SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY BY WALTER E.^COLLINGE, M.Sc., F.L.S., F.E.S., Foreign Member of the American Association of Economic Entomologists Joint Honorary Secretary of the Association of Economic Biologists ; Editor of the ' ' Journal of Economic Biology ' ' ; Honorary Consulting Biologist to the Land Agents' Society, the Midland Reafforesting Association, and the War- wickshire Agricultural Society ; and late Special Lecturer on Economic Zoology in the University of Birmingham. ILLUSTRATED. BIRMINGHAM : THE MIDLAND EDUCATIONAL CO., LTD. 1912. [All rights reserved.] PRICE 2s. 6d. Now Awarded Every Genuine "FOUR OAKS" MACHINE bears our Registered Trade Mark. 30 Gold & Silver Medals. 2 Go The ' Four Oaks' FIRST PRIZE Knapsack Sprayer, No. 101. Capacity 3| Gallons. If to be used with Liver of Sulphur we supply a Special Tinned Machine, price, SO/- Awarded a Gold Medal at Hexham Great Fruit Congress, October, 1910. EXCHANGE ENTOMOLOGY LIBRARY Beware of inferior imitations which though possibly cheaper are worthless and costly in the end. IN IN. No Rubber Valves. All working parts ' outside. For spraying tall trees or buildings we supply Long Lances. 6ft. 6 in. 1 2/6 10ft. Gin. 17/6 Illustrated. -Inge and d Medal. The "FOUR OAKS" Patent Undeniable Angle-Jointed Spraying Syringe, No. 9 AJ. The "FOUR OAKS" Undentable Angle Jointed Spraying Syringe with a movable Angle Joint for spraying the undersides of leaves and branches. An invaluable syringe. No. 9 AJ ... H x 20in., 18/- -1* x 20in., 22/6 Theljin. x 20 in. size strongly recommended. Complete Catalogues Free on application to the Sole Patentees and Manufacturers— THE "FOUR OAKS" SPRAYING MACHINE CO., 222, SUTTON COLDFIELD. BIRMINGHAM, England. UNI, Of Spraying Machinery 1™ Hop & Fruit Growers. For RUBBER, VINES, TEA AND COFFEE PLANTATIONS, &c. Special Machines made to order for applying Liquid and Powder Insecticides and Fungicides in all crops. LIME-SPRAYING MACHINES FOR FARM & ESTATE BUILDINGS, DAIRIES, &c. Cherry Orchard in Kent sprayed with lime-wash. Awarded Special £50 Prize Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1899. Prize Diploma, Hayes Spraying Contest, 1909. Awarded Two First Prize Medals, Wisbech, 1909. Gloucester, 1909, Two Medals. Maidstone, First Prize, 1910. Machinery for Farm & Estate Work OIL ENGINES & PUMPS for Irrigation. CREOSOTING TANKS, portable and fixed. SUCTION GAS PLANTS. HYDRAULIC PRESSES. DRAKE & FLETCHER, ENGINEERS, — Telegrams: "ARMADA, MAIDSTONE." Telephone : No. 9. 0 § MAIDSTONE, LIME & SULPHUR POWDER as recommended in this Book. LIME SULPHUR SOLUTION STANDARD. For Spraying Fruit Trees, etc., Summer and Winter. MAPTHO NICOTYL The RELIABLE Soil Fumigant. ONE THAT WILL DESTROY Wireworms, Leather-jackets, Slugs, Mill pedes, Grubs, Beetles, and other Soil PeStS WITH CERTAINTY. NAPTHO NICOTYL (Improved) The outcome of a large number of experiments spread over a very considerable period. AN ORIGINAL INVENTION-NOT AN IMITATION. The latest and Best Soil Fumigant. Based on practical tests and a thorough experience of insect and other pests. £9 per ton, 10/- cwt , 6/6 } cwt, 3/6 281b- casks. Tins, 6d. and 1/6 each, I0d. and 2/- post free. 1 cwt. and up CARRIAGE PAID. BLACK SULPHUR. GREEN SULPHUR. ALL CHEMICALS. Full Particulars from WALTER VOSS & Co., Ltd., 3c, Millwall, London, E. SPECIAL NOTICE. IF YOU WANT REALLY GOOD SEEDS AND BULBS AT MODERATE PRICES, SEND TO ROBERT SYDENHAM LIMITED, TENBY STREET, BIRMINGHAM, No one will servo you better. THIS FIRM HAS THE LARGEST RETAIL BULB AND SWEET PEA TRADE IN THE KINGDOM. THEIR UNIQUE LISTS Are acknowledged by all to be the Best, Cheapest, and moat Reliable ever published. They contain only the Best VEGETABLES, FLOWERS AND BULBS WORTH GROWING. Being the Selections of the Largest Seed Growers, Market Gardeners, and the most celebrated Professional Gardeners and Amateurs in the Kingdom. They also contain very useful cultural instructions. The quality of their Bulbs and Seeds is well known all over the United Kingdom as being equal to anything in the market. SWEET PEAS A SPECIALITY. No flowers give so much cut bloom at so little cost and trouble if treated as instructions sent with each Collection. Collection No. 1.— 12 Useful Grandiflora Varieties, 50 Seeds each .. 1/3 Collection No. 2 —12 Best Gran«;iHora Vaiieties. 50 „ „ ... 1/6 THE TWO COLLECTIONS FOR 2/6. And 25 Seeds each of the four U'.-t Striped Varieties free of charge. Collection No. 3.— 12 Good Wavtd Varieties, 25 Seeds of each . . 2/- Collec ion No 4 — 12 Best Waved Vaiietie,, 25 , 2/6 OR THE TWO COLLECTIONS FOR 4/-. And 100 Seeds of the very choicest Spencer Seedlings free of charge. GRAND NOVELTIES FOR 1912 And Special Prizes at about 1OO Shows PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION MANY FLOWER AND VEGETABLE SEEDS Will be very scarce and dear in 1912. THE BEST TOMATOES, 3d. per packet of about 200 Seeds. THE BEST CUCUMBERS, 6d. per packet of 10 Seeds. THE BEST ONIONS Excelsior or Ailsa Craig:, 6d. p.r packet of about 1,000 Seeds. BEET, 8d. ; BRUSSELS SPROUTS or CABBAGE, 6d. per oz. BROCCOLI, I/-; PARSNIP, 2d.; TURNIP, 3d. per oz. Please compare these Prices with what you are paying. ALL OTHER SEEDS EQUALLY CHEAP AND QOOD. FULL LISTS ON APPLICATION. ROBINSON'S«») FLUID INSECTICIDE- For Soil Use Only. Fox» the Destruction of Wircworms, White Worms, Millipedes, Surface Caterpillars, and All Soil Grubs. All or any of these pests can be effectively destroyed at a very small cost and immunity obtained for a considerable period. Mr. H. DUNKIN, the Horticultural Instructor to the Warwickshire County Council, writes.— " I tested ' Clift's Insecticide ' on a heap of loam which contained Wireworra, Eel worm, Leather Grubs, Ants, and Slugs. In twenty-four hours I found the pests contained no life. ' Clift's Insecticide ' has no deleterious effect on plant growth." For prices and full particulars for use apply to the Sole Proprietors and Manufacturers, ROBINSON BROTHERS, Ltd. WEST BROMWICH. SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY BY WALTER E. COLLINGE, M.Sc., F.L.S., F.E.S., Foreign Member of the American Association of Economic Entomologists Joint Honorary Secretary of the Association of Economic ttiologists ; Ktlitor of the " Journal of Economic Itiology " ,• Honorary Consulting Riologist to the Land Agents' Society, the Midlund Reafforcsting Association, and the War- wickshire Agricultural Society : and late Special Lecturer on Economic Zoology in the University of llinniiigham . ILLUSTRATED. BIRMINGHAM : THE MIDLAND EDUCATIONAL CO., LTD. 1912. [All rights reserved.] (^ PREFACE. The reception accorded to my " First Report on Economic Biology " induces me to issue a second one treating of some of the more interesting animals, plants, etc., that have passed through my hands during 1911. To the many farmers, fruit growers, horticulturists, and others who have assisted me, and whose kind appreciation of my work I greatly value, I tender my sincere thanks. I am indebted to the courtesy of the Controller of His Majesty's Stationery Office, and the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, for permission to use Figures 4 and 15, both of which are from illustrations which have appeared in the Board's leaflets. WALTER E. COLLINGE. 59, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM, December, 1911. 362260 CONTENTS. PAGE Preface. Introduction. i. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FARM AND GARDEN PRODUCE. The Strawberry Eehvorm. A plu'lcnchits fragariae, Ritz. Bos. ... ... ... ... 3 Injurious Earthworm. Allolobophora chlorotica (Sav.). .. 3 Millipedes. ... ... ... ... ... 3 Leaf-Hoppers. Typhlocybidae. ... •••4 The Cabbage Aphis. Aphis hrassicae. Linn. ... ... 4 Tin- Asparagus Beetle. Crioceris asparagi, Linn. (Illus- trations). ... ... ... ... 5 A New Pest of Mangels and Beet. Clonus scrophulariae, Linn. (Illustrations). ... ... ... 7 The Pigmy Mangel Beetle. Atomaria linearis, Steph. ... 10 The Large Cabbage White Butterfly. Pieris brassicae, Linn. (Illustration). ... ... ... 10 IV. CONTENTS. PAGE The Silver-Y Moth. Plusia gamma, Linn. ... n • The Brown China Marks Moth. Hydrocampa nymphaeata 12 The Mangel or Beet Fly. Pegomyia betae, Curtis. ... 13 2. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT TREES. The Pear-leaf Blister Mite. Eriophyes pin (Pagenst.), Nal. 18 The White Woolly Currant Scale. Pulvinaria vitis var. ribesiae, Sign. ... ... ... ... 18 On the Locomotion and Length of Life of the Young of Pulvinaria vitis var. ribesiae, Sign. ... ... 18 The Dusky-veined Walnut Aphis. Ptychodes juglandis, Frisch. ... ... ... ... ... 22 The Mealy Plum Aphis. Hyalopterus pruni, Fab. ... 23 The Plum Bark Beetle. Scolytus rugulosus, Ratze. (Illustrations). ... ... ... ... 24 The Gold Tail Moth. Porthesia aiiriflua (Fab.). (Illustra- tions). ... ... ... ... ... 26 The Dot Moth. Mamestra persicariae, Linn. ... ... 26 The Wood Leopard Moth. Zeuzera aesculi, Linn. (Illustrations). ... ... .'.. ... 28 The Pale Brindled Beauty Moth. Pliigalia pilosaria, Hb. 30 The Red Plum Maggot. Opadia funebrana, Tr ... 31 The Pear-leaf Blister Moth. Ccmiostoma scitella, Zell 31 Wasps. ... ... ... ... ... 32 CONTENTS. V. PAGE 3. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FOREST AND ORNA- MENTAL TREES. The Birch Gall-Mite. Eriophyes rudis (Canest.). (Illustra- tion). ... 33 The Red Poplar-leaf Beetle. Melasoma populi, Linn. ... 34 The Flat Violet Beetle. Callidium violaceum (Linn.). (Illustrations). ... ... ... ••• 35 The Wood-boring Rose Sawfly. Emphytus cinctus, Linn. 39 4. PLANT DISEASES DUE TO FUNGI. Stem Disease of Fruit Trees. Eutypella prunastri (Saec.). 41 Beech Seedling Mildew. Phytophthora omnivora, De Bary. 42 Beet and Mangel Rot. Sphaerella tabifica, Prill, and Del. 43 Apple-tree Canker. Nectria ditissima (Tul.). ... ... 44 Currant-leaf Spot. • Septoria ribis, Desm. ... ... 45 Root and Stem Rot. Rhizoctonia violacea (Tul.). ... 46 Potato Leaf-curl. Macrosporium solani, Cooke. ... 47 Cucumber Collar Rot. Hypochnus cucumcris (Frank). ... 48 Cucumber-leaf Blotch. Hormodendron hordei, Bruhne. ... 48 Gladiolus Smut. Urocystis gladiola, Smith. ... ... 49 5. ANIMAL PARASITES AND DISEASES. Coccidiosis in Fowls and Game Birds. ... ... ... 50 Medullary Gid in Lambs. ... ... ... ••• 53 Mange in Dog's. ... ... ... ... ... 54 VI, CONTENTS. PAGE 6. MISCELLANEOUS. The House-Fly Problem. ... .. ... •••55 Fumigating with Hydrocyanic Acid Gas. ... ... 59 Some Observations on the Food of -the Starling. (Illustra- tion). ... ... ... ... ... 63 The Paving Block Fungus. Lentinus lepideus, Fr. ... 66 Appendix. ... ... ... ... ... ... 67 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Fig. i. The Asparagus Beetle. ... ... ... ... 6 Fig. 2. Leaves of Knotted Figwort injured by Cionus scrophulariae, Linn. ... ... ... 9 Fig. 3. The Large Cabbage White Butterfly. ... ... n Fig. 4. The Plum Bark Beetle (Scolytus rugulosiis). ... 24 Fig. 5. Branch of Plum Tree, showing damage to Wood by Plum Bark Beetle. ... ... ... 25 Fig. 6. The Gold Tail Moth (Portlicsiu auriflua, Fab.). ... 27 Fig. 7. The Wood Leopard Moth (Zeuzera aesculi, Linn.). ... 29 Fig. 8. Silver Birch with Witches Brooms. ... ... 33 Fig. 9. Fgg of the Flat Violet Beetle. ... ... ... 35 Fig. TO. Larva ,, ,, „ ... 35 Fig. IT. Pupa ,, ,, ,, ... 36 Fig. 12. Imago ,, ,, ,, ... 36 Fig. 13. Piece of Larch injured by the larvae of the Flat Violet Beetle. ... ... ... ... 37 Fig. 14. Borings of the larvae on Spruce palings. ... 38 Fig. 15. The Starling. ... ... ... ... 65 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY " In no department of science does the old proverb, ' prevention is better than cure/ apply with such force as in that of Economic Entomology. . . . I have often been struck with the fact that many of our very worst insect enemies have been introduced from abroad, and that if this subject of Economic Entomology had been better understood and appreciated fifty years ago, and the proper measures had been taken to prevent the introduction of these pests, we should at present be free from the curse of the great majority of them.'1 CHARLES V. RILEY. [Second Missouri Ann. Rpt. on Noxious and Beneficial Insects, 1870, p. 7.] ' Those who are responsible for agricultural investigation and experimentation at the present time are faced by the fact that the field over which their energies may be expended has largely widened in recent years. Agricultural problems are no longer regarded as being comparatively small in their scope and simple in their nature. They require the assistance of many of the so-called branches of science. The help of the chemist, the botanist, the plant pathologist and physiologist, the entomologist, the geologist and the physicist, large as it is, does not exhaust the amount of aid that is needed by the agricultural investigator/' [Agricultural News, 1911, vol. x, p. 321.] C SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. INTRODUCTION. During- the past year upwards of three thousand three hundred inquiries have been dealt with. Of these, two thousand three hundred and seventy were connected with agriculture and horticulture, five hundred and thirty with forestry, one hundred and seventy referred to animal parasites and animal diseases, fifty-three to soil biology, one hundred and ninety-two to household and commercial pests, and one hundred and eight were of a miscellaneous nature. Applications for information have been dealt with from various Colonial and Foreign Departments of Agriculture, Agricultural Col- leges, County, Municipal, and Urban Councils, the Land Agents' Society, the Midland Re-afforesting Association, the Warwickshire Agricultural Society, and various farmers, fruit growers and com- mercial organizations. My thanks are tendered to many fellow workers, particularly to R. S. Bagnall, F.E.S., H. Willoughby Ellis, F.E.S., George Massee, F.L.S., Albert D. Michael, F.L.S., and Dr. G. H. Pethybridge. The losses occasioned by injurious insects and other animals and fungus parasites during the year 1911 have far exceeded anything I have previously known. The prolonged and dry summer has resulted, in the maximum number of broods being produced, whilst the drought told largely against the vitality of many crops, thus rendering them unable to ward off the effects of insect or fungus attacks. On some farms and in many orchards the conditions have been pitiful, indeed those who have taken all precautions have been no light sufferers. 1. -ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FARM AND GARDEN PRODUCE. THE STRAWBERRY EELWORM. Aphelenchus fragariae, Ritz. Bos. Two cases of " cauliflower disease " in strawberries have been reported upon from Worcester. In both instances the disease had obtained a considerable hold of a large number of plants. Once a plant is attacked no treatment is of any use. The diseased plants should be dug up at once and burned, and a liberal application of ground unslaked lime applied to the hole and surrounding soil. INJURIOUS EARTHWORM. Allolobophora chlorotica (Sav.). From various parts of the Midlands large quantities of this earth- worm have been received, and numerous complaints of the damage it has done to flowering plants and garden produce. The species is easily recognized by its yellowish-green colour, and when touched it bends into a circle, and exudes from the dorsal pores an inodorous yellowish-green fluid. In length it measures from 3jin. to 4-in., and has 100 segments, the clitellum extending from the 2gth or 3Oth to the 37th. The first dorsal pore is between segments 4 and 5. Autumn dressings, with ground unslaked lime have given excel- lent results. MILLIPEDES. From all parts of the country complaints have been received of the injury done by various species of millipedes. Potatoes, turnips, mangels and swedes have suffered severely from the attacks of Blaniulus guttulatus, Bosc, and Polydesmus complantus, Linn., whilst the following species have been received, from various localities, chiefly attacking flowering plants in gardens. lulus niger, Linn., 7. pulchellus, Koch, 7. terrestris, Linn., 7. pilosus, Newport, Atractosoma polydesmoides, Leach, and Brachy- desmus superus, Latzel. 4 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. On large areas of land the only treatment of practical value is the application of ground unslaked lime. For smaller areas the reader is referred to the methods set forth in previous Reports. LEAF-HOPPERS. Typhlocybidae. Of the many neglected families of Hemipterous insects, the Leaf- hoppers or Typhlocybidae are rapidly assuming a very prominent position. They have been extraordinarily plentiful during the past year, and have occasioned considerable damage to fruit, forest, and ornamental trees, and particularly to garden produce, viz., beans, peas, potatoes, etc. The two commonest species that have come under my notice have been Chlorita flavescens, Fabr., and C. viridula, Fall. In one case the latter species swarmed on French beans to such an extent that on plants about four feet high it was difficult to find a sound and perfect leaf, the majority being riddled with irregular slit-like holes. Roses suffered in the same manner. The eggs are laid early in June on the underside of the leaves, and the nymphs hatch out in from ten to fourteen days. After a series of moults, extending over five or six weeks, the adult stage is reached. A second brood appears early in August, and a third appeared early in October. The nymphs, when first hatched, are almost white and very active, later becoming a pale yellowish green. When young these insects are easily destroyed by spraying with a paraffin emulsion, repeating the operation in a fortnight's time. The adults are more difficult to destroy. Upon spraying the trees, etc., they make for a resting place on the ground, or fences if near ; these latter should receive a good drenching with a strong paraffin emulsion. THE CABBAGE APHIS. Aphis brassicae, Linn. Undoubtedly the greatest and most objectional pest attacking the cabbage plant is this aphis. Often the actual amount of damage done is small, but the plants become unmarketable owing to the slimy mass of insects and their excreta. