excavation, as high as the then level of the

river. Throughout the whole knoNvn area of the Santee marls, there are

numerous circular basin-shaped depressions of all sizes, from a few yards

across and \ery deep in proportion to their width, to some containing many

acres, and so shallow that their character is scarcely noticed. All such de-

pressions, or -'sink-holes," as the deeper are called, I suppose to have been

originally caused by caverns having been prf;viously existing in the marl or

maVl-stono beneath ; and that by liie roofs of such caverns falling in, was

produced the sinking of the earth from the surface, and of the marl down

to the cavern. Indeed, such sinkings of the surface occur now, and not

unfrequcntly.

Another effect of this fissured and cavernoua nattire of the marl, is that the

01^ SODTH-CAIIOLINA. 19

?;pring waters ^n> S above, and running streams, arc often swallowed by
so nc of these sink < while many others vent bold springs, and enormous dis.
'jharges of " rotte \ lime-stone " water, as it is termed. Thus, the existence
ou' such sink-hole'^ (which are also to be seen in many other parts of the
lower districts, as ,« ^aufort, Colleton and Barnwell,) or the strong boilinjr up
t)f such springs, wi i«h is of still more frequent occurrence, may be safely as-
sumed as true indii jiions of marl or marl-stone below, though it may peihaps
beat a gieat ore/^n an inaccessible depth. These marl-stone fountains,
wiien of great volui V-, are objects of remarkable beauty. The water is of the
most peifecl trans[^ , ency. It is usually warmer than that of other sprino-s
and wells. The te \ perature of the celebrated and beautiful Eutaw Sj.ricfT. I
found to be 64 degr< < s, (Fah.) ; and two marl-stone springs at the foot of
Khe cliff at Shell Bh t 'on the Savannah, were respectively 66 and 68 degrees.
The clifj'of marl; -I Vance's Fe-rry extends about four miles down the river,
and from one to tw » iniles above. It is perpendicular, and even often over-
hanging the water, ' r its whole extent, except where a narrow edging of
swamp separates, b t; does not hide iit from the river. The general height
of the face of the Ci i,'of marl is twenty. five feet, and in some cases more.
The upper and lowe.' parts are of compact, but not very hard »narl ; and pas-
si[ig horizontally th :igh, is a thin layer of hard marl'Stone, which, like a
shelf, supports not oi !'■ the enormous mass of marl above, but which mass in
addition is thickly c ^ered and loaded with growing trecvS, many of them of
considerablti size, wh.h h cling to the side of the precipice by their roots run-
wing into every crevi< ., and whose nritted fibrous roots often descend like a
close veil, outside of tl face of the cliff, until tliey dip into the water of the river
below. The m:irl un '• r the laver of marl-stone has been s-cooped out by the
washing of the curien' ,. or decomposed «nd dissolved by the chemical action of
the sulphate of iron in the water, so that the shelf and the whole cliff above
jut out and over-hang the river often six to ten feet, and .sometimes fifteen
and even twenty. It i \ vvonderful that the enormous weight, aided by the force
of wind on the trees, d r s not frequently throw down parts of the overhanging
f.liff. Bat in viewing . osely its whole extent, I saw nothing of such, recent
results. The steep an ' :hreatenini; cliff, where noticed, was everywhere of the
usual dark gray twit of \ long exposed surface ; and elsewhere is covered with
tl thick green drapery li luxuriant and beautiful creepers, and of trees, giving
evidence of long undis! > be.l repose of the marl and marUstone in which they
'•'ire rooted.

i\l'.trh I the Edislo Riter and is Branchjs.

On the Four-Holes swamp, tiie principal eastern tributary of the
Edisto, 1 was ei'.abled t i examine ihe mart at but two places, which are both
among the highest or m • i northern known localities, and serve to mark part
of the general outline 1. iting the great depositee From visible iixiications
and some loose gi'iieral .port,! inter that marl is pleniifully otii^red by its
x:onvenient position on tl •; long stream. \Vhen I visited its lower and middle
region, the water was to • high to see any exposure;, if (wisring; and nothing
could be learned of in irl t>y in([uiring in the neighborhood on my route, be-
cause nothing seemed tcj "^ ive been before heartl or tliought on the subject.

T:io first ol' th<.! two 1'J.»; litics reti-rred to are on the lands of Mr. Thomas
Sifnmermuj, on the cas ? n sidi; of tiie main swam]), and about three miles

20' agrics:;lt1)RAL suRVEf

from its highest source. The auiTacc of the marl lies lower than lliat of tlii-
land at the edge of the swamp. The specimens obtained showed a considcia-
ble proportion of green-sand, together with the ordinary richness in carbon-
ate of lime. On Lime-kiln creek, a western and upper branch of the swanipr*
is the other exposure of marl, well known heea»ise lime has been long burni
there, in large quantities, the business having b.?en first commenced by D.'V
Jamison, the former proprietor, and is coiitinued by the present, Mr. Jonn A.
Tyler. The surface ot the marl lies about lour to seven ieel beiow that of:
the low land bordering the swamp ; and aller removing this overlying mass,
four or five feet depth of marl only was obtained, both rich and firm enough
to be used for burning. Below this depth, the marl became much more loose
and soft in texture, and of much darker color, as it was afterwards described
to me by a person who had formerly superintended the excavations for lime-
burning for several years. And from the very loose description thus obtained,
I infer that the lower part which was thus left as useless, was rich in green-
sand, and the whale mass very valuable and easily available for manure ;
which use, howeveri whether of the raw or the burnt material, no one thought of
trying, during thp long time that the bed has been worked. Some very small
and altogether improper applications of lime scarcely deserve to be named as
exceptions to the general neglect of the marl as mfmure.

On Cawcaw swamp, the marl has been formerly reached at Manuel Poo-
ser's^ (the highest known locality^) and at Wannamaker's a few miles lower ;;■
both near the swamp, and the marl lying low. And at both these places, the
marl is overlaid by the south-eastern edge of the infusorial bed^ which will be
hereafter described.

On the South Edisto, I found marl in Barnwell, at Johnson's, (or nov/
Binnaker's) bridge; and it has been since tiaced to one and a half miles above„-
Also at Walker's bridge, near the Colleton line, and again two miles above.
Thin layers of the latter exposures are of very hard marl-stonc. The greater
mass of all these are sandv and poor, and of very different appearance frons
the great body of the Carolinian bed. It seems most likely that the ori-
ginal upper surface of the marl along the main course of this river, has been
torn up by the force of a violent current, and v/hile so suspended,- mixed witl?
sand also suspended, and then again deposited in the form of the poorer mart
now presented, and forming but the upper part of the general and richer bed
below, and which probably may be found by deep digging. The borders of
the lower part of this river, and of the Four-Holes swamp, where they unitCT-
formed part of the large area which the advanced season, and its certain dan-
ger to health, prevented niy examining at any time after the subsiding of the
high waters, which had rendered fruitless earlier attempts at examination.

Throughout the western and central parts of Colleton, and all of Beaufort./
where \ crossed these two large districts twice in different routes last March, no
true marl exposure had been heard of, except the post-pliocene, ar coast marl^
the existence or character of which my visit first brought to light, and which
will be described hereafter. There \7eie, however, three different calcareous
deposites which had Ixien long known, and were recogni'/ed as marl, without
doubt. On examination, two of these were found ta be the smaTl amount of
refuse lime suj)posed to have been thrown away from indigo vats in ancient
times; and the largest, and most noted, which was at a landing place in \^A.
Helena, eeen^'d to be the bottom of an old heap of liniCf either burnt oi.r

OF SOtfTK-CAROLINA. 21

the spot, or brought there, and spoiled by a high tide, and abandoned and for-
gotten. These deposites, and the mistakes by their propri.rtors as to their
i.'biiracter, would not deserve to be ruentioned here, but to guird other per-
sons, making supposed discoveries of marl (and also of lime-stone in the
hiflrher country,) to be less precipitate iu coming to their eonclusiojis. Sun-
dry other deposites, mosiiy of the refuse lime of old indigo works, or of ma-
terials designed for sucli, I have since been called upon to visit, or to ana-
lyze specimens of, in other parts of the State. In every such case, an hour's
work in digging and removing, and generally a few minutes, would have
sufficed to show the very small quantity, if not the true character of these
artificial deposit(;s. The-ir quantity and extent, to be ascertained by digging
and using the calcerous earth, will afford the proper and easy test of their
character and value. And without tliis test any one may be deceived by a
m3re superficial view of a few feet of exposure, and still more by a mere
hand specimen.

But since interest and zeal on this subject have been aw:ikened in these
districts, several extensive and well determined bodies of good marl have
been found within the region above-named, of which I can only venture
to mention two. which have bsen sufriciently made known to me by accurate
description, and the exhibition of sulficient specimens of the marls and their
fossils. 0:;ie is in Colleton, on Ashepoo River, three miles above sloop
navigation, on the land of Frederic Fraser ; and the marl oi' excellent quality.
Tlie other is on the land of Frederic G. Fraser, west of Huspa creek in
Beaufort.

Marl of Little Salkekatckle and Us Branches.
The hi^h state of the water when I first visited this river, (and also
the Great Salk(;hatchie.) prevented my making any useful search for marl
personally; and my inquiries led to nothing, except that no thought had been
^iven to the subject, and of course no interest or curiosity before excited.
.Subsequently, in passing near the head waters, I found a very poor marl
thrown up at Bowling's mill-race, (near the head of Little Salkehatchie.)
which at U;ast indicates the presence of the great body, and gives hopes of the
unehansied and rich marl being within reach below. And such rich marl is
visible in a bold spring of marl-stone water which boils up in Lemon's swamp,
AX lower tributary of Little Salkehatchie.

Marl of ike Savannah River and its Branches in Barnwell.
The continuation ot" the Great Carolinian bed, with its general richness and
other characteristic features is found at the Boiling Spring, and various other
places on the diff .-rent branches of the Lower Three Runs, to near its outlet into
x\\c Savannah. And since my partial exarnination has excited interest, 1 nm in-
formed tliat marl has i)een f -und at Red Bluff, on the Savannah, and on King's
oreek, both near to Beaufort District. I discovered it abundantly exposed and
tiasily to be worked, on the plantation of the Rev. Elliott Estes, on the Savan-
nah, and above the m^uth of the Lower Three Runs. High up on Tinker's
Creek, one of the head branches of Upper Three Runs, I found marl in sev-
<iral contiguous places ; but as seen, is too poor for use, because it is in a
transition state to that of complete sihcificition of the shells, such as is often
«een justabjve the upper or northern limits of the marl, and which singularly
chanored condition wiil hereafter be described-

22 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

No doubt that proper examinations will serve liereafter to discover man}'
more localities of available and rich marl near ilie Savan n h. Still, it mu»t
lie low, und therefore be comparatively difficult of access t' wards the upper
iuTiil, because of the existence of a remarkable and highly i ('.erecting geologi-
cal feature that it is proper to mention, if only for itG beari I ; on searches for
the surface of the marl bed. On the Georgia side of the S'. mnnah, the high-
lands are of very unusual elevation, rising to 200 fh-t or more, and
presenting river cliffs, made perpendicular by the washing t^fthe river, of the
height of near 100 feet. On the South-Caroiimi s^e, opposite, the
lands are mostly of low swamp ; or, if higher, are still of alluvial formation
or subject to inundation by the highest h-eshets ; and tli ' high-lands, (not
alluvial) lying back and next to the swamps, are much lower than those
across the Savannah. It seems as if, in the general uph > wing of ti.e land
from the bottom of the ancient ocean in which the marl I.? a been long pre-
viously deposited and formed, that a dislocation was mad' here, the line of
which furnished a passage and channel for the river ; ai ^' that ihe present
land of Georgia, with its underlying marl, was raised so'^e 50 or 00 feet
higher than the edge of the adjoining area, now forming pM|t of the southern
border of South-Carolina. Hence the marl on the Ge<Tgi.» side, which expo-
ses a cliff of more than 70 feet, may be supposed to show the same
alternations of strata, and of qualities, as could be found oix the opposite shore
by penetrating to 70 feet below the surface of the marl, which surface is
at a depth as yet unknown below the surface of the soil. 'Kierefore, to study
the characters and alternations exposed to view on the Gi'jrgia side, is the
readiest and as yet the only available mode of investigf hug the siipposed
character of the deeply buried and concealed lower part o'the greni body iii
South-Carolina. And besides this reason, and also the gei -1 ral interest of the
subject, there is nearly as much of practical prospective i^ lity and value to
the agriculture of South-Carolina in the marl cliffs on the ■'i eorgia side of ihe
Savannah, as if they were on the opposite bank. For •) eirhcr case, the
transportation of marl would necessarily be by water, an * equally as cheap
from one side of the river as the other. In the most exter { ve marling opera-
tions yet performed in this state, (though very recently commenced,) the
marl from Shf^U Bluff is taken twelve miles against the c ^ rent of the river,,
and landed on Silver Bluff, on the lower line of Edgefield ,! strict. It would
be far more easy to transport the marl to double that distan U down the course
of the stream. Thus, from one locality, in Georgia, oiily, marl may be
cheaply and profitably conveyed (as this one extensive tri > lias alreagly tully
proYcd,) to at least all the river lands of South-Carolina iiM.luded withni the
distance of 36 miles along the river. And as therff ai-e other marl
cliffs lower down, which 1 had not s<;en and know of o ' y by loose report,.
the like advantage could be extended from them much ^ rther. For these
several reasons, a more particular description of the reni; rkable and grand
cliff of marl at Shell Blufi; will not be deemed out of placd in this leport.

The highest calcareous cleposite is a stratum compose t entirely of the gi-
gantic oy.ster shells which stretch through Ixnh South-.'.'arolina and Geor>
gia. This stratum is here from 4 to 6 feet thick, and si^paraled from tin;
other and very different marl, lying below, by 10 feetof ."ir;h not calcareous,
of which the upper and larger portion is coarse silicious ;/lnd, and the lower is
the same sand interleaved with thin layers of clay. / ; it is prtisumcd that

OF SOUTH-CAROLINA.

23

these siiolls, however worthy of notice, have no connexion with tlie inferior and
great deposite, they will be dismissed from consideration for tlie preseni.

The thickness of the Great Carohnianbed, as there seen above water only,
was accurately measured at the best p.)int for that operation, where the chri*,
for the wiiole height, was perpendicular, and even somewhat over-hanging.
The height was 72^ feet. Doubtless the thickness belov/ water is
even more. At tliis [)lace also, the lower strata (showing above
water) were measured separately, aiKJ specimens of them taken ; and the up-
per strata were measured in Jike manner, and sampled at another exposure ;
•as all the strala of the cliff were not accessible at any one ^)lace. And if ihey
liad been so, the statement of proportions and kinds at one section would not
precisely suit any other. For some of the strata, or varieties thin out, or
■even disappear entirely, and are substituted by the increased thickness of
others, or of other varieties appearing elstiwherc in the section.

>-os.

117.

PROPORTION!
CARB. LIMEl FEET.
PER CENT. I

118.

iiy.

120.

121,

122.

123.

89.

5-i

White and compact mari.

Darker.

8 1)
!)4

Hard

er.

hlard, and some aiinust stony mari-htone. Full oi' hollow
, impressions of small shells — brownish color.

82

|Concrete mass of broken fragments of shells, pale pur-
jplish tint.

60

51

16

Palti y(>llow, apparently poor, with a few casts of shells.

124,
125.

81
70

10

126,
127.

128.

129.

14

58

VVliite compact marl with pale green tint. No shells,
except a few fragments of ostrea, undistinguishable.

Various thin strata, differingina[)pearance, but the lines of
separation not very distinct, & all appearing rich. No. 124
[selected as appearing richest, and No. 125 the poorest.

Coai'se granular and firm marl, containing very few marks
of shells, and none distinguishable. The two specimens,
as the whole, seemed equal.

Soft yellow marl, out of which liow many '• lime-stone"
springs.

78

. I Helow the water bearmg stratum (No. 128.) as exposed at
[another place, by the higher level of the lower strata.

Besides these layers and kinds, there are sundry other varieties in different
places, which either substitute some of these, or are interposed for a space.
Among these may he mentioned as the most important for quantity, or dis-
tinfTuishable in appearance, the following :

(No. 130), Hrownish ferruginous concrete of fragments of shells, compact,
•but not hard — 80 per cent. (No. lol), Pale yellowish sand, soft or moderate-
ly loose, and apparently to the eye rather siiicious — 50. (132), Compact^
hard, and close-grained darkmarl-stone — 84. White compact argillaccjous
marl, very like in appearance, one specimen, the upper, (No. 133), 87 per
cent., and another, the lower, not difiering much in appearance, (No. 134)
on]y 48.

24 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

in a few places, and for a shori extent, thin layers of dark brown silicious

sand occur, quite distinct from the marl, and free fiom all calcareous matter.

Except the stratum of marl-stone, (No. 120), which is full of hollow imprcs-
Sions of small shells no longer remaining, there are very few shells, or even
casts or impr^-ssions of shells, in all this great exposure of marl. A few of the
ostrea selloBformis, and casts only of the cardiia plontcosta are seen remaining,
and sufficiently well preserved and well marked in character to be recognized.

The very great irregularily of level of the Santee marl, as before descri-
bed, and also its broken and every. where shivered and fissured mass,
indicate an irrejiulBr and violent upheaving force, even more than is exhibited
on the Savannah. Thus, along the course of the Santee, from below Vance*s
Ferry, up to Half. way swamp, the upper surface of the marl on the Orange-
burg side is at least 40 feet higher than any known opposite exposure in Sum-
ter; and it may be safely inferred that the line of the great dislocations both
on the Santee and the Savannah, became the passage-way of the waters of
these rivers.

Marl and MarlStone of the Peedee Bed,

Though this formation is separated from the miocene marl (or middle ter
tiary,) in the geological series, or in regard to age, by the interval of tvv'o en-
tire periods, or intervem'ng successive formations, (the newer cretaceous and
the eocene or lowest and oldest of the tertiary, holh of which are here en-
tirely wanting,) still the formertwo are so united in position, near the Peedee,
that, it would be difficult to describe either alone, without reierring continually
to the other. Therefore, in the description that will be given of the second,
ary or Peedee bed, the overlying and connected bed of miocene marl will be
also embraced, so far as regards its position and visible thickness of the stra-
tum ; leaving its other characterstistics to be considered separately, as part of
the whole miocene formation of the State.

It is the secondary formation in that vicinity only, to which I give the name
of the Peedee bed. This peculiar formation is known as low on the Peedee
river as Britten's hvry, at the line dividing Georgetown and Williamsburg
Districts ; though I could not see it there, when sought, because of the height
of the river, (6 feet above low water,) at the time of my attempted examina-
tion. It may probably be traced slill lower down the river. The surface of
this bed rises as tlie river is ascended. At Williams' bluff, a little above
Port's ferr)', and 14 miles above Britton's, the mai 1-stone only was there seen,
and was three feet above the water. On Gibson's land, next above, and
stretching along that long bluff for a considerable distance, the secondary marl
of dark gray color, was seen eiglit feet above the then height of the river,
above which, for an additional h(.'ight of several feet, is yellowish marl-stone,
also secondary, which there |)resents a regular horizontal ledge or shelf. The
softer marl below is there much poorer than generally higher up the river.
Along a higher part of the river bank of the same plantation, the vsecondary
marl disappears, .)r dips so low as not to be there visible above the water; the
whole sj)ace, and 10 feet or more in height, being occupied by the miocene
marl, wliich there first comes into view. At Godfrey's ferry above, the stratum
of miocene was then more than 25 ft-et of visible thickness above the water, and
no secondary marl to b(; seen beneath. At Giles' bluff. (Mr. IJemy Davis'
land,) the marl and marl-stone of the Peedee bed, in alternating layers, rose to
14 feet above the then height of water, having an addition of 12 feet thick-

OF SOUTH -CAROLINA. 25

noss of the ycl'ow rniocene marl super-imposed. At Witherspoon's bluff, 2
or '-^> miles higher, the Peedee bed was again out of sight, SiiKl the miocctie
showing about h to 10 feet high. Proceeding still iiigher up the country, and
near the river, the Peedeo bed only is seen at sundry points of exposure. At
Birch's ferry, 27 miles above Britton's, the Peedee bed was 10 to 12 feet
above the river, and wns exposed fur 150 to 200 yards. The stratum of
niiocene marl had d.ubtless thinned out, and had come to nothing some miles
below this place. The next exposure seen above, of the Peedee bed, was on
Myers' land on the stecj) hill-side of a stream wiiich empties into Jeffrey's
creek, a branch of the Peedee river. There the soft mnrl and very hard m;ir!-
stone are of the like dark bluish gray color, as usual with this bed, and ihey
alternate in distinct horizontal layers, varying from 9 to 24 inciies thick — the
marl being in the larger propoition. Here the whole thickness of the bed
was seen, and found reduced to 10 fc-et ; for its underlying stratum was seen
exposed several feet deep. This is a black shale, (or very fine clay.) cutting
as smooth as hard soap, and though apparently in a solid mass in its bed, is in
thin layers, which easily separate and afterwards crumble in drying. It is not
at all plastic, or yielding hke clay. It siiatters undur the stroke; ot a dig-
^In-r implement, .even wh(;n d.o'h. in its bed. T.e lower part here exposed
h-is its thin layers alto: nale! with mucli thinn r layers of Iojsj and op n s;li-
cieus sand. Tiis eaith, of such marked . nd pec u;i:r*exture and character,
is very :"bundanti.i tliis p:ut of the country, and as higii as Dailirgton Court
House, :;nd is vulgarly and improperly called " '^:oap-stone." The second-
;>.ry marl hc!;c 11 s immediately upon the shale, without any verv distinct line
ot division. At Bigliam's, alone below, some shide is seen a!ove the marl,
and the one seems to sliadeaway _radually into the o her. The Peedee be.i of
marl is also s: en at various places o; Will w ci'cek, nearly to its source,
which furnishes evideiice cjf at least 10 'uiles width of the L:ed west of the
Peedee. Its most nothern known exterior is on the land of J. A. Jolly,
Hsq., about a mile above the mouth of Jeffrey's creek, and not far distant
fro i; t e river.

It had long been nported, and has been so published in agricultural paper ,
and remained without contrad.ction, that marl was abunJ.ant nl Marr's BluiT,
a well known public landing place and ferry on the Peedee, about 6 miles
higher iha : the last named exposure. But upon examination, not a trave of
marl was there seen, though 60 feet or more of perpendicular heigh.t is there
exposed naked to view. A large p oportion of this section consists of the
same clay shale above described, which is the underlying stratum of the se-
condary marl, wherever the latter is found. This remaikable earth agrees,
in its texture, smoothi;ess of gn. in, and other sensible qualities, so nearly with
the de.-:cription of what is called marl in old English books, and according to
vulgar and old established opinions derivefl from such erroneous authorities
on this su.^ject, that it is not strange thai th • shale at Marr's bluff should
have S) easily as well a« falsely acquired the reputation of beiiK; excellent
marl. Though there is not a particle of caibor.aie of lime in this thick stra-
tum, 1 found minute quantities of sulpliate of lime, (gyi'sum.) and also sul-
ptrate of alumina, (akun) in powder between sonic of the lamina) ol the
shale. Ttiis woidd indicate some source of sulphuric acid in the earth or in
the water of the river; which is still more stro::gly evidenced at Giles' Bluff.
Here, on the perpendicular face of tlie river cliil, of the secondary irarl, in-
spots where sheltered from the rain, the surface is covered by a thin coat of

26 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

tufiod moss, or lichen, growing on the marl ; and thiis moss is delicately ani.1
bt-'autifully frosted over by 5nnll crystals, which I found to consi-'t principally
of sul'ihate of lime. It was before stated in recrard to the Santee marl, from
its wasted appearance at the foot of the cliff, that probably the river water
acting on it contained sulphate of iron.

It may not be without interest, or utility, to state tliat in the very thick ex-
posure of black shale at Marr's bluff, the upper layei's are purest and are very
pure ; and t(>at, as descending, the intervening layers of loose sand, (as de-
scribed above at Myers',) became more thick and abundant, and in parts of
the section form tht^ greater part. [lowever, the shale still rippcars in layers
of various depths, at irregular intervals to the height of the river — which
\vas then about 8 feet above ordinary low water.

The height of the Peedee at the time of my examination of its banks in
the spring, as in most other cases elsewhere, kept concealed a large part of
the section, which was here the more desirable to be known, because of the
existing uncertainty whether the hidden lower portion, at different places,
cjnsisted of either of the tvv ) kinds of nnrl, or of the sliale below both. To
be correctly informed in this respec, I again visited the Peedee, as early as
possible after frost in autumn, and when the v/ater was low, and commenced
a trip by water for its mare thorough examination. But the occurrence of
bad weather, added to my suffering under ill health, forced me to abandon
the attempt, and to entrust it to b'? made at a subsequent and more favorable
time, by CjI. J. N. Williams of Darlington, who obliged me, and served the
public interest, by mikmg this examinaiion, in the manner that I directed,
as far down as Godfrey's ferry. His examination was made at oi'dinary low
watei', abjutS feet lower than what i saw; and his report thereupon, received
after the whole of the foreg >i.-g was written, enables me to state of what
that lower 8 feet consists. He found the Peedee bed (secondai'y marl) at
Bircli's ferry to avernge 18 feet thick, for the entire length of that long bluff,
and exposure. Tnis rested on the usual underlying stratum of black shale,
then exposed 2 feet above ttic water. At all the expesures below Birch's
ferry to Godfrey's, he found marl down to the level of the water. This
statement therefore adds from 0 to 8 feet of thickness of marl, which is ac-
cessible and available f^' use, whether of secondary of of rniocene, to all
that I hid before seen, and had described in the foreginf^ pages.

The Peedee bed is o^ peculiar character, and very different in appearance
from all the other formations in South-Carolina. It occurs in alteiaiate lay-
ers of hard marl-stone and soft marl, sundry of which are to be seen in one
.sce.tion. Both these, wherever they under-lie the rniocene, and^lso higher
up than the latter extends, are of a dark bluish gray color; and each is of
homogenous texture, the marl like an imj)ure clay and the marl. stone like a
compact and close-firained hard stone. Lower down the river than anv mio-
cene is seen, the? upper marl-stone of the sr^condary or Peedee bed is yellow-
ish. The marl is poor compariid to most of those of the great Carolinian bed
and to the afljaccnt rniocene usually not more than from 30 to 40 per cent. The
marl-stone, howcvcu", is rich, varying from GG to G8, and the little that has been
tried, burnt to white and excellent lime. The characteristic fossil-^, bdcn-
niles and rxogi/ra cos-tata, are not found diffused generally, but are very abun-
dant at |)nrticular places, of which the bluff at Birch's Ferry is the best sup-
plied. But this bed is so p(;culiar and uniibrm in ap;-)earance, that after it
has been once identified by the presence of the above fossils, it can as well

OF SOl-TH-CAROLI>"A.

27

be known even where they are aho^cthcr absent. The helcinniles h'js a
straiaht cylindrical body, sharj) to a poiiit at one end, and always broken and
showing a hollow interior at the oilier. lis color is brown, and it is semi-
transparent — very hard and brittle, and consists ahriost entirely of carbonate
of hme. The s^pecirnens vary from 2 to ') inches in length and from less than
a quarter to nearly half an inch in diameter. The extogyra cosiala is a re-
markable bivalve shell, of which one valve is very convex, thick, and ribbed
lengthwise and rugged on the outside, and the other valve much smaller, and
flat or a little concave. The largest specimens are about 5 inches in length.
F)y i!)e presence of either of these well-marked fossils elsewhere, the secon-
dary formation, and probably also, if in this or the adjacent country, this par-
ticular Peedee bed, may be readily and certainly determined.

The banks of the Peedee river present the same remarkable geological
feature that has been before mentioned of both the Santee and the Savarmah
rivers. The western bank is of considerable elevation, and at every bluff,
within tlie limits named, marl is exp )«ed of great but various depths. But
tiie land on the eastern side of the Peedee is very low, opposite the whole
region of marl described, and has very few blufis on the river, and no marl has
been heard of on tliat side.

The secondary formation extends to Black River, on which, and also on
several of its eastern tributaries, I found either marl or marl-stone in the fol-
1 nving places: At both the neighboring ferry-landings,called Brown's, former-
ly Avant's Mills, in map of Georgetown ; on Stony Run near the preceding ; on
Black Mingo Creek, and on Indian Town Creek. "^ The hicrhest locality of marl-
stone found on Black River was 10 to 15 miles below Kingstree. The then
lieight of the river, and the want of any previous excavations, or present means
f)r dee[)er inspection, prevented my making other than superficial observa-
tions. But from this it would seem that, in this deposite, both the softer and
stony layers are poor. The underlying stratum of the highest marl-stone
found, is a mere sand, slightly sprinkled with small bits of shells. Lime has
bjen burnt of the detached ui)pcr stones on Black Mingo Creek, which fact
would indicate a rich material. This deposite where seen highest up on
Black River, and also on Stony Run, seems to be passing into silicified shell
rock, such as will be described hereafter ; and at a few miles below Kings-
tree, in VVilliamsburgh, and all above, northward, ithis change is complete, the
shells, or their fragments being comj)Ietely silicihetl, and no carbonate of lime
remaining either in the shells or in the general mass.

But few of the fossils on Black liiver and its branches were well enough
l)reserved to be|)lainly distinguishable. However, one valve of the exogrjra-
cosiata, which I found in the poor marl-stone at the highest known locality on
Black River, ideniifies the formation with the secondary marl on the Peedee.

Mi:cene Murl.
The mioccne or middle tertiarv marl is as well marked, and distinguished
by itsfos>ils, as is any other of the subdivisions of the great formations; and
there can be no question as to the marl lately described as overlying part of
the Peedee bed belonging to the miocene subdivision, according to Mr. Lyell's
arrangement. There are enough remaining shells, few as are the species, to
establish this position ; and many more of distinct casts or hollow impressions of
such shells formerly present, but of which, nothing but the impressions now
remain. Still there is a peculiar and marked character of this particular body

28

AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

ofmioconG marl, diiTorcnt from all others that I have \vid opportunities of
observing. And sue!) observations have been extensive ; for us scarce as is
tile niiuceno in Soulh-Caroliua, tromjjared to other kinds, in Virginia it con-
stitutes perhaps nine-tenths of all the marl existini^. Also, in Darlinoton
istrict, separated as it seems from the marl on the Peedce, by a con-
siderable space, I have lately seen tiic ordinary miucene marl, precisely simi-
lar to that of Virginia. The points cf difference will be stated presently.

The principal posilioas and extent along the river, and great thickness of
the Peedee m.iocene marl, were stated in the foregoing section in connection
wit!) the Peedee secondary marl. It is also found at some distance back,
irom the river, on the hilly part of Mr. Henry Davis' land and elsewhere, in
great quantity, and rising often to the surface of the earth. Bui beyond the
limits named, I know of it no where except in one locality, where the exist-
ence of tliis marl is a remarkable and strange fact, but recently ascertained,
or suspected. On Goose Creek, a few miles above its juncture with Cooper
River, on the land of G. [I. Smith Esq., and about twelve miles by land from
Charleston, there is a small exposure of this kind of marl, rising from the level
ot the tide mark to 8 or 10 feet ai;ove. In a specimen of this body, sent to
me to be tested, I found a small fragment only of a shell indicating the mio-
ocene, which was a strange and unaccountable apj)earance, inasmuch as this
locality is surrounded on all sides by known exposures of the Great Carolinian
bed, a difTerent and older formation, and over which, through all its broad ex-
tent, no miocene had been found, or before suspected to exist. A journey
of ct)ns!derable length and greater difficulty was made to settle this interesting
question ; and though no excavation had been made which would have much
aided my examination, and there was no opportunity to see either its extent or
connexion with any other formatiouj the first glance was enough to show this
to bo miocene marl, and also to be precisely like the before known remarka-
-b\e body overlying the Peedee bed. And both that on Goose creek and the
very largtj exposures on the Peedee are alike presented in detached patches,
vviiich, however broad and thick, and precisely alike in character, are not
connected, or forming a continuous stratum.

Tills peculiar marl was, like all others described in this report, formed ori-
ginally by the gradual deposition of the shells of shell-hsh, which formed all
the calcareous matter, and more or less of the entire body; the remainder be-
ing eartli brought and deposited by the sea, and thus tilling up the interstices.
But in this marl, nearly all the shells, and without excej)tion all the white
shells, have been dissolved and removed, leaving the matrix of earth full of
the hollow moulds, showing where the shells had once been. Still, the ma-
trix, v/hich now forms nearly all tlie body of the marl, is itself rich in calca-
reous earth, probably because formed originally mostly of shells ground fine
by the action of the waves. Only seven species of shells remain, or no more
have 1 hiio.n able to find. All these are of the gray and very haid kinds, and
of these few, three (all pectens) arc believ(!d to be new shells, or such ay
have not before b^en described by or known to any naturalist. The other
:ihells, and also many more of the hollow and perfect casts of removed shells,
abundantly S(;rve to determine that this marl is miocene. But though the re-
maining species of shells are very few, the individual shells of one of them, (a
new pecten,) are. very nunuM'ous — serving alone to form a large proportion of
the whole body of marl in some places on the Peedee for several feet in depth.

This particular miosceno rnarl, though not very hard, and in the paits where

Of' SOUTli-CAROLlNA. ' 29

there arc few or no shells abundantly soft, still has all its particles cemt.nlcd
together, so as to present something like the texture of a soft rock ; and wliicii
could be excavated by Uiidenmning, without any danger of the roof of the
same tailing. This character, added to the general decay and disappearance
of the shells, and the ditrerence of kind of half of the few remaining species
irom any other Known mlocene, all unite to indur-.e my belief liiat these patches
of rniocene were deposited much earlier than the ordinary kind ; and tliat the
former bears somewhat the same relation to the latter, (though more closely
connected,) that the Great Carolinian bed does to the eocene, or lower terti-
ary.

The whole of this supposed older niiocene is of yellowish, or yellowish
brown color. It is dry, and easy to dig, except where hardened into marl-
stone, as is the case in some of the upper parts, and in a horizontal layer*
This conversion to stone has been produced by part of the carbonate of lime
of the upper part having been dissolved by rain water. A small amount of
carbonic acid is always brought down in rain, from the atmosphere to the
earth ; which addition enables water to dissolve carbonate of lime, otherwise
insoluble in water*. This dissolved carbonate of lime, was carried down,
through the porous marl, until it reached a closer stratum below, or made one
by the evaporation of the water and deposition of the lime. Tliese strata of
marl-stone, wheti rich enough, m;iy be bur ;t to hme ; and the i-emaining marl
and larger portion of the body, may be easily dug and used aa manure with-
out any other preparation.

Near Darlington Court House is found the rniocene marl, such as is com.
mon in lower Virginia and in the adjacent part of North-Carolina, This is
principally of earth, for the most part silicious and loose, in which are imbed'
ded numerous shells, of various kinds, generally entire, and their size ani
shape well preserved. Indeed, they generally are vso hard, and many of large
size also, that it is difficult for persons unacquainted practically with marling,
to believe that such shells can serve well for manure, without some prepara-
tory process to break them to pieces, or perhaps to reduce them to powder.
However, experience has amply sncvvu tt»at such expense need not be incur-
red.

This marl has only yet been seen at three places near Darlington C. H. j
one on the land of Col. John F. Ervin, and another on that of Mr. Jame^j
Gibson, both on streams flowing into Swift Creek, and from 1 to 2 miles from
the Court House. The third is on Black Creek, John Fountain's land, and f)
mi'es south.east from the Court House. But, from recent repoit of the shells
found, it is inferre 1 that the same kind of marl is exposed at various
places along Lynch's Creek, (whicli I have not yet been able to visit,) and
also near Black Creek, 6 miles or more below Fountain's, on the land of R.
Rogers; which would indicate the continuation of the same stratum throughout
at least all the space between these difrerent localities. This marl is richer than
the similar rniocene of Virginia. At Col. J. F. Ervin's recently opened pit, the
bed was dug through at my request, and was found to be 9 feet thick, and
resting upon the great bed of black shale which underlies the Peedee bed, and
stretches from the upper termination of that l>ed through the interval vncar.t
of marl, to this separate deposite. In Black Creek and every deep stream,
between, this shale forms the bottom ; and it is reached in digging wells, so as
to show that it is generally continuous throughout this part of the country.

80 AGRICtJLTCilAL SURVEY

The Post.pliocene Marl of the Sea-coas'..

The irencral dip towards the east and south of the great marl stratum^ P.4
observed and stated in relation to the basins of the -Vshley and Cooper rivers^
and the surface of the marl beinf^ beneath low tide maik higher up tiie rivers
than Charleston, left no ground to suppose that rnarl could be found exposed
naturally still nearer the sea shore. Tliere had not been seen, tjor heard oi]
nnv other and more recent formation of marl in South-Carolina, and none
wa"s suspected to exist. It was under these impressions that I first visited
the sea-islands, and not to look for mar!, or with the slightest expectation of
meetin'J- with. it. But while engaged last winter in examining the other alun-^
dent resources for calcareous manuring, in the beds of recent oyster shells,
and of more ancient heaps of the same lift by the aboriginal inhabitants, 1
most unt^.xpectedly tound a dcposite of marl, though of a different formation
and kind from any that I had before seen here or elsewhere^ and which had
never before been noticed, thougli probably seen by every resident on the is*
land of Edisto, where the exf)osuic was first observed, in passmg over the
brid"-e on the main road from the village of Bddingsville o;\ the sea sh a'e, ari
appearance on the margin of the creek, smailar to the common blue miocenft
marl of Virginia, caught my eye. Upon examination, it was found to be
indeed such a margin general ajjpearancej but with this diiFerence, that the
shells contained, though fossil, seemed to be identical in kind with those of am*
mais now living in the close adjacent ocean, of which the shells are to be seen
cast up on the sea beach. From the formation being discovered in a tide
creek of South Edisto River, and within a few miles of its outlet into the
Atlantic ocean^ ii might be perhaps supported that the shells were its product,
and cast up by the waves of the j)resent oceat:. But though the formation in
question is manifestly recent in comparison to all other known marls, still it
is very ancient compared to such as is now forming in the bottem of the At*
lantic, or may possibly be formed of the like in future time on the shore by
the dead shells tin-own up by present action of the waves. For not only are
the existing bounds of the ocean some miles distant from the first discovered
localitv of this formaiion, but the bed of marl is also overla.d by the still later
deposite of marsh soil of several feet in thickness, and elsewhere, as subsc-
quenllv seen., by firm sandy earth* Therefore, it is evident that however new
may be this deposiie, and as it certainly is in reference to the great geological
series of successive formations of marl, or t)f fossil remains, it is older-thnn boili
the jnarshes and the high lands of the islands which rest upon it. 'I'his marl
is unquestionably oftho most recent foriuation of all vvhich have yet been de-
j)Osite'd on the bottom of the ocean^ anti subsequently upheaved so as to be
raised aljove the surface level of the waters.

The shells of this marl first found near the bridge, (or at least so far as then
visible,) are ail of small si'/,e, or in fragments. The earth intermixed is most-
ly silicious, and of bluish tint. The mass moderately compact, so as to per.
r'nit its being dug out in solid lumps, but unusually easy to dig and to crumble.
When point'ed out and exhibited to residents of the island, it was recognized
by several, as similar to what they had seen m other adjacent croeUs, empty-
ing, as this does, into the South Edisto river, and from one of these creeks, in
the land of Mr. James Seabrook, specimens weie subsequently produced,
shewing a similar general api)earance and like formation, yel different in par-
ticular characters. In this, the shells were nearly decomposed, and the marl
was much rich( r hi carbonate of iime^ and also more conjpact. Previously I

OP SOUTll-CAROLl^'Ai 31

had found it elsewhere in another creek in the neighborhood^ of still another
description, the .shells being mucli larger, more perfect, and the interniixjcl
earth less compact. This seemed to be a lower part of the bed than the other*
kinds.

Further examinations enabled me to ascertain the presence of this marl at
Distant Island, the land of Mr. Joseph Hazel, which is adjoining Lady's Is-
land, and nearly aonth fr<jm tlie town oi' Beaufort, and about four miles distant ;
and also on iMr. McKee's plantation, in Lady's Island, and about three miles
east of Beaufort. To each of these previously unnoticed localilies, I directed
the attention of individuals by exhibitinir the specimens from Ii/disto, and de-
scribing the level and situations at which the marl was hkely to be found. By
Buch indications furnished to Mr. [lazel, he found, in the fii'st day, that he had
the marl exposed nak(;d and strctciiing along his beach for Si^veral hundred
yards. And when I forthwith accompanit'd hnn to see this interesti g locah
iiVi we found further that it extended under the whole beach? conceaLd from
view bv merely a thin covering of 8 or 10 inches of beach sand. The lower
part, first seen, wad similar tv) the lowest found in Edis o Islmd, niany of tiie
shells bein<>- larize. The higher part found under the marl, was formed of
shells nearly .-ill small, and, though perfect in form, ver}" rotti:n and easy to
crumble. This deposite is at a place where the water has gained upon the
land ; and Mr. Ha^rcl remembers when the present beach and the place of the
deposite of marl were covered by firm high land, such as now borders it, of 8
feet elevation above high. water. This alt;ne would prove that the deposite i>i
verv ancient com.oared to the existinu!; condition of l)Oih the land and water*
Since then, Mr. Hazel has found the like marl on other parts of iiis land,
and several other deposites have been found elsewhere by other persons n<;ar
the coast, of which the most extensive and im[)ortant is in John's Island,
which underlies Doctor's swamp for 5 miles in length. It was found theri;
:-.nd traced by Mr. vSams. [laving Iv.'.ard fi"om Professor Lewis Gibbes, of
Charleston, that he had found such shells, and so placed as tocotainly idep..
tify the' deposite with such as I hid discovered and seen as above de^jcribeth
1 requesteii of him a written desciiption and list of th.e shells, of which he had
carefully noted the species ; he b.as furnisluni both, in a letter dated Nov. 2r)th,
1843, of which the portion on this subject will he copied below.

"The citj of (^harics'Lon rest? apnii a bed of 3rind of an average tliicknes? of 15 feet.
Colored by iion. of a yellow more or less deep, in some places al;.;o?l, wiiite, and in others
fifaii ochrey yellow or brown. The Jirains coiiipnsiiig tlii?* sand iirealTno>t nniCorni in size,
about the one hnndredtii pari of" an inch in diameter, and mixed wilii l)iilae<mal! quantity
of" clayey or calcareous nialter. Und;Mlying thi? bed i" a stralnni of" shells al)oiil ."» feet tliici;.
in some places not niore than ?>, and differently colored in different places; under the eitv
it is blue, in otiier places nearly the color of the bed of sand above it. From this stratui:i
proeeeded the sliells in tiie f"(tllu\ving list.* They all belong lo species now existing on our
coast, and consequentiv shew that tlie stratum in which they are found, as vvell as the bed
of sand above them, belong to the f)ost pliocene of" Lyell. There \f but one shell in u)y
cafdnet not yet detenuined or recognized as a coast shelb It may perhaps however exist
elsewhere ahnig the coast of the U. S. ; for Dr. llavenel informed me ?oine lime since, of a
Curious fact. nau)ely, that among <hell.s found in excavations made at the Had Jioad establish-
ment on the Neck, lie re 'oguized several (jidf of" .Mexico shells, shell.-^ not found at present
Oil our own coast. The ordinary we!!? of the city are sunh in the bed of sand, and the
lire wells penetrate the l)ed of shells beneatb.

•'Thi.^ bed of sand is exposed ni several.places around the city^ as at lladdrell'sf Point,
(where it utay be seen from die harbor,) and at several of the '•binds" oii As:iley and (;oi)f)er
river^*. At low water, the stratum ol'siiells is exposed in some places, and 1 examined it

[* The list will be made part of the more genera! list ofshells from all the formation?, which
be inserted at a aubscquent part of this Report. E. R.J

32 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

ander tliese circninslo.iices in Town creek an Ashley river- lii the City I examined it in a
few places when they were niakini; the excavatinris for the fire wells, and from C Fraser,
Esq., I reeeived shells taken from otlier excavations, corner of King and Tradd-stieets.
From Hv. J. Wilson I received specimens of the same stratum from his plantation on
Joiin's Island. The precise extent of the formation I do not know."

Mr. Edward Fri)st, one of the ropresenlntivea of Charleston, has since in-
formed me (Dec. 2nd) that he has seen and examined this same deposite, on
the side sand extending to the bottom of a creek of Ashley river immediatel/
opposite the city.

The post-pliocene or latest formed marl, wherever yet observed in South
Carolina, (unless that under and near Charleston be an exception) lies between
the extremes of high and low tide marks, and generally presents but a thin bed,
rarely more than three feet in thickness. The shells are of such animals as
II jw live; and mostlv if not entirely belong to the neighboring ocean waters.
Tiiouph generally entire, the shells are enough decayed for manure. And
though the stratum is thin, yet the ease with which this marl may be worked
makes it a very valuable deposite to be used for manure.

Oyster Beds and Indian Heaps of Oyster and other Shells,

But even if the posi-plijcene marl had no existence, the coast plantations
would have most abundant and very cheap materials for calcareous manures
in the inexhaustible quantities of the shells, of oysters living and dead, vvitjj
which all the salt creeks and shallow bays of the sea abound, and which may
be obtained in any desired quantities, and be reduced to a proper state o-f divi-
sion for rnanure easily by crushing, as well as by burning to lime. These
siiells, fornaing what are called the " rackoon oyster" beds on the mud flats,
arc of small size, thin, and easy to break, and to pulverize. The lower
oyster shells, which were the first formed of the bed, are partly or wholly
buried in the mud, the hinges downward as they grew, and a later growth
attached to the opening or more elevated parts of the older ; and so on, with
.successive growths, until the accretion has risen to from 3 to 5 i'eet high
above ordinary low tides, and covers completely large spaces of mud, without
any vacant intervals being left. Still, though the shells and living oysters
thus tbrm vast connected masses, they are so slightly attached to each
other by their adhering extremities, both laterally and vertically, tliat they
rriav be broken apart and taken up with the greatest ease, to load vessels
alongside. No supply can be cheaper that is burdened with any expense of
distant transportation; and the supply is continually increasing, and would be
inexhaustible, even if the demand and the consuiTiption were as great as they
ought to bo for the coast plantations, -and including all the tide rice lands
which may not have the advantage of still cheaper marl at hand.

But besides the supplies of oyster shells thus offered so profusely by their
natural growth, there are extensive accumulations of the same and other sea
shells already made on ahn ist every plantation along the sea coast. These
sliells were gradually collected around the cabins of the aboriginal inhabitants,
as the shell fish were consumed for food. And as they were left, the heaps
have been sufiennl to remain upon and to encumber the cultivated fields to this
day. I heard of but two individuals who hud even spread the heaps on the
surrounding land to abate the nuisance of their accumulation on [)articular
spots, and the damage to the hoes and to tillage, and also to production. And
there have been more cases of removal of the heaps of shells, at much cost of
labor, by carting them into deep hollows and tide creeks, to g» t rid of them.

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 33

Yet the mere spreading them thinly would be a certain and valuable, and
also the cheapest possible manuring. And the great fertilizing effect, even
without spreading, is obvious to the eye in very many cases on the sea islands,
where the heaps had been so small as not to be too much of an incumbrance
on the land, and obstruction to the tillage and growth of crops.

On other parts of the coast, (as near Oakly Inlet, Georgeto-vvn) there are
similar heaps, and of large size, almost exclusively of clam shells. The
greater hardness of these would probably make requisite the burning them
to lime for manure. But for that use, they offer a cheap and excellent mate-
rial, and a large supply.

MINOR CALCAREOUS DEPOSITES.

There are some other beds of calcareous deposites and shells, which, thouo-h
in very limited quantities, deserve consideration ; and which, from their isola-
ted position or peculiar character, cannot be arranged under any one of the
preceding heads. Of these several deposites, the most marked in character,
and the only one sufficiently abundant to be put to use for manure, is the

Bed of Gigaritic Oyster Shells.
This singular and very remarkable deposite I have seen exposed in four
different and remote localities, including that at Shell Bluff, just across the
Savannah in Ga., and which was incidentally referred to at page 22. The
next most northern exposure to this is on a branch of the Lower Three Runs,
above, and also at the Roaring Spring. A third place where I found the frag-
ments of those peculiar shells on the surface of the earth, and which could
not be then examined deeper, was on Tinker's Creek, a branch of Upper
Three Runs ; and the fourth was first discovered in the digging of the nor-
thern section of the Santee Canal, t-^he lower excavation of which crossed a
bed of these shells, which is now covered by the water of the canal. Wheth-
er these far separate exposed points are in one or in different beds, or wheth-
or indeed the shells belong to but one or to two species of extinct oysters, may
be doubted. All the shells are of oysters, and of enormous size. They are
of two varieties or different shapes, and which Conrad deems different spe-
cies; which, however, though quite different in appearance, are not more so
than are the living oysters now to be found in different and neighboring places
of the same river, and according to the abundance or scarcity of their food in
their respective positions, owing to their being either much crowded, or lying
thinly scattered. One kind of these ancient shells, (termed by Conrad Ostrea
CarolinianaJ'is very broad compared to its length. A single valve of the largest
which I found at the Santee Canal, though manifestly much reduced in size
at the edges, measured 8^: inches in length, and 6^ in Avidth, and weighed
2 lbs. 10 oz. The other kind (Ostrea lo7igirostra, Con. J is much longer,
and very narrow in proportion. One of the largest of these which I collect-
ed at Shell Bluff, was 134: inches long, (with the curve of the shell) though it
must have lost an inch at the opening end, and not more than 2| inches wide.
The beak alone, (or the former and existing hinge part,) of some of these
shells, of which only fragments remained, was near or quite G inches in
leno-th. *

o

* Bartram, who visited thLs Bluff", describes shells much larger than the above .sizes, or
any that I could find. His words are as follows : " The shells are of incredible magni-
C

34 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

These two varieties of shells are not found intermixed, but either at separate
elevations in the stratum or at separate localities. At the Santee Canal, all the
specimens I could iind(by digging in the bank originally made by excavating the
canal) were of the broad kind. At Shell Bluff, the upper part of the stratum
consists altogether of the long and narrow shells ; and at the intermediate lo-
calities the shells were so much broken, and mostly under water, that their
precise original shape was doubtful. But if the long beak, or hinge, serves
to determine the long kind, such were found on the Lower Three Runs. I
incline to the belief that these two varieties belong to one species.

The only place where the profile and depth of the stratum is exposed is at
Shell Bluff It is there seen in the upper part of the perpendicular face of
the cliff, above the marl of the Great Carolinian bed, and there separated from
it by an intervening body of from 4 to 10 feet thickness of first coarse loose
sand, and then the like sand akernated by sundry very thin layers of clay,
all of which intervening body is without any shells, or marine remains or
any calcareous matter. This complete separation should forbid the belief that
the deposite of gigantic oyster shells belongs to the same geological formation
as the Great Carolinian bed below. The stratum of these shells at Shell
Bluff is from 4 to 6 feet or more thick. They lie as closely to each other as
they well can be, and are held together by the former vacancies having been
filled by a cement of shells, fragments and earth. The whole mass is very
rich in calcareous matter, and would serve well to furnish materials for lime.
But the remains are too hard, and the fragments generally two large and
solid, to be used as manure without being burnt to lime.

Deposite of recent shells upheaved.
At the Laurel Hill Bluff on the Waccamaw River, there is a deposite of
recent sea shells, imbedded in coarse and loose sand. The mass is exposed
in the lower 8 feet (above high tide) of the washed and steep bluff, and pre-
sents quite such an appearance as may be supposed would exist in the upper
sands of the bottom of the ocean near the shore. The shells are mostly of
the gnathodon cuneata^ some recent oysters, and a few smaller recent sea
shells, common to the present coast. This formation, though a matter of cu-
rious interest, is of no practical value, because of the small quantity and also
poor quality of the body.

Miocene deposite under part of the present Ocean.
On the ocean beach, near Oakly Inlet, Georgetown District, I found many
shells in such excellent preservation, that from that circumstance, as well as
their having been evidently thrown up by the waves, they would have been sup-
posed recent, or the product of the existing ocean. But, from examination of
the kinds, these shells were know^n to be of the miocene era, and of course
are of fossil origin. Among these shells are Venus Rileyij Venus alveata^
Corhula inequale^ Area limosa, and a variety of Ostrea Virginiaria. These
shells, and the many masses of marl-stone seen scattered on the same beach,
and which had been in like manner thrown up by the waves, must have
formed part of a sub-marine bed of miocene marl, which still exists and per-
haps has always remained under the sea ; and the rare and excellent state of

tude, generally 15 to 2() inches in length, from G to 8 wide, and 2 to 4 in thickne.ss, and
their hollows sufficient to receive an ordinary man's foot." Bartram, though .seeing thi»
loc'ilily, probably relied on report for the sizes of the.se shells.

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 35

preservation of the shells may be owing to their having never been exposed
to air, or to any changes of wetness and dryness.

It is probable that parts of this curious deposite of miocene exist elsewhere
deeply buried along the coast, or under the sea, from the following fact: A
very large and unusually perfect shark's tooth (as usuall}^ called,) weio-hing
11 oz. 3 drs., was lately presented to me by Dr. J. Bachman, which had been
drawn up by an anchor from the bottom of Charleston outer harbor, in water
45 feet deep, off Fort Sumter. The tooth is precisely similar to those of
large size found in the miocene marl of Virginia : and its being partly en-
crusted with recent madrepore, and having also sea weed growing to it, attest
its subsequent position in the water of the existing sea.

ANALYSES OF MARLS AND MARL-STONES OF S. C.

The specimens, of which the contents of carbonate of lime are to be stated
below, were collected during the course of my examinations of the marl beds,
and with a few exceptions, were selected by myself Parts of all these speci-
mens were reserved for a cabinet in the State House, the filling and arrange-
ment of which will be completed soon after the presentation of this report. It
was not designed to make either a mineralogical or conchological collection, for
neither of which had I the time or the necessary scientific knowledge ; but sim-
ply a collection of all the various marls, lime-stones, and other calcareous
formations of the State, together with some of the characterestic fossils of
each formation, having such fossils.

The specimens are arranged in the cabinet according to the respective for-
mations or divisions to which they belong, as stated in this report ; and by
the labels, are indicated the particular as well as general locality, and generally
also, the proprietor of each marl ; and by reference to the following list, the
strength of each specimen can be readily known. The shells and casts of
shells which are placed w^th some of the specimens of each formation, or di-
vision of the South Carolinian marls, are by no means a full collection ; but
are enough in number, as well as of the most characteristic kinds, to clearly
distinguish each particular kind of marl.

I. Marls J ^c. of the Great Carolinian Bed.
From the borders of Ashley River and its tributaries.

1. From John S. Brisbane's landing, 9 miles above Charleston, taken
from the surface on the beach, between high and low tide mark, con-
tained of carbonate of lime, per cent. - - - 64

2. From the same, taken from the bottom of the river 26 feet below
low tide, ------- 75

3. Lumps of stony hardness, full of impressions of shells, found in
great quantity in that neighborhood a few feet above the marl, 6

4. Marl from O'Neale's landing, - - - - 76

5. From river bank at Drayton Hall, - - ... 53

6. " Bee's Ferry, ------ 50

7. " Magnolia, ------ 75

8. " Greer's Landing, (near Middleton Place,) - - 52

9. " Pringle's, ------ 75

10. " Cattell's Bluff, Clement's land, greenish tint, - - 52

11. " Another part of Clement's land, white, - - 78

#

36 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

12. From Cohen's land, ----- 62

13. ^' John A. Ramsay's, ----- 67

14. " Cedar Grove,I. M. Dwight's, - - - 76

15. " Oak Forest, ----- 36

16. " Wassamasaw swamp, (head source of Ashley,) - 72

17. " Indian Fields No. 1, (light brown,) - - - 47

18. " do. "2, - - - - 50

19. '• 45 feet beneath the water in outer part of Charleston Har-

bor, near Fort Sumter, after removing all the recent shells
adhering, or enclosed by recent boring shell-fish (See p. 1 3,) 81^
The following are specimens obtained in boring (in 1824) in the city of
Charleston, from the different depths stated, (seep. 13, 14.)
19. From the depths of 120 feet below the surface, per cent. 65

56

- - - 69

44

59

54i

60i

58^

55

58

66

79

79

74

Marls, SfC. from the borders and neighborhood of Cooper River.

33. From the Grove, Dr. Edmund Ravenel's, soft and granular, per

cent., ------ 52

34. " Mulberry, Millikin's, supposed (by the eye) average quality, 60

35. " " supposed richest, - - 76

36. " " supposed poorest, - - 42

37. " Lewisfield, Simons', .... 84

38. " Point Comfort, R. W. Roper's, - - - - 79

39. " Steep Bluff, ..... 80

40. " Rectory, (in the road) . - - - 80

41. " Dr. Barker's, clayey marl, upper part of stratum, - 43

42. " Dr. Benj. Huger's, (marl-stone,) - - - 95

43. " Monk's Corner road, near Moss Grove, - - 80

44. " do. near Broughton's Swamp, (peculiar marl,

see page 15) - - - - - 46

45. " Col. James Ferguson's, similar to last, - - 58

46. " do. nodules like chalk, in last, (see page 15) 96

47. " H. W. Ravenel's, near Santee Canal, on head waters of

Cooper, ordinary kind, - - - - 95

48. " Isaac Porcher, jr., 5 feet under a swamp leading to Cooper, 67

49. " do. another specimen, lower, - 81

50. " Philip Porcher's, . .... 86

51. " Frederick Porcher's, marl-stone, - - - 92

52. " Somerset, Wm. Cain's, ordinary marl, - - 87

20.

u

do.

135

21.

"

do.

160

22.

do.

162

23.

do.

180

24.

do.

200

25.

do.

225

26.

do.

227

27.

do.

230

28.

do.

258

29.

do.

270

30.

do.

274

31.

do.

282

32.

do.

309

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 37

53. From Deveaux's old mill-pond, 5 miles north of Pineville, 87

54. '' Robert Mazyck's, near Santee Canal, besides a large propor-

55. lion of green sand, contained of carbonate of

lime, - - - - 25

56. " do. overlying earth of the last, much green sand,

and of carb. lime, - - - 17

57. " do. white marl-stone under all the green marl, 90

58. " Goose Creek, Brodie's land, (brownish,) - - 66

59. " do. Wm. Kelly's (brownish^ - - 68

60. " do. do. (yellowish,) - - 78

Marls, <SfC.,from Santee river ^ and its neighborhood.

61. From Ball's Dam, Dr. J. S. Palmer's, Charleston Dist., carbonate

of lime, per. cent. - - - - - 91

62. " Col. S. J. Palmer's (landing of old Jamestown,) with consid-
erable green-sand, ----- 66
Dr. Robert Gourdin's, Lenud's ferry, Georgetown Dist. 93

do. marl-stone, lower stratum - 97

Lequiex's, Williamsburgh, marl, - - - 91^

Glass' do. - - - - - 94

Eutaw, Wm. Sinkler's, near mansion, Charleston Dist. 94

do. within deep sink, near Eutaw Spring, - 88

do. marl-stone, protruding above the surface of the battle
field, ------ 92

Dawshee cove, lower part, - - - - 95

James Gaillard's, marl-stone, - - - 93

Rocks Creek, near mill, soft marl, - - - 94

upper stratum, - - - 95

do. surface, marl-stone, - - - 93

do. soft marl, with also a notable proportion of

green sand, ------ 94

Below and near Nelson's ferry, - - - 83

Vance's ferry, Orangeburgh, upper layer, taken 25 feet above

and back from the river, - - 86

do. lowest above the river (or 6 feet above low

water,) - - - - 90

do. marl-stone, layer between the two last, - 92

Avinger's, 25 feet above the river, marl, - - 84

A. Felder's.* . . . . . 94

Keating Simons', softer layer under the over-hanging shelf

of marl-stone, and near surface of river, 96

do. inland, and top of stratum, - 82

Cavehall, Dr. Cheves', - - . '- 86

do. marl-stone in the cavern, - - - 80

Hale's mill, upper layer, Orangeburgh, (containing no green

sand,) ...... 84^

87. " Hales' mill, lower layer, with about 25 per cent, of green

sand, (by the eye,) and carb. lime, - - - 51

88. " a branch of Stout's Creek, green sand about 20, and carb.

lime, (highest known exposure near the Santee,) 35
♦This has been used largely for burning lime for sale.

63.

a

64.

i.'.

65.

u

66.

a

67.

u

68.

(;

69.

u

70.

u

71.

u

72.

u

73.

a

74.

' u

75.

a

76.

u

77.

a

79.

c:

80.

u

81.

u

82.

a

83.

u

84.

u

85.

u

86.

u

38 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

89. From under h yer of last, raarl-stone, - - - 64

90. " Potato Creek, Sumter, Nelson's, marl, - - 91
9L " Heatly Hall, (on Flalf- way Swamp, Orangeburgh,) - 90

92. " Pinckney's mili-pond, - - - - 41

93. " Pinckney's mill-dam, - - - - 69

94. " beneath low water in Scott's lake, Sumter, - - 84

95. " F. Dantzler's, Charleston Dist. - - - 75^

Marls, <^c., of Edisto river and its trihutaries.

96. From Slater's land, i^ miles above Johnson's (or Binnaker's)

bridge, Barnwell, - - - - \ 36

97. " Johnson's bridge, near surface and yellowish, -' 38

98. " do. near surface, and bluish, - - 36

99. " do. 8 feet deep, - - - 31

100. " Walker's (or Stokes') bridge, soft and sandy, - 31

101. do. marl-stone, - - - - 87

102. On Four-holes swamp, near head, from Zimmerman's, and about

5 of green sand, - - - 86

103. do. John A. Tyler's, (formerly Dr. Jamison's,)

marl, or softer part,* 93

do. do. marl-stone,* - 94

104. On Cawcaw swamp, Wannamaker's land, - - - 62
JQ5 do. M. Pooser's (highest exposure found,) 26

Marls Sec, of Savannah river and its trihutaries in Barnwell.

