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GEOLOGY,

MINERALOGY, BOTANY, AND ZOOLOGY

OP
MADE AND PUBLISHED BY ORDER OP THE GOVERNMENT OF THAT STATE:

IN POUR parts:

PART I. ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY.

PART n. TOPOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY.

PART III. SCIENTIFIC GEOLOGY. ^

PART IV. CATALOGUES OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS.

WITH A DESCRIPTIVE LIST OP THE
SPECIMENS OF ROCKS AND MINERALS COLLECTED FOR THE GOVERNMENT.

ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS WOOD CUTS AND AN ATLAS OP PLATES.
SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED AND ENLARGED.

BY EDWARD HITCHCOCK, A. M.

Professor of Chemistry anil Natural History in Amherst College: Member of the Americaa
Academy of Arts and Sciences: Of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia:
Of the American Geological Society, &c.

AMHERST:

PUBLISHED BY J. S. AND C. ADAMS.
1835.

'■■« .- i J /

Entered according to Act of CongresS; in the year 1834, by Edward D. Bangs,
Secretary of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, in the name and behalf
of said Commonwealth ; in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the
District of Massachusetts.

To His Excellency, John davis, Esq.
Governor of Massachusetts.

I HAVE the honor to present you with the second edition of my
Report on the Geology, Mineralogy, Botany and Zoology of the
State, published in conformity to a Resolve of the Legislature of the
17th Feb. 1834. That Resolve did not allow either time or means
for making further explorations of our geology and mineralogy:
nevertheless, I have been able to make not a few corrections of,
and additions to the first edition. The most important and extensive
changes will be found in the Catalogues of our Animals and Plants,
embraced in the Fourth Part. By the great kindness and effort of
the gentlemen who furnished these Catalogues, nearly all of them
have been re-written, and several of them nearly doubled in extent.
They have all likewise been reduced to the most approved and correct
classification, and are now printed in a uniform manner. In effecting
these objects, I have been greatly aided by the Boston Society of
Natural History. The gentlemen of that Society who have assisted
me most, are Dr. Charles T. Jackson, in the department of geology
and mineralogy ; Dr. Augustus A. Gould, in the crustaceous and
radiated animals ; Amos Binney, Esq., inconchology ; C. C. Emerson
Esq., in ornithology ; and Mr. Moses A. Curtis, in Botany.

Some of the plates of the Atlas in the present edition have been
lithographed anew; and the geological Map, as well as the sketch
of autumnal Scenery, have been colored with more care than in the
first edition.

Upon the whole, I cannot but hope that the efforts that have been
made (and they have been by no means small,) to improve the Report,
will meet the approbation of the Government ; and that they will
regard their liberality in publishing a second edition, as not entirely
unrewarded.

Respectfully Submitted,

Edward Hitchcock.

Amherst College, Dec. 1st, 1834.

INTRODUCTORY OR HISTORICAL NOTE. ,

On the 3d of March 1830, the Legislature of Massachusetts passed
a Resolve, authorizing and requesting the Governor with the advice
of the Council, 'to appoint a Surveyor well skilled in astronomy and
in the art of surveying upon trigonometrical principles — to make a
general Survey of the Commonwealth, and from such astronomical
observations and calculations as may be made, to project an accurate
skeleton plan of the State, which shall exhibit the external lines
thereof and the most prominent objects within those lines and their
locations.'

In Governor Lincoln's Message to the Legislature May 29lh, 1830,
we find the following recommendation.

' I beg leave to suggest to your consideration the utility of con-
necting with the Geographical Surveys, an examination of the geo-
logical features of the State, with a view to the exhibition of them
on the map. Much knowledge of the natural history of the country
would thus be gained, and especially the presence of valuable ores,
with the localities and extent of quarries, and of coal and lime form-
ations, objects of enquiry so essential to internal improvements, and
the advancement of domestic prosperity, would be discovered, and the
possession and advantages of them given to the public. I am assured
that much has already been gratuitously done, by some eminent
professors in our colleges, towards the accomplishment of such a
work, and that, at a little expense, it might be completed, and the
fruits of their generous labors thus far, be secured to the State. This,
however, will require the interposition of your authority in increasing
the present appropriation, and permitting an application of it, so far
as may be necessary, in the exercise of a sound discretion, to the end
proposed.'