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FARM AND GARDEN PRODUCE. 5 LIFE-HISTORY. The eggs are deposited on the under-surface of the leaves of wild Brassicae, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and other cruciferous plants at the end of October or early in November, and hatch out early in May. It is not until the year has well advanced that they do any considerable damage, although plants received from Cheshire in July, 1905, wrere blistered all over, most of the leaves having many yellow patches on them. In the early part of the year the larvae are covered with a mealy- like substance, and seem to spread very slowly. There is an active migration late in the summer from such plants as the shepherd's purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris), the charlock or wild mustard (Brassica sinapsis), etc. Indeed, it would seem as if they prefer the cultivated plants in the autumn. Here they excrete large quantities of a sticky honey-dew, which covers the leaves and stems, making most plants unmarketable, and if largely infested, killing them. In spite of the beneficial work of the larvae of certain Hovering Flies (Catabomba pyrastri, Linn., and Syrphus grossulariae, Meig.), and Ladybird beetles, once they attack a plant, they seem to flourish. None of the remedies I know of are of any value except where employed on a small scale. For gardens or where grown on small areas, three or four weekly applications of Jib. of soft soap to i gallon of water will usually keep the plants clear. All cruciferous weeds should, of course, be destroyed. THE ASPARAGUS BEETLE. Crioceris asparagi, Linn. A somewhat serious attack of this beetle was reported from Hertford in June last, and considerable damage was done before spraying was carried out. LIFE-HISTORY. The female beetles commence to lay their somewhat spindle- shaped eggs (Fig 1, i) early in June. At this period they are deposited 6 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. upon the heads and shoots, and later upon the foliage. In some cases they are deposited singly, or in twos, threes, fours, or more. The larvae appear in from four to eight days later and commence to feed upon the plant. When full-fed the larva is about two-fifths of s FIG. i.— THE ASPARAGUS BEETLE. 1. — Eggs on Asparagus plant. 2.— Eggs on leaf. 3. — Larva. 4._Pupa. 5.— Adult beetle. an inch in length. They vary considerably in colour. The first three segments have each a pair of jointed legs, and the remaining segments are each provided with a pair of fleshy tubercles, excepting the last one, which bears a proleg. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FARM AND GARDEN PRODUCE. 7 After feeding for ten to fourteen days they form a cocoon, and pupate just beneath the surface of the soil or under dead leaves, etc., on the surface. The beetles appear in from fourteen to twenty-one days. There are usually only two broods, but in some seasons' there may be three. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. All rubbish, pieces of stick, etc., should be burnt, for the adult beetles hybernate beneath such. Spraying with a paraffin emulsion with a maximum quantity of soap will destroy the young larvae. Poisonous sprayfluids, such as Paris green and arsenate of lead, should not be used until the asparagus has been cut. Good results have been obtained by repeated dusting with finely powdered lime during the larval stage. Careful examination should always be made of new roots, as the pupae or beetles may be carried in these. A NEW PEST OF MANGELS AND BEET. Clonus scrophulariae, Linn. In May last Mr. W. B. Grove submitted to me for identification a number of larvae feeding upon the underside of the leaves of the Knotted Figwort (Scrophularia nodosa, Linn.). Shortly afterwards the same larvae were received on Mangel and Beet leaves, to which they were doing considerable damage. I cannot find that this insect has previously been recorded as attacking any cultivated plants. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. Hitherto the insect here treated of has not been regarded as one of any economic importance, but the fact that it feeds upon the Knotted Figwort, and thus to a certain extent tends to keep down that weed, is of economic importance. Having now been found injuring two plants, such as the mangel and the beet, it at once assumes a position of great economic importance in view of the large acreage of these plants and their value as food materials. Whether or not this insect will forsake its original food plant for B SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. those of cultivated crops remains to be seen. It frequently happens that such is the case in the change of a food-habit of this kind, and it is therefore doubly important that those individuals that migrated from the Knotted Figwort to the Beet and Mangel should be exterminated, and this I believe has been done in the present cases. DISTRIBUTION. Fowler1 describes it as rather local, but common where it occurs. He cites the following localities : " Darenth Wood, Coombe Wood, Woking, Cowley, Aylsham and Potter Heigham, Norfolk ; Hastings ; Winchester ; Southampton ; New Forest ; Glanvilles Wooton ; Devon ; Bath ; Swansea ; Midland district, widely distributed ; Manchester district, general ; Northumberland and Durham district ; Scotland, Solway, Forth, Tay and probably other districts ; Ireland, near Belfast, and most likely general." FOOD PLANTS. Hitherto the species of this genus have been regarded as feeding only on plants belonging to the order Scrophulariacae, particularly on species of Verbascum, such as V. thapsus, the Great Mullein, and V. nigrum, the Black Mullein, and Scrophularia nodosa, Linn., the Knotted Figwort, and S. aquatica, Linn., the Marsh Figwort, its occurrence, therefore, on the Mangel and Beet is certainly strange, but is only another instance of the change of feeding habits so common amongst insects. LIFE-HISTORY AND HABITS. The eggs I have not seen, but they are probably laid on the under- side of the leaves early in May. The larvae received by me on June i5th were variable in size and seldom seen on the upper surface of the leaf. They usually commence to feed at that portion of the leaf nearest to the petiole, eating away the two layers of parenchyma ; later they returned and perforated the leaf by feeding upon the upper layer of epidermal cells. Three typical leaves of Scrophularia nodosa, Linn., are shown in Fig. 2. The young larvae frequently fall off the leaves. Pupation commenced to take place on the igth, the last examples pupated on the 22nd. 'Coleoptera of the Brit. Islands, 1891, vol. v, p. 323. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FARM AND GARDEN PRODUCE. 9 Fowler (op. cit.), quoting from Chapius and Candeze, states that " when the time arrives for the change to the pupa the larva attached itself to a point of the leaf." Most of the larvae I had pupated on the under side of the leaves close to the mid-rib, others attached them- selves to the glass disc covering the breeding cage, whilst a few pupated on the floor and sides of the cage. The imagines appeared on July loth and nth; all appeared very inactive, and if touched immediately fell off the leaves as if dead, and remained in this state for some minutes before attempting to walk again. I was unable to satisfy myself that the beetles themselves fed upon the leaves. FIG. 2.— LEAVES OF KNOTTED FIGWORT INJURED BY clonus scrophulariae, LINN. Fowler (op. cit.) states from Chapius and Cancleze that the larvae " are covered with a glutinous matter, which is secreted from a retractile nipple placed on the upper surface of the anal segments ; the softness and mobility of their integument enables them to. cover their entire body with this substance ; it partly serves as a protection against rain and heat, but its chief use is in the formation of the cocoon in which the insect undergoes its metamorphoses ; when the time arrives for the change to the pupa state the larva attaches itself to a point of the leaf and thickens the glutinous matter which covers it, and then contracts its body so as to gain in breadth what it IO SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. loses in length ; when the covering has been fixed to the leaf all round and has acquired consistency, it manages to detach itself from con- nection with it and undergoes its change to the pupa; after six or eight days it emerges as a perfect insect, and then cuts a neat spherical hole in its cocoon and so emerges." REMEDIAL MEASURES. The food plants such as the Knotted Figwort, etc., should be destroyed. As the beetles probably hybernate in hedgeside debris, all such material should be burned. The larvae frequently fall from off the underside of the leaves on to the ground ; these might be destroyed, if again found attacking cultivated crops, by scattering soot and lime or Kainit on the surface of the ground. THE PIGMY MANGEL BEETLE. Atomaria linearis, Stephens. This beetle has been received from Shropshire and Cheshire during 1911. They feed upon the leaves of the mangel, eating out irregular shaped holes, but this external damage is of little moment, the real and serious damage is that done to the sprouts as the seeds germinate and later to the tap root. The life-history is only imperfectly known. But few experiments have been made as to preventive or remedial measures. Heavy rolling, so as to form a hard, firm seed-bed, is undoubtedly beneficial. Dusting with soot has given fair results, but better have been obtained by hoeing in a heavy dressing of soot around the young plants. THE LARGE CABBAGE WHITE BUTTERFLY. Pieris brassicae, Linn. In my last Report I referred to the plague of this insect in the years 1909 and 1910. During the past year it has been still more plentiful, and favoured by the long and dry summer. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FARM AND GARDEN PRODUCE. II I am glad to notice that in many districts prizes have been offered and awarded to the school children for the greatest number of dead specimens. ' In one case the premier prize was given for a box con- FIG. 3.— LARGE CABBAGE WHITE BUTTERFLY. 1. — Female butterfly. 2. — Eggs. 3. — I,arva. 4. — Pupa. 5 and 6. — Parasitic Ichneumon-fly (Pteromalus brassicae), natural size and magnified. taining 2,974 butterflies, the second for 1,726, and the third for 700, making a total for 5,400 specimens destroyed. The practice is to be commended, and I trust many Societies will offer prizes for this and other common injurious insects. THE 5ILVER=Y MOTH. Plusia gamma, Linn. Although this moth rarely commits any serious damage, I am giving a short notice of it, as it has been forwarded by so many correspondents. On the European Continent it has occasionally been known to appear in vast numbers, and do a great deal of damage to Sugar Beet crops. 12 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. LIFE-HISTORY. The eggs are laid on the underside of the leaves of such plants as Cabbage, Beet, Pea, Bean, etc. The larvae hatch out in about four- teen days and commence feeding upon the leaves. When full-fed they are a delicate green, with short, almost colourless hairs, and have six white wavy lines running down the back. At each side of the body is a yellowish and more conspicuous stripe, with an indistinct, broken line below it. Pupation takes place in the plant. After about a month from hatching the larva spins a cocoon in a leaf or on the stem, and changes to a deep black-coloured pupa. The moth appears twelve to fourteen days later. There are two or more broods annually. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. In gardens and small plots, handpicking will prove effective. Fowls greedily devour the larvae. All grass-grown or weedy spots in or near to gardens should be cleared, especially nettles and thistles. Watering with liquid manure I found answer very well where the larvae were very plentiful on cabbages. Dusting the plants with equal parts of lime and soot as soon as the larvae are noticed is also serviceable. THE BROWN CHINA MARKS MOTH. Hydrocampa nymphaeata. In June last leaves of Nymphaea alba, Linn., were received from a firm of horticulturists, which on examination were found to have a number of oval pieces bitten out of them. Upon examining the tanks in which the plants were growing numerous pieces of the leaves were found attached to the upper surface of the leaves by silk threads, and in other cases two oval-shaped pieces of the leaf were attached to each other. On separating these, a yellowish-white caterpillar, about an inch in length was found inside. The head was brownish-black and partly retractile, and the whole of the body covered with a series of minute, closely-set prominences. Reaumur was the first to notice and describe this interesting ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FARM AND GARDEN PRODUCE. 13 larva, which has since been studied by G. W. Miiller, Miall and others. Reaumur refers to the larva as attacking the leaf from the under- side when it wishes to make its sheath, but this is not always so, as I have seen them attack the leaf from the upperside, and more frequently from the edge. From time to time the larvae leave their old sheaths for new ones. Measurements made of forty-eight sheaths showed the largest to measure 2 Jin. by ijin., the smallest i Jin. by Jin., the average being if in. by fin. When full-fed the larvae creep up the sides of the tank, or in nature up the stem of some tall water-plant and attach their sheaths well above the surface of the water. They then commence and line the sheath with a silky cocoon, from which the moth issues some fourteen days later. Reaumur speaks of the cocoon being attached to a submerged leaf, which, I think, must be an error. The eggs are laid on the edges of the underside of the leaves and enclosed in a transparent jelly. The larvae hatch out in July and August and live through the winter in this stage. In the case mentioned above the larvae proved exceedingly destructive to Nymphae alba, Linn., and measures had to be adopted to eradicate the pest. Hand collecting proved a troublesome and only partly efficaceous remedy, as when the leaves were disturbed many of the larvae would fall to the bottom of the tanks. The most effective remedy was found to be an open lighted lantern suspended over each tank during the night. Large numbers of the moths were thus destroyed. THE MANGEL OR BEET FLY. Pegomyia betae, Curtis. I. — INTRODUCTION. For many years past economic entomologists, farmers, and others have noticed the spread and increasing numbers of a small dipterous fly that at the present time is inflicting a very serious loss upon growers 14 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. of mangels or beet. Numerous suggestions have been put forward as to the control of this insect, but in spite of these it has continued to increase and devastate annually a larger acreage. Acting upon the suggestion of certain growers, I have made a thorough and detailed study of the insect in its various stages, and have carried out a number of experiments, the whole of which are here set forth. II. — ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. This insect seems to have first been noticed in this country in 1846. In Cumberland in 1876 mangels suffered heavily, and this continued in the following years to such an extent that in a great measure they dropped out of cultivation (See Ormerod1). Miss Ormerod1 refers to attacks in Westmoreland and Cumberland in 1880. Curtis2 described the fly in 1847 from male examples under the name of AntJiomyia betac, and stated " These insects will seldom cause any loss to the mangel-wurzel crops, should they ever abound to any extent ; but whether they would prove injurious to cattle when the leaves are given as food, I am not prepared to say, but I should think not, as the skins are very tender." (p. 397). Carpenter3 mentions that in addition to the direct injury to the plants by the leaves, they possibly render them liable to attack by the Rot-fungus (Phoma betae). There are numerous references mentioning the occurrence of the fly on either beet or mangels in the popular agricultural and gardening papers during the past fifteen years, and of allied species, in other countries. III. — DISTRIBUTION. So far as I can learn this species is generally distributed over the British Isles. Carpenter makes frequent mention of it in Ireland in his Annual Reports, and I have received it from all parts of England, Scotland, and Wales. 1 A Manual of Inj. Insects, London, 1890. 2nd ed. Tourn. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1847, vol. viii, pp. 399-416, 1 pit. 3 EC. Proc. R. Dublin Soc., 1905, vol. i, pp. 289-291, pits, xxiii, xxiv. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FARM AND GARDEN PRODUCE. 