106 On a branch of Lower Three Runs, near Boiling spring. Col.
Hay's, - per- cent. 74

107 From a spring half a mile lower, - - - - 62

108. On main stream of Lower Three Runs, W. Holly's low ground, 64

109. do. another specimen, - - - 62

1 10. Thin soapy layer, forming the upper surface of the marl, and found

in different parts of the bed of the creek, - - - 22

111. From Gillett's mill. Gen. Erwin's, firmer parts, - - 64

112. " do. softest part, (granular,) - - 46

113 " Rev Elliott Estes' land, on Savannah river, (above Lower

Three Runs.) - - - 92

114 " do. marl-stone, - - - 90
115" " Major J. G. Brown's, Lower Three Runs, upper part, 50^
ijg (c do. 10 feet below surface, 32
117 to 134 17 specimens of different parts of the cliff at Shell bluff,

before reported at page 23.

Of Little Salkehatchie and its branches.

135. From Bowling's Mill,t - " "„ , , ' 1 ' J,

136. " Cedar Spring, on Lemon Swamp, (Millers land,) - /3

137. On Ashepoo river, from Frederick Eraser's, - - 92

138. On Huspa Creek, from F. G. Eraser, upper part, - - 16

*This has been used largely for burning lime for sale.

tThis was a part detached from the upper surface, in excavating for the mill .site and
was not worth notice, except as indicating that marl may be found probably much better,
lower in the bed.

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 39

139. do. do. lower part, very compact and
smooth grained, like hard fullers' earth, - - - 93

II. Marl and Marl-sione of Peedce bed.
Throughout this, the soft marl, which is generally rather poor, and the very
hard and compact marl-stone, which is generally rich, are presented in al-
ternate layers.

140. Marl, dark bluish gray, from bluif at Birch's ferry, carb. lime,

per. cent. ------ 36

141. do. at Birch's ferry, 5 feet from bottom of the bed, 33

142. do. do. 10 feet - - - 51

143. Marl-stone, do. 12 feet - - - 66

144. Marl, Clay wall, (J. A. Jolly's,) above mouth of Jeffrey's creek,

surface, ------ 24

145. do. Willow creek, Gordon's, - - - - 45

146. Marl-stone, do. - - " . . '. ^'''

147. Marl, Bigham's, on stage road, supposed average of his digging, 32

148. do. Leggett's, upper part, - - - - 57

149. do. Giles' Bluff, Henry Davis', - - - - 42

150. do. do. next to low-water mark, - 14

151. Marlstone, do. - - - - - 86

152. do. Myers' land, - - - - - 84

153. do. do. (another specimen.) - - 76

154. do. (pale yellow) Gibson's bluff, upper layer, - 82

155. Marl, bluish gray, do. lower - - 10

156. Black river, marl-stone ledge, at Avant's (or Brown's) upper ferry, 72

157. do. soft black earth underlaying the last, only - 2

158. Stony Run, Georgetown, marl-stone, - - - 55

III. Miocene Marls, S^c.

159. From Giles' bluff, Peedee, (overlying secondary) yellow marl-stone, 78

160. " H. Davis' land, back from above, yellow soft marl, - 60

161. " do. another place, - - - 64

162. " do. another - ... 66

163. " Godfrey's ferry, . .... 69

164. " do. harder layer, - - - 89

165. " Gibson's land, lower stratum in cavern, on Peedee, - 81

166. " do. back, near spring, - - - 74

167. " Witherspoons bluff, (above Giles') 13 feet above low water, 62

168. " do. 6 feet above, - 74

169. " Goose creek, near Cooper river, G. H. Smith's land, - 82

170. " do. another part of same exposure, - - 80

171. " Branch of Swift creek, near Darlington C. H., J. F. Ervins,

blue, taken 3 feet below surface of stratum, 64

172. « do. do. at 8 feet, - - 69

173. " do. James Gibson's, yellow, - 63

174. " do. do. another specimen, 64

175. " Black creek, 5 miles S. E. from Darlington C. H., Jolni

Fountain's land, yellowish, - - - - 57

ly. Post-Pliocene, or coast marl.

176. From under Doctor's swamp, John's Island, blue and loose, 41

4(1 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

177. '• Store creek, Edisto Island, - * - - 18

178. " do. another specimen, - - - 27

179. '• James Seabrook's, Edisto Island, - - « 58

180. " Jos. Hazel's, Distant Island, near Beaufort, - - 47

Any other marls, which may be visited and examined during the short re-
maining time of my service after submitting thi.s report, will be analyzed
hereafter, and the descriptions and contents made the subject of a supplemental
report.

CASTS OF SHELLS IN INFUSORIAL CLAY ; AND SILICIFIED SHELLS

AND SHELL ROCK.

In proceeding towards the northern limits or last found exposures of the
marl, first of the Peedee bed (secondary) and next of the Great Carolinian bed,
and in searching outside of but near to the northern boundaries of the marls,
and at many distant points, I often reached either one or both of two very re-
markable and extensive belts, both of which may be deemed, from the charac-
ters of their few known fossils, as parts of the same geological formation as
the adjacent great calcareous beds ; and therefore should be considered in
connexion. Still the chemical composition of these belts are entirely different
from the marl, and they have no agricultural value whatever.

At Wannamaker's old pit, on the Cawcaw swamp, a few miles north of
Orano-eburgh, C. H., where marl formerly was burnt for lime, I found the earth
about to be described lying immediately over and within two feet of perpen-
dicular distance from the upper surface of the ordinary marl of the Great
Carolinian bed. The same stratum was also found over-lying the marl at
Manuel Pooser's old pit, in the same neighborhood, which is the highest or
most northern exposure of marl found on Cawcaw Swamp. Also, the same
bek is seen, without any marl beneath, crossing the old public road (to Colum-
bia) about 4 or 5 miles above Orangeburgh C. H. It there crosses about
midway of a long hill, the stratum being perhaps 20 feet thick, and having
the ordinary very red clay subsoil of that region both above and below.
This stratum of earth appears so like to the neighboring marl, in color, tex-
ture, and in being full of apparent shells, that an experienced eye might be
at first deceived, and would pronounce it to be marl ; and such was the gen-
eral and undisputed belief of those persons who had given any attention even
to this very obvious great exposure. Yet there is not a shell remaining, of
the many which formerly were present, nor the least trace of the carbonate
of lime, of which the shells were entirely composed. The earth is a very
compact siiicious clay, hard, but not of stony fracture, of a pale dingy yellow
tint. The bed contains numerous hollow casts of various species of shells,
as perfect and as beautiful as if they were well executed works of art. Every
minute mark on the former shell is perfectly retamed, but reversed in form, in
the hollow cast ; and the surfaces often appear as polished and shining as do
recent and perfect shells. And it would seem that if these moulds could but
be filled by the penetration of any fluid which should in after time become
solidified, that such substance, after breaking and removing the mould, would
be a perfect copy of the original shell. The supposition of the possibility of
such a process of nature having been executed elsewhere will be submitted
presently, in regard to another bek of fossil remains.

This earth is not only remarkable for its numerous and beautiful impres-

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 41

Sions of shells, preserving perfectly the form of every part impressed, but
still more for its animal origin, if it may be so called, in another respect, which
will now be stated.

My friend Mr. M. Tuomey had, during last year, extended the previous
'discoveries by other investigators, in Europe and the United States, of the in-
fusorial formation, to a new region, (near Petersburg, Va.) and has since
found this singular deposite there to be 60 feet thick, of the fossil remains or
the shells of animalcules so small that they would have been invisible when
alive, as are now the fossil remains, without the aid of a good microscope.
On the suggestion and at the request of Mr. Tuomey, I collected and sent to
him for investigation such earth and rocks as were suspected to be of infuso-
rial origin ; and his success in the search has been far beyond my expecta-
tion. Besides other very extensive infusorial beds of some-what different
character in other respects, and which will be presently described, the earth
of this whole belt of clay casts has been found, by Mr. Tuomey's examina-
tions of my specimens, to be principally and throughout composed of the sili-
cified shells and remains of invisible animalcules. The earth which filled
the former shells of fish, as well as the general mass enclosing them, are alike
composed in this manner.

This body of " infusorial" clay was first seen on Stout's Creek near the
Santee in Orangeburgh. The exposure was pointed out to me at the foot of the
hill near Warley's store. The casts of shells are there mostly very small,
and though of many species, none could be determined. Here this earth has
been long ago used for some purposes of masonry. Easily as it may be dug
when nioist in its bed, it becomes very hard on drying. And blocks may be
easily shaped and smoothed at first, which serve when dry as a hard building
stone, which neither cracks nor crumbles, nor admits moisture. This material
was used many years ago for the entire chimney of Warley's store, and also
for ground pedestals for the columns of the piazza of the mansion of CoL
Edward Richardson. Both these are protected from the weather only by a
thin coat of lime white-wash, and they remain in perfect preservation.

From this place it is 15 miles or more to each of the three other exposures
before mentioned. And even when not over-lying the marl, the most distant
of the known parts of this particular kind of infusorial clay is not above 3
miles from known exposures of marl of the Great Carolinian bed.

Throughout the exposures already named, this infusorial bed has such
identity of character, in color, texture, and other qualities obvious to the senses^
that no observer would question that all belonged to the same deposite or ori-
ginal formation. But I have now to trace it through a far broader extent of
territory, and in which there is so much variation of sensible qualities, that
it needs resort to the geological features, to establish that all belong to one
great deposite of fossil remains of infusorial animalcules.

Across the Santee from this part of Orangeburgh, and lying under the
*'sand hills," about, and to some 10 miles below Manchester in Sumter, there
is found in great quantity, exposed in every deep ravine and digging, for miles
together, the deposite which there and elsewhere is generally known under
the name of " fuller's earth." This name is however not correctly applied to
the Sumter earth. It is a very hard and compact dark gray clay, or rather
a soft aluminous stone. The grain is extremely fine and close, and homo-
geneous, without cracks or fissures. It is soft enough to be cut without great
difficulty, in ditching, or other works, to a smooth and even surface; but is so

D

42 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

hard as to resist all the subsequent action of flowing and washing water, af
would the hardest rock. In the ditches and natural beds of streams, it forms
cascades as permanent as if of granite. But as firm and imperishable as is
this earth, when kept either under water, or free from water, when exposed to
alternations of wet and dry, the masses soon split and break down in small and •
curiously shaped fragments ; the planes of the new surfaces, or fissures thus
separating, being much and irregularly cu;rved, and sometimes approaching to
spherical.

Hollow casts of shells, such as are described above, are found in this part
of the deposite ; but they are comparatively few in number, and were seen
only in the upper part of the stratum. This upper part, as seen under the
sand hills of Sumter, (and especially as best exposed at and near Col. John
Manning's country seat,) has a very unequal surface, as if formerly shaped
by the powerful denuding action of a current. Above it, was 3 or 4 feet
thickness of loose and coarse sand}'- clay, on which were here and there small
patches of silicified shell rock, such as will be presently described particular-
ly, and which is abundant a little farther down the course of the river, on the
stream of Dyson's cotton factory, and elsewhere in Sumter. It is merely re-
ferred to in this passage, and in advance of its full consideration, to mark its
lying above the stratum called " fuller's earth." This latter earth shows, in a
deep cut of the road through the sand hills, full 30 feet thickness from the
top, and no bottom is there exposed. In a very deep and noted ravine, about
two miles from Manchester, and 5 above the last nam.ed locality, the perpen-
dicular and naked sides of which expose the strata for a great depth, this
stratum of fuller's earth appears much higher, and is underlaid with many
and thin strata, of various clays and sands, ochre, and dark colored shale,
and, at the lowest visible part, the foundation was of coarse silicious sand.
The fuller's earth here is softer, or more of clayey and yielding texture, than
generally in Sumter. The specimen taken there Avas lost by accident, and
therefore there was no subsequent examination of its fossil or infusorial char-
acter. But no doubt was then entertained as to its being the prolongation of
the general stratum of " fuller's earth." And of the ordinary and great body,
the subsequent microscopic examinations made of my specimens proved it to
be part of the great deposite of infusorial remains, and doubtless part of the
infusorial stratum of Orangeburgh.

The greatest sub-division of the infusorial. stratum in Sumter is well known,
and, more than for every thing else, because of the use made of the earthy
pounded and made wet, to take out grease spots, for which purpose it serves
well, and is used and known extensively, by its vulgar and improper name
of " fuller's earth" thence deduced. The same deposite I saw low down in
Cl»arleston District, near the Santee, in a valley some few miles above Dr..
John S. Palmer's plantation. And from that neighborhood I obtained a speci-
men, which when broken exposed a perfect and beautiful hollow cast of a

shell.

But before seeing any of these places, or the earth from them, my attention
had been directed to a very peculiar formation elsewhere, which also had
long attracted much of general observation and remark, under the prevailing
and erroneous belief that the stone in question is a very extensive deposite of
" petrified wood." It is in fact the same as the " fuller's earth" of Sumter and
of Charleston Districts, and, as since also proved, of the like formation by ani-
malcules, of whose remains this stone is in like manner principally composed.

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 4

o

It was this so called "petrified wood" that I first saw and examined on the
Ashepoo River, (at and below the ferry.) on Huspa Creek, and Coosawhat-
chie River : and it is to be found almost every where in the neighboring-
parts of Colleton and Beaufort Districts. The stratum (or perhaps several
separated strata of the same stone,) is very thin, often but 4 inches thickness,
or even less. The close and smooth grained '-fuller's earth" of Sumter is here
changed to a very hard but brittle aluminous stone, which is very similar to
that called chert by mineralogists. It is easily decomposed by both air and
water, first becoming light colored and soft, and next these softer portions suc-
cessively being washed away by the water of rain or of streams. When so
operated on for a length of time, as is the case with almost every piece seen
in the water courses, the hard unaltered interior shows, in its grain and dark
color, some resemblance to those of heart-wood ; and the sudden change, at a
precise line, to a whitish color, caused by the decomposing action of air, appears
still more like what was formerly sap-wood. Further, the outside, wasting
away most in the softer streaks and leaving the harder points protruding, of-
fers a strong resemblance to the rough bark and smaller knots of live-oak.

This latter and extensive though thin layer had earliest attracted my obser-
vation, as it is indeed a subject of curiosity to the least observant. And the
examination of this part preceded that of the other parts of the great infu-
sorial stratum, as described above, and led to the proofs that all belong to
the same great formation, and are connected with and overlying the calcareous
part of the Great Carolinian Bed, wherever that bed has not run out, and has
no existence, as is the case under the most northern exposure of the infusorial
stratum in Orang-eburo-h and Sumter.

I shall now proceed to the description of the other and before mentioned
belt, of silicified shells, or the rock formed by the process of shells being con-
verted to silex. I first found the evidences of this curious and strange natural
process on Black River and several of its tributary streams, crossing the gen-
eral direction of their courses, and along the line of the upper or northern
visible boundary of the Peedee Bed, or secondary marl. Shells and their
fragments were seen lying above marl-stone, completely changed to silex, and
no portion of their original calcareous constitution remaining. The silicified
shells here were very imperfect, and the species not distinguished : but the
curious change they had undergone was not the less certain. It seemed here-
about as if the change was yet in progress, or the bed in a transition state
from calcareous to silicious. For the marl and marl-stone are poor just below
the appearance of any completely silicified shells ; and poor calcareous rock
was found at different exposures up Black River to within some 6 or 7 miles
of Kinsrstree ; after which, as seen at the bridore two miles below Kingrstree,
shell-rock akogether silicified is taken out of Ihe river. Higher up, it be-
comes a true buhr-stone, and is quarried and worked for mill-stones, for
which it is an excellent material. The traces of the former shells are few
and faint ; but abundantly distinguishable, so as to show the origin of the sili-
cious rock. The mixture of remaining calcareous matter, with more of the
substituted silicious, presenting a transition state, I also found on Tinker's
Creek, in Barnwell.

But it is near to and (as I presume) in connexion with the Great Carolinian
Bed that the bek of silicified shells presents the most perfect condition and the
most interesting subject for observation and study. In Orangeburgh, (at
Warley's hill,) and in Sumter, as before stated, small parts of silicified shell-

44 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

rock are to be found over-lying the infusorial clay stratum — as the latter is
elsewhere seen over-lying the calcareous bed. But for much the greater
space known, the belt of silicified shells is seen alone, and northward of both
the former. Taken alone, in Orangeburgh, where it is seen in greatest per-
fection, this formation stretches parallel to and northward of the infusorial
belt, whlie the latter is seen and was found in different places, 6 or 7 miles
from the marl, and from near the Santee to the South Edisto river. In Sum-
ter, it is exposed in many places above (or north of) Half-way-swamp, but
known nowhere below. This appearance is of a rock soft and crumbly in
some places, but of great hardness and closeness generally, formed as much
of shells as are the newest marls which show the most perfect and numerous
shells. The matrix, in which the shells are imbedded, is altogether silicious,
as are the shells, and the whole mass of rock. The shells, formerly so nu-
merous that the whole mass must have been at some remote time a very rich
calcareous marl, have, by some strange natural process, had every particle of
their original calcareous substance removed, and substituted in every minute
particular, by pure silicious matter, which is there not only of flinty hardness,
but appears to be crystallyzed, and transparent beneath the surface. If we
could suppose the perfect and empty hollow moulds of shells described above
as in the adjacent infusorial clay belt, to be filled by silex in a dissolved and
fluid state, and the solvent fluid then gradually to evaporate, or be absorbed,
leaving precipitated its silex in solid form — and this to be repeated until the
moulds were entirely filled — the supposition might explain the manner,
though not the causes of the change, either in the total removal of the calca-
reous matter, or the supplying of the substituted silex. But whatever may
have been the manner or cause of the change, the effect is perfect and most
admirable. The silicified shells are very numerous, and of many species.
Though as hard and as brittle as flint, they exhibit every slight marking of
the original shells ; and every minute prickle, or ed^e, in the substituted silex,
has the sharpness and finished outlines of the original shell when enclosing
the living animal. These silicified shells are far more perfectly preserved
than any real (or calcareous) fossil shells known, owing to the completeness
of the change of substance, and the greater hardness of the crystallized silex
than the carbonate of lime, even in the freshest and hardest condition of the
former shells. Indeed, except in their entire change of material-and sub-
stance, and being altogether silicious instead of ahogether calcareous, the best
specimens from this belt appear to the eye as shells perfect in all respects ; so
absolutely perfect in form, that, but for the loss of color, they might be sup-
posed by a close observer to have been but recently obtained from the ocean.
Among the most beautiful and delicate I obtained, and which are different
from all that my own searches furnished perfect, were a pholas and a cytherea
found and presented to me by Mrs. David M. McCord ; and a 'pyrula found
by Major J. Stroman, which also I owe to his kindness. These are believed
to be heretofore unknown, as are many others of the silicified shells. But
there are a few of these, and also casts of other shells in the infusorial clay
stratum, which arc known also in the upper and neighboring parts of the
Great Carolinian Bed, so as to prove the geological connexion of all the three
beds. The silicified shell rock is highest (and of course the latest made de-
posite) in the series — the infusorial stratum next — and the great calcareous
bed is the lowest of the three, where existing under either.

The silicified shells, rock, and each of every different appearance of the

:^

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 45

infusorial clays or rocks above described, have all been mistaken for marl, or
calcareous formations.

Lists of some of the characteristic shells belokging to each of the
different formations of lower south carolina.
Remarks.

Some of my objections to concurring in the now received geological ar-
rangement of the most important of the marl formations of South Carolina, or
the Great Carolina bed, were stated in the early part of this report. It is not
for me to attempt to throw light on this subject in any other mode than as has
been done, in diligently collecting fossils, and truly presenting them according
to the precise localities from which they were obtained. Care and accuracy
in the latter respect are the more espexially required, because great mistakes
have been already committed, and promulgated through previous and more
scientific publications. And further, 1 have no information that any person
has before found the fossils of the Ashley, or even suspected the fact, that for
the much greater number, they are different from those of the Santee and of
the Cooper ; as appears not only in the few here named, but in many others
(casts) undetermined, though well preserved. To enable those investigators
who possess the necessary knowledge to draw correct conclusions, I have here
presented, with their particular as well as general localities, such shells as have
been already known and described ; and also such as I suppose new or here-
tofore undescribed and unknown. Still there remain many casts of shells,
which are believed to be new, but which cannot be determined for want of any
shells of the same kind. In other cases, where casts only were to be found of
particular shells, they serA-ed as w^ell for identification, because the shells were
also well known, as found elsew^here.

There may be, and probably are some mistakes as to the species in the fol-
lowino- lists of fossil siieels : thousfh whenever a doubt was entertained, it is
expressed. But there is no mis-statement, nor any ground for error left, as to
localities. I gathered most of the shells in person, and for the few for which
I am indebted to other persons, I can as well vouch for their localities. In this
point lies the chief value of this list , and it is a value of the more importance
because so large a proportion of loose, indefinite or entirely deceptions locali-
ties have been heretofore given in the little published incidentally on the fossils
of South Carolina. In the manner in which the following list is made, giving
always exact localities, and generally those where the several fossils are the
most abundant, any mistakes which may have been made can be easily de-
tected by subsequent examinations of the places named ; and all that is correct
will be of material aid to more thorough investigations and scientific writers
on the fossils and formations of South Carolina.

The shells of the part of the miocene lying upon the secondary or Peedee
bed present a remarkable difference from those of all other beds of miocene
which I have before observed. Although the individual shells are numerous,
and well preserved, and to be seen through beds for miles in extent, I could
find only the few species named in the list below, and of these, three are new, or
before unknown. Still there are enough casts of other shells, and admirably
preserved, to identify the miocene^ even if no shells had remained. These
remaining shells are all of the very hard and brown or dark gray kinds;
and to their greater hardness their preservation is to be ascribed. Every white
shell had disappeared, leaving generally its hollow mould in the matrix of marl.

46

AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

The mlocene marl extendino- into Darlino-ton and Sumter, differs from the
above, and contains numerous shells mostly of the species common in the blue
miocene marls of Virginia ; and some others rare there, if ever found. As I
had but little opportunity to examine them in the beds, in a late and hasty visit,
(in November,) the shells named in the list are not offered to exhibit the
complete number of species, but merely some of the more common kinds, so
us to distinguish the kind of marl.

The shells of the post-miocene marl beds are believed to be precisely like
those of the animals no\v living in the neighboring parts of the ocean, as are all
in the following list, prepared and furnished b}^ Prof Lewis R. Gibbes, of
Charleston, and which was contained in his letter, of which part was copied
on page 31. These names will be enough to identify the formation; and the
most complete list would be (as I believe) but a list of the recent coast shells.

Shells of the Peedee Bed,, or Marl of secondary formation.

Belemnites Americana, Morton, Birch's ferry, Peedee lliver, Marion.
Exogyra costata, »S'«z/, do.

-Anovnia argentaria, Mor. Davis' Bluff, (lower strata.)

Turritella vertebroides, Mor. Gordon's, Willow creek.
Trio-onia ? Peedee river.

Shells of the Great Carolinia?i Bed.

Balanus peregrinus,
l^anopcea elongata,
Anoniia rugosa,

My til us }

^Frockus giganteus, new,
Lunulites Lyelli,
Pecten membranosns,
Ostrea sellicforniis,

Ostrea panda,

Terebratula Lachryma,
Lutraria petrosa,
CyprsBa lapidosa,

Nucleolites crucifer,
Cardita planicosta,

Trochus leprosus,
Conus gyratus,
Grypha^a niutabilis 1

Mor,

Conrad,

Con.tX

Con.
Mor.
Con.

Mor.

Greer's landing, Ashley river,
do.

do.
P. Clements, do.

John A, Ramsay's land.
Near Eutaw spring, Santee river.

do.
Dawshee cove, below Eutaw, and thence up the

river in great abundance.
Rocks creek mill, below Eutaw creek, lying
lower in the bed than the O. sellseformis, at
Deveaux's old mill pond; and Heatly Hall on
Half way swamp, Orangeburgh.
Near Lenuds' ferry, lower Santee.
At and about Vance's ferry, upper layer.
Hale's mill, Orangeburgh, in lower and green
sand marl, near Santee.
do.

Mor.
Con.
Con.

Mor.

Lamarck, do. (one cast only ; and casts found at Shell
Bluff.)

Mor. Mulberry, Cooper river.

Mor. do.

Mor. Sportsman's Retreat. Cooper, (found and given to
me by Dr. Cordes,) and also, (or gryphoea con-
vexa?) in green-sand marl at R. Mazyck's.

tFound and given to me bv Major J. Stioinan.

* " b'vCol. D. J. JMcCord.

*Vhe shells marked wiih' a stur before the name arc also in the calcareous bed, so named
Q.hovc«

:}:}:This shell which h the most abundant and perfectly preserved of all found in this bed on
Ashley river, is new, or us yet undescribed. But after my speciuieiis had been collected, I
learned that Mr. Conrad hud one in his collection, and that he designed for the shell the above
name. I have therefore adopted it, and given to him the credit, in advance of his future publi-
cation.

OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

47

Scutella Lyelli. Mor. Erwin's mill, Barnwell.

Scutella crustuloides, Mor. Ro. Mazyck's (green-sand marl,) near Santee

canal.
Scutella Caroliniana, Ravenel^Thc Grove, Dr. Edmund Ravenerp, on Cooper.
Scutella macraphora, Ravr do.

Pinna ? Stokes' Bridge, Edisto river.

Silicijied shells and casts, of the belts stretching along-side and north-rcesf
of the Great Carolinian Bed, and deemed to be the upper arid newer part of

the same formation.

*Cardita planicosta, Lam. silicified shell. Gates' quarry, St. Mathews,. Orange-
bur gh-
Cardita alticosta, Con. do. ^o.

Crassatella aloeformis, Con, do. do.

Turritella Mortoni, Con, do» do.

Pyrula Edistonia,j new, do. J. Stroinan's mill, nea(r S. Edisto river .^

Pholas Tuomeyi,\ new, do. Col. D. M. McCord's, St. ?i^lathews.

Cyiherea Maccordia, new, do. do. found and presented"

to me by Mrs. McCord.
do. do.

Con. hollow-cast in infusosial clay, old' stage road, about 4

miles north of Orangeburgh C. H.
Mor, do.

Oranoeburffh.

Area ]

*Lutraria petrosa,

*Conus gyratus,
Pinna ?

Pecten Pedeense,f

new.

Pecten transluce7is,\

new,

Pecten Marionis^l

new,

Pecten Humphreysii ?

Plicatula marginata,

Say,

Ostrea Virginiana,

Gmel.

Fusus quadricostatus.

Say,

Balanus proteus.

Shells of the Miocene Marl, in part lying npon the Peedee Bed, (seconda-
ry,) and in partj on Goose creek, on the Great Carolinian Bed.

H. Davis' bluff, Marion, Peedee river.

do.

do.
Goose creeky near Cooper river,
do.

H. Davis, Marion, on Peedee.
do.

The hollow casts are numerous, of which the following are a few of the species ::
Chama congregata. Con. Godfrey's ferry, Marion^

Panopoea refiexa, Con. Witherspoon's bluff-

Cardium laqueatum, Con. do.

Oliva literata, Lam. Googe creek.

The following are but a few of the shells seen in the bed near Darlington C. H-
which seem generally to agree in kinds, appearance, &-c. with those of the ordinary
mioceneh\\xe marl in Virginia.

Venus Rileyi, Ervin's, near Darlington C. H.
Chama corticosa, do,

Mactra modicella, (numerous,) do.
Fusus prialis, do.

Shells thrown up by the waves from submarine miocenc bed.
♦Venus Rileyi, Con. Sea shore, Oakly Inlet, Georgetown.

*The shells marked thus are also ia a previous part of the lists.

tVery numerous in this deposite along the Peedee, and known to me no where else

tFound by Mr. Henry Davis, Sen. of Marion.

48

AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

Venus

alveata, Con.

do.

Ostrea

Virg-iiiiana, (variety,)

do.

Corbul

a inequale, Con.

do.

Area li

imosa, Say^

do.

Shells of the Poi

>(-Pliocene or coast marl.*

Natica duplicata,

Area incongTua,

Nassa obsolela,

" pexata,

" vibex,

" ponderosa,

Cerithium dislocatum.

Cardium macu latum,

Pyrula carica,

Donax variabilis,

Oliva Sayana,

Tellina alternata,

" miitica.

Lucina divarieata.

Ovula acicularip,

Venus mereenaria,

Fissurella attenuata.

Cytherea eoncentrica,

Ostrea virginica,

Maetra lateralis,

Pinna seminiida,

Lutraria eanaliculata.

Balanus ovularis?

Scutellum quinquelornie 7

Observations on the action of calcareous manures and tiieie. prac"

TICAL application AND EFFECTS.

Previous to the commencemeDt of my examination of the marls of South
Carolina, there had been but very few attempts to profit by their application
as manure. It would be both a needless and ungrateful task to inquire into-
the causes of this strange and general neglect of such wide-spread and easily
available resources for fertility and riches — and of disregard and ignorance of
truths generally known and acted upon in other regions far less blessed in
these resources, and in the capability of profiting by their use, than lower
South Carolina. It is enough here to state that such was the general neglect
of calcareous manures, and general want of efficient information as to their
value. Many individuals, indeed, had made very small and mostly improper
applications of marl, and a few of lime, and which w^ere as loose and ii^accurate
as experiments, as they were ill-directed to obtain the best results as manure.
And a few individuals presented more marked and meritorious exceptions^
in having within the last few years made much larger applications, and hav-
ing reaped more or less appreciable and admitted profits therefrom. Among
these, the oldest or the largest operators, and, as they deemed themselves, also
successful marlers, besides those already mentioned, were Mr. Darby of
Orangeburgh, Dr. J. S. Palmer and Col. S. J. Palmer of Charleston district^
Dr. Robert Gourdin of Georgetown district, and Gen. James H< Hammond,
of Silver Bluff, Barnwell. Reports of the applications of the four last named
gentlemen have been recently published,! and their favorable results stated ;
and the several papers will be annexed to this report. But the total amount
of these, added to all other applications of marl and lime made in South Caro-
lina previously to 1843, it is believed, fell short of 500 acres. It would furnish
an interesting and most useful statistical document, if the legislature would
hereafter require the extent of each planter's applications of marl and lime,
for every successive year, to be ascertained and recorded by the tax-collectors;
and, a few years hence, also the then and thereafter (estimated increased pro-

*A1I these are frotn tlie bed under and near ChnrlePton, ajjd are those referred to nt page 31.
tGen, Hammond's first, in Fanner's Regfi.ster, for December 1812, and the others, in
Southern Agriculturist, for June I84:i

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 49

duct of the improvements thereby made. Such statements, continued, and
published regularly year after year, would exhibit an amount of newly direct-
ed labor, and of newly created agricultural wealth, beyond any present con-
ception of the effects ; and the exhibition would stimulate the further exer-
tion and increase, more than any other possible mode of conveyinginstruction,
or of urging the propriety and profit of using calcareous manures. Nearly
all of the few applications of marl (or of lime) which have heretofore been
made, have failed of early or satisfactory effect, or for so long as observed for
effects, because of the improper mode of application ; which was, as usual
with putrescent manures, by burying the marl under the "list," and thereby
avoiding, and indeed preventing a.\\ intermixture of the manure Avith the soil,
which is essential to its operation. In addition to this error, the application
was almost invariably made to land long before under continued tillage. In
other words, the marl was applied as if its effects were direct^ and like those
of putrescent and alimentary manures of transitory benefit. Of course no
such effects were obtained ; and the other and real effects were impaired
and postponed until they were no longer looked for ; and therefore they often
were produced without being observed, and always without either the re-
sults, or the impediments to results, being duly appreciated.

It would be here out of place and of propriety to swell this report by pre-
senting at length and in detail the theory of either the action, or full and mi-
nute directions for the practical application, of calcareous manures. And still
less is this course needed, as in previous publications I have presented such
views to the public at length ; and moreover, have distributed gratuitously
through this State, more than five hundred of copies of the most important
of the "Essays on Calcareous manures."

To these publications, I will therefore beg leave merely to make general
reference, in this work, which will serve to supplj^ deficiences whenever
more extension of the subject is requisite than is permitted in the following
concise observations.

Considering the great variations and degrees of fertility of cultivated
soils, and the important bearing of such differences on the profits of the
cultivators, it is strange that so little attention has been given to the causes,
or of care to avoid the worst and obtain the best effects. Every proprietor
knows, that the profit of cultivation is much ij.reater on rich than on poor
ground. But very few have estimated how much greater is the profit : and"
nowhere, within the sphere of my observation, are the prices of lands
properly graduated, in proportion to their fertility and true productive value.
If properly estimated, it v/ould be manifest that poor land, for cultivation, if
to remain poor, would be dear as a gift, and its cultivation the most costly
of all. Yet, the gr^-ater number of cultivators of such soils, are content to
remain in that condition, without making an effort, and scarcely indulging
a hope of improving their fields and their profits.

It is not the less remarkable, that the more sanguine and enterprizing
cultivators, who aim and hope to improve, seldom inquire into the causes
and manner of the operation designed, and therefore, most naturally, seldom
succeed in their design. To apply the ordinary putrescent manure, is
generally the sole means attempted or thought of: and if on poor and bad
soils, in the race between exhaustion and new fertilization, the latter is in-
variably left far behind.

It is a universally a<:kno\vlrdg< d truth, th<it what is needed to make soil

50 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

most productive, are such ingredients as will supply, in sufficient abundance,
the food of flants. Growing plants draw from the soil b}^ their roots, and
are nourished by the dissolved parts of nearly ail putrescent m.atters, either
vegetable or animal, or mixtures of both. The ordinary manures are pre-
cisely such substances; and sooner or later, by their gradual decomposition,
are converted almost entirely to the food of plants, and if judiciously applied,
are consumed by, and help to sustain, the growing crops.

But it is not enough, by a great deal, that manures serving to form food for
plants shall be given to the soil. There are other conditions necessary for
their profitable and best effects ; and the most important of these conditions
is, that the soil shall be so constituted as to preserve the putrescent mat-
ters from waste and profitless dissipation, and to give them wholly for the
support and growth of plants. This condition is furnished by nature, in
well constituted soils only, which present the most productive and durable
lands under tillage. Without this constitution, all the supplies of putres-
cent manures which can be given to a farm, will be of little profit; and if
derived from its own resources only, will be utterly insufficient to preserve,
and still less to increase, the yearly measure of productiveness of the land.

To learn the causes of the difference of soils in their power of receiving
fertilization, it is necessary, and it will be sufficient, to go back to first prin-
ciples, and trace soils from their formation, and their most simple conditions.

All soils, for their essential parts, are composed of the three important
earths, silica, alumina and lime, (the latter combined, usually and at first
with carbonic acid, forming carbonate of lime) and with an addition to such
compound soil of putrescent matter, of either animal or vegetable origin.
Each of all these ingredients, in some proportion, is indispensable to every
soil — or it would be barren if either were entirely wanting, no matter how
abundant might be all of the others. The absolute necessity for the pres-
ence of each substance, will be seen by the consideration of their qualities
and powers.

Silica, or silex, in its pure state, forms rock crystal. Ordinary sand fur-
nishes it nearly pure, and enough so to show its utter unfitness to retain
putrescent manures ; or, even while such manures are passing away, for such
a mixture to make a soil capable of sustaining plants. The hardness of the
grains of sand, forbid their absorption of all moisture , and their loose and
open state, permits all fluids to pass through and to escape rapidly, either
by sinking, when abundant, or by evaporation, when scarce. The latter
mode of waste is much increased by the great heat of such sands, received
from the sun. Thus, with the changes of the weather, sands would be
in rapid and violent alterations, drenched thoroughly and washed by rains,
and dried by the sun and wind ; any putrescent matter present, would, by
these changes, be rapidly carried through all the stages of fermentation
and decomposition, and go to waste, because there would be no property
whatever in the sand, to combine with or to retain the results of fermenta-
tion. A pure sand would, necessarily, soon lose every particle of putres-
cent matter; and the nearer any soil approaches to a pure sand, the more
nearly would it approach such a result.

Alumina, or argil, is the pure matter of clay, or that which, when united
with more or less of silicious sand, forms clay, and gives to the mixture its
adhesiveness, plastic quality, and close texture. It is clay we have to con-
sider ; for perfectly pure argil or alumina is never known, either as soil or

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 51

subsoil. A clay containing much alumina, is difficult to become either wet
or dry from the opposite condition. When very wet, it is a sticky mortar,
and when quite dry, is almost as hard as stone. It forms the most intracta-
ble soil under tillage, and the most forbidding to the growth of plants. Pu-
trescent manures, or their soluble results, cannot penetrate a close clay — or
if artificially enclosed, are kept therein imprisoned and inert, and compara-
tively useless to the crop. There is but little chemical attraction or com-
bining power, between clay and putrescent matters, even in the chemist's
operations, designed most to favor their combination ; and as nature and
cultivation can only operate much less perfectly to this end, there are
scarcely any means for the little combining power of clay to act at all.
Thus, as of sands, though in a different mode, pure or stiff clays have no
power to receive manures, or to retain and yield them for the proper con-
sumption of growing plants.

Thus, if pure silicious sand, or pure and very stiff clay, alone formed
the earthy parts of a soil, no supply of putrescent manure could be either
durable or effective in any important degree, and certainly not profitable
for the application.

If the sand and clay were mixed in due proportions, then the soil would
be greatly mended in texture and in relation to moisture. But still there
would be no chemical attraction for, or power of combining with and re-
taining, putrescent manures. And therefore, such a mixed or medium soil,
thougja exhibiting less of the opposite defects of almost pure sand or pure
clay, would be nearly as barren, and quite as incapable of being durably
enriched, as either. And when soils are constitituted of any of the grades
of the three classes above referred to, or even with any slight and insuffi-
cient admixtures of other and necessary ingredients, it is not at all strange
that they should be incurably sterile. It would, indeed, be strange and un-
accountable, were it otherwise. Still, the far greater number of natural
soils in the Southern Atlantic States, approach nearly to one or the other
of these three classes; and thouo-h havinaf enouQfh of other ins^redients to
prevent absolute barrenness, have not enough to permit them to be much or
profitably enriched by putrescent manures — and not at all beyond their
natural degree of productiveness, however low that degree may have been.

It is the presence of the third ingredient first named, lime, which serves
to remedy the defects of all the others, and to make useful the peculiar qual-
ities (all of which are essential to soil) of the silicious sand, the argil, and
the putrescent and alimentary matters of the soil. And though the natural
quantity of lime is generally very small, and much too small, in this region
especially, there is some little in every soil that is capable of maturing a
plant of any kind. Small as may be the quantity, it is essential to the for-
mation and perfection of every plant ; and if there were not a particle of lime
in any soil, it would not be capable of maturing a seed, or of supporting
even a blade of grass. And as but a very small proportion will serve to
give its best operation to soil, there is sufficient inducement and means al-
most every where, for man to supply to the soil what nature has withheld,
in sufficient quantity.

In the form of combination in which nature generally offers lime, that is,
the carbonate, and probably in every other form of combination subsequently
taken in soil, it has a strong chemical attraction for soluble putrescent mat-
ters, vegetable and animal, and a power of combining with them, forming

52 AGRICULTURAL SURVE^-Y

compounds which cannot be decomposed by air, water, or heat, and which;
therefore, cannot go to waste, but which are perfectly decomposable by the
powers of growing vegetation, and therefore may be profitably and entirely
used as food for plants. Herein is the great secret of the benefit of calca-
reous manures. The combining with and fixing in soils putrescent matters,
is then a great and most beneficial operation, and of which all other earths,
(unless magnesia be, as I presume it is, an exception,) are entirely des-
titute.

We need so no farther to show that calcareous earth in soil is all im-
portant. Still it has several other very valuable operations m mcreasmg
the productiveness of the soil, which would require too much time to be
more than barely touched upon here. Some of these other modes of opera-
tion are as follows :

1. In neutralizing the acid principle of soil, which is generally present in
all naturally poor soils, and which is poisonous to all cultivated and valua-
ble crops. The total removal of this poisonous quality of soils is an imme-
diate and the most obvious effect of the application of calcareous manures.

2. In the pov/er of altering the texture and absorbency of soils. The
admixture of calcareous manures with soil, serves in an important degree to
moderate the previous opposite defects of being either too open and light,
from excess of sand, or of being too close and tenacious, from excess of clay ;
and also of being either too little or too much retentive of moisture.

3. By the alteration of constitution in soils, produced by calcareous ma-
nures, all products are rendered more perfect, and are ripened earlier. The
latter effect is especially important to the late cotton in S. Carolina, over and
above all increase of fertility, and of general bulk of product.

4. Some lime being essential to the formation of ever^y plant, it may there-
fore be considered a specific and alimentary manure for every crop. Still
this direct operation is perhaps the least of the benefits of lime. Some plants,
however, of which clover is one, require so much of this ingredient, that they
can scarcely live on ordinary soils.

5. Another operation of calcareous manures, and which is very important
also in agricultural and pecuniary value, as well as for other considerations,
is that of restraining or preventing the production of malaria, or the gaseous
products of putrefaction of vegetable matter, injurious to health. No effect
yet claimed for the operation of calcareous manures was at first heard with
more incredulity than this; yet the short experience of 12 or 15 years only
has been enough to remove almost every doubt on this subject in lower Vir-
ginia, where marl has been most extensively applied.

6. Finally, by furnishing to any soils which had been previously very defi-
cient therein, an ingredient in calcareous earth, essential to their good and
perfect constitution, all the functions of the soils and of plants growing
thereon, are made more perfect, and invigorated ; and every source of injury
to the crops, whether from soil, season, depredations of insects, or other dis-
eases to which may be alike exposed the marled and unmarled parts of the
same field, will be much less hurtful (if even perceptible in effect.) on the
former than on the latter. The calcareous manuring does not prevent or

OP SOUTH CAROLINA. 53

even lessen these causes of diseases and death, but enables the plants, by their
greater vigor, to withstand and to out-grow the inflictions, and thus renders
them comparatively harmless.*

If the preceding views be sound, the manifest deduction from them is, that
all lands which are not already calcareous^ or sufficiently supplied with
lime by nature, require to be made so. And relying upon my former and
very general observations and examinations of soils elsewhere, as well as
a fewer but sufficient number recently made in S. Carolina, I may venture
to assert that there are scarcely any natural soils, if indeed a single one, in
all that extensive region, which has carbonate of lime as an ingredient, or
constituent part. And though all soils (as before stated) must contain lime
in some form of combination, as I infer with vegetable acids, still in nearly
all the upland soils of this great region, and especially those on which pine
forms the principal and most vigorous growth, the proportion of such vege-
table salts of lime is much too small, and the addition of more lime or car-
bonate of lime is greatly needed, and would be highly beneficial and justifia-
ble, where the material may be had cheaply enough. There are, indeed,
some other soils which received more lime originally from natural supply,
and which still show, and will always show, the superior fertility and dura-
bility thereby conferred on them. Among such soils are those of Dawshee
and Eutaw on the Santee, and many other smaller bodies of similar valua-
ble upland, elsewhere ; and such are the numerous rich alluvial soils depo-
sited by river floods, or of swamps over-lying marl, or otherwise naturally
limed originally. But even these lands, the best provided by nature with
the essential ingredient, lime, have not enough of it in any form of combi-
nation, and not a particle in the form of carbonate of lime — which form is
presented by marl, and by quick lime after a short time also, and in which
form it would be f )und in natural soils, if calcareous, and abundantly fur-
nished with lime. Though so hw have been the practical applications of
calcareous manures and designed experiments in this state, the results of
many accidental and chance-made experiments have been observed, which
go fully to prove the great and durable improvement made by lime on the
richest alluvial rice lands.

Deeming, then, that calcareous manures will benefit nearly if not all
known soils in S. Carolina, and increase their production of all crops, the
next questions are, how far the means are available, at not too great cost,
and what measure of increased production of crops may be counted on from
the application of calcareous manures. These questions being inseparable,
will be answered together, generally and concisely, and without giving rea-
sons or proofs which would occupy too much space here, and for which,
as before stated, I refer to preceding publications.^

The benefit, or increased product of crops, to be expected ixom. proper 2i\i-

* See all these positions argued and established in Chap. 8, and elsewhere in Essay
on Calcareous Manures.

t In addition to the numerous statements, both of general operation and particular re-
sults of marl and lime, given in the essay on calcareous manures, and also in various
parts of the Farmer's Register, a number of special answers to particular and compre-
hensive queries on this subject, may be advantageously referred to in vols. 8 and 9 of the
last named publication A concise d.igest of these answers, on the most important points,
arranged in tabular form for easy reference, will be added to this section of the report.

54 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

plications of marl, if estimated by the numerous known and unquestioned
facts of results in Virginia, may be expected to range (according as circum-
stances may be more or less favourable to the action,) from 20 to 50 per
cent, increase on the first crop; and to increase thereafter in each succes-
sive crop, until a permanent maximum product is reached of 100 to 300
per cent, upon the product previous to the marling. And the increased pro-
ducts would be much larger at first, and also in after time, (as is the case
in Virginia,) but for the general plan of continual and exhausting tillage in
S. Carolina The improvement is permanent, so made. Whatever is thus
gained, will never be lost under a proper course of culture, and that not re-
quired to be more mild than due considerations of profit ought to dictate un-
der any circumstances. And though additional dressings of marl or lime
will be needed in after time, it will not be because any of the early effect
of the prior application has been lost, or is even diminished, but because ano-
ther and new increase of production maybe then added to the first.

But all my arguments ior and exhortations to commence and prosecute
heartily this greatest and most profitable mode of fertilization, avail nothing
as yet on the minds of most persons, because of their unbelief of the promised
effects, as to their own lands and to S. Carolina. And this is not merely
the result of ignorance on the subject, (which always is incredulous,) but
has better or more plausible grounds, in the facts that most of the few trials
of marl which have been made in the State, have been reported to produce
either very little effect the first year, or none at all. Perhaps if made ac-
quainted with all the circumstances and facts of each such case of reported
failure, partial or total, I might be able to explain the causes. But, though
I have done this, and even to the satisfaction of the unsuccessful and before
despairing experimenter, in many particular cases, it is obvious that all the
facts cannot be generally obtained, and if they were, that this report would
not offer a place for such extended comments on such trivial matters.
But it is not necessary for me to contest any of such asserted failures. I may
go farther, and admit, (as is believed indeed to be the fact,) that before the
beginning of 1843 there was but one person in the State who had found
enough benefit in his first year's marling to proceed forthwith boldly and
with increased confidence, zeal and energy, on the second year. And this
distinguished exception, of very large operations, (Gov. Hammond's, now
extended to 1200 acres,) commenced no farther back than for the crop of
1842 ; and the increased products, even in this case, though fully satisfacto-
ry to the proprietor, were not half equal to what would have been realized
on land in proper condition to receive calcareous manures. Further, of the
numerous experiments made this year, after the commencement of my duties
and in consequence of them, of the greater number whose results I have
heard, the benefits have been either very small, or as reported in some cases,
not even perceptible. Can the opponents of marling desire more full ad-
missions than these? And yet they all serve but to illustrate what I have
continually striven to impress, that without vegetable matter to combine with,
calcareous manures will be of but little value. But, on the other hand, I
have heard of no trial of marl on land in proper condition, that is, recently
and sufficiently rested, and thereby provided with vegetable matter, in which
the effect has not been very groat in the first crop. And three or four such
results only would be enough to explain the cause, and ought to prevent all

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 55

inferences unfavorable to marling, if from a hundred failures of early effort
under reverse circumstances. I will cite a few of such exneriments.

John A. Ramsay, Esq., on Ashley river, like many other persons, has
this year marled land long under incessant annual tillage, and with but lit-
tle benefit to this year's crop. But he also tried a marked space on land
recently cleared, and which had produced but one crop, in 1842. The
marline was too light. Still he believed the increase on the marled space
to be at least 100 per cent. ; and so it appeared to me, when seeing the land
as late as Nov. 25th, long after all the cotton had been gathered and the
stalks dead. The other result is even more sriking, because more accu-
rately observed. Henry Davis, Esq., on Peedee, applied last spring to a
marked acre, also of new ground of the second year, 300 bushels of marl
containing 60 per cent of carbonate of lime. At my request he carefully
weighed the product separately, and also that of an adjoining acre, equal
to the other but for the difference of marhng. The season was very unfa-
vorable and the whole crop of cotton bad. The product of the marled acre
was 592 lbs. of seed cotton, and of the unmarled, 336 lbs. These rates of
increase are such as I have been accustomed to obtain, on lands having suf-
ficient previous rest, and receiving for manure all their growth, and that
only while at rest. And such increased products will continue still to in-
crease for 10 or 15 years of proper cuhure.

The application of marl or lime to alluvial rice lands, I had early and
earnestly recommended, though on theoretical grounds alone, having then
no knowledge of any actual application. J. M. Dwight, Esq., upon that
advice, applied marl last spring to a small marked portion of his newly
embanked rice ground on Ashley river. In addition to hearing the remark-
able benefit stated by several persons, I recently saw the remaining stubble
of the crop. Never was superiority of growth more manifest. But it should
be admitted that the great benefit of this marling seemed to consist in resist-
ing the evil action of salt in the land, which greatly injured, and in parts
totally destroyed the rice elsewhere. Previously, I had gathered infor-
mation of several different applications of lime to rice grounds; one only
recently, which produced great effect on the first crop — and the other appli-
cations of ancient date, some of them made by accident; but all producing
good and long continued effects. Col. Pinckney Allston told me of two
spots in rice fields near Georgetown, on which the lime used for indigo
vats had been thrown, (as was inferred,) on which he had always seen a re-
markable superiority in the growth of rice, and which continues undimin-
ished. As indigo culture ceased on these lands at least 60 years ago, this
chance-made lining must be at least 60 years old ; and probably the land
has produced a rice crop every year since, and certainly without any other
manure.

When estimating the profits of application of putrescent manures of very
quick but transitory effect, (as of cotton seed, for example,) the increased and
early products ought to return both the principal and interest of the out-lay,
as well as a fair profit thereon, or the planter will have gained nothing by
the investment or application. But in calculating the profits of marling
and liming, the increased products being permanent, the average annual re-
turns should be counted but as the interest and profit of the principal thus
permanently invested. Hence, while cotton seed as manure (supposed not
generally to act longer than the first year.) to be really profitable, ought to
yield, in the first crop, at least 110 or 12^ per cent, on the total cost of the

56 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

manuring, and stable manure at least 70 per cent, a greater profit would be
reaped from marl or lime, were the first, or even the average annual increased
nett products only 12 or 15 per cent, on the first total cost. And when,
instead of such small increase, there is found, as most commonly after a
few years, a permanent increase of 100 to 200 per cent, on the previous
product, and perhaps 50 to 100 per cent, on the entire cost of the manuring,
the superiority of returns over those of all putrescent and transient manures,
used alone, is so great as almost to forbid comparison.

Considering, then, the increased nett and average annual products from
marling and liming, as permanent interest or profit upon the cost of the
manuring, (if accomplished by a course of judicious general culture and
management.) it is for each planter to estimate and compare his probable
returns, with the necessary expense of his particular outlay. The gross re-
turns from the application of calcareous manures may not vary greatly, and
indeed, will be very regular and uniform, under equal circumstances. But
the expenses will be very different, according to the difference of easy or
difficult access to the manure. Very many planters in this State, and upon
a very extended field of operations, may marl so cheaply, that their clear
profits therefrom may be more than 100 per cent, per annum, on the out-
lay, for all future time. And if content with as little as 12 per cent, of per-
manent nett annual interest, (which is, perhaps, double the interest of their
agricultural capital in general.) there are very few planters in South Caro-
lina, so remote from marl or lime, that they may not resort to this mode of
improvement.

Where the marl is naturally exposed on the plantations on which it is
to be applied, and is as easy to be worked as on most lands where so ex-
posed, the labor of marling in South Carolina would cost much less than on
any lands of as great extent I have known elsewhere. Add to this abund-
ance of marl, and to its easy access, its far greater richness than the ordina-
ry marls of Virginia, and the general expense of an equally effective dress-
ing will, in the former country, scarcely equal one-third of the ordinary
expense in the latter.

So far as to the plantations having within their bounds, rich and easily
accessible marl. In regard to others less favored in position, the proprietors
might profit by transporting to them rich marl, more than one hundred
miles by navigable water, or ten miles, at least, by land carriage. . Unslack-
ed quick-lime, whether from shells or marl, or lime-stone, might well pay
much heavier costs of transportation.

In the much larger portion of the lands of the marl region, though the
marl may not be visible, it would probably be reached somewhere, on every
plantation, at a depth of from twelve to thirty feet. And even if as deep as
thirty feet below the surface, still, if veins of spring water can be excluded,
the accumulation kept drawn off' without too much labor, then it would be
cheaper to draw up marl from below this depth, and even as low as sixty
feet, than to cart it three miles. The texture of the great Carolinian bed is
so firm, and the thickness of the bed so great, that an excavation may safely
be made in it, widening as it descends, so as to be in form like an inverted
cone or funnel, of which the narrow pipe would represent the cylindrical
well, dug through the overlying earth, expanded to a conical shape below,
in the body of the marl. If no considerable veins of water should flow
into such an excavation, it might be safely stretched to any desired depth

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 57

<

and proportional breadth ; and the marl (and thq^ water) be easily drawn
out by horse power or steam engines, in the manner used for raising coal.
It might be inlierred, perhaps, by some, that the great number of wells
which have been dug to obtain water in the marl region, and the very few
cases in which any have reached and made known the presence of the
marl, would render it unlikely that it can be generally penetrated by other
wells. But in opposition to such inferences, let it bo observed, that where
the bed of marl is not broken and shivered, (as on and near the lower San-
tee,) it is nearly level, and almost impervious to water ; and having, usual-
ly, only open sandy earth above, the marl, necessarily, must be the great,
and, indeed, only water-bearing stratum of this region. The rain-water, or
that brought in veins from remote sources, sinks through the open sands,
until stopped by the impervious marl — on and above which, for perhaps
some five or six feet, the lower sand is saturated by w^ater. As soon as a well
is sunk to this lower part of the soil, a sufficient supply of water is reach-
ed, and enough depth for a reservoir is obtained, without digging as low as
the marl. Thus, though the appearance of water might always truly indi-
cate the marl being within six feet, still, the marl might never be reach-
ed and exposed to view. But in truth, it may have been reached, and por-
tions of marl scraped off and brought up from the bottom, in the digging or
cleaning of hundreds of wells, and yet no notice taken of the fact. On the
plantation of an intelligent and good planter, (who was then anxious to ob-
tain marl, and who si ice is zealously and successfully using it,) I found
marl that had been brought up from two of his wells, and had been long ly-
ing along side, on the surface, scarcely observed, and its character unsus-
pected. If the occurrence of water cannot be avoided, before reaching the
marl, (which may be ascertained by. the use of the auger,) then perhaps the
water may be avoided either by digging pits in alluvial swamps of close
soil, which is rarely traversed by veins of springs, or otherwise at the edge
of the high land, below or away from where the springs burst out and flow
off on either side.

Full and sufficient directions for the practical operations of marling and
liming would occupy too much space to be included here, and such direc-
tions are the less needed, as they may be found by the general reference for
details already named. A few of the most important points only will be
here stated, which may be more especially required to be known by new
beginners at marling in this State, and under the peculiar existing circum-
stances.

The peculiar richness of the marl of the great Carolinian bed causes it to
be generally more hard than the much poorer marls mostly used elsewhere.
However, the difficulties of excavation are not thereby much increased ; and
considering the quality as well as quantity, the marl may be worked and
applied much more cheaply than softer and poorer marls, presented in
thinner beds, elsewhere. It will be found easy enough to break up and re-
duce the large lumps, as dug and while yet moist. If^broken, (by striking
with the hammer-end of the grubbing hoe,)so that none remain larger than
the fist, much the greater quantity will be pulverized, and as much of the
whole in a fine state as the land can use before the larger lumps come to
pieces, which will take place in a year or two. I here refer to marl, or
what is soft enough to be dug and cut by grubbing-hoes or picks. If lay-
F

58 AGRICULTtJRAL SURVEY

ers or lumps of stony hardness occur in any considerable quantity, they
should be let alone, or reserved to be burnt into lime, if rich enough.

In applying marl to the soil, it should be done so as to have the marl and
soil as well and thoroughly intermixed as possible. To this end, the appli-
cation should always be broad-cast — never in or under the rows or hills of
the plants cultivated. As there can be no waste of the manure by exposure,
it may be put on at any time, or in any condition of the ground, as may be
most convenient. The more of vegetable or other putrescent matter is in
the soil the more marl will it require, and the more may be profitably ap-
plied. Consequently, on land recently at rest, and receiving its own
growth for its improvement, or land which is designed to be afterwards so
treated, more marl may be applied, and any quantity will be more benefi-
cial, than on land before and afterwards continually under exhausting culti-
vation. According to the various conditions of land, and degrees of
strength of the most abundant (which are the richest) marls of South Caro-
lina, the amount of safe and proper marlings may vary between 100 and
200 bushels to the acre.

All firm marl and marl-stone as rich as 85 per cent, or richer, may be
profitably burnt to lime, for manure or for cement. And though this has been
done in several places, and for a long time, (principally to supply lime for
the preparation of indigo — never for manure — ) and though the lime was
sold readily, and at very high prices, still the business was conducted so
badly, that but little profit was made, and it has now almost ceased. The
marl lime, burnt at Jamison's kilm on Four Holes swamp, sold at the kilm
at 25 and 31 1-4 cents the slaked bushel, equal to 50 and 62 1-2 cents for
the unslaked^ (as 1 bushel when slaked swells to 2,) which is the way it
should be always counted. This material, being so much more porous and
soft, may be both quarried and burnt much more eaiily than compact and
hard lime-stone. Yet lime of the latter (as will hereafter be shown) may
be burnt for 8 cents, or less, and therefore we may infer that lime from marl
or marl-stone may be furnished for 5 or 6 cents the bushel.

And if the lime-stone of the higher districts, as well as the marl-stone or
hard marl of the low country, was occasionally burnt, and the lime sold as
low as it could then be well afforded, there would be no part of the
country too far off to profit more or less by the use of lime as manure.

PREFACE.

In 1840, for the pui-pose of presenting llie fullest proof, in facts
and opinions derived from the experience of practical men, of the ope-
ration and effects of marl, I publislied sundry circular queries,
and also directed copies specially to many known individuals. Tlie
general and blameable remissness m this respect which marks the whole
agricultural class, and the unwillingness to write any facts for publica-
lion, pievenled my obtaining answers from more, including myself as
one of the number, than 3}J marling fanners. Than these, no others
would have been better wihesses for their respectability, and tlieir op-
portunities of judging, so far as their experience and observations ex-
tended back. But there were very many others who failed to answer,
wlio had either longer or larger experience of marling, or had obtained
more important benefits therefrom, than the greater number whose an-
swer* were given, and which answers, even if standing alone, offer such
full and conclusive proof of the certain eflecis and great profits of marl-

Thc much more extended answers of these 22 individuals, as hereto-
fore published in tlie Farmers'' licg^iskr, for the more important points of
their testimony, will be here condensed in the following tabular form, to
which some general stiitements and remarks will be added. The
places left blank in the table, were either not answered at all, because of
uncertainty, or so generally and in sucli extended terms as not to permit
bcinw brought into this digested and concise form.

It IS prop' r lo suili-, in jHlvaao-, ilmi iliough the system of cropping
ml iic'ii-!), , ill ill-. ■ l.iiii! l.tlui, in.iilin- was more or less exhausting,

f^""i"- ■ II •'* I ' IT'" crops was universal. And

ilin( ;iii J iii'iLii I 1 'III ! ii :,, Liiuw'n necessity for such proce-
ihin', iIji loiii.-. i.r-uiiMi. u.i , ,.l\, .11, iiuipift more lenient, and grazins^
was gcnrnilly furbiddcn, in mil or wliully, during tlie intervening
yQars of rest from cropping. The most general rotation oflhe couniiy,
nnd of most of these persons previous to marling, was iJil- " ihrec-
shifl" Willi grazing; that is, first year, Corn ; second, Wlieal, or Oats
in part, whL-re ilic land was noi loojioor for cither, and grazing after
harvest} and third, dose grazing of tlie natural growth of grass and
"meds. This cxlmusling rotation was generally and immediately
L-r marling, by thr cniire prohibition of grazing- and aficr-
s partially or wholly, by having CMover, as a manure crop, in tin-
of resi. In a few ollurr cases ihe w; (Mr four-shift rotation was user!,
rr year ofrcsi added to the above ; and in few-
ill' ('/(/■ four-shift, in which asccond crop of
' ' "' thi- second year of rest and Clover, or
' 1 ' l-ivcr (as manure) in four years.
i il: '1 11 was an error with most of these per-
s, to marl too heavily. Some of them, in this
less land, perhaps all in Pri;

■walrds

wuicli mert'ly had i
«Brf»8es, anfMuii in
l^heat was tal,. i>
tiiree grain i-u>\.
It should aI^M li<

BQns, OS with most
manner, injured more

And generally r

Uppli.

innrlpd, to inTrai

CornanJWii.'

wiUi tlie cxcepiif)

jjow abandoned.

»rc n?lt profit would liave been derived from ligliier

ood-land remaining to bn cleared, and such as was
added to these farms was nearly all poor, and if not
L- crops being taken, wovil 1 havc'been poorer than the
iifnlder land. And for tins reason, very few if any of
cikcn ihrnn2;hout, wouh! liavc served, wiiliout being
1" tlie foi-ijirr ircnrral avrage product per acre.
iU li-u-^ hfcn i!ie sole great market crops of these lands,
n of Coiion for a few years only, and wiiicii crop is

T /A 'E V] lL i^\ Ji S "iT ^i ""•]' i£ ItVJ & ti T
OF MARLING OPERATIONS AND SUPPOSED RESULTS. ON TWENTV-T^VO FARMS OF VIRGINIA, BROUGHT UP TO 1810. EXTBACTEU A5D

Ecferrcd to at Page 58 of ihc Beport of Ihe AgrioAurai Surrey of SmUk-CaroUn

prince George Cmmty.

James B. Cocke,

John B. Bland,

Edff. A. Marks,

John H. Marks,

H.H.Coc]ce,

Elgin Russell,

Theodorick Bland,

Edmund Wilkins,

Wm. Wilkins,

Rd. M. Harrison,

Cog^glns' Point Parai,

King WHliam Counhj.
Wm, S. Fontaine,

Thomas Robinson,

Tliomas Carter,

Surry Count ij.