In conformity with these suggestions, the Legislature, on the 5lli of
June, 1830, ' Resolved, That his Excellency the Governor, by and
with the advice of the Council, be, and he is hereby authorized lo ap-
point some suitable person, to make a geological examination of ihc

II INTRODUCTION'

Commonwealth, in connection with the general survey, in order that
the same mny be inserted on the map which may be published, &c.'
On the 25th of June 1830, Governor Lincoln issued a Commission
to the author of the following Report, directing him ' to make the ge-
ological examination of this Commonwealth, in the manner contem-
plated by said Resolve, performing such duties relating thereto, as are
or may be enjoined upon you ; and obeying such instructions as, from
time to time, you may receive from the proper authority.'

February 2d 1831, the Legislature still further authorized His Excel-
lency the Governor, ' to direct the person who is appointed to make a
Geological Survey of the Commonwealth, to cause to be annexed to
his report on that subject, a list of the native Mineralogical, Botan-
ical and Zoological productions of the Commonwealth, so far as it
may be practicable to ascertain the same within the limits of the ap-
propriation already made for this Survey.'

The first part of the following Report with the Geological Map,
having been presented to the Government in the beginning of the
year 1832, it was ordered to be printed: and on the 24th of March
1832, the Legislature ' Resolved, that the GOO copies of the first part
of the Report on the Geological Survey of the Commonwealth, pro-
vided in pursuance of an arrangement made by his Excellency the
Governor with the advice of Council, for the use of Government, be
delivered to the Secretary of the Commonwealth, and by him be dis-
tributed, as follows, viz.

Four copies to the Governor ;

Two copies to the Lieutenant Governor ;

One copy to each member of the Council ;

One copy to each member of the Senate and House of Representa-
tives ;

Five copies to be deposited in the Library of the State ;

And that the remaining copies be distributed as His Excellency the
Governor may direct.'

In the early part of 1833, the remaining parts of the following
Report were submitted in an unfinished state to the examination of the
Committee on Education. Notwithstanding their imperfect state,
however, the Legislature on the 25th of February adopted the follow-
ing very liberal Resolves :

' Resolved, that his Excellency the Governor, be, and hereby is
authorized to cause twelve hundred copies of the Report on the Geo-
logical Survey of the Commonwealth ; including that part of the
Report already made, as well as the part hereafter to be made, with
the drawings which shall accompany said Report, to be published in

IXTRODXTCTION. IH

euch way and manner as he shall deem proper and expedient ; and
he is authorized with the advice and consent of Council, to draw his
warrant upon the Treasurer of the Commonwealth for such sum, or
sums as may be necessary to carry this resolve into full effrct.'

'Resolved, that the said twelve hundred copies, when published,
shall be delivered to the Secretary of the Commonwealth, to be dis-
tributed in the following manner, viz:

Twelve copies to the Governor ;

Six copies to the Lieut. Governor ;

One copy to each member of the Council, Senate and House of
Representatives ;

One copy each to the Secretary, Treasurer, and to each of the
Clerks and Chaplains of the two Houses;

One copy to each town in the Commonwealth ;

Five copies to be deposited in the Library of the State ;

Two copies each to Harvard, Amherst and Williams Colleges;

One copy each to the Theological Seminaries at Andover and
Newton ;

One copy to each incorporated Academy in the Commonwealth ;

One copy each to the Boston and Salem Atheneums ;

One copy to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences ;

One copy to the Antiquarian Society at Worcester;

One copy to the Massachusetts Historical Society ;

One copy to the Boston Society of Natural History ;

Twenty copies to the Geological Surveyor ; and

One copy to each person who shall have aided him in preparing
the Catalogues appended to the Report ;

Two copies to the Library of the United States ;

One copy to the Executive of each State in the Union.

And the remaining copies to be disposed of in such a manner as
His Excellency the Governor shall direct.'