15 Allied species found on various weeds are frequently mistaken for it, as well as the Celery Fly (Acidia heraclei, Linn.). IV. — FOOD PLANTS. In addition to the beet and mangel this species is found on various species of Dock, the Goosefoot (Chenopodium album, L.), the Sow- thistles (Sonchus arvenis, Linn., and S. oleraceus, Linn.). Specimens on the Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale, Web.), and other weeds proved, on examination, to be distinct from P. betae. V. — LIFE-HISTORY AND HABITS. The eggs are deposited by the female fly beneath the seed leaves and leaves. On the seed leaves they usually occur singly or in pairs, very rarely in clusters ; on the ordinary leaves, however, clusters of four to ten are common. In colour the egg is white, elongate, oval, and characteristically marked. The length is about i mm. From the time of deposition until hatching on the 7th — gth day little or no change takes place in the external appearance of the egg. On hatching the young larva at once commences to make its way into the mesophyll of the leaf. The newly-hatched larva measured 1.5 mm. in length. After the first moult the larva measures 2.2 mm. The second moult takes place when about 4 mm., and the third when about 6 mm. long. There are probably two further moults before the larva attains full growth, when it measures from 8 to 10 mm. in length. The duration of the larval period is subject to some slight variation, due to climatic conditions, and varies from three to four weeks. When full-fed the larval skin commences to harden and forms a dark- brown barrel-shaped puparium which surrounds and protects the pupa. The puparium is usually found in the soil an inch or so beneath the surface, but occasionally they are found within the leaf blisters. Two or even three broods appear in the year. The pupae of the last brood remain in the soil during the winter ; occasionally, however, they develop and hybernate. i6 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. VI. — SEASONAL HISTORY. Life Cycle. — The duration of the various stages are subject to some slight variation, due to weather changes, etc., the following series represent those taking place under average conditions : — Series. Kgg. L.arva. Pupa. Total Time. 1 8 days 28 days 14 days 50 days 2 6 ,, 30 „ 12 ,, 48 „ 3 6 ,, 30 ,, 10 „ 46 „ 4 5 ,, 27 ,, 15 ,, 47 ,, 5 6 „ 26 ,, 12 „ 44 ,, 6 5 ,, 24 „ 14 ,, 43 ,, As winged insects, most die before the winter sets in, but hyberna- tion is by no means uncommon. Hybernation. — It has been too generally assumed that in entering hybernation insects are influenced solely by the falling temperature. That this is not so has been shown by Tower1 in his classical memoir on Chrysomelid beetles. In the life-cycle a stage is reached when the organism demands a period of rest before continuing reproduction. That temperature is by no means the sole or dominant factor was very clearly and conclusively illustrated by Weismann in his well-known paper " On the Seasonal Dimorphism of Butterflies "; and important investigations are at present being made on the subject by Prof. E. Dwight Sanderson.2 Pegomyia betae hybernates one might say when it has become exhausted, thus in 1909, in which year only two broods were general, many hybernating females were observed, for the first time, on 1 Carnegie Inst., 1906. Evolution in Chrysomelid Beetles. 2 Journ. Kcon. Entom., 1908, vol. i, pp, 56-65, 2 figs. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FARM AND GARDEN PRODUCE. 1 7 November i2th and i3th, whereas in 1911, when three broods were general, hybernating females were common early in October. VII. — REMEDIAL MEASURES. Wherever there has been an attack of this insect the land should be treated with ground unslaked lime, 15 cwt. per acre, and deeply turned in. Various fluids have been tried to prevent the flies laying their eggs on the plants. The following has proved the most effective : — Paraffin ... ... ... ... i gallon. Soft Soap ... ... ... ... J Ib. Ammonia ... ... ... ... 4 oz. Water ... ... ... ... 10 gallons. This should be sprayed on the plants towards the end of May. Top-dressing with nitrate of soda and common salt has also proved valuable in forcing on the plants. The quantities per acre are from i to i^ cwt. of nitrate soda and 2 to 3 cwt. of salt. Any fertilising substance which favours rapid and healthy growth is valuable. As the outer leaves are usually the ones to be first attacked, it is well on small areas to remove and burn these. 2.— ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT TREES. THE PEAR=LEAF BLISTER MITE. Eriopyes piri (Pagenst.), Nal. The trees referred to in my previous Report1 that in 1909 had most of the leaves blistered with this mite, and which showed a material improvement in 1910, after being sprayed twice in the spring of that year with potassium sulphide solution, were sprayed early in September, 1910, with the potassium sulphide and lime, and then twice in the spring of 1911 with the potassium sulphide, with the result that it has been quite impossible to find a badly blistered leaf on the trees and only a very few that were blistered at all. THE WHITE WOOLLY CURRANT SCALE. Pulvinaria vitis var. ribesiae, Sign. In Worcestershire and Warwickshire this scale has been very prevalent during the past season, and in a few cases the attack has been serious. A full account was given in my 4th Report,2 and I there pointed out that the pest was best attacked by spraying with caustic soda emulsion in winter ; this summer, however, I have had considerable success with an alcoholic solution of nicotine, which destroyed quite 90 per cent, of the young scales. I hope to make further experiments with this fluid on other scales during the coming season. ON THE LOCOMOTION AND LENGTH OF LIFE OF THE YOUNG OF PULVINARIA VITIS VAR. RIBESIAE, SIGN.3 In the June issue of the Journal of Economic Entomology,4' Mr. H. J. Quayle has an interesting paper on locomotion of certain young 1 First Rpt. Econ. Biol., 1911, p. 16. '•Mth Rpt. Inj. Insects, etc., 1907, p. 11. 3Reprinted from Journ. Econ. Biol., 1911, vol. vi, No. 4, pp. 139-142. 4 1911, vol. iv, pp. 301-306. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT TREES. IQ scale insects. At the time of its publication I was carrying out experiments myself on the subject, and as some of these confirm Mr. Quayle's conclusions, and other interesting facts have been brought out, of economic importance, they are described here in detail. The species experimented with was the White Woolly Currant Scale (Pulvinaria vitis var. ribesiae, Sign.). The life-history is well known, having been described in various works on economic entomology, and need not be entered into here. My first experiment was made by placing six newly-hatched scales on three separate sheets of smooth white paper, each measuring 72 x 42 inches. Previous experiments had shown that the scales invariably travelled towards the light, the papers were therefore placed on the laboratory bench facing the window, in a temperature of 78° F. The young scales were placed at the side of the paper furtherest from the light, and the distance travelled was marked off each half hour for two hours, and then carefully measured. The second experiment was a repetition of the first in a tempera- ture of 82°, and a third was tried in 84°. The results are tabulated below. RATE OF TRAVEL ON SMOOTH PAPER. Exp. No. Date. Time. Temp. Distance each \ hour. Total. la June 19, 1911 10-30—12-30 p.m. 78° F. 20, 19, 20, 15 74 Ib „ 19, 1911 11-30—1-30 p.m. 78° F. 20, 20, 19, 16 75=75-1 inches 1C ,, 19, 1911 2—4 p.m. 78° F. 20, 21, 20, 16 77 2a June 21, 1911 10-30—12-30 p.m. 82° F. 21, 19, 19, 17 76 2b ,, 21, 1911 11-30—1-30 p.m. 82° F. 22, 21, 18, 16 77=76' 1 inches 2c ,, 21, 1911 2-4 p.m. 82° F. 20, 20, 19, 17 76 3a June 28, 1911 10-30—12-30 p.m. 84° F. 24, 23, 22, 18 87 3b ,, 28, 1911 2—4 p.m. 84° F. 26, 24, 23, 20 93=91 inches 3c ,, 28, 1911 2—4 p.m. 84° F. 25, 24, 24, 20 93 A further series of experiments were made, using a sheet of glass instead of the smooth paper. As the results were practically the same as those tabulated above, the actual figures are unnecessary. Finally, three series in different temperatures were made on the 20 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. laboratory bench. This has an oiled teak top, and the surface is, of course, considerably rougher than either the paper or glass. The procedure adopted was similar to that recorded above, and the results obtained are interesting as the surface more nearly resembled the actual natural conditions than in the case of either the glass or the paper. RATE OF TRAVEL ON TEAK BOARDS. Exp. No. Date. Time. Temp. Distance each J hour. Total. 4a June 29, 1911 2 — 4 p.m. 78-5° F. 19, 18* 37 4b ,, 29, 1911 2—4 p.m. 78-5° F. 20, 18, 16, 12 66=51 inches 4c ,, 29, 1911 2 — 4 p.m. 78-5° F. 18, 18, 6, 8 50 5a July 3, 1911 2-30—4-30 p.m. 83° F. 18, 17, 18, 10 63 5b 3, 1911 2-30—4-30 p.m. 83° F. 18* 18=44-1 inches 5c ,, 3, 1911 2-30 — 4-30 p.m. 83° F. 16, 18, 18* 52 6a July 12, 1911 2-30—4-30 p.m. 94° F. 18, 18, 16, 14 66 6b ,, 12, 1911 2-30—4-30 p.m. 94° F. 19, 6, 12, 10 47=55-2 inches 6c ,, 12, 1911 2-30 — 4-30 p.m. 94° F. 18, 5, 15, 16 54 * Specimens died. In another case I placed some 60 to 70 newly-hatched Currant Scale on a sheet of white cardboard and exposed them to a tempera- ture of 100° to 102° F. ; they slowly dispersed over the board, and at the end of three and a half hours were fairly well scattered over an area of about two square feet. I then turned the board over. Examined four hours later nineteen of the scales had made their way on to the upper surface ; sixteen hours later, quite fifty were on the upper surface exposed to a temperature of 102°, a few had fallen off the under surface and a few .were dead. Other experiments similar to those recorded by Mr. Quayle were tried, with very similar results, with this exception that I was unable to get a temperature any higher than 107° F. Mr. Quayle1 states that young examples of the Black Scale (Saissetia oleae, Bern.) died at a temperature of 84° F. " Experi- ments," he states, " relating to the effect of high temperature on 1Journ. Econ. Entom., 1911, vol. iv, p. 305. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT TREES. 21 young black scales showed that it is an important factor in the causes of death. Several hundred young black scales were liberated on white cardboard in the sun with a temperature of 94° to 100° ; at the end of two hours they were unharmed by the heat. A similar experi- ment is recorded with a temperature of 106° to no°. At 106° the scales were lively, but as the temperatures increased, they moved more slowly, and at 110° almost all movement ceased, although a two hours' exposure did not kill them. Several hundred just emerged black scales liberated on soil with a temperature of 108° to 110° were active for about one hour, but at the end of that period some were dead, and at the end of one and a half hours nearly all had been killed. A check lot in the shade were not affected. A large number of young placed upon a board with a temperature of 180°, all died in five minutes. Scales exposed in sun on soil wrhen temperature was 119° to 122° died within fifteen minutes. Under similar conditions, with the temperature of 130°, death resulted in five minutes. A check lot in the shade were not affected." The distances travelled by P. vitis v. ribcsiae are considerably shorter than those reported by Mr. Quayle, e.g., on smooth paper; in two hours the Black Scale (Saissetia oleae, Bern.), at a temperature °f 73-5° F., travelled a distance of 71.5 inches; at 80°, 76.5 inches; at 83°, 123.33 inches; and at 90°, 151.33 inches. The Red Scale (Chrysomphalus aurantii, Mask.) at 66° travelled 31.12 inches, and at 91°, in inches. The Purple Scale (Lepidosaplies beckii, Newm.) at 62°, 19.16 inches; at 68°, 32.87 inches; and at 89°, in inches. Temperature undoubtedly plays a very important part in the rate and distance of travel. On looking through a number of the leading works on the Coccidae I have been unable to find any reference as to the length of time the larvae will live when separated from their food plant. As the subject is one of considerable economic importance, the following observations may prove useful and interesting. On July 6th I received a cutting from a Black Currant bush badly attacked with the White Woolly Currant Scale (P-idvinaria vitis var. ribesiae, Sign.). On the afternoon of the same day large numbers of the orange-red coloured larvae were noticed dispersing over the laboratory bench, some two hundred of which invaded a cardboard box. 22 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. On examining this box on July i5th quite half of the specimens were still alive and active. The dead specimens were taken out, and the living ones allowed to remain. Examined again on July i8th seventy were still alive. Further examinations on the 2oth resulted in finding twenty alive, on the 22nd twelve, on the 24th ten, and seven on the 25th, three of which died on the 26th, having existed for practically three weeks without any food and in a temperature of nearly 105° F., being on a bench in the window which received the full sunlight from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. Whether the larvae of other species are capable of existing for so long a period without food I cannot say, but the fact that an appreciable percentage of the original two hundred existed for a fort- night suggests great possibilities in the way of distribution of this insect. The results obtained may be summarised as follows : — •i. On smooth white paper or glass surface the larva travelled nearly 8 feet in a period of two hours in a temperature between 780-84° F. 2. On a teak boarded surface in the same length of time, at a slightly higher temperature, the rate of progress was just over four feet in two hours. 3. In all cases the insects travelled in the direction of the light, and when placed in semi-darkness, they made their way towards the light. 4. The larvae continued to live in a temperature of up to 105° F., but higher than that the rate of mortality was great. 5. Three larvae lived in a temperature of 105°, without any food, for a period of 20 days. THE DUSKY=VEINED WALNUT APHIS. Ptychodes juglandis, Frisch. This insect made its appearance on walnut trees in Huntingdon- shire in July last in enormous numbers, and occasioned considerable damage. After the aphids had been on the trees a short time, the leaves became blotchy and almost yellow, later assuming a scorched ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT TREES. 23 and wilted appearance. As a result, large quantities of the nuts, apparently quite sound, fell off later in the season. Unlike most aphids this species lives upon the upper surface of the leaf. Its life-history is only imperfectly known. On large trees, such as those this pest occurred on, spraying is only partly effective, as it is almost impossible to reach the upper branches, and as those are killed below, fresh migrations from above take place. The most effective treatment in this case proved to be the follow- ing : in August a large quantity of dried weeds and other rubbish was piled up and set on fire beneath the trees on a still day ; it smouldered for some length of time, and the following morning millions of dead and dying aphids were to be seen on the ground beneath the trees. This method would probably prove still more effective in the case of the common walnut aphis (Pterocallis juglandicola, Kalt.), which lives on the under-surface of the leaves. THE MEALY PLUM APHIS. Hyalopterus pruni, Fab. Early in June examples of this obnoxious pest were received from a Worcestershire orchard, where it was present to an unusual extent. The insect is easily recognisable by its pale green colour and the mealy secretion covering it. The direct injury to the leaves varies. I have seen trees badly attacked, on which the leaves at an early date commenced to turn yellow and fall off, whilst in other years trees equally badly attacked did not seem to suffer. The large quantity of honeydew which the insects secrete often does the most harm, as it falls from off the leaves on to the fruit, turning into a sticky black mass. The life-history of this species is only imperfectly known. They usually make their appearance on the plum trees in June and July, disappearing again in the early autumn. Walker was of opinion that this species was the same as that he found on reeds, etc., Hyalopterus arundinis. Spraying with paraffin emulsion, to which i Ib. of potassium sulphide has been added to every 100 gallons of the sprayfluid, has proved a successful remedy. 24 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. THE PLUM BARK BEETLE. Scolytus rugulosus, Ratze. From various parts of the Midlands, branches of plum trees infected with this beetle have been received. It is now generally agreed that this beetle only attacks sickly or diseased trees. In addition to the plum trees, it is known to attack apple, pear, cherry, peach, etc. 2 3 FIG. 4.— THE PLUM BARK BEETLE (Scolytus rngulosus). 1. — Beetle magnified, line showing natural length. 2.— Larva,, natural size, and much magnified. 3.— Piece of apple branch, showing holes in bark made by the beetle, and channels made in the wood. LIFE-HISTORY. The beetles (Fig. 4, i) make their appearance towards the end of April, or early in May, and the female commences to bore holes in the bark of the tree and so forms what are known as " mother galleries," upon the sides of which she deposits her eggs. The larvae hatch out in a few days, they are whitish, legless grubs scarcely one-tenth of an inch in length, and lie in a curved position (Fig. 4, 2). The head is yellowish or cream coloured. These now commence to feed on the inner bark of the tree, forming " larval galleries " at almost right angles to the " mother galleries." At the end of these secondary channels small cavities are formed in which pupation takes place. It sometimes happens that the larvae eat their way into the solid wood, as shown in Fig. 4, 3. Early in July the beetles hatch out and bore ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT TREES. 