Boiling Jones,

Wm. C.Jones,

P. T. Sprailey,

James City County.
H. E. M. Richardson, ....

Pommikcy River lain Inndi
'/ ^TCi)i-$and marls, (c.)

II. F. Wickham,

Edmund F. Wickham, .
Corbin Braxton,

1827
1827

1827

1830

1834-5

1833

1834

Before .Added

170 ( 100

200
540

•200 I
800 i .

Q-uantity

of Land

Marled by

1840.

General strength of Marl pei
Lime.

2G («) to 30,

50, (i)

■15 to 50, {b). (Same pits), ,

.GO,

25 to 50,

. 70 45 to ;
. 125 iSO, . .

57, (a).

40, {a) .

50 to 60 carb. of Hi

65,

45 10 50,

40 carb. of lime, and 8 to 22 of i

i-sand, ((z) .

(Same as above), ,

' " carb. of lime, and 20 to 30 green-sand,

18 1-2 to 36 carb. of lime ; 6 1-2 to 20 green-
s^nd,(«)

400 to 1830—300 s
400 to 1830—300 s
}0 on poorer, 300
; 200 on old, 400

350,.

jn poort,

300,

250 to 300. . .

Usual quantiii^s aoDlied RoUition or course of cropping, and wheiher exhausting, merel* prestrvauve
^ " HP ■ of the tlien productive power, or meliorating (if witht^ut the adddion of Marl).

,500

to COO formerly— |
300 to 400, j

;450 to chiypy— 200
sandy land,

150 to 200, .
600 al first,

to 300, .
150 to 250, ,
250 to 500, ,

800 generally,

Preservative : threc-shill

[\lly exhausting ; then rented land.
Presen-ative ; three shifts and no grazing,

Exhausting,

Vciy exhausting; tlirec shifts and grazing,

Very exhausting,

Very ejchausiing,

Very exhausting,

Exhausting,

ting; three shifts and grazing,.

Meliorating — after early and great J
pvcviuus exhaustion; the mild four- >
shift rotation, without grazing, }

(Very exhausting; two shifts (1st, )
? Corn ; 2d, Wheat, or Oats, and S

^grazed,) )

Exhausting^ three shifts and gi'azing, .. .
Exhausting ; three shifts and grazing, . . .

Exhausting,

Exhausting,

Mcliorutiug ; three shifts without grazing.

Exhansling; three shifts and gr;

C Meliorating. Same with iJlover, and ]
) afterwards il^e mild fou^shift rota- 1
(tion, ]

£ Meliorating. Three shifts with CIo- j

\ ver, not grnzi;d, j

1 Preservative, or meliorating gcncnd- .
/ ly. Three shifts witliout grazbg; ]

f pai'tly severer liilage, '

Barely preser^-ative, ,'

( Preservative ; three shifts and no \

Exhausting ; tlu'ee sliifis find rest \

only recent, in last frw- year*, j

Meliorating; lliree shifts, Clover and |

no grazing, j

Barely preservative; three shifts and J

but little grazing, J

Meliorating ; tliree shifts with Clover, j

very slight grazing, \

Ittelioratin*,

( Meliorating— miid 4-8hift, with CIo- 1
} ver recently. Latterly, some graz- j
f ing, and also severer cropping, '

( Meliorajiug; three shifts, willi CIo- j

\ ver, not grazed j

5 Meliorating: three shifts, and not]
ignized \

Meliorating, -'

MeUoratmg,

Meliorating; titcc slufts with Clover,.

Four shifts. First,
Wheat J third, Clove

Wheat,

Same as the aWc, —

Melinrating,

Meliorating,

)rn ; second, 1
and foiutli >

-r ^ IMI IS Kl T

I'.XTRAfTEU AND COXDEX!«ED PROM THE MORE EXTENDED REPORTS IJf THE FARMERS' REGISTER.

rai Sunev of Soulk-CaroUm.

ing, merelk- pi-eaervative
ut llie additon of Marl).

ler Mailinj.

^

Three sliifts Willi CIo-

vn ; liiree sliifts and j
e shifts willi Clover, <

■mild 4-slHfi, wiih Clo-

Lfttierly, some graz-

aeverer cropping: _

three shifts, with Clo- j

d, <

three shifts, niid not j

or some years — siiioe (

Fii-sl, Com; spco
Clover; an.l fou

n

Increase per cent, of first
Crops after Marling.

Iboul 100 pel

Present rate (1840) of
increase on previous

{ 1840.

: Nearly 100 on better land ;

Oldest, 200 to 300, . . . .

Increased invaria- >
bly ; least on poorest >
land, 3

lOO and less,

14)0 on old land ; 30 c

35)

150,

Small addition, ....
V Continued addit
\ evident,

Gradual i

30 on rich neutral soil ; \

75 on acid soil j

; 30 to 40 on best land; 1001
I and more on poorer, ... J

50 on new land ; 80 to
120on old and acid sandy
land, much less on clays,

lOtoSOonpoorstifl'clay;
50 to 6(j on sandy

300 to 400,

Perliaps 50 additit

200 to 400 on acid,
and less on neutral
soils,

Increased considerably,

to 100,

to GO; on acid land, 100, .

eptonColl

great benefit,"

light,

100 to 200

Increased constantly.
More,

5 to 7 1-2, .

10 J20, ....

10 to 13, .'as to 27,

22, .

( 10 generally, 30 > >g,,
lonf0aeres,^.'...5f>-

.'15,

)

9, ,19 1-3

s

8 :20, ...

15 to 17 1-
15 to 20, .

15,

,30 to 40,
'30 to 35,

4 bushels per acrcy '8 to 10 per acre. .

121 actual average, '500,
350, '700,

3 per a

Average Crops of Wheat.

Bushels.

150 to 200, ',600 to 900,

0, (<.).

^2500, (c) . .
8 per acre, .

300,

G37actualav,
rage for 6 yr

, GOO,

'.1800,QI).

No Wheat'jCultivated.
Full 50 per cent. (general inci

Present value of;Present increas
;d average an-
nual value of
gross products
of the Farm.

age product of
Crops pe

.$6 6G,,

«6 CG,.
66,.

S3,....

m 50,.

,f3 50,.

$3 50,

.$1100.
. . S73fi,

....S700.
. Doubled,

EXPLAXA TOR Y .\0 TliS.

(a. a.) Thestrcngtli of tlie marls thus marked,
detennined by specimens cavefidly selccteil, and
analyzed by myself

{It. b.) The strengUi inferred by comparison with
others of tlie neighborhood, of similar appear-
ance and known quality. All others estimated
by the suppositious of the several proprietors.
Such estimates, whether made by guess, or by
applying correct analyses of parliadar apidviciht
to general operations," very frequently err in mak-
ing the average of the marl seem richer than is

(c. c.) In No. 7, die estimate of Wheat product
was for only the crop of 115 acres — there being

1 more lit to put in Wlieat before marling.

(//.) No. 11 was marled by the reporter, and held
by him until the end of 1838; since then, partly
owned and entirely occupied and managed liy his
eldest son. Tlie above estimate of the avernge
productive power of this farm in Wheat (staled m
1840) was much too low; as the crops actually
produced in that and the subsequent years were
as follows: 1942 bushels in 1840; 2-175 in 1841 ;
33T7 in 1843; and 4725 in 1843. It should be
stated however that the last crop (1843) was on the
heat Wheat land offered in the course of the rota-
tion ; and further, tliat tlie season for Wheat was
the best ever known. It is probable ijiat most of
the foregoing estimates of the productive powers
of farms in Wheat were also too low ; and for the
same cause of error, that is, the occurrence of a se-
ries of bad Wheat crops for some years preceding
1840. ' y i &

(e.) Much the greater proportion of land of tiic
preceding 18 farms (exec pting No. 7, and of each
one,) was ari'f soil, of inferior quality and mostly
santly. The following four fanns were naturally
rich and ^lentral soil, such as shows but litde im-
mediate benefit from calcireous manures. These
would have shown much less, but for the large
proportion of gi*een-sand with the Pantunkey

To the facts apne
it should be added that "all tl

the foi

■ Table,

M „,ll l„

fear of any tiir her demnamon ihenof. f licy also
all maintain that putrescent manures are much
more elTicacious and profitable on mailed land
than they were on the same bi-fi.re niarlljiL'— either

because of greater earlv eff'-,'!, 1, '' i,.''tli'\'. or

both together. Further. 11, mI ,; Iivi-

duals, (and all who could III ,; I . , -; as

thereupon,) declared from ili n , ,, r , iind

observation their entire conearrenec- in the sup-
posed manner of action of nmrl, and the actual re-
sults slated 10 he obtainable, as both had been set
I forth at laree in the " Essay on Calcareous Ma-
nures " ° 15. I! .

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 59

The Primitive Limestone Belt.

It has long been known, that limestone of excellent quality was exposed
at the Limestone Springs, in Spartanburg : and at later times, sundry other
exposures have been found, and the limestone has been quarried in several
places, for the reduction of ore at the neighboring iron furnaces ; and also
was burned to lime, to supply, at a very high price, the very small demand
for lime, for cement and other mechanical purposes. It is but lately that
the number of natural exposures of limestone ascertained, have made it seem
probable, not only that the limestone forms a continuous and connected
narrow beh across the State, but further, that the limestone may be succdss-
fully sought in many other places than it has yet been seen in its ap-
parent course.

Extending from the nearest similar exposure in North Carolina, this
stripe of limestone enters South Carolina in York, a little west of King's
Mountain, and is first seen on one of the upper forks of King's Creek.
Thence it is seen exposed in almost every valley in the course of the line,
and at distances apart, from a few hundred yards to two miles. On the fol-
lowing plantations are presented exposures in York ; commencing near
the North Carolina line, first on Hamright's land, and thence, in order, on
the lands of Etter, Whesant, Wilson, Bird, Harden, W. Black, Hauser, the
King's Mountain Iron Company, (two localities,) and the South Carolina
Iron Company, on Broad river, and just above their iron works. Next,
across Broad river, and in Spartanburg, on the lands of Stacey, the South
Carolina Company, (two places,) Limestone Springs, Oiterson and Wat-
kins ; and on Thompson's plantation, on Pacolet river, about 2 miles below
the Hurricane Shoals. The last named exposure only was artificial, it
having been reached in the digging of a well; and this is the extreme limit
of the limestone in Spartanburg yet known, though the Pacolet Springs and
Cedar Springs, both further on, are of limestone water, which would indi-
cate the stone to be th^re accessible, if dug for.

Throughout this line, there prevails a general uniformity of the appear-
ance and character of the limestone. It is seen protruding above the surface
of the earth only in bottoms, and only in a few and but slightly elevated
masses, before excavations are made, which have generally shewn the stone
to rise much higher and abruptly in the neighboring hill sides, and abun-
dant in accessible and available quality. Though seen only in the valleys,
still it is not because the limestone preserves any thing like an equal eleva-
tion. On the contrary, the limestone at one exposure between King's
Mountain and Broad river, (though in a valley,)* is fully 350 feet perpen-
dicular, higher than elsewhere, in another deeper valley within a few
miles* The stratification of the limestone is seen generally greatly in-
clined, and very different in degree, and also in direction. It is in some
places almost vertical, and at others, though rarely, nearly horizontal. The
color is generally blueish gray. At the Limestone Springs, part is white.
The stone is mostly nearly free from any admixtures worth consideration,

♦ This fact is known from the running and levelling of one of the experimental lines of
survey, for the designed (and fortunately abortive,) Cincinnalti and Charleston Rail
Road.

60

AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

as effecting the quality — ^unless perhaps it be of magnesia, of which the
proportion has not yet been determined ; and if known, it is a disputed
point, whether its presence detracts any value jrom lime, either for cement
or for manure, The formation is primitive ; it has the ordinary hardness
and texture of compact limestone. The gram is sometimes close, and the
fracture dull — but in others, highly and beautifully crystalline.

Proceeding in the same course, and after a wide interval of about 36
miles, in which no limestone has yet been found, the next exposures known
are in Laurens district, on the south side of the south fork ofRaiburn's
Creek, and are seen from one and a quarter to one and three quarter miles
above the junction of that with the north fork. There are several different
exposures within the limits of half a mile along the course of the creek, and
indicating a visible width of the limestone belt, at this place, of several hun-
dred yards. This is on the land of Mr. J. Garlington, and 9 miles from
Laurensville, in a direction south of west. The existence of limestone here
has not been long known. A kiln has been erected within the past year,
and the business of burning lime for sale commenced.

The next known exposure was made accidentally some years ago, by
the digging of a well, on the highest ridge land, south of and next to Reedy
river, and about 5 miles from the last named locality. At 64 feet deep, a
peculiar rock was reached, and quarried by blasting, and excavated and
drawn up for some considerable depth. It was not then suspected to be
limestone, but is now known to be such, by compari.'^on with the neighbor-
ing limestone very recently discovered. These are, first, on Waite's and
Clardy's lands, along a branch of Walnut creek, which is a mill stream,
emptying into the Saluda, and about 1 1-2 to 2 miles from that river ; and
next on Barmore's land, about half a mile from the Saluda, and about a
mile above Pinson's ford across that river, and rather more above the mouth
of Turkey Creek, — and which last exposure is the extreme soutn-western
limit of this range of limestone, so far as yet traced in South Carolina.*

The limestone quarried on Raiburn's creek, exhibits great difference of
quality. A part is so impure that it makes a very poor lime, cind is no
longer burnt, since its character has been ascertained by that costly mode
of trial. There is, however, an abundance, of good quality — a pale blue
crystalline stone, with very little of any foreign matter intermi-xed. But
the stone exposed on Waite's and Clardy's lands and on Barmore's, is very
pure, and indeed is, so far as seen, a beautiful white crystalline marble.
The natural exposures at the latter place, are seen not more than 40 yards
in extent ; at the former, for more than 100 yards, and where highest, the
limestone is seen 10 feet above the bottom in which it rises, which height
is much greater than was exposed naturally at Garlington's, and at other

* The following statement will serve as evidence of the slight value as yet attached to
limestone, even at nearly the exposure most advanced towards a country and a market
destitute of lime, and therefore in the most vahjable position to command purchasers.
When examining the limestone on Clardy^s land, (whioii is in fact a beautiful crystal-
lyzed white marble, as well as bein " excellent limestone, for cement and manure,) I
heard that the small tract of land containing it was then advertised for sale at public
auction, for the purpose of division among heirs. It has since been sold; and in com-
pliance with my request, a gentleman of the neighborhood has written to inform me of
the result, in the following words: "The land brought a small fraction ovei $4 per acre.
Attention was particularly directed to the limestone on it j but the land did not bring a
cent more on that account."

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 61

places, where excavations for quarrying have shown the stone to rise high
and to be abundant and easy of access.

The course of the line of limestone, as marked on the annexed map of the
State, proceeding from the north, is, first, nearly south-west, and becoming
more southerly in Laurens, and approaching its southern known extreme.
The whole line forms a gentle and nearly regular curve. If future inves-
tigations should prove that the two remote parts of the limestone do not be-
long to the same range, (as supposed above,) but to two distinct and separate
ranges, then the southern continuation of the Spartanburg limestone would
probably pass somewhere under Greenville and Anderson districts, and the
northern extension of the Laurens limestone through Union, and perhaps
Chester. In either case, the Laurens range must, if continued, pass under
Abbeville. And if persons who are intimately acquainted with the features
of the ground, would carefully search for the limestone in the course of the
lines designated above, and especially in places near the farthest extended
known exposures, it is probable that in a short time there would be dis-
covered twice as many exposures, and much more than double the extent
of lime now known. With the necessary local knowledge, the examiner
should proceed in the supposed line of direction, and examine the rocks
showing in every deep valley, and especially crossing the beds of rivers
and smaller streams. The touching with acid is much the easiest, and
also the surest mode of distinguishing limestone from all other hard rocks.

There is another narrow belt of limestone, extendingfrom Habersham in
Georgia, and exposed in Pickens district, near the out-let ofBrasstown
creek, into the Toogoloo, (or main branch of the Savannah,) and also,
about 12 miles distant, near to and north ofthe Chauga river. Taking these
two points as indicating the course of the line, it is nearly north-east and
south-west; or something like parallel to the supposed general course of
the lower range of limestone, and also, to that of the Blue Ridge mountains.
Some lime has been -burnt ofthe Pickens stone, but very little use made of
it for any purpose ; for which neglect the high price offers a sufficient,
though not the only operating cause.

Even though the limestone of the upper districts should not be exposed
and found available in more places than it is now known, still it off< rs im-
mense benefit to the aofriculture ofthe surroundinq- country. But to reach
this end, and to produce any important benefit to the sellers as well as to
the buyers of lime, two new conditions must exist, which will mutually
sustain and give value to each other. These are, a greatly reduced price
for the lime, and a greatly increased demand and consumption. While the
lime sells, as now, from 25 cents to 40 cents the bushel, there will never be
enough consumption to make the business of burning lime worth much.
But if it sold at 10 cents, which price, a constant and certain and large de-
mand would make abundantly profitable, the lime would be conveyed for
manure, 20 miles by land-carriage, and much further by aid ofthe intersec-
ting navigable rivers — making a business of great profit to both sellers and
buyers, and of great and permanent improvement to a large space of terri-
tory.

These statements vary so much from existing prices and prevailing-
opinions in South Cjrolina, that it is proper to accompany them with some
evidence — which will be done as concisely as the occasion requires. The

62 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

facts which will be adduced, are such as have been hastily gathered, where
but few authorities and sources of information could be referred to, and
therefore, as proof, they probably are not the most full. Nevertheless, they
will be ample for my purpose. Professor Low, (in his Elements of Agri-
culture,) states the price of lime, (unslaked, as is always understood, when
not stated otherwise,) in the borders of England and Scotland, to be three
pence sterling the bushel, or about 6 cents. The only statement of price
in France I have seen, is in the excellent and elaborate treatise of Harren-
fratz.* It is there mentioned incidentally, that at Barres the price was 8
to 10 sous, which is about as many cents. In that country, fuel is enor-
mously dear. In Ireland, as I have learned severally from two very intel-
ligent and observant gentlemen from that country, the price of lime is 6
pence per barrel, (of 4 bushels,) and the charge for burning the stone
brought to the kiln is 2 1-2 pence the barrel. The latest European autho-
rity that I have, is in Johnson's Farmer's Encyclopedia, just published in
this country, which states so low a price for lime, that I prefer to quote the
whole passage. The author says, (in the article " Lime.") "The price of
fuel, and readiness of access to the limestone or chalk, of necessity, governs
the price of lime ; in some districts of the north [of England] it is made by
the farmers for not more than one penny to three half pence the bushel."
In Lancaster, Pa., lime is sold at the kilns at 12 1-2 cents, where fuel is high.
Excellent lime is brought in large quantities, slaked, and the vessels loaded
in bulk, from the Schuylkill and the Hudson, to James river in Virginia, and
sold to the farmers by the cargo, and upon previous contract, at 9, 8, and
even as low as 7 cents the bushel — the last named price being for a very
large contract, within my knowledge, recentlj'- made. As stone lime, if
good, gains at least 100 per cent in bulk by being slaked, and converted
from compact stone to impalpable powder, these prices for slacked lime
should be doubled, for the proper mode of estimate ; and which shows that
lime may be and is continually brought from 5 or 600 miles, and by sea,
and sold at prices equivalent to 16 and even as low as 14 cents the bushel.
Now, even if we had no facts nearer home than these, it would be mani-
fest that lime may be burnt as easily in South Carolina as elsewhere, and
sold cheaper than the highest of these prices, and not much dearer than the
lowest. For if labor be higher here than in Europe, and more labor be re-
quired for removing earth and blasting, on the other hand fuel is much
cheaper, and (as yet) so is the land containing the lime-stone. But I have
more satisfactory proof, in estimates and facts obtained in regard to the very
lime under consideration. At the Limestone Springs, in Spartanburg,
where the stone was first discovered, and has been longest and most largely
burned for sale, the business is conducted, as every where else that it has
been attempted, with very little knowledge of the process, or economy of
means. The kiln is badly constructf^d, and there is great waste of fuel,
and of heat, and of time in burning, as well as labor in blasting the stone in
the quarry. Every part of the labor was linked and paid for at fixed rates ;
and thus the occupant, Mr. J. C. Janney, knew precisely the cost of every
charge of the kiln ; and of all which, at my request, and for this purpose,
he made the following accurate estimate and statement of actual expenses,

♦ Traite TkeoreLique ct Pratique de VArt de Ccddner la Pierre Calcaire.

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 63

for the burning of 600 bushels of lime, which is the quantity contained by
the kiln :

•' Gluanying or raisins: limestone (or blasting, breaking, and heaping,) ) ».,^ ^n

say 28 loads, of 3,2001bs, at 45 cents the load, - ^ ??12 bU

Hauling stone to the kiln (about 100 yards or less), 5 00

Filling kiln and burning, (2 men for 5 days, at S'l each), 10 00

Paid for cutting wood, 22 cords, (or price of wood ready cut), 10 90

Hauling the wood, 6 GO

S45 10."

Which is equal to 7 1-2 cents the bushel for the 600 bushels of lime, un-
slaked. Every expense is charged except the rent of quarry and kiln,
which could not be determined ; but which, in large operations, would to-
gether scarcely make half a cent more, or raise the cost to 8 cents. Thus,
if selling at 10 cents, at the kiln, and with certain and full demand, a nett
profit of 25 per cent, would be cleared, even on this very inefficient and very
costly mode of operations. And if a proper kiln were constructed, so as to
save the fuel, the heat, the time and the labor, that are now wasted, and the
quarrying were done in the best manner suitable for a large business, there
can be little doubt that the above stated expenses might be greatly re-
duced.

Among other valuable services for which I am indebted to the know-
ledge and kind aid of Mr. M. Tuomey, he vifeited and examined the lime-
kilns in Philadelphia on the Schuylkill, at my instance, and prepared ac-
curate drawings and descriptions of the best kinds there in use, which, to-
gether with all the statistics of the business, as there conducted, showing the
amount of labor, expenses, and prices, &,c., will be here annexed, for the be-
nefit of any person who may desire to commence the business oi lime-burn-
ing in South Carolina, in a proper manner for economy and profit — than
which a more profitable business can scarcely be undertaken, even if with a
view of selling lime, and for other than agricultural uses.

" The best site for a kiln will be a hill side convenient to the lime-stone quarry, or
marl deposit. In such a situation, besides the facility aftbrded for charging the kiln, the
expense of masonry will be much reduced, as little more than a breast wall will be re-
quired. This wall should present a portion of a reversed arch, the convex part being
towards the fire. This form evidently offers the gi'eatest resistance to the expansive
force of the heat from the kiln. The interior of the kiln must be lined Avith some fire-
proof material ; some varieties of sand-stone and talcose rock, where they can be pro-
cured, will furnish good substitutes for fire-brick.

" The only difficulty to be apprehended in burning hard marl with wood, is that when
the burning proceeds to a cei-tain point the stones composing "the arch are apt to crum-
ble and fall in. The most compact masses should therefore in all cases be selected for
the construction of the arch.

" Minute directions will scarcely be necessary, as prudence will dictate to eveiy man
on commencing the business of lime-burning, that an experienced hand be employed,
even at an additional expense, at least until the ordinary hands have acquired sufficient
experience.

" The stone used at the kilns in Philadelphia is the refuse from the quarries at Nor-
ristown ; it is boated down the river a distance of 17 miles, and delivered at the kilns at
85 cents per ton — which quantity. When burned, furnishes 15 busliels of [unslaked]
lime. The small coal usecf in the perpetual kilns costs S2 a ton — a ton being sufficient
to burn 100 bushels of lime. Where wood is used, 15 cords of oak-wood (which is
bought at S3 per cord) will burn 1,000 bushels. Two men are employed at a kiln at
$1 each a day. The time required to burn a charge of 1,000 bushels varies from 48
to 60 hours.

64

AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

" The cost of burning, &c., 1,000 bushels, deduced from these data, will stand thus j

Lime-stone, 66 6-lOths tons, at 85 cents, $56 61

Oak-wood, 15 cords at $"3, 45 00

Hire of 2 hands, 4 days at $1 each, 8 00

Cost of burning 1,000 bushels, $109 61

Nearly 11 cents per bushel.

" Cost of burning in the perpetual kilns, where coal is used :

Lime-stone, 66 6-lOths tons at 85 cents, i $56 61

Coal, 10 tons at $2, 20 00

Hire of 2 hands, 2 days at $1 each, 4 00

Cost of burning 1,000 bushels, $80 61

Or nearly 8 cents a bushel.

" Prices of lime delivered at the kilns :

"Wood-burned lime per bushel, 18 cents.

Coal-bvirned lime per bushel, 13 cents.

Slaked lime and ashes, 6 cents.

" The wood-burned lime is pi'efen-ed by bricklayerers and plasters, though for agri-
cultural purposes it possesses no superiority over the coal-burned.

FIGURE 1.

Scale— One-»eighth of an inch to a foot.

OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

65

FIGURE 2.

" Fig. 1 represents a front elevation of a kiln in which wood is used as fuel. C, an
iron door which is closed excepting while wood is thrown in during the burning. The
opening, or eye of the kiln, as it is called, is closed with loose stones, leaving the vent b
and the space at a open. At a the wood is thrown in.

" Fig. 2 shows a vertical section of the kiln filled and ready for firing. The arch is
commenced with small stones on the offset a a, each course projecting over the preced-
ing one, until they meet at top. Tliis part of the operation of filling requires some
skill.

" The arch requires the largest stones, which should be reserved for the pui-pose. It is
common to heap the stones above the level of the top of the kiln, as represented in the
figure. The charge for this kiln is about 1,000 bushels.

" On the top and back of the kiln an opening like a door is left for the convenience of
filling, and also for taking out the lime when burned. During the operation of burning
the opening is of couise closed."

It was not designed in the foregoing directions to indicate the best plan
for the construction of a kiln, nor the cheapest mode of burning ; but the
best and cheapest known in actual operation, where the business is con-
ducted well and on u large scale. There are doubtless more perfect plans
of kilns, though more expensive and difficuh to construct, which may be re-
ferred to, if desired, in various scientific works. Neither was it deemed ne-
cessary to describe and figure the perpetual kiln, which is doubtless the best
for very large operations, and where coal is the fuel, (or charcoal,) but for
which wood will not serve, as is believed by the Schuylkill lime-burners.
But compare these actual operations and expenses at the Philadelphia
kilns, with what is done and with what may be done in South Carolina, and
it will be obvious that lime may be burnt here much cheaper, from lime-
stone, and still more so from- marl, and mari-stone, because of the greater

66 AGRIGULTURAL SURVEY

cheapness of the materials, of fuel, and of labor, than these estimates exhibit
in regard to Philadelphia.

To offer directions for the practical application of quick-lime would be
still more difficult, and is even less called for at this time and in this report,
than in regard to marl. A few general observations, however, will be ha-
zarded, and the principal and essential rules stated briefly, for the conveni-
ence of those persons who are totall}^ unacquainted with the subject, and
may not have ready access to more full instructions in other publications.

The quantities of quick-lime applied have varied greatly in different coun--
tries; and this wide variance seems to have grown more out of the differ-
ence of cheapness or dearness of the lime, than from any sound reasoning,
or experience, or in accordance to calculations of profit. Doubtless a heavy
dressing, if not so heavy as to do harm to crop or land, must produce more
effect and increase to the acre, than a light dressing. But the abatement'
of such iucreased product in lighter limings, is by no means in proportion
to the lessening of the dressings applied. And indeed it seems that the
lighter the applications to the acre, the greater the effect, for the quantity of
lime applied. Thus, the good results experienced from unusually light
dressings, have served of late years to reduce the general amount of liming
to the acre, while the whole quantity applied has been increasing rapidly
every year, wherever the practice has been commenced. The lime used
formerly on James River in Virginia, was obtained altogether by the farm-
ers buying and burning oyster shells ; and they then usually applied to the
acre 72 bushels of burnt shells, (which required 100 bushels raw, to pro-
duce,) and which would expand to about 120 or 125 of slaked lime. But
Mr. VVm. B. Harrison, on James River, who has limed about 1,50Q
acres, in this manner principally, and with great success and profit, has
since told me that he would have profited much more for his expense if ap-
plying at first only half the quantity to the acre, and, of course, spreading
his annual amount of lime over double the space. The extent of annual
liming has been greatly increased lately on the lands bordering on James
River, and destitute of marl, because of the additional and new supply of
slaked stone-lime, brought by vessels laden in bulk, from the Schuylkill in
Pennsylvania, and Hudson in New York. This slaked lime is generally
applied at the rate of 40 bushels only to the acre, equal to 20 bushels of un-
slaked, or less, when the lime-stone is very pure ; and this quantity is
deemed by the most judicious limers as sufficient for one application, and it
is found to yield satisfactory results and good profits. In a part ot France,
La Sarthe, it is the established practice to give not quite 12 bushels of lime
to the acre, but to repeat it with every connnencem.cnt of the rotation, which
is of three years. This is equal to giving rather less than 4 bushels of lime
a year. This mode of repetition is there deemed the best, and the result?
are at any rate satisfactory. Now, according to my views, with land so
treated, a time will arrive when no more lime will be needed, and the then
maximum product of the land will never thereafter be reduced. But putting
all this theoretical expectation aside, and supposing that, for all future time,
4 bushels of lime, costing 10 cents the bushel, shall be annually given, how
small would be the cost, compared to the ordinary products and profits de-
rived from liming ! Still, it will be a very great mistake to expect from
such light applications the same results as from more heavy dre.-sings.

In whatever manner or quantity quick-lime is applied to land, it is ull-im-

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 67

portant that it shall be equally distributed over all the surface. Its condi-
tion, of being in the smallest possible state of division, and every particle of
the impalpable powder being separate and acting, is the cause why a quan-
tity of lime so much smaller than of marl will show appreciable early effects.
But if the qniclc-lime be suffered to get wet in mass, before being completely
separated and mingled with the soil, it forms a mortar, and unites and hardens
in lumps : which condition, no matter how small the lumps, is a return to
something like the former state of lime-stone. These lumps will not be en-
tirely reduced for a long time ; and will therefore produce but slight early
effect as manure.

To make sure of the equal diffusion of the lime, and with greater ease, it
should be given to land already ploughed for some tillage crop, as corn or
cotton. If previously slaked, a measured quantity (say a peck, or half a
bushel,) should be deposited in the middle of a marked square, of such size
as will serve to give to each acre the quantity of lime designed. The lime
should be spread as speedily as possible after being thus dropped, carefully
and equally, and each heap over its allotted and marked space. And as
soon as enough ground is so spread, square harrows, each with 20 or more
straight and sharp tines or teeth, should be driven over the land, once or of-
tener, so as to w^ell mix the lime and surface soil. The lime is then safe ;
and the subsequent tillage of the crop will mix it thoroughly with the soil,
and to sufficient depth.

When the lime is received before being slaked, as is usual, and ought to
be preferred, the heaps of burnt shells (or lime-stone) ought to be put out as
above directed, of sizes and at distances determined by the quantity desired to
the acre. As fast as the unslaked lime is thus deposited, each heap is well
covered over by enough of the surrounding ploughed soil, drawn over it by
a broad hoe : which is easily and quickly done. This covering of earth,
by its moisture in the dr3^est weather, soon causes the lime to slake ; and
will serve also to protect the lime from the heaviest fall of rain, w^hich other-
wise would conveit it first to mortar, and next to stone. As soon as the
heaps are slaked, and the earth is in good order for working, the heaps
are to be chopped down, the lime and soil which composed them thus well
mixed, and then the whole heap spread over its designated space. Then
the harrowing follows as in the previous case, though less of it will be re-
quired.

Where very small quantities of lime have been found most effectual, they
have been given as part of compost heaps, of which the remaining and
much larger portion is of any rich soil, peat, or swamp and pond mud, or
wood's leaves or litter. This general plan is that of Li Sarthe in Francp,
before adverted to, and also general in Normandy, and in Belgium, and
which Puvis, the author whose " Essay on Lime" furnishes the facts, deems
the best mode of application. He says — " There is first made a bed "of
earth, mould, or turf, [peat,] of a foot or thereabout in thickness. The clods
are chopped down, and then is spread over a layer of unslaked lime, of a
liectolitre [2 7-8 bushels] for 20 cubic feet of earth. Upon this iirne, there
is placed another layer of ea-'th, equal in thickness to the first, then a se-
cond layer of lime ; and then the heap is finished by a third layer of earth."
As soon as the lime is fully slaked, by the moisture of the earth, " the
heap is cut down, and well mixed ; and this operation is repeated after-
wards before using the manure, which is d(daycd as long as possible, be-
cause the power of the effect on the soil is increased with the age of tho

68 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

compost, and especially if it has been made with earth containing much ve-
getable mould."* It may not be unnecessary to state that there should not
any animal excrement be permitted to enter the compost heap, as such high-
ly putrescent matter would be damaged by the co itact and decomposing ac-
tion of caustic lim.e,

I have had no personal or experimental knowlege of the effects of this
practice ; nor had I heard of any one having followed the directions of the
French author and the recommendation of his translator until this ^rear and
in this State. When in Sumter I was informed that Mr. Peter Mellett, a
judicious planter not long since deceased, having read the article above
quoted from, determined to try the plan. Though not far distant from the
rich marl and marl-stone at and near Vance's ferry, it was not then
known that there were the cheapest sources of supply ; and knowing of no
better mode, he thereafter bought northern lime in Charleston, at such
price as it happened to bear whenever his cotton was wagoned to market,
(generally from $1 25 to $1 50 the cask of about 3 bushels) ; and as re-
turn loads, the lime was thus brought to him by 90 miles land-carriage, in-
cluding the expensive ferriage over the Santee. With it, he formed com-
post heaps, as above described, but of which the other materials were prin-
cipally, if not entirely, of leaves and wood-land scrapings. He applied this
to his cotton land for every crop, which was every year, in such quantities
as gave only 2 1-2 bushels of lime to each acre. This course he conti-
nued, to such extent as his return loads of lime served for, until his death, 8
years after his commencement, and throughout he was well satisfied with
his results, and the manifest and great improvement produced. The death
of Mr. Mellett, and there being no person particularly acquainted with his
experiments, prevented my obtaining more precise information ; and per-
haps even whal is stated may be incorrect in the minor particulars. But
whatever may be wanting in details, there is no doubt entertained among
those persons residing in that neighborhood, of there having been very great
improvement of both crop and land thereby produced, and of good profit
made, even on this extravagant and unnecessary cost of lime. Col. James
Richardson, who was acquainted with all these general facts, was so well
satisfied with the results that he has followed the example to some extent,
and is prepared to proceed ; and though at unusual cost for lime, still at less
than the preceding operations of his neighbor. He will procure marl-stone
from across the river, and then wagon it 8 miles from the nearest accessible
landing place to his plantation, there to be burnt and then mixed in compost
heaps.

I should have been very far from recommending such small doses of
lime, and for promising any appreciable effects from them ; and still further
from recommending the obtaining lime at such enorn ous cost, in either
price or carriage. But the facts are the more interesting, on these very
grounds, and much more so because of their having occurred in South Ca-
rolina, and where they may be examined into strictly, and their truth and
value tested.

Whatever may have been the cost of this experiment of Mr. Mellett's, it
is believed by some of his most intelligent and respectable neighbors that in

♦ See Puvis's" Essay on Lime," translated in Fanners' Register, vol. Ill, commenc-
ing psige 359.

OF ROrTIT CAROLINA. 69

8 years he had thus raised land to the product of l,000lbs. of seed cotton to
the acre, which before was so excessively poor that it was supposed not ca-
pable of producing more than lOOlbs. Even when admitting this reported
fact, it may be objected, that it was not the lime, but the vegetable matter of
the compost, which produced the much greatei pa it of this wonderful in-
crease. Unquestionably it was not the lime ; for if it had been used in as
small quantity alone, it would have produced no such benefit, and probably
no perceptible effect in one year. But still it was the lime that enabled the
vegetable part of the compost so to act and so to endure. For it is the gene-
ral practice of the lower districts to apply vegetable compost, without lime,
but with the addition of some rich animal admixture, and no such durabi-
lity of effect, or extent of increase of crop, has been so produced. And such
applications cease to act and are exhausted after one or two crops ; and even
though renewed (as is common on some lands,) every crop, never shows
effects continually and greatly increasing for eight years, as did Mr. Mel-
lett's compost. In my opinion, in his case the great benefit produced was
neither by the lime nor the vegetable matter, as such ; but by the new sub-
stance (probably humate of li/ne)^ formed by the chemical combination of
the lime with a portion of the vegetable matter.

' According to the French author above quoted, and also to English autho-
rity, experience has shown that the older the compost, the better it acts as
manure. This is a strong practical proof of the correctness of my opinion
just expressed. For a considerable length of time can give no more strength
nor activity to either the lime or the vegetable matter; but it can, and it is ne-
cessary for that purpose, more effectually combine the two, and forma
new manure better than either or both the combining materials.

On the Inland and River Swamp Lands, and their Drainage

AND Embankment.

Next to the use of calcareous manures, the most important of the neglected
sources of agricultural wealth in South Carolina, is the drainage of the rich,
and now pestilential swamps which are so numerous and extensive through-
out all the lower, and part of the middle country. Indeed, though the for-
mer subject of neglect heretofore is the more important and inexcusable, be-
cause of the ease and certainty of the means of improvement which it of-
fers— drainage of the swamp lands would not be less important and valuable
if effected. For the productive and pecuniary profit to be thereby gained,
great as it would Jbe, is not to be compared in value with the blessing of im-
proved health, which would be another and sure consequence of proper and
general drainage, in addition to all the prevention of disease to be also gain-
ed by general marling and liming.

It seems to be a prevailing opinion in this country, that the thorough re-
claiming of the great swamps is impossible, because of the gre^t quantity
of water to be discharged. To enable this question to be settled decisively,
in advance of all actual operations of draining and embanking, would re-
quire thorough examinations and views by one possessing the knowldege

70 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

not only of these practical operations of agriculture, and of the nature and
value of different swamp and alluvial soils for cultivation, but also of pro-
found and varied attainments in several departments of science ; and with
all these means brought to bear on the object of investigation, there would
be further required yerrs of great physical labor, and endurance of expo-
sure, and risk of health, and even of life. In comparison with such proper
grounds for pronouncing authoritatively on the practicability and profit of
reclaiming the swamps in general, such slight and chance-made observa-
tions and inferences as mine have necessarily been, deserve not to be named.
A very general view, obtained thus imperfectly, however, will be here
submitted.

Where there is as much natural fall or grade of descent from the water
as is seen generally in the inland swamps of this State, and where the head
waters and most remote sources of supply fall within the limits of the State,
and of the general plan of reclaiming, there can scarcely be ground for
doubt that proper and easily practicable drains w^ould serve, certainly and
cheaply, compared to the value of the object, to drain the before inundated
swamps. A canal in the lowest ground, having a properly directed
course, even if but 10 feet wide and 5 feel deep, if always operating, would
gradually and regularly draw off the waters, which, obstructed as they now
are, may flood many thousands of acres. And there are but few, if indeed
any, of the larger inland swamps, of which a main canal of double this width,
at most, would not serve to remove the surplus, and heretofore, injurious
waters ; and perhaps at the same time, furnish good navigation in times of
most abundant water, if not always. And as previously adverted to, another
important advantage in many swamps, would be, that the main ccfnals would
reach the marl below, and serve to furnish it by the excavation needed
for drainage.

Nor is it left for mere theory or reasoning, in advance of facts, to sustain
this general position. A^ery many of these inland swamps, (now all return-
ed to more than their original state,) have been formerly drained and were
kept in excellent condition under rice culture. And though that is not dry
culture, and requires not the keeping t''.e land always drained, it can scarcely
be doubted that entire and complete drainage, for corn or cotton, may be
even more certainly effected, than the alternating draining and flooding ne-
cessary for rice culture. For, in the former, the object would be, by deep
and always open ditches, to get rid of the surplus water as fast as possible,
and to keep the level of the water at all times as much as possible below that
of the soil. Whereas, for rice culture, in addition to the means to be kept
ready for discharging the water, there must be also the means of command-
ing it for flooding the land deeply and frequently. The latter object and
practice is in conflict with the general principles and effective means for the
most thorough drainage, and for dry culture; and therefore the latter con-
ditions would be more easily and certainly attainable, than those necessary
for rice-culture.

The fact that very many of the large inland swamps were formerly
drained, and produced abundant rice crops, and that they have been since
abandoned, would seem proof that the making or maintaining the drain-
age was opposed by insuperable natural obstacles. The obstacles were, in-
deed, great, and they finally compelled all opposmg efforts of industry to
yield to them, in despair. The main obstacles, however, were not natural,

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 71

but legal and political. To construct and maintain a great and long exten-
ded line of drainage, requires one general or uniform plan, and the direction
by one will and effort ; or, otherwise, the wills and efforts of the many pro-
prietors to be combined as perfectly as if but of one individual. While
landed estates were so large that one man, or so few as could well combine
their efforts, could embrace an entire scheme of extensive drainage, then
such operations could be, and w-ere in many cases, effected. But when the
general division of estates inert ased greatly the number of proprietors, and
reduced to almost nothing the interest of some of them in these great works
of drainage, some such persons would naturally neglect lo perform their
part of the labor of maintenance, and next abandon it entirely: and this, by
the injury produced, would cause others to be equally neglectful, and ulti-
mately the whole of such great and valuable works were rendered useless,
and became more than ever nuisances in all respects.

There is another and very important class of swamp lands, of which the
general and profitable improvement and culture are by most persons con-
sidered even more hopeless than of the swamps last referred to. These are
the great swamps which border the larger rivers, as the Peedee, Santee and
Savannah, which have their sources far without the boundaries of South
Carolina, and bring down floods accumulated upon immense areas about
their distant head waters. It is true, that to contend with and to restrain
such floods, is a far more difficult undertaking than to open the lesser streams
and to drain the swamps on their borders. But the object is of enormous
value ; and even if not made perfectly and at all times secure, may be par-
tially effected, and enough so for great profit to the proprietors, and great
benefit to the State in general, provided a proper plan could be devised by
law, to w^hich each particular work of embanking on the same river should
be made to conform : so that instead of the construction ol one individual
operatmg to counteract the purpose of another, and of all, each construc-
tion, as completed, shall aid all others, and all the separate undertakings to-
gether compose one great work, and operate to produce one great object, by
similar and concurrent action. But to enable any such proper scheme of
embankment to be effected, either in part by one or a few adjoining- proprie-
tors, or for a much larger extent of swamp lands, the aid of legislation will
be essential. This aid ma}" be at first given only so far as to forbid any pro-
prietors by their constructions counteracting or obstructing such general
plan for embankment and drainage as the law shall have adopted and re-
quired to be conformed to in all private works. And when the value of the
great object shall be well enough understood, and the object generally de-
sired, legislation may go farther, and require and compel combined action
of proprietors in cases manifestly to their profit and benefit, as well as for
the public good. Such aid of the law, in compelling joint action of proprie-
tors of river swamps, on a general and prescribed plan of embankment and
drainage, is given by the code of Louisiana, and has been found to operate
most beneficially for every private as well as public interest. Without the
adoption of this legal polic}', the most fertile and now the most valuable lands
of Louisiana would have remained forever in their former condition of worth-
less and pestilential morass. And without the aid of similar legal policy,
the great swamp lands of South Cdrolina, whether on the great rivers or
the smaller streams, will also forever retain their present almost worthless
and decidedly injurious character.

72 agricultural survey

Cursory view of the state of Agriculture, in the lower
and middle parts of south carolina, and of the changes
and improvements therein most required.

The report of the beginning of an agricultural survey of any region,
would exhibit a strange deficiency, if omitting all notice of the general
characters of soil and of culture, of errors of management, and of the most
important and essential requisites for improving the condition and increas-
ino- the profits of agriculture. Still, I approach the treating of such sub-
jects, however slightly, with the reluctant diffidence wliich ought to accom-
pany such admitted and great deficiency of knowledge of details, on my
pait, and of opportunities for ascertaining them, which must be counted on
in one so recently an entire stranger to the country in question. My neces-
sary want of opportunity for full information, while it admonishes me to
limit my present remarks within narrow bounds, will, I trust, serve to ex-
cuse the meagreness of this portion of the report, and also, any misconcep-
tion of facts, or errors of deduction, which may, nevertheless, appear.

The lower districts of South Carolina present a general similarity of
surface, soils, and of culture, together with many particular and local difTe-
rences on each of all these points. The surface of the land is mostly level,
and of no great elevation above the tide on other navigable rivers. The
highland soil is generally sandy, yet, in many places, stiff; and still more
often than of the latter case, is the subsoil stiff and impervious to the surplus
rain water (or nearly so,) even when the soil is sandy and open. And either
naturally, or from exhausting tillage, most of the cultivated lands are poor.
There are numerous swamps, large or small, intersecting the uplands ; and
though of the highest order of fertility, and capable of being drained with
certainty, and with ease compared to the value of the object, these swamps
remain almost universally in the state of worthless morass, and nuisances
in every respect. Besides these "inland" swamp lands, or such as are
above the influence of tide, there are immense tracts of salt tide marshes,
made no use of except for grazing, and a much smaller extent of fresh-
water marshes. The latter class, though mu:h less in quantity on every
river than either the salt marshes or the swamp margins above tide, fur-
nishes nearly all the rice lands of South Carolina, and the annual products
of that valuable crop, which are almost incredible, from the very small
space which serves to yield such an amount. As more full and particular
observations will be elsewhere presented in regard to rice lands and rice
culture, and as swamp lands, in general, have been under consideration,
no more will be added here on these heads; and the further remarks will
have reference to uplands only, and their culture.

Since indigo ceased to be the general and great market crop of South
Carolina, cotton has become the almost universal market crop, in highland,
in all South Carolina, except the range of elevated and hilly districts nearest
the moimtains. So little of wheat, oats or rye, is made in the lower coun-
try, that they scarcely deserve to be mentioned as parts of general cukure.
The soil or climate, or both, are deemed, (and correctly,) unfavorabc to all
these small-grain crops. Corn, with field peas and sweet potatoes, consti-
tute the other great subjects of tillage in this region, of next importance to
cotton. But of thes-e "provision crops," nothing is raised for market, or for
other than consumption on the plantations producing them. And very

OP SOUTH CAROLINA. 73

many of the cotton planters, (and also rice planters) buy more or less o^
their provisions every year, from importations of corn from Virginia and
North Carolina ; and in some cases, buy hay from New England. The
supplies of pork are still more generally bought from Kentucky and other
Western States. And as the country is thus partially supplied with such
provisions from abroad, it must be readily inferred, (as is the fact,) that the
population of the city of Charleston depend almost entirely on foreign sup-
plies, for corn, hay and pork. Northern and (in some cases) European
hay, is even carried up to supply Augusta and Columbia, along rivers
which flow through swamps covered with natural grass, so rank and luxu-
riant as to be almost impenetrable. Indeed, some of the greatest objections
to the land and air of lower South Carolina, (their humidity) serve to ren-
der the production of grass the more certain ; and few countries possess
greater natural facilities, or which are more improvable by industry, for
producing in abundance, grass, hay and live-stock, and their products of
meat, milk and butter, all of which are now so deplorably deficient.

It is a common opinion, that the cultivation of rice and cotto'i is
much more profitable than that of corn and other provisions, and that those
planters having good lands for the former, can better afford to raise them,
and buy provisions in part, or corn, sometimes, entirely. This opinion
seems to me erronious, almost without exception. It seems next to impos-
sible, that there can exist any where, a truly thriving agricultural class,
which, as a regular system, buys, instead of raising, the necessary and most
important articles of food. Such a system, pursued by the proprietors of
rich rice and cotton lands, may indeed present large inc'omes of money for
crops sold ; and it may minister to encourage great luxury and expenditure.
But it will be apt also to induce a pinching measure of the plain and solid
comforts, and even in respect to necessary wants, and a scant provision of
proper supplies of aliment to man and beast, and also to the land. A tho-
rough reform on this head, to be produced by the sufficient diminution of
each individual's rice and cotton culture, and substitution of extended corn,
and other provision culture, and grass and stock raising in general, is essen-
tial to the permanent, solid, and agricultural prosperity of the State.

Besides the error of practice, which grows out of the former state of de-
mand and supply, principally, there are other errors of cultivation, simply,
which would be faults, without regard to the balance of demand and supply.
Of these the two most important have been already treated of, and need no
more to be enlarged upon^ viz. the heretofore general neglect of the use of
the abundant calcareous manures, and the general neglect of draining in-
land and river swamps — which latter neglect, I will only here remark, is
the more surprising, inasmuch as it is exhibited in the same region, and
often in the same neighborhood, where there is the most extensive, elabo-
rate, and perfect system of embankment, drainage and culture, exhibited in
the rice culture of the tide-swamp lands.

Some other of the more important and general defects of agriculture, in the
lower and middle districts especially, will now be mentioned ; and first, the
frequent and continual cropping of the fields, without the intervention of rest,
or of meliorating crops which enable the fields to be manured by their own
growtli.

In maintaining the benefit and necessity of renting arable land from the
continued bearing of exhausting crops, I do not mean that land becomes

n

74 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

weary of producing, and requires a cessation of all such efforts, so as to liarg
its powers re-created, as a tired and over-worked animal needs a temporary
cessation of all muscular exertion. I do not know that this absurd doctrine
was ever maintained by any one ; and if it has been, it must have been by
those who, like others who have argued against resting land, in this sense^
were not practical, but mere theoretical and closet agriculturists.

Land has an unceasing tendency to produce as much vegetation as it has
power, under existing circumstances, to bear ; and if not cultivated, will
always so produce of such weeds as there may be seeds or roots of in the
soil. And what I mean and advocate as " resting," is not the cessation of
production, (even if that were possible) but the temporary intermission of
the more exhaustiug crops, and substitution of some others less exhausting
in their growth, and rendered absolutely meliorating or enriching to the
land, by being suffered, either wholly or partly, tc die and remain on the
ground, and thus to serve as manure. All vegetable products, if removed
entirely from the land producing them, must be exhausting, though in vari-
ous degress ; and all, if suffered to remain there, must be more or less impro-
ving to the fertility of the soil. But there is great difference in different
plants as to the comparative amounts which they draw from the land in
growing ; and also in what they give to it by their death and decay on the
place where they grow. And it is by judiciously choosing among different
kinds of plants, and using for meliorating or manuring crops, those which
will give most to the land for the least expense, that the cultivator will most
improve his land and his nett profits, by what I call the giving rest to his
fields from continued exhaustion.

If plants drew all their sustenance from the soil, and (as a necessary con-
sequence) by their death and decay gave back to the land no more than they
previously drew from it to sustain their growth, then no such entire process
of growth and decay could increase the fertility of the soil, and it would re-
quire the return of the whole of every vegetable crop or product to the land,
to keep it barely stationary in productive power, and prevent absolute dimi-
nution and finally entire destruction of fertility. But. all growing plants
derive more or less of their food and support (and ahvays in large propor-
tion, though very unequal in different plants,) from the inexhaustible sup-
plies offered by the atmosphere. If then the crop is removed, so much of
its bulk as was derived from the atmosphere has been obtained without in-
jury to the soil — which has suffered only the usually much smaller loss of
what was drawn from the earth. And if all the growth be given back to
the land, then the improvement exceeds the previous draught by the whole
amount of the much larger bulk and manuring value derived from the at-
mosphere. But for the abundance of this beautiful provision of nature, most
soils would be exhausted by a few years of ordinary tillage ; and the im-
poverishment so produced could never be remedied, except by an almost im-
possible supply of putrescent manure from foreign sources.

Much the larger part of the bulk and weight of every vegetable is proba-
bly thus derived from the atmosphere. Still, crops vary greatly in their ex-
hausting powers, if removed from the land, and also in their manuring
values and powers, if suffered to remain and decay there. As a general
rule, the broad leaved plants, and especially all of the pea tribe, draw the
most largely from the atmosphere, and the least in comparison from the
land; and hence all these plants are the most improving as resliiigox ma-
nuring crops. On the other hand, the narrow leaved and .grain-bearing

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 75

plants, (as corn, wheat, rye, Asc.) draw the least from the atmosphere com-
pared to the amount they draw from the soil, and therefore are the most de-
structive of fertility when entirely removed, and would be the least impro-
ving, even if suffered to remain, in Avhole or m. part, for manure.

According to the general principles here set forth, when a field is suffer-
ed to rest a year, and cover itself with a growth of natural and volunteer
weeds, all of which die and decay on the ground, the clear gain to the land,
of newly created productive power, is just as much as the weeds drew from
the atmosphere. Such a manuring crop, on land much worn and poor,
will indeed be but light. But its great recommendation is that it costs no-
thing to produce it, either for seed or labor ; and on a very large scale, and
for lands greatly exhausted, this manuring by the natural growth of weeds
is the chiefest and most efficient mode of obtaining and applying vegetable
manures. On such lands, artificial and far more generous manuring crops,
as field peas and red clover, would not produce enough to pay for the cost
of the labor and seed necessary to be given. And even if the natural growth
were but small in comparison to these latter, its product is all clear gain.

But on land already in good productive condition, or after being raised
to that condition, and capable of yielding good crops, it would be much
more economical to subject nature to art, and to compel the land to produce
the most fertilizing, and also cleansing, manuring crops, such as field peas,
or red clover, where the latter can be well grown ; and it may be expected
to grow well wherever the land has been well marled or limed. For the
superior value of such crops over natural weeds, both as manure and for
the purpose of cleansing the land of weeds and of insects, is much more than
will compensate for the requisite and greater cost. And though such rest,
under meliorating crops, is a necessary and profitable practice for all lands,
it is not necessary in the same measure. For the richer that land is made
by proper and sufficiently mild treatment at first, the less time for rest will
it subsequently need, in proportion to its time under exhausting crops. For
one year under good peas or clover, may serve to give to the land in good
productive condition as much manure as will sustain it under three or four
succeeding and more or less exhausting crops. Whereas, on the same land
before being so improved, and while in its most exhausted state, two years
of rest and of natural growth to one of exhausting tillage, might have been
necessary for the first steps towards resuscitation.

Thus in regard to resting exhausted lands, to such extent as will not
make the field too foul with perennial weeds and shrubs, it should not be
considered (as it is usually) that the proprietor is losing any thing by the
intermission of an annual crop. He is merely delaying the making a
scanty draught from the field, and also avoiding the necessary labor for
that purpose, to obtain still more of product, with less average labor, at
future times. He who thus allows time and its own growth to his poor
field, is lending (in the nett value of what he might obtain from an exhaust-
ing crop,) a sun' at an enormous rate of interest, which he will receive with
his principal, but a year or two later than the earliest payment he could
have extorted.

Such is the benefit of the rest which I advocate, and of which rest there
is scarcely any given on the greater number of plantations in South Carolina,
until by continued tillage the land is so reduced as to compel its being
^' turneJi out" of culture for years together, and perhaps until it throws up a

76 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

second growth of pines, and is again cut down and cleared for tillage-.
And in this way the most incessant and exhausting planter is compelled a t
iast to give more years of rest to his fields, than he who gives rest the mo&t
frequently and regularly. For the long term of rest consequent upon the
wearing out and turning out of the field, if divided into single years, and
distributed properly among the years of production, would have served to
keep the land up to its maximum of fertility for a century, or for ever.

When advocating the more general resort to rest for the fields, I have
been constantly met by the question " Will not manuring serve without, and
in place of, rest to land?" Certainly it will, so far as giving nutriment to the
soil and to its subsequent crops, and so far as sufficient manuring shall be
given. But the latter condition is limited on ordinary plantations. All the
ordinary resources for manure offered by the offal of market crops, and the
leaves of extensive wood-land besides, with all the labor to be used in con-
verting these materials to manure that any existing plantation force can be-
stow, would not serve to supply as much prepared putrescent manure as
would be necessary to maintain unimpaired, and still more to increase, the
productive power of the fields or plantation wholly under continued and ex-
hausting crops. And though this might be done, under the different cir-
cumstances of extraordinary resources for manuring, and of extra labor de-
voted to manuring, still it would be cheaper to permit nature to aid the
general operation and result, by adding something of her rich and inex-
haustible supplies of manure from the atmosphere ; or, in other w^ords, to
let the fields in part manure themselves.

This subject is closely connected wth that of rotation of crops, which will
be now also brought into view. In general there is even less regard paid
to rotation of crops than to the resting of land. The large crops of South
Carolina, which occupy entire fields of upland, are only cotton and corn.
Next in extent and importance, in the lower districts, are sweet potatoes and
field peas, (always raised among the corn.) Except in the highest districts, the
other crops, as oats, wheat, grasses, &c. are so few and small in extent as to
scarcely deserve mentioning as parts of general culture, and as forming by
their partial interposition any thing like a system of rotation. Whether
intermediate rest be allowed to the land or not, the crop of cotton generally
succeeds cotton, and corn succeeds corn — each being kept on land deemed
the most suitable, as on the sea islands. Or if, as practised elsewhere in
some cases, one of these two crops succeeds the other on the same field, still
their tillage is so much alike, that the condition of the field is not materially
changed by such change and succession of crops.

Various reasons or theories have been advanced for that necessity for ro-
tation or change of crops, which has been established by the practical expe-
rience of all well cultivated countries, and nearly by all good practical and
experienced individual cultivators. And these theories, whether fanciful and
false, or however plausible, arc incapable of being proved, and have by their
contradictory doctrines weakened rather than sustained the general proposi-
tion of the propriety and necessity for rotation. Without asserting or oppo-
sing any of the views referred to, I will present others of more practical
character, and more open to examination, which to my mind siifliciently es-
tablish the general doctrine of the necessity of rotation of crops, and also in-
dicate the general rules which should direct the kinds ot rotation to be
adopted under all different conditions of agriculture.

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 77

The old and long prevalent theory was, that each particular crop requires, and
more or less exhausts by its growth, its specific food in the soil ; therefore, that
another kind of crop can best follow, to take up also its specific and yet still re-
maining and abundant food. A more recent and now more prevalent theory is,
that each plant rejects, and from its circulation exudes by its roots, some mat-
ters unfit for its nutriment, and which it had taken up from the soil ; and
that this excrementitious matter, though rejected by, and useless or injurious
to, the particular crop so rejecting it, is good food for other crops or kinds
of plants; and hence, by changing crops, putrescent matters which would
be useless or perhaps hurtful to the previous crop, become good nutriment
for other crops. Whether there is any truth in either or both of these
or any other reasons heretofore given for rotation, such other reasons as I
shall here offer will not be the less solid and important.

The particular condition of soil produced by the tillage or the growth of
one kind of crop, is suited as a preparation for some other kind, and is as
unsuited to some others. Hence, if considerations of profit direct that two
certain crops shall be raised on a large scale, and the cultivation of the one
serves well to prepare the land to receive the other, then it is important that
they should in that order succeed each other. Thus, if corn, and oats sown
broad-cast, were regularly raised, and without rest, and no other large crops,
there would be great advantage found in alternating them, rather than to
keep each on its own field year after year. For if alternated, the clean til-
lage for the corn would prepare well for the oats, which has no cleansing
tillage; and the cover of vegetable matter (annual weeds and natural grass,)
succeeding the oats, would, as a partial manuring, be beneficial to the suc-
ceeding corn, and would not hurt its growth by producing foulness, as the
necessary tillage process of the corn would destroy and keep down the
growth of all annual weeds. And these reasons for such alternation would
be sufficiently cogent, even if corn would grow after corn, and oats after
oats (with proper preparation.) as well as if succeeding different kinds of
plants. This rotation is not by any means referred to as one approved, but
merely for illustration.

Again — all crops suffer from different plagues of insects, and from dis-
eases, which, if they could be properly investigated, would probably be
found to proceed from unobserved or invisible insects. The great num-
ber or minute sizes of most of the injurious insects, make it impossible
to destroy them by direct means, and thus relieve the crops suffering un-
der their inflictions. The only effectual means is to prevent the great in-
crease of such insects by changing^ and as completely as possible^ the coiidi-
tion of the land from that in which they best thrive^ to another altogether
unsuitable to their natural habits and wants. And such changes, so far as
they can be produced by man, are best effected by such successions of crops
and difference of culture and cover, as will most completely change for a
time the condition as well as the products of the soil. Some kinds of insects
require, from their natural habits, not only such peculiar vegetable food as
is suitable for their sustenance, but also, dry air, exposure to sun, and a
naked and open soil, for them to penetrate easily for their own shelter, or
to bury their eggs and raise successive progenies. Such conditions arc
furnished by corn, cotton, and indeed every other upland culture of the
lower districts, and therefore, the insects to which they are favorable must
be kept alive from year to year, even if the crops be changed, and thrive

78 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

and increase whenever the crop furnishing them suitable food is on the
ground, and the more so, the longer that crop may continue to be raised
year after year in succession. Other tribes of distructive insects require a
close soil, and the shade and shelter and moisture of a completely covering
grass or other broadcast crop, as well as their suitable food to be furnished
by some of the growing plants. And the continuance of such condition of
things, without some intervening and violent change of crop and condition,
will cause the propagation and continued existence of so many of such in-
sects, that the next cultivated crop, in its young state, may be utterly des-
troyed by them. Thus, (for illustration) the clover manuring crop serves
in Virginia to furnish the best possible condition to shelter and sustain
myriads of the destructive cut worm ; and if the land be ploughed in early
spring, and corn planted, one or several successive plantings and young
growths of the corn may be destroyed by the remaining and ravenous cut-
worms, before they change to another and harmless state, (that of the
chrysalis,) preparatory to becoming winged, and propagating new broods
for the next season, and for which they require grass land.