On the 19th of February 1834, the following Resolve was adopted
by the Legislature :

'Resolved, that his E.xcellency the Governor with thn advice of the
Council, be authorized to cause to be printed, under the superintend-
ance of the Geological Surveyor, a new edition of Professor Hitch-
cock's Report on the Geology of this Commonwealth, and the Atlas
accompanying it, with such alterations and additions as may be pro-
posed by the Professor, and approved by the Executive ; and that a
warrant be drawn on the Treasurer for such sum as may be neces-
sary to defray the expense thereof: provided that the whole expendi-
ture shall not exceed the sum of two dollars and si.Kty cents for each
copy'

'^' INTRODITCTION.

' Resolved, that the said five hundred copies, when published, shall
be delivered to the Secretary of the Commonwealth, and be distributed
in the following manner, viz.

Twelve copies to the Governor ,

Ten copies to the Surveyor ;

One copy to each of the Chaplains of the Senate and House of
Representatives ;

One copy to each incorporated Lyceum and Atheneum in this
Commonwealth ;

Two copies each to the Berkshire Medical Institution, and the
Massachusetts Medical Colleg-e :

One copy to each member of the Council, Senate, and House of
Representatives, who was not a member of either of those branches
of the g-overnment for the last year ;

One copy to each of the permanent Clerks in the office of the Sec-
retary of State, Treasurer, and Adjutant General ;

Two copies to the Pilgrim Society at Plymouth; and the remaining
copies to be disposed of in such manner as the Legislature may
direct.'

A more particular account of the aherations and additions made in
the present edition, (which is the second edition of the whole work,
and the third edition of the first part,) published in conformity to the
last of the preceding Resolves, Avill be found in the address to Gov-
ernor Davis a few pages back.

Enquiries having been frequently made by gentlemen in different
parts of the United States, as to the expense of this Geological Survey
of the State, it may not be amiss to state, that the sum paid for making
the Survey, preparing the Report, and collecting, labelling, and
arranging 1550 specimens of rocks and minerals for the Government,
and about 900 specimens for each of the three Colleges in the State,
has been only Two Thousand and Thirty Dollars. It was on-
ly by rigid economy, and laborious industry, however, that the
expenses have been kept within such limits. The cost of print-
ing the several editions of the Report, is not, of course, included
in the above estimate.

The Government have permitted the Boston Society of Natural
History to deposite the collection of specimens above spoken of, in
their beautiful and spacious Cabinet ; where provision has been made
for its reception.

CONTENTS.

PART I. ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY.

Explanatory Remarks, - - - page 13

Divisions of the Report, . . - 15

Nature of Soils, - - - - 16

Alluvium considered in an agricultural point of view, - 17

Diluvium, - do - - 18

Tertiary Formations, do - - 19

New Red Sandstone, do - - 20

Argillaceous Slate and Graywacke, do - - 21

Steatite, Serpentine and Limestone, do - - 22

duartz Rock, Talcose Slate, Mica Slate, do - - 22

Gneiss, &c. - do - - 23

Greenstone, - do - - 23

Porphyry, Seinite and Granite, do - - 24

USEFUL ROCKS AND MINERALS IN THE STATE.

Granite and Sienite, - ■ - 25

Gneiss, - . - - 29

Greenstone, Hornblende Slate and Poryhyry, - 31

Quartz Rock, - - - - 33

Mica Slate, and Talcose Slate, - - - 34

Limestone, - - - - 35

Recent discovery of Limestone in Bernardston, • 38

Berkshire Marble, - - . - 39

Serpentine, - - - - 40

Steatite or Soapstone, - - - 42

Graywacke, and Argillaceous Slate, • - 44

Novaculite and Roof Slate, - - 45

Graphic Slate, and New Red Sandstone, - • 46

Porcelain Clay, - - . 47
Potter's Clay, Clay used as Fuller's Earth, and for the manufacture

of Alum, - - - 48

Peat, Marl, &c. ... 49
Granular Q,uartz used for the manufacture of Glass: Buhrstone, 51

Coal, Lignite, Bituminous Coal, and Anthracite, - 53

Graphite or Black Lead, - - 57

Substitute for Emery : Tripoli or Rotten Stone; Native Alum, 58

Mineral Waters : Sulphate of Baryta, - 59
Lithia, Chalcedony, Agates, Jasper, Beryls, and Cinnamon Stone, 60

B

^H> CONTENTS.

METALS