25 their way through the bark and escape. This generation then repro- duces itself, the larvae remaining in the tree through the winter. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. All branches, etc., which are noticed to be infested, should be cut off and burned early in June. Old worthless trees should be cut down and burned in the middle of June. FIG 5.— BRANCH OF PLUM TREE, showing damage to wood by Plum Bark Beetle. These beetles have a natural enemy, the woodpeckers, which have been known to strip off the bark and splinter the surface of the wood in their efforts to get at the pupae. 26 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. THE GOLD TAIL MOTH. Porthesia aurifltia (Fab.). In various orchards in Worcestershire the larvae of this moth have been the cause of considerable damage to apple, pear, and plum trees. In my Second Report for IQO41 I recorded its occurrence at Bromsgrove, where plum trees suffered very badly. Since then I have not heard of its occurring in sufficient numbers to prove harmful, until the past season. LIFE-HISTORY. The female moth deposits her eggs in August on apple, pear, plum, cherry, hawthorn, hazel and other trees. The eggs are enclosed in nests of hair derived from the golden coloured " tail " of the moth. The caterpillars appear in from seven to twelve days and feed upon the leaves ; with the advent of autumn they seek shelter in crevices in the bark, under broken and dead bark, under lichens, moss, etc. After spinning dull grey cocoons they remain in these situations throughout the winter, issuing forth again as soon as the buds commence to swell. With the bursting of the buds they attack the young leaves and con- tinue feeding until the end of June. WThen full-fed they spin greyish cocoons with many of the larval hairs intertwined. These cocoons are usually formed between the leaves or attached to the bark of the tree, the caterpillars may, how- ever, leave the trees and pupate on railings or in hedgerows near. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL .MEASURES. Spraying with arsenate of lead is most effective. The newly-hatched larvae may be caught in large numbers by banding the trees with old sacks, strips of felt or paper, hay ropes, etc. These should be frequently examined and burnt. THE DOT MOTH. Mamestra persicariae, Linn. In Worcestershire and Warwickshire the larvae of this moth have been unusually numerous during the past season. In gardens they 1 2nd Rpt. Inj. Insects, 1905, p. 29. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT TREES. FIG. 6.— THE GOI^D TAII, MOTH. 28 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. have done considerable damage to cabbage and lettuce and to a variety of flowering plants, whilst a few orchards have suffered by their depredations on gooseberry and currant bushes, and plum trees. LIFE-HISTORY. The moths make their appearance in June or July. The female deposits from thirty to forty eggs on the food-plants during July and August, the larvae from which become full-fed in four or five weeks, then measuring about an inch and a half in length. They are exceed- ingly variable in colour, such being partly due to their food, and partly protective. It is no uncommon thing to find grey-coloured larvae on grey parts of a plant, brown ones on brown parts, and others of a deep green colour on deep green leaves. The mature larvae fall to the ground, changing to deep brown coloured pupae in the earth beneath the food-plant, where they remain until the following year. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. Where they are not spread over a large area hand picking soon reduces their numbers. In vegetable gardens I have found that large numbers may be destroyed by watering with a hose and a good force of water. In the autumn, ground known to be infested with the pupae should be lightly forked, and ducks or fowls allowed to run over. On fruit and other trees spraying with arsenate of lead is effective. THE WOOD LEOPARD MOTH. Zeuzera aesciili, Linn. The larvae of this moth have been received from quite a number of localities during the past year. Four cases related to pear trees, three to apple and two to cherry trees. It is also known to attack ash, aspen, beech, birch, chestnut, elm, hawthorn, holly, maple, oak, poplar, privet, quince, walnut and willow. LIFE-HISTORY. The moth appears in June, and the female deposits a large number of oval orange-coloured eggs in the crevices of the bark of the stem ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT TREES. 29 and branches of various trees. Saplings seem particularly liable to attack. The duration of the egg-stage is subject to some variation. Eggs laid on July 4th, hatched on the nth, whilst others laid on July 6th did not hatch until the 24th. -f -•;;- FIG. 7.— THE WOOD LEOPARD MOTH. The larva is a creamy-yellow, with small black processes on each segment, from each of which there arises a short black bristle. The head is a light brown and the second segment covered with a dark brown dorsal plate. On hatching the larva commences to bore into the sapwood, and 30 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. remains in the woody tissue during the first winter. In the following summer it bores a gallery in the middle of the wood, and here it passes the second winter. About May it passes beneath the bark, where it spins a silky cocoon in which are particles of the bark, and changes to a bright brown pupae, the moths emerging in June. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. Cutting off and burning all infested branches is the only practical treatment. Badly infested trees are best cut down and burnt. Numerous small birds feed upon the eggs. THE PALE BRINDLED BEAUTY MOTH. Phigalia pilosaria, Hb. The occurrence of the wingless females of this moth on grease bands on apple trees affords a striking instance of how insects, that are generally regarded as uninjurious, may suddenly become injurious. The moth wras first recorded by Mr. Theobald,1 to whom it had been sent from Kent on apple trees, and later the larvae were received from an orchard in Sussex. Early in March last I found numerous males and females on grease bands on Apple trees in Warwickshire, and later had the larvae sent in from Worcestershire. As mentioned above, the female is wingless, and crawls up the tree trunk in order to deposit her eggs in the crevices of the bark on the same. When first deposited the eggs are greenish in colour, later changing to a reddish-brown. Larvae received at the end of March measured from i inch to ij inches in length, and were very variable in colour. Reddish-brown was the prevailing colour, but some had conspicuous yellow markings. When full-fed they fall from the trees and pupate in the soil. Wherever this insect is observed, treating the trees with grease bands will afford protection. The bands should not be removed until the end of April, and kept in a sticky condition until that time. 1 Report Econ. Zool., 1910, p. 16. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT TREES. 31 THE RED PLUM MAGGOT. Opadia funebrana, Tr. Two cases of damage to plums by the larvae of this insect have been reported upon. In one case the damage was not noticed until the fruit had been bottled ; in the other, near Bromsgrove, Worcestershire, large quantities of plums fell off before ripening. LIFE-HISTORY. The moths make their appearance in June and July, the female depositing her eggs on the developing fruit at the base of the stalk. The larvae hatch out in from nine to twelve days and at once com- mence to eat their way into the fruit. The larvae are a reddish-brown in colour, with yellowish sides. The 8th, 9th, nth and i3th segments have each two dark lateral spots. Each segment has three pairs of lateral hairs, excepting the last, which possesses a number of smaller hairs. The full-grown larvae measure just over half an inch in length. On entering the fruit they eat a somewhat sinuous tunnel through the fleshy portion until reaching the stone, when they gradually form a large cavity. When full-fed they leave the fruit, and under the bark or under debris on the ground, they spin silky white cocoons, in which they remain for the winter, pupating in the spring. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. Banding the trees, as for Codling Moths, proved very successful. All fallen, grub-eaten fruit should be gathered up and burned. It is advisable to shake the trees, as recommended by Schmidberger, for several days, in order to bring down those fruits that are attacked. In the winter the trees should be well sprayed with caustic soda emulsion and the trunks scrubbed, in order to destroy any larvae in the cocoons beneath the broken bark. THE PEAR=LEAF BLISTER MOTH. Cemiostoma scitella, Zell. In Warwickshire this insect has been very plentiful during 1911, but although I have seen a large number of trees attacked, in only one 32 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. case was any harm done, and here it occurred on the hawthorn hedge as plentifully as on the pears. The insect is well-known to economic entomologists, and its depredations have frequently been commented upon. LIFE-HISTORY. The moths appear towards the end of April or early in May. The female deposits her eggs on the underside of the leaves. On hatch- ing the tiny white larvae at once commence to make their way into the leaf from the underside and feed upon the soft parenchymatous tissue between the upper and lower epidermis. When full-fed the larva is about a quarter of an inch in length, tinged with green and marked with a darker green dorsal line. Anteriorly there are on each side of the body four curious lateral processes. The larvae now leave the leaves, and towards the end of August or early in September they spin white silky cocoons, drawn out to a point at each end. The cocoons are attached to crevices on the trees, to palings, etc., or may be found on the soil. In one of these situa- tions they pupate, the pupa being pale brown in colour and somewhat flattened. They remain in the pupa stage throughout the winter. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. Where only a few trees are attacked, picking off the leaves and burning same is recommended. Spraying with paraffin emulsion early in May proved beneficial, and still more so that with caustic soda emulsion in the winter. WASPS. Throughout the whole of the country the plague of wasps during 1911 has been the subject of comment by all the agricultural and horticultural papers. The injury they have done to fruit must have been very great and the loss to growers considerable. In October, by letters, and through the medium of the Press, the importance of waging a war of destruction upon these insects, has been emphasised, particularly so the destruction of the nests and the female insects at the end of the summer and in the spring. The subject is one in which the various Fruit Growers' Associa- tions and Horticultural Societies might interest themselves, and accom- plish a very useful and valuable piece of work. 3.— ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FOREST AND ORNAMENTAL TREES. THE BIRCH QALL=MITE. Eriophyes nidis (Canest.). A number of cases of injury and disfigurement to birch trees due to this mite have been reported upon during the past season. As I have previously pointed out1 there are two fungi, Exoascus turgidus and E. betulinus, which give rise to growths on birch trees very similar to those caused by this mite. FIG 8.— SILVER BIRCH WITH WITCHES BROOMS. J2nd Rpt. Ini. Insects, 1905, p. 8. 34 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY All the specimens I have hitherto seen from the Midland Counties have been due to the mite, but during the past year a case from Here- ford proved to be due to the fungus E. turgid-iis. If the clumps of aborted branches, the so-called " witches brooms," are cut away in the early spring or late autumn and burnt, but very few of the mites will be left behind, certainly not in sufficient numbers to do any serious damage for many years. THE RED POPLAR=LEAF BEETLE. Melasoma populi, Linn. A southern correspondent forwrarded in June last the leaves of young poplars badly attacked by the larvae of this beetle. LIFE-HISTORY. The female deposits her eggs in groups of from 10 to 12 late in May or early in June on the underside of the leaves. In all 100 to 150 eggs are laid. The larvae appear during June and July, and at once commence to feed upon the leaves. If disturbed they exude a milky-white fluid. In colour they are a dirty-white or cream tint, spotted with black, and on the 2nd and 3rd segments have a pair of white lateral projections. Pupation takes place in July, when the pupae may be found hang- ing head downwards from the leaves. The beetles appear in August, and frequently continue the damage to the foliage by biting large irregular-shaped holes in the leaves. Early in October they seek out their hibernating quarters under fallen leaves, moss, debris, etc. Not infrequently there are twro broods in a season. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. Wherever possible all fallen leaves, debris, etc., should be col- lected and burnt. Beating the trees in May and June and again in August and September and collecting the beetles in cloths is efficacious where only a small number of trees are attacked. Traps consisting of bundles of dry moss placed beneath the trees ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FOREST AND ORNAMENTAL TREES. 35 at the end of September will attract numerous beetles. These should, of course, be burnt from time to time and the moss renewed. THE FLAT VIOLET BEETLE. Callidium violaceum (Linn.). Hitherto 1 have only met with this beetle on Spruce palings,1 to which it frequently does considerable damage. Recently I have received it from living spruce, to which extensive damage had been done. LIFE-HISTORY. The adult beetles emerge from the borings during the middle and latter part of May, and the beginning of June. They may be seen FIG. 9.— OUTLINE OF THE EGG. FIG. 10.— LARVA, dorsal view. on the rails and posts and flying from the one to the other, especially when the sun is out. The female lays her eggs under the pieces of rough bark and in crevices. She exercises great care in the selection of suitable positions for placing the eggs, feeling about with her long ovipositor, and often trying several niches before she finds one to suit her. 'Journ. I,and Agents Soc., 1910, p. 242. See also Shoebotham , J. W. (Jount. Kcon. Biology, 1909, vol. iv, pp. 114-123, 12 figs.), from whose paper the above account is extracted. SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. The number of eggs placed together varies, and in one case a female was observed to place eleven eggs under a projecting piece of bark, taking several minutes to complete the operation. In other cases the eggs were laid singly, or in groups of three or four. In the case of the larger groups no attempt at arrangement of the eggs was noticed. The egg (Fig. 9) is elongate-oval, a little broader at one end than the other, white in colour and devoid of any markings. Length 1.6 mm., breadth at broadest part 0.45 mm. FiG. 11.— PUPA, dorsal view. FIG. 12.— IMAGO (female), dorsal view. After hatching the larva bores through the bark and commences to eat a narrow channel between the bark and the wood, eating about equally of each, so that the markings can be seen as well on the bark as on the wood. As it grows in size, it eats a gradually widening passage, which it leaves full of bore dust. Where there is only one larva at work on a piece of timber its course is easily followed and the markings are definite (Fig. 14), but where several are working together they cross and recross their own or other borings (Fig. 13) so that the markings of each are only traced with difficulty. When the larva is about half-grown it is not content with eating directly in front of it, but turns to the right and left, eating out large sinuses still between the bark and wood, and always within the limits ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FOREST AND ORNAMENTAL TREES. 37 of the piece of timber, though they get very near the edge at times. When nearly full-grown, from the end of September onwards, the larva leaves its position between the bark and the wood, making a FIG. 13. -PIECE OF LARCH BORED BY LARVAE, showing entrances to six pupal chambers. 38 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. chamber in which to pupate and spend the winter. The entrance to this chamber is oval, nearly always oblique and from 4.5 to 7 mm. in length. The boring (Fig. 14) goes straight into the wood for a little way, and then gradually curves round and runs parallel to the grain of the wood. The length of the chamber is about 50 mm., and a little broader at the end than at the entrance. PJG. 14.— BORINGS OF LARVA ON SPRUCE PAWS. The larva (Fig. 10) is of a creamy white colour, except the head and legs, which are brown, and the mandibles black. The body segments arc well marked and covered with short golden yellow hairs, which are numerous at the sides of the segments and almost absent in the middle. Length of full-growrn larva, 16 mm. ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FOREST AND ORNAMENTAL TREES. 