Yet, by merely and completely changing the condition of the soil, these
insects may be rendered comparatively harmless, or be completely gotten
rid of for a particular space or time. If the clover be ploughed under ear-
ly in winter, and the subverted soil exposed to the winter's cold, the eggs
of the cut-worm, which were deposited in the earth, will be mostly destroy-
ed. This is an example of greatly changed condition. But a much more
complete and effectual remedy is found when the clover is ploughed under
in August and September, to prepare for wheat, by which a shaded and moist
condition of the soil, covered completely by a green and broad-cast crop,
is suddenly and completely changed to a naked surface of soil, open and
loose for 6 or 8 inches deep, and dried and heated by the sun. Such a con-
dition would prevent the parent moths of the cut-worm from choosing such
an unfriendly place to deposit their eggs ; or if the eggs had been before
deposited there, or the worms already hatched and eating, the great expo-
sure and change of condition would effectually destroy them. And if any
should still survive all this treatment, and also the additional exposure to
the winter's cold, the crop of wheat still would not furnish the proper food
for the worms, and they would therefore necessarily perish without doing
more injury. And either because wheat does not offer proper sustenance to
these and other insects destructive to corn, and sustained by green clover,
or because all such insects have been destroyed by the previously sudden
and complete change of condition of the soil, it is certain that the wheat fol-
lowing such process of burying clover under the subverted and bare soil,
is more free from depredating insects, from disease, from weeds, and is of
very far more vigorous and productive growth, than if following corn, or
any grain crop, and having the cleanest and best possible preparation of til-
lage:

These facts, though foreign to the present agriculture of South-Carolina,
will serve for the purpose of illustrating my general views of the benefits of
rotation of crops. Were I as familiar with or experienced in the usual
course of tillage in this State, as to its peculiar great crops, it is proba-
ble that many and as striking illustrations might be taken from the actual
condition of thinos here. Something of this I shall proceed to add, though
with more diffidence ; because never having cultivated any one crop on the

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 79

same ground in long continuation, (except cotton for a few years,) I have no
personal experience thereupon, and must rely for my facts altogether on the
information of others.

The rust of the growing cotton is one of the most general and most des-
tructive diseases to which that crop is subject. Sundry causes are alleged
for this disease, some or all of which may truly be auxiliary or even
inducing causes to the main one, which (according to my general position
before stated), I take to be the depredations of myriads of very minute in-
sects, to which the green cotton plant furnishes their best if not their pecu-
liar food. Other circumstances, of weather or soil, at different times, may
serve to increase or check, or even prevent, the depredations of these insects •
but the circumstances which increase their injurious effects could not ope-
rate, unless the insects were present. And it may be presumed that they
would not be present, or be very few in number, if the preceding crop had
not been cotton, but some other crop on which these insects could not live.
In confirmation, I understand that cotton is rarely attacked by rust, when it
does not immediately succeed cotton. The other diseases of this crop may
be ascribed to other tribes of insects ; and the means of prevention, either
partial or effectual, would be also a change of the continued succession of
cotton, and the intervention of a condition of the soil a; unlike as possible to
that under cotton culture.

Corn seems to need change of soil less than any other of the great crops ;
and the manj'- cases of success with which it has H)een raised for many
years in succession on the same fertile field, have been triumphantly addu-
ced by the opposers of rotation, as a certain and manifest proof that a chano-e
of crop is not necessary. Even if this were true, as to this particular plant,
it would not affect the general question. The hardiness and vigor of the
corn plant on a fine soil may enable it to withstand the depredations of
some of the several tribes of insects which it breeds and nourishes ; and
others (as the cut-worm, so fatal in other circumstances) may be destroyed
by the continued tillage and naked and open state of the soil. But though,
by such or other means, land may continue to produce corn in long succes-
sion much better than other crops so continued, still this is not even an ex-
ception to the general rule of the necessity for rotation. On the rich allu-
vial low grounds, subject more or less to freshes, where corn is usually the
sole and annually recurring crop, it is true that heavy growths continue to
be raised. But it is said, that in the most favorable seasons, there is a con-
siderable proportion of rotton grain, even when not exposed to or injured by
water. These entirely rotten ears are often among the largest, and the
product of flourishing stalks ; and their unsound state may not be suspected
until they are stripped of the enveloping shuck. This, and perhaps other
inflictions of such crops, must be caused by the ravages of corn-bred and
corn-sustainin2f insects. Yet this kind of land is not entirely without
change of condition. The rank cover of weeds and grass which follow the
last tillage of the corn, serves in some measure as a green shading and ma-
nuring crop. And even the inundations from freshes, which occur every
year, however injurious in other respects, produce such great change of
condition, that they may destroy or remove whole tribes of insects.

A stronger confirmation of this general position in regard to corn, T have
learned on information from the proprietor of a piece of land in A'irginia
with which I am personally acquainted. It is a large field of deep, mellow

80 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

light soil, very rich, high and level land, and so peculiarly adapted to the
growth of corn, that the proprietor thought fit to keep it under that crop
every year. It was so cultivated for 13 years in succession ; peas being
planted with every crop, which, with such supplies as were afforded of
other manure, maintained the high fertility and product of the land. But
though the quantity of corn produced was not perceptibly reduced, the rot-
ten portion, (and rotten without any apparent cause,) continued to increase, "
until it reached so large a proportion of the whole product, and the evil was
of so regular occurence, that this peculiar mode of cultivation was from ne-
cessity abandoned, and the ordinary previous plan of rotation was resumed.

But besides this important consideration, of certain tribes of destructive
insects being sustained by some certain condition, and still more by the in-
creased continued same condition of a field, and destroyed by a thorough
change of that condition, such changes are better for the more complete era-
dication of some of the worst weeds, and still more for the better product of
the cultivated crops. Ploughing or stirring the soil, however necessary to
be well done while the growth of a crop needs it, is hurtful to general pro-
duction, if continued year after year, without cessation. Perhaps the growth
of all crops may require intervals of rest and consolidation of the soil; and
it is certain that some crops, which prefer a soil of firm and close texture,
(as clover and wheat,) cannot be as successfully raised upon soils kept long
before under tillage and hoed crops.

And while for some purposes of tillage or product, there may be required
a partial consolidation of soil, others maybe best forwarded by very deep and
thorough working. And two crops which are peculiarly favored by the
climpte of South Carolina, and which are among the many great blessings
of this region, serve admirably for these opposite purposes. These are
field peas and sweet potatoes, which crops, extended as may be their culture
already, and great their products, have not yet been duly appreciated in re-
spect to all their benefits.

The pea crop, sown broadcast, is an admirable rest or manure crop —
giving shade, moisture, and consolidation to the soil — and serving, by the
sudden and great change of condition from any clean tillage crop, to re-
move or lessen the foulness of land, both of insect and vegetable plagues.
Such I have known in my own practice, to be the highly beneficial opera-
tion of this crop, even under the much less congenial climate of Virginia ;
and much better must it serve in South Carolina, where not only are the
climate and soil more suitable, but where the want of a crop so operating
is far greater.

The length and heat of summer in this region, greatly increases the value
of the pea crop. Being generally planted among the growing corn, and at
a late period of its growth, the peas have enough time and sun to cover the
ground well, and to mature, after the corn ceases to grow or to shade the
'land. This peculiar benefit of a southern climate, in regard to peas, is gene-
rally appreciated and availed of; and in this, some approach is made to an
alternation of crops. Another and greater advantage, wherever wheat or
oats are sown, is that the hardy black or red pea may be sown with these
crops respectively, either late in autumn, or early in spring, and will often
produce a good manuring green crop after the grain crop, at no more cost
than the sowing of the peas. This process is, as yet, new, and so limited
in extent, as to be deemed merely an experiment, of which the resuh is not

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 81

fully determined. I know only of Mr. Wm. K. Davis, of Fairfield, and
Maj. J. Littlejohn, of Union, who have, for several years, made the experi-
ment, and so far successfully. And their object was not to use the seconda-
ry crop of peas, for what I deem its main value, that of being given to the
field as manure.

These hardy and thick-skinned peas, if left on or covered in the ground,
will not rot from all the cold and wet weather of winter. The danger to
be feared and guarded against, is from the occurrence of a warm spell,
which would induce sprouting, and consequently, the killing of the peas by
succeeding cold weather. The peas grow so slowly at first, as not to be in
the way of the covering grain crop ; but start rapidly as soon as the latter
has been removed. On September 1st, I saw a field of Maj. Littlejohn's,
which had borne wheat this year, and was then under a second growth of
black peas, too thin indeed, generally, but of well advanced growth, and
which promised a valuable manuring cover to the land. No seed had been
sown for this crop. It sprung entirely from the peas i^rown there the pre-
ceding year among corn, and which, though the vines were pulled up and
the crop removed as usual, from the shelled and wasted seed left on the
ground this crop was produced the succeeding year.

In the sweet potato, this country possesses a root more valuable in pro-
duct than that of any root crop of more northern climates, highly and de-
servedly as root crops are there prized. And potato culture, so far as it ex-
tends, ought to make an important and peculiarly valuable part of a gene-
ral scheme of rotation, because of the peculiar growth of the crop, and the
peculiar condition in which it puts the land. The sweet potato, though re-
ported to draw heavily upon the soil, as do all root crops, yet, as one of the
broad-leaved plants, it must draw largely from the atmosphere also ; and as
it can be so cheaply planted (by slips) and easily tilled, perhaps this plant
might even be profitably used as a manuring crop. But, even when the
roots are removed for use, and (as usual) hogs turned in to eat the remnants,
the deep growth of, and digging for the roots, also the thorough and deep
rooting by the hogs, produce a condition of deep and perfect tillage, which
is rarely attained in any other case, and might be most beneficially made
the preparation for some other crop requiring very deep ploughing and tilth
to prepare for its growth.

Perennial, or other permanent grasses, of which, doubtless, there may be
found some peculiarly suited to this warm climate, would still more serve
to give the great benefits of changed condition to the fields, independent of
the much needed benefits of grass husbandry for the feeding of live-stock,
and giving rest and manure to the land. The grasses whose value has
been fully established by long experience in more northern countries, should
be tried — not because they are from the north, (which in itself is a strong
objection,) but merely because their good qualities are known, and possibly
some of such grasses may as well suit a more southern clime. And such,
I trust, is red clover, the best of all green and manuring crops. For al-
though this was long held to belong to the north only, 1 have fully experi-
enced that its locality and the perfection of its growth are fixed much more
by peculiarity of soil than by latitude. Not more than 20 years ago it was
as general a belief in lower Virginia, as now in South Carolina, that there
the soil was too scanty and the sun too hot to raise red clover. But since
marling and iimiiig have made many of these soils calcareous, it is found

I

82 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

that neither the sandy soil nor hot and dry climate forbid the raising- e xcel-
lent and profitable crops of clover; And so hereafter it will be fou nd in
South Carolina.

It may be deemed a strange omission here that I do not recommend any
particular scheme of rotation. It could be onl^r from the presumption grow*
ing out of ignorance, had I done so. Rotations ought to vary in the length
of the course, and in the succession of crops, according to circumstances ;
and it is sufficientl}'- difficult for a person fully experienced in the existing
agriculture and general condition of any one region, to adopt there for
himself and his peculiar circumstanes the most beneficial and profitable plan
of rotation. And without such advantages of knowledge and experience in
South Carolina, all that I can presume to do is to indicate the general ob-
jects and proper principles of rotations of crops. Every planter who may
be convinced of the advantages of alternate husbandry, if keeping in view
these objects and principles, may best select such plan of rotation as will suit
his owm circumstances.

The small use made of the plough, (indeed its total disuse in many cases,)
and its substitution by the hoe and hand-labor, is, to a stranger, the most re-
markable and novel feature of the agriculture of the lovv^er districts. I will
not occupy here the time and space which would be required to an-
swer each of the many reasons which are urged by different planters in de-
fence of this practice. If, however, these reasons or any of them be valid,
then all the remainder of the w^orld, and in all ages, have been mistaken in
universally supposing the use of the plough to be one of the greatest and
most labor-saving improvements of process in tillage. And without going
farther for examples of approving opinion and practice in this respect, it is
enough to refer to the neighboring middle and upper districts of South Ca-
rolina, where the plough is used as extensively and as profitably, to save
tillage labor, as in any other country.

But while denying the force of any of the many alleged reasons given
for preferring hand hoeing to ploughing, where the latter might be substitu-
ted, it is sufficiently obvious why hand labor with the hoe should originally
have been cheaper and preferable to horse labor and the plough, in this and
in other newly settled countries ; and the continuation of the former, so long
after the original condition of things has ceased, is only to be ascribed to
the difficulty of changing old habits and yielding old prejudices..

In the upper hilly districts and elsewhere there might be urged one
strong (perhaps the strongest) objection to ploughing, which does not exist
any where in the level surface of the lower districts ; that is, the inducing
more of the destructive washing away of the soil on steep and broken lands.
Yet, notwithstanding this very serious attendant evil, no one there would
think of seeking to lessen it by abandoning the use of the plough.

The manuring operations of the planters of South Carolina have justly
commanded my admiration for their extent, and for the great amount of la-
bor regularly and generally applied to this important object ; and which
amount of labor is the more necessary, because of there being alnaost no
other means of improvement used. The general system of culture gives no
considorable article of offal of crops, either as food or litter for cattle. The
corn-stalks arc left standing in the field, and are there picked over by the
cattle ; which practice (under the generally existing circumstances) is bet-
ter than would be taking the double trouble of bringing the stalks to the

OP SOUTH CAROLINA. 83

Cattle pen for food and litter, and then carrying them out again as manure.
There is almost no straw, except on rice plantations, and where it is mostly-
thrown away. Cotton seed furnishes a very abundant and rich manure ;
but this is applied alone, without passing through the cattle pen. The
great source and material for litter is presented in the leaves raked up in
the wood-lands of the plantati' -ns. And as there is attached to most planta-
tions (other than in the sea islands) a large extent of wood-land, the supply
of this material is limited only by the labor required for its collection. The
quantity male and applied annually is so great, that it is not uncommon for
more than half the cotton (which occupies the larger space of culture of
most plantations) to be manured every year, from this material almost en-
tirely.

But then this vegetable material, however valuable for its large supply,
is very poor in quality compared to its bulk; and it is applied under the
drill, or " listed in," so as to make a small quantity go as far as possible for
immediate effect, and which, therefore, is the most transient efiect. This
mode of application is certainly preferable for the kind of manure and its
object; and still more if on naturally poor land, where all putrescent ma-
nures would last but a very short time. On Edisto island, and other sea
islands, where there is the most marked attention paid to manuring, and
the greatest quantities of manure are applied, wood-land is generally scarce,
and of course, wood's litter. There the grass of salt marshes supplies
the deficiency of litter, and the marsh mud is also applied to every acre of
cotton and for every cotton crop, besides a slight dressing of animal manure
given by running summer cow-pens over the same land. The labor given
to these different manuring operations is great, and perhaps in some cases
the cost is carried beyond the profit.

Where there is so little food for cattle furnished in the offal of crops, and
none by making hay, it follows necessarily that there can be no general
feeding of cattle in winter, and of course no confining them generally to the
pens then to obtain their manure. In many places the cane and other wild
grasses of the swamp are so abundant through winter, that cattle fare well
without any other food; and of course, under such circumstances, it is the
best economy for all cattle not required to furnish milk or labor, to be suffer-
ed to run at large. But even where this resource has failed, there is siill
no regular winter feeding in the low country ; and the condition of cattle is
miserable, and their products almost nothing, except in manure, for which
object alone large stocks are kept. As, under the circumstances stated, not
much manure can be made from cattle in winter, (the main time for the
manure harvest on grain farms, and where cattle are winter-fed,) the defi-
ciency is supplied by penning through all the summer and grass season, in
standing pens and on woods' liuer. This plan (of penning in summer, and
especially on litter, often wet and even fermenting,) however it may add to
the quantity and quality of the manure, is very injurious to the cattle; and
perhaps more so than is compensated in the additional richness they thus
give to the vegetable manure. Hence it is not uncommon for a stock of
100 head of cattle to yield to the proprietor in labor, milk, and butter, less
than would four oxen and four milch cows well fed and provided for.

The great objection to the usual plan of manuring with woods' litter,
where used in much greater quantity than required for comfortable littering
of the animals necessarily confined, is the double handling and double haul-

84 Agricultural survey

ing of so bulky and so poor a material. While applauding the greatest
available extent of collecting leaves, I would prefer applying them at tbe
least cost of labor ; and that would be, so far as the system of culture per-
mitted, by bringing them directly from the woods to the field during th^
year preceding its cultivation. This could not be done in the usual mode
of unceasing tillage. But it might be well done on land during a year of
rest, even if no other than the natural growth of weeds were to have the
first benefit — and still more if the leaves were laid over broad-cast
manure crops of field peas, immediately after harrowing in the secvl. This
opinion, as applied to this particular crop, is altogether theoretical, and in
advance of practice and experience. But I have had long and satisfactory
experience of the superior benefit of thus applying leaves and litter just
drawn from the woods, as well as all more rich or more rotten putrescent
manures, as top dressing, to clover. When thus used, rather than for til-
lage crops, there is much less trouble in making the application at first, and
also subsequently. The effect is more immediate of all the manure that is
enough rotted and soluble to act at once, or as fast as it attains that condi-
tion ; for the first rain carries down into the soil all the soluble parts, and
the roots of the broad-cast crop, being every where dispersed, immediately
take up the manure, and convert it to an increase of crop. When the coarsest
unrotted compost has been so applied, within a few days after such an ap-
plication, in the spring, if a rain has intervened, the first effect of the manure
may be plainly seen on the young growth. The" more rapid growth and
increased shade of the clover, the more it shelters and keeps moist the coarse
manure, hastens its rotting, and protects it from waste. All that was
unrotted, and would have otherwise remained hard and inert, is thus spee-
dily made fit for use, and then immediately becomes the nourishment of
the growing plants. Thus, in a few months, without any labor or risk after
the application, the woods' litter or putrescent manure is mostly converted
to a greatly increased stock of manure in a growing crop, which is then
given to the land, as manure, with all that remains unconsumed of the ap-
plied manure, to sustain the next year's and succeeding exhausting crops.
So far as woods' litter and other manure (especially if coarse and unrotted)
can be thus used as top-dressing to manuring crops, the materials used go
farther and produce most benefit. And if the materials be so abundant that
their application was previously limited only by the labor required to col-
lect and prepare them in the usual mode, then the extent of application can
be greatly increased, because less labor will serve for much larger opera-
tions. And though I know of this operation on a large scale only in re-
gard to clover, there cannot be much ground for doubt as to like benefit
being the result of like applications to any other green or manur.ng crop,
sown broad-cast, or not requiring tillage, or even to natural grass and weeds
serving as a rest and manuring crop.

Another excellent application of woods' litter (and more especially of such
as is mostly or wholly of pine leaves,) is on wheat or oats, to be spread over
the surface immediately after the seed has been harrowed in or covered.
Of course, care should be taken that the dressing is not too thick to prevent
the wheat coming up well. The cover protects the wheat from the severe
cold of winter, and the more injurious sudden changes of temperature,
as well as serving as a slight manuring to the crop, and still better to the
subsequent growth. This mode of top-dressing with woods' litter, though I

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 85

have experienced on a small scale its good effects, cannot be adopted where
wheat is a large culture, and its seeding alone requires all the labor that the
farm can furnish for the limited seed time. But where only small crops of
wheat or oats are raised, as in the middle range of districts, this practice
might be adopted generally and profitably, unless it be attended with incon-
veniences not yet made known by experience.

Remarks on the Granitic Region, embracing nearly all the
Country above the Lower Falls of the Rivers.

Though some of the foregoing remarks referred only to the lower dis-
tricts, most of them apply to the State generally. The exceptions of limit-
ed or partial application w^ere so obvious that it was unnecessary to specify
them as they occurred, more particularly than was done. I shall now refer
entirely to the middle and upper regions of the State, or to so much of the
territory as lies above the falls of the rivers.

- Nearly the whole of this large portion of South-Carolina is of granitic
formation, the soils generally being composed wholly or partially of the
disintegrated parts of granite ; which rock is exposed, or accessible by dig-
ging, more or less, in almost every neighborhood, and on most plantations,
and is found both in the soft or disintegrated and stony state. The belts of
slate, steatite or soap-stone, or talcose rocks, lime-stone, &c., present but
small exceptions to the general prevalence of granite rock and granitic
soils. Granite proper is composed of three different minerals, the parts of
each of which are mostly separate and distinct, though united in mass
to form one of the hardest rocks. These three minerals are quartz, felspar
and mica. The composition of quartz is nearly all of silex ; and its disin-
tegration, according to its degree, furnishes sand, gravel, or pebbles, all sili-
cious and extremely hard. Felspar is composed principally of silex, but
with enough alumine for the whole nn'neral to form a clay by its decompo-
sition. Besides these two constituent parts, which form much the larger por-
tion of felspar, it contains the very important manuring parts of about 14 per
cent, of potash, 2 or 3 per cent, of lime, and about I per cent, of oxide of
iron. The third usual ingredient of granite is mica (vulgarly called isin-
glass,) w^hich like felspar is principally composed of silex and alumine, and
contains also from 10 to In per cent, of potash, but no lime, and 5 to 22 per
cent, of oxide of iron — the black mica bcincr most abundant in the latter..
The proportions of these different constituent parts of neither of the three
minerals respectively, are uniformly the same , neither are the proportions
of the three minerals uniform in granite. Sometimes the quartz is more
than ordinarily predominant ; sometimes the felspar is so ; and sometimes
the mica is altogether absent, and is substituted by hornblende, a very hard
tough black or greenish rock, of which lime also and iron are very important
constitutent parts. These and other different varieties of granite rocks, all
of which approach nearly in character to granite proper, are known by dif-
ferent scientific names, (as gneiss, scenite, &c.,) with which it is not neces-
sary to encumber a report that makes no pretensions to be strictly scientific
Therefore, omitting and disregarding the different kinds and

86 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

minor distinctions of this great class of rocks, I shall comprehend all under
the general terms of granite, and granitic rocks.

From this difference of constitution, it is manifest that the soils formed by
the disintegration of granitic rocks, even if remaining in their original
place, and affected by no foreign admixture, would vary greatly in composi-
tion and character. They may, according to the predominance, and also to
the progress of disintegration, of particular ingredients, or of the scarcity or
absence of others, be either stony, sandy, or clayey — and rich when lime,
potash, and iron are most plenty, or poor if these parts are nearly want-
ing. The oxide of iron in sufficient abundance would make a red soil, and
its absence a gray soil. But still greater variations of quality have been
produced by the operation of ancient floods and violent currents, which have
shaped the surface into the existing hills and valleys, and also of more re-
cent alluvion, which has intermixed in the bottoms the washings derived
from numerous and remote and very different kinds of high-land earths and
soils of this great granite region. The powerful floods, whatever may have
been their impulse and cause, which rounded the hill tops and sloped the
hill-sides, and scooped out the existing valleys an ■ ravines, served also to
stir up for many feet in depth, and remove and suspend those vast amounts
of the disintegrated granite, which by subsequent deposition became sepa-
rate beds of red clay, and loose gray or white sand, and which are every
where found the one on the other. The causes of the superiority of certain
soils may thus be inferred from the evidence offered to the eye of the obser-
ver. For example : the red soils, containing remaining- masses of blackish
granite, are among the best of the high-lands. The blackish color of the
rock whose disintegration formed this soil, owed its tint to the intermixture
of hornblende, of which the lime and the iron added still more of value to
the other manuring ingredients of the felspar. Also : the " Isinglass
Lands," so termed, forming parts of the alluvial lands on the rivers, owe
their peculiar character and value to the potash of the finely reduced mica,
which gives the peculiar appearance, and forms so large a part of the body
of these soils.

These preliminary and general remarks are necessary to a proper con-
sideration of the soils of this great region, so various in different places and
some respects, and yet so much alike generally. Through nearly all the
countries lying above the falls of the rivers, (with the few partial excep-
tions above referred to of the presence and predominance of rocks of differ-
ent characters,) the lands have a general similarity, in surface, soil, and na-
tural growth. The surface is very broken and hilly, and the bottoms or al-
luvial borders of streams are generally narrow, and often are merely ra-
vines, excej)t on the rivers or largest water courses, where there are wide
bottom lands. The upland soil is mostly red, and still more the subsoil, but
of open texture permeable to water, and scarcely adhesive enough to be
deemed clay. Gray and even sandy soils are also seen, but more rarely.
Pine, which is almost the exclusive forest growth of the lower country, as
soon as the granite is reached begins to give place to oak more and more,
until there is scarcely any pine seen in the original forest land. Still, how-
ever, pine is the second growth of the worn-out old fields, after their being
turned out of cultivation ; but the growth is sparse and mean, showing that
the soil is not at all adapted to pine.

^ OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 87

The degrees of natural productiveness of these soils are as various as
their qualities in other respects. But generally the high lands are much
better than those of the lower pine-covered region ; and are more of medium
fertility, but little of them being either very rich, or extremely poor. The
alluvial river bottoms, as all such grounds, are of high and yet various
grades of fertility ; but none equal in richness to the alluvial swamp lands
on the rivers in the lower country.

The almost universally hilly surface of the high lands of all the granite re-
gion, and also the slight adhesion of the parts of the soil, render the lands
very liable to be washed and gullied by heavy rains. And this evil has been
greatly increased in operation by the generally injudicious ploughing, the
long succession of corn or of cotton and their clean tillage process, and the
rare occurrence of broad-cast grain crops, and of rest to the land under grass
or weeds, which latter conditions would in some measure gruard afjamst
washing. Consequently, where the land has been the most extensively
cleared, and longest cultivated, the destruction both of soil and of fertility
has been enormous. But still it seems comparatively easy to repair this
great loss. The subsoil evidently contains some fertilizing principles which
are never found in that of the pine lands, and by deeper ploughing, long ex-
posure to the atmosphere, and the aid of putrescent manures of any kind, a
new soil may be created, in most places, and preserved by succeeding and
proper tillage, and especially with the protection of graduated hill -side or
guard-ditches to conduct off harmless the excess of rain-water. In the dis-
trict of Fairfield may be seen remaining many of the worst effects of wash-
ing rains on lands peculiarly exposed both by nature and by art to their ope-
ration— and also of the renovation of lands formerly so injured : and of high
improvement of many plantations, by the use of other means of improvement
and preservation of the recovered fertility.

The greater readiness of the lands, in general, of this great region to re-
ceive improvement, (without the artificial aid of calcareous manures) than
belongs to the lower country and to pine lands, (as I infer, judging from my
own experience in Virginia.) must be owing to the potash remaining in the
soil, and still more in the subsoil, furnished by the decomposition or disin-
tegration of the felspar and mica of the granite, added to the usually much
smaller quantities of lime and oxide of iron. But when hornblende is or
has been present in sufficient quantity, lime and iron have been much more
abundantly furnished by its decomposition, and such soils are very superior,
and of excellent quality. Hornblende contains about 1 1 per cent, of lime,
and about 32 per cent, of iron.

The great value of potash as manure is universally admitted. But of the
degree of value little is known ; because the great cost of the article as pre-
pared by art has prevented any extensive use of it as manure, and even of
enough small experiments to serve to give correct information. And when
potash is furnished by nature, in the decomposition of certain rocks, as has
been done to all this great region, we do not know the rate nor the precise
manner of the supply — whether it be furnished as uncombined potash, or as
silicate of potash, (that is, chemically combined with silc.x — ) nor to what
extent the potasff is, as a soluble substance, liable to waste by rains, both
from the rocks while decomposing, or afterwards from the soils and subsoils
formed by such decomposition.

If Wf \\('\f' to rfason andilriiw intt'r»'n<'' s fi'Mn tli.- well rstnfilisli.d v.tliu'

88 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY ,

as manure and ingredients of soil both of pure potash and of the silicate of
potash, and to judge of the probable manuring effects of the alkali potash by
those known of the alkili lime — it would be necessary to ascribe a very
high character for fertility to all soils of granitic formation. And herein is
the great difficulty, that, with all their peculiar values, as already stated,
the best of these soils do not come up to the standard of fertility which their
original constitution would seem to indicate ; and further, the inferior and
worst are naturally very poor, though not among the poorest lands. I pre-
tend not to explain this difficulty ; but possibly some approach to explana-
tion may be made in the following supposition : The solubility of pot-
ash may be the means of its being continually carried off by rain-water, both
from decomposing granite, and from soils formed from granite ; and
either washed by rain floods from the surface of the land into the streams,
and thus wasted and entirely lost, or carried by soaking rains deeper and
deeper, with the progress of time, into the subsoil. If the latter, then it will
account for the actual fitness of the subsoil to be converted to productive
soil ; and also, for the many facts which I have heard, on undoubted au-
thority, of parts of the subsoil, both red and gray, (as well as the white
formed from pure felspar,) and whether of clay or loose sand, all serving in
particular cases as obviously and highly fertilizing manures. When such
effects have been observed, they were most generally produced by earth
taken out of wells in the course of the digging, and from considerable
depths. It is scarcely neceisary to add that such valuable properties of the
subsoils are particular, and not general. For if general, (as mere theory
and reasoning in advance of facts alone might teach) the surface of every
deep washing of a steep hill-side, and indeed every deeply yawning gulley,
and the earth carried from both, ought to exhibit fertility instead of barren-
ness, as is most usual.

The foregoing remarks, so far as they are descriptive of soils, are de-
signed to indicate the most general characters and features of the granite re-
gion, and not the exceptions, which are both numerous and strongly mark-
ed. Such exceptions, presented in soils either much better or much worse
than the general character, doubtless owe their variance to the difference of
their chemical constitution. Among the soils presenting most the remark-
able exceptions, and of great value, are the large bodies of lands in Abbeville,
well-knoAvn for their peculiar qualities under the name of -the " Flat
Woods ;" those in Fairfield, bordering on " Dutchman's Creek and Wate-
ree Creek ; and those of Chester, the last being usually comprehended under
the general though not always approprite name of the " Black Jack
Lands." These are extensive tracts. The Flat Woods lands are composed
of two separate bodies, one of about 8.000 acres, and the other between
15 and 20,000, separated by the ferriage of Little River, and also by lands of
different character, high as well as low, bordering on that stream. Dutch-
man's Creek is more than 15 miles long, and its lands in question lie along
its whole course, widening from half a mile near its source, to three miles
at its outlet. In like manner, the main stream of Wateree Creek is 20
miles in length, and the south fork about 12, and both for their whole
course are widely bordered with fine l;md, high hill sides* as wellTas low
or undulating valleys. In Chester, this description of land is also of consi-
derable extent, though I have no better idea of the fjuality, than from my road
having been fully 6 miles in crossing what is there called "Black-jack land."

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 89

These several bodies of lands, with all their considerable existing* varia-
tions, have ypt a g-eneral and established character of uncommon fertility,
and of durability under severe and long continued culture. Their forest
growth is mostly sparse, stunted and mean in appearance, so as to have pro-
duced at first a general impression that these lands were poor, and which
prev"!nted their being taken up, and brought under cultivation, until the sur-
rounding and much worse lands had been mostly occupied. The " Flat
Woods," now perhaps the most noted and valued of these lands, were de-
preciated the most and longest under this early and erroneous opinion ; and
their culture and present high appreciation are comparatively recent. Tra-
ditionary accounts, derived from respectable persons who were not long since
living, state that when the country was first settled, and even as late as 60
years ago, the land? on Dutchman's Creek, and some others, were almost in
the " prairie" condition, the trees being so few and dwarfish in growth.
These, and the other peculiarities of these lands, which will be here present-
ed, induced the belief to obtain, among those persons who have latterly paid
some attention to the qualities of calcareous soils, as maintained in my own
writings, that these soils were calcareous, (or contained lime in the form of
carbonate)^ and that either lime-stone or marl probably existed beneath
tiiem. My observations will show that though these inferences were erro-
neous, there is yet much ground existing for those too hasty deductions, and
much also to be deduced which is both true and valuable, in regard to lime
(though not now the carbonate of lime) serving to give their peculiar cha-
racter and value to these soils.

These lands have surfaces more or less undulating, and generally much
more level than the surrounding and high country. They also lie much low-
er, though the surface in some parts rises by gentle slopes into hills of consi-
derable elevation. Still, so marked is the general depression of surface, com-
pared to that of the surrounding lands, that some persons have inferred that
all these fine bodies of land were in some remote times the bottoms of lakes ;
and to such supposed covering of water, continued for many ages, they as-
cribed the peculiar fertility and character of these lands. But my obser-
vations have given no support to this opinion. Even if the country had been
so covered by lakes (of which there is no evidence in the existing features,)
the fertilizing effects must have been in that case produced by the agency of
alluvian, the deposition of vegetable or other organic and sedimentary mat-
ters, or the gradual accumulation of shells, from fresh-water animals,
sprinkled over the bottom. No appearance of either of such processes of
nature is to be seen. The larger streams, as every where else, are indeed
here bordered by soil of alluvial formation, the tribute mostly of distant
lands. But it is not materially different from the alluvial deposites made in
like manner on the borders of streams which pass through poorer high
lands ; and is, in fact, not deemed by the proprietors equal in value and ferti-
lity to the higher and adjacent lands of these bodies, which are manifestly
not affected by alluvian. Indeed the narrow strips of alluvial ground in
these lands, are comparatively of little value : and are not meant to be in-
cluded in the range of the following remarks, unless when particularly so
stated.

The soils of these rich lands vary in depth, color, and texture, and of
course much also in quality. But in general they are of unusual depth, and
are colored of shades varying between drrk red to brownish black, and in

K

90 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

texture are stiff, and when wet, are adhesive, and then scarcely manage-
able in ditching or ploughing. The subsoil, and especially where the
stunted black-jack-oak most predominated in t'e natural forest growth, is of
a light olive-brown clay, so close in texture as to be almost impenetrable to
rain, or to the roots of plants, and to agricultural implements. When wet,
and generally in winter, this subsoil is almost as tough and adhesive as
pitch, into which a plough or spade can scarcely be made to penetrate ever
so little, and which it is as difficult to get the implement out and clear of, as
into. This subsoil is usually from one to three feet thick ; and its presence
is the greatest obstacle to the higher production of the land. Of course, the
thicker this subsoil, and the nearer it rises to the surface, the greater its in-
jury to the land. It is in this manner, and in general, the most injurious in
Chester, next on Dutchman's Creek, less so on Wateree Creek, and per-
haps least in the Flat Woods lands. Still the roads of the latter, in wet
winters, as of the other lands, are among the most miry and worst in the
world.

Next below this close clay-subsoil, or where that does not exist, next to the
surface-soil, there occur disintegrated rocks, which furnish the true sources
of the lime, and of the fertility and peculiar good qualities of these lands.
The rocks are granitic, and largely composed of hornblende. Indeed the
ordinary appearance presented in deep cuts of the roads and washed gullies,
which descend below the clay-subsoil, is a disintegrating granitic rock, often
soft enough to be cut by the plough or spade, and which is formed of parti-
cles of dark blackish-green hornblende, imbedded in a matrix mostly of soft
felspar. As stated above, hornblede contains some 1 1 per cent, of lime ;
and with the presence of this rock, so rich in lime, and so universally under-
lying these soils, and disintegrating, there can be no difficulty in determin-
ing upon one cause, and the most important cause, of fertility.

In many places of all these lands, where the decomposing rocks below
the subsoil were exposed by cuts or washes, I found scattered nodules or
small masses of earth or stone composed mostly of carbonate of lime, the
proportions varying from 50 to 70 per cent.* Still, as before affirmed, ge-
nerally these soils, and even the undecomposed rocks below, contain no
carbonate of lime generally diffused. The existence of similar calcareous
nodules has served to perplex many persons in other parts of S"outh Caroli-
na, as well as elsewhere. Because such masses were manifestly calcare-
ous, effervescing strongly with the touch of acid, they have been supposed to
be lime-stone, or marl, or at least indications of such formations being
close at hand. But such erroneous conclusions will cease to delude inqui-
ers, when the source and manner of formation of these nodules are properly
examined and understood. The gradual disintegration of the hornblende
rock exposed its reduced parts to the contact and decomposing action of air
and water. The lime below the soil, before combined chemically with
other earths, (and forming solid rock having no action as soil, or as ma-
nure to soil,) was separated, and dissolved by rain-waler. If not previously

♦ The following proportions of carbonate of lime were found in specimens of these
nodules found in the several different places named :

From near Aijbeville Court House, '. 52 1-2 per cent.

" Fairfield, E. G. Palmer's land on Dutchman's Creek, (52 1-2 " "

" " near Cedar Creek, 47 " "

" near Chestcrville 67 " "

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 91

combined with carbonic acid, the lime soon became so in this new and se-
parated condition, by contact and combining with the carbonic acid of the
air or in percolating rain-water ; and as the water, after dissolving these
small quantities of newly-formed carbonate of lime, evaporated in dry wea-
ther, the lime was again deposited in such fissures of the earth as offered,
and in these the nodules were gradually formed, by long-continued and of-
ten-repeated additions from the first dissolving and then evaporating water.
Generally these lumps are of stony hardness, and in color, size, and figure
not unlike roots of dried ginger. In some cases they are soft ; and often
the calcareous earth is seen merely as a light and loose powder covering a
separate fragment of hornblende rock, as removed from its bed many feet be-
low the surface. Sometimes when the nodules are moderately hard, some
remaining dark-green specks of hornblende rock are seen scattered through
their generally light yellow color.

It does not always require such abundant or rich sources of lime-produc-
ing rocks to form these calcareous nodules. Much poorer granitic rocks
(or perhaps others also containing a little lime.) and sucli as would form poor
soils by their disintegration, may yet under certain circumstances have a por-
tion of the lime in their subsoils so collected in nodules. Such a subsoil,
containing calcareous nodules from 2 to 4 feet below the surface, is to be
seen near the junction of Richland and Fairfield, near Cedar Creek ;
and the like is found in Edgefield, and I also saw such in several places in
Abbeville, beyond the limits of the Flat Woods. Under the lalter and
other such rich soils, these calcareous nodules are the most abundant. But
at no exposure have I seen them in sufficient quantity, and in a sufficientl}''
reduced state, to be worth removing, together with the whole matrix of
other earth, for manure to other lands. Though it maybe rich enough for
this in some cases ; and probably is so on the alluvial borders of Little Ri-
ver, between the two separated and distinct bodies of Flat Woods lands.
Here, the proprietor, Charles T. Haskell, Esq., first found these nodules,
and several years ago sent to me a description, and since specimens, of them.
A sub-stratum of earth, of about a foot in thickness, richly supplied with
these calcareous nodules, is reached or cut through in the digging of every
deep ditch in these lower grounds.

The main positions assumed above will be recapitulated, and presented
alone, and concisely illustrated, for greater clearness :

1. Lime is contained in all granitic rocks in small quantity, and in large
quantity in hornblende, and in granitic rocks composed largely of horn-
blende. In this state, the lime is not combined with carbonic acid, so as to
form carbonate of lime, but with the other earthy and metallic ingredients of
the rocks. Of course, any such rocks, even the richest in lime, (as horne-
blende,) will not exhibit effervescence when a strong acid is applied to it,
(as many persons would infer,) because effervescence upon such applica-
tion is the result of carbonic acid being present and combined with the lime,
and let loose as gas, by the strong acid seizing upon and itself combining
with the lime. Neither can such rocks, no matter how rich in lime, give
any to adjacent soil, before disintegration and decomposition of the rock
have begun, from the action of air and water. An example of the condition
and inertness and worthlessncss of the lime previously, when combined
chemically with the other ingredients of a rock, may be offered in the
" slag," which is the product of the reduction of iron ore in the furnace

92 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

with and by means of lime-stone. The slag is a true chemical combination
of the lime (of which the carbonic acid had been before driven off by the
heat of the furnace,) with the silex and perhaps other portions of the iron
ore. A very large proportion of the slag is necessarily of pure lime. Yet
it has been by fusion so strongly combined with, other matters that it is as
worthless as manure to soil as if no lime were in the compound.

2. But as disintegration and decomposition of the granite and hornblende
proceed, their lime, slowly and very little at a time, is separated, and may,
in part, or wholly, become the carbonate of lime, by receiving carbonic acid
from rain-water (which always brings down some from the atmosphere,)
and from any decomposing vegetable matter close by. The latter agency
could not be exerted, unless the decomposing rock, and its lime, w^ere in
contact with or near the surface soil. And if so, in so gradual a discharge
of lime, and production of its carbonate, there could never be but a small
portion of the latter existing at any one time. For the acid formed by soil
would be continually operating — probably full as fast as the producing
agency — to convert the carbonate of lime into some other salt of lime —
whether the humate of lime or some other, or others, I pretend not to deter-
mine. But it is certain, (as I have heretofore and long ago proved by rea-
soning, and have since confirmed by observation and experience,) that this
change does not take place in all soils which have been supplied by nature
or art with carbonate of lime, and with not too much of it, or more than was
required for the highest fertilization of the soil.*

3. If the gradual decomposition of the rock, as above supposed, took
place so far below the soil, or separated therefrom by a close barrier of sub-
soil, so as to be out of the reach of the roots of the plants, or nearly so, then,
the carbonate of lime, as fast as produced, after being first dissolved in water,
would be precipitated, in the form of calcareous nodules, and in the manner
already described ; and the presence of which nodules, therefore, would
not indicate carbonate of lime either in the soil, (or that it was a calcareous
soil,) or in the undecomposed rocks, and still less the vicinity of either lime-
stone proper, or marl, as their source, or their necessary accompaniment.

But besides the lime derived from the decomposing hornblende, the valu-
able soils under consideration have another source of peculiar and pro-
bably useful constitution in the presence of magnesia. There is rnuch soap-
stone or steatite, and other talcose rock, in parts of these lands — especially
in the most low-lying of the Flat Woods and part of the Dutchman's
Creek land. These rocks, and all the varieties of talcose rocks, contain a
large proportion of magnesia — amounting in steatite or soap-stone to 24 per
cent. The soil is in some low places of the Flat Woods so generally com-
posed of this green-colored stone, disintegrated, but as yet unmixed, that the
soil, when recently turned up by the plough, has a decidedly green tint, ap-
pearing, when seen at some distance, as if young grass had just begun to
spring every where, and to tinge the surface. Such spots are always found
more or less unproductive, compared to the other parts of the same land.

I am aware that all high authority and general opinion are opposed to
my opinion indicated above, that magnesia is a fertilizing ingredient of
soil, or a valuable manure. It has generally been supposed by writers to

♦ See my view.s of acid and neutral soils, on which the above are founded, slated and
argued at length in the " Essay on Calcareous Manures."

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 9

Q

be injurious when applied as manure (as in magnesian lime-stone,) even in
small quantities — and that natural magnesian soils were the h-ss fertile be-
cause of containing that ingredient, and in some cases (in France) were
made thereby barren.* But though having heretofore had no sufficient
proofs in magnesian soils, and no means for testing the effects of magnesia by
actual experimental use as manure, I have long believed and have previously
maintained, that, from the close resemblance of the chemical qualities of lime
and magnesia, the effects of the latter in soils must be very like to those of
the former ; and therefore are beneficial, though probably much less so in
degree ; and perhaps also magnesia in excess may be more injurious than
lime in excess. If I am correct in supposing the Flat Woods lands of the
lower levels to be magnesian soils, they are the first of that known charac-
ter ever presented to my observation ; and their peculiar and valuable qua-
lities sustain my previously expressed and merely theoretical opinion of the
value of magnesia in soils.

There perhaps will be found a more popular and potent objection
to my view of magnesia being of any value in soils, because soap-stone
(which is her<^ its scource.) is often found in or under lands in this region,
and no such fertilizing effects have been observed, or ascribed to its pre-
sence, by those who have known its existence. Perhaps such stone is too
hard to disintegrate, and therefore is of no effect. However, my own oppor-
tunities for persona] observation have been too few to be worth any thing :
and, therefore, I will for the present leave this part of the subject for the
more full observation and investigation of others.

The well and spring waters of these lands are generally contaminated by
lime so as to be offensive. This is especially the case of the black-jack
lands in Chester. These lands are now the worst in quality of all these
four localities ; yet they formerly brought excellent wheat crops, and red
clover is sometimes raised now, in the very few attempts made of its culture,
notwithstanding the great exhaustion of the land. The impenetrable sub-
soil approaches nearest the surface in the Chester lands, which is enough to
make the land the least productive, and also to cause injudicious tillage (in
wet seasons) to be the most injurious. Besides, in showing a fitness for
wheat and clover production, these and other lands furnish other indica-
tions, by which might be safely inferred their containing lime in considera-
ble quantities, even if their manner and sources of formation did not prove
the fact. One of these is the rapidity of the rotting of the leaves in the
woods, as occurs on lime-stone soils, and which is ahogther different on acid
soils.

But it is unnecessary to describe the particulai* qualities of these lands at
more length. I will now endeavor to account for their general marked
difference from the other granitic soils, and the manner in which they have
been so much more richly supplied with lime.

It has been already stated that each of these great bodies of land under
consideration is much lower in surface than the surrounding country, of
the ordinary granitic region, however irregular, and in some cases elevated
and hilly, their surface. The land on Dutchman's Creek, which presents
the strongest contrast in this respect, at Mr. Edward G. Palmer's plantation,

* See an article by Puvis, on magnesian soils — Farmer's Register.

94 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

is 130 feet lower than the close adjacent land. This lower surface maybe
supposed to have been produced, by denudation ; that is, the washing out of
the land, from a height previously equal to the surrounding country, down
into the softer and more yielding rocks, as low or lower than the present
depth. By this means, the soil and earths, beiore or otherwise similar to
what exists generally elsewhere in the granite region, were swept off
to a great depth, and a new surface exposed in the hornblende and talcose
rocks, that is, the lime and magnesia producing rocks, lying at the lower
levels. Some subsequent flood, loaded wnth fine close clay, on becoming
tranquil, let fall the suspended clay, which formed a thick, impervious and
general covering of the before denuded rock, and which cover of clay is
the present close sub-soil. But this clay, adverse as it is to production, as
subsoil, had been furnished from its original sources with enough lime to
render it, as is known to be the fact, convertible to fertile soil, by being turn-
ed up by thi! plough and exposed to the air. Of course, when reaching to
the surface, and operated on by the atmosphere and by the growth of plants,
added to its own fertilizing principles of natural constitution (and that doubt-
less depended principally on lime contained,) it is plain enough, how under
such circumstances, a fei'tile soil should be gradually formed by the growth
and decay and admixture of vegetable matter. In the mean time, the de-
composition of the hornblende rock below would be continually proceeding,
and more lime would be thus furnished to such extent as the roots of plants
could draw it up through the close barrier of clay. Such circumstances
could scarcely fail to produce the effects and peculiarities of soil now ex-
isting.

But as certainly and highly valuable as those lands are under culture, it
may seem strange that lands so abundantly supplied with lime should not
be still more productive — as much so, indeed, as the best lime-stone lands of
the Western States. And so I presume these lands would have been, but
for the different manner in which the lime was given to this land by the
decomposition of the rocks. This was not on the surface of the earth, but
at the depth of several feet below the surface, and usually below the inter-
vening and almost impenetrable barrier of tough clay. So completely en-
closed and locked up as is the lime below, and so nearly secured from the
access of rain water, and the roots of plants, it can do comparatively
but little good to the soil above, and must have less effect than a twentieth
part of the quantity if applied to the surface soil. Besides being thus locked
up, the lime-producing rocks below are but in the course of disintegration,
of which the progress is very irregular in different spots, and which may
not be ended, even within three feet of the surface, for centuries to come.
And not until the rock is decomposed, or only to such extent as its decompo-
sition has proceeded, can its lime and other fertilizing products of decompo-
sition have any effect as manures.

It is not unlikely that many other tracts of rich land in the granite region,
may derive their fertility and value from the same causes as have been descri-
bed ofthesc fournotedand large bodies, and agree with them in character. For
this reason, I trust that these remarks may be found useful far beyond the
limits of these examples, and of all my own personal examinations.

There is one more suggestion to offer in regard to the neutral character of
the granite soils in general. Whether relying upon the undoubted tcsti-

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 95

raony of mineralogists and chemists for the sources of alkaline constitution
of granitic soils, or upon the lime constituent part of hornbknde soils, or
on the general absence of pines in this region, it will appear, from either
kind of proof, that such soils cannct be generally acid. And if they are not
injured by the presence of that poisonous quality which belongs to and
greatly injures almost all naturally poor soils below the falls of the rivers,
then lime, if applied, however advantageous in all other respects, would not
show that earliest and most obvious benefit which is produced by the imme-
diate neutralization and destruction of this poisonous quality of soil.* Still,
the other slower and yet more valuable operations of lime would be suffi-
ciently powerful here, (unless where there is enough already.) so that the
application need not be omitted because of there being no acid principle to
correct. On the other hand, the absence of acid, (according to my views.)
offers a very great benefit, not to be had on any acid soils, in the use of gyp-
sum, f And this suggestion is not merely the offspring of my theore'ical
views and reasonino- on the constitution of granitic soils, but is strenmhened
by facts which I shall here refer to generally as proofs. In Virginia the re-
gion of hilly red lands extending from above the falls of the rivers to near
the mountains, has a strong general resemblance to those of South Caro-
lina within the like limits. The pine bearing regions of both these coun-
tries, lying below the falls of the rivers, have also great general resem-
blance in regard to soil, notwithstanding marked points of differe ice. Now
in Virginia, on the red hilly lands of the middle region just referred to,
gypsum has been found to be very beneficial, generally if not universally,
wherever applied to lands of good natural quality. As to the poor lands,
the testimony is conflicting, or perhaps the results are very different on dif-
ferent lands. And in the very few cases of lime applied in this region, the
effects have been either slight or not visible on the first crop. On the other
hand, on the naturally poor and pine producing soils, which form the great
body of the land of lower Virginia, I never knew lime to fciil of producing
both good and early effect — nor of gypsum, (if applied before liming or
marling,) on such soil, to produce any remunerating effect, early or late,
and scarcely ever enough to be distinguishable even for the most transient
operation.

If gypsum be indeed suitable to much, or even but to the best grade
of the granite lands of South Carolina, the fact is of great value. So small
a quantity of this rr ineral serves to manure (usually a bushel to the acre is
given.) and it produces, when suitable to the soil, such wonderful increase
on clover, that the effects will not readily be given credence to by those who
have not had occular evidence. Every farmer in this region, desirous to
improve his lands, ought to hasten to make small and cheap experiments
with this manure; which is universally available, because of the small
quantity required, and its consequent low cost of transportation.

As has already been mentioned incidentally, the peculiar characters of
the soil and the surface of the middle and upper districts of South Carolina,
and the manner of cultivation, have caused great damage to the lands by the
washing operation of heavy rains. This evil, great as it is to agriculture,
is not confined to it, but has, perhaps, been even still more injurious to health.

♦ See, for full views of acid in soil, Essay on Calcareous Manures, chap. vii. of nait
I, 31 Ed. t Same, pp. 95-98.

96 '' AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

It is understood that the lands of the middle region, as, for example, of the
districts of Abbeville, Newberry, Union, Chester, and York, were formerly-
healthy, and sii ce have gradually become more and more and s^reatly af-
fected by malarious diseases in summer and autumn. This change has
taken place within the memory of many persons now living, and testifying
to the fact. The unhealthiness of the upper country is said to have com-
menced and become extensive and severe in the districts or neighborhoods
where the clearing of the lands and their cultivation has been most exten-
sive. And hence, many persons have inferred that the clearing of the coun-
try, of itself, has served to produce disease. Others ascribe the effect to the
production of cotton, which crop covers nearly one half of all the cultivated
lands in the most sickly parts of the middle country. But I infer, from all
the information of facts acquired from others, that it is neither the clearing
of the land, nor its cultivation in cotton, which has produced this result — but
that the effects of both, in washing the high-land soil into the bottoms and
choaking the streams, have mainly served to nourish malaria and increase
the malignity of disease.

The range of districts just named, with other lands adjoining next below,
would appear to have been blessed by nature with every requisite for health.
With few and small exceptions, the country is elevated and hilly, the bot-
toms generally narrow, and the streams every where rapid in their couises.
There were few swampy or wet flats ; and the highland soils, both by
their permeable texture in general, and broken surface, permitted no rain
water to stagnate on or near the surface of the ground. And the country
was, at first, as its features indicated, nearly free from malaria and all its
noxious effects. But as soon as the incessant and injudicious use of the
plough caused the soil to be washed from the hilly grounds into the bottoms,
the before unobstructed clean-bordered channels of all the small streams
were filled and clogged with earth and vegetable rubbish, and finer matter,
and the adjacent low grounds thereby rendered swampy. The washing of
the highland earth into the valleys, so altered the original surface level,
as to kill the trees ; and their decay, and later, the obstructions by their
fallen trunks, increased the general evil. These operations would continue,
and the evil effects necessarily became worse and woise every year, so long
as the bottoms and their streams were left uncleared and undraine'd.

At a much later time, when the good uplands had been mostly cleared and
exhausted, some of the proprietors began to drain and clear the narrow
bottoms which their previous practice had changed to swamps. It may be
supposed that this operation, when effectually performed, will counteract in
a great measure the previous disease-producing practices. And that suppo-
sition, as well as my whole view of this matter, seems to be sustained by the
facts of the case.

The commencement and progress and subsequent greatest virulence of
the diseases of this great region, proceeded gradually from the lower border
towards the highest districts, which latter have not yet been much afflicted.
And after long and much suffering from the annual visitations of disease, a
general mitigation, or a return to a comparative degree of healthiness, com-
menced also below, and has continued, and seems to be proceeding, up the
country — but still far in the rear of the most advanced and still advancing inva-
sions of malaria ; which latterly have made fatal ravages in neighborhoods
so elevated that they hud previously been deemed perfectly secure. Nor

OF SOUTH CAROLINA; ' 97

will the progress of the desolating invader be stayed, I fear^ u&til It has
swept over the highest, and as yet, the almost perfectly healthy districts.

Now, if I have been correctly informed as to these effects, they suit ex-
actly with my supposition of the manner of their production, and also sub-
sequent partial remedy. The practices of more cautious use of the plough,
and general and effectual drainage, are gradually making progress in those
lands, and as yet, on those only, where the opposite and disease-producing
practices had done their worst. And probably, no community will learn
to profit by these good and profitable practices, until after having first suf-
fered all the evils from their neglect. But with the progress of such im-
provements, there has been already a marked diminution of autumnal dis-
eases, in the districts where the facts are most numerous, and therefore may
be best observed. Of these, Fairfield, perhaps, offers the best evidence, in
its former state of tillage and health, compared to the present improved con-
dition of both.

There has prevailed another practice by which a bad state of agriculture
has given additional power and virulence to malaria. In the upper dis-
tricts, when new clearings of forest lands were made along the borders of
the smaller rivers and large creeks (as they are called,) not opened for nav-
igation, it has been, and still is, the usage to throw as many trees as could
be conveniently done into the water, as the easiest mode to get rid of them.
The freshets afterwards would drive these trees, and all the rubbish which
they would stop, into certain paitsof the stream, and much of the great mass
might be submerged in deep places, and kept covered under the ordinary
height of water. But almost none of the trees, or their boughs, were float-
ed entirely out of the rivers. The consequences were the greatly obstruct-
ingf the current, and raisinor what would have been otherwise the usual
height of the water, and much more the height of freshets; the inundating
more often and more injuriously the low lands which could be cultivated,
and the rendering hopeless the cultivation of much more not before cleared,
and which otherwise might have been valuable and safe, as well as highly
productive lands. And worse than all other effects, the greater rise and
spread and frequency of inundations, and the sub5.equent drying of the flooded
grounds, and the exposure in great droughts of the rafts of sunken and rot-
ting trees and -all their rubbish, together served as most productive sources
of malaria. The latter effect has already been experienced most disas-
trously, in seasons of unusual drought and low waters, as high up as the
southern part of Pickens District, where generally, and in most years as
yet, the air is as pure and the region as healthy as would be inferred from
the neighborhood and full view of the Blue Ridge mountains.

Doubtless, there are other and potent sources of malaria, besides those
produced by improper cultivation — as mill-ponds, and the greater spread and
more deadly operation of their miasma, permitted by the cutting down the
forests which before served as a partial defence. But the consideration of
these causes would be out of place in this report ; and they are only thus
referred to, lest it passed over, it might be inferred that their injurious influ-
ence on health was not deemed certain, and most important in results.

The more judicious use of the plough, and the introduction of guard ditches
on hill sides, have both served greatly to check the previous progress of the
washing away of the soil. But still there remains in operation one of the
s urest causes of washing, in the almost perpetual recurrence of ploughed

98 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

crops, either corn or cotton, by the clean tillage of which the land is kept
always in the condition the best adapted to its being washed off by rains.
The means for prevention will not be complete without the introduction of
proper rotation of crops, by which rest to the land, under weeds or grass, or
broad-cast crops of small grain and of peas, which bind and guard the sur-
face soil, are alternated in proper and profiiable manner with the tillage
crops of corn and cotton, which latter are now cultivated almost exclusively
and continually on the greater part of the arable land.

REPORT

ON THE RICE CULTURE OF A PART

OF

GEORGETOWN DISTRICT.

General Descriptiox of the Tide Swamps in their Natural

State.

The great body of alluvial swamp lands on the Waccamaw and Peedee
rivers, and subject to their tides, are of similar general character to all other
swamps formed by the alluvium of fresh tide waters. In South Carolina,
and generally elsewhere, the soil being wholly formed by matter deposited
by the rivers and by the remains of plants which died and rotted where they
grew, these lands are necessarily composed very largely of vegetable mat-
ter, mostly decomposed ; and so far as that composition may serve, they
were as rich as lands could be, and of an unknown depth of soil. Their
earthy parts are mostly of fine clay, such as could remain long suspended
in water, and which has been mostly brought by the long course and tur-
bid current of the Peedee. Of course, rivers flowing through calcareous
regions, and washing down fertile and well constituted soils, must have also
brought down much calcareous matter intermixed with the clayey, and
serving to fix and retain the great and enduring fertility which these lands
have exhibited under the long continued and increasing drafts made by in-
cessant rice culture. Still there cannot be near enough of lime in these
soils ; and there is a still greater deficiency of the ingredient of silicious
sand necessary for a pioperly constituted soil of the best productive power.

The rise and level of the tides have necessarily fixed the final elevation
and grade of surface of all such lands. The earthy matters brought down
the river by its floods would continue to be deposited on the marshes, and
wherever else the water was most tranquil, until such deposited earth reach-
ed to the level of the height of tide water. The lower the surface was at
any previous time bffore this height, the more water, loaded with materials
for alluvium, would be over it, and the more it would receive ofthe tribute.
And when bysuch additions, the surface had risen to the full height of ordi-
nary high tide, it would no more be covered, except on rare occasions, and of
course its increase would almost cease. Thus, there was for ages a con-
stant tendency of the waters to raise all the lower parts the fastest, and to
make the lower equaj in height to the highest. And when this was done
as nearly as might be over any certain extent, the operation ceased there,
and was continued lower down towards the sea.

Thus, the alluvial lands formed by the deposites of tide rivers necessarily
have surfaces very nearly level. The only general and slight exceptions
are seen in the channels of small creaks or "slues" as they are called,
which are needed to give discharge to the retreating waters, the rapidity of
the motion of which serves to keep such passages open and deeper ; and also

lOO AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

that the land next the river side is generally higher than that farthest off, and
next to the high lands. The cause of the latter effect is also obvious in thisj
that the water first leaving the more rapid course of the river, and spreading
over the swamp, must necessarily deposite most of its suspended earthy mat-
ter first,^ and carries only the lighter portions to the more remote ground,
Howe ver,^ the slope thus made is so gradual, that the difference of elevation is
very slight between parts of the same swamp. This general evenness of
surface is in a remarkable degree favourable to rice culture, which requires
overflowing the crop at a depth as nearly equal as possible.

The trees forming" the natural growth and dense cover of such lands are of
great size and vigor — principally of tupelo gum, ash and cypress. The under-
growth of caae, and numerous perennial or annual vines and water grasses,
serving in summer to make a dense thicket. The earth, always saturated
with water, is rendered firm only by its close and deep mat of roots of
every description, and but for this, would be a quagmire in its natural state,
and the m-are so in proportion to the excess of decomposed vegetable mat-
ter in the marshy soil. Also, according to the large quantity and excess of
vegetable matter, will be the subsequent sinking of the land, after draining"
and cultivation. The excess of vegetable matter in any soil, over and above
all that is chemically combined with the soil, is liable to rot and waste
away. And such must be the case, sooner or later, on all tide marshes,
the drying and cultivation of which produces the commencement of rotting,
which the before continual wet state of the earth prevented.

All the tide swamps are n^ot capable of being profitably subjected to riee
culture. There must be a sufficient "pitch of tide," or ordinary variation be-
tween the levels of high and low tides, to enable the lands to be, at any de-
sired time, either quickly flooded, or as quickly to have the overflowing
water discharged. The latter object is opposed more and more by the
freshets the higher the rivers are ascended, so that the upper tide lands are
from this cause too precarious for rice culture. Again, salt or even brackish
water is fatal to rice ; and therefore the usually fresh water tide-lands near
the sea are as much in danger of "salts;" that is, of the water, when need-
ed for flowing the crop, being contaminated by salt, owing to a dry season
and a scant supply of river water from above. Thus, omitting the upper
tide lands, too much endangered by the river being swollen by rains, and
the lower lands, too much endangered by salt tides in dry seasons, there
remains on all the rivers but an intermediate body of tide lands fit and safe
for vice culture..

The General mode of Embanking, Draining and Clearing Tide-
Swamps FOR Rice Culture.*

When a body of new tide-swamp on the Waccamaw or Pee Dee was to

* For the substance and for all that may be of any value in the following statement
and description of Rice culture and management, I am indebted to verbal information,
which I derived in conversation with practical and judicious Rice Planters, and princi-
pally from Dr. Edward Heriot and John H. i\llston, Esq., in regard to the subject in
general, a»d as to the more usual modes of culture and management of Rice ; and to
Messrs, Stephen Ford and S. C. Ford in regard to " Lcggett's" and the " AU-Wateir"
plans <tf flooding and cultivation, as practised on Black River.