39 When the pupal chamber is completed the larva turns round and pupates with its head towards the entrance, and in this position passes the winter. In two cases the pupae were found lying free in the bore- dust under the bark, not having made a hole in which to pupate. The duration of the pupa stage has not been determined wTith certainty, as those under observation died, but it seems that it passes the winter in this stage, the imagines emerging the following May and June. The pupa (Fig. n) is of a creamy white colour. Length 9-11 mm. When the beetle is ready to leave the pupal chamber, it bores through any dust left by the larva, and if the bark has peeled off, it can immediately come out, but if the bark is still on, it has to bore through it from the entrance of the pupal chamber, and then it is free to pair and commence another life-cycle. The males may be distinguished from the females by their smaller size and the relative length of the antennae, which in the male are a little shorter than the body, while in the female they are much shorter. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. All larch and spruce palings should be stripped of their bark, as this prevents the beetles laying their eggs thereon and the subsequent attack. On living trees it is difficult to deal with ; the best results have so far been obtained by spraying with caustic soda and paraffin. As a means of prevention it has been recommended that timber used for fencing should be creosoted or painted with tar, but stripping off the bark is much the better plan. THE WOOD -BORING ROSE SAWFLY. Emphytus cinctus, Linn. In many districts this insect has caused serious damage to rose trees. In addition to boring into the branches, the larvae feed upon the leaves. LIFE-HISTORY. The adults appear early in June and the female deposits her eggs in clusters of seven or eight in minute slits on the underside of the 40 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. leaves. The larvae appear towards the end of June. They are usually dark green in colour, with the sides of the body paler and covered writh minute white spots ; variations are frequently met with. When not feeding they curl themselves up on the underside of the leaves. After destroying the leaves, which they eat down to the mid- rib, they make their way into the shoots, often entering from a pruned end. After tunnelling into the pith they form a special chamber and remain here in the larval condition throughout the winter, pupating in the following spring. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. Spraying with a nicotine fluid will destroy the larvae. Arsenate of lead is often recommended, but as it frequently disfigures the foliage of roses the nicotine fluid is preferable. When pruning care should be taken to cut back attacked shoots well below the position of the larva, and all prunings should be burned. 4.— PLANT DISEASES DUE TO FUNGI. STEM DISEASE OF FRUIT TREES. Eutypella prunastri (Sacc.). Throughout the Midland counties young apple, pear, and plum trees have suffered severely from this disease, which appears to be more prevalent now than I have ever known it before. In addition to the above trees, almonds, apricots, blackthorn, bullace, cherries, peaches, and wild plums are liable to be attacked. The " Victoria " plum is said to be the most susceptible to infection with this fungus. The first indication of the disease is the occurrence on the stem and branches of small shrunken patches of bark which have a dry and dead appearance. Later these continue to increase in size until they extend completely around the stem. Over the whole of these areas a series of minute bodies appear — the openings of the receptacles that contain the fruit bodies. The mycelium of the fungus, in the meantime, has made its way into the tissues of the plant, stopping up the vessels and so preventing the passage of the water from the roots. The source of food supply to the leaves having been cut off, or almost so, the leaves die and the tree commences to do so also. Sometimes a few leaves are produced the following season, but these quickly turn yellow, wilt and fall off. If the dead tree is allowed to remain, a series of larger pustule- like bodies appear, containing the second or ascigerous form of fruit. Mr. George Massee, in his excellent text-book,1 states " In all the cases I have investigated in the field, the common practice of planting too deep had been followed, and this I feel assured has something to do with the disease, more especially when the soil is inclined to be stiff. Under such circumstances numerous large lenticels are formed on the stem, and I have found by experiment that if the spores of the conidial condition of the fungus are applied to such lenticels during damp weather infection follows." My own experience corroborates 1 Diseases of Cultivated Plants, 1910, p. 172. 42 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. this. There is undoubtedly some predisposing conditions where trees, especially plums, are planted too deep or on stiff soil with a cold clay beneath. Wherever trees are found to be attacked they should at once be sprayed with a mixture of lime and soft soap to prevent the spores being blown therefrom, and then cut down and burned. In purchasing new stock very careful examination should be made to see that there are no signs of the disease, or better still, a guarantee should be obtained that the disease had not occurred in the nurseries or orchards in which the young trees have been grown. BEECH SEEDLING MILDEW. Phytophthora omnivora, De Bary. This is a well-known disease, and one that in wet years proves very destructive. In addition to the seedlings of the beech, those of ash, maple, robinia, Scots pine, spruce, sycamore, etc., are liable to attack. The disease may attack the seedlings in their earliest stages before appearing above the surface of the ground, or appear as spots or dark-coloured blotches on the cotyledons, or on the primary leaves. If the cotyledons only are attacked, and the weather is dry, the plants may recover, but where the attack is more extended, and particularly so in damp weather, the disease spreads to the stem below the cotyledons and the plants rapidly decompose. In dry weather they wither up, assuming a scorched appearance. In coniferous plants the roots frequently decay before the seedlings have reached the surface. The disease is highly infectious and spreads rapidly, particularly so in damp warm weather, and where the seedlings are shaded by trees or artificial coverings of any kind. The spores (oospores) lie dormant in the soil during the winter, infecting the germinating seedlings in the spring. Hartig 1 states that they may retain their vitality for four years. In the beech the mycelium of the fungus spreads into the tissues of the cotyledons and stem, hyphae then make their way through the epidermis and form sporangia ; these when ripe drop off, and coming into contact iUnters. aus dem Forstbot. Inst., 1880, p. 33. PLANT DISEASES DUE TO FUNGI. 43 with the dew on the plant or rain, they germinate, producing germ- tubes which make their way into the epidermal cells, or the sporangia give rise to numerous minute gonidia capable of freely moving about. These settle on the epidermis of the seedling and develop germ-tubes, which make their way into the epidermal cells. The sporangia may be carried by the wind, mice, game, and on the clothing of man. Later, as the result of sexual process, the oospores are formed in the tissues of the seedling, and by decomposition of the host plant ultimately fall to the ground. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. All infected plants should be removed and burned as soon as ever the disease is noticed. Seed beds should be carefully examined for any signs of the disease in May and June. All contrivances for artificial shading should be removed, in order to permit of the rapid evaporation of moisture. When seedlings have been removed in any numbers, the space left should be covered with ground unslaked lime, this being again covered with uninfected soil. This will guard against the spread of the sporangia. Seed beds known to be infected should not be used again for several years. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture has been recommended, but unless used at the very outset of an attack, is seldom of much use. BEET AND MANGEL ROT. Sphaerella tabifica, Prill, and Del. A case of " Heart Rot ' in mangels \vas reported to me in September last. Fortunately but very few plants were attacked ; these were lifted and burned, and the ground liberally dressed with ground unslaked lime. The first signs of the disease is indicated by the wilting of the leaves, which gradually turn yellow and rot away. The fungus present in the leaf stalks appears at this stage as whitish patches bounded by an orange-red border, the whole of the whitish portion containing 44 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. numerous minute black spots ; these are the conldia or fruit bodies of this stage. At a later stage a second form of fruit body appears on the dead leaf-stalks, known as the ascigerous form. After the mycelium of the fungus in the leaf-stalk has choked up the vessels and the leaves have wilted, it passes from the leaf-stalk into the root, ultimately reducing it to a blackened, rotting mass. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. Wherever the disease is noticed, all roots that are attacked should be burned. Where widespread, early lifting of the crop is advisable, all leaves being burned. Diseased leaves and roots should not be buried, thrown on the manure heap, or fed to pigs. The soil should be treated with 15 to 18 cwt. of ground unslaked lime. Yellow varieties of mangels are said to take the disease more readily than the red varieties. APPLE TREE CANKER. Nectria ditissima (Tul.). This disease, which has been particularly prevalent in Worcester- shire and Warwickshire during 1911, is by no means confined to the apple, being almost equally common on alder, ash, beech, dogwood, gooseberry, hazel, hornbeam, horse-chestnut, oak, pear, plum, lime, maple, etc. The fungus usually follows an attack of the Woolly Aphis (Schizoneura lanigera), being what is termed a wound-parasite. Mr. Massee1 very pertinently remarks " perhaps it is not going too far to state that if we had no American blight or woolly aphis, we should have no epidemic of canker." There are, however, other causes of wounds, such as frost and hail, various insects, and wounds caused by artificial means. Once having gained admission the fungus spreads under the bark, extending its area each season, portions of the bark crack, and a 1 Diseases of Cultiv. Plants and Trees, 1910, p. 184. PLANT DISEASES DUE TO FUNGI. 45 rough callus is formed around the wound. In the early autumn the fungus may be seen in the crevices in the form of tiny white cushions, which ultimately bear on their surfaces the minute conidia or fruit. In the following spring the bright-red perithecia may be seen on the edges of the wound. Young apple trees examined in February were literally covered with these, indeed to such an extent that they were all taken up and burned. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. Care should be taken to see that all wounds, after pruning or cutting away diseased branches, are coated over with gas tar. Spraying, after the leaves have fallen, with i Ib. of sulphate of iron, i oz. of sulphuric acid and i gallon of water, will destroy the conidia and their hyphae. Grafts should not be taken from diseased trees. All prunings and dead diseased branches should be at once burnt and not allowed to lie about the orchard. Attention should be directed to hedgerows where hazel or any of the above-mentioned trees are present, as these are frequently a source of infection. CURRANT-LEAF SPOT. Septoria ribis, Desm. This disease, often termed Currant Rust, has been particularly prevalent during the past season on Black Currants. The first indications of the disease are small irregular brown or purplish-brown spots on the leaves. Covering these spots are a number of minute dots, which, if examined with a magnifying glass, will be found to be slightly raised above the surface of the leaf, each having a minute opening or pore at its apex. These are the con- ceptacles, and contain the long, thread-like, curved spores. Usually this disease is treated with indifference by growers, but as it makes a considerable drain upon the plant, they usually suffer by reduced crops the following season, and if not attended to the vitality of the plant becomes so reduced that in a season or two little if any fruit is borne. 46 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. The bushes should be sprayed early in the season with cupram made as follows : — To one pint of strong ammonia add four quarts of water. Care should be taken to avoid the fumes. In this ammonia liquor suspend by a copper wire, two ounces, by weight, of carbonate of copper wrapped up in copper gauze. Allow this to remain over-night. When required for spraying add another twTenty-five gallons of wrater. After the fruit has been gathered, the bushes should be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture, and wherever possible the fallen leaves should be burned. ROOT AND STEM ROT. Rhiooctonia violacea (Tul.). In June last a serious outbreak of this disease on upwards of ninety acres of potatoes was inspected in Staffordshire. The disease is due to a fungus that appears under a variety of forms and names and attacks a great variety of plants, such, for instance, as potatoes, asparagus, beet, bean, carrot, cabbage, cauli- flower, clover, lettuce, lucerne, mangels, radish, pea, tomato, and a variety of bulbous plants and weeds. It does not attack cereals. " The mycelium behaves in a slightly different manner," writes Massee,1 " and presents a modified appearance when growing on different hosts, hence several different species of Rhizoctonia (all sterile) have been proposed, but infection experiments have proved the soundness of Tulasne's conclusions that all belonged to one and the same species." The fungus lives in the soil, but so far as is known at present it never fruits. It is spread and propagated by the formation of little concentrated masses of mycelium ; these may be very small and attached to the surface of the tuber, or they may be as large as a pea and remain in the soil, free from the roots, and serve as centres of future infection. In some cases little injury is done to the potatoes, in others, the stems and tubers rot and very serious losses ensue. 1 Diseases of Cultivated Plants, 1910, p. 236. PLANT DISEASES DUE TO FUNGI. 47 Usually the disease spreads over a wider area each year. There are one or two points in connection with the life-history and habits of these fungi which at once point to a remedy, viz. : — i. They are unable to develop excepting in the presence of an acid. ii. They flourish best in sour, badly drained, and poorly aerated soils. iii. As the fungus makes use of weeds as food, when a cereal crop is on the land, it is advisable to keep these down. iv. All diseased haulms or tubers should be burnt. v. Liberal applications of ground unslaked lime will destroy the fungus and sweeten the soil. vi. The cessation of all acid manures is advisable. vii. All purchased seed should be obtained from dry, elevated districts, and should be carefully examined to see that it is free from the small sclerotia or concentrated masses of mvcelium. POTATO LEAF-CURL. Macrosporium solani, Cooke. In Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Staffordshire and Leicester- shire, there has been a large amount of this disease during the past season. The first indication of the disease is the curling of the leaves, followed by the drooping or wilting of the stem. Later a number of minute blackish patches of varying sizes may be observed on the leaves. These are due to the conidia of the fungus. If a section is now made of the stem it will be found to contain a dense mass of mycelium, which stops up the water-conducting vessels, thus causing the leaves to curl and the stems to droop. As the disease progresses the mycelium passes from the stem into the branches below the surface and into the young tubers. Here the mycelium is said to hybernate ; thus if such tubers are used as " seed " the disease is perpetuated and the new tubers again infected. Tubers produced by diseased plants, if lifted early, are said to be free from the disease. 48 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. Wherever the disease has occurred all haulms should be burned. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture as soon as the disease shows itself will arrest it and reduce the injuries to a minimum. Tubers required for " sets " should be obtained from districts and crops known to be free from the disease. CUCUMBER COLLAR ROT. Hypochnus cucumeris (Frank). Cucumber plants received from Hertfordshire last August were found on examination to be attacked by this disease. The fungus attacks the plants at the base of the stems, at the soil level. The mycelium forms a grey mat-like covering over this area, and also penetrates into the tissues, ultimately choking up the vessels. The food and water supply thus become restricted and ultimately cut off, and the plant then wilts and dies. The spores are frequently carried into houses with leaf -mould. Wherever the disease has occurred the soil should be treated with ground unslaked lime, sometime before it is required for use. The disease may be checked by watering with a solution of potassium sulphide, commencing with ij Ibs. of the solution to 100 gallons of water; repeat in a few days, using 2 Ibs. to 100 gallons, and later 3 Ibs. to 100 gallons. Sulphate of potash has been used, but I have no information as to the quantities or any practical experience with it. CUCUMBER LEAF BLOTCH. Hormodendron Jiordei, Bruhne. This disease is not to be confused with the well-known leaf blotch of cucumbers and melons due to the fungus Cercospora mclonis (Cke.). It is first noticeable on the leaves as pale green spots, which ultimately become perforations, so that the leaf has the appearance ol having been eaten by the ground larvae of some insect or by slugs. On the ragged edges of these perforations fruit bodies later appear which infect other leaves and plants. When cultivated under glass the disease soon assumes the proportions of an epidemic. PLANT DISEASES DUE TO FUNGI. 49 In all probability the fungus found on the cucumber " is only an intermediate condition of some higher form of fungus." As yet the life-history is not fully known. Much can be done to avert the disease by a proper system of cultivation. Over-watering undoubtedly predisposes the plants to disease. Spraying with a weak solution of sulphide of potassium immedi- ately the disease makes its appearance will hold it in check. All diseased leaves and badly attacked plants should be burned. GLADIOLUS SMUT. Urocystis gladoli, Smith. In July last specimens of Gladiolus were received from Guernsey very badly attacked by this Smut. The fungus usually makes its appearance as a series of spots on the leaves, later forming masses of spores within the corms. The spore masses contain an outer layer of sterile spores and an inner mass capable of germination. They become washed into the soil by the action of the rain and the soil thus becomes the chief source of infec- tion. It is of course possible that these spore masses may adhere to the surfaces of the corms and in this manner disseminate the fungus. Since infected soil is the chief source of trouble, it would be well, wherever the disease has occurred, to give a dressing of i cwt. of flowers of sulphur and 15 cwt. of ground unslaked lime to the soil, at the rate of 15 cwt. of the mixture per acre. The soil so treated should not be used for six or eight weeks. The corms to be planted should be first soaked in a solution of formaldehyde, consisting of i pint of the former to 15 gallons of water. Good results have been obtained in treating an allied species (U. cepulae, Frost) that attacks onions, by soaking the soil with a solution of i Ib. of formaldehyde in 30 gallons of water.1 Corms seriously attacked should be burnt, as also diseased plants when removed from the soil. As this disease is very common in Germany and France, imported corms should be avoided. 1 Thaxter, R. Rpt. Agric. Exp. Stat. Conn., 1889, pp. 129-153, pis. 1, 2. 5.— ANIMAL PARASITES AND DISEASES. COCCIDIOSIS IN FOWLS AND GAME BIRDS. A number of cases of coccidiosis in fowls and game birds have been inquired into. By the kind permission of the Editor of the Journal of the Land Agents' Society I am able to reprint the follow- ing short article, which appeared in the September issue of that periodical : — I have recently had occasion to investigate an outbreak of coccidiosis in fowls, a disease that seems to be on the increase in this country, and one that is causing considerable mortality amongst game birds. Some account, therefore, of the nature of the disease, and the experimental work that has been carried out in connection with its treatment, may not be without interest. This disease is due to a parasite which belongs to a group of parasitic Protozoa known as Coccidia, wrhich destroys the mucous membrane of the intestine, setting -up enteritis and diarrhoea. The disease usually has a fatal effect upon the host. The particular species found in the body of the fowl is known as Eimeria (Coccidium) aviuni, and its life-history and morphology have recently been fully worked out by Dr. H. B. Fantham,1 who states " coccidiosis is specially prevalent among young birds. The symptoms of grouse, fowls and pheasants suffering from natural coccidiosis, as well as those of captive grouse, fowl-chicks and pigeons in which the disease has been artificially induced, are identical. The birds, when early infected, either by way of their food or drink, stand about more than healthy young control birds do, droop their wings and utter plaintive cries. They, however, eat and drink far more greedily than do healthy birds, but in spite of this the victims become thinner, the muscles of the breast and legs showing this to a marked degree. The loss of weight is remarkable. In addition to loss of weight, infected birds become markedly anaemic, the comb, wattles and cere becoming pale and bloodless. !Proc. Zool. Soc., 1911, pp. 672-691, pits. Iv-lviii ; also Journ. Econ. Biology, 1911, vol. vi, pp. 75-96, two figs. ANIMAL PARASITES AND DISEASES. 51 The feathering- also is very weak compared with that of healthy birds ; that of the legs is ragged, the quills are less rigid, the sheen on the feathers is less developed, and the replacement of nestling down by ordinary feathers is much retarded in diseased birds. Owing to the attack of the parasite on the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal digestive troubles occur, and the faeces voided by the grouse are the best ordinary index of its condition. The soft droppings of such grouse (which are caecal in origin) are very fluid, the condition being one of diarrhoea. The dejecta are very pale, softer than usual, and of a sulphur yellow colour, those of normal grouse being olive green to brown in hue. Examined microscopically, a small portion of infected faeces, diluted with water, shows myriads of small oval bodies, which are the resistant forms of the parasite, known as oocysts (or cysts) — forms by which the infection of new hosts is readily brought about. Death from coccidiosis is often sudden, and, a point of great importance, corpses of all diseased birds should be burned and never buried, for, as I have proved experimentally, the cysts remain infective for long periods, even for a year or more — long after the disintegration of the body of the first host." DISSEMINATION OF THE DISEASE. The disease spreads with remarkable rapidity. The faeces are the chief source of contamination, and as these dry they are distri- buted by the wind in the form of dust, which contains the parasites in various stages of development. The parasites are taken into the body of the fowl by the fouling of food and drinking wrater. Dr. Fantham (loc. cit.) has shown that rain is an important factor in dispersing the dejecta of infected birds, and also that a small dipterous fly, Scatophaga stercoraria, Linn., lays its eggs in the droppings of infected birds, the larva developing there. Such larvae and flies, when examined by him, were found to contain in their intestines and dejecta the oocysts of the parasite. PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. All dead bodies and infected droppings should be burned ; indeed, where an outbreak occurs, and there are only a small number of birds concerned, it is by far the wisest plan to destroy the lot. 52 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. The ground should be treated with a liberal application of ground unslaked lime, and this should be allowed to lie on the surface for a few days before being turned in. The same land should not be used as a run for at least a year. A thorough cleansing of pens, perches, etc., should be given, and all well lime-washed before being used again. Eggs before being set for hatching should be carefully wiped over with 90 per cent, alcohol or strong methylated spirits and then dried. Various drugs have been tried, such as ferrous sulphate, sodium salicylate, catechu, etc. We are indebted to Dr. Fantham for the latest results as regards the administration and effects of this last-mentioned drug, as also for much else on this disease, elucidated by his investigations in his capacity as protozoologist to the Grouse Disease Inquiry. He writes1 : — ' Recently I have completed and extended some experiments on the treatment of avian coccidiosis by means of catechu. The pro- cedure may be briefly indicated : Ten to fifteen grains of crude catechu are dissolved in one gallon of water. The dark sherry (or ale) coloured solution so obtained is administered to the birds as drinking water. The solution often darkens in the air, but its usefulness is not impaired thereby. The birds drink it with avidity, and rapid improvement follows. The treatment is usually only necessary for about ten days. A solution containing ten grains of catechu per gallon is strong enough in most cases. The birds successfully treated were fowls, ducks, pigeons, hand-reared pheasants and grouse in captivity. The treatment, successfully determined by laboratory experiments, was tried on a small scale with infected birds on a small, covered earth run, and on a grass run, and has been very successfully applied, at my suggestion, on several large poultry farms where heavy mortality through coccidiosis has occurred in previous years. Although the objection might be raised that catechu is merely an astringent, yet the great success of the treatment up to the present justifies me in bringing it before the notice of the scientific agricultural public." ijourn. Econ. Biol., 1911, vol.Jvi, p. 93. ANIMAL PARASITES AND DISEASES. 53 Dr. Fantham also experimented with ferrous sulphate, ten grains introduced into a gallon of drinking water. In this connection I would point out that I have obtained very encouraging results from a much stronger solution ojL ferrous sulphate ; indeed, anything that will help to raise the general tone of vitality of the birds, will probably aid in resisting the action of the parasite, and for this purpose ferrous sulphate seems admirably adapted. MEDULLARY GID IN LAMBS. The occurrence of medullary gid in lambs is by no means common in this country. Ordinary gid or staggers is fairly common, indeed in some years particularly prevalent. This I have described in some detail in my Fifth Report,1 from which I quote the following life- history. A dog infected with Taenia caenurus — the. species of tapeworm, scatters the eggs and gravid segments on the ground. In moist places these may live for some weeks, but if exposed to hot, dry weather, they soon die. Both sheep and cattle swallow some of these eggs when either drinking or grazing. Once they reach the stomach of the host, the digestive juices dissolve the shells of the eggs and set free the embryo. These embryos then commence and bore their way out of the intestine into the tissues. Some make their way into the blood vessels and are carried into the different parts of the body. Only those, however, continue to develop which reach the brain or spinal cord. The embryo now commences to burrow along the surface of the brain, and in a few days becomes stationary, forming a tiny visicle or bladderworm. At first this is about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, but on the twenty-fourth day it is the size of a pea. By the thirty-eighth day it is the size of a cherry and the heads begin to grow, new heads appear, but none reach their full development until the end of two or three months. When such a brain is eaten by a dog the wall of the visicle is digested, but the heads remain uninjured and attach themselves to the wall of the intestine and develop into adult tapeworms. In about eight or nine weeks the posterior segments of the worm become filled 15th Rept. Inj. Insects, 1908, p. 50. 54 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. with eggs, and breaking away from the rest they pass down the dog's intestine. Generally speaking, lambs and yearlings are the animals attacked, it being exceptional to find gid in animals o^er two years old. Those breeds which graze close are said to be more susceptible than others. A case inquired into during 1911 differed from the above in that the parasites were lodged in the medulla oblongata, three examples being present.' MANGE IN DOG5. Dogs are attacked by two forms of mange or scabies, viz., Sarcoptic Scabies due to the mite Sarcoptes scabei var. canis, and Demodex Scabies due to the mite Demodex folliculorum in the hair- follicles and sebaceous glands. The former is the commoner disease, and a number of cases have been reported upon. The disease may appear on any part of the body, but usually makes its appearance on some part of the head, quickly spreading to the chest, sides of the body, belly, legs, etc. The first signs of the disease are red spots not unlike flea-bites ; these soon develop into papules and by rubbing into pustules. Sometimes these remain moist patches, due to repeated scratching or rubbing, or they may dry and form abundant scablike crusts and scurf. If no treatment is adopted the animal gradually becomes worse and in a few months dies. Dogs known to be attacked by this disease should at once be isolated, and all litter, etc., burned. Kennels should be scalded with boiling water. Frequent changing of the litter and absolute cleanli- ness are all important. Long-haired dogs should have their coats closely clipped. The food supply should be liberal and varied and the animals should obtain plenty of open-air exercise. The antipsoric remedies recommended are numerous. Amongst the simplest and most efficaceous I would mention washing with equal parts of creolin and soft soap and then dressing with equal parts of linseed oil and petroleum. One part of Peruvian balsam dissolved in ten parts of alcohol and applied to the body after washing has also given excellent results. 6.— MISCELLANEOUS. THE HOUSE FLY PROBLEM. During the past year many thousands of the leaflets issued in the autumn of 1910 have been distributed, and the same leaflet on hang- ing cards has been placed in a large number of public institutions, free libraries, schools, etc. The same leaflet has been translated into Portuguese, and 14,000 distributed by the Municipal Council of Oporto. The following letter, published in the Birmingham Daily Mail of August 3Oth, 1911, has also been widely distributed. To the Editor of the Birmingham Daily Mail. HOUSE FLIES AND THE PUBLIC HEALTH. Sir, — I have followed with interest the recent correspondence in your columns relative to the above subject, in reference to which I venture to trespass upon your space with the following remarks. The present summer will long be remembered for the plague of flies, for not only is the common house-fly more prevalent than ever, but the closely allied, but smaller species, popularly known as the lesser house-fly, is more abundant than I have ever previously known it. Co-existing with this plague during the past few weeks an epidemic of infantile diarrhoea and English cholera, both of a severe type, has been prevalent throughout the country. I am well aware that both of the above-mentioned maladies may have an origin quite apart from flies, but in the light of recent investigations there is more than a strong suspicion that they are largely transmitted by these filthy insects. As I have elsewhere pointed out, no fly is free from disease germs, wherever they occur they are the embodiment and emblem of filth, and by carrying such germs on their legs and bodies, they pollute food and spread the infection. The presence, therefore, of these insects in a dwelling house is a source of danger, and, at the same time, an indication of filth in the neighbourhood, or of defective sanitary conditions. Quite recently Dr. William Nicoll has shown that flies carry on 56 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. their bodies and in their intestines the eggs of quite a large number of species of parasitic worms. Eggs conveyed in either of these ways may remain alive and subsequently cause infection. In view of the recent work carried out at Cambridge for the Local Government Board, and other investigations made elsewhere, it should no longer be necessary to urge upon corporate bodies the necessity for a proper system of control and prevention. In other countries the question of the storage and removal of stable manure and household refuse, and the protection of food for human consumption, have received prompt and efficient attention by putting into force a few simple regulations, and this action has been followed by a distinct benefit to the general public health without causing any great amount of inconvenience. It is only a question of time before the British public will demand that similar regulations shall be put into force in every city, town, and village, and the sooner they make such demands heard, the sooner shall we remove from our midst a danger full of potentialities to our- selves and our children, and detrimental to the public generally. During the past month or so I have been appealed to by various individuals and corporate bodies for the nature of such regulations, and briefly they may be repeated here. 1. All stable manure should be stored in a bin or pit provided with a suitable cover, constructed so as to prevent the ingress or egress of flies. 2. The compulsory burning on the part of householders of all waste vegetable and other organic matter. 3. The collection of the contents of dustbins and ashpits at intervals of not more than 10 days. 4. The prohibition of the tipping of any organic matter on waste land in crowded or residential neighbourhoods. 