OP SOUTH CAROLINA. lOt

be brought under Rice culture, the first process has been to cut down and
clear off all the trees and under-growth of bushes, cane (or reeds,) <fec.,
along the course designed for the outer embankment, for the width of about
50 yards, or such distance as would prevent the subsequent cutting down
oi the remaining large trees injuring the works. In making this clearing,
care is taken to leave untouched a margin next to the river-side ; which
ought to be, but rarely has been, as wide as from 50 to 80 feet, varying ac-
cording to the irregularity of the water-line. The trees, <kc., cut from the
cleared space, are moved inward among the standing trees, or far enough to
be out of the way both of the outer embankment, and the main ditch within
and next to it. The site of the outer embankment is then determined pre-
cisely ; and along the centre of its intended base there is dug a ditch 3 feet
deep, 3 feet wide at top, and as much or nearly so at bottom. This digging
is for two purposes : first, and principally, to remove all stumps and roots
of trees from below the bottom of the future outer embankment, which, if
left, would, in subsequent time, by their rotting, cause leaks to be produced ;
secondly, the earth dug out of this central ditch is laid regularly and closely
just outside of its edge, and forms a bank sufficient to exclude the ordinary
high tides from covering the land, and troubling materially the main opera-
tions which are to follow, for thoroughly embanking and clearing the land.
Through this first low-bank, at a suitable out-let, there is put in one of the or-
dinary tide-trunks, such as vvill serve afterwards for one in the finished em-
bankment, and which will serve sufficiently to exclude the high-tides, and at
low-tide to discharge any accumulation of water in the area, from rains,
springs, or leakage of the low-bank.

When carrying around this first ditch and slight embankment, all the low
places which serve as out-lets of small creeks or " slues" are omitted at
first. When all the other parts are finished, these lower parts are under-
taken, for which a different and more laborious procedure is necessary.
For the length across each such slue, two parellel lines of strong stakes or
piles are driven perpendicularly and deeply into the mud, and the lines wi-
der out from the designed large embankment than its two base lines.
*' String-pieces," or long horizontal timbers, are placed outside of and
against these upright stakes, 2 to 3 feet lower than the designed height of the
bank ; and these string-pieces kept in place, and made to brace and support
the lines of stakes, by upright and much stronger and longer piles driven at
intervals of 4 or 5 feet outside of the string pieces, and opposite to each
other across the intended embankment ; and, as high as its top is to be
raised, cap or cross pieces, made of round cypress poles 6 or 8 inches
through, extend from each of these piles to its opposite pile, securing them
in place, and the whole structure together, by mortises in the cap-pieces
held by tenons on the posts. The embankment is then made within this
frame- work, fully as high as the general level of the small bank, if it be not
convenient then to complete the full intended size at once at these low
places.

The central ditch being completed, with its bank and the trunk fixed, (its
bottom, as in all cases, being even with lowest tide,) the inner and outer
lines of the base of the outside embankment are staked off — which is usu-
ally not more than 12 feet wide (and sometimes less,) for a designed height
of 5 feet. It ought to be 15 feet, or thrice as much as the height, at least.
Within the inside base line of the embankment, stake off another line paral-

102 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

lei to it, and 15 feet distant, if the soil be stiff, or 20 feet if light and porou.*,
which space is for the inner margin. This width is for the river-side, or
exposed parts of the embankment. If along narrow creeks, or cross-banks,
the inner margin need not be more than 10 to 15 feet. Along the inside of
this margin is laid off the main-ditch, 8 feet wide, and 5 deep, with sides
nearly perpendicular.* Out of this ditch all stumps, roots and buried bo-
dies of trees should be entirely removed. But this is not often faithfully
done ; nor is the ditch always dug 5 feet deep. The earth dug out should
be thrown by the ditchers as far as they can towards the site for the em-
bankment. Afterwards, when it has stood long enough to be in good con-
dition, or is neither too wet nor too dry, this earth is thrown by women and
other inferior hands to first fill the central ditch, and then to build up the em-
bankment ; keeping the earth nearly within the limits of the base. After
standing long enough to be somewhat consolidated, the sides of the bank are
trimmed to their proper slope, making the embankment 5 feet high, gene-
rally, 3 feet wide at top, and as before stated 12 feet (or more) at botton-.
The rise of ordinary tide is 4 to 5 feett — spring tides, 12 to 15 inches more.
The general level of higher land at first usually above common high tide.
If the main parallel ditch does not furnish earth enough to make the bank
every where' the deficiencies are supplied by digging earth where it can be
best spared from the wide outside margin ; but care should be taken, if this
course can be ever justifiable, at least not to dig any thing nearer than 15
feet from the outside base line of the embankment. Unfortunately this care
has been in general practice but little regarded. Generally, too little mar-
gin was left at first ; and nearly all which was left at first has been since
cut away to heighten the embankment, so as to leave it exposed to the
Avinds and weaves, and requiring enormous annual labor and expense to op-
pose the destructive action of storms upon the embankm.ent.

In beginning to bring in any one body of marsh, no matter how large, it
is sometimes better to carry the first operations, already described, around the
whole, (except the land side, of course,) although the subsequent entire clear-
ing of the forest may require a long time for completion. Of so much of
the land as is designed to be cultivated the first year, after the above describ-
ed operations, all the cane, bushes, and smallest trees are cut down, then
the smaller size only of larger trees, which are lopped, and the bodies cut
into lengths of 12 or 15 feet, leaving from 5 to 7 of the largest trees standing
in each half acre. At a dry time the next spring, and with a good wind,
fire is put to the windward-side. The effect is according to circumstances ;
but it is deemed " a good burn" if all is consumed except the logs. If there
is much cane, it serves so well as fuel, that the fire is much more effectual.
In other cases, much less. The remaining logs are heaped and burnt
when convenient : but by some persons often left scattered on the ground for
years. The large trees left standing arc afterwards killed by belting, or
taken out for timber as needed for use.

The land cleared should bo divided into fields of convenient shape and
size, and each one be separated from the next by cross embankments, and

* This is wrong. A wider ditch, with well-sloped sides, would stand much better, and
need less clearing out and subsequent repair.

t The greatest rise of tide low down the river— the least highest up— and in proportion
between the extremes.

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 103

surrounded, except on the sides where joining the high-land, hy large ditch-
es parallel to the cross embankment. These embankments being only to
keep out of one field the water admitted into another, need not be more than
7 or 8 feet wide at base, ard 3 feet high — or 2 feet less high than the outer
or main embankment. If however they could be as large, it would be bet-
ter ; as then a breach in and overflow of the outer embankment might be
kept from overflowing all but the first field. The ditches furnishing
earth to make them, need not be. more than sufficient for that purpose, or 5
feet wide and 4 to 5 deep. The margin between the bank and the ditches
is 10 to 15 feet wide. Each field thus separately embanked and ditched,
should discharge and receive its water by a separate trunk connecting with
the river or creek. Or if it be a'back field not joining such natural outlet,
then into a canal confined within two banks, and discharging through a
trunk into the river. However, when such a canal is needed (as is usual)
for navigation to the barns, &c., as on many plantations, then it is dug 15
feet or more, with margins say 10 feet wide, and in time becomes sometimes
20 to 25 feet, by its sides falling in, and successive clearings. There is no
trunk in such case, to exclude the tide ; and therefore the two banks on the
sides must be high and strong enough for that purpose. Sometimes, how-
ever, the navigable canal, instead of being always open to the river, is sepa-
rated from it at its out-let by a flood-gate, wide enough to pass the largest
flats used in transporting the crops. This is the better plan, where the ca-
nal is long, as it protects the banks on each side of it.

In laying off the land into separately embanked divisions, or fields, re-
gard ought especially to be had to having the surface of each one as nearly
equal in level as possible, so that it may be flowed and drained equally.
This consideration should have most influence in shaping the fields.
As to the proper size, if the level be alike, that depends much on the
amount of working force ; as no one separately embanked division ought to
be larger than the hands can finish any one operation upon in one day.
Twenty acres make a very good quantity for the size of trunk used.

The tide-trunks used are well-planned and constructed for this purpose.
The trunk is 4 feet wide by 2 deep. Both ends are cut slopeing, so that the
bottom of the opening extends 1 inch further out than the top. The valve
or door to close the end, hangs from upright arms rising 10 or 12 feet from
the bottom, by long mortises in the arms, or hinges far above the trunk,
and closes it by the mere pressure of the water, when higher that side of
the bank tha \ on the other. The other end of the trunk has a like valve.
But a great improvement in the trunk, which has not been very long intro-
duced here from Savannah, is to have each gate to be raised by slidmg up-
ward, (as a flood-gate does,) as well as to swing open by pressure of water
from the opposite end. Thus, a valve can be hoisted by sliding up, by use
of a lever, when the tide is pressing the valve to the aperture; whereas
were it merely to open by its hinges, it could not be done until after the fall
of the tide on that side, or higher rise of the water on the opposite side.
This simple improvement is of great convenience and utility.

When thus embarked, wide ditched, and as yet but very imperfectly clear-
ed, the land is put the next season under rice culture. The then still re-
maining higher level of the surface, and the open, loose, and permeable tex-
ture of the soil, filled as it is with roots and other undecomposed vegeta-
ble matter, make this slight drainage sufficient at first, and perhaps for some

104 AGRICULT^URAL SURVEY

years after. As the surface subsequently becomes lower, and more com-
pact, by decomposition, settling, and tillage, more close and perfect drain-
age will be needed. And the natural drains furnished by the former beds
of crooked creeks and small " leads'' are deepened, and side, or " spring"
ditches will then be required, and should be cut 3 or 4 feet wide^ along the
foot of all the high lands, whence springs ooze out. Afterwards, when fur^^
ther drainage is found wanting, straight drains are cut in each field, 20 to
24 inches wide and 3 feet deep, parallel to the longest straight side of each
field, and to each other, discharging at each end into main ditches, and ei-
ther 300 or 150 feet apart, according to the wants of the land. After ano-
ther or more crops, the intervals left between these narrow drains are split
in two by other similar drains ; and again, when needed, others made in like
manner to subdivide the land, until these parallel drains are at every 75 feet
apart, as is usual lower down Waccamaw Island, where the freshets have
less effect to flood and low tides more effect to drain, or at 37 1-2 feet, as
usual higher up the rivers. The working acre is not the same size, of
4,840 square yards ; but, as marked and estimated in all culture in low«r
South-Carolina is a space of 300 feet by 150, or 5,000 square yards. And
thence, the drainage at 75 yards is technically called '' Quarter draining,"
and that at 37 1-2 yards as " Half-quarter draining." When the drains
are very long, it is usually best to intersect them at right-angles, by cross-
drains, at distances of 3 and 4 half acres apart. With making all these, the
general and usual plan of draining is complete : and thereafter, the
planter has but to preserve and keep in perfectly good condition for operation,
his embankments, ditches, and flood-gates, or tide-trunks. And to do this
requires continued care, and annual and great labor, which are increased
greatly according to the amount of omissions or defects of the early con-
struction of the embankment, or retaining of sufficient out-side margin. Re-
gularly every winter as or early as may be in spring, all the drains are
cleared out, and such of the main ditches as require it ; and the mud from
the latter used to partially repair the waste of the adjacent banks. The
further waste and defects of the banks, made necessarily by decomposition of
the vegetable portion of the earth itself, or by its being washed away by
the waves of the river, or of the " flows" dashed against the banks, are re-
paired by earth from the most convenient places — and generally (and des-
tructively for the future,) by cutting away the out-side margin, until none is
left, and the whole force of the breaking waves is thus allowed to be spent
upon the embankment on the river-side. The consequences of this very ge-
neral error will be again brought into view.

When a considerable leak has been made through, the bank is cut
through at that place down to the leak, and the passage carefully stopped.
When an old bank has by neglect become generally leaky, or admitting
oozing water, it is " split" or " centre-ditched." A narrow ditch is dug
leno-thwise along its middle, and down below the leaks, and the opened
space is then filled up by " slush," or the soft mud obtained by clearing out
the ditches. A better filling material for such a central ditch is used by
some persons in the purest sand they can obtain. This prevents the bur-
rowing of snakes, craw-fish, and other small animals, which often make
leaks.

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 105

Culture of Rice.

Uice is an aquatic plant, and naturally, it may be inferred, its growth was
on lands always under water, or saturated with it whenever not altogether
covered. And under culture, and even when in other than in its native re-
gion, doubtless rice would prefer the continuance of water. But other
needs than the mere supply of food for the plants have to be provided for,
which require a dry condition of the soil, at some periods. And fortunately,
rice is so hardy that it will grow either under water or on dry land, and
with violent alternations of these opposite conditions. It is necessary that
the land should be dry to prepare for and plant the crop — also for the pur-
pose of removing v/ecds, which being native to the soil and climate, are
therefore more hardy than the cultivated crop — and again to reap and re-
move the matured crop. But it would seem to be the general principle of
the culture, that the growing rice should be key)t covered with water as
much as is consistent with effecting the foregoing objects; and with another
important exception, to indulging its aquatic nature and preference, which
exception is, to avoid too sudden and thorough changes from the wet to the
dry condition, or rather from the effects of those conditions.

Preparation of Land and Ploughing.

The flooding nnd drying of the rice land, when new, is conducted much
in the same manner as in after time; but the preparation for, and tillage
must vary, according to thf> state of the land and its wants, while the stumps,
roots, and other superabundant and fine vegetable matters are gradually
rotting away, and the soil consolidating and becoming lower and closer.
Passing over the less regular operations of earlier years, let us suppose the
latter condition reached; and the proper and usual course of culture, suita-
ble to this permanent condition, will be now stated.

We suppose the field to have been in rice the preceding year, and it is
never otherwise on new and good land, and very rarely on any, — if the land
be still new, or the soil loose enough, and sometimes also on old land, ma-
ny persons, just before planting time, open new trenches for planting
between the rows of the Inst year, the stubble having been burned off pre-
viously. But usually, and especially on old land, the whole surface is
broken up flush, either by the hoe or the plough. The plough is far from
being in general use ; nor indeed is it admissible except on well drained
land, and also firm lind, such as the Peedee swamps. Even in these cases,
some object to its being used every spring, but prefer it in every other
spring, alternating with breaking by hoeing. This is because fearing to
make the subsoil too close by pressure. The breaking, whether by hoe or
plough, rarely exceeds 3 inches deep ; the deepest hoeing, done by sinking
in the ordinary hoes " up to the eye," cannot be more than 4 inches, owing
to the oblique direction of the cut. It is aimed to subvert the earth by the
hoe ; but this is always but imperfectly done, as is shown in the first flow
by the quantity of floating stubble and roots, which had bren left on the sur-
fkce. I should have stated that the stubble of the preceding crop is most
generally burnt ofll' before the breaking up of the ground, or otherwise

106 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

is turned in by the plough or hoe. If the birds had not been early enough
in coming, and numerous enough to eat up all the shattered grains of the
last year's crop of rice, the turning the stubble in, by planting al] remaining
grains, tends to increase the growth of volunteer rice — which evil, in such
case, the other plan of burning to stubble would lessen.

After the land is dug up, the next process is to "slush" or clean out all
the drains. When planting time draws near, part of the land, say about
one third, is " mashed," that is, the clods chopped and the surface levelled
by hoes. This is sometimes expedited by previous harrowing, but it is not
a general practice. The balance of the land is mashed as wanted for plant-
ing, and just before the planting.

The time to begin planting is from March 20th to April 1st. For this,
the land, having been prepared and made fine enough by the " mashing'^
process, just before, the rows are marked off, 13 inches apart, as follows:
having determined on the direction of the rows, which is sometimes with
the drains, but by most good planters is preferred across the direction of the
drains, a number of rows, say 30 or more, are laid off 4 feet 4 inches apart^
by 3 stakes stuck up in each row, the end stakes or " trenching stakes" not
reaching near to the extremity of the field designed to be planted at one time.
Guided by these stakes, expert hands "trench" rows with trenching hoes^
about 2 inches deep. These hoes are narrowod to 3 or 4 inches at the
edge, and of course open trenches of that width. Next, another hand fol-
lows, and by similar trenches splits the intervals, and then splits the halves,
thus completing the rows at 13 inches. The expertness of the hands, and
the accuracy of their work in these operations are admirable. The seed is
then strewed along the trenches, and scattered as wide as their width, by
women. Two and a quarter bushels of good rice (rough, or in its close
envelope of chaff,) are by many deemed enough for an acre. The seeds are
covered immediately, either by rakes, hoes or covering boards, which are
fixed with handles like rakes, and struck on the edge of the row, so as to
throw a little earth upon the seeds.

" The sprout JloiD.^^ The planting of each field should be completed the
day it is begun, and on the next rise of tide, the trunk's outer door is lifted,
and the water admitted to overflow the field. It should cover every part;
and the depth is not deemed very material, though the shallowest complete
covering by water is enough, and perhaps the best for the seed. A deep
flow may injure the banks by washing them when the wind blows. Or it
may even break an interior bank, if weak, by inward pressure. If the land
be very light and loose vegetable soil, the water should be admitted slowly,
for fear of washing or even of floating some of the soil. As soon as a field
is completely flowed, and the remains of stubble and other floated trash is
wafted by the wind against a bank, it is drawn out by long handled rakes,
and burnt as soon as it becomes dry. The inner valve is closed, when
there is enough water on. This first watering is called the "sprout flow,"
and is continued until the seeds " pip," or the sprouts burst the envelope of
chaff, when the w^ater is drawn off The time of this flow depends on the
warmth of the weather. Sometimes only 4 or 5 days. In this most re-
markably cold and backward season, (1843) some plantings have been un-
der the sprout flow for 14 days, and the seeds have not yet (on April 7th)
sprouted.

" The point jtowP After the water has been drawn off, it is necessary

OP SOUTH CAROLINA. 107

to guard the fields from birds. The land remains uncovered and drained
until the plants have risen above ground enough for their fine spires to
show like small needles, when viewed before sunrise, while tipped with
dew, and when the rows can thus be seen for about 50 yards in length from
the banks. Then the water is admitted again to cover the field. This is
called the " point flow." It serves to protect the seeds from birds, to sof-
ten the hard lumps of earth, and to kill the grass, while it does not injure
the rice plants. This flow continues from 3 to 7 da3's, and until the plants
are 3 or 4 inches high. If the water be continued longer, the plants grow
too slender and long, and will fall on the ground, when the support of the
water is taken away — though they will rise again ; and even were they
to rot off, in that case new leaves will spring out. It is preferable to see the
plants thus fall, rather than expose the rice too soon to the depredations of
birds.

As the different fields, or separately embanked portions, are succes-
sively planted (and the planting is usually continued from 4 to 5 weeks,) of
course the flowing should follow in like order. Thus while water is going
upon one piece, it may be passing off from another ; and the separate but
adjacent fields present all the various states of flooding and drying.

Planting in " open trench." The foregoing description applies only
when the plan of covering the seeds by earth is adopted. There is also in
general use, and latterly a more extensively pursued plan, oi not covering
the seeds, and which will be now described.* For this mode, before
planting, the seeds are " clayed." This consists in pouring water in which
clay has been mixed and is suspended over a pile of seed rice, which
is kept stirred and worked up until every grain is wetted. If this claying
were not done, the small and short fibres on the grain would prevent the
immediate access of the flow water, and the grains would float, which they
cannot do. With this treatment, after being "clayed" (the effect of which
is so slight as scarcely to alter the appearance of the grains,) the rice is
dried enough to be distributed easily, and strewed in the trenches as before
described. But no covering of earth is given ; and as fast as each separate
piece of land is thus planted, (or even before the last of it is finished,) the
outer trunk door is lifted, and the tide admitted, slowly and graduUy at first,
to flow the land. The land remains undisturbed under this flow until the
sprouts, which are at first white, become green, or the plants rise high
enough to " fork," or for the first two leaves to separate, which will be when
the plants are one and a half or two inches high, and at from 10 to 30 days,
according to the weather. After this, the water is passed off, and the land
dried. Floating trash should previously be removed, as before stated. If
the surface should afterwards become too dry, the water is admitted to flow
in for a single flood tide, to barely wet the soil, be kept shut in during the
next ebb, and passed out and again excluded with the first lowering of tide
thereafter.

By this method (of "planting in open trench") the longer duration of the
first flowing unites and brings into one the " sprout," and the " point flow"

* From a communication to the State Agricultural Society by the Hon. R. F. W. Alls-
ton, which has been published .since this report was written, I learned that the honor of
having first used and introduced this important improvement in rice culture, is due to
John H. Allston, Esq.

lOS AGRICULTURAL ^URVfiY

of the covered plantins:. At the stages now readied by both, it may be con-
sidered that the plantings on the two methods cease to differ, and thereafter
the crops on both are treated alike, and will be described as one.

The advantages of the " Open Trench" plan are the following:

First; The whole labor of covering is saved, which requires twice as
much labor as the strewing the seeds.

Second: The depredations of birds and other vermin are prevented.

Third: Most of the seeds of " Volunteer Rice" and other weeds and
grass seeds, may be presumed to have been drawn out-side of the trenches in
opening them ; and instead of being again drawn back into the drills of
rice in the earth, as must be done when the rice is covered, these seeds re-
main and grow out-side of the drills, and may afterwards be more easily
destroyed by hoeing or pulling out.

Fourth : If a freshet of the river compels the water of the " Sprout Flow"
to be kept up much longer than the prescribed termination, the covered rice
is apt to rot ; of which there is no danger on the ^' Open Ttench" plan. The
cause of this important difference is not understood — though it is supposed
to be the beneficial influence of light in the one case, and its exclusion in the
other.

There are also countervailing objections to the " Open Trench" plan,
which will be named :

First : The long continuation of the water, (which sometimes, in early
plantings or backward seasons, may extend to 25 or 30 days,) promotes the
growth of w^ater grasses.

Second: In light soil, the loose mould maj?- be so moved by the agitation
of the water by high winds, as to cover much of the seed unequally and too
deep.*

Third: The same operation is injurious to ditches and drains, by carry-
ing soft earth into them.

And fourth: By the dashing of the Avaves washing the sides of the
banks, which last is the greatest defect in the plan.

The balancing of the advantages and disadvantages of the " Open
Trench" plan prevents either that or the other mode being generally adopt-
ed exclusively. It is deemed best to choose between them according to cir-
cumstances ; and usually, to plant and cover in part of the fields, say for
about one-third of the crop, and to leave the balance in open trench.

First and Second Hoeings, and the " Long Flow."

The rice (on both the foregoing plans of planting) from the removal of
the water, as already stated, remains dry until the plants have acquired
enough size and strength to resist the pressure of the light earth as falling
from the hoes. Then the intervals between the rows are hoed, by chopping
short and shallow, suited to the then low state of the ])lants, and care should
be taken not to cover the plants by clods ; and all clods left previously on
the plants should be cleared off at this hoeing.

♦ Tills ol)j(;ction may be easily obviated by letting the loose pulverized mould settle
before lowin^ the seed. A rain will effect this purpose ; and without rain, it may be
done by turnmg in water for a single tide, and drying just before sowing the rice.

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 109

The rice land is left dry from the first hoeing until after the second,
which is to be given from 14 to 18 days thereafter. This second hoeing is
given a little deeper than the first ; and any large weeds or grass then dis-
tinguishable in the rows%re pulled up. The rice then has 3 leaves and is
6 or 8 inches high. If in dry weather, the land is left dry a day or
two after this second hoeing, for the uprooted weeds to die, before the
next water is turned on ; but if wet weather, the land is flowed immediately.
This is the '• long flow," The water is raised at first above the tops of the
plants, so as to float off trash, bugs, &:c., which floating stuff will be driven
by the wind into corners of the fields, and should be gathered up and re-
moved. Then the water is lowered so that, if the surface of the field be as
level as usual, (and as it ought to be,) the tips of the plants are then seen
above on the highest parts of the field. Then the water is lowered very
gradually, and during several days, until the tips of about two-thirds of the
plants of the entire field, or divis-ion of land, are above the surface of the wa-
ter. The flow is then kept stationary at this precise height, (which is fixed
by making and . observing marks on the trunk posts,) for a duration of
from 10 days on the lighest land to 20 on the stiffest, when the water is again
entirely drawn off, which closes the " long flow." This is the most im-
portant flow, and its execution requires judgment and careful attention. At
this critical period, a field of rice may be much injured either by too vieep
flowing, or by suddenly lowering and taking off the water. If the flow be
continued too long, or the water be drawn off when the roots of the rice are
in an exhausted condition, the plants will " fox," or take a reddish-brown
tint.

Some planters change the water during this flow, preserving the same
level, but others object to it. If the same water is continued, it ferments,
and a frothy scum rises, which being collected by the wind in particular
spots, will adhere to and kill the plants. To prevent this, in such places
the water is beaten or agitated, which causes the scum to break and sink to
the bottom.

Third and Fourth Hoeings, and the "Lay-by Flow."

When the earth has become dry, the third hoeing is given, still deeper
than the preceding, and afterwards each hand passes over his task, and pulls
the grass out of the rows. The field then remains untouched and kept well
drained until the plants are about to joint, when the fourth hoeing is given,
light, and pulverizing all large masses left by the preceding deeper digging.
The water is then again put on, and kept at about the same height as dur-
ing the preceding " long flow ;" and this is maintained until the rice is
fully headed and the blossoms dropped. The water is then raised as high
as may be done without danger to the banks. It serves to support the
plants, and pnevent their being laid or tangled by high winds. This en-
tire flowing is termed the " lay-by water," it being the last. It should have
been mentioned that during the early and low stage of it, there is a dis-
tinct operation of the hands passing over the ground with baskets, and pull-
ing out as much as possible of the volunteer rice, tick-grass, and other
weeds, which would, if left, by admixture, injure the quality of the grain.
The volunteer rice is carried off; and all other weeds are knotted together

110 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

in handfuls and trodden in the wet earth under water, so as to be certainly
killed. These two operations are periormed at different and the most con-
venient times during the flow.

Harvesting.

The rice ripens usually from the 1st to the 10th of September. When
all the grains are hard except the lower two or three at bottom of each head,
(though the stem and leaves are still quite green,) the crop is ready for
reaping. And when the time for the commencement of reaping is deter-
mined upon, the water is drawn off of the field just the day before, or it may
be best the preceding ebb tide ; and the reaping may be begun when the
flow has not yet entirely passed off The reaping is performed by the sic-
kle. Each hand usually carries a breadth of 3 rice rows. Some planters
have 4 rows carried. The stubble is left about 12 inches high — or higher
if of rank growth. The reaped rice is laid in handfuls as cut, in rows,
on the stubble, to cure. The stubble is abundantly thick to thus support the
rice, unless the growth is very thin, or has partially failed.

All the rice reaped from morning until noon of one day is usually
enough cured to be sheaved by noon the next day, and removed to the
barn-yard before night. The test of its being dry enough, is when no juice
can be made to exude from the joints, when twisted together by strong pres-
sure. The rice is then bound or tied up in sheaves, as large as single
lengths of the reaped rice will serve to tie around. The sheaves are gene-
rally made smaller than this. The sheaved rice is immediately carried to
the barn-yard on the heads of the laborers, if near enough, or by water in
large ^0-^5, if far from the barn. It is there put up in small cocks or ricks,
to remain until dry enough to be put into larger long ricks, or larger round
stacks, in remain until taken down for thrashing. The mode of putting up
the rice in the ricks or stacks cannot be well made clear by mere descrip-
tion. The execution, however, is excellent, and of the round stacks is admi-
rable. The latter is the best mode, when well performed. The loss or in-
jury of the grain by the .exposure before thrashing is not usually consider-
able, when the ricking or stacking has been well executed.

Volunteer Rice.

What is called " Volunteer Rice" is the product of grains scattered at the
previous harvest, and which remain on or under the surface of the ground
through winter, and come up with the next planted crop. By this long ex-
posure to cold, wet, and overflow, as would occur in a state of nature, it
seems that the plant is disposed to revert from its artificial character and
qualities, as before improved by culture, to its previous natural character
and habits. At least this is the only reason that I can conceive for the sin-
gular production and qualities of volunteer rice. The plants thus produced,
and also the product of their seeds, fas generally believed,) if saved with the
crop and planted, become intermixed with the good seed, have grains with a
red interior skin or pellicle instead of white, as of ordinary and good rice.
There are 4 different and common kinds of volunteer rice, and even different

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. Ill

varieties among each of these, in the lighter or deeper tint of redness, or less
or greater thickness of the red pellicle. These 4 kinds of red or volunteer
rice, all agreeing in having a red pellicle, are distinguished as follows :

First : White chaffed samples.

Second: With white chaff, having a black point, and spike to one end of
the chaff This is the ordinary and general kind.

Third : With yellow chaff, and having a long point.

The seeds of all these three fall off so easily, as rarely to be harvested
and brought to the barn-yard ; and especially the last, which drops its seed
before they seem ripe.

Fourth : With yellow chaff, and like the last, except that the seeds do not
fall off in the field, and the grains cannot readily be distinguished from good
rice, while the chaff remains unbroken.

All these, except the last kind, may be distinguished in the field before
maturing the seeds, and by using care and labor enough, the plants pulled
out and destroyed. But the last kind cannot be known either on the stalk
or in the chaff But with all the care used to keep land clear of red rice, it
continues more or less infested with all the kinds. And though the grain is
not the worse in anything but a slight remains of red tint, so despotic is
Fashion in the market, that a crop of rice loses greatly in appreciation if
thus showing many grains of volunteer rice. I have been informed that in
Italy the admixture is not regarded by the buyers for home consumption.
The plants of volunteer rice are usually the most hardy, thrifty and luxu-
riant of the crop — which helps to confirm the opinion that it is rice ap-
proaching more nearly to its natural and hardy character.

As there are different varieties of cultivated rice, it is probable that to this
difference of origin may be owing the different kinds of volunteer rice. A
white chaffed rice was formerly generally cultivated, which has been uni-
versally substituted by the " gold seed" or yellow chaffed rice.

The circumstances stated require great care to prevent as much as possi-
ble the growth, and still more the increase, of volunteer rice, which is in-
deed a very injurious weed to the crop ; both because its own product (if it
were worth anything,) is mostly lost to the crop, and moreover that what of
it is saved serves to contaminate the seed, and lower the quality and market
price of the crop for sale.

Resting and Manuring Rice Land.

The cultivation of rice on embanked marsh lands is generally continued
year after year, for a long time, without cessation or rest to the land. But
rich and deep as is the alluvial soil, it becomes tired and gradually less
productive under this unceasing and unchanged production of rice, and it is
found profitable to give rest, and also manure, to the lands when long culti-
vated. Most planters, who have land enough, give a year's rest at distant
intervals, and always find a profit from it, in the increase of the next year's
cultivation. It may be doubted whether this increase may not be truly as-
cribed in part to the alternation or change of growth, as well as to the im-
provement of fertility. Mr. John H. Allston rests his land (which is clay
soil on the Pee Dee) for two years together, keeping it dry during the
time ; and he finds that this, if done once in 10 or 12 years, will add 50 per
cent, to the next crop, or raise it from a previous product of 40 bushels to 60

112 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

per acre. Manuring with the rice- straw is also practised with advantage
by those planters who have no high-land or other culture, or not enough to
require the straw as manure. Dr. Heriot is one of these, and has lately ap-
plied his rice-jtraw to fields thrown out of rice culture for that year, and cul-
tivated (dry, of course,) in cowpeas. This change and manuring he has
found to double the next crop of rice. Colonel Belin has, by manuring and
rest, made upwards of 90 bushels of (rough) rice to the acre. Both he and
Dr. Heriot own and reside on Sandy Island, of which barren sandy soil is
their only high-land, and on which their manure was before entirely thrown
away, or left to rot in waste, without producing the most transient productive
power.

Some of the Other Approved Modes of Rice Culture Described.

There are other approved and practised methods of rice culture, which
vary so much from the mxOre usual and general method described in the
.foregoing pages, that they require, and will receive, separate notice. And
there are minor variations, too numerous to even mention in detail. The
variations, whether great or small, mostly consist in giving more or less
water at different stages of growth. And the two extremes of management
present almost entire dry culture, (which is only adopted where no water or
wet land can be used, and to small extent) and entire watered or flowed
growth of the plants. Taken together, the great variety and opposition of
conditions under which rice may be grown, prove that it is t'le most hardy
of all cultivated plants, and that its amphibious nature will enable it to
thrive both dry and flooded, and to withstand any but the greatest sources
of injury, both from excess of water or its absence.

Plan of extended flowing. I will first mention a variation from the
foregoing general plan, recently practised and preferred by Mr. John H.
Allston, on Peedee, who is one of the most judicious and successful
rice planters of the State, and who, to long experience, adds the further ad-
vantage of having cultivated in several different parts of the State, and on
all varieties of soil. He does not deem any one method as the best for all
situations and soils. And Avhile concurring in the preceding description,
and approving the directions in general, he prefers, for his own lands, to
make the following important variation. The soil of his land is generally
stiff, or more clayey than usual, which quality enables land io bear
water better — and his situation is in the upper part of the available rice re-
gion of the Peedee — where the occurrence of hi"h freshets begins to operate
to prevent certain and effective draining at any desired time.

This method agrees with the early management described according to
the open trench plan, in preference, when circumstances permit, up to the
time when the " long flow" is to be drawn off (See page 108.) Instead of
thus drawing oflJ'the water, Mr. Allston retains it to the end of the growth,
or until the crop is ready for reaping, taking care to raise the water gra-
dually as the rice grows, and to partially change or " freshen" the
wat 'r frequently, by turning it out during one ebb tide, and in the
next flood. But when the growth of grass shows that hoeing is needed,
the water is drawn ofl', and the laborers hoe the ground, pick out long
grass, and then the water is returned immediately. This variation of plan

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 113

consists simply in uniting the "long- flow" with the " lay-by flow." And
when, (as usual) also, on the "open trench" plan (which brings together the
"sprout flow" and the "point flow") this is almost tntirc ly a water or flood-
ed culture and growth of rice, with the important exception of the dry inter-
val, and two hoeings between the end of the "point flow" and the putting on
the " long flow," as described at page 109.

Mr. Allston considers this more extended flooding, (with the limitations
stated,) to have these advantages: — 1st, of lessening manual labor: 2nd, of
preventing rust, to which disease rice is subject on some lands, and which
prevention is made the more certain by frequent changes of the water; and
3rd, that on this plan, more rice and of better quality is produced.

" Leggett's, or the sixty days^ water plan.^^ There are two other plans
of rice culture, which agree in giving much more watering than usual, and
which are severally advocated and practised by some good planters on Pce-
dee and Black riv( rs. The first and most celebrated of these is called the
"sixty days water," or Leggett's plan, after the name of the person who
commenced its successful execution. This plan diflfers from the general
and more usual course in the following particulars:

The rice is generally planted on the " open trench" plan, and as usual
the water put on immediately after, and kept on high enough to cover all
the land until the plants reach the " needle state" — that is, when the point
of the spire begins to flatten. The plants are then from 2 to 4 inches high.
This is also called the "jumping state" — because the roots have so little
hold of the soil, that the agitation of the water by the wind often breaks the
roots of the plants loose, and they then suddenly rise, or "jump" up, and float
on the water. Then the water is drawn so low that the tops of the plants are
barely exposed on the lowest parts of the ground, (and of course leaving
naked the higher spots.) The water is not permitted to go lower; and as
the rice grows, the water is again gradually raised, (but always taking
care not to cover the tops,) until all the land is again under water, if the
unevenness of the^surface of the ground does not forbid. The water is par-
tially changed every second night, by running out one tide and one in.
But this entire time of flowing must not exceed 60 days for early planted
rice, or 50 for late planted, and of more rapidly advancing growth ; and
usual l}'- before that time the plants will be at the proper state to lower the
flow, u'hich should be done when the plants are from 6 to 12 inches high,
and strong enough to bear the fiist hoeing, and when new upper roots have
just put out, and are about half an inch long. The water is then lowered
as much as may be, without the slender and weak plants leaning too much.
The working is then performed by the laborer's drawing the hoes along
the intervals, cutting very shallow, which serves to cut up volunteer rice
and orrass, and sweeos soaie loose earth around the bottoms of the stalks of
rice. The water is then raised again to its previous height, and kept up
about a week, making in all about 60 or 65 days of continued flowing.
Then it is drawn ofT entirely but gradually, so as not to let the plants fall
for want of support before the stalks strengthen^ and the land is made dry,
and kept so for some 30 or 40 days. During this time the Ijnd is hoed usu-
ally twice — the first time deeply, and the next, chopping the rough lumps
fine. The water must be again put on before the jointing of the rice, which
is about 90 days from the planting, and kept on as usual till drawn ofl'to be-
gin reaping. It should be kept during this lime also at the same height as at

N

114 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

the previous highest watering, and the water changed once or twice a week,
by turning it out one tide and in the next, at night when tides suit, to pre-
vent injury from the sun on the plants while left bv the water.

" The all-ioater culture.''^ What is called the " all-water plan" differs from
Leggett's in these respects : at the " needle state" of the rice, the water is
drawn off for three days, for the roots to strike well into the ground. Then
the water is returned and the field treated precisely as on Leggett's plan,
until the time (at or near 60 to 65 days from planting,) when on Leggett's
plan the water is drawn off and the land drained. Instead of that, on the
"all-water" plan, the flowing is continued until the time for reaping, except
that when the crop needs hoeing, the water is drawn off entirely, and re-
turned immediately after the hoeing. Three or four hoeings are given in
all. Also, when the little white worm attacks the roots of the rice, (which
is evident from the appearance of the plants in spots,) the land is made dry
for from 3 to 7 days, to kill the worms, and at the same time to hoe. At
the last hoeing, as usual, the operation of pulling out the long grass is per-
formed. The last hoeing is preferred by some, when the rice head is " in
tight barrel," or just before it puts out. But this is deemed by others to be
a hazardous practice.

The first commencement of this "all-water system" was caused by acci-
dent and supposed disaster, and not by design or upon a previously formed
theory. But having been found beneficial, it was continued, and has now
been several years in use, and preferred, by several good and judicious
planters on Black river. It was Mr. Stephen C. Ford whom accident cau-
sed to introduce, and then continue to pursue, this method His design was
to adhere to Leggett's method ; but just at the time for drawing off the " 60
days water," and drying the land, a freshet overtopped his banks as well
as his rice, and continued so long that thewater could not be drawn ofi' af-
terwards, without prostrating the then slender and w^eak stalks. It was
therefore necessary to hold on the water so long, and reduce it so gradually,
for the puipose of strengthening the stalks, that the flow was kept up nearly
all the remainder of the growing season. It was found advantageous, in-
stead of a total loss, as was at first expected, and so the practice was adopted.
The Messrs. Ford deem it greatly preferable to the ordmary method, at
least for the Black. River lands, which have much more vegetable matter in
their constitution than the Peedee and Santee rice lands, and which, there-
fore, as they suppose, require more water and take it belter. They consider
that under this system they make 10 or more bushels to the acre more than
would be made by the usual methods, and with much less labor.

Remarks on the several practices of culture. I learn from John W. Alls-
ton, that more than 30 years ago, Gen. Thomas Pinckney, on Santee, first
commenced a still more entire water culture of rice, and published a pam-
phlet to explain and advocate it. He kept on the water from planting the
seed, changing it often, but never draining it off, until to reap the crop. But
this course, with the want of hoeing and clearing processes, was found to
increase the growth of water grasses and weeds ; and after some years the
plan was abandoned by its introducer as well as by his followers. Long
afterwards, Mr. Leggett recommenced the system, with the important modi-
fications which have been described above ; and his method is now prefer-
red and pursued by many planters. And those who approve and those who

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 115

oppose his and the more extended " all-wp.ter" methods, are equally confi-
dent in their respective and opposite opii'ions.

The objections made to Leggett's method are these: 1st, that in lowering
the \vater in the early sta;Jes of growth, to suit the lowest parts of the field,
(see page 113,) the planter is compelled to leave all the higher parts naked,
and in what is called " a scalding state," which is the ill effect of hot sun
on ground not overflowed, but completely saturated with water; which state
sickens not only the young rice plants, but the hardiest aquatic grasses.
From the enfeebled condition thus produced, the plants take some time to
recover, even after the water has been returned to them. 2nd. The neces-
sary hoeing of the ground and picking of grass in shallow water must be
injurious to the- health of the laborers — and the operations also are apt to
be imperfectly executed, for want of the planter's personal supervision.
3rd. The destructive ravages of the root worm cannot always be quickly
stopped by applying the proper remedy of temporarily drying the land, be-
cause to remove the water suddenly would "throw down" rice that had
been upheld long by the support of water.

The advocat-es of the system (and also of the " all-water system") deny
that the mode of cuUure is injurious to the health of the laborers, and as-
sert the contrary, because the labor is much lighter.

A general remark should be made, which applies to every mode of cul-
ture. When water entirely and deeply covers growing rice, the necessity
of thr plant for communication with the air causes it to grow in height (or
^'stretch out") rapidly, at the expense of the size and strength of the stalk,
which becomes too slender and feeble to stand erect except by the aid and
support of the water. As soon as the top stretches above the surface of the
water, and the leaf can imbibe air, the previous rapid upward growth ceases,
or is greatly checked for the necessary time, and the stalk begins to in-
crease in size and strength, so as subsequently to permit the water to be
gradually and safely drawn off! If the high flooding be continued too long
above the top of the plants, they die. If it be withdrawn too suddenly, the
slender plants fall to the ground, die above ground and rot off', and a new
and rapid growth springs out from the root.

These peculiarities of the growth and dangers to, as well as recuperative
powers of, the rice, require attention throughout every kind of culture. And
on them was founded a peculiar method, which formerly was known as
" Macauley's system," and had advocates- and followers, but which has
been entirely abandoned, and needs to be mentioned only as a matter of cu-
riosity in rice culture. On this plan the water was kept up high overtop-
ping the plants, (but not too long) until they had been drawn up as slender
as threads. The water was then quickly drawn off', and the land dried.
The plants were prostrated, and the fallen leaves rotted off', and new leaves
sprung out with great vigour, and the plant had a perfectly clean soil to
grow in, as the previous early and long flow had destroyed or kept down
all grasses.

Tkrashing. The thrashing of rice was formerly done altogether by the
flail, which laborious and tedious process is still in use on many plan-
tations. But generally, now, thrashing machines are used, Avorked by
horses, and on some plantations by steam engines. The general principle
of the thrashing machine is the same with the spike machines used to
thrash wheat. One worked by 6 mules will thrash commonly from 250

116 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

to 300 bushels of rough rice per day. The steam machine of Mr. J. I. Mid-
dleton thrashes from 600 to 1,000 bushels a day.

The Pounding and Preparing Rice for Market.

The rough rice is next carried through all the processes connected with
the main one of " pounding," to be prepared for market.

The p.)unding-mill on many plantations is an appendage of the rice fields,
it being worked by the tide, and one or more of the separately embanked
divisions being used as a pond to receive the flood-tide, the discharge of
which during low water drives the water-wheel, and all the machinery.
This conversion of rice fields to a mill-pond is done only from after the re-
moval of the crop to the next spring, when it is necessary to dry the land just
before the latest planting. This flooding of the land is found to enrich it, and
to make it produce better. But it is more apt to become foul with weeds,
for want of the earlier and better preprration which the other lands have.

But since large steam mills for pounding rice have been erected in Char-
leston, most of the rice is sent there " in the rough" to be pounded. And it
is understood that plantation tide mills are of so little prodt that few if any
others will be constructed, and those now operating are used only because
the great e.xpense of their erection has already been incurred.

When brought to the pounding-mill, the rice is first raised by elevators
to the upper floor, Avhere it is passed through a rolling sand-screen.
The operation of this is to separate all the sand, the foot stalks, and also the
smallest grains of the rough rice, all of which fall separately. The rice
thus cleansed passes from the screen by a spout into the mill-stones, which
grind off the outer husk or close envelope of chaff, without breaking many
of the enclosed grains. Perhaps about three-fourths of the chafTis thus re-
moved from the grains ; and the balance is cracked and loosened, but still
adheres to the grain. The whole passes from the stones as fast as ground,
to a wind-fan, by which the loose chafl* is separated from the grain. The
chaff is conveyed away by a spout, without the building, and usually goes
to waste. The grain is drawn by hand labor into the ground-rice room, or
bin, which is next adjacent, and from which it dei-^ctnds by spouts to the
mortars below. These spouts have closing slides, to stop the passage of the
grain when the mortars are filled. In these mortars large pe'sth s or up-
right beaters shod with irori operate. The efl^ect of their pounding is to
take ofi'all the still remaining outer husks, which had been loosened but
not removed by the grinding ; and also, to entirely divest the grains of the
thin white inner-coat or pellicle, which covers and adheres closely to the
grain. The hollows of the mortars are egg-shaped — the upper part or
opening being rather smaller than midway lower dovvn. About 4 1-2
bushels of rice is put into each mortar. To prevent the pestles brea icing
the grains at the beginning ofthe pounding, there is used a "cotter," which
is a broad hoop or hollow cylinder, made of a strip of sheet-iron, 6 inches
broad, and about 12 inches in the diameter of the circle'. The cotter is
placed in the mortar so that the pestle shall fall within its circle, and is sunk
its depth in the rice. The operation is, that the dtscnt ofthe pestle in the
middle ofthe mortar drives the rice somewhat up the outside ; and the out-
side ofthe mortar being contracted towards the top, the highest grain at the
outside falls within the cotter; and is exposed to the next blow oi'the pestle.

OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 117

Thus a continued circulation is preserved. But after awhile, and when the
pellicle is partly detached, the grain becomes warm, and feels slippery, and
will then keep in proper circulation of itself The cotter is then no longer
wanting and is removed. Just before the pounding has produced its
complete effect, the grains of rice sometimes become so slippery that they
yield too readily to the pestle, and there is danger, from that opposite cause,
of the pestle breaking rice, by descending too easily to the bottom. This is
prevented by throwing in a little " head rice," or even chaff When the
pounding has effected its purpose, the pestles are lifted and secured, and the
rice taken out of the mortars and carried up to the rolling screen. This
screen is made like the bolting-cloths of wheat-flour mills, except that the
selves are much coarser, and made of woven wire, and of different sizes.
The first division separates the finest parts broken by the pestles, or what
is called the " rice flour." The second division separates the " small
rice," that is, the smaller broken grains, and the small grass-seeds, if any.
With these two parts thus separated will come away the particles of chaff
The third division of the screen takes out the " middling- rice," or the laro--
est of the broken, rice that is separated. The fourth division passes out the
prime or market rice ; which, however, still is not yet fit for the market.
At the end of the screen falls out the " head rice," which consists of grains
too large to pass through the last division of the screen, and which is either
of grains not entirely freed from their covering, or otherwise of the largest
and finest grains. This mixture is the material above-mentioned as being
put ba:k into the mortars. Each of the other portions pass by different spouts
to different places. The " rice flour" needs no further process, and passes to its
place of deposite. The " small rice" passes to a fan, which separates from it the
chaff and dust, and thence to the barrel. The middling rice also goes
through another fan, and thence to its barrel. The prime or " whole
rice," and great body of the product, is conveyed to the brushing screen.
This consists of a hollow cylinder of woven wire, standing perpendicular
and fixed, in which turns with great velocity a smaller wooden cylinder, to
the outside of which there are nailed strips of sheepskin, with the wool on,
about 4 inches wide. These strips are nailed on the cylinder by one edge
only, lengthwise,and somewhat spiral in direction, and parallel to each other.
When the cylinder is turning the centrifugal force causes the loose sides of
the strips of sheepskin to extend outward and the wool to brush closely against
the surrounding wire-screen. Between the screen and the sheepshin the rice
is passed, and by the friction receives that polish which is now required by
purchasers, and deemed essential to the perfection of the commodity. Next
it passes through a fan, to remove all flour or dust, and thence to the bar-
rels, in which the rice is packed and sent to market. The barrel contains
600lbs. ; and it requires from 18 to 20 bushels of prime rough rice to pro-
duce a barrel for market.

The small grained rice separated by the sand-screen, when enough has
been accumulated, is carried through all the foregoing operations, and pro-
duces a grain for market, smaller and therefore lower-priced, though as
good as any. The "middling rice" is sometimes again screened, and the
larger grains (called " cracked rice") sent to market. The remainder,
with the " small rice," is consumed on the plantation, for provisions for the
negroes, and often in part for the proprietor's table. It is even preferred

118 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY.

by many persons to the market rice. The " rice flour" is fed to cattle and
hogs, and is a very fattening food.

Usual Tasks of Laborers in Rice Culture and the Connected

Operations.

The various daily tasks of laborers in the operations necessary for rice
culture, are as follows :

Ditching of New Swamp Wood-land^ (for men only) — 500 solid feet ;
which, however, has to be altered according to greater or less difficulties.
In new cypress-swamp, 200 feet may be enough ; and in embanked salt-
marsh, where no trees grow, 1000 feet may be dug.

Cutting Drains^ (Men) — 20 inches wide and 3 feet deep, running

feet.

Digging stiff Land early ^ and turning in the Stubble^ (Men and Wo-
men)— One-half acre to 3 hands.

Digging the same late, and the stubble burnt off — One-half acre to 2
hands.

In light lands, a proportional slight increase.

Levelling or " mashing''' land — One-quarter to one-half an acre.

Hoeing Rice — First hoeing, when lumpy and hard to clear the drills, 20
compasses, or two-thirds of a half acre. (The compass space is 5 feet, and its
measure is always made across the half acre of 150 feet, which is 30 com-
passes.)

The usual task in first hoeing, is half an acre.

Second hoeing, usually half an acre — depending on condition of grass.

The third hoeing (deep) 20 compasses, or two-thirdsof half an acre, if on
stiff land. This includes hand-picking of grass.

Fourth hoeing, (light work,) and including hand-picking, half an acre.

Reaping Rice — Three-quarters of an acre. If new-ground and tangled
rice, much less.

Reaping, tying up sheaves, and carrying to the barn-yard — One-
quarter acre of each.

Thrashing by Flails — 600 sheaves by men ; 500 by women.

Making Barrels, (Cooper's task) — 3 per day.

Ploughing with two oxen (changed for another pair at midday) — One
acre a day. This includes the ground lost in and near ditches and drains.

Trenching (if on well-prepared land) — Three-quarters of an acre solid
trenching, 13 inch rows, for each able man.

Marking or Trenching every fourth row only — Nine-quarters of an
acre.

Sowing Rice — Three half acres, (with some, 2 acres.)

Covering Rice — Three quarters.

NOTE.

When resigning my office of Agricultural Surveyor of South-Carolina, and about to
close my labors in perfonnance of that trust, I beg leave to add some expressioa of my
acknowledgement and thanks to those citizens of the State who have, by more than or-
dinary attention, useful infomiation, or other aid, facilitated and furthered my in-
vestigations. The following names of persons to whom I have been thus indebted, are
placed somewhat in. the order of time of our meeting, and of the commencement of their
attentions or aid :

Dr. JOSEPH JOHNSON,

Rev. Dr. JOHN BACHMAN,

R. W. ROPER, (to whom also, as Chair-
man of the Committee of Agriculture, is
due the honor of zealously advocating
and procuring the institution of the Agri-
cultural Survey,)

Hon. MITCHELL KING,

RICHARD YEADON,

Dr. WM. G. RAMSAY,

JOHN S. BRISBANE,

Dr. SANFORD BARKER,

Col. JAMES FERGUSON,

WILLIAM CAIN,

Dr. EDMUND RAVENEL,

JOHN RIVERS,

Hon.WHITEMARSHB. SEABROOK,

Gov. JAMES H. HAMMOND,

JOHN A. RAMSAY,

ISAAC M. DWIGHT,

J. JENKINS MIKELL,

ROBERT BARNWELL,

JOSEPH HAZEL,

JOSEPH H. POPE,

FREDERICK G. FRASER,

A. HUGUENIN,

Gen. HOWARD,

AVILLIAM SINKLER,

JAMES GAILLARD,

HENRY W. RAVENEL,

MAZYCK PORCHER,

PHILIP PORCHER,

Dr. J. S. PALMER,

Col. S. J. PALMER,

Dr. ROBERT GOURDIN,

JOHN A. ALLSTON,

Col. R. F. W. ALLSTON,

J. I. MIDDLETON,

Dr. EDWARD HERIOT,

JOHN H. ALLSTON,

STEPHEN FORD,

S. C. FORD,

HENRY DAVIS, Sen.,

JOSEPH A. JOLLY,

CHRISTOPHER F. HAMPTON,

Dr. J. R. CHEVES,

Col. DAVID J. McCORD,

Dr. A. T. DARBY,

Gen. DAVID JAMISON,

JACOB STROMAN,

Dr. B. H. SWEATT,

CHARLES C. HAY,

JESSE CHERRY,

J. TERRY,

Hon. J. P. RICHARDSON,

Dr. C. R. F. BAKER,

Dr. WM. ANDERSON,

Dr. JAMES B. DAVIS,

WILLIAM K. DAVIS,

Rev. J. P. COOK,

Hon. JAMES A. BLACK,

Hon. JOHN C. CALHOUN,

J. O. LEWIS,

THOMAS M. SLOAN,

CHARLES T. HASKELL,

Hon. GEORGE McDUFFIE,

Dr. WM. V. JONES,

EDWARD G. PALMER,

DAVID GAILLARD,

Dr. JOHN DOUGLASS,

Dr. J. Y. MOORE,

Dr. THOMAS SMITH,

Col. JOHN N. WILLIAMS,

Professor LEWIS R. GIBBES,

Col. J. F. ERVIN, and

Rev. J. M. TIMMONS.

120 AGRICULTURAL SURVEY.

If the attentions merely of hospitality and kind feelings were also thus particularly ac-
knowledged, it would require that there should be named all of the very many persons
whose hospitality I have enjoyed, and the much greater number whose invitations I
could not accept. For all these and other favors I have the more reason to be grateful,
because I had come into South-Carolina, upon the duty to which I had been invi-
ted, almost a stranger, personally, to every resident of the State.

EDMUND RUFFIN.

Columbia, Nov, 30, 1843.

APPENDIX,

PAPERS REFERRED TO IN, OR CONNECTED WITH, THE REPORT

OP THE

AGRICULTURAL SURVEY.

Correspondence with and communications from Agricultural Societies

and individuals.

To Vie Hon, Whiiemarsh B. Seabiook, President of the State Agricultural Society of South
Carolina.

Sir : — For the fulfilment of my duties as agricultural surveyor of the State of South
Carolina, it is essential that my efforts shall have the support and aid of the agricultural
community, whose interests the survey was designed especially to promote. Deeming
it the most proper mode of seeking this needed and important aid, I take the liberty of
thus addressing the planters of South Carolina, and more especially the many agricul-
tural societies, through you, as the president of the State Agricultural Society which is
the representative body of all the others, and requesting your agency to induce the de-
sired action of the different agi'icultural societies. The act of the constituted authorities
of the State of South Carolina which invited me to her service is the most honorable
distinction which has yet been earned by my long continued efforts to advance agricul-
tural interests; and I am impelled by every consideration to desire that the services,
sought in my appointment, shall be as faithfully performed as zeal and industry and my
imperfect ability and means may permit. But all these, however faithfully api)lied, will
avail but little, unless aided and given effect to by the co-operation of some of the well
informed agriculturists of every section of the State, and in every department of agricul-
tural practice and inquiiy. Such co-operation and action, properly applied by the agri-
cultural societies, will leave to the surveyor the more humble, and yet the most useful
function of his office, that of serving as the organ or channel of communication, to receive
and bring together, fordiff'usion and general use, die vast amount of information already
in each particular section, and which may easily be collected and reported by the agricul-
tural societies, or by individuals. In this manner, the agricultural sunxy may lead to
important and general benefit, by inducing the furnishing of full and general informa-
tion. But without such aid, the surveyor's services must necessarily be confined to nar-
row limits, whether of space, or of subjects of investigation.

1

2 APPENDIX.

With these views, I respectfully submit for consideration the annexed list of general
and particular heads for inquiry, merely as suggestions or memoranda, on any of which,
or on any others more appropriate to the general object, information is requested to be
furnislied in reports from agricultural societies, with the design that such papers shall be
annexed entire to the surveyor's more general report of the progress of the work confided
to his charge. And besides such reports from societies, embi-acing many subjects, and
the general practices and the received opinions of practices in every section, it is hoped
that particular subjects of investigation and of instruction will be undertaken and reported
upon by any individuals disposed to render such service to agricultural improvement.

In regard to a few particular subjects of agricultural improvement, I am not so
distrustful of my ability to offer useful and profitable instruction, and therefore to these
subjects my own efforts and personal labors and researches will be first and more espe-
cially, though not exclusively directed. These are the seeking for, examining, and en-
deavoring to induce the use of the veiy extensive and as yet scarcely touched sources of
calcareous manures in South Carolina. To this subject, my personal attention and
particular advice and instructions will be given, and as early as possible, wherever they
will be enough valued to be put to immediate use ; and if I can thus induce some hun-
dreds of cultivators to begin during this season to apply marl or lime, there will be no
danger of the agricultural survey being hereafter deemed a useless or unprofitable mea-
sure, or that its cost will not be repaid tenfold in the results of the first year's operations.
Millions of dollars in value of newly created agricultural wealth will acciaie to the State
within a few years after the commencement of the general use of calcareous manures.
From my examinations already made, I feel authorized to assert that the marl (or soft
" limestone") formation of South Carolina, is more widely extended and abundant, more
rich in calcareous earth, and more generally accessible, and that the proper application
will be more profitable compared to the necessary out-lay, than of any other extensive
region yet known. Believing as I do that a new era of improvement will soon be en-
tered upon, by the bringing into proper use these calcareous manures, it is especially
interesting to mark the earliest progress ; and therefore it is desired that every case may
be reported generally of the use already made of marl or lime, and the results, whe-
ther of benefit or supposed failure ; and also all experiments that may be made during
this year, of which I trust many will be commenced even after this time.

Very respectfully,

EDMUND RUFFIN,

Agricultural Surveyor of the State of S. C.
Charleston, Feb. 23, 1843.

General Head. I. Geographical character of the particular Agricultural District or section

of country under consider atimi.

1. Situation and extent, and natural divisions.

2. Climate, and especially any peculiarities thereof, and the causes.

3. Surface and face of the country.

4. Minerals, especially such as may be valuable for agricultural or economical uses,

5. Water, in reference to uses of navigation, propelling machinery, irrigation, &c.

//. General description and management of land.

1. Cluantities of arable land, of meadow, of wood, of swamp or marsh, and of other
waste lands.

2. Soils and subsoils, and the actual productive value of lands in reference thereto.

3. Sizes of farms or plantations.

4. The usual crops, both of large and small culture, and rates of product.

5. Rotations or succession of crops.

6. Application of manures — kinds and quantities used.

7. Depth and manner of ploughing, (or of hoeing instead) and preparation for, and
tillage and general management of each of the several kinds of crops.

8. Exp ;nses 6f cultivation.

9. For. ign grain and bay "plTrcha3cd, and the general total cost.

APPENDIX. 3

///. General market prices of lands ^ past and present, and rate of rents — arid prodtbds in

usual crops compared to these prices.

IV. Drainage and Embankments.

1. Of tide marshes and tide swamps.

2. Of swamp lands, of level higher than the tide.

3. Of arable, or other firm land of low level or flat surface.

V. Implements and Machines for Agricultural Opercdions.

VI. Fencing and Enclosing.

VII. Grass Husbandry and Grazing.

1. Natural meadows on moist ground.

2. Artificial (or sown) grasses on permanent meadow.

3. Artificial grasses, peas or any other green crops for stock food or for manure, alter-
nated with tillage crops on arable land.

4. Mowing and hay.

VIII Live Stock.

1. Teams or animals for labor.

2. Animals reared and fattened for food or sale, and their management.

3. Animals purchased from abroad, and general cost thereof

IX. Dairy Management.

1. Products, used or sold.

2. Supplies of butter obtained from abroad.

X. Manures,

1. Sources and supplies of manures of all kinds.

2. Preparation and application of stable and yard manures, and composts, the quan-
tity and effects.

3. Marsh or swamp mud as manure.

XI. Orchards, Vineyards, and Fruits.

XII. Wood Land.

1. Greneral description of the growth on different soils.

2. Uses made and value of timber and other products.

3. duantity of land necessary to be kept in wood for farm purposes.

4. Disadvantages of excess of wood land to agricultuje.

XIII. Waste Lands.

1. Tide marshes.

2. Unreclaimed swamps.

3. Sterile sands, or such as are so loose as to be liable to be moved by the winds.

4. Land of rocky or precipitous surface.

XIV. New or recently introduced ojid valuable processes, or improved practice in Agriculture.

1. Marling, and extent of applications before 1843, and subsequently.

2. Limeing or any other calcareous applications before 1843, and subsequently.

3. Clover.

XV. Notices and suggestions of any new resources for feytilization, or for agricultural im-

provement or profit.

XVI. Obstacles to agricultural improvement and profit.

1. Obstacles opposed by natural and unavoidable circumstances.

2. Obstacles caused by. erroneous governmental policy, or by want of proper legis-
lation.

3. Obstacles caused by individual action.

XVII. Diseases of residents caused by climate and condition of the country.

1. Local sources of malaria, their extent and operation and comparative malignity — as
rapid streams sometimes overflowing their bordcrs^tide water marshes, fresh or sail —

4 APPENDIX.

swamps, whether in their natural state or under culture — mill-ponds — and the passage of
transient and irregular floods of fresh water over salt marshes.

2. Increase or decrease of extent and virulence of malarious diseases in past time, and
the supposed causes of either.

3. Means of diminution of such diseases within the reach of the separate action of in-
dividual proprietors — such as require combined action, and such as require legislative
direction.

XVIII. Miscellaneous observations and statements on any thing condiLcive to the improve-
ment of agriculture, not embraced under any of the foregoing heads.

To the Presidents of the Agricultural Societies of South Carolina —

Gentlemen — I know of no disposition of Mr. Ruffai's letter, which he has done me
the honor of addressing to me, so appropriate, as that of submitting it to your considera-
tion, with the expression of my earnest desire, that the societies over which you severally
preside, will promptly adopt such measures as may be desirable, to aid him in his highly
responsible and arduous labors. Without the zealous co-operation of the planting in-
terest, it will be impossible for him to accomplish but a very few of the objects, which it
was the design of the Legislature that the survey should effect. Whilst directing his
researches the present year mainly to those subjects of agricultural improvement, upon
which he is so competent to afford profitable instructien, he asks the assistance of every
one interested in the prosperity oi the State, on the vai'ious other matters to which,
through me, he has invited the public notice. It is not expected that any Society will
reply to all his queries, but to such only as it best understands. The information, how-
ever, though it may be concisely given, must be minute and full.