5. The effectual screening of food products exposed for sale between April ist and October 3ist. Householders in the meantime would do well to pay attention to No. 2, and to see that all dustbins are kept tightly closed, the windows of kitchens and larders properly screened, and milk, fruit, in fact, all food kept under muslin." In his recent work on the House Fly,1 Dr. L. O. Howard, in House Fly Disease Carrier. New York, 1911. MISCELLANEOUS. 57 speaking of preventive measures, refers to the various organizations that have arisen in the United States to deal with the House Fly problem, and I take the liberty of quoting him at some length, from his admirable work, which should be in the hands of all interested. " In a number of towns and cities in the United States, the initiative in the fly crusade has been taken by health officers, but in the majority of communities the health officials have to be stirred up. In some cases, as in the State of Florida, the whole State crusade has been begun by the State officials, and they have stirred up the town officials. In a few communities — but these are very few- private practitioners have been the exciting cause of anti-fly work. In one State only, so far as the writer knows, has the State medical association established a fly committee which has taken upon itself to carry information concerning the typhoid fly into every portion of the State. Elsewhere, and here are the majority of instances in which anti- fly work has been begun, the beginnings have been made either by a single private individual or by some local organization, as a civic league, a women's club, or a town improvement society. Women's clubs have done very effective work in this direction, and it may be parenthetically stated that a great latent power exists in these organizations, a power which is only just beginning to manifest itself. The energy shown for years by these organizations, while never mis- directed, has not until very recently been directed towards the work which is the most productive for the good of all, namely, general sanitary measures with a focussing upon one point after another. The Women's Municipal League, of Boston, as an example, has recently taken up the fly question through its department of sanita- tion, of which Mrs. Robert S. Bradley is the chairman, and is doing admirable work. In most communities nowadays, one or the other of these organiza- tions or all of them exist. In towns where there are no such organiza- tions, they should be started at once. In such cases let anyone convinced of the necessity for an anti-fly crusade, talk to his or her friends and, unrebuffed by indifference on the part of others, persevere until a group is formed. Then with perseverance the growth of the organization and the growth of public spirit in many directions will be rapid. 5° SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. The first effort of such an organization should be to enlist the sympathy and co-operation of the health authorities of the community. This gained, every possible effort should be made to induce the con- trollers of the appropriations for the health officials to realize the importance of this work. Health officers without funds at their disposal for the employment of inspectors and for the carrying out of regulations are hopeless, and therefore the first step, after the health officials themselves are convinced of the desirability of the work, is to secure the funds. In some cases this has been done by private sub- scription, the money to be expended under the supervision of the health officers. In other cases private individuals with sufficient leisure have had themselves appointed as health inspectors without salary, but by virtue of the appointment they are armed with the legal authority which the health board has. Continuous and successful voluntary work of this kind, however, is not to be relied upon, and the campaign for funds, and preferably for regularly appropriated funds, must be a strenuous one." A most important point to remember is to commence this crusade early. The flies destroyed in April and May mean a lessening of the summer plague by many millions. Quoting again from Dr. Howard (torn, cit., p. 38), he says a singly over-wintering fly which on April i5th lays 120 eggs gives rise ultimately to the following progeny : — April 1 5th. The over-wintering female fly lays 120 eggs. May i st. 1 20 adults issue, of which 60 are females. May loth. 60 females lay 120 eggs each. May 28th. 7,200 adults issue, of which 3,600 are females. June 8th. 3,600 females lay 120 eggs each. June 2oth. 432,000 adults issue, of which 216,000 are females. June 3oth. 216,000 females lay 120 eggs each. July loth. 25,920,000 adults issue, of which 12,960,000 are females. July igth. 12,960,000 females lay 120 eggs each. July 29th. 1,555,200,000 adults issue, of which 777,600,000 are females. MISCELLANEOUS 59 Aug. 8th. 777,600,000 females lay 120 eggs each. Aug. i8th. 93,312,000,000 adults issue, of which 46,656,000,000 are females. Aug. 28th. 46,656,000,000 females lay 120 eggs each. Sept. loth. 5,598,720,000,000 adults issue, of which half are females. Such figures as these stagger the imagination, and when it is remembered that in the above table it has been assumed that each female has laid only 120 eggs, that is one batch, whereas in reality she may lay four such batches. FUMIGATING WITH HYDROCYANIC ACID GAS. INTRODUCTION. The practice of fumigating greenhouses, conservatories, etc., for the purpose of destroying animal pests is not carried out in this country to anything like the extent it deserves to be, nor is the method of treating trees by sheet tents or box covers. In other countries the practice has during the past few years become widespread, and there has been a great improvement in both equipment and methods. Recently Mr. Walter W. Froggatt, the Government Entomologist of New South Wales, has drawn my attention to the different quantities that are used by different operators, and in looking up the work carried out, I have been led to make various experiments for myself, and it is upon these materials that the present remarks are based. THE CHEMICALS REQUIRED. The chemicals necessary for generating hydrocyanic acid gas are potassium cyanide of 98 per cent, purity, sulphuric acid, and water. A stone or pot vessel is used, into which the measured quantity of water is placed ; the necessary amount of acid is next added, which rapidly increases the temperature of the mixture, and whilst still hot the cyanide is added. It is important to remember that the cooler the mixture is allowed to become, the slower will be the generation of gas and a decrease in the amount. Certain writers have very properly emphasised the importance of 60 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. the quality of the sulphuric acid, and in this country growers have undoubtedly obtained poor results or burning of the foliage owing to the use of acid containing nitric acid. The writer always demands 93 per cent, pure, free from nitric acid or arsenic ; others order com- mercial sulphuric made from brimstone. Before discussing the question of the quantities of the chemicals necessary to generate the gas without waste, it will be as well to point out :• — First as regards the water. Unless there is a sufficient quantity of water present, the potassium sulphate produced as a by-product from the reaction of the sulphuric acid upon the cyanide, is not com- pletely dissolved, and it forms a coating on the pieces of cyanide, thus preventing the reaction of the acid. Where large quantities of cyanide are used in a single vessel there should always be an excess of water. Again, if there is an excess of acid the same results obtain and we have partial crystallization of the potassium sulphate, remain- ing as a congealed residue, which ultimately becomes a solid. On questioning many who have tried fumigating writh cyanide of potassium I find conditions such as the above usually prevail, clearly indicating that the proper quantities of the chemicals are not used, but in the majority of cases burning or scorching of the foliage is the chief complaint. QUANTITIES TO BE USED. Much of the present uncertainty and poor results are undoubtedly due to the diversity of opinion that exists as to the quantities neces- sary per 100 cubic feet of space. Mr. Froggatt (in Hit. March i8th, 1911), states: " Our formula both here and in California, after many experiments, which give the best results and no waste, is i oz. cyanide, i oz. acid, 3 ozs. wrater, to every 100 cubic feet of space. In the Board's Leaflet No. 188, the standard recognized is i, ij and 3!, but this is qualified by the statement : " The proportions of cyanide, sulphuric acid, and water to be used, and the amount of space per unit of cyanide, vary slightly as recommended by different authorities, three different workers recommending i oz. of cyanide of 98 per cent, purity to every 200, or 300, or 500 cubic feet of space respectively. MISCELLANEOUS. 61 The variation in the amount of cyanide depends to some extent on the character of the plants that are being treated, on their strength, whether they are dormant or active, evergreen or deciduous, and also on the season. In the case of tender plants, i oz. of cyanide may serve for 500 cubic feet of space, while hardy plants may be treated with i oz. of cyanide to 200 cubic feet of space." Hitherto I have always used and recommended the following formula1 : — 2 oz. cyanide, 4 oz. acid, and 7 oz. water to every 1,000 cubic feet of space, and I have invariably found it satisfactory. Had anything like the quantities recommended by Mr. Froggatt been employed, the results would have been disastrous. In this connection I may perhaps cite a series of little known, but very interesting experiments made by Mr. H. H. Cousins.2 The first three experiments were made on vineries, which were suffering from a severe attack of Mealy Bug. The particulars are as follows : — Capacity. Temp. Quantity. Time. c. ac. w. A. 3,430 c.ft. 60° F. 18 oz. 27 oz. 1 qt. 30 min. 34 34 102 B. 3,825 c.ft. 60° K. 27 oz. 40 oz. 60 oz. 3 hrs. 38 38 114 C. 1,990 c.ft. 65° F. 6 oz. 9 oz. 15 oz. 40 min. 19 19 57 The results obtained were as follows : — A. The Mealy Bug was destroyed and the foliage unhurt, but three quarters of the bloom was injured. A few Mealy Bugs appeared at the close of the season, and a second fumigation was decided upon, which, so late as the following April, was described as com- pletely satisfactory. The vines were in full bloom and the fumiga- tions given after sunset. B. Here the Mealy Bugs were destroyed without any injury to the vines. A few appeared in the autumn, and a second fumigation was given, with the same success as in the previous case. The first fumigation was given before the vines bloomed and after sunset. X2nd Report on Inj. Insects, 1905, p. 62. 2Journ. S.-E. Agric. Coll., 1895, pp. 67-70. 62 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. C. In this case the grapes were about the size of peas, and the fumigation was carried out in very sultry weather about 3 a.m. Grapes browned and killed, the entire crop was lost, but the foliage remained uninjured, and the Mealy Bug was destroyed. A few appeared in October and were destroyed by a second fumigation. The next two cases were a conservatory and a greenhouse, the figures for which were as follows : — Capacity. Temp. Quantity. Time. c. ac. w. 3,000 50° F. 8 —12—20 3 hr. 30 30 90 2,000 52° F. 3A— 5— 9 25 min. 20 20 60 1 In the first case the report is " Complete success. No injury to maidenhair ferns, or any plants under treatment." The pests were Aphis and Mealy Bug. In the last case, the house contained chrysanthemums in full bloom, severely infested with green fly. " Result. Every aphis killed, also slugs, flies, wasps, butterflies. A toad was uninjured. Not a petal or leaf was injured." PI ere again I have given in the fifth column the proportions that would have been used had Mr. Froggatt's formula been followed. I think it is quite evident from the above five experiments, all repeated, that, provided the foliage is dry, and given a temperature of 5o°-52° F., and the absence of a strong light, excellent results may be obtained. My first experiment was to test the effect of the quantities men- tioned by Mr. Froggatt. For this purpose a small conservatory of 1,000 cubic feet, containing many flowers and blooms, ferns, etc., was used. The temperature was 50° F., after sunset, and the time allowed was half-an-hour. The following quantities wrere used : — 10 cy., 10 ac. , 30 water. Result : — The majority of the plants were killed. Maidenhair fern wras burnt and dead. Primulas of various kinds were flagging and scorched. All the pests — aphids, flies, wasps, etc., were dead. The same house was partly re-stocked and again fumigated, using 2, 4, 8, and proved perfectly satisfactory, the pests being destroyed and the plants uninjured. MISCELLANEOUS. 63 In a small house various other experiments were made, such for instance as varying- the proportions of different materials, but no improvement was effected or obtained excepting' in one experiment, where the formula 2, 4, 10, per i .000 cubic feet of space was used; this undoubtedly was the most satisfactory fumigation I have ever made. Horticulturists would be conferring a great benefit upon their fellow workers if in the future full details, such as mentioned above, were kept of all fumigations made. It is impossible for a private individual to continue experiments of this nature without incurring considerable expense for the replace- ment of plants damaged, etc., but I am sure further wrork on these lines is highly desirable. Respecting Box Fumigators I have only been able to make a few experiments, but they fully bear out all that has been stated in their favour, and I feel sure that there is a distinct future for them in the orchard of the immediate future. I would point out that it has been estimated that during a working day of ten hours, nine men with twelve covers could treat 180 trees not over twelve feet in height ; indeed the cost of fumigating trees up to the height of 17 feet works out considerably below that of spraying. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOOD OF THE STARLING. (St limits vulgaris, Linn.). In view7 of the increased attention that has been given of recent years to the subject of the food of different wild birds, the following observations upon the food of the Starling may not be without interest to farmers and others. The record here presented is of special interest for two reasons, viz. : (i) It indicates how fallacious such records are when restricted to a particular district ; and (ii) the necessity of such records extending over the whole of the year. The number of birds examined wTas 146, of which 69 were male birds and 77 female. All were shot in the vicinity of Birmingham during the season January to June, 1911, in the counties of Warwick- 64 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. shire, Worcestershire, and Staffordshire. The numbers from each county during each month are shown in the following- table : — Warwick. Worcester. Stafford. Total. January 7 7 6 20 February 8 9 5 22 March 8 9 7 24 April 9 10 8 27 May 8 10 8 26 June 9 9 9 27 49 54 43 146 MONTHLY REGISTER. January. — Twenty birds were received during the month. The food consisted of 60 dung beetles (Aphodius fimetarius, Linn.), 116 black ground beetles (Pterostichus madidus, Fab.), remains of 230 beetle larvae, 17 injurious worms (Allobophora chlorotica, Sav.), 12 wireworms, 4 click beetles, 3 shells of snail (Hyalinia), bits of bread, cooked potato, acorns, and a few grains of wheat and seeds. February. — Number of birds received, 22. The food contents were : Remains of 162 beetle larvae, 2 wireworms, 18 millipedes (Blaniulus guttulatus, Bosc.), remains of various beetles (Aphodius, Agriotes, Alophus, and Harpalus), remains of numerous slugs, 7 earth- worms, few grains of wheat, bits of grass, and household refuse. March. — Twenty-four birds were received during the month. The food contents were as follows : — 12 wireworms, 4 click beetles (Agriotes lineatus, Linn.), 130 dung beetles (Aphodius fimetarius, Linn.), remains of numerous weevils, 22 millipedes (Blaniulus and Polydesmus), i shell of Hyalinia, 3 of Helix rufescens, 140 dipterous larvae, 18 larvae of Gt. Yellow Underwing Moth, few seeds and bits of grass. MISCELLANEOUS 65 April. — Number of birds received 27. The food contents were as follow : — Remains and large number of weevils (Barynotus obscurus, Fab., Otiorhynchus sulcatus, Fab., Alophus triguttatus, Fab.), 6 click beetles (Agriotes lineata, Linn.), 18 slugs (Arion hortensis, Fer.), few cocoons of earthworm. May. — Twenty-six birds received during the month. The food contents were as follows : — FIG. 15.— THE STARLING. Numerous dung beetles and weevils, 18 wireworms, remains of beetle larvae, remains of many lepidopterous larvae, 20 millipedes, 16 slugs (Agriolimax agrestis, Linn.), few blades of grass. June. — Twenty-seven birds received. The food contents were as follows : — Many beetle larvae and dung beetles, few weevils, 19 smaller June bugs (Phyllopertha horticola, Linn.), 186 lepidopterous larvae (Agrotis, sp.), 4 millipedes (lules pulchellus, Koch.), and remains of slugs. SUMMARY. From the above evidence obtained from 146 starlings we may state that the food of these birds during the first six months of the year G 66 SECOND REPORT ON ECONOMIC BIOLOGY. was distinctly of an insectivorous character in the vicinity of the City of Birmingham, and that during those months the evidence from the food generally would lead us to place this species amongst those birds beneficial to the agriculturist and horticulturist, but a similar record extending over the same period taken in an agricultural district would, in all probability, reveal the starling as a destroyer of newly-sown grain, and extended over the summer months, would show that it inflicts considerable losses upon fruit growers. In short, we have too many starlings. A correspondent writing from the eastern counties states " this species has increased in these parts during 1911 by many thousands ; as a careful observer, I have no hesitation in stating that we have now twenty or thirty times as many starlings as we had four or five years ago." THE PAVING BLOCK FUNGUS. Lentinus lepideus, Fr. Two inquiries have been received during the past year with refer- ence to the rotting of pinewood paving blocks. The cause of this rotting is due to a fungus known as Lentinus lepideus, and its biology has been very carefully worked out by Dr. A. H. R. Buller,1 who, in his account, remarks : " The principal streets of our large towns are now to a large extent paved with wood. The cost of such paving and the inconvenience of repairs are only too well known to the public." The fungus acts upon coniferous wood both physically and chemically, destroying the cellulose and leaving behind a red friable substance, which becomes spongy when wet. The blocks of wood in general use are simply dipped in creosote, thus preserving a thin layer of the outside only. If the blocks are fully impregnated with creosote the ravages of the fungus are prevented. The extra cost of fully creosoted blocks, over those which are merely dipped in creosote, is considerable, but it seems more than likely that the extra cost would be wisely laid out in view of the costly nature of the repairs that have to frequently take place in streets laid with dipped blocks, 1Journ. Kcon. Biol., 1905, vol. i, pp. 2-13, pits, i, ii. 67 APPENDIX A. INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING HYDROCYANIC ACID GAS. This, the most powerful and dangerous poison used in combating insect pests, should on no account be used by uninstructed or careless people. The materials required are a 2 Ib. pot jam-jar, in which place 7 ozs. of water, to which add 4 ozs. of sulphuric acid and, as directed below, 2 ozs. of 98 per cent, cyanide of potassium for every 1,000 cubic feet of space. First make the room to be fumigated as air-tight as possible, leaving one window to open from the outside. Then wrap up the pieces of cyanide in blotting-paper. Having placed in the jam-jar the water and acid, place the jar just within the room to be fumigated, draw the door nearly to, and with the arm reach in and drop the wrapped-up cyanide into the jar, and close the door immediately. Strips of paper well sized should then at once be placed over the crevices. The room should remain closed for from two to three hours ; then open the window from the outside, and leave until thoroughly well ventilated. Remember the fumes and the cyanide are deadly poison. Care should be taken that no one remains outside the door of the room as in a passage, as some of the fumes might escape. In conservatories, greenhouses, etc., proceed as follows : — Add the 4 ozs. of sulphuric acid to the 7 ozs. of water in a jar ; then take the cyanide, which should be wrapped up in a blotting paper, and by means of a stick or piece of string drop it into the water from the outside of the greenhouse. The window or door should then be shut, and the house should remain closed for three-quarters of an hour at least, after which time they can be opened to ventilate, but it should be remembered that it is unsafe to enter the house until an hour or more after the windows and doors have been opened. The best results have been obtained at a temperature of 50° F., about one hour after sunset, when the foliage is dry. Mr. G. F. Strawson informs me that he has obtained better results by pouring the diluted acid upon the cyanide of potassium, using no blotting paper. He has also devised and successfully used in con- servatories, &c., a series of fans, consisting of boards suspended by two cords with a string on each side. The strings to the right and left are worked through a hole in the doors, or other woodwork. 68 AUTHORS QUOTED OR CITED. No author is justified in making statements ' ' as though he himself had investigated and was responsible for the accuracy of these statements in virtue of his own observations on the objects described, when all the time he is simply stating what this and that man have seen, and he has not seen, though he omits to mention the name of those to whom he is indebted." SIR E. RAY LANKESTER. Page Bagnall, R. S. ... ... ... ... 2 Buller, A. H. R. ... ... ... ... 66 Carpenter, Prof. Geo. H. ... ... ... ... 14 Cousins, H. H. ... .. ... ... ... 61 Curtis, John ... ... ... ... ... 14 Ellis, H. Willoughby 2 Fantham, Dr. H. B. ... ... ... ... 50 Fowler, W. ... ... ... ... ... 8, 9 Froggatt, W. W. ... ... ... ... 59, 60 Hartig, Prof. R. ... ... ... ... ... 42 Howard, Dr. L. O. ... ... ... ... 56, 58 Massee, George ... ... ... ... 2,41,44,46 Miall, L. C. ... ... ... ... ... 13 Michael, Albert D. ... ... ... .. 2 Muller, G. W. ... ... ... ... ... 13 Nicoll, Dr. William ... ... ... ... 56 Ormerod, Miss E. A. ... ... ... ... 14 Pethybridge, Dr. G. H. ... ... ... ... 2 Quayle, H. J. ... ... ... ... ... 18 Reaumur ... ... ... ... ... ... 13 Riley, C. V i Sanderson, E. Dwight ... ... ... ... 16 Schmidberger ... ... ... ... ... 31 Shoebotham, J. W. ... ... ... ... 35 Strawson, G. F. ... ... ... ... ... 67 Thaxter, R. ... ... ... ... ... 49 Theobald, F. V. ... ... ... ... ... 30 Tower, W. L. ... ... ... ... ... 16 Weismann, Prof. ... ... ... ... ... 16 INDEX. Allolobophora chlorotica, 3. Animal Parasites and Diseases, 50. Coccidiosis in Fowls, 50. Mange in Dogs, 51. Medullary Gid in Lambs, 53. Aphelenchus fragariae, 3. Aphis brassicae, 4. Apple attacked by Apple Tree Canker, 11 : Gold Tail Moth, 26 ; Pale Brindled Beauty Moth, 30 ; Stem Disease, 1 1 ; Wood Leopard Moth, 28. Apple Tree Canker, 11 ; preventive and remedial measures, 15. Asparagus attacked by Asparagus Beetle, 5 Asparagus Beetle, 5; life-history, 5 ; preventive and remedial measures, 7. Atomaria linearis, 10. Atractosoma polydesmoides, 3 Authors quoted or cited, 68. B Beans attacked by Leaf-Hoppers, 1. Beech attacked by Beech Seedling Mil- dew, 12. Beech Seedling Mildew, 12 ; preventive and remedial measures, 13. Beet attacked by Beet Fly, 13 ; Beet Rot, 13 ; Cionus, 7. Beet and Mangel Rot, 13 ; preventive and remedial measures, 11. Birch attacked by Birch Gall-Mite, 32 ; Exoascus, 32. Birch Gall-Mite, 32. Blaniulus guttulatus, 3. Brachydesmus superus, 3. Brown China Marks Moth, 12. c Cabbage attacked by Cabbage Aphis, 4 ; Dot Moth, 26 ; Large Cabbage White Butterfly, 10. Cabbage Aphis, 1 ; life-history, 5 ; remedy, 5. Callidium violaceum, 35. "Cauliflower disease "of Strawberries, 3. Cemiostoma scitella, 31. Cercospora melonis, 48. Cherry attacked by Wood Leopard Moth, 28. Chlorita flavescens, 1. Chlorita viridula, 1. Cionus scrophulariae, 1 ; distribution, 8 ; economic importance of, 7 ; food plants, 8 ; life-history and habits, 8 ; remedial measures, 10. Coccidiosis in Fowls and Game Birds, 50. Dissemination of the Disease, 51. Preventive and Remedial Measures, 51. Common Walnut Aphis, 23. Crioceris asparagi, 5. Cucumber attacked by Collar Rot, 18 ; Leaf Blotch, 18. Cucumber Collar Rot, 18. Cucumber Leaf Blotch, 18. Currant Bushes attacked by Dot Moth, 26 ; Leaf Spot, 15 ; Scale, 18. Currant-Leaf Spot, 15 ; preventive and remedial measures, 16. D Dogs attacked by Mange, 51. Demodex folliculorum, 51. Dot Moth, 26 ; life-history, 28 ; preven- tive and remedial measures, 28. Dusky-veined Walnut Aphis, 22 ; treat- ment for, 23. Eimeria (Coccidium) avium, 50. Emphytus cinctus, 39. Eriophyes piri, 18. Eriophyes rudis, 32. Eutypella prunastri, 11. Exoascus betulinus, 32. Exoascus turgidus, 32. Experiments : — With Hydrocyanic Acid Gas, 59. ,, Pulvinaria vitis var. ribesiae, 18. With Sprayfluids, 18. F Farm and Garden Pests, 3, 1, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13. Flat Violet Beetle, 35 ; life-history, 35 ; preventive and remedial measures, 39. Forest trees attacked by Beech Seedling Mildew, 12 ; Birch Gall-Mite, 32 ; Flat Violet Beetle, 35 ; Red Poplar Beetle, 31. Fowls attacked by Coccidiosis, 50. Fruit Trees, Pests of, 18, 22, 23, 21, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32. Food of the Starling, Observations on the, 63. Fungi, Injurious, 11. 12, 13, 11, 15, 16, 17, 48, 49. G Gladiolus Smut, 49. Gold Tail Moth, 26 ; life-history, 26 ; pre- ventive and remedial measures, 26. Gooseberry attacked by Dot-Moth, 26. H Hawthorn attacked by Pear-leaf Blister Moth, 31. Heart Rot in Mangels, 43. Hormodendron hordei, 48. House Flies and Public Health, 55. House Fly Problem, 55. Hyalopterus arundinis, 23. Hyalopterus pruni, 23. Hydrocampa nymphaeata, 12. Hydrocyanic Acid Gas, Fumigation with, 59, 67 ; chemicals required, 59 ; quantities to be used, 60. Hypochnus cucumeris, 48. I Injurious Earthworm, 3. Introduction, 1. INDEX lulus niger, 3. lulus pilosus, 3. lulus pulchellus, 3. lulus terrestris, 3. L Lambs attacked by Medullary Grid, 53. Larch attacked by Flat Violet Beetle, 35. Larg-e Cabbage White Butterfly. 10. Leaf-Hoppers, 4. Length of Life of Pulvinaria vitis var. ribesiae, 21. Lentinus lepideus, 66. Lettuce attacked by Dot-Moth, 28. Locomotion of Pulvinaria vitis var. ribesiae, 18, M Macrosporium solan i, 47. Mange in Dogs, 54. Mangels attacked by Clonus, 7 : Mangel Fly, 23 ; Mangel Rot, 43 ; Millipedes, 3 ; Pigmy Mangel Beetle. 10. Mangel and Beet Fly, 13 ; distribution, 14 ; food-plants, 15 ; economic im- portance. 14; life-history, 15; remed- ial measures, 17; seasonal history, 16. Mangels and Beet, New Pest of, 7. Mamestra persicariae, 26. Mealy Plum Aphis, 23. Medullary Gid in Lambs, 53. Melasoma populi, 34. Millipedes, 3. N Nectria ditissima, 44. Nymphaea alba attacked by larvae of the Brown China Marks Moth, 12. Opadia funebrana, 31. P Pale Brindled Beauty Moth, 30. Parasites of Animals, 50. Paving Block Fungus, 66. Pegomyia betae, 13. Pear attacked by Gold Tail Moth, 26 ; Pear-leaf Blister Mite, 18 ; Pear-leaf Blister Moth, 31 ; Stem Disease, 41 : Wood Leopard Moth, 28. Pear-leaf Blister Mite, 18. Pear-leaf Blister Moth, 31 ; life-history, 32 ; preventive and remedial meas- ures, 32. Peas attacked by Leaf-Hoppers. 4 : Millipedes, 3. Phigalia pilosaria, 30. Phytophthora omnivora. 42. Pieris brassicae, 10. Pigmy Mangel Beetle, 1 0. Plum attacked by Gold Tail Moth, 26 ; Mealy Plum Aphis, 23 ; Plum Bark Beetle, 24 ; Red Plum Maggot, 3 1 ; Stem Disease, 41. Plum Bark Beetle, 24. Plusia gamma, 11. Polydesmus complanatus, 3. Porthesia auriflua, 26. Poplar attacked by Red Poplar-Leaf Beetle, 34. Potatoes attacked by Leaf Curl, 47 ; Leaf - Hoppers, 4 ; Millipedes, 3 ; Root and Stem Rot, 46. Potato Leaf Curl, 47 ; preventive and remedial measures, 48. Pterocallis juglandicola, 23. Ptychodes juglandis, 22. Pulvinaria vitis var. ribesiae, 18 ; length of life of, 21 ; locomotion of, 18. R Red Plum Maggot, 31 ; life-history, 31 ; preventive and remedial measures, 31. Red Poplar leaf Beetle, 34 ; life-history, 34 ; preventive and remedial meas- ures, 34. Rhizoctonia violacea, 46. Root and Stem Rot, 46. Roses attacked by Leaf - Hoppers, 4 ; Wood-boring Rose Sawfly, 39. Sarcoptes scabei var. canis, 54. Scolytus rugulosus, 24. Septoria ribis, 45. Silver-Y Moth, 11 ; life-history, 12 ; pre- ventive and remedial measures, 12. Sphaerella tabifica, 43. Spruce attacked by Flat Violet Beetle, 35. Starling, Observations on the Food of the, 63. Stem Disease of Fruit Trees, 41. Strawberries attacked by " Cauliflower disease," 3. Strawberry Eel worm, 3. Sturnus vulgaris, 63. Swedes attacked by Millipedes, 3. Taenia caenurus, 53. Turnips attacked by Millipedes, 3. Typhlocybidae, 4. U Urocystis cepulae, 49. Urocystis gladioli, 49. w Walnut attacked by Aphis, 22. Wasps, 32. White Woolly Currant Scale. 18. Witches Brooms on Birch, 33. Wood-boring Rose Sawfly, 39 ; life- history, 39 ; preventive and reme- dial measures, 40. Wood Leopard Moth, 28 ; life-history, 28 ; remedial measures, 30. Zeuzera aesculi, 28. GOLD MEDAL Educational Cabinets ; OF NATURAL GRASSES, WORTHLESS GRASSES, AGRICULTURAL SEEDS, &c. PREPARKD FOR USE IN Agricultural Colleges, Museums, Schools, and by Agricultural Lecturers. No. 1. Polished Oak, glazed, Educational Cabinet, with sun-blind, containing- 24 varieties of Natural Grasses for Permanent and Temporary Pastures, giving popular and botanical names, soils and localities where usually found, with analyses by Dr. Voelcker of the Grasses, both dried and green, and 75 glazed boxes of grass and agricultural seeds. Size, 30in. by 30in. Price 40s. No. 4. Glazed Educational Cabinet, containing 24 varieties of Natural Grasses for Permanent and Temporary Pastures, giving popular and botanical names, soils and localities where usually found, with analyses by Dr. Voelcker of the Grasses, both dried and green. Size, 28in. by 17in. Price 8s. 6d. No. 7. Sutton's Composite Collection of Useful and Useless Grasses, in Japanned Vasculum, with brass handle and fittings, containing 36 varieties of Grasses, giving popular and botanical names, soils and localities where usually found, with analyses by Dr. Voelcker of the Useful Grasses, both dried and green ; also (50 metal-capped glass bottles of Grass and Agricultural Seeds. Price 10s. 6d. SUTTON <£ SONS prepare a complete series of these Cabinets, etc., and will gladly forward Price List on application. PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES. By MARTIN J. SUTTON, F.L.S. The "Times" says:— "The general arrangement of the volume is the same as heretofore, and the book remains, and is likely to Icng continue to be cur standard authority upon the cultivation of grass land." ( Illustrated with 22 beautiful plates of Natural Grasses, Clovers, J &c., and containing 44 Analyses of Grasses, Clovers, &c., ( prepared expressly for this work by Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker. Popular Edition, J Including all the Chapters contained in tbe Sixth Edition, but Price 1s. Paper cover. ( omitting the Illustrations, Analyses, and Index. Eighth Edition, Price 5s. Bound in cloth. SLJTTON & SONS, READING. APTERITE The Perfect Soil Fumigant APTERITE has proved itself to be the best and most effective remedy on the market for Grubs of all kinds, including WIRE WO RMS, Slugs, and other Soil Pests. Vi FLUID The Great Orchard Cleaner and Re-invigorator. For WINTER SPRAYING V2 FLUID A NICOTINE PREPARATION for Pests on Fruit Trees. An Invaluable SUMMER SPRAY. FLUID The best remedy for ROSE and other MILDEWS. Does not discolour the foliage. FUNGICIDE An Improved BORDEAUX MIXTURE Invaluable for the treatment of POTATO DISEASE and other FUNGOID PESTS. OF AGENTS EVERYWHERE Sole Mfrs., WILLm. COOPER & NEPHEWS, Berkhamsted. Horticultural Requisites 'GISHURST COMPOUND' For preventing and destroying Red Spider, Green Fly, &c. Harmless in use. Its soluble sulphur, &c.. has for 40 yeais cured blights and fungus on plants. It is also useful for washing unhealthy dogs. "GISHURSTINE 9 J For the protection of Boots and Shoes from damp, ensuring comfort and health to the wearers Boots treated with Gishurstine take polish. It is also good for use on harness. 5OFT SOAP Specially prepared as an insecticide, including "SOFT SOAP and Quassia." "SOFT SOAP and Paraffin." To be obtained from all dealers in Horticultural Requisites, or Wholesale from PRICE'S PATENT CANDLE COMPANY LIMITED, LONDON, LIVERPOOL and MANCHESTER. Collecting Apparatus. For Plants, Insects, Shells, Fossil?, &c. ; Fresh-water and Marine Life. Specimen Jars, Boxes, Cabinets, &c. Pocket Lenses of an kinds See Catalogue C. all accessories for Elementary and Advanced Work. See Catalogue B. We have a unique collection of Lantern and Microscope Slides in all departments. Write for Catalogues. FLATTERS & GARNETT, Ltd., 32, DOVER STREET (close to the University), MANCHESTER, S.E. Telephone 7845 Central. Telegrams: "Slides," Manchester. V GENERAL LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA— BERKELEY RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. ENTOMOLOGY LIBRARY LD 21-100m-l,'54(1887sl6)476 I'll A few copies remain, price 2/6. Any of the above may be obtained from the Midland Educational Company, Ltd., Corporation St., Birmingham, or Messrs. Dulau & Co., Ltd., 37, Soho Square, London, W. NICOTINE PREPARATIONS are the safest and most effectual for killing insects the garden on Plants and Fruit Trees. m BOXJDF10GAKES,EACH XL ALL LIQUID NICOTINE INSECTICIDE WASH. SOLID DRY CAKE COMPOUND (P FOR USING IN TH Fl" n Box No. 1 2 3 4 5 Box Cakes. 1000ft. each. 40 20 10 5 2 80 E, ftgh for ic feet. 1,000 l,00r i U J.OC'J ),000 NEW INTRODUCTIC: OAK- feet of space each (Am -a In boxes of 4 for 3 '4 : is ; nsc "ide for Syringing or ' lass or out in the open, i. ; fcpint, 1/2; 1 pint, 2/- ; p-b. 3/6 ; J gallon, 5/- ; gallon, 10/- ; 4 gallon drum, 38/- BOTTLES OF LIQUID COMPOUND supplied to fumigate the same cubical spaces as the Cake mentioned above at the prices. Bottles, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. same RICHARDS' FUMIGATOR For Cake or Liquid. 4280. RICHARDS' FUMIGATOR For Cake or Liquid. To do 5,000 cubic feet of space at a time, 2/ each, To do 2,000 cubic feet, 1/9 each. Amateur size for 500 cubic feet, 9d. each. All Particulars, Price Lists, and Supplies can bo obtained from Nurserymen, Seedsmen and Florists, my Agents, all over the world. MANUFACTURER AND PATENTEE : G.H.RICHARDS, 234, BOROUGH HIGH ST., LONDON, S.E.