The advantages that have resulted from A gricultural Surveys in England, on the Con-
tinent, and in this countiy, there is already abundant evidence for believing will certainly
accrue to the State. With a genial climate, and a soil naturally fertile, and admirably
adapted to many of the most valuable crops in the world, the wealth of South Carolina
might be immeasurably increased, if her agricultviral resources were known. In their
examination and development Mr. Ruffin is now engaged. His discoveries have already
far exceeded his anticipations. Extensive beds of marl of unusual abundance and rich-
ness, it is now evident not only exist in the lower Districts, but there are satisfactory
indications that calcareous matter in some form is generally diffused through a large por-
tion of the State. The use of this well known meliorating agent ought, then, no longer
to be withheld by any planter who desires the advancement of his own interest. It is
especially important, that by the result of experiments with lime or marl, without refer-
ence to the other ordinary means of amending exhausted lands, we should be enabled to
satisfy the constituted authorities that the appropriation for the survey was a wise, judi-
cious, and profitable expenditure of the public money.

In reiterating my request, that you will bring the subject matter of this communica-
tion to the early notice of your respective societies, allow me to add that, if every facility
in the attainment of his purpose be afforded to Mr. Ruffin, he will, in my judgment, be
enabled to render to South Carolina in two years more substantial service, than the con-
centrated labors of her Agricultural Societies have hitherto perfonned,

I deem it not irrelevant to state, that Mr. Ruf?in will prosecute his examinations in the
malaria region of the State until the first of May, and afterwards direct his attention to
the middle and upper Districts.

I have the honor to be,

Very respectfully, your obd't. servant,

WHITEMARSH B. SEABROOK,

Pres. S. A. S. ofS. Carolina.

Edistn Island, Feb. 28, 1843.

APPENDIX. 5

Fishing Creek, Chester District, S. C.
E. RcFFiN, Esq. Sir: — In compliance with your request, made through the Pre-
sident of the State Society, the Agricukural Society of Fishing Creek, through us,
present the accompanying Repoit upon the various questions propounded by you.
The variety of the subjects treated of, their scientific nature, and the knowledge re-
quisite to treat them as they deserve, render the report difficult to make; and it is
not to be expected that a committee of common farmers, should examine these sub-
jects scientifically; and had our zeal in the cause of agriculture, not been equal to the
distrust in our abilities, we would not have undertaken the task. Imperfect as it is,
we beg you to accept it, together with the assurance of our high consideration and esteem.

Very respectfully, your obedient servants,
B. JOHNSTON, )
L. A. BECKHAM, \ Committee.
JAS. A. LEWIS. S

REPORT.

Section I.

Answer 1. Our Society and Agricultural District, is located on Fishing Creek and
its tributary streams. This is a bold Creek, that takes its rise about the centre of York
District, and after running a course of more than forty miles, the greater part in Chester
District, empties into the Catawba river at the top of the Great Falls. It is the natural
outlet for most of the water that sometimes covers those vast plains, known in the up
country as the Blachjack, from the tree that constitutes their chief natural production.
Though not as extensive as the hilly lands around them, they are, probably, as import-
ant in an agricultural point of view, as the latter are not so fertile when first cleared, and
the soil is more prone to move under the washing rains we are exposed to, and sooner
becomes worthless.

2. Our climate is a very unfavorable one, subject to frequent and sudden changes of
heat and cold, and to the extremes of long drought and floods of rain. We live in or
about the 34th degree of North latitude.

3. Except the comparatively level land, called the Blackjacks, our section of country
is very broken; like most of the upper part of this State, it has, in time past, been over-
whelmed by a mighty flood from the North, washing off the surface soil, and all tliat
grew upon it, scooping out deep vallies down to the solid rock, forcing back the ocean,
and forming the low country from the wreck and ruin of this, studding our hills with
huge balders, and leaving exposed beds of granite, quartz and hornblake that resisted its
force successfully. On all land so dealt by, the soil must be thin, exce| t where the
current was too feeble, or by eddies forming deposits of gravel, sand, &c. Ages have
passed since, plant after plant has lived and died, until the subsoil has been covered to
the depth of a few inches, with a vegitablc mould on the high land, forming beds of
alluvial soil on the vallies of several feet in depth, confining the streams that flow
through most of them, to channels only wide enough for the cun'cnt in dry weather, but
being subject to overflow in wet seasons ; generally producing good crops of corn and
oats. A geological survey of the Blackjack region, would, probably, lead to the con-
clusion, that it was a lake or lakes, with bays, promontories and islands. Hence, the
land that was covered with least at that time, is now the driest and most productive.
It abounds in extensive grassy glades, and is but thinly covered with a short, gnarly
growth of blackjack and post oak, showing that not many ages have passed, since the
barriers gave way that confined the waters which covered it.

4. Granite balders are frequently found, fit for mill-stones, and for steps, sills, &c., for
building, but most of that kind of rock in siter is lamulated, and so hard and compact,
as to render it unfit for cutting. We have veins of soap, iron and crystalline sand-
stone, that would be worth quairying, but brick only is used in building; good clay for
which, and for pottering, abounds.

5. Excellent mill-seats are to be found on all our larger streams, and generally occu-
pied by good grist and saw mills; and from the fall in the smaller streams, many could
be conducted along the hill sides, so as to render them very productive; springs of good
water flow copiously from every hill.

6 APPENDIX.

Section II.

1. Nearly all our lands produce a little for a few years, but much has been cut down,
that is so poor that the timber destroyed was worth more than the land has ever been
since it was cleared; we have many good meadows of indigenous grass, but not one
tenth of the land that would produce it, has been cleared or improved. Our wood is so
much cut down, that timber for building, fencing and fuel, is becoming scarce; the only
really waste land we have, is our old fields, many of which are so washed and gullied,
as to be absolutely irreclaimable.

2. The soil varies from stiff, red or brown, to grey; the former rests on clay that is
easily rendered productive ; the latter, on a sterile, thirsty till, full of coarse gravel and
rock, easy to wash into gullies, and the earth so removed, by settling on our good flats
and vallics, injuring or destroying them, by covering them with its worthless materials.
The grey land, when fresh, produces more, and better cotton, than the red, but the latter
is the most valuable, as it is the most durable, and by retaining manure, is the most sus-
ceptible of improvement.

3. The size of our farms varies from fifty to one thousand acres ; perhaps we err in
purchasing more land, instead of improving what we have.

4. Cotton is our only market produce ; it averages about two hundred pounds of pick-
ed cotton to the acre; corn, our chief provision crop, yields but httle over fifteen bushels ;
wheat, is next in importance, and produces, in good seasons, ten bushels per acre; oats
are more productive, and rye yields about as much as wheat; Sweet or Irish potatoes,
are cultivated only in small quantities for the table Our latitude is too high for the for-
mer, and too low for the latter, to become objects of extensive cultivation ; they both
yield tolerably, if the seasons favor them,

5. We generally plant cotton on fresh land, four or five years in succession — then
corn — then wheat or oats — again corn and cotton ; and after it will produce little else, we
sow it in rye, and let it rest for two or three years. There are no fixed principles observed
in the rotation of crops.

6. Stable and cowpen manure is the most we have; we usually apply it to the old
land we intend for cotton ; it is strewed in a drill and bedded on. We make but little
in comparison to what we might make, but the quantity is increasing annually. Cotton
seed is getting into extensive use as a manure, and succeeds well ; the best way to apply
it, is to sow it with the wheat in the fall, but it is more frequently applied to the
corn-hill.

7. Experience proves that deep ploughing is injurious to land that is so thin of soil,
that the till or substratum is turned up in ploughing. Our stiff land, however, is great-
ly benefitted by deep ploughing, turning it to the depth of two or three inches, and
looming the subsoil by a bull-tongue. One-horse ploughs are chiefly used in fresh land,
and in the cultivation of our crops ; three ploughings and as many hoeings are what we
generally give the crops. From twenty to twenty-five acres to the plough, is the quan-
tity usually planted in corn and cotton. One-third in cotton, the balance in corn. No
particular rule is observed as to the quantity of small grain, it is regulated.by the corn
land of the previous year, as the stalk land, and none other, is sown. Wheat and oats
are the principal kinds sown, except in the Blackjack region, where rye grows luxuriant-
ly, and is used as food for stock, and forms a considerable item of market produce.

8. We have no data whereby to fix the expense of cultivation accurately. We know
this, however, that at the price of produce, for the last two or three years, we are sinking

money.

9. We make our own bread stuffs, and could frequently spare large quantities of
corn and wheat, but have no regular market for them.

Section III.

1. Land has fallen in value the last tjjree years about one half; the best will not
bring more than 10 dollars per acre; rent is extravagant, and usually falls most heavy on
poor people, who can neither buy nor move away ; the usual rate is the third and fourth
of the crop, or 2 dollars per acre.

Section IV.

The alluvial lands on the margin of our creeks, afford the richest and most lasting plan-
tations, but are subject to frequent over-flowings ; corn and oats are their principal pro-
duce.

APPENDIX. 7

Section' V.

In addition to the ploughs already mentioned, we have excellant wagons and carts
built in the neighborhood. Our cotton gins and screws, thrashers and fans, with their
propelling machinery, are aU the work ot our own mechanics, and form heavy items in
the accounts of our expenses.

fefiCTION VI.

Worm fencing only is used.

Section VII.

But little attention has been paid to the cultivated grasses, and that little chiefly for
pasturage, or to obtain seed for more extensive operations ; for meadows, see section 2d.

Hay is generally cut twice, seldom tiiree times per year. The hay obtained is not
very good, being mixed with many plants that afford but little nourishment, and soraeof
them deleterious.

Section VIII.

Horses or mules are our principal dependence for labour either in the plough or wao-on •
oxen are sometimes used with advantage, especially in hauhng on our farms.

Kentucky supplies the most of our horses and mules, horses from 50 to 100 dollars
per head, and mules, from 40 to 50. The farmers of our region raise the most of their
beef and pork. Pork sells from 3 to 6 cents gross; many good colts are raised, and our
stock of hogs and cattle is improving by tlie introduction ot foreign breeds.

Section IX.

Our dairies usually furnish milk and butter in abundance, which are generally used in
our families, but a considerable quantity of butter is sent to mai-ket from our neighbor-
hood 5 little or no attention is paid to cheese.

Section X.

We have many good apple orchards, and some sections produce good peaches in
favorable seasons, but too little attention paid to either of them.

Section XI.

The upland, if deep loam, produces white oak, hickoiy, walnut and pine; post, red and
black oak are the natural growth of the next quality of upland ; Spanish oak, pnie, ches-
nut and chinquepin, grow to good size on our poorest ridges ; the creek bottoms are
shaded by a noble growth of hickory, white oak, black walnut, ash and poplar ; cold and
wet ground produces water oak and sweet gum.

Section XII.

Nature has left many hills so covered with rock, (quartz, chiefly,) as to be unfit for
common culture, but the timber on them is worth something; and if they were cleared,
would produce grasses, or the mulberry for silk culture : in either, they would produce
crops more valuable than corn or cotton on our best lands, to the same extent.

Section XIII.

Peas and clover have been ploughed in as manure, to a limited extent; the difficulty of
starting a crop of corn after clover, deters many from the pasture ; peas are the most
convenient, and will probably take precedence of every other green crop as a fertilizer.

Section XIV.

The nature of our lands in many places, will always prevent our improving them, for
the manure washes off as fast as we can apply it, and the subsoil is of such a nature as
to be irreclaimable, if once the surface is removed.

The Federal Government, by continually legislating in behalf of the Western States
prevents permanent improvement in agriculture, by inducing emigration ; but noiliing
operates more powerfully to prevent improvement than the wretched condition of ou'r
roads, and the system adopted by the State is calculated to fasten tiie evil upon us.

Every district has boards of commissioners independent of each other, and cscry one

8 APPENDIX.

else, for it is a farce to talk of returning them to Court to be tried by jurors, who arc the
persons liable to do the work, if it had been insisted on; besides, the task is an unequal
one ; on the I'idges, one day is sufficient to do all thai can be done to repair them ; in
other places, 12 days are insufficient to make good roads, although tlie work is actually
applied ; we would suggest the importance of some legislative action on the subject, to
equalize the burden and remedy the bad roads. As the roads are, it costs as much to
convey our cotton to Columbia, as it costs the merchants to land it in Livei-pool.

If the owners of dogs were obliged by.law to pay for the sheep they kill, we would be
able in a short time to raise all the wool necessary for family consumption.

Section XV.

"VVe are so situated as to be exposed to billious fever, in all the forans common to the
low country in summer, and the t)^phoid form of fevers in winter, and that too without
any apparent local source of malaria, within our border. Intermittents are evidently on
the increase, and yearly assuming a more malignant fonn.

Until lately, our fanning condition has not been flattering ; with some few exceptions
we were rather planters than farmers. A spirit of improvement is stirring amongst us.
that bids fair to elevate us above the wretched state we have been in as farmers ; many
gentlemen, chiefly members of this society, have within a few years introduced the arti-
ficial grasses, and thus commenced, in the proper manner, the improvement of stock, for
it is folly to expect any permanent improvement in that line, until our barren fields are
stocked with grass, as no breed, however valuable, have been found to fatten and thrive
on oak leaves or sapless sedge; several Berkshire hogs and Durham bulls and cows have-
been imported from the West. But the most important change to be observed is the
disposition in the people, to acquire agricultural information, which they will soon have,,
as there is much discussion on the subject, and industry and enterprise, stimulated by
interest, will soon effect a great change.

Report of the Committee appointed hy the Milton Agricultural Society*
to answer Mr. Ruffin's queries.

The committee appointed to answer the queries profounded by the State Agi'icultural
Surveyor, report that they have had the same under consideration. They have not
found it an easy task to select such as they might be expected to answer. They will,,
however, make the attempt, and take them up in the order in which they stand.

The "surface and face of the country,"' within the bounds of this Society, is for the
most part gently undulating, rarely flat or precipitous. It is intersected every where
with numerous rivulets and creeks, the last affording water power sufficient for as many
grist and saw mills as are needed by the community. On the margins of the creeks,
there are more or less extensive bottoms or loW grounds. In some instances tliese have
been brought into cultivation, and when properly drained and cultivated, are very pro-
ductive ; they are also sometimes cleared and devoted to pasturage, and are again valu-
able ; but generally, they still lie neglected, and are prolific sources of malaria.

" Soils and subsoils." It is not known that any analysis has ever been made to de-
termine the composition of our soils and subsoils. The soils are generally classed as
mulatto and grey — the subsoils are generally compact red clay. The mulatto soils are
supposed to be best suited to corn, wheat and tobacco, and the grey to cotton.

" The usual crops" are corn, cotton, wheat, oats, rye and barley — root crops, turnips,
and all the varieties of the potato.

" Rotations of crops." There is no imiform rotation in this vicinity— the most com-
mon is an alternation of corn and small grain. In some instances, 1 cotton, 2 corn, 3
small grain— and by a few, 1 coYn or cotton, 2d small grain, 3 rest. The subject is,
however, attracting more attention, and it is hoped, that ere long an analysis of our soils
and of our various vegetable productions will enable us to adopt a rational system of
alternations of crops.

" Soun^is and supplies of manures of all kinds, &c."

" Application of manures, &c."

* This Society embraces adjacent parts of Laurens and Newberry districts.

APPENDIX. 9

Our cow yards and stables furnish 'he principal supply of manures. The general
practice is to litter tlie stables and yards witli leaves from the woods, and when they are
sufficiently cut up by the treading of stock, to draw it together in heaps or pens, and litter
again. Some bulk these together^ for the purpose of undergoing fermentation; others
cart them from the yai-d without this preparation. The first is no doubt the better mode.
In applying them to the soil, various practices prevail. By some, they ai-e applied to
the corn crop, in tlie hill, either covered with the corn or droped on the hill, our planters
differing as to which is the better mode. More generally, however, they are applied to
the cotton crop, in the drill ; although a few prefer to apply them broad cast. The
more prevalent opinion is tliat their benefit, in a diy year, is more certain in the cotton
than in the corn ci'op. When the seasons are favourable, they probably increase either
crop, one third. In no crop which we raise, are the good effects of manure more evident
than wheat or turnips. As to the quantities used, the business is too loosely conducted
to admit of an estimate. This is to be regretted ; but the practice of manuring is com-
peu-atively new in this vicinity, and much remains yet to be done by the attentive and in-
dustrious fanner.

The other s<;urces of manure are cotton seed and wood ashes. Cotton seed are most-
ly applied to the wheat crop, at the rate of from 10 to 30 bushels. In this crop, their
good effect is veiy apparent and almost certain — an impression begins to prevail, that
they tend to prevent rust. They are also much used in the corn crop, at the rate of 30
or 40 per acre. Here again, if the season is not too dry, their good effect is very appar-
ent. Planters differ as to the mode of application. Some apply them in their sound
condition, while others prefer to have them rotted — some cover them with the com,
while others prefer to drop them on top of the hill. Your committee prefer having their
vegetative powers destroyed, and dropping them on top of the hill.

Ashes h .ve been applied to cotton, to corn and to wheat, and with great benefit to
each of these crops. We do not know any manure which, in small quantities, is capa-
ble of effecting so much.

No trials of lime as a manure have come under our observation, except in one solitary
instance ; in this, a bushel was strewed ov^r seme 30 feet square, in a garden, and plan-
ted in sweet potatoes — the yield was greatly augmented. No trials, so far as we know,
have been made with marl or gypsum, nor with " marsh or swamp mud."

'' Depth and manner of ploughing, &c." Generally the custom of shallow ploughing
prevails here, say from 2 1-2 to 4 inches — going deepest in breaking up, and in the early
culture, and shallow in the late. As our subsoil is for the mostpart a close compact clay,
there is but little doubt we ought to plough deeper. We have witnessed only one trial
of subsoiling. The result was highly in favour of its beneficial effects.

The implements most commonly used, are the scuter for breaking up and preparing
stubble ; and the shovel for tending the crop. Some of the most simple turnploughs are
sometimes used.

" Fencing and enclosing," is invariably done with redls, made for the most part of
oak, which is very abundant in our forests.

" Grass husbandry and grazing." Our native grasses, except the crab grass, are of
the poorest kind, principally sedge. Of the artificial grassess, some trials have been
made with red clover and herds-grass. On rich lots, the first appears to succeed very
well. For alternating with tillage crops, we do not know of its having been tried ; but
our impression is, that without manuring more highly than is customary here, it will not
answer. We are not aware that it has been evi^r sowed witli gypsum. The herds-grass,
as far as it has been tried, appears to succeed very well on the bottoms that border our
branches and creeks.

"Livestock." For teams we use horses and mules, perhaps the greatest proportion
of horses. Most of the horses and part of the mules are raised on our own plantations.
A considerable number of mules are still obtained by purchase, causing the expenditure
of large amounts of money. It is believed at this time, (it was not so formerly,) tliat we
raise among ourselves nearly all the hogs, and all the cattle, that we need for consump-
tion. It may be proper to add here, that eveiy fanner raises all the grain which he con-
sumes, and usually markets a surplus of wheat or flour.

" Local sources of malaria." It is believed tliat almost tlie exclusive source of mala-
ria is to be found in the bottoms, along the margins of our creeks and branches ; and
even these, except when a secret "epidemical constitution of the atmosphere" prevails,
do not appear to be veiy active. If these were drained and brought into a proper state ot
cultivation, we do not see why ours should not be one of the healthiest regions of the
globe. To ivttain this wc ncc<i no Icriilativc aid. All thati^ nectSoaiy L a thoFOU^h

2 ^

10 APPENDIX.

conviction on the part of individuals concerned of its necessity, and the evil would soon
be remedied.

All which is respectfully submitted.

P. L. CALHOUN.

J NO. D. WILLIAMS.

NEWMAN GARY.

JNO. H. DAVIS.

Columbia, 28th Nov. 1843.

DfiAR Sir : — According with my promise made last summer, I beg leave now to
transmit to you the result of my essay to redeem the pledge which I gave to the Presi-
dent of the State Agricultural Society, namely, " to prepare for your use in the Agricul-
tural Survey of the State," some account of Rice, the staple production of that section in
which I reside.

If the accompanying memoir be not as full or as particular as was desired, I yet be-
lieve that the statements which it offers, may be relied upon.

With the view to procure facts from various quarters of the rice growing region, I
applied for information to several gentlemen on Cooper river and elsewhere, but unfor-
tunately, I have not been favored with the replies which I expected.

Such as it is, I place the memoir at your service, as the best compilation which I
could make during the past summer, from the sources within my reach.

Allow me to refer you to the report of the committee on rice, to the State Agricultural
Society, for 1842, for a few facts not fully embodied here — also, to the report of same
committe, for 1843, for an account of the extraordinary rice which has commanded, dur-
ing the two past seasons, some 15 per cent more per cwt. than any other rice whatever,
in the clean rice market at Charleston.

I am, dear sir,

Yery respectfully,

R. F. W. ALLSTON.

To ED. RUFFIN, Ag. Surveyor of the State of So. Ca.

MEMOIR.

The State of South-Carolina, small in territory, in population, and in relative weight
in the scale of the Union, is blest with a most delightful climate, regarding together all
the seasons, and in the possession of the elements of great and lasting wealth.

In the production of her two great staples, her agriculture exercises an important in-
fluence over the comfort and well being of mankind. With the various manufactures
of cotton wool, the greater portion of the human race are clothed. With the manufac-
tured or prepared rice, the greater portion of the human race are fed — as an article either
of occasional diet, or of daily subsistence.

Rice was known and cultivated in the East from time immemorial. Whenever that
hitherto sealed book, the Chinese Empire, shall be opened to the inspection of mankind,
we may learn something more of its early history and culture — at present we only know
from the books that a large proportion of the inhabitants of that ancient dominion sub-
sist upon it, and we are told that it is grown sometimes by transplanting on the shores
of the rivers, sometimes on rafts covered with earth and floating on lakes and rivers.
That in some parts of China two crops are made from the same ground in one year,
one ripening in May, the other in October or November. That the seeds are there
white and obl^-ng, but vary in size and form. That a small spot of ground is enclosed
by an embankment, lightly ploughed and harrowed, and the grain, previously steeped
in dung diluted with animal water, is then sown thickly on it; "a thin sheet of water
is immediately brought over it, either by a stream or the chain-pump." "When the
plants are six or seven inches high, they arc transplanted in furrows made by the plough,
so as to stand about a foot apart every way. Water is then brought over them, and
kept on till the crop begins to ripen, when it is withheld; so that when the harvest ar-
rives, the field is quite dry." "In Japan, Ceylon and Java, aquatic rice is cultivated
nearly in the same manner." "To this grain the Chinese and Hindoos owe their early

APPEiNDIX. 11

civilization. An immense population in those and the surrounding countries is now de'
pendant on the rice crops ; and when these fail thousands perish of hunger,"* {See
Appendix A.)

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION.

Class Hexathdria: order Digynia: nat. ord. Gramina.

Oryza Sativa — Native of Ethiopia — cultivated in tropical countries very abundantly^
as well as in some of the warmer parts of Europe, in grounds for the most part artificial-
ly inundated. Annual — flowers in midsummer, ^oo^ fibrous — £fer6 grassy, about four or
five feet high — light green, smooth — leaves linnear, narrow, taper-pointed. Stipvla long,
abrupt, jagged, crowning the very long striated sheath — Panicle terminal, much branch-
ed, many flowered, nearly erect, sHghtly spreading ; its branches angular, rough. Flow-
ers, when closed, obovate, oblique, or most gibbous at one side ; their corrolla somewhat
hedry, minutely granulated or dotted. Awn straight, rough, various in length.

Rice — A plant cultivated in the East, in America, North and South — in Africa, Spain,
Italy and Piedmont. Its stalk not unlike that of wheat, but fuller of joints, and with
leaves resembling those of the leek. It branches into several stems, at the top of which
the grain grows in clusters, and each is terminated with a beard, and enclosed in a
yellow rough husk. When stripped of this, the seed appears to be oval in shape, of a
shining white color, and almost transparent. One species, several varieties.

1. Common Rice — Stem four feet high — Panicle spiked, simple — Husk, pale, oblong,
with long awns or beard, a late sort — grows in moist places; injured by either drought
or salt-water.

2. Early Rice — Stem three feet high — Panicle spiked — branched ; husk tinged, brown-
ish-red ; awns shorter — grows in marshy places, is not injured by salt inundations.

3. Mountain Rice — Stem three feet, more slender — Husk longer, the awns very long
— grows in dry situations ; exposed to cold — exposed to continued inundation, it de-
cays— sea-water kills it.

4. Glutinous or Clammy Rice — Stem four feet high, leaves wider, yellowish — Panicle
large, with shorter awns — seed oblong, rather large, glutinous, very white — grows in
both wet and dry places.

There is a variety having a black seed highly flavored, as well as another having red
seed. Rice seems to contain more silex in its composition than most of its natural order.
Even the seed is not destitute of this substance. Brilliant imitations of precious stones,
are said to have been made of rice, for which purpose a large quantity of the grain is
required.t

ORYZA — from the Arohio Eruz. — In Modern Europe Riz, Reis, Rice,

Oryza saliva, the common rice, has the culm or stem from one to six feet in length ;
annual, erect, simple, round, jointed ; leaves subulate-linear, reflex, embracing, not
fleshy ; flowers in a terminal panicle ; calycine leaflets lanceolate, valves of the corolla
ecjual in length, the inner valve even, awnless; the outer twice as wide, four grooved
hispid, awned ; style single, two parted.

Oryza mutica, the dry or mountain rice, cultivated in Ceylon, Java, and of late in
Hungary, has the culm or stem three feet high, and more slender; fruit longish, with
awns the longest of all. It is sown on mountains and in dry soils : rots with a long in-
undation, and perishes with sea-water.

The varieties of rice, as of other cultivated grains, are as numerous as the different
soils, climates, and other physical circumstances, in which it is cultivated ; besides the
dry rice, the chief sorts, by some considered species, are the O. prascox, or early rice
and the O. glutinosa, or clammy rice, both cultivated in irrigated lands.

The native place of rice, like that of the other sorts of grain in common use, is un-
known.

In the hilly parts of Java, and in many of the Eastern Islands, the mountain rice is
planted upon the sides of hills, where no water but rain can come; itis, however, planted
m the beginning of the rainy season, and reaped in the beginning of the dry season.
The natives call it paddy gunung, which signifies mountain rice. It is entirely unknown
in the western parts of India, but it is well known in Cochin China, where it thrives in
dry light soils, mostly on the sides of hills, not requiring more moisture than the usual
rains and dews supply, neither of which are frequent at the season of its vegetation.

♦Ency. Am. — Art. Oryza,
tRees' Cyclopedia — Art. Oryza.

12 APPI.NDIX.

There is c. kind of hill rice which is hardy enough to grow on the edge of the Hima-
layan snows ; it is almost to be expected that tins will, at some futm-e time, prove an
acquisition of value to the European cultivator.

In Lombardy and Savoy, rice is sown on rich lands, the sower often wading to the
knees in the water ; one crop a year only is obtained, but four crops are often taken in
succession.

In Westphalia, and some other parts of the south of Germany, rice has long been
cultivated; there it is sown on lands that admit of irrigation, but water is not admitted
till the seed has germinated, and it is withdrawn, as in Italy, when the crop comes into
flower. Fiom long culture in a comparatively cold country, the German rice has ac-
quired a remarkable degree of hardness and adaptation to the climate, a circumstance
which has frequently been alluded to as an encouragement to the acclimating of exotics.
It is found, Dr. Walker remarks, that rice seeds direct from India will not ripen in Ger-
many at all, and even that Italian or Spanish seeds are much less early and hardy than
those ripened on the spot. In Hungaiy rice has not been long cultivated ; the mountain
sort has chiefly been tried, and that in the manner of our barley, or summer wheat.

In England a crop of rice has been obtained near Windsor, on the banks of the
Thames.

By far the beSt imported rice is from Carolina ; it is larger and better tasted than that
of India, which is small, meagre, and the grains frequently broken.*

The varieties of Rice wliich are most common with us in Carolina are: —

1. The Gold Seed Rice, (the ordinary crop Rice most highly esteemed, and therefore
universally cultivated,) an oblong grain 3-8ths. of an inch in length, shghtly flattened on
two sides, of a deep yellow or golden color, «u'W short ; when the husk and inner-coat
are removed, the grain presents a beautiful pearly-white appearance — an ellipsoid in fi-
gure, and somewhat translucent. This Rice has been introduced into the Winyaw and
Waccamaw region since the Revolution. It was planted by CoL Mayham on Santee
in 1785.

2. The Guinea Rice, so called from its resemblance to one of the varieties of Guinea
Com in the shape of the head and clustering of the grains. In color the same, or per-
haps a little deeper, the grain of this variety is in shape both broader and shorter, but
not thicker, than No. 1. In figure, a sort of oblong sphereoid, compressed on two op-
posite sides, so as to be nearly twice as broad as it is thick ; aw7i short, blunt; it is not
cultivated as a crop, and is rarely met with.

3. The Common White Rice, in shape and general description like No. 1, except that
the color of the husk is white or cream colored, and the grain when hulled is not as
broad, nor as pearly ; awn short: Some grains of this mixed with a sample of Seed
Rice, constitute an objection to it, although it is this variety that constituted the earlier
crops of the country.

4. The Wkite Bearded Rice, very much the same as No. 3, in general characteristics.
The grain of this kind is rather larger, and is furnished in its unhuUed state with a very
long awn or beard — grows well on high land. A sample of this last was brought from
the East Indies in 1842, by Capt. Petlgru, U. S. Navy. Some years ago it was cultiva-
ted more or less extensively by planters for their negroes.

There are several other kinds of Rice in appearance, to be found in both the fields and
the barn-yards, differing either in the size and shape of the grain, or in the size and ap-
pearance of the stem and leaflets. They are believed to be modifications of either one or
other of the foregoing descriptions ; none of these have, as yet, established a sufficient
claim to be classed as distinct varieties.

They may be classed as

1. An improvement of the grain chiefly cultivated, arising from a long-continued, care-
ful selection of seed, the vigorous nature of the soil in which it was successively plant-
ed, the peculiarities of the cultivation pursued consistently from year to year, and other
circumstances — of this character, it is believed, is the large grain Rice so successfully
produced by Col. Ward.t

2. A commingling of the grain, arising from a careless selection, or a neglect of selection
of seed — and two or more of the foregoing varieties being planted in the same field, or
in closely adjoining fields — the farina of each fructifying some plants of the other,
&c.

* Loudon's Encyclopedia of Plants — Art. Oiyza.

t See Report of Committee on Rice to the State Agricultural Society, 1843, for Col.
"VV.'s account of this grain.

APPENDIX. 13

3. A corruption or deterioration of the grain, arising from utter neglect, and exposure of

the seed lo the vicissitudes of weather from year to year, or the being covered so deep,

in either earth or water, as not to have vegetated for years.

Of this last, the Volunteer Rice affords examples, viz., the red grain having the same
exterior husk as No. 1, witli perhaps the ovn a little longer — the red grain, having a white
husk like No. 3 ; and the red grain having the husk white like the last, with a longer
avm, and dropping from the stem in the field as soon as it is matured — this kind of vo-
lunteer never can be harvested on the stem ; it is sometimes stripped into bags and bas-
kets, and used as horse and poultry-feed. In either case, whether the grain has drop-
ped from being touched, or has been stripped off for use, the stem, relieved of its super-
incumbent weight, stands erect, and towers above the worthier and well freighted heads
of the suiTOunding fields. Hence it is called, in the vernacular, •• Proiid Rice.''''

The cultivation of Rice in Carolina has added materially to the wealth of the Province
— the Colony — the State ; and has enhanced, in no inconsiderable degree, the value of the
active commerce of both the kingdom of Great Britam, and the Federal Republic of the
United States.

It is destined to add still further to the productive wealth of our country. The con-
sumption of Rice, it is beli3ved, will continue steadily to increase, in proportion as the
various uses of this valuable grain shall be more generally ascertained, and rendered fa-
miliar in the useful and ornamental arts, as well as in its culinary preparations, as an or-
dinary vegetable, or a delicate lu:vury. {Sec Appendix B )

By this grain a large portion of the human race actually subsist, and it is believed it
may be yet more universally consumed. It is a vegetable which undergoes no very ma-
terial change, from change of chmate. When put up for exportation, it deteriorates less
than any other grain or bread-stuff whatever, and when cleaned and biiished in the best
manner, it will keep sufficiently sweet and sound during the longest voyage.

Indeed, Rough Rice, or Rice in its primitive state before the chaff or husk has been
removed, may be kept fresh and sweet for years ; even should it, for a moment, have been
immersed in water, the sun's warm rays, and a little dry air, effectually preserve it for a
long time. One hour is sufficient to reduce a bushel of Rough Rice (one-half) to a state
fit for cooking; and the only instrument requisite is simply a wooden mortar and pestle.

Professor Liebio;, in a note to his admirable and valued work on Chemistiy, as applied
to Agriculture and Physiology, p. 98. furnishes a chemical analysis of Rice, in terms
substantially the same as those in which, the same analysis by Braconnot is given by
Berzelius. " According to the analysis of Braconnot, {^Ann. de Chim. et de Phyr-. t. iv.
p. 370,) this grain is thus constituted :

Carolina Pice. Piedmo'n.l Rice.

Water, 5.00 7.00

Starch, 85.07 83.80

Parenchyma, 4.80 4.80

Gluten, 3.(J0 3.60

Unchrystalizable Sugar, 0.29 0.05

Gummy matter approaching to Starch, 0.71 0. 10

Oil, 0.13 0.25

Pho.sphate of Lime, 0.13 0 40

99.73 100.00

with traces of muriate of potash, phosphate of pota.sh, acetic acid, sulphur, and lime, and
potash united to a vegetable alkali,

Vauquelin was unable to detect any saccharine matter in rice. — Thrvison's Organic
.chemistry, p. 883." Ai) analysis of the straw and offals of Rice is now in progress.

EARLY INTRODUCTION AND CULTURE.

As eariy as the year 1G66, the facilities afforded by the character of the low country of
Carolina for the cultivation of this seed, were remarked by agents of the English inter-
ested in the settlement and improvement of the new world.* In less than forty years

* In "A Brief Description of tlie Province of Carolina on the coasts of Florida, &c.,
printed for Robert Home, near Bishopsgato-street, London, in 1G<)6," [the charter of Ca-
rolina is dated the 30th of June, in the 17th year of the reign of Charles 2d,] " it is men-
tioned, among other things, that the marshes and meadows are very large.' from 1..500 to
3,000 {ic.res and upwards, and are excellent food for cattle. :\ni\ \viiri)f;tr any erain beiiiij-

14 APPENDIX.

from that time the swamp seed was actually introduced, and successfully cultivated in

South-Carolina.

It happened thus, by accident.* Landgrave Thomas Smith, (or Smyth, as honest John
Archdale wrote the name,) on a visit to the East, before coming to this country, had ob-
served the plant and some of the circumstances attending its culture. After settling in
Carolina, it occurred to him that the low grounds and climate of the country were admi-
rably adapted to this culture. Earnest in this opinion, and desirous of an opportunity to
test its vaivie by experience, providence brought within his reach the only means neces-
sary to do so ; and thus by his instrumentality, bestowed upon a portion of the new
world a great and permanent blessing. In the year 1694, after Landgrave Smith, dis-
satisfied with the Province, had entertained thoughts of quitting it, a vessel from Mada-
gascar, in distress, put into the harbor of Charleston, having on board a little Rough
Rice, in the cook's bag. This Rice was given to Mr. Smith, who planted it in a low
moist part of the garden, at his residence near White Point.t The plant grew luxuri-
antly, and the gi-ain matured finely. The product was wisely and liberally disseminat-
ed as seedi among the neighboring planters, who in their turn supplied other planters
living more in the interior; and so on, till this became the chief article of production, the
staple commodity of the Colony.

There is extant another account of the introduction of this valuable seed, which re-
fers it to the year 170011 or thereabout, and associates with it the name of another gentle-
man, a Mr. Woodward.

It is further recorded§ that a Mr, Du Bois, Treasurer of the East India Companj, did,,
some short time after, send out to this country a small bag of seed Rice. Whether these
were distinct and successive importations, which is highly probable ; and whether or not
there were two or more varieties of the grain introduced, certain it is the seed was so ra-
pidly dispersed along the rivers, and inland-swamps, that soon the Province became a
Riee-gro wing country. And since, under different forms of Government, as a Colony or
Great Britain, and as a Sovereign State, constituting an integral part of the United
States, under a Federal Republican form of Government, the principal staple production?
of South-Carolina has been the best Rice in the world.

At first, Rice was cultivated on the high land, and on little spffts of low ground, as
they were met with here and there. These low grounds being found to agree better with
the plant, the inland swamps were cleared for the purpose of extending the culture. In
the process of time, as the fields became too grassy and stubborn, they were abandoned
for new clearings ; and so on, until at length was discovered the superior adaptation of the
tide-lands, and the great facilities for irrigation afforded by their location. For these,
the inland plantations were gradually and slowly abandoned, until now, that the great
body of land, which little more than a century ago furnished for exportation over 50,000
barrels of Rice, now lies utterly waste, constituting, where trees have not overgrown it,
the finest natural pasture which could he desired.

As may veiy well be supposed, the seed was, at first, very sparingly sown, and the
ground, being new, furnished an immense yield in return.

A peck of seed to the acre, sown thin in drills, eighteen inches apart, would, on good
land, yield thirty, forty, fifty, and even sixty bushels, in proportion to the care bestow-
ed on its culture.

As the grain became more plenty and common, and the space between the drills was
slightly diminished, the quantity of seed was by little and little increased.

It is now from two to three bushels per acre, varying according to the character and
condition of the land, and the peculiar notions of " watering" entertained by the planter
— a free use of water justifying, and indeed requiring, a liberal allowance of seed.

prepared ; some cattle, botl' -rreat and small, will live well all winter, and keep their fat
without fodder. The meadc vs are very proper for Rice, Rape-seed, Lin-seed, and many
of them be made to overflow at pleasure with a small charge." — 2 Car. Col. 13.

* Ramsay's History of South-Carolina, chap. 5th.

t A spot now traversed by Longitude-lane.

X In new land, well drained, under favorable circumstances, from one grain may be
matured 24 cars or heads, carrying each from 10 to 380 grains. There is a tradition,
that some forty years ago, a stalk of Rice having GO branches or tillers, was seen at the
old butcher-pen, near Georgetown. There was grown the past year in the garden of
Dr. E. T. Ilcriot, a plant from one grain having 70 branches.

§2 Car. Col. p. 270,

lllbid.

APPENDIX. 15

The space between the drills now, from centre to centre, is thirteen, fourteen or fifteen
inches — the best distance is thirteen inches, where water is used freely — the dry cultiure
requires a more frequent use of the hoe, and therefore the largest space is preferable.

The average product of Rice-land at present varies from twenty-five to sixty bushels
per acre, generally increasing in quantity, (though deteriorated in quality,) in an inverse
ratio to latitude.*

The seed should be selected with the greatest attention to purity and maturity of the
grain. A sample containing one red grain in one hundred grains, is considered by the
best planters inferior. Seed-rice, having a greater proportion of red or volunteer rice
than one per cent, is totally unfit for planting. To procure the most mature rice for
seed, a good plan is to thresh the rice over a barrel or large log, the butt of the sheaf be-
ing held by botli hands. In this way the riper grains alone are whipped off, serving as
seed; whilst the remainder on the sheaf is threshed off in the usual way.

Product. — Within seventy degrees of latitude, radiating from the Equator, this valua-
ble grain is cultivated all over the Globe — even in the Himalaya mountains there is said
to be a variety naturalized and grownt — another, or possibly the same, in Siberia. From
climate and peculiar treatment, the vegetable rice acquires a certain constitution ; adap-
ting itself to the habitude of the region in which it gi-ows, it does not so readily succeed
elsewhere, until it is acclimated by time. Gi'own in India, in China, in most of the
Asiatic Islands, in Southern Europe, in Africa, in South and North America, each
country yields its own peculiar seed.

In North America, although there is knov/n on the margins of some of the Northern
lakes a kind of wild rice, which, when that country was in a state of nature, furnished
no little subsistence to die aborigines, yet it is scarcely cultivated North of the State of
Virginia. The census of 1840 exhibits the following scale of production in tlie United
States.

Missouri, taking the crop of 1839 as a basis, produced 65 lbs. Rice.

Illinois, do. do. 598 do.

Virginia, do, do, 3,084 do.

Arkansas, do. do. 5,987 do.

Tennessee, do. do. 8,455 do.

Kentucky, do. do. 16,848 do.

Alabama, do. do. 156,469 do.

Florida Territory, do. do. 495,625 do.

Mississippi, do. do. 861,711 do.

North Carolina, do. do. 3,324,132 do.

Louisiana, do. do, 3,765,541 do.

Georgia, do. do. 13,417,209 do,

South-Carolina, do. do. 66,897.244 do.

As it is only in tide- water swamps that this grain can be cultivated to advantage, and
therefore only in such lands that the culture will probaby be extended, the system of
culture pursued on the tide-lands of Carolina, only will be detailed.

The swamp and marsh lands in this region, when in a state of nature were overflowed
by the tides in ordinary times. In the time of spring-tides, they might have been found
covered at high water to the depth of from twelve to twenty inches. When reclaimed
they are furnished with a sufficient dam to exclude the tide-water, and a "trunk," or
framed culvert, furnished with a door at each end swinging upon long levers, wliicii arc
attached to sturdy uprights, so as to admit or exclude the tide at pleasure — retain or dis-
charge it, after being admitted. The large enclosure is subdivided by " cross-banks," or
dams, into fields of convenient size, containing variously from fourteen to twenty-two
acres. In constructing the banks, large ditches (five to eight feet wide,) are excavated
to the depth of five feet, leaving between the ditch and bank, a margin of twelve feet or
more. These serve to drain the field. From one of tliese ditches to another, in one di-
rection, and at the distance of 37 1-2 to fifty feet apart, are cut smaller ditches or "drains,"
eighteen inches wide, and tliree feet deep. Thus tlioroughly reclaimed, and completely
drained, the swamp, if well seeded, will produce abundantly from the first. The foUow-

* The higher the latitude, generally, the better the Rice in quality ; — hence planters
look to the northward of tlicir own locaUty for their seed-rice, when it can be obtained
thence comparatively free of volunteer.

t Ency. Am.

IG APPENDIX.

ing remarks, however, will be undersiood as applying to old land, from the surface of
which stumps and marsh have entirely, or for the most part disappeared. Jn this con-
dition are now found most of the lands in the rice-growing region. Fields, as they be-
come exhausted by long-continued cropping, ai'e revived by manuring with rice-straw
and tailings, or by turning under the spontaneous growth of a dry fallow for one or more
years. For a system of fallowing see Sow-^AerTi Agriculturist, N. ^S. vol. iii. p. 243 — also
see Appendix C.

Preparation. — The land is ploughed, or dug with the hoe, as early in the winter as can
be— if before Christmas, the stubble is turned under — if later, the stubble is burned off.
The land is then covered with water during any warm changes of weather in winter,
and exposed to the frost when it is colder. In March, the field is kept dry, the drains
are cleansed, the upturned clods are broken, and the whole levelled with the harrow or
hoe — the field is trenched in a direction across the drains, with a hoe made for the pur-
pose, to open a trench of from 3 to 5 inches in width. The trenches or seed-fun-ows
will be 13, 14 or 15 inches apart from centre to centre. In April, and until the middle of
May, the rice is sown in these trenches, say 3 1-4 bushels of seed to the acre of 45,000
square feet.

Dry Culture. — The seed is coveixd lightly with a light board attached to a hoe-handle,
and the field is inundated from 4 to 6 duys, just long enough to swell the grain, and pre-
pare it to sprout. As soon as it is sprouted, and the plants become perceptible, like so
many needle points above ground, the water is again put on for four or six days, accoi-d-
ing to the warmth of the atmosphere.

With Water Cover. — The more common practice now in the neighborhood of the wri-
ter, is not to cover the seed with earth, but to " clay"* it first, and after sowing, to flood
the land forthwith, making the " sprout" and "• point" water, one and the same. The
method first mentioned is the best for early planting, though the labor required is greater.
After the season is sufficiently advanced for the grain to germinate quickly, the " open"
planting, less laborious, is equally certain, and by some persons is considered more cer-
tain to procure a regular and even stand. In all his early planting, i. e. until the middle
of April, the writer allows three bushels of " clayed" seed to the acre. His trenches are
fourteen inches apart from centre to centre, and five inches wide — the seed is scattered in
the trench. He uses che water freely.

When the plant is five to six weeks old, the earth is stirred with the hoe ; in ten days
more, the hoe^is again used, and the " long-water" put on for two weeks or thereabout;
deep the first four days, then gradually diminished until the plant^ somewhat recovered
from the exhaustion occasioned by its rapid growth under water, stands up erect, and
beo-ins to throw out a new root; the wate]- is then drawn. About eight days after,
when the field is quite dry, a very deep hoeing is given, and the plant left undisturbed
until it is prepared to form a joint; so soon as this is apparent, the field receives alight
dressing with the narrowest hoe, and is " laid by," i. e. the "joint water" is put on to
remain until the grain is matured, which is usually two months from this time. A few
days before cutting, the water is run off, and the ditches washed out by the succeeding
tide. The rice is cut with a sickle, (task one quarter of an acre to the hand, to cut and

* The process of "clajang" rice, was introduced some where about the year 1826, by
that judicious, practical man, and observant, experienced planter, Capt John H. AUston,
of Prince George Winyaw. It may be thus described — take two large tubs, say the
two halves of a hogshead ; fill one with water three fourths full, add to it 3 or 4 baskets
or more of good red clay ; stir it well until the clay is dissolved and the water has taken
up a sufficiency of it to feel clammy between the fingers. Pour off this w-ater into the
other tub, into which also measure as much seed-rice as the tub will hold without wast-
in"- ; stir It about until every grain has been wetted ^-y the clayed water, taking care to
patise every now and then for the purpose of skimming off the grass seed, and light rice,
which rise +o the top and float on the surface. Then dip out the seed rice in selves, al-
lowin"- the water to drip back into the tub, and spread it in llie barn to dry for the next
day's sowing. Put more seed into the tub, and, when requisite, a fresh supply of clayed
water, prepared as before, and so on.

The advantage of this preparation is that the grain furnished on its exterior husk with
a hairy fuz, retains about it, (after being dried sufficiently to be handled in the sowing,)
particles of the tenacious clay ; this, on the grain in the trenches being reached by the
waU'-r with which the field is flooded immediately alter sovdng, makes it adhere to the
• arth, ond of course prf'vcnts the sc«"d from floatinfr.

APPENDIX. 17

carry,) and laid carefully across the stubble to cure, till the succeeding day. The dew
off, it is then bound in sheaves of convenient size, just as wheat is, and packed in large
floats, (beai-ing 5 to 7 acres,) to be conveyed to tlie barn-yard. There it is stacked
temporarily in small ricks, and when thoroughly cured, put away in large stacks made
to contain from 200 to 400 bushels each when threshed.

The tlireshing is performed, almost universally, by a labor-saving machine ; and the
grain is cleaned and prepared for maiket, by means of tlie Pounding-mill herein
described.

Water Culture or ^' sixty days system.''* — The land is flowed soon after harvest, for
the purpose of sprouting the volunteer and scattered Rice, until the winter sets in ; it is
then dried, and kept diy. As early as practicable, the stubble is burned off". The ditch-
es and drains are well cleansed at convenient times, and the land is turned late — a short
time previous to planting. After this the preparation is as usual — the trenches are four-
teent inches apart from centre to centre, and are opened four inches wide. The seed,
after being "clayed," is scattered in the trenches, allowing two bushels and twelve
quarts to the acre. The water is put on so as to cover all tlie hills, and kept so until the
sprout of the rice is green, and the blade well opened; or until the rice begins to float.
The water is then slacked down, vmtil tlie tops of the plant show out on the level land,
not regarding the low places. At tliis level it is held until the low places come out; it
is then raised gradually every three or four days, until about six inches deep on the level
parts of the field ; at this it is held — observing to freshen the water every otlier night.
As soon as the plant is sufliciently strong, the water is slacked down quite low, the hoe
is dragged through between the trenches, and the hands pick out the long gi'ass, weeds
and rushes. The water is then fortliwith returned up to the same mark as before.
This working should be given about ten days before diying the field — as, soon after
it is done, the plant puts out new roots, by which it is sustained and prevented
from " checking" when the water is di*awn. In drawing tliis water, tlie condition
of the plant must guide the judgment. In ordinary seasons, the first planting may
be dried in forty-five or sixty days, the last planting in forty to fifty days ; whenever,
aboi^t that period, the plant is putting out a new root, and always early enough to allow
it thirty days dry growth at least, before fonning the second joint. Seven days after
the water is drawn, the field is hoed very deep, and if the land is stiff", tlie sods are turn-
ed over, or it is "backsodded" — in a fortnight after, it is hoed again, if practicable. As
soon as the plant has formed a second joint, and the hollow is perceptible, the last or
"joint water" is put on, to the same depth as before, and never raised until the rice
begins to shoot forth the ear.

VALUE OF THE RICE CROP.

The value of the Rice crop, as derived from examining the actual nett revenue of six
different planters for ten years, from 1830 to 1840, has been equal to S140 per anmmi to
tlie hand — that is, only taking into account the efficient force of the respectixe pliintations.

The price of rice for the same time, averaged as follows; —

In 1830 — 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839.

825-8 S2 3-8 S2 13-16 ^2 5-8 ^3 3-16 S3 1-4 S3 7-16 S3 11-16 S4 1-17 ^2 1-2
being an average for that time, of S3 1-8.

During the past season the price was low, owing partly to the want of demand for
Rough Rice, which caused an undue quantity of clean Rice to be forced upon the market
at the same time — partly to tlie increased production arising from a favorable hai-vest —
but, principally, to the low price of breadstuff's generally, and the depressed state of
trade all over the world, and the low standard value affixed to almost every thing, by
a return to a Bank issue based upon a specie cun'cncy — tlie only safe and permanent
basis.

To those planters, somewhat in debt, who have been met, in the full career of habitu-
al expenditure, by tlie late and present low prices of produce, tliey have proved serious-
ly embarrassing.

* Reduced to a system by Mr. Archibald Ligctt, of Winyaw, who has politely fur-
nished this synopsis. Mr. L. thinks, and vciy properly, that the practice of making
rice with water altogether is a vicious one, and should be resorted to only where the land
is in such bad order, that the labor of planting would not be compensated by any other.

t Various distances, from twelve to sixteen inches, have been tried by Mr. L. and
he has decided upon fourteen inches as the best. The writer's experience confirms
this decision.

3

18 APPENDIX.

Low prices, if they continue pennanent, so as to effect a corresponding graduation in
price of all the usual objects of expenditure, are doubtless favorable to the lasting pros-
perity of the country. If this be true, our planters will not complain. The sooner they
and their society can accommodate themselves to the new condition of things, i. e. buy
less, and endeavor to make more for sale, the sooner will those, whose business it is to
supply them, graduate their prices to the reduced standard — and their renewed prosperi-
ty, if it be less sudden and ostentatious, will not be the less sure and permanent for
that ; nor the less gratefully acknowledged,

DRILL PLOUGH.

Some where about the year 1812, the late Dr. Robert Nesbit, returning from a visit to
his native country, (Scotland,) introduced an implement in the economy of Rice-plant-
ing, which excited no little interest among the planters in his neighborhood. It was
called the " Drill Plough." Its office and uses were to open the trenches and deposit the
seed, which it was found to do very well w^ien managed with care, to the saving of so
much labor.

The Drill Plough was borne by a carriage on two wheels, very much resembling in
size and height an ox'dinary dray, and was drawn by one horse between shafts. It
consisted, generally, of a long box parallel with the axle and above it, into which the
given quantity of seed grain was placed and locked up. From this box the grain was
distributed by means of regulators into and through tin tubes, descending nearly to the
earth, at the required distance from each other for planting. These tubes or cylinders
were guided in their descent, and sustained in their respective positions, by rods of iron
fixed firmly into the frame, but so as to yield to an obstacle when pressed hard against.
The rods, on their part, were each furnished at bottom with a sort of shoe, protruding a
little beyond the tube, for the purpose of marking and opening the trench into which the
seed was to be conveyed by its corresponding tube, i^lthough a little too complicated,
it was, upon the whole, a complete and interesting labor-saving machine. Drawn by a
good horse, over ground in high tilth, and managed by a skillful and judicious hand, the
Drill Plough would trench and seed from eight to twelve acres of ground in the day, in
proportion nearly as it was furnished with a less or greater number of trenching-shoes
and tubes It was used successfully by the importer, and, more or less, by several
other planters on the Waccamaw and Pee Dee, up to the year of his death, (1821,) since
which time it has been entirely adandoned. This result is supposed to be owing not to
the fact that the plough was not found to be highly useful, so much as to this, that to use
it successfully, it required more minute attention and judgment than could be calculated
on, among the field laborers of that day. The writer is inclined to the opinion, that the
Drill Plough will again be introduced, and successfully used in Rice-planting.* Indeed he
has himself ordered the importation of an improved one from Scotland, to be accompanied
by a laborer who is familiar with its use. One of these ploughs, used by the importer,
having four tubes, would, on long beds, trench and sow (en acres in a day. Another fur-
nished with six tubes, could accomplish ^te(?7t acres under like circumstances, in the
same time.

A simple trenching plough, furnished with coulters for opening two or three trenches at
a time, has been used with advantage on light §oils ; but it has not been generally
adopted.

THRESHING MILL.

The same gentleman. Dr. Nesbit, who was as much distinguished by his general in-
telligence, and scientific ingenuity, as he was noted for skill and success in the practice
of his profession, imported and used upon his plantation in the year 1811, the " Scotch
Threshing Mill." His motive power was the wind. When the wind was fresh and the
weather fair, this machine would thresh and winnow five hundred bushels in a day.

Among the various attempts of the several inventors in this country to improve upon
the Wheat Thresher so as to make it available for Rice, none met with permanent suc-
cess until the year 1830, when was produced a machine, the beaters of which were shod
with sheet iron and serrated with iron wire.

The principle to which is owing the superiority of this invention, is that whilst revolv-
ing with increased raj)idity, (GOO to 800 to the minute) by means of the teeth with which

* Since writing the above, it is ascertained that Mr. Francis M. Weston, of Wacca-
maw, who has just returned from England, has ordrred for importation an improved
Drill Plouf!h, which, on its arrivel in this country, will be left some lime at tlie Agricul-
tural Repository of J. D. Legare, for the inspection of planters. Should Mr. Weston
furnish me with a description of this implement, it will be found in the Appendix,

APPENDIX. 19

the beaters are furnished, it combs off the grain from the numerous foot stalks of which
the ear of Rice is composed. The invention, which is now in very general use, yielding,
when worked by animal power, from two to three hundred Lushels per day, and when
propelled by steam 450 to 700 bushels each, is due to the ingenuity and mechanism of
Calvin Emmons, of New- York. {See Appendix D.) To the liberal entei-prise and pub-
lic spirit of Gen. James Hamilton are the planters of Rice indebted for the first thorough
test of the powers of this machine, and for the subsequent eeirly notoriety of its success-
ful operation.

13^ See in the Drawing Department of tlie U. S. Patent Office an illustration of Mr.
Emmons's patent, dated 27th of July, 1829.

MILLING.

Although it is recorded that planters early in the 18th century cleaned their Rice by
mills worked by horses or oxen, yet this could not have been the case generally, till
s^bout the middle of that century. Even towards the period of the war, hand-mortars
were still extensively used.

The method was, that each male laborer had three pecks of Rough-rice in a mortar,
and each female two pecks, to pound before day or sun-rise ; and the same at night, af-
ter finishing the ordinary task in the field. Ihe pounding was done in wooden mor-
tars made of the common pitch pine, to contain a bushel or less; the pestle was made
of hghtwood or the heart of pine seasoned: the process was conducted on the floor of a
large barn prepairedfor the purpose. The Rough-rice was sometimes grovmd by being
passed between wooden blocks twenty inches ni diameter by six inches liiick, worked
by hand. The mills early in use, and propelled by animal power, were the Pecker-
machine, (so called from the striking resemblance of the pestle when in action, to the
bill of the Wood-pecker,) and the Cog-mill, both of which have been entirely superseded
by the improved Pounding-mill, propelled by water or steam.

Between the years 1780 and '90, the first Waier-mill was erected by Mr. Lucas, the
elder, to whom solely the credit of the invention is understood to be due.

It is to be regretted that the family of Mr. Lucas have not favored us with m-^re full
and accurate notes of their ancestor's early ingenuity and skill as a mill-wright. His
son Jonathan, inheriting the father's mechanical turn and skill, constructed on Cooper
river in 1801 the first Tuil-miU for cleaning rice. He yielded at length to the invitations
of the British Government and transported his improvements to England, where he
himself passed the remainder of his days. His son Jonathan, now living, shipped in
1823 the first load of Rough-rice which was exported from this country.

The first- Water-mill built by Mr. Lucas was, in the year 1787, for Mr. Bowman, on
a Reserve at his Peach-Island plantation on the river Santee.

The next, on the same river, was on the Reserve at Washo plantation, for Mrs. Mid-
dleton, afterwards Mrs. Gen. T. Pinckney.

About the same time or soon after, a Water-mill was put up on a Reserve on Win-
yaw bay, for Gen. Peter Hony. Also for Col. WiUiam Alston, on the Reserve at his
Fairfield plantation on the river Waccamaw.

In the year 1791-2, Mr. Lucas built on Santee the first Tide-Mill, for Mr. Andrew
Johnston, on his plantation called Millbrook.

In a year or two after, the same indefatigable and ingenious mechanic erected on Coop-
er river an improved Tide-mill, being furnisled with Rolling Screen, Elevators, Packers,
&c.. at the plantation of Mr. Henry Laurens, called Mepkin. — {See Appendix E.)

Upon these, the mills erected at a later day have been improvements in construction
chiefly. Some substantial improvements are said to have been introduced recently by
David Kidd, a machinist from Scotland, of very high character forin2:enuity and practi-
cal ability. He is himself one of the best millers, practically, in the i^tate.

In the preparation of Rice, much depends on the grinding of the rough. (In Northum-
berland, En2:land, are the best quarries of stone for this purpose.) In this process, as in
that of brushing and polishing the grain after pounding, there has been latterly a decid-
ed improvement, owing mainly to the observation and genius of the mill-wright just
named.*

At present almost every planter of four hundred acres and upwards, is provided with
a Tide-water or a Steam-poundins: mill for preparing his own crops for market.

There are also a number of Toll-mills in the State, nearly sufficient for preparing all
the rough-rice which is not pounded at the plantations.

In Georgetown, besides various Tide-mills on the neighbouring plantations, which

•Mr. Chisolm.

20 APPENDIX.

pound on toll, more or less, there is a very good Steam-mill owned by Mr. Benjamin

King.

To 3000 bushels of fair Rough-rice this mill will yield of prime ) Tierces 600 lbs. '/leit.
Rice I'or market, 5 144 300 lbs

Of Middling, 7

Of Small Rice, 6

OfFlour, 320 bushels*

In Charleston and its vicinity there are numerous Tide-mills and several Steam-mills;
the chief and most successful of the latter are those of Mr. Chisolm, Mr. Hume and Mr.
Lucas. t

Mr. Lucas has not favored me with a reply to my queries in relation to the operations
of his Mill. Nor has Mr. Hume.

From accounts of the operations of Mr. Chisolm's Mill, I infer that 3000 bushels of
fair rough-rice will yield of prime Rice for market, ) Tierces 600 neti.

J 148 300 lbs.

Of Middling, ...3

Of Small, 3

Of Flour, 330 bushels.*

In the city of New York, owing to the public spirit and enterprise of Col. Benjamin F.
Hunt, there has been for some years in operation a very good Steam-mill, which re-
ceives Rice on toll, and consumes, besides, some 50,000 bushels of Rough on its own
account.

As the other Toll-mills from which I have heard have furnished results based upon
the preparation of South-Carolina Rice alone, I have thought proper to use only Mr.
Bilby's experiment with the Charleston Rice.
To 3000 bushels of Rough Rice, the New York Mill yields > Tierces 600 Ihs,

of prime Rice, 3 82 422

Of Good to Fair Rice, 45 570 bbls. lbs.

Of Broken Rice, (middling'?) 16 129 144 521

Of small Rice or Chitts, (26.31 bushels.) 2 510

Of Flour or Douse, (381. 21 bushels) 15,630 lbs.*

In the Mill erected by Mr Napier on Cooper River, " Wire Cards" are used instead of
Pestles for cleaning the grain.— This mode of preparing Rice imparts a slightly blueish
tinge to the grain, tho' it is supposed to keep longer than rice prepared in the ordinary
way. Rice thus prepared w'll not command as high a price per cwt. as that from the
pestle of similar quaUty, but it is said to be the interest of the planter to patronize the
"Cards," inasmuch as the yield in whole rice from a given quantity of Rough is inva-
riably gr ater, the offal being less. In the year 1842-3, this mill prepared about seven
thousand barrels, and seems to have given satisfaction to patrons.

The trial upon Mr. Deas' Rice from Santee is selected as the fair test of this mill.
1950 bushels. At the same rate 3000 bushels of prime rough rice will yield -in prime

Tiei-ces 600 lis.

Rice for market, 144

In Middhng Rice, 368.851bs.

In Small Rice, 1.323.23 "

In Flour, ., 226 bushels.*

Recently an ingenious method of lifting the pestles has been invented by Mr. S. K.
Williams of the city of Charleston, to be used in substitution of the lever (" lifter") de-
scribed in Mr. Lucas's mill. One advantage of this invention is said to be the greater
rapidity with which the pestles (themselves lighter) may be driven without inteifering
or " slamming." Another, that a system of pestles and mortars may be more compactly
arranged in circular form, and may be moved by a less power.

The invention is called " The Spiral Shaft Rice Mill." As it has never yet been ac-
tually tested, nothing more can be said of it here.

*See Appendix F.

tSince the above was published it is ascertained that Mr. Nowell has applied a steam
engine to his mill.

APPENDIX. 21

PROCESS OP PREPARATION.

The stones which are used for grinding rice should be 5 to G ft. 2 in. diameter, and 18
inches thick at the centre. There is said to be a quany in Northumberland affording
stones of such excellent substance, that they will grind rough rice enough for packing
1000 barrels without being taken up.

The whole process of preparation may be described generally as follows. From a
shed or convenient store-room attached to the mill-house, the rough rice is taken by
means o/ elevators, {i. e. a system of small tin buckets attached to a long revolving
band of leather) up to the highest apartment in the building, to be passed through a
sand-screen revolvnig neai-ly horizontally, which in sifting out the grit and small
grain rice, separates also all foreign bodies, and such heads of rice as were not duly
threshed.

From the sand-screen the sifted rough of large size is conveyed directly to the stones
on the same floor, where the husk is broken and ground oft', thence to a wind-fan below,
where the chaft'is separated and blown off". The grain is now deposited in a long bin,
placed over the pestle-shaft and coiTCsponding in length with it, whence the gi'ound rice
is delivered by wooden conductors into the mortars on the ground floor, (ten, twelve,
fourteen or twenty-four in number, as the power applied may justify.)* These mortars,
improved by Mr. Kidd's design, are constn\cted beautifully of four pieces of the heart
of pine, seasoned. They are in figure a little more than a semi-ellipsoid, and are made
to contain four and a half bushels of ground rice each.

The pestles, also constructed of the heart of pine and con-esponding in number and
position with the mortars, are sheathed at foot with sheet-iron, partially perforated in
many places from within by some blunt instnmient, so as to resemble on a very coarse
scale the rough surface of a grater. They are intended to weigh each 240 to 280 lbs. or
thereabout, are lifted by levers six feet long attached (2 feet out) to the large pestle-shaft,
and make from forty-four to forty-eight strokes in a minute. A mortar of rice is dis-
posed of, or sufficiently pounded, in one hour and forty minutes to two hours. The
grain thus pounded is again elevated to the upper floor, to be passed through a long hori-
zontal rolUng-screen, slightly depressed at one end, where, by means of a system of wire-
seives grading coarser and coarser towards the lower end, are separated first the flour,
second the "small rice" (the eyes and smaller particles of the broken grains) third the
"middling rice" or the smaller, and the half broken grains, fourth and last the "prime
rice," the larger and chiefly unbroken grains, which fall through the largest wire, and
forthwith descends to the "'polishing" or "brushing screen" below, whence it descends
through a fan into the bairel on the first floor, where it is packed and the preparation is
completed.t The head rice (or largest grains of all,) together with the rough, unbroken
by the stones, passes off" at the lower end of the screen, to be pounded over.

The ^^ brusking-screeTi" consists of a vertical cylinder or drum two feet in diameter, by
from four and a half to six feet in height, to the surface of which are attached, vertically,
shreds of sheep-skin closely packed ; this drum is made to revolve with great volocity
within, and lightly brushing a cylindrical frame of iron wire made into a fine seive. In
passing down spirally between this clothed dRun and the exterior cylindrical wire-seive,
the grains are relieved of the particles of flour which still adhere to them, and which
are brushed off" by the wool and forced out through the meshes of the wire. The rice
thus brushed clean and polished against the wire, is packed in barrels constructed of pine
staves to contain six cwt. nett. The middling and small rice are passed through a fan
which blows off" from them the flour into an apartment kept for that purpose. They are
packed separately, and used as provisions for the laborers on the plantation during the
warm months, chiefly at Christmas holidays and throughout harvest, and habitually by
the families of both the proprietor and his overseer.

Rice being so completely protected by its silicious husk, and thus so much less liable
to damage from transportation in the rough, than when cleaned, owins: too, to the supe-
rior manner in which clean rice can be presented in the European markets fresh from the
screen, capitalists concerned in this trade have caused mills propelled by steam to be
erected on Mr. Lucas's plan at various ports in England, and on the Continent, at which

♦ It is understood that Mr. Lucas's mill drives 28 pestles, and Mr. Chisolm's 30.
t Mr. Chisolm has constructed in his mill a second screen for polishing, through
which the rice from tiie brushinc: screen is passed on its way down to tlif bam I.

22 APPENDIX.

upwards of 400,000 bushels of rough rice from this State are annually prepared — besides
a quantity of paddy from the East Indies, and from other quarters.

To encourage the consLruction of such machinery in Great Britain, and to protect the
capital invested in the mills, the importation of rough rice, rather than clean, is encoura-
ged in that kingdom by a discriminating duty in favor of the former, equal to four dollars
per barrel of the latter.

In England^ there are in operation four mills — two in London and two in Livei-pool,
consuming each about 75,000 bushels of rough annually. When the price of Carolina
rice ranges high, these mills are, to a great extent, employed in manufacturing paddy
from the East Indies.

The mill in Scotland has been converted to another purpose.

In Denmark, at Copenhagen, a mill has been in operation about six years — consump-
tion about 90,000 bushels of rough.

At Bremen, there is a mill intended to prepare either wheat or rice, according to the
state of the markets.

At Fknsburgh, also, there is a mill constructed for both wheat and rice — capable of
manufacturing 20,000 bushels of rough rice.

In Holland, at Amsterdam, a mill has been some years in operation which requires
from 60 to 80,000 bushels of i-ough rice annually.

I7i Portugal, at Lisbon, there is a small mill which prepares either wheat or rice, re-
quiring about 10,000 bushels of CaroUna annually.

In France, at Bordeaux, a mill has but recently been put in operation — for it, in the
year 1842, were shipped about 60,00J bushels of Carolina rough.

A mill constructed after Mr. Napier's plan has been erected by the "Northampton
Rice Company" at Mara^iham, in Soidh-Avierica, whei-e it is in successful operation. It
is supplied with paddy grown in the neighborhood.

The articles received from the several countries above named, as well as from Cuba,
may here be mentioned.

From Denmark and Holland, as indeed from all the other countries, (England and
France excepted,) little is received in the shape of return cargoes — the purchases of
both rough and clean rice, being, for the most part, paid for by bills of Exchange on
London.

From Bremen, were once received glass-ware, bottles, bagging, hams, paving-stones,
&c., but the United States Tariff of duties has put a stop to these importations.

From Portugal, the i-eturns are fruit and wines principally.

From Prance, the articles at present received are silks, wines and brandy. This trade
also has been affected by the tariff.

From England, are miported in return, iron, hard- ware, manufactures of cotton, wool-
len and linen, salt, coal, &c.

From Cuba, the returns are sugar, molasses, coffee and fruit.

The consumption of rice in Cuba is estimated at 15,000 barrels for the North-side, and
2,000 for the South-side of the Island. {See Appendix G.)

EXPORTS.

John Archdale, Governor of Carolina, in 1694-5, who gave more general satisfaction
to all parties than any other under the proprietary rule, was a Q,uaker — a very pious,
mild man. He succeeded in the government Landgrave Smith, and was in turn suc-
ceeded by Joseph Blake. He returned to England in the year 1696. In the year 1707,
was printed for him in London a pamphlet, which, from internal evidence, appears to
have been written some two or three years anterior. In this pamphlet lie says — " Not-
"withstanding all the discouragements it (the trade of the Colony) hath met withal,
'which are many, yet seventeen ships this year came laden from Carolina with rice, skins,
■pitch, tar, &c. in the Virginia fleet, besides several straggling ones."* From this time
to the year 1720, during the greater part of which time the coast was infested by fleets
of piratical vessels under command of the notorious Steed Bonnett, and others, there is
extant no record of the exports of the Province.

In a statement, intended for the House of Commons, drawn up about the commence-
ment of the war with France, by the merchants of London concerned in the rice trade.-

♦ 2 Car. Col. p. 97.

APPENDIX.

23

and published by Governor Glen in his " Description of South Carolina," 1761, the ex-
ports of Rice from Carolina are thus given: —

From 1720 to 1729, inclusive, 264,788 barrels-44,081 tons.*
^' 1730 to 1739 " 419,525 " =99,905 tons.t

From another source is obtained the following statement : —

Exports of Rice from the Port of Charleston, S. Carolina, from Casks.

Nov. 1724 to Nov. 1725, 17,734

From 1725 to 1726, from Nov. to Nov 23,031

" 1726 to 1727, 26,884

'' 1727 to 1728, 29,905

Barrels.

" 1728 to 1729, 32,384

" 1729 to 1730, 41,722

" 1730 to 1731, 39,487

" 1731 to 1732, 37.068

" 1732 to 1733, 50,726

" 1733 to 1734,. 30.323

" 1734 to 1735, 45,317

" and 1,038 Bags

From the Commercial Column of the " South Carolina Gazette.'^

Exports from Charleston, S. Carolina, Bbls.

From 1735 to 1736, 52,349

1736 to 1737, from Nov. to Nov. 42,619

1737 to 173H, 34,324

1738 to 1739, 67,117

1739 to 1740, 91,110

1740 to 1741, 80,040

1741 to 1742, 46,196

Bags. Price at last uncntioned
1,554 period.

519 £3

40s.

45s.

2,137 55s.

From the Carolina Gazette.

BbU.

From 1742 to 1743, from Nov. to Nov. 73,416

" 1743 to 1744, " " 80,778

" 1744 to 1745, " " 59,627

" 1745 to 1746, " " 54,101

'• 1746 to 1747, " " 54,146

" 1747 to 174H, " " 55,132

" 1748 to 1749, " " 41,034

" 1749 to 1750, " " 48,011

" 1750 to 1751, " " 61,522

" 1751 to 1752, " " 78,360

" 1752 to 1753, " " 35,522

«' 1753 to 1754, " " 88,659

" 1754 to 1755, " " 96,778

" 1758 to 1759, " " 51,718

" 1759 to 1760, " " 60,789

" 17^0 to 1761, " to Oct. 10th, 101,359

" 1761 to 1762, « Nov. 79,642

Bags.

Price at last mentioned

period per cwt.
40s.
25s.
17s.
20s.
46s.
55s.

525
223

186

44

74

6d.

37s.
70s.
45s.
50s.
40s.

45s.
37s. 6d.
30s.

* The weight of the barrel would seem to have been about 325 lbs.

t The weight of the barrel now 400 "

: 2 Car. Col. p. 265.

§ From the French of G. M, B. Duniont, (1755,) furnished by the Hon. M. King.

24 APPENDIX.

Price at last mentioTied
Bbls. Bags. period per cwt.
" 1762 to 1763, » " 101,059 44 50s.

" 1763 to 1764, " " 101.842

" 1764 to 1765, " to Sept. 14th, 107,292 ' 50s.

" 1768 to 1769, 10th Oct. to 24th Aug. 116,715 65s.

" 1770 to 1771, 1st Nov. to 10th Oct. 130,500
As follows : —

To great Britain, 73,325

To Portugal 14,439

To Spain, 1,760

To Italy, 222

To Foreign West India Islands, 975

To British " " 30,305

To Ports on this Continent, 9,665

In the year 1770, from the Colonies, 150.529—^1,530,000*

From the Carolina Gazette.

Price at last mentioned
Bbls. period.

From the port of Charleston, South Carolina, from

1772 to 1773, from 1 Nov. to 2 Aug 112,469 £3 10s.

From 1773 to 1774, from 12th Nov. to 7 Nov 118,482

From Beaufort same time 3,630

" Georgetown 2,964

Crop of 1773 Exported Total, 125.076

From Hunfs Merchant's Magazine, Vol. 9, No. 1.

Tierces.

Value on ship-board.

In the yeai

' 1791, from

the United States,

96,980

u

1792,

u

141,762

a

1793,

([

134,611

u

1794,

((

116,486

(C

1795,

((

138,526

((

1796,

u

131,039

(C

1797,

u

60,111

((

1798,

((

125,243

li

1799,

.(

110,599

'

a

1800,

((

112,056

((

1801,

u

94,866

((

1802,

C(

79,822

((

1803,

((

81,838

S'2,455,000

((

1804,

((

78,385

2,350,000

cc

1805,

((

56,830

1,705,000

(C

1806,

(C

102,627

2,617,000

a

1807,

ti

94,692

2,367,000

<(

1808,t

li

9,228

221,000

a

1809,

(C

116.901

2,104,000

((

1810,

c.

131,341

2,626,000

((

1811,

(C

119,356

2387,000

((

1812,1 )

((

77,190

1,544,000

i(

1813, }

(.

120,813

3,021,000

((

1814, )

((

11,476

230,000

* Pitkins Statistics.
tThe year ©f the embargo.
% War with Groat Britain,

APPENDIX.

25

In the year 1815, from the United States,
'• 1816,

1817, " "
" 1818, " "

1819, "

1820,
" 18-21, " "

18-2-2, " "
" 1823,

18-24,
" 1825, " *•
'' 1826,
" 1827, " "

1828,
" 1829,
" 1830, " "

1831,
" 1832,

" 1833, " "
" 1834,
" 1835, . "
" 1836, " "

1837,
" 1838,

1839,
" 1840, '' "

" 1841, " "

Tierces.

Valite on skip board.

129,248

2,785,0t0

137.843

3,555,000

79.296

2.378,001

88.181

3,262,697

76,523

2,142.644

71,663

1,714,923

88.221

1,494,923

87,089

1,553,482

101,365

1,820,985

113.229

1,882,982

97.015

1,925,245

111,063

1,917,445

133.518

2,343,908

175,019

2,620,696

171,636

2,514.370

130,697

1,986,824

116.517

2,016,267

120,327

2,152,631

144,166

2,774,418

121,886

2,122,272

110,851

2,210,331

112,983

2,548,750

106,084

2,309,279

71.048

1,721,819

93,320

2,460,198

101,660

1,942,076

101,617

2,010,107*

The following statement of exports from South-Carolina, derived from the journals of
the day, is given from the year 1832, the period from which has been kept an account of
the receipts of Rice at the port of Charleston. The exports coastwise bemg rarely clear-
ed, cannot with accuracy be given.

The foreign exports of Rough Rice are included in the foreign exports of tierces, at
the rate of twenty-one bushels to the tierce — and so with the exports coastwise.!

October

to
October.

1832 and

1833 and

1834 and

1835 and

1836 and

1837 and

1838 and

1839 and

1840 and

1841 and

1842 and

1833

1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1^2
1843

Coast-

Receipts.

Foreign
Exports.

wise.

Tierces.

Exports.
47,003

143.473

90,246

117,403

80,089

30,918

121,898

74,868

42,501

133,633

79,007

47,226

1 119,961

63,396

40,614

90,384

51.514

30,837

106,001

63,617

36,295

107,108

68,795

31, .591

107,052

75,265

25,970

1 18,004

75.739

34,174

136,732

71,575

58,011

City Con-
sumption.

1,1 /6
6,330
5.600
6,200
5,500
6.600
6,850
6,800
6,200
7,200
7,300

t oreign Ex- 1 Coastwise.

ports of
Rough Rice.

Bushels.

317,-594
356,752
512,808
336,442
470,412
431,306
455,592
445,685
294,018

Exports of

Rough

Rice.

41,288
63,235
39,609
44,733
43,950
10,342
37,166
15,770
33,493

* Hunt's Merchant's Magazine, vol. 9, No. 1.

t This statement is furnished by Mr. J. W. Cheesborough.

26

APPENDIX.

The exportation of Rough Rice to foreign countries commenced about the year 1823,*
as appears from the following (amongst other testimony,) " account of the quantity of
Rice imported into, and re-exported from the united kingdom of Great Britain and Ire-
land, for ten years, ending 5th January, 1828. Ordered by the House of Commons.'^
Extracted from the Soutlwrn Agriculturist, volume 1, p, 461.

O
O

T— 1

CO 00

Kco*^

o -^

I— 1

c? o

00

T— 1

o -^
00 1-

CO t-

o"o"

.-1 Ttl

r-Tin"

CiCO

I— 1

o

00 Oi
1—1 1-

1—1 CO

t-CO

00

cot-
en Oi
OiOO

t-"of

T-H

i

00
1— 1

00 en
to o

CO as

t-co

r-H

CO
00

—1 00

Ci o
lO o

C^CO

1—1 T— 1

00
1—1

CO

^ o
CO o<
OO^J-

co'~o~
I- in

CO o

T-l 1—1

1-H

X 00

Ci o

CiOO

i-H

I- CO

en o
o -^

ooo

1— 1

to

^ CO
CD «n

vrTifT

CO

oi in
CQ in

-To"
t-in

00

r-H

o

00 CO

CO r-<

OOO

t

1

D

c :
.2 •

'co
w .

<u .

M .
M .

o
•C o

:

o
H

E-

a
X
W

•

CQCO

lO I

,

:^^ Ci

'—'

<v

CO 00

(N

O 1-1

c?

TO

'-!

I-H I-

00

m

I— 1

1— (

1—1

o

1-^

men

1-H

0(^»

(t)

00 ifi

CO

rn

(JJCO

en

r-

3

1—1

1-H

00 -

T— 1

m

1—1

1—1

lO

CO

^

TJ4

o

0

Oien

»o

CO "5*1

fin

D

00 en

•^

.r:

w

Tj* r-H

en

en

p

1—4

1—1

00

T— 1

PQ

T— (

1—1

r-

1—1

^

t-

O

c^

,/

C^ o

c^

4

t-QO

vO

o

C>} "^

1-

rC

co"c<r

»o

\0

--;

Ci

Oi

H

on

m

CJ

1— 1

en

1— 1

t-

f^

^

en

ffi

O

_-• 1 CO CO

en

<')

Oi vO

't

P

m

.-( o
co"

CM

co"

(T/

PQ

I— (

I— 1

r-H

00'

(Z)

Oi

■^^

^

<?*

c^

o

CO

on

^ C^ (M

1—1

o

822.
wts.

i-<
00

00 1

t-

t-

^ lo

1

1— (

CO

s

CO

8

1—1

o

a

Oi

o

C/5

00

)0

^

on

^

t-

I-

1— 1

o

1

(/T •

>.

j;

n3

O •

Ti

w *.

Pn

Pi

CO

•

P

o

o •

n

..'^

(1h

^ rT

0

s-d

;^

-^.^^

H

^'^

■5 2i
C 0

x.H

PQfe

ti

P^

en

g^

P4

QO,fi
CO I

o

S-" (*a O

5 00 *^

to g. a 00

,n « r- 1

CO « "^ .5

. • 'm "*
CO w 3 -r;

Qo^ccT i^-?

C C r-H r^"

2 52^-

w '00 J2
<i^ 13 1-1 Si
o aj _^ 00

S o S '^

-lOO fe "
■ n. «-■

.St3 ^
"^ en •

^ CO e^2
* Q^ S o

-^.^-^.^^

•C o'C o

pafcpQCt4

c c c fl
0000

* The first car^o of Rough Rice was shipped to England from Charleston by J,
Lucas, junr., in the year 1823.

APPENDIX. • 27

APPENDIX A.

The Chinese, who pay the greatest attention to the cultivation of rice, manure their
lands with all sorts of filth, dung, &c.

In order to make the rice grow the better, they are careful, in certain places where
they sow, to bury bolls of hogs hair or any other sort of hair, which, according to them,
gives strength and vigour to the land and makes the rice better; those whose business it
is to shave the head are very careful in saving the hair till the inhabitants of these parts
come to purchase it for about a half-penny a pound, carrying it away in bags, and you
may often see barks loaded with nothing else.

When the plant begins to ear, if the land be watered with spring-water, they mix
quick lime with it, pretending that it kills worms and insects, destroys weeds, and gives
a warmth to the ground very much tending to make it fruitful. — 2. Du Halde's History
ofCki?ia, (1741,)?, 109.

"Account, geographical, statistical and historical, of Orissa proper, or Cuttach," a terri-
tory in India lying on the river Hoogly, and the sea. — " Asiatic Researches,'^ or transac-
tions of the Asiatic Society, instituted in Bengal, 15, 171.

Rice is the great article of produce and consequently of food, throughout Orissa pro-
per. In the Pergunnahs north of the Byterini it is almost the sole object of agricultural
labor. The grain is in general large and nutritous but coarse, and is considered inferior
to the average produce of Bengal and Behar.

The crops of Cuttach are called Sared andBeali. Of these, the first and principal one
is sown in May and June and reaped in from the middle of November to January, (a
2nd crop rare.) The second in importance, called the Beali, is sown about the same
time on the higher lands, and reaped from end of August to end of September.

Also an inferior description of rice, which is sown in low marshy spots, at the opening
of the cold weather, and by frequent transplantation and irrigation is rendered fit for cut-
ting in the following April. The cultivation of the latter sort is called Dalo, takes place
chiefly in the Pergunnahs between Khundah, the Chilka Lake and the sea.

" Report of the London Society of Arts." Journal of the Asiatic Society for 1836, vol.
5| 366-8.

" The Soomla or Himalaya Paddy, or Mountain rice, received from Mr. Hodgson,
resident of Nepal, appears to be of the same kind as a sample (comprising five varieties)
sent to the Society of Arts, in 1821, by Dr. Wallach." * * * *

" The high-rice is nearly of the same quality as the latter kind," (East India rice in-
ferior) being dark coloured, opaque, and not at all calculated for the English mar-
ket.

After being cut down, the Malsi Rice is stacked on the field and left to become heated
and to ferment six or eight days, after which the stacks are pulled to pieces and the grain
separated from the straw, (by shaking the sheaf and beating it a few times on the
ground,) is winnowed by being shiiken to the wind from a shallow platter made of matt
and bamboo, and dried in the sun. The grain thus treated is called hukwa, and is much
liked.

Another mode is to beat out the rice with a long stick as it lays upon the ground. All
the grain in the valley is separated from the straw on the field, and carried home after
being winnowed, in bags and baskets. It is reaped with a sickle. ♦ * ♦

The Chusa is made thus ; the rice in husk (dhan) being steeped in water for a day
and night, is toasted for a short time on a stone or large tile heated for the puqiose ; when
thus parboiled, and while still soft, it is thrown into the wooden mortar and bruised into
thin flat flakes, in which state, having been seperated from the husks and dried, it is sold
in the shops and eaten by the people. A native of Nepal or of Bengal and Behar, will
be satisfied to live on this substance alone for many days together ; a small quantity of
Suknr (unpurified, partially crystallized sugar) added, gives it a most grateful relish, to
the rarely stimulated palates of these poor and primitive people.

Kuti (Nejron) the machine for converting the (dhan) into eatable rice, by husking
it, is the same as that for making Surki from bricks (hence called the Dhenki?) — Ibid.
vol. 6, 1836, 962^.

28 . APPENDIX.

Capt. Charles Wilkes, of the U. S. Navy, the intelligent and able commander of the
recent exploring expedition, informs me that except at Manila, no specimens of rice were
obtained by the expedition, the crops not being in a state to furnish specimens — he has
obligingly furnished the following remarks: " In Brazils you have the result of Mr,
Brackenridge's actual observation ; he was Horticulturist to the expedition. I may add
that the rice of Brazil, as an article of commerce, is not esteemed in comparison with
our best rice, and does not keep well .this is also the case with the rices of the Philip-
pine Islands. Of the latter you have an account handed me for you by Mr. Kich, our
Botanist, which he obtained from the best authorities. Speaking well the Spanish lan-
guage, he was enabled to obtain much information and had much intercourse with se-
veral distinguished gentleman of Manila who are well acquainted with this branch of
cultivation.

"Instead of the word Paddy being applied to Mountain Rice exclusively, as Loudon
has it, in the Phillippine Islands and at Singapore they apply it to all Rice with the
husk on : this I found invariably their practice. The Rice fields of the Fhillipi ine
Islands (the Water Rice) both before and after it is growing, yield a large supply of
fish for the inhabitants ; some, it is said, much over a pound in weight and a foot in
length ! The only mode they have of cleaning the Rice of the husk is to beat it in a
wooden mortar by hand ; this each family does for itself, it being sold as Paddy.

"All the aquatic kinds are planted in July and August by hand, and are reaped in De-
cember. The upland Rice comes much sooner to maturity, and is much esteemed,
though they do not raise any great quantity.

"Near Singapore, there are no Rice fields yet ; the country is better adapted for sugar;
it is impo ted from Cochin China and China. We have had no opportunity of getting tlie
information you desire, relative to the Rices of Sumatra and Java. The specimens of
Rice obtained at Manila are small and not in such a state as to be preserved for useful-
ness. Any description of those mentioned by Mr. Rich may be obtained from our Con-
sul at Manila, immediately after the crop is gathered ; it will afford me pleasure to be
instrumental in procuring such as you may desire."

Remarks of Mr. W. D. Brackenridge, Horticulturist, attached to the U. S. Exploring Ex-
pedition^ under the command of Charles Wilkes, Esq., U. S. Navy.

" In Brazil, towards the base of the Organ Mountains, where the courUry is rich and
flat, the cultivation of Rice is carried on to a considerable extent. At one place, on the
banks of a small river, we observed not less than seventy acres sown with Rice; '

"The following, apparently, was the mode of cultivating it there. Dikes or dams, in
breadth three or four feet, enclosed from two to three acres. These enclosures were
either square or oblong, as suited the nature of the ground, which had been ploughed,
made fine and level, with sevTal furrows or runs through the centre of each (for the pur-
pose of drainmg the surface V) In the dikes were two or more gaps or sluices, to flood
or let off the water at will. The young Rice plants, when we saw them, were from two
to three inches high; the ground was moist to saturation, but not flooded. We were told
that water would be let on in a few days, and allowed to ren.ain (ill (he plants were in
flower. The soil was a deep rich black earth. This culture on the part of the Brazil-
ians resembles very much that of the Westphalians.

Several patches of Rice were seen at the Sandwich Islands, near Honolula."

Remarks by Mr, Rich, the Botanist attached to the U. S. Exploring Expedition, under the
command of Charles Wilkes, Esq., U. S. Navy.

"The varieties of Rice cultivated at the Phillippine Islands are verynumerous; the na-
tives distinguish them by the size and shape of the grain ; the following are some of the
most esteemed varieties :

Binamfjovir — With the leaves slightly hairy, glumes whiteish, grows to the height of
about five feet, flowers in Decern her. i\ qua tic.

Lamniio — Greatly resfinbles the above, is more extensively cultivated, particularly in
Batangas, where it is the princif)al article of food among the inhabitants of the roast.

M'dagcqnit — This variety derives its name from its becoming very glutinous after
bo iling; it is much used by the natives in making sweet and fancy dishes, but is consi-

APPENDIX. 29

dered unwholesome ; it is also used in making a white-wash,* which is remarkable for
its brilliancy and for withstanding rain, &c. Aquatic.

Bontot Cabayo — Common in Ilocos, where it is cultivated both upland and in water ;
it produces a large grain, and is therefore much valued, but it has rather a rough taste.

Duviaii — Or early Rice. This variety is raised in the uplands exclusively, and de-
rives its name from ripening its grain three months from planting ; the seed is rather
broader and shorter than the other varieties ; it is not extensively cultivated, as birds and
insects are very destructive to it.

Quinandu — With smooth leaves. This variety is held in great estimation by the peo-
ple of Batangas, as they say it swells more in boiling than any other variety. It is sown
in May and gathered in October. Upland.

Bolohan — This variety has very hairy glumes ; it is not held in much esteem by the
natives, but is cultivated on account of its not being so liable to the attacks of insects and
diseases as most of the other upland varieties.'

Malagequil — Smooth leaves, glumes red, (in all the above they are whiteish.) it pos-
sesses all the qualities of the aquatic variety of the same name, that of becommg very
glutinous after boiling, &c. This Rice is said to be a remedy for worms in horses,
soaked in water with the husk on. It is given mixed with honey and water.

Tangi — Leaves slightly hairy, glumes light violet color. This upland variety is
much esteemed for its fine flavor."

APPENDIX B.

The following methods of preparing rice in the Cuisine, though common with us,
may not be found in all the manuals of house-keeping. They are deemed not unworthy
of being noticed in this Appendix : —

To bod Rice. — Pick all the specks and gravel from the rice, then wash it thoroughly
in cold water, have your pot of water boiling, add salt, and then put the rice in and stir
it while boiling, let it boil four minutes, then pour off the water as close as you can,
without stirring the rice, set the pot on some coals and cover it; let it remain twenty
minutes, then dish it up for use. Prepared thus, it is the most simple among vegetables,
is palateable, nutritious and light. When boiled, rice is increased in bulk some 150 per
cent, and in weight over 100 per cent. For dyspeptics, there is no vegetable so in-
nocent.

Rice Breakfast Bread. — Mix a spoonful of butter with some hot hominy, very tho-
roughly, and spread it to cool, then beat up an e^^ very light, add some milk, then mix
in the hominy with rice floui-f until it is a thick batter, add salt q. s., stir it well, then drop
it from a spoon into an oven and bake quickly. — Vavx.

Another Rice Bread. — Have a bucket for the special purpose — mix over night some
hominy, or the eyes of the rice, boiled soft, with milk and rice flour, (having added salt,
q. s..) into a stiff batter, so that it will just pour — set it where it will not get warm, which
injures it: in the morning stir it, pour it into the pan and set it to bake. — GaUavrnii.

Griddles Jot Breakfast. — Mix a thin batter with milk and rice-flour, adding salt, q. s.
have your griddle-iron hot, grease it with lard, pour some batter on, spread it thin, turn
it and brown it both sides.

Rice Ghee. — There is also a very good glue made from rice, by boiling the ground
rice in soft cold water till it acquires the consistency of a thin jelly. — Encij. Am. This is
one of the best cements for china-ware, shells, &c.

Starch from Rice. — This is said to be finer, whiter, and better, inasmuch as a given
quantity will go further than that produced from wheat. The manufacturers, however,
allege that the material is too costly to justify their using it in making starch. Moreover
the difficulty of separating from it the gluten contained in this grain, is an obstacle in the
way of its use. It is to be hoped that some of our chemists will yet discover a more
ready and certain method of completing this process.

* Small Rice is used in the lower parts of Carolina for making white-wash with lime ;
and with good effect.

t Rice flour is obtained by pounding into powder in a hand mortar the requisite quan-
tity of milled rice, (two quarts of lice will make nearly three quarts of flour.) This is
the best way to prepare it for immediate use ; if kept, it soon becomes acid. It is some-
times ground by the mills. This keeps very well, but the rice cannot be so completely
pulverised when ground. It is prepared thus at the Kew York Steam Rice Mill, and
packed in barrels for exportation.

30 APPENDIX.

Col. R. F. W. Allston.

APPENDIX C.

Mount Arena, Nov. 8, 184?.

Your queries respecting the varietes of rice, &c., remind me of my promise to give
you the result of some of my experiments with rice straw and tailings, as manure to rice
land. Whenever they have been put upon my fields which had been making small
crops, the effect has been satisfactory, and it has become a part of the system of my
plantation.

In the month of Nov. 1839, I caused the stubble of two fields, one fifteen the other ten
acres, to be listed four feet apart, and parallel with the drains ; after which a furrow was
made on each side with a large plough ; the land unbroken in the centre was then drawn
upon the beds with hoes — during the time of threshing, the straw and tailings were car-
ried in a large flat, and each load was distributed between the beds of one acre, until the
whole was covered. In this state they were left until the last week in June, when all the
volunteer rice and grass was hoed down, and the beds reversed with ploughs and com-
pleted with hoes. The ditches and drains were then cleaned, and the fields were planted
in peas, set in chops about a foot apart — the land was in good order, and the peas grew
luxuriantly and made a fine crop — no volunteer rice, and as little grass as possible was
allowed to go to seed.

In the first week of April, the vines were cut down, and the beds levelled with ploughs
and hoes. This was very easily done, as the land was dry and remarkably loose — they
were then trenched in the usual way thirteen inches from centre to centre — two bushels
and twelve quarts of rice were planted to each acre, and the seed was well covered with
earth. During the cultivation, the common plan was pursued, i. e. sprout, point, long,
and lay-by flow — two hoeings between point and long-flow, two after, and one picking
in the water. The crop was well saved, and produced within a fraction of seventy-three
bushels to the acre. The straw and chaff of this rice was of a much brighter color than
any other made upon the plantation, and the grain was of superior quality — 1970 bushels
of rough rice, made from land treated in the manner described, was pounded at the
Georgetown Steam Mill last winter, and turned out

Tierces, 600 lbs. nett.

98,157 lbs. prime rice,

5 barrels middling, and
3 ditto small, with
193 ditto flour.

I cannot say what had been made upon these fields for the three or four previous years,
but on reference to the plantation book, where an account had been kept, I found the
average crop from them to have been thirty-three bushels and a fraction to the acre.

In some of my fields I have planted oats upon the beds, one and sometimes two rows,
and these have, in some instances, been followed by potato slips, which succeed remark-
ably well ; and it may be worthy of notice, keep fully as well, if not better, than tliose
made upon high land.

Although the rice thus mado received as much work as is usually bestowed under the
best cultivation, yet it was not bestowed from its seeming to require it, but from the fact
of its being convenient to do so in turn with other fields of the plantation. I believe as
much might have been made with two workings, as the grass had been so completely
destroyed, and the land so thoroughly opened previously, that but little remained to be
effected by the hoes. From subsequent observation, this land is much more easdy culti-
vated, and with proper care some years must elapse before the volunteer rice and various
grasses regain their standing.

Which of the three means employed in this plan is of most importance, is to be de-
termined— thoroughly breaking the soil, with the destruction of volunteer rice and grass
seed, change of crop and culture, or the application of the rice-straw.

The work laid out in this manner ought not to be considered as altogether additional,
but very much as given in advance, and at a time well suited to it — as when the rice plant-
ing season arrives, it will be found, as before remarked, to require very little more — after

APPENDIX. 31

which, its state of preparation for a good crop will far exceed any condition that could be
brought about by the means at command during the winter season.

From the observations which I have made since my attention was first drawn to this
matter, it appears that it would be profitable for such persons as plant weak or impover-
ished land to subject one fifth of the quantity annually planted, to this mode of treatment.
From the increase which might be obtained in the first crop, a considerable return, if not
al}, would be made for the loss of a rice-crop on the land for one year, and the balance,
if any, would be soon made up by the succeeding crops — besides the advantage gained
from the increased fertility of the fields for some years; the enhanced value of their pro-
duction from the superior quality of the grain, and the diminished labor during the culti-
vation of the succeeding crops.

Impoverished rice land is particularly susceptible of improvement from manure, as may
be often seen when fields are so situated as to receive the washings, by rain, of adjacent
corn or potato fields annually manured with rice straw ; and it is more lasting in its effect
than might be supposed, as is proved by the marked difierence in rice growing in fields
where cattle-pens or feeding troughs had been placed, often many years before.

With great regard,

EDWARD T. HERIOT.

APPENDIX D.

The following is a list of patents obtained by citizens of South Carolina, together with
the Emmons' of New York, for their respective inventions or improvements of a Thresh-
ing machine. There are no models for these to be found, and only three are illustrated
by drawings. The originals were, doubtless, destroyed by the fire of the l5th Dec. 1836;
and those marked thust have not been restored.

t Benjamin S. Hort, Georgetown, S, C patent 21st Feb. 1812

t Elias B. Bort, Charleston, S. C " l8th " 1828

t Calvin Emmons, New- York, " 17th April 1828

t Jehiel Butts. Georgetown, S. C " 20th May 1830

Calvin Emmons, " 27th July 1829

William Emmons " 7th Feb. 1831

William Mathews, Charleston, S. C " 27th Aug. 1835

Here follows a description by Mr. Emmons, of his machine of 1831, with his improve-
ments thereon.

New-York, \^h Sept. 1843.
To R. F. W. Allston, Esa.

Dear Sir: — Your letter of the 3d Aug. is received — my rice-thresher, when I first in-
troduced it into your State in the winter of 1830-1, was constructed as follows, viz.
a rectangular frame, across and near the one end of which was placed, in suitable boxes,
an iron shaft, on which shaft were hung circular heads (or wheels,) to the periphery of
which circular heads, and parallel with the said shaft, were attached, byjoints or hinges,
six toothed beaters, the length of which beaters being nearly equal to the width of the
frame in the clear. The teeth of eveiy second beater ranging alternately with tiie spaces
between the teeth of the others ; the teeth were made of 5-16ths iron rod, one and a half
inches long, and set in the beaters 5-8ths of an inch apart from centre to centre of each
tooth. The centrifugal force causing the said toothed beaters, when revolving, to ex-
tend themselves as far from the axis as the joints by which they are secured will per-
mit, and thus when in motion forming a cylinder.

Underneath the beaters was placed a circular frame or bed, formed of slats parallel
with the axis of the cylinder, the front edge of which frame, where the grain is received,
being raised nearly to the height of the axis of the cylinder ; directly in front of which
is placed a pair of feeding rollers, to which the sheaf-rice was conveyed by a revolv-
ing feeding apron, the bands of the sheaves being previously cut.

32 APPENDIX.

The required speed of a cylinder of 18 inches diameter was found to be about 750
to 800 revolutions per minute — much over that speed would break the rice, or much un-
der would not thresh so perfectly clean. The feed at about 60 feet per minute.

The principal improvements and alterations which I subsequently adopted, are the
using of cast-steel teeth 2 inches long, of 3-8ths rod, flattened and hardened at the outer
ends, (iron teeth having too rapidly worn away by the action of the Rice upon them,)
and steel plates in the concave bed, which plates project 3-4th of an inch above the sur-
face of the bed, and incline towards the feeding rollers, about 30 degrees from the radius;
and which I found to protect the bed from too rapidly wearing as before, and to aid in
separating the foot stalk.

Also as the feeding apron was found to wear out too rapidly by the roughness of the
Rice, an inchned feeding-board was substituted.

By steam power the machines have each threshed 700 bushels per day, though ordi-
narily from 450 to 500 bushels per day each, and by horse power, (as you well know)
much less.

I was first induced to introduce the machine in the Rice planting districts, by the urgent
solicitation of Genl. Jas. Hamilton, who had seen a model or hand machine an agent
of mine had in Savannah, Georgia, and which Genl. Hamilton had taken over to his
plantation near that city, and with the operation of which he was so well pleased that he
at once sent me a bale of rice in the sheaf, that I might further experiment with it here ;
and wrote me, offering every facility for trying the experiment by animal power on his
plantation, if I would bring out a machine and driving geer the following fall or winter,
to which I acceded; and after the erection of which machine, Genl. Hamilton invited the
neighboring planters to witness the experiment, the result of which proved satisfactory.
My patent is dated 27th July, 1829.

Very respectfully yours,

CALVIN EMMONS,

86 White- street, New- York.

APPENDIX E.

The first Toll Mill built in this country, was " Middleburg Mill," on Cooper River,
which was finished in 1801, by J. Lucas, the son.

The first Brushing Screen used, was put into that mill in 1803.

The patent granted Mr. Jonathan Lucas by the British Government, expired three or
four years ago. One of the most important advantages secured to Mr. Lucas, was get-
tino-the duty on Paddy reduced in England to 2s. 6d. per bushel.

Steam was first apphed to Rice Mills in the year 1817, by Mr. Lucas and Mr. Nor-
ton.

The first cargo of Paddy was shipped to England in 1823 by J. Lucas, jr. In that year
the export of Rice from this State was equal to 90,000 barrels, while in 1843 it has
reached 133,000 barrels.

Among the numerous patents recorded at Washington for hulling grain, (Wheat and
Rice,) the following are noted as associated with the names of citizens of South-Caroli-

Winnowin^,- Screen Pendulum — Lewis Dupre, South-Carolina, 1st April, 1807.

Hulhng and cleaning Rice— Jonathan Lucas, jr., 12th July, 1808.

Hulling and pounding husks— Jacob Read, S. C, 9th June, 1809.

Hulling Rice and polishing— Jonathan Lucas, jr., 6th November, 1819.

Hulling Rice by steam— John L. Norton, 16th December, 1823.

Hulling Rice— John Havenel, 17th May, 1828.

Hulling Rice — Asa Nourse, South-Carolina, 19th July, 1828.

Hullin<'Rice— Asa Nourse, South-Carolina, 3d April, 1829.

Hulling Rice and separating grain— Peter Broughton, South-Carolma, 5th August,

The models and plans illustrating these inventions respectively, were doubtless de-
stroyed by the fire of 1836, and have not been since restored.

There is a mill on Savannah River, (Mr. Gibbon's.) carrying eleven pestles, which
as I learned from himself, can pound fourteen bands the tide. The pestles ar&shod
with cast-iron about one foot in length, and secured to the wood by a long bolt driven
from the bottom, and fastened by a screw and nut. The mortars are of cast-iron,
weighing eOOlbs., cast by Allaire, of New-York, and cost S30. They are constructed to
contain five bxishels of rough.

APPENDIX. 33

APPENDIX F.

Geargetonm^ Nov. I6th, 1843,
To Col. R. F. W. Allston,

Sir: — I have received your communication, requesting information in relation to the
preparation of Rough Rice for market, and have to say, that three thousand bushels fair
quality, has turned out at the steam Rice Mill here, one hundred and forty-four and a
half barrels prime H.ke, and seven barrels middling, and six barrels small Rice, and three
hundred and twent)MDushels flour. The time of pounding, with twenty pestles, sixty
hours.

I would remark, that Rice threshed on floors with flails, turns out much better than
mill-threshed.

Your obedient servant.

BENJAMIN KING.

Charleston, 21s« Nov., 1843.
To Col. R. F. W. Allston,

Dear Sir .- — In reply to your favor of 14th ult., I beg to say that the following is, to
the best of my belief, an accurate statement of the turn-out from my mill of 2,000 bus-
hels of what I consider prime Rough Rice.

To your first inquiry,

1. In what time will this quantity be preparing "? One day.

2. How many tierces weighing GOOlbs. netf? 105. ^

3. How many of second quality 1 None.

4. How many of middling Rice 7 Two barrels.

5. How many bushels of small Rice 7 Twenty bushels.

6. How many bushels of Rice flour 7 Two hundred and fifty.

With great respect,

I remain your obedient servant,

A. W. CHISOLM.

P. S. The above statement is made from Rough Rice threshed with the flail. Rice
done by a threshing mill, would take from a bushel to one and a half more — owing to the
quantity of straw and foot stalk not being taken out properly before sent to the mill.

A. W. C.

ResuMs of three different parcels pounded at Chisolin's Mill, 1843.

1. 3,000 bushels Rough Rice from Waccamaw, threshed by mill, made

142 barrels whole Rice of 600 nett,

3 barrels middling.

3 barrels small.
330 bushels flour.

2. 3,000 bushels Rough Rice from Sandy Island, threshed by Jlail, made

155 barrels whole Rice of 600 nett.

3 barrels middling.

3 barrels small.
330 bushels flour.

3. 3,512 bushels of Rough Rice from Pon Pon, threshed by machine, turned out,

In whole Rice, 164 tierces COOlbs. nett.
In middling, 4 "

In small, 3 "

' In Flour, 375 bushels.

34 APPENDIX.

From Thomas Bilby,

New-York Rice MiU, Oct. 12th, 1843,

I have made sundiy trials to ascertain the several products of rough rice or paddy, a
few of which I give below. In 1835 I made three trials, as follows :

1000 bushels paddy, from Savannah, produced

19,995 lbs. of best quality,
10,145 " of second do.

853 " of small rice (or chitts,)
8,140 " of flour or douse.

1000 bushels Paddy, from Charleston, produced

16,078 lbs. of best head rice,

596 " of " prime,

9,190 " of good to fair,

3,243 " of broken,

570 " of Chitts, or small rice,

5,210 " of flour or douse.

1000 bushels paddy, from Wilmington, produced
18,015 lbs. of best quality,
9,989 " of second do.
1,307 " of small rice,
5,760 " of flour or douse.

The above were trials of different modes of screening, so as to ascertain which would
produce the most money ; all the trials that I have made since the above, I have not
kept any of the small and douse, and I find than every year's rice diiFers in its propor-
tions as to prime and broken, as also to the whole product. This year it has averaged
thirty pounds to the bushel, and about one tenth broken ; last year the turn out was
something less.

From J. P. Deveaux, Napier's Mill.

Charleston, 4th Nov. 1843.

Our mill differs from the pestle mill ; we clean by wire cards ; we have four of the rub-
bers in operation, which clean an average of 72 barrels in twenty-four hours. In an-
swer to your interrogatories, I will give you an exact account of some rice bought,
cleaned, and sold by us, (that is through our factors.) 1,291 bushels rough rice, from
the plantation of Mr. Thos. Lowndes, formerly Mr. Charles Rowand's, in St. Paul's
parish, which yielded 41,075 lbs. merchantable rice, at 600 lbs. per barrel, is 68 1-2 bar-
rels, or 19 bushels to the barrel, or 39,150 lbs. whole, 1,925 lbs. middling, 990 lbs. small,
136 bushels flour. The above was cleaned in about twenty-three hours. The above
parcel of rice was purchased 1st December, 1840, at 84 cts. per bushel, and was sold at
S3 l-8th on the 10th Dec. The next parcel that I am able to inform you accurately
UDOn, is 1,952 bushels rough rice, from the plantation of Mr. Henry Deas, which yield-
ed 56,270 lbs. whole, 240 lbs. middling, 600 lbs. small, and 147 bushels flour. The
above was purchased 2d Nov. 1841, at 90 cts. per bushel, and sold at S'3 7-l6ths, and
took 20 3-4ths bushels to the barrel. I have 2;ivcn you above the result of two parcels,
one from Santee, and one from St. Paul's parish. I sliould like to furnish you particu-
lars of the results of rice further South ; not being able to give you the number of
pounds, I will give you the result in barrels of rice from Georgia; say 5,248 bushels
rice, received 12th Nov. 1842, from the plantation of Dr. Daniel, near Savannah, which
yielded 250 barrels whole, 12 middling, 1 1 small, and about 400 bushels of flour. This
day we have just finished a parcel of 5,375 bushels from the same plantation, which re-
sulted in 219 i-2 barrels whole, 38 middling, 10 1-2 small, and about 400 bushels flour;
you will perceive that the above parcels took a little over 20 bushels to the barrel. The
last parcel was very much broken in threshing, which was done by machinery, which
will account to you for the unusual quantity of middling rice; we did not come up to
our average of 72 barrels per day on this last parrel, as the machines were new, and re-
quired some little time to work to advantage; but 1 think we may safely calculate upon
cleaning three barrels per hour to the four machines.

APPENDIX. 35

APPENDIX G.

The following, together with much other interestiiig and useful information for the
foregoing memoir, has been furnished by the intelligent and obliging gentlemen consti-
tuting the firin oi Robertson rf« Bladdock^ of the city of Charleston, factors.

Rice IS consumed m England and France as an article of luxury, except a small quan-
tity annually made up into ornaments in both countries, consisting principally of rice
paper, beads, clock cases and chimney ornaments. In the north of Europe, it is used
as an article of food, but cannot be afforded at a sufficiently low rate to be substituted
for potatoes or grain grown upon the spot. In the time of war, its value is appreciated —
it has been found to contain the greatest quantity of nutriment in the smallest compass,
portable and least liable to damage : and was consequently much used by the British
troops in the lengthy Peninsular war.

In Cuba, it is used as a bread stuff in preference to any other kind of food. The con-
sumption of Carolina ric; begins however to be much interfered with by the rice grown
in and exported from Spain, as well as the rice now grown in the Island of Cuba itself;
also a very good quality of rice is now imported from Campeachy. The present duty
on Carolina rice ia Cuba, is S*^ 1-4 per 100 lbs. while the duty on that from Spain is
almost nominal. From Campeachy the duty may be considered one third less, as it is
brought in Spanish vessels, which enjoy that discriminating advantage in favor of their
flag. The high duty on rice from this country also operates very much against its con-
sumption.

APPENDIX H.

Tl e following rlote is found in 2d Vol. Ramsay's Hist, of S. Carolina, p. 206.

" South Carolina is indebted to Gideon Dupont, of St. James, Goose Creek, for the
water culture of rice: he was an experienced planter, of discernment and sound judgment,
who, after repeated trials, ascertained its practicability.

" In the year 1783 he petitioned the Legislafure of the State on the subject. A committee
of five was appointed to confer with him. To them he freely communicated his method,
relying on the generosity of the public. The treasury being then empty, the committee
could only recommend granting him a patent. This he declined. His method is now
in general use in river swamp lands, and has been the means of enriching thousands,
though to this day his own family have reaped no benefit whatever from the communica-
tic.n of his discovery. Thomas Bee, now Federal Judge for the district of S. Carolina,
was one of the above committee ; and on his authority, these particulars are stated."

The last summer I instituted an enquiry to ascertain whether any of the family of
Gideon Dupont were living, and could furnish me with an account of the water culture
alluded to as the result of their ancestor's experience and observation. The enquiry
was fruitless; none of the family of Gideon Dupont could be traced in this State.

I noticed the memorandum of the historian no further until coming to Columbia. Here,
through the kind attention of the Clerk of the House, I have obtained from the journals
of the House of 1784, not only a confinnation of the fact that a committee was appointed
to consider the subject, but also the report of the committee enclosed, of which the fol-
lowing is a copy.

In the Senate, March 18/A, 1784.

The Committee to whom Mr. Gideon Dupont's petition was referred,

REPORT:

That they have considered the same, and are of opinion that every encoura^ment
ought to be held out for the improrement in agriculture, and the staple commodities of
this State.

36 APPENDIX.

Mr. Dupont intends to make two experiments the ensuing crop to improve the practi-
cability of his midertaking, viz. one ia river swamp, at the plantation of Col. Morton
Wilkinson, and the other in Black Swamp, at the plantation of Mr. John Deas.

Your Committee therefore recommend that Col. Morton Wilkinson, Roger P. Saun-
ders, Esq., and Mr. John Deas, be appointed commissioners to attend the said experi-
ments, and if they should be carried into effect, and will be of general utility, and shall
certify the same under their hands and seals, to the General Assembly, that then the said
Mr. Dupont be entitled to a liberal reward."

From the journals of the succeeding year, it does not appear that this commission
ever reported on the subject. It may be presumed that Mr. Dupont's method of cultiva-
ting rice without the use of the hoe, and with water only, did not, upon further test, prove
to be of as great general utility, as he himself supposed. In new land, just cleared of
wood and drained, a good crop of rice can be made the first year without ihe use of the
hoe.* But under no other circumstances that I am aware of, except, perhaps, after a
good fallow, which, if properly treated, restores the soil almost to its primitive purity.

Report from the Water ee Agricultural Society^ in reply to the queries
addressed to the Agricultural Societies of the State by the Agricul-
tural Surveyor.

No. 1.

Geographical cliaracter of the particular AgrmMural District or section of country under

consideration.

Subdivision 1. Situation and extent^ and natural divisions.

The section or division of the State, to which the following remarks particularly allude,
is known as Sumter and Kershaw Districts. It is bounded on the west, by the Santee
and Wateree Rivers and a part of Richland District; on the north, by Lancaster
District ; on the east, by Lynch's Creek, and Darlington District ; and on the south by
Williamsburg District. Its whole length from north to south is bout seventy-five or
eighty miles ; and breadth from east to west, twenty-five or thirty miles. The only natu-
ral division known, is occasioned by the Black R,iver and its tributary streams which
separate Claremont county from Salem, and runs directly through Clarendon. Sumter
District is divided into two election districts ; Claremont and Salem counties constitu-
ting one, and Clarendon the other.

Subdivision 2, Climate, and especiaUy any peculiarities thei-eof, and the causes.

As to the climate of this portion of the State, it is mild and temperate, and (here is no
cause known to exist, that is calculated to make it vary from other parts of the State,
running in the same parallel of latitude ; to be sure, our climate and seasons are more or
less variable in different years ; sometimes in summer the heat is more intense, and in
winter the cold is more piercing than the succeeding ones, but to what cause this is to
be attributed, we are unable to account. *"

Subdivision 3. Surface and face of the cotmtry.

The face of the country, upon general observation, is what might be tenned level, yet
this is not the fact in regard to the whole of it, for there are many places that are more
or less undulating, but not so much so as to render it unfit for cultivation wherever the

♦ The writer has made such crops repeatedly between the years 1828 and 1836, when
clearing new land, with a comparatively small laboring force.

APPENDIX. 37

Soil is of sufficient depth to warrant an undertaking of that kind ; and there is a ridge of
hilly broken country, commencing somewhere about the junction of the Wateree and
Congaree Rivers, and running in a north-easterly direction until it strikes Lynch' s Creek,
or the Darlington line. This ridge of countiy in its extent may be thirty miles, and its
average breadtli not more than four or five ; and it has long been known by the name of
the High Hills of Santee, and may be considered the backbone of Sumter District, for the
water which rises on the south-east side, falls into Black River and its tributary streams,
and that from the north-west side, falls immediately into the Wateree river; the part of
this ridge adjoining or being nearest the Wateree river, is known as Oak and Hickory
lands, interspersed with the short leaf pine, and was originally very fertile ; but the better
portions have long since been cleared, worn out, and partially abandoned ; the balance
of this ridge is of a coaise, grey, sandy soil, and its principal growth that of the long
leaf pine. It has long been notorious for the purity of its water, and the salubrity of its
air, and will no doubt remain as a place of retreat for many of the inhabitants of this
State, who have to abandon their homes for a large portion of the yeai-, in order to evade
the effects originated by the action of a hot sun upon a damp soil and an impure atmos-
phere.

The space of country between this ridge and the Wateree River, is in extent about
twenty-five miles, and is of different breadth. Its growth is about one half oak and
hickory, and the balance pine, and a considerable portion of it is what may be termed a
perfectly level surface. It is divided off into farms of various sizes and descriptions, and
IS in as high a state of cultivation and improvement, perhaps, as any portion of the State.
Its durability and production is equal, if not superior, to any other portion of the State
within the same parallel of latitude. At the termination of the hills on the south side of
this ridge, the country becomes perfectly level, and to a superficial observer or one not
acquainted with its character, it would appear to be nothing more than a pine barren
waste ; but such is not the fact, for a large portion of it is veiy thickly inhabited, and the
whole, with the exception of the bays, creeks, &c., is fit for cultivation. It is divided off
into farms or tracts of various sizes, from one hundred to five or ten thousand acres.
Some of these lands are also in a high state of cviltivation and improvement, and although
they are not so productive as those more immediately on the river, yet, from the fertility of
their nature, the planters are able to produce as much to the hand as those of any other
part of the State, particularly of cotton, peas, and potatoes. There is, however, a por-
tion of these lands lying immediately on the Santee river, which are of a different kind
from those already described. They are mostly of a brown or mulatto color, with a
growth of oak and hickory, and are thought to be equal, if not superior, to any other
lands in the State in the production of cotton. The upper part of this section of coun-
try, being the northern part of Kershaw District, is more broken and hilly than any yet
described; and with the exception of those immediately on the river, and the large creeks
which empty themselves into it, are more barren and less fit for cultivation, than those of
the same appearance in the district below.

Subdivision 4. Minerals, especially such as may be valuable fo)- agricultural or economical

uses.

In this section of country, very few minerals of any description have as yet been dis-
covered. Tliere are, however, in the upper part of Kershaw District, some mines of
gold ; and in the lower part of Sumter District, some beds of limestone. No marl or
green sand has been found, and consequently no application with the substances of that
description has been made. There have been, however, some few experiments made by
making a compost from caustic lime and rough litter from the forest; the manner in
which this was done, was by building pens three or four feet high, then putting in litter
about one foot thick, then sprinkling over with lime, then litter again, and so on until
the pen was full. This substance remained in this situation some five or six months,
and at the expiration of that time, it was carted out and placed under the cotton, in the
same manner that other manures are generally applied. The kind of soil to which this
application was made, is of a fine, black, close description, with very little or no sand at
all; but generally better known in this country as being a part of an openr savannah,
without any growth whatever, except broomgrass. From four or five years contiinied
application of the same course, the result, in production, has been from almost nothing,
to one thousand or twelve hundred pounds of seed cotton to the acre. Whether the same
course and application will have the same effect upon a higher and more sandy soil, is
a question yet to be ascertained; or whether the expense arising, may not exceed the
profits to all planters, except it be those who are immediately in tlie neighborhood of the

38 APPENDIX.

lime-stone region, or those whose situations are such as to enable them to obtain it at a
very low price.

Subdivision 5. Water, in reference to uses of navigation, propelling mackiThery, irriga-
tion, tf'C.

The only navigable streams in this part of the State are the Wateree and Santee rivers.
On these, pole boats have been operating ever since the first settlement rf the country,
and the planters, all within reach, have availed themselves of this mode of conveyance to
send their produce to Charleston, and receive their supplies in return ; within the last
few years, however, some experiments have been made in running steamboats on the
Wateree river, but I believe that the undertakers have not succeeded according to their
expectations. Lynch's creek is a smaller and more crooked stream than the Wateree
river, and is thought by many to possess a sufficient depth of water for the operation
of pole boats for the greater part of the year ; but owing to its crookedness and the nar-
rowness of its channel, it is easily filled by logs, which are collected into rafts, through
which it is with much difficulty that boats can get along at all. Some few persons, how-
ever, have undertaken to operate upon this stream with boats, but after a few years of
unsuccessful trials, they have abandoned it altogether.

As to water for propelling machinery, we have that in abundance, all through this sec-
tion of the State. From the higher or more broken parts, there arise a great many
springs, which, after running some distance, unite and form themselves into streams of
sufficient magnitude, not only for propelling the saw and grist mill, but any other ma-
chinery to which such power may or can be applied ; and some of these are never fail-
ing streams, and afford sufficient supplies of water for all necessaiy purposes throughout
the dryest seasons we have. And as to irrigation, I believe that this is a system which
has never been adopted and pursued by any class in this country, except the rice plan-
ters. In this section of the State rice is not planted at all, except in small parcels, which
are usually planted on a damp moist soil, and that is sufficiently supplied with water
from the showers that occasionally fall. For our crops, such as we do plant, we always
have had a sufficient supply of rain, to make very fair ones every year, provided we
have discharged our own part properly.

No. II.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND MANAGEMENT OF LAND.

1. Gluantities of arable, of meadow, of wood, of swamp, of marsh, and other waste
lands. About one-half of arable land; of meadow, none; of woodland, one-half; of
swamp or marsh, one-fourth ; and but a small portion of other waste lands.

2. Soils and sub-soils, and the actual productive value of Lands, in reference thereto. The
highlands are chiefly of a fine hght grey soil ; the other quality of them being a red or
mulatto color ; the sub-soils being yellow or red clay ; the yellow being often mixed with
gravel or sand ; but the red always fine, close and hard. The mulatto soil is the best for
cultivation ; the swamp soils are commonly of a dark brown color — near the river are
mixed with fine sand and isinglass ; which latter makes the best soil. The greatest
part of these lands are stiff; the subsoil of those near the river is yellow, but usually the
sub-soil is of a light blue color — always injurious to the soil, when turned up and
mixed.

3. Sizes of Farms or Plantations vary from one hundred to two thousand acres.

4. The usual crops, both of large and small culture, and rates of product — Corn, Cot-
ton, Oats, Sweet Potatoes, Peas, Pumpkins, and some Rye. High land improved, will
average from four to five hundred pounds of Cotton in the seed; in Corn, about ten
bushels; from seventy-five to one hundred bushels of Sweet Potatoes; seven to eight
bushels of Oats ; five to six bushels of Rye ; Peas in corn, two bushels. The swamp
lands unimproved, will average, when not destroyed by water, TOOIbs. seed Cotton to
the acre, and about twenty bushels of Corn, (if changed from Cotton to Corn) ; Oats,
fifteen or twenty bushels ; Rye, ten to fifteen bushels ; Peas in Corn, two to four bushels ;
but are not good for Sweet Potatoes.

5. Rotalioiis or successions of Crops. — They usually are Cotton, Corn and Oats, and
ought to be.

G. Apjdicatum. of Manures, kind and quantity used. — Cotton seed is applied on each side
of Corn when planted, or on top when the Corn is covered j from forty to fifty bushels

APPENDIX. 39

to the acre ; or compost, used in the same way for Com, if good, two wagon loads per
acre ; when appUed to Cotton, it is broad cast in the alleys and the beds made on it ;
from four to five loads to the acre.

7. Depth and iiianner of Ploughing. — We are governed by the soils and sub-soils ; if
the soil be too sandy, it is the best course to sub-soil it; but if it be stift' soil, we avoid
the sub-soil ; but in all cases, plough down to the clay. Uplands are improved by sub-
soiling, if manured with any vegetable manures. Our lands are generally put in good
order before planting. Corn on the high lands is planted usually at a distance of three
or three and a half feet by five feet ; if on light diy land, below the level of the surface ;
if on hard stiiF land, level with the suiface. The first work, is, when the Corn is up
large enough to thin, to plough close each side with a small plough ; finishing with a
large plough ; the hoes following, and thinning to a stand, and levelling the earth around
the stalks. The second working is the same ; the third working is with the wing
shovel, the first furrow run shallow and the bed thrown up. The fourth and last, is with
the skim and shovel ploughs ; a cut on each side, and the bed dressed with the hoes ;
tlie Corn to be laid by, when it begins to shoot or tassel. Cotton is planted on the high
lands in rows of about three and a half feet distance, on beds previously thrown up with
the plough and dressed with the hoe, in drill, but most usually in chops, at twelve or
fifteen inches distance. The first work is, after the Cotton is well up, to shave down
the bed close, and run round and lap die earth in the middles with the plough ; this is
the most usual and best way. The second working is to plough out the middle, thin to
one, two, three or four stalks, according to the weather and healthiness of the stalks,
drawing up the bed with the hoes at same time. The third working is, if the weather be
dry, to run the skim, thin out a stand of one stalk, and dress the beds with the hoe; but
if the weather be wet and the land grassy, shave down, and lap up in the middle with the
ploughs. This work to be continued ever}"^ fifteen or twenty days, according to the state
of the weather, till the middle or last of July, when the crop should be laid by, and top-
ped the last of July or early in August ; planters differ in opinion as to the system of
topping. Potatoes are planted on beds of from three and a half to five feet distance,
about four feet being most common and best, on a light sandy soil, broke up deep and
close, and the beds made up in dry weather with hoes high — planted at from ten to fif-
teen inches, on the bed drill or chops. The first work is, after they get up well, to shave
ofT close and hand-pick the grass and lap in the middles with the plough. The next work
is when tlie vine begins to run, to hand up a full bed. Oats are sowed broad-cast and
ploughed in. •

In the swamp. Corn is planted above the level of the surface, as the best way to insure
a stand, at five feet one way, to four or five the other way, leaving two stalks in a hill.
The swamp does best when planted at five feet one way by two feet the other way, leav-
ing one stalk in a hill, and worked one way. The first work is to plough with a small
plough close to the Corn, and the rows complete, so as to give the water a channel to lie
in, followed with the hoe ; level and pulverize the earth completely ; this is done just as
the Com comes up. The other workings are similar to those on high land Corn.

In the swamp, the vegetable matter is listed in early in the fall, if possible, if they have
been in Oats, and the Cotton beds made up at four or five feet distance, most commonly
at five feet; the Cotton is planted in chops or drill at from fifteen to twenty-four inches,
leaving one stalk when thinned. The first working after the Cotton gets up, is, if in
light land and grassy, to shave down; if in stiff land and the weather diy, to scurf and
chop up and loosen the bed ; in both cases lap off with a wing plough. The second
working is to run the skim and split the middles and throw up a full bed ; the other
workings are similar to those on the high land Cotton ; to be topped from the lOth to
tlie 20th of August.

Oats are sowed broad-cast, the land being first levelled, and beds of five feet are tlien
thrown up with the plough, which covers the seed. This is considered the best way.

The expenses of cultivation about to the head. There

is no foreign grain or hay purchased. The foregoing observations are applicable to the
scope of country lying between Camden, Stateburg, the Wateree river, and five miles
east of it.

40 APPENDIX.

No. III.

OBSTACLES TO AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENT AND PROFIT,

1. Obstacles opposed by natural and unavoidable cirmtmstances. 2. Obstacles caused by
erroneous governmental policy ^ or by want of proper legislation. 3. Obstacles caused by
individual action.
It is proposed to confine the answ< r to the foregoing heads, to the state of things in

the immediate neighborhood of this Society.

1. The difficulties and obstacles from natural causes, which the river planter and the
highland planter encounter, are essentially different.

X'he river lands, when fresh, are composed of a rich alluvian porous, and easy of cul-
tivation, with a fine subsoil ; but when successive crops for many yeai's are made upon
them, they become stiff and hard, breaking into clods and lose all their friability, causing
great difficulty in their cultivation, in either very wet or very dry springs ; and frequently
upon such old stiff lands, the cotton dies off or does not grow m.ore than six inches high,
producing nothing, with a single stalk every 25 or 30 feet, growing to half size. But
presenting this peculiarity, that the same land, in the same season, would produce a full
crop of corn. The remedy for these stiff lands is in the planter's power, to wit; a crop
of oats, turned in if possible ; ample experience has tested this truth. These remarks
apply only to a portion of the river lands ; another class of them denominated " isin-
glass" lands, never become stiff, are much more sandy, and are filled with minute parti-
cles of mica, forming a generous, warm, rich soil, easy of cultivation, and producing
well, whose chief obstacle is a wet season, which affects the crop on them more serious-
ly than on the first class ; the due admixture of the two, forms the finest river soil. Both
these classes of lands are subject to inundation; accurate accounts show that three crops
out of the last nine, have been chiefly destroyed by the freshets. The high land planter
meets none of these obstacles to successful culture. His difficulty lies in the thin, sandy,
and sometimes white soil, which requires manuring every year for a full crop, which
the want of time does not permit him to effect on all his lands every year. With only
the compost of the barn yard at his command, which shews its effect fully but during the
season when applied, he finds many obstacles and almost impossibilities, under our pre-
sent system of culture, in forming compost sufficient to apply to all his lands every season.

The shortness of the season, the cold winds of April and the early frosts of October,
form a combination of natural obstacles to agricultural profit, which we have frequently
to lament as unavoidable. (Besides the abominable low price of cotton,) the tariff,
fluctuations of trade and the high price of bread to the European operatives.

2. It is not known that the policy of the Government of South Carolina has thrown
any obstacles in the way of the planter; nor has he been materially affected by the want
of legislation on her part, save by the want of the survey, which she has now com-
menced. In fact, since the period when the government purchased the patent right of
the Cotton Saw Gin, and threw it open to her citizens, she has lost sight of the planter
in her legislation, for good or evil.

For many years, while our chief marketable product, cotton, bore a high price, many
of us were in the habit of raising that almost exclusively, and depending upon supplies
of bread and meat from abroad, which the cotton' crop had to pay for — as well as for the
animal power necessary on the plantation ; a most pernicious practice, which has im-
poverished the State by millions, and been the ruin of many planters. It is believed that
stern necessity has forced the planter to abandon this system, measurably. It is unusual
for any one in this neighborhood to purchase either meat or bread ; and we are rapidly
becoming raisers of our own animal power on the plantations.

It is believed that we are as successful as any body of planters in the State, on the
same character of lands, in the mode of our culture. Certainly we have pressed too far
the old, and seemingly well established doctrine; to wear out the land by cropping with-
out manure, and then open new lands. But this system is also giving way to the sober
light of experience; which teaches, that one acre well manured and taken care of, will
produce more, in the average of years, than two acres, even of fresh land, not manured.
Possibly, some of us err, also, in not throwing out some hands and wagons from the
crop, to form compost, as a crop.

The value of the oat crop, as a renovator, to be turned in, if possible, uncut, has not
l)(!en sufficiently estimated heretofore, and we have l)e(n slow in reducing it to practice.
The practice of attempting to resuscitate old lands, simply by allowing them to lie fal-
low, without the plough or other aid, has materially assisted to keep our lands impover-
ished.

APPENDIX. 41

No. IV.
MANURES.

1. Smirces and suppciss of Manures of all kinds. — We have no Calcareous Manures as
yet discovered, our country bemg nearly nme-ienihs woodland, which will in all proba-
bility remain so for many years j our supply of vegetable manures is inexhaustible, on or
near every plantation. We have marsn, swamp mud, or alluvial soil, sutlicient to
change the entire nature of our high iantls; our cotton seed has heretofore been con-
sidered our most important manure, but the supply not being sulHcient to improve the
soil alone, attention has recently been turned to tlie vegetable deposits of the woods,
composts and aslies.- I am unable to say whether it would be profitable to burn wood
to ashes for a stimulant to the soil; should it prove so, we have large bodies of wood
land too far from market, which could be made use of in that way.

2. Preparation- ami oppUcatioii of sLoMe and yard manures, and composls, the quantily
and cjffeciS. — Our ^tables and Pens for ail animals, are litte.ed with pine straw, leaves
and any other vegetable matter convenient, as often as they become foul or well trodden
by the noof; this manure remains in the stable and lots until three or four weeks before
we are ready to haul out, say the Isi of Ir ebruary; we then make a compost of the dif
fereni pens, applying alternate layers of yard with what comes out of the stable. These
compost heaps are put up in a form to i-esist as much as possible the rain that falls.
From three to four four-horse wagon loads are usually applied to cotton land, distribu-
ted between the beds of the previous year; which is covered with two furrows, the bar
of the plough running against the bed — lapping the manure in the alleys. This system
increases the crop one-tiiird ; although some seasons and upon some soils, the increase
will vary. The above manure is also applied to a portion of our corn crop, usually in
the hill, which is covered at the same time the corn is planted; one-half the quantity ap-
plied to cotton to the acre, die increased product is generally one-fourth. But cotton
seed is our main manure for corn ; fifty bushels is usually applied to the acre, sometimes
upon the ground, but more generally beneath ; we see very little difference in the man-
ner of application in the yield ; wiiere it is covered with the corn, the plant grows off
more rapidly in the spring. The above application of cotton seed will increase the yield
one-third, and upon old worn cotton lands, some seasons one-half; it is usually ap-
plied to the hill.

3. M:trsli d'r Sv:amp Mud as Manure. — Marsh or Swamp mud has not been used gen-
erally in this section ; some planters have made small experiments with it, and are satis-
fied with the result ; but It will never be used generally, unless we adopt a temporary
rail track to carry it upon our lands; the effects of this manure alone, we are not now
able to report, as the mud has not incorporated itself witli the soil.

No. V.

NEW AND RECENTLY INTRODUCED VALUABLE PROCESSES, OR IMPROVED PRACTICE IN

AGRICULTURE.

1. Marling and extent of applications before 1843, aiid subsequently . — It is thought that
the pervading spirit of improving our exhausted fields, by more extensive manuring —
better drainmg — and neater cultivation, may be considered an improved practice in our
Agriculture. The subject of marls had long been dormant, till revived by Mr. Ruffiii.
Marl IS thought to exist in great quantities in the creeks passing through what is called
tlie Sand Hills, below Manchester ; it has been found on Ly^nch's creek, and used suc-
cessftilly.

2. Liining or any other calcareous application before 1842, or svJjsequcntly. — The high
price of lime, and the ditTiculties of transportation, has hitherto prevented its general
use. Many expenments have been made, however, and all successful. It is usually
mixed with litter and trash — it is too expensive to be applied alone. One individual
thought himself well remunerated after paying boat freight to Wright's Bluff, to wagon
it thirty miles ; his most successful experiment was on a bald savannah, which origin-
ally grew cotton not more than a foot high ; in a few years it produced a bag to the acre.
Many experiments are now in progress, and the results are already beginning to de-
velope themselves. Lime is found in large quantities in the lower part of Sumter dis-
trict, near the Santee River; its quality has been long known, but not duly appreciated.
Since tha revolutionary war, it has been used for domestic purposes, particularly during
the cultuio of imligo; and for the little plantation tanneries. The proprietor of one of
the duarries on Potato creek, (a specimen from which is submitted) is now making

6

42 APPENDIX.

prepreations for burning it ; its valuable properties have already been tested in its natur-
al state.
3. Clover. — There is none cultivated in this section of country.

No VI.

Your Committee beg leave to report, the usual mode of fencing and enclosing in this
part of the country, is the worm fence; rails of the pine, red oak and other trees, measur-
ing eleven feet long. The height of the fence varies from nine to eleven rails, or about
five to seven feet.

Every section of country adapts itself to the means at hand, that can most easily be
procured for fencing and enclosing. For instance, at the North, where timber is scarce,
stone walls and hedges are substituted. Your committee would suggest, that in this
portion of the country, where timber is getting comparatively scarce, and the trouble and
expense of renewing fences every three years is great, that a more permanent mode be
adopted for enclosing. Ditches should be cut from four to five feet apart, and the earth
thrown up about three feet; a post and rail or plank fence two feet and a half high, put
upon the top of it, will make quite a durable fence, and will last twice as long as the
common worm. The measure now proposed, is practised to a small extent by a few,
upon public roads, and boundaries of estates.

No. VII.

1, Local sources of malaria, their extent and operation, and comparative malignity-
as rapid streaxiis, some overflowing their borders ; tide-water marshes, fresh or salt —
swamps, whether in their native state or under culture ; millponds, and the passage of
transient and irregular floods of fresh water over salt marshes.

In this particular section of country, which is either pnie land, or land within the in-
fluence of the river, and as such, afi'ected by malarious diseases, the river, and its at-
tendant swamps, may be esteemed almost the only cause of such disease ; that such is
the case, the great exemption from diseases of that nature enjoyed by the negroes —
where their settlements have been moved from the bank of the river into the pine land,
proves, compared with their former unhealthiness, and with the amount of sickness
upon plantations similarly situated ; the swamps contiguous to the river are not, gene-
rally speaking, in a state of themselves to give rise to poisonous exhalations in very emi-
nent degree, such as were practicable having been droined and brought into cultiva-
tion ; being not more productive of disease in that state than other low grounds upon
the river ; or when their situation forbids their being reclaimed, as unsuited to the culture
of corn or cotton, they are protected by a native growth, thick enough to prevent, to a con-
sider able extent^ the ill effects of an August sun upon dampened vegetable matters. The
mill-ponds, fed by sand-hill streams, are in eveiy case free from those disca.ses that owe
their origin to malaria, seeming to lack theduequantity and qualify of vegetable matter re-
quisite for the production of thepois< n. The cases of fever are generally of a manage-
able type, when taken at an early stage — accidental and immediately local-causes may
increase the intensity of the disease and the number of cases; such as a crowded, ill-
ventilated, decayed and low negro-quarter ; in such a one, in the seasons suited for the
due development of this disease, the cases often assume a typhoid character, and of
course are oftener fatal.

The overflow of the low grounds upon the river, followed by a hot dry season, is
most favorable for disease; every rich bottom then reeks with it, every thing vegetable
being thoroughly moistened, is heated readily into semi putrescence, and becomes a
fruitful source of malaria — but if the rainy season continues until frost, the numerous
pools are kept fresh, and millions of aninialculai alive, that would otherwise, in their
stagnation and death, have engendered poisonous gases.

The influence of the river as regards malaria, is felt at a distance varying from one to
two miles, and in exposed situations, perhaps farther — less felt as there may be the inter-
vention of wood-land, which serves as the most complete barrier to its approach.
Swamps, when first cut down, must certainly engender malaria, in much greater quanti-
ties than before — and unless they be thoroughly drained, will continue to do so, as the
surface is exposed to the heat of the sun, and the water only sufficiently taken ofl' to
leave a stagnant marsh ; but when thoroughly dried by good ditching and sun-shine,
not more productive of disease than other cultivated lands. ^

2. Increase or decrease of extent and virulence of malarious disf^ases in past time ;
and the supposed causes of either.

There has been a diminulion of diseases dependent upon malaria, arising frcin two

APPENDIX. 43

causes : — The greater one, that a majority of the plantations have their settlements off
from the bank of the river, in the pine land, end that numberless marshes and exposed
swamps have been converted into com and cotton fields; adding- much to the general
h^khfulness. Yet, though the malignaty of the disease has been lessened by the
draining of the swamps and ponds, the opening of sucli immense bodies of land, direct-
ly upon the river, has, bej-ond a doubt, extended the evil influence of the river much
beyond its original limits, by removing trees which served as a barrier to its progress ;
and localities before healthy, are now, since such clearing, within the reach of malarious
aifections.

3. Means of diminution of such diseases, \vithin the reach of the separate action of
individual proprietors; such as require combined action — and such as require legislative
direction.

As the localities favorable for engendering malaria seem to have their noxious effects
the most part at night, the most certain means of shunning its effect would be, by get-
ting a situation in the pine land, which, generally speaking, is near enough ; and if that be
not practicable, as near as possible — have the site as high and dry, and the water as
good, as may be. These precautions, and a strict attention to ventilation and cleanli-
ness, have been found, in every case, to produce the most satisfactory results.

Statements of the most extensive (and also continuing) marling operations

IN South Carolina.

The several operations which are the subject of the following three communications
were referred to at page 48 of the foregoing Report Lately commenced as all these were,
so far as known and believed in them are presented the only cases of marling (or liming)
practised on a large scale in this State, and of which, previous to the present year, the
results were sufficiently satisfactory to induce their continuation and extend their practice.
And though these results are deemed quite satisfactoiy by the operators, (as they ought
to be, under the existing circumstances,) the increase of production, in most of these
cases, fell far below what would have been obtained from land previously at rest, and
well supplied with vegetable matter from itsovvn growth. This conclusion is establish-
ed by even the few, though small, experiments thus made in South Carolina, this year
and previously, as well as by the large marlings and general mode of procedure in Vir-
ginia. E. R.

F^rom the SmUhem AgriculturisL
To tlie Agricultural Society of St. John's, Berkley.

Gentlemkn. — I have been urged by Mr. Ruffin, who lately visited our neighborhood,
to lay before you the result of our experiments and progress in the use of marl.

It may not be in our power to submit such exact statements as would be desirable on
a subject of so much importance, yet if we can show you, that so far as we have tried
the system, it is not only practicable, but highly satisfactory, we trust it will bean in-
ducement to many who are now hesitating, to commence forthwith, and satisfy them-
selves by actual experiments.

Dr. Robt. M. Gourd in, (w'lose plantation, at Lenud's Feny, lies partly in George-
town and partly in Williamsl>urg district,) has been good enough to furnish me with
the following statement : — A fiiild of fifty acres of flat, sour pine land, which had been
belted in 1838, and roughly lii:*ed in 1830, was prepared for planting in 1840, by chang-
ing the course of the beds acnss. Upon this new list, he brought marl one mile and
a half, and applied it at the rate of one hundred bushels to the acre — excepting six acres,
running the whole length of tl - fif^ld, one half acre in width. No memorandum was
kept this year of the fi?ld and no difference was perceivable in the growth or product of
the cotton. In 1B41, it was again planted in cotton. Throughout the whole of the
season, the marled looked decidedly superior to the un marled. An accurate account
was kept of the respective poriiAis of the field.

The marled produced an average of one liundred and twenty-eight pounds of clean

44 APPENDIX.

cotton to the acre, the unmarled but sixty-three. In 1842, no account was kept of the
difference of prodvict — but so manifest was the advantage of the marled over the unmarl-
ed, that it was a matter of serious regret, that the actual difference could not have been
ascertained. Dr. Gourdin has no doubt that the marled portion was considerably bet-
ter this than tne year previous. He is so well convinced of the benefit to be derived from
marl, that he has applied it to twenty acres more this year, and contemplates a more ex-
tensive use of it hereafter.

My brother (Col. Samuel J. Palmer,) commenced in 1839 to marl — on a field of 24
acres, which had been cletired about five years previous, and the preceding year had
rested — after listing in the weeds, he applied marl at the rate of 100 bushels to the aci-e. "
One portion of the field was a flat, whitish clay soil, the remainder, what may be
temied a free, open soil, and more elevated. In 1836, this field had been planted m cot-
ton, andpi'oduced one hundi-ed and forty pounds clean cotton to the acre. In 1837, in
oats, which, although not measured, yet the general appearance of the crop did not pro-
mise exceeding 10 bushels to the acre. It was then thrown out to rest, as before observ-
ed. The product of this field in 1839, was two hundred and seventy pounds of clean
cotton to the acre — and exceeded the general average of the whole crop. In 1840, it
was assisted with trash and leaves under the list. The June freshet destroyed the
whole of the first planting — it was replanted on the 15th of the same month; no account
was kept of its product this year; but, as far as could be judged by the eye, it did as
well as any other part of the field which had not been drowned. In 1841, it was again
planted in cotton, and produced two hundred and twenty pounds to the acre. It was,
unquestionably, the best field of cotton on the place. In 1842, it was planted in oats ;
eleven acres were reserved for seed, and yielded when threshed upwards of twenty
bushels to the acre. The color and character of the clay-land which was marled, has
materially changed — and no one who remembers its appearance in 1836, will doubt the
efficacy of marl. My brother has now one hundred and five acres marled, sixty of
which was applied this year.

I proceed now to give you the result of my own experience in the use of marl, but re-
gret that no account was ever kept of the difference between the products of the marled
and the unmarled fields. In September, 1838, 1 commenced digging it out. In two wet
days, with all my hands employed, I had about two thousand five hundred bushels heap-
ed ready to be hauled out the winter following. This, however, was the only occasion
on which I got out the material before the carts were ready to take it to the field.

It is a saving of time to apportion only so many diggers and loaders to each cart, as
will, taking into consideration the distance and roads to the field, keep the work steadily
and regularly progressing. In 1839, I applied marl on about 50 acres of land, at various
r; tes. From 80 to 100 bushels was the usual quantity, but in some spots as much as
150 bushels were tried. Thirty-six acres had been in cotton the year before, and four-
teen in oats.

The marl on these thirty-six acres was applied under the list, and I could discover no
advantage this year from it. The season was one of the most propitious for cotton, and
will be long remembered as such throughout this country. The fourteen. acres which
had been in oats, and where the weeds and stubble had been listed the autumn prece-
ding, showed an improvement the first year that the marl was applied. It was land
which originally must have been of the best quality, but had been sadly scourged by
hard cropping before I got possession of the place. In 1840, it was planted in oats, and
exhibited a most striking contrast to the crop which was on it in 1838. In 1841, it was
again planted in cotton, and it was 50 per cent better than it ever was. The last year
I planted it in oats, and on such parts where hitherto the crop would be supposed good
for 10 to 15 bushels to the acre, 1 am confident trom 20 to 25 bushels were made. The
growth of crab- grass and weeds which succeeded the oats, induce me to believe that this
land will do l)etter another year than a great deal of much fresher that has not yet had
the benefit of the marl. In 1842, the 36 acres which had not since 1839 exhibited any
material change, was planted in cotton after oats. 1 he crab-grass was so fine in 1841,
that I was induced to cut a large quantity for fodder before it was listed.

This fif'ld, from the lightness of the soil on some parts of it, I feared much would dis-
appoint me in 1842; besides, except the occasional rest it had when planted in oats, it
had been in cultivation seven years consecutively. On some of the thinnest land, com-
post manurr; from the cow-pen was scattered, and if any doubt had existed previously of
the ca|)acity of marl to fix other manures in the soil, the growth and product of the cotton
on these spots would have entirely dissipated them from my mind. On one half acre, se-
lected on account of its unproductiveness previously, alxout 100 bushelshad been applied
in 1839 ; the quantity visibly mixed up with the sandy soil. I apprehended would have

APPENDIX. 45

proven injuinous; but the beavuiful growth and early maturation of the cotton on this
spot last year, induces me to think we do not apply half enough in general to our land.
Last year I applied from 120 to 200 bushels to the acre on all the land marled; but, being
satisfied with the gradual, but certain improvement, which a moderate quantity will
effect, 1 have the present season fixed as a rule, to give to eveiy acre 120 bushels, and no
more.

From the frequent interruptions from freshets, I have failed this year in marling as
much as I intended, and have in all now little more than 100 acres. If I had no other
evidence of the good effects of calcareous manures, than what has been furnished acci-
dentally on my place, that alone would be conclusive.

In clearing some fields six or seven years ago, T found some spots heavily coated with
lime, thrown out from the pits, made no doubt 40 or 50 years ago by the old Indigo plan-
ters. I w'as not surprised at first to see the cotton, or other crop, growing luxuriantly on
these places — but up to the last season, I cannot perceive any falling off in fertility. The
long period which has elapsed since the lime was thrown out, must have given time to
the soil to accumulate a large quantity of fertilizing matter, and the probability is, that
its character is pemianently established. These facts are cheering, and we may flatter
ourselves that a new era ''as commenced in the agricultural improvements of eveiy sec-
tion of the State within the reach of marl. In the course ,of a few years, we may lo-)k to
see marl made an article of internal commerce, and those who are now afraid to carry it
100 yards upon their own soil, may, when they shall have covered every foot of arable
land in their possession, be found supplying it at a profitable rate to their neighbors five
miles distant. It is to be hoped that a fair trial will be given to marl by many of the
members of this Society, and that our next meeting will furnish abundant testimony
from all quarters on this subject.

N. B. — The marl used in our neighborhood contains from 90 to 95 per cent. carb. Unie,
as ascertained by analysis,

JOHN S. PALMER.

From the Farmefs Register.
RECENT AND EXTENSIVE MARLING IN SOUTH CAROLINA.

Columbia, S. C. Nov. 30, 1842.

Dear Sir : — It affords me ^-eat pleasure to comply with your request, to furnish you
with a statement of my marling operations during the first year, and the result of tliem,
so far as it has been ascertained.

I commenced in November last, to marl my plantation, at Silver Bluff, on Savannah
river. There is no marl on the place. I procured it from Shell Bluff, on the same
river, and had to boat it twelve miles up the stream. It requires eleven prime hands to
man the boat I use, and when the river is not too high, they make two trips a week, load-
ing and unloading themselves. They bring about 1100 bushels at a load. The marl is
landed at a spot below high-water mark, and during the whole crop season, two other
hands and two carts are constantly engaged in hauling it to a place of security on the top
of the bluff. At other times, it is hauled directly from the landing to the fields. There
are, however, thirteen hands and two mules lost to the crop. My boat, whicK is a
common pole boat, was built chiefly by my own people, and cost me about S600
including tlieir labor. There have been incidental expenses to the amount of about
S200 this year. During- the year, ending on the 8ih of November, there were 85 trips
made, and about 93,(KX) bushels brought up. I think I can safely calculate on J)ringuig
up 100,000 bushels per annum hereafter, with the same force. I mention these facts,
that every one may form his own estimate of the cost of procuring marl under simi-
lar circumstances. My calculation is, that it costs me about two cents a bushel, deli-
vered on my bluff. To one having marl on his oM-n premises, nearly the whole of this
expense would be saved. I am enabled, by omittini^ to open new land, to haul out and
spread this marl, without interforin2: with other plantation work, or lessening the number
of acres planted per hand. In hauling out, I have not been able to do as much as they
do in Virginia. Mr. Ruffin, the author of the marling sy.stem, hauled 24 loads of 5 3-4
bushels, with each cart, per day, a distance of 847 yards; I have done but little over half
as well. I u.se mules, however, and the land being level, cairied (J 1-4 bushels at a load.
I found the mules could not stand trotting back with the cn)pty cart. The marl weighs
about 105 lbs. per bushel. My land was laid off in squares, so many to an acre, and a

46 APPENDIX.

load dropped in each square. It was spread by hand : each negro taking his square,
and carrynig his marl on a board or in a small tray. A prime fellow can spread an acre
in a day. but it is a hard task, and counting the gang round, I have not averaged over
half an acre for each worker. The marl spreads best when damp. It will then yield
to the hand, and lumps are, in general, easily crushed.

Shell Bluff is a bold cliff on Savannah river, over 200 feet high, and, in some
places, more than 100 feet perpendicular. Professor Vanuxem, who examined it some
years ago, (see Farmer's Register, vol. vii. p. 70, and also, vol. x. p. 487,) discovered
fourteen varieties of marl, varying in quality from 37.2 to 93.4 per cent, of carbonate of
lime. In using the marl, I have excluded the inferior as much as possible, and have not
found the very best in any great quantity. I tested the quantity of carbonate of lime in
one specimen, taken at random from each boat load brought up this summer, and found
the average of thirty-four loads to be 62.8 per cent., varying from 51 to 77. In every
specimen, there was a small proportion of oxide of iron and clay and sand, usually
in about equal quantities. There were, no doubt, other component parts which I did
not ascertain ; bui I satisfied myself that there was neither gypsum nor magnesia. The
marl presents various appearances, being in color, white, brown, olive, yellow and vio-
let, and in consistence from sand to soft stone. Some of it appears to be a concretion of
shells, from a size scarcely visible to the naked eye, to an inch in diameter. There is no
hard limestone, and it is doubtful whether any of the marl here will make lime, though
it is an excellent cement. Much of that which I have used has been cut from the face of
the cliff with pick-axes. It falls down sometimes in fine grains, sometimes in masses.
At every handling, it breaks up finer, and exposure to the air assists disintegration. I
do not burn or pound it. Where it was spread last winter, an observer would readily
discover it, and lumps as large as an egg, and occasionally much larger, are to be seen.
A mere passer by, however, would not notice that the land had been marled. At every
working, it is more and more mixed with the soil. But I imagine it will be several years
before it is completely combined with it, and until then, the full effect of the marl cannot
be known. A difference was apparent in this crop, between the effects of that spread
early in February, and that spread in the latter pait of April.

By the 22d of April last, I had marled 175 acres, at the rate of 200 bushels to the acre,
Ot these, I planted 50 acres in corn, on the 17th of March, 50 acres in cotton, on the
10th April, and 75 acres in cotton, on the 22d April. These three cuts are in the same
field, and adjoining, being separated only by turn-rows, yet the soils vary considerably.
In the corn, I laid off four separate acres along the turn-row, as nearly equal in
quality as possible. The one supposed to be the best, was left without marl. The
others were marled with one, two and three hundred bushels respectively. It was all of
the same boat load, and contained 54 per cent, of carbonate of lime. This land has
been in cultivation more than one hundred years. I have planted it myself eleven of the
last twelve years, and sowed it in oats the other year. I have given it three light coats
of manure, the last in 1839. It is a light, gray, sandy soil, of which the following was
the analysis before marling, viz :

Water lost at 300 degrees, 2 per cent

Vegetable matter 3 ' "

Silica 80

Alumina 11 "

Oxide of Iron 2 •'

Loss 2

100

This cut was in cotton last year, and my expectation was, that with common
seasons, it would produce twelve bushels of corn per acre. And had I not kept the
unmarled acres as a test, I should have set down all over that quantity to the cre-
dit of the marl. The corn came up badly, and suffered by the birds. The four ex-
perimental acres were cultivated precisely as the rest of the cut, and were distinguish-
ed only by the posts which marked the corner of each acre. From the first, how-
ever, the marled com exhibited a different appearance. It was stouter, and of much
deeper color. As the .season advanced, the difference became greater. The marled
corn was as dark a green as swamp corn usually is. The fodder was pulled on the
3d of August, and after hanging two days and a half on the stalk, in dry and rather
windy weather, weighed as follows :

Increase. Per cent.

Unmarled acre, 250 lbs.

Marled at 100 bushels, 285 " 35 lbs. 14

" " 200 " 314 " 64 " 25,6

.c " 300 " 2(>l " 11 '' 4 4

APPENDIX. 47

The corn was gathered on the 24th of October, being thoroughly dry, and having
shrunk as much as it would in the field. There appeared to be httle or no difference in
point of soundness. It was shucked clean and measured in a barrel. The unmarled
corn shelled out two quarts less to the barrel than the marled. The following was the
result:

Increase. Per cent.

Unmarled acre, 17 bushels.

Marled at 100 bushels, 21 " 4 23 5

" 200 " 21 " 4 23 5

" 300 " 18 1-2 " 1 1-2 88

From this it would appear that 100 bushels of marl was as efficacious as 200, and
perhaps in like land such may be the fact. It appears also probable that 300 bushels to
the acre is too much. I ought, however, to state, that this last acre had a slight sink in
the centre, and that the slopes around it are much thinner than the average land. These
constitute about one fifth of the acre, and were evidently injured by the marl. It was a
bad selection for the heaviest marling; but at the time it was made I did not suppose,
judging by the rates at which they marled in Virginia, that 300 bushels would injure
any land. My fear now is 200 bushels may prove too much for soil like this ; and I
have accordingly determined to put only 150 bushels on the acre hereafter, until I see its
further effects. This has been a remarkably productive season for com. I think the
unmarled acre in this cut made at least five bushels more than it would have done on an
average year. I presume the marled acres have done so likewise. But whether it would
be fair to attribute any of the four bushels increase to the peculiarity of the season ope-
rating on the marl, I am wholly unable to decide. Supposing the increase from the
season to be the same on the marled and unmarled land, and deducting five bushels from
the produce of each acre, tliere will be 33 l-3d per cent, in favor of the two best marled
acres. This, however, is all conjectui-e. The average per acre of this whole cut was
eighteen bushels. The measurement of all but the experimental acres was made, how-
ever, by wagon loads, according to the usual plantation estimate, in which there is a
liberal allowance for shrinking, &;c. Had the whole been measured in the same man-
ner as the experimental acres were, the produce would have appeared greater. I have had
this cut planted in corn once before, but having been absent the whole year, no account
of it was preserved, and I do not know what it produced.

I selected also and laid off separately four acres of cotton along the turn-row of the
seventy-five acre cut of cotton. At the time I thought them nearly equal in quality, and the
one supposed to be the best of these was left unmarled, and 1, 2 and 300 bushelsof marl
spread upon the other three. It turned out, however, that the acre with 100 bushels
was inferior to the average of the cut, and that with the 200 bushels about equal to it,
while the other two were far supei-ior. I was deceived by the stalks grown the year be-
fore. The two first named acres being somewhat rolling, and the year a wet one, they
produced as good cotton as the other two which were fltit. The unmarled acre was not
much if any superior to the one marled with 300 bushels, save that there was a spot
where the fodder stacks had stood in 1838-9, which produced nearly double the cotton
of any other spot of the same size in either acre, and added probably 30 lbs. to the amount
gathered from that acre. The marl on these acres contained, like that on the corn cut
an average of 54 per cent, of carbonate of lime. This land is of the kind commonly
known as mulnltn soil, and was cleared at least as early as the corn cut. It was certainly-
planted by the Indians in 1740. The following was the analysis of it before marling,
for which, as well as for the analysis of the corn cut, I am indebted to the kindness of
Professor EUet :

Water at 300 degrees, 3

Vegetable matter, 4.5

Silica, 74

Alumina. 14.5

Oxide of Iron, 4

100

This cut was not planted until the 22d April, because it could not be marled before.
A dry spell occurring immediately after, at the end of two weeks very little cotton had
come up except in the unmarled acre, in whii'h there was aliout half a stand. My over-
seer becomini^ alarmed, in niy absence replanted the whole, and threw out the old seed
wherever it had not come up. This was done on the Gth of May, so that the crop of this

(C

a

C(

(f

u

731

lbs.

manured lightly-

784

a

980

((

manured lightly

951

£C

497

a

501

a

manured

96G

Cf

marled

48 APPENDIX.

cut dates from this period, which is at least a month later than I should have preferred.
1* or my experience is that early cotton, like early corn, is almost always the best. I con-
sider the two weeks start which one half of the unmarled acre ootained in this instance
as of considerable consequence to it. These early stalks could be distinguished until
the bolls began to open. The difference in color between the marled und unmarled
cotton was as obvious as it was in the corn. The leaf too appeared broader and the
stalk stouter from the first. The following was the production of these four acres. I
state the production of all, though that of the 1 and 200 bushels ought not to be compa-
red with that of the other two, on account of the relative inferiority of the soil.

The unmarled acre 1111 lbs. in the seed.

Marled do. at 100 bushels, 846 " "

" ....200 " 1003" "

" 300 " 1318 " •'

The difference between the unmarled acre and that with 300 bushels of marl, was
17,7 per cent, in favor of the latter. It would have been greater perhaps any other year
than this, which has been almost as favorable for cotton as for corn. The average pro-
duction of the whole 75 acres was 966 lbs. per acre. I have had this cut in cotton ten of
the last twelve years, in corn one, and in oats one, and the following is a statement of
its production of cotton for six of the ten years; that of the other years not having been
preserved.

1833 average per acre in seed 731

1834.

1835

1836
4^ 1840

1841

1842 ,

The other 50 acre cut of marled land was planted in cotton on the 10th April. It
came up in good time and was a fine stand. This is also a light gray soil, with less clay
than the mulatto land, and less sand than the corn cut. It is probably as old as either,
and has been cultivated in much the same way. Although planted ten days later than
some other fields, and after all of them except the 75 acre cut, it soon appeared to be the
oldest cotton, and certainly matured the earliest of any. Immediately after the cold
weather, about the first of Angus', the rust commenced in it, and by the 20th of that
month it had the appearance of a field after frost. Forms, small bolls and even the
leaves dropped. Most persons who saw it thought it had been cut oflf one half I think
myself it suffered to the extent of one fourth at least. But I have made on this cut this
year 840 lbs. of seed cotton, which is nearly 50 per cent, more than I ever made on it be-
foi-e. The following is the average of its production for four other years:

1833 average per acre in seed 569 lbs. manured.

1834 " " " 435 "

1840 . . . . " " " 368 "

1841 " " " 566 " manured lightly.

1842 " " " 840 " marled.

I think the injuiy from the rust nearly or quite equal to the benefit derived from the fa-
vorable season. And that the increase from the marl was greater on this cut than any
other, because the earliest marled and most seasonably planted. The rust here was
more injurious than in any other field, and I might have attributed it to the marl, but
that the 75 acre cut, also marled, suffered least of all. I vm inclined to think that the
most advanced cotton was most affected, and the youngest least, and that marl had no
influence one way or the other. It is worthy of remark, that wliile all my other cotton
suffered from lice and the worm both, neither made their appearace on the marled land.

I have troubled you with this lengthy detail of my operations, because this being the
first serious experiment with marl in South-Carolina, (that I know of,) it may be inter-
estinsfto those who have this earth within their reach, to know the particulars. From
the facts 1 have stated, each one can form his Opinion on nearly as good data as I can my
own. I can only add that my expectations for the first year have been fully answered. I
did not calculate on any of those magical results which agricultural experimenters so of-
ten look for, and so seldom realize to the full extent. I regard an increase of 20 per cent,
as a very handsome return, and if it only docs as well another year, I shall at all events

APPENDIX. 49

be paid for my labor, even if the beneficial effect of the marl ceases then. But the experi-
ence of all who have used it is, that it continues to improve the soil every year, until tho-
roughly disintegrated and combined with it ; and that with proper culture it never de-
clines from its maximum. Under these circumstances, and with these hopes, I shall
continue myself to prosecute the business vigorously. During the summer I have haul-
ed marl over 160 acres, and have now at my landmg enough to cover 300 acres more.
My great regret is, tliat I did not engage in the business sooner. I have long known
Shell Bluff, and for some years have heard of Mr. Kuffin's sue essful introduction of
marl into the culture of Virginia. But I had not read his " Ess-^y on Calcareous Ma-
nures," nor examined Shell Bluff, until the summer of 1841. Ihe idea of obtaining
marl from that spot was first suggested to me by my friend Major Dickinson, of
Georgia ; and after a careful perusal of Mr. Ruffin's Essay, and an analysis of the marls
there, I determined to try the experiment. I have, during the course of it, received much
encouragement and valuable practical information from Mr. Ruffin himself, to whom, in
common with all other beneficiaries of this inestimable treasure, I owe a debt of gratitude
which cannot be easily cancelled.

I am, my dear sir, with great regard and esteem, your obedient sei-vant,

^ J. H. HAMMOND.
Hon. Whitemarsh B. Seabrook,

President of the State Agricultural Society.

Columbia, 27th Nov., 1843.

Dear Sir : — In fulfilment of my promise made last November, I again communicate to
you the results of my experiment in Marling. The year has been so unfavorable fon
cotton, and my crop has fallen so far below the promise of .Tuly, that if I had not left
some unmarled acres for a test, I should, as no doubt has often been done in other expe-
riments, have come to the conclusion that all iiiy labor had been'in vain ; and that in
fact the marl had seriously injured my land. The truth, however, is very far to the con-
trary; and I now think that but for the marl I should have made almost no crop at all.

I planted this year 700 acres of marled land; of which 680 were in cotton, the remain-
der in pindars and potatoes, of which no accurate account was kept. The cotton turned
out about as much per acre in the whole, as the average of the same land for the last ten
crops. But believing this year to have been at least 20 per cent, more unfavorable than
an average one, I attribute that much inci-ease on the whole crop to the effect of the
marl.

In my last communication I stated that I had selected four acres of good mulatto land,
and four others of veiy light sandy soil, one acre of which in each selection was left un-
marled, and the others marled with one, two and three hundred bushels respectively.
For the purpose of showing the difference between the most favorable and the most un-
favorable seasons I have known for cotton, as well as to indicate the progressive compa-
rative influence of the marl, I subjoin the results of the last, as well as the present year^
on these experimental acres :

EXPERIMENT No. 1.

Mulatto Land, 1842.

Seed Cotton. Decrease. Increase. Per Cent,

Unmarled acre, 1,11 libs.

100 bushels do., 846lbs 2r)51bs 22.8

200 do. do., l,003lbs 1081bs 9.7

300 do. do., l,3l«lbs 2071bs 17.7

Same Land, 1843.

Seed Cotton. Increase. Per Cent.

Unmarled acre, 4931bs.

100 bushels do., 6541bs IGllbs 32.6

200 do. do., 759lbs 2661bs 53.9

300 do. do., 84llbs 3481b3 70.

As I remarked last year, the acres with one and two hundred bushels of marl are de-
cidedly mferior in quahty to the other two. The unmarled acre and that with 300 bushels,
are as nearly equal as any two on my plantation. It is hardly necessary to say, that

7

50 APPENDIX.

these acres, lying side by side, were all planted on the same day, and cultivated in pre-
cisely the same manner.

The experimental acres of the thin light land were planted last year in corn. All the
marled acres produced better than the unmarled, but I will not repeat the statement, as it
does not afford an accurate comparison with the cotton crop of this year, of which the
following is the result,

EXPERIMENT No. 2.

Yery light sandy soil, 1843.

Seed Cotton. Increase. Decrease. Per Cent.

Unmarled acre, 36llbs.

100 bushels do., 4511bs 901bs 24.9

200 do. do., 3841bs 231bs 6.3

300 do. do;, 1731bs ....... .1881bs 52.

The land, being very old, is bare of vegetable matter for marl to act on, to which, more
than to the texture of the soil, inferior as it is, I attribute the failure of any great improve-
mentfrom it. I make the statement, however, because it is valuable in many respects. It
shows the danger ofheavy marling on worn land without previous rest or manure. The
acre with 300 bushels has been destroyed. There is one rich spot, the bottom of a small
basin in the centre of it, which produced nearly all the cotton gathered. On the rest of it the
weed mostly died as soon as it came up. 100 proves a better quantity than 200 bushels,
and perhaps a little less would have been still better on this soil — at least to begin with.
All the Ughtest land in the fields marled with 200 hundred bushels was evidently injured
and now requires help. I anticipated this effect from what I saw last year, and reduced
the quantity to 150 bushels on all the land then marling. I have reduced it now to 100
bushels, and shall hereafter marl at that rate. I prefer to go over it again after 1 have
finished all, and give it what it may prove itself able to bear after resting once or twice.

The crop of this year has satisfied me perfectly that cotton will mature at least a fort-^
night earlier on marled than on unmarled land.

Another unexpected effect of marl it may be worth while to state. I commenced in the
spring of 1842 to put it in my stable, pretty freely, for the purpose of improving my ma-
nure. I did not think of its having any material effect on the health of the mules. BvU I
have had but litde sickness among them, and have not lost one since : while previously
I lost on the average four annually, and never in any year less than two. I attribute this
change in a great measure to the absorption of noxious gases b)'^ the marl.

I am now marling as actively as heretofore, and I este^m it so beneficial that I have this
summer marled a field of over 200 acres, the average haul to which is three miles from my
landing; and being tolerable fresh land, that has rested this year, and was sowed in oats
last year, which were not cut but grazed down after ripening, I have put on a hundred
and fifty uushels.

The fields on which my experimental acres are will rest next year. I shall not, there-
fore, be able to continue my report to you. Since, however, the valuable labors of Mr.
Ruffin in this State have given a decided impulse to marling, I presume that all who are
in reach of marl will at least experiment for themselves; and it will be 9f no conse--
quence that I should longer communicate my experience.

I am very truly and respectfully your obedient servant,

J. H. HAMMOND.

Hon. Whitemarsh B. Seabrook.

ANALYSES OF SOILS

From the Tide-Sicamp Plantation of Col. R, F. W. Allston,
BY PROF. C. V. SHEPARD.

Charleston, Dec. 11, 1843.
Dear Sir : — I had hoped to have presented you the results of my late analyses of soils
at an earlier date, but my engagements at the College have employed me so closely, as
to prolong the task up to this evening. I hasten to offer you the view which my in-
quiries lead me to take of the subject in the following table; premising that the specimens
were in the first place, slowly Inu thoroughly dried, by being spread out in thin layers for
two days under a temperature of about 90 degrees.

APPENDIX.

51

rs

O CO

m

3
1.03

O 03
O 1 • - C w

X

s

§8§

§

o

cc

S2S ®

O O O T?
vri T}< r-i O

2 -i

a;

<u

2

800

p ifj »-i

o
o

oo o o

O O 00 c^
o' -^ o o

i<

-2 «

o
o

id "* »-I

«•"

OB '^ S

CO '^

"so

OS

o

'•^ o

c M S F.

4J 5 2

o

«3 tx ,

= gO ^ £ §

^-^ ooeo
r; <^" ^' iS

i^ O Ci o o

3 -

£

o

6D

C

c
o „

a,
o

~o

c o o o

^

T3

52 APPENDIX.

Soil No. 10 top, was picked over before analysis, to avoid the coarser roots and vege-
table remains it included. These, by estimate, amounted to 9 parts in every 1,000 of the
soil.

Portions of the different soils were boiled up for some time in pure water ,^ and the fil-
tered solutions examined for soluble matters, in which they were all found to be rather
deficient. The universal ingredient of chloride of calcium (muriate of lime) was indeed
present ; but by no means abundant. Faint traces of sulphate of ammonia were also de-
tected, together with a little alumina — the latter probably combined with hamic (or some
other organic) acid.

With the exception of No. 13, these soils are the richest in organic matters of any
which have ever fallen under my notice. In destroying it by heat, the soil turns black,,
and emits a peaty odor, attended by a white smoke, which is slightly pvmgent to ths
smell and irritatory to the eyes, though much less so than the smoke from highly nitro-
genised (manured) soils. Ammonia is distinctly recognised in this smoke.

I regard the organic matter as vegetable in its origin, and suppose it to be in the con-
' ition of what Mulder calls ulmine and ulmic acid, and humine and humic acid, chiefly
the two former ; and which he supposes are convertable into the two latter, simply on>
being brought freely into contact with the air in the process of cultiv tion.

If 1 were to susrgest anything in the cultivation of such lands, it would be to recom-
mend thorough Irainage — paririg the surface by fire — frequent ploughing, to effect a mi-
nute division of the soil, and to bring it in contact with the air. Add to them the itse of
woo . ashes and well burnt lime.

The Committee on Agriculture of the House of Representatives submitted the follow-
ing Report and Resolutions, in accordance with which this Survey was voted :

In tlie House of Representatives, December 14, 1842.

The Committee on Agriculture, to which was referred so much of the Governor's Mes-
sage as relates to a Geological and Agricultural Survey of the State ; also, Resolutions
of Enquiry into the same subject from this House; also. Memorials from the Agricul-
tural Society of South-Carolina, from the Wateree Agricultural Society, from the Mil-
ton, Laurens, Agricultural Society, embracing the same objects, have maturely consi-
dered the subjects committeed to their charge, and beg leave to report : That they are
deeply impressed with the importance and necessity of the measures sought for, and una-
nimously recommend an Agricultural Survey of the State.

Your Committee were not averse to combining a Geological with an Agricultural Sur-
vey, but were deterred from the recommendation by a consideration of the expense and
I'emote attendant advantages. The two branches of science are connected, but only to a
certain extent: they then diverge to totally different purposes.

The Geologist digs into the bowels of the earth, to investigate metals, minerals and
rocks, and by analytical researches, indicate the origin and distribution of substances
which compose soils. The Agricultural Surveyor seldom penetrates below the surface;
his science determines their nature and properties, and the means of fructifying them.
To realise benefits discovered by the first, time and capital are indispensable ; whilst
the last are immediate in their effect, and placed within the grasp of the humblest
farmer.

In prosecution of the duties of an Agricultural Survey, the Surveyor pervades eveiy
section of the State, examines, as far as practicable, the nature and quality of the soil in
every district, detects calcareous manures, visits farms, corrects injudicious modes of
culture, advises as to the best kinds of seed, and communicates the means of affording
an increased product; he discloses the improvements of other sections of country, ex-
plains the properties and action of various manures, the necessity of a rotation of crops,
and instructs in the general principles of Agriculture. His observations extend to the
general features and aspect of a country, to its soil, climate, crops, markets, and manu-
factures ; to diary husbandry, its product and expenses ; to improvements in various
breeds of stock; to manures, farm buildings, experiments and improvements; to machi-
nery ; to reports of farms; to agricultural statistics, in relation to thequantity of land culti-
vated, and in what grains ; how much lies fallow, or in woods, in pasturage, or under wa-
ter; to the products exported, and the supplies purchased; to ./Agricultural Societies
their reports, and the knowledge th^y diffuse ; with other miscellaneous matters.

The importance which modem science has attached to these investigations, admonish-
es us not lightly to reject their teBtimony, but rather examine into our own advances, and

APPENDIX. 53;

ascertain our prospect of improvement. In accomplishing this purpose, your Committee
would indulge in something of a retrospect.

In the early years of the Province of South-Carolina, the inhabitants struggled to sup-
ply their necessities by the produce of wheat, silk and tobacco. Indifferent success at-
tended these efforts ; when rice, in 1693, was casually introduced, became a staple, and
gave a new impulse to industry.

Indigo, another exotic, of which l.SOO.OOOlbs. were formerly exported, was first culti-
vated in a garden for amusement' in the year 1742, and eventually contributed to the reve-
nue of the needy planter, who pursued the noisome and unwholesome process, till the ar-
ticle was gradually superseded by a more approved quality from the East Indies.

Cotton, a native of Persia, began to unfold its profits in our State about the year 1793,
and continues to spread its snowy fleece over the land.

These staples were all exotic. Competition has driven one from our market, and it is
vital to consider how long we may possess the others.

Rice, in its culture, is limited to sectional portions of the State, to inland and river
swamps, susceptible of irrigation by fresh water. Eighty thousand acies of land are ca-
pable of growing the whole rice crop of South-Carolina, which, on an average, may be
computed at 140,000 barrels, and at $15 a barrel would amount to $2,100,000— a limited
sum for a chief staple article.

The product of this grain, in the whole Union, by Congressional returns, is only
88,954,658Ibs., or 148,258 barrels; of which 75,000 barrels are exported to Europe, 23,000
to the West Indies, 30,000 to various parts of the United States, and the balance consum-
ed at home. The rice shipped to Europe has to come in competition with that from Bra-
zil, Calcutta, Batavia, Manilla, and other parts of India, which is prepared by rice mills
in London, Liverpool, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, Lisbon, and Bordeaux now, and soon
to be in operation in so superior a manner as to vie in quality with the best Carolina
rice ; so that when the primest rice commands, in the markets of the North of Europe, S5
the cwt., that from India brings S4. In addition to this, Italy grows her own rice, and
even Cuba, a large consuming market, is now producing no inconsiderable quantity.
These facts prove that Carolina must experience competition in this staple.

Let us now turn our consideration to our other gi-eat staple. Cotton, of which the sta-
tistics are so exact that we can ascertain by calculation what our prospects are, as re-
gards competition in that article. The United States produces at present, 578.012,473
lbs. — more than one-half the crop of the whole world. South-Carolina grows of this,
43.927,171 lbs., or 1-I3th part of the quantity; but from this source of profit her palmy
days are past. Every year opens new lands in the West, where congeniality of soil and
climate to this commodity, increases the product per acre, far beyond what can be rear-
ed at home, and consequently reduces the value infinitely below the costly prices which
formerly enriched Carolina. These new lands produce, on an average, 2,500 lbs. of cot-
ton, per hand, whilst the lands in Carolina yield but 1.200 lbs., and the expenses of a la-
borer being about equal in either place, reduces the Carolina cotton to half its intrinsic
value. We have also the declaration of Mr. Dixon H. Lewis, in a recent speech in Con-
gress, that cotton, divested of government embarrassments, might be grown in Alabama
for three cents a pound.

Your Committee will avail itself of the lucid calculations of a distinguished and talent-
ed individual,* to present another view of the subject, startling in its details, and bearing
strongly on the propriety of summing up all our resources. The crop of the world
amounts to 1,000,000,000 lbs., which would require, at the rate of 250 lbs. per acre,
4,000,000of acres to grow this quantity. Now, the four States borderine- on the coast of
Mexico, viz., Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Florida, contain 130,000,000 of acres;
proving that if only 1 acre in 32 wore found capableof producing 250 lbs. to the acre, these
four States could, alone, supply the demand of all the markets in the world. In (his cal-
culation, the produce of Georgia. South-Carolitia, North-Carolina and Virginia, with
portions of other States, besides 150,0(X).00() acres in Texas, are entirely excluded. The
lands of the Gulph States, therefore, and Texas, are suflicient to supply the demands of
tlie world, in all time to come. Where then, is the hope or prospect of South-Carolina in
competition 1

Besides rice and cotton, there are no other articles of export which South-Carolina
produces. All other demands of life are irrown in limited quantity, and our deficiencies
supplied from sources without the State. This necessarily acts as a drain to her finan-
ces, and should be checked; a fiance at her products, and how (he land of the State is
occupied, might afford some useful reflection.

♦ Gov. Hajmmond's oration before the State Agricultural Society.

54 APPENDIX.

South Carolina comprises within her borders 16,000,000 acres of land, of which only
1,300,000 are cultivated. Of this, cotton occupies 175,700 acres; rice 80,000; Indian
corn 500,000; potatoes 2"2,6l2; wheat 24,079; making- an aggregate of about 800,000
acres; the balance of 500,000 are taken up in oats, lye, barley, hay. tobacco, and a limi-
ted portion of other articles necessary to the supplies of life. To what use, then, is the ba-
lance of our Territoiy, of 14.000,000 of acres, to be appropriated. Are we forever to be
supplied with stock from the West, bread stuff from the Middle States, and manufac-
tures from the North ] Is all that we can realise from our labor to be expended abroad 1
Nothing to be left for our own improvements, or our luxury- ] As one means of correct-
ing this evil, your committee propose an Agricultural Survey of tlie State, to determine
our natural advantages, develope our facilities of improvement, exhibit our profits and
expenditures, and awaken our citizens to the importauice of vieing with the rest of the
human family, in all the improvements of which our location is susceptible.

The exposition which your Committee has given, showing the great competition of
foreign rice with our own, and that South Carolina cannot compete Math the West in
the cheap production of cotton, and that she must, ere long, be driven from the market,
demonstrates the necessity of looking abroad and around us for other sources of advance-
ment and profits, than those we possess. The Agriculture of tlie State is the fundamen-
tal basis of her prosperity, as is attested by the fact, that whilst the property of the State
is valued at $192,000,000, the Agricultural portion equals 8174,000,000. What, then,
are the expedients to be adopted, to secure present advantages, or counteract their loss 7

We cannot expect that accident is continually to supply new staples suited to our soil
and climate, and place us beyond the reach of contingent circumstances. We must re-
sort to science to improve our agriculture, and to machinery to enlarge and prepare pre-
sent articles of culture, or transplant and acclimate new products, which will again, like
those we have lost, and will lose, lead off for a period in the employment of capital,
amassins: of wealth and diffusion of human happiness. This, how- ver, cannot be reali-
sed by individual efforts, and where the benefits to accrue are general, the common pitrse
should bear the burden. If in the pursui , new sources of industry cannot be marked
out, policy would require that those now in existence should be perfected, so as to neu-
tralize opposition from abroad, or counteract the advantages of otlier countries more fa-
vorably located.

Your Committee, in recommending an Agricultural Survey, would refer to the exam-
ples and r suits in Europe and our own country. Great Britain, pre sed by her teeming
population, scrutinises every source of increase. Under her Bcaid of Agriculture, sur-
veyors were appointed for, and a distinct survey made of. eveiy county in the kingdom.
In some cases more than one sui-veyor for one county; and each county report foimed a
large volume of agricultural facts. Previous to these efforts, and the aid derived from
Ao-ricultural Societies, the annual production of grain in England was but nine bushels
to°the acre; but through the diffusion of knowledge from the sources mentioned, it has
gradually increased, and by the last report, amounts to fifty-one bushels the acre. Scot-
land, before comparatively barren, by the discoveiy and free use of lime has been ren-
dered a wheat growing country. France and Gennany, in their schools, teach the sci-
ence of a'^riculture, both theoretically and practically. Professorships are instituted,
pattern farms cultivated, Boards of Agriculture established, societies fonned, geological
and ao-ricultural surveys undertaken, and all the powerful aids of chemical research
made to advance the great cause -f human necessity and civilization.

These examples have not been lost in our own country. Of the twenty-six
States of the Union, twenty have either made, or have in progress, geological and
ao-ricultural surveys. New York has commenced her's on a magnificent scale ; the sur-
veys, and publications connected with it, will cost ^104.000. Four years have been ap-
propriated to effect it, and S26.000 voted for the first year. Massachusetts has entered
in earnest in the cause. Bvher agricultural survey, her productions have been increased,
her breed of stock improved, and the elegance and economy of her faims advanced. For
several years the State has paid a boimty on wheat raised within her counties, and in
1830 expended $9,280 for premiums. Maine paid, in 1838, a bountyof S87,342on wheat,
and $06,028 on Indian corn. New Hampshire, in 1839, appropriated, annually, $2,000
for a Geological Survey. The little State of Rhode Island also, and Connecticut, have
been surveyed. Virginia has established a Board of AgricuUure, and all are awake to
the great advantages f be secured.

The researches and investigations of other States can be of little avail in our own.
The difference of soil and climate, even in the same State, renders modes and articles of
culture essentially different; and we mu.st pursue our own investigations. Nature, in
beneficence, has bestowed on man a varied soil, crowned it with umbrageous foretts, ar-

APPENDIX. 55

rayed it with fruits and flowers, and left it to his industry and intelligence to bring them
to perfection. In attaining this purpose, the husbandman has not only to study the na-
ture of the plant, but the soil congenial. In some locations he finds a soil already adopt-
ed, and in a state of natural fertihty, offering, as it were, a standard of what is to be at-
tained. In other spots, the characteristics vaiy, and by labor and intelligence are made
to approximate and be maintained at this first or natural standard. Thus he must not
only perfect the grain, but form the soil. Science here comes in aid; the chemist analy-
zes and instructs what are its constituents, and how to preserve its qualities, or supply
its defects. He discloses the fact that some soils contain too ii.uch calcareous matter,
others too little, and that modern research attests that all the Atlantic iStates are deficient
in lime as a natural ingredient of the soil, without a certain portion of which, as a con-
stituent, soil cannot be rendered fertile. The soil of Europe contains a more general dif-
fusion of calcareous matter than that of the Uniied States; and it has been supposed that
the deficiency may account for the fact that tobacco has never been raised in Europe in
anything like the perfection of our own countiy.

The developements, by agricultural survey, of the resources and statistics of a State,
tend to give political position and establish credit both at home and abroad. By afford-
ing inducement to a population to locate permanently, the defensive means of a country
are increased, her revenues improved, and her climate rendered salubrious. In propor-
tion as population diminishes, the efficiency of that which remains, as well as the value
of property, all become diminished, and national efforts alone can secure their durability.
Ignorance in agriculture is the bane of national prosperity. The annual loss to a State,
between an impoverished system of husbandry and careless cultivation, can scarcely be
estimated; but some idea may be fonned by comparing the rude instruments and hum-
ble efforts of the Hottentot, to those of the New England farmer, with his neat cottage,
his ploughs, his machinery, his well stocked barns, and profusion of all the comfons of
life. There are other attendants in the depopulation of a country, the decay of morals, of
social order, and of that elevation in the scale of nations which conducts to mutual happi-
ness and independence. Agriculture, aided by the chemical arts, has rescued us from
the cavern and log hut, placed us in goodly dwellings, divested us of the fig leaf and
sheepskins, and clothed us in comfortable and gorgeous apparel. We have abandoned
the habits and propensities of the brute, and walk forth with the elevation and aspirations
of responsible, intelligent beings, made in the image of their Creator.

Your Committee, influenced by the above considerations, unanimously recommend
the adoption of the following Resolutions:

Resolved., That the interests and pursuits of South Carolina are essentially Agricultu-
ral, and should be promoted by all practicable means within our power.

Resolved^ That a Ge;ological and Agricultural Survey of the State, for the examination
of our soil, discoveiy and application of marl lime, and developing all other resources
and f^xcilities of improvement, will prove among the most efficient means of giving value
to her soil, increasing her products, multiplying her population, and diffusing national
and individual prosperity.

Resolved., That as a means of testing this salutary measure, an annual appropriation
of S2,000 be granted for two years, for an Agricultural Surv^cy of the State, lo dc prose-
cuted during that period; and that the Governor be specially charged with procurinnr a
competent individual to effect such sui^vey, who shall report all Geological informatjon
which may be incidentally collected on such survey.

Resolved, That the result of each year's survey be reported to this House, and copies
distributed to every Agiicultural Society tliroughout the State.

R. W. ROPER, Chairman.

Resolved, That the House do agree to the Report. Ordered, That it be sent to the
Senate for concurrence.

By Order,

T. W. GLOVER, C. H. R.

In the Senate y December 17, 1842.
Resolved, That the Senate do concur in the Report. Ordered, That it be returned to
the House of Representatives.

By Order, W. E. MARTIN, C. S.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Introductory Letter, 2

General character, extent and distribution of the calcareous formation of lower ) e

South-CaroUna, 5

General character, position and extent, of the great Carolinian bed of marl, 8

Marls of Ashley and Copper Rivers and their branches, 10

Marls of the Santee River and its branches, ^ 16

Marls of the Edisto River and its branches, 19

Marls of the Little Salkehatchie and its branches, 21

Marls of the Savannah River and its branches in Barnwell, 21

Marl and Marl-stone of the Pee Dee bed, 24

Miocene Marl, 27

The Post-plioc«ne Marl of the Sea Coast, 30

Oyster Beds, and Indian heaps of Oyster and other Shells, ,, 32

Minor Calcareous Deposits, 33

Bed of gigantic Oyster Shells, 33

Deposit of recent Shells upheaved, 34

Miocene deposit under part of the present Ocean, 34

Analyses of Marls and Marl-stones of South-Carolina, 35

Casts of Shells in infusorial clay; and silicified Shells and Shell Rock, 40

Lists of some of the characteristic Shells belonging to each of the diiferent forma- ) ^^

tions of lower South-Carolina, )

Obsei;vations on the action of Calcareous Manures, and their practical application ) ^

and effects, 5

Tabular statement of Marling operations and results, : 58

The Primitive Limestone Belt, 59

Directions for Burning Lime, 64

On the Inland'and River Swamp Lands, and t'l' ir Dr inage and Embankment.. 69

Cursory view of the state of Agriculture, in the lower and middle parts of South- ) ^^

Carolina, and of the changes and improvements therein most required, ^

Remarks on the Granitic Region, embracing nearly all the country above the lower } g^

falls of the Rivers, )

Report on the Rice Culture of a part of Georgetown District, 99

Concluding Note, by the Surveyor, 119

APPENDIX.

Enquiries addressed to Agricultural Societies, by the Surveyor, i

Report of the Fishing Creek Agricultural Society, 5

Report of the Milton Agricultural Society, 8

Memoir on the Introduction and Cultivation of Rice in South-Carolina; adescrip- ) g

of the Grass ; and some account of the exports. By Col. R. F. W. AUston, )

Report of the Wateree Agricultural Society, 36

Statement of Marling operations, by J. S. Palmer, Esq., 43

«t '< « " by Gov. J. H. Hammond, 45

Analyses of Soils, by Professor Shepard, 51

Report of the Committee on Agriculture of the House of Representatives of South- ) p^^

Carolina, 3

Printed, the 32 first pages by A. H. Pemberton, the rest by Dubose & Johnston.

^>K

-^i***^^

agriqulTlke
forestey-

_ LIBRARY

SS

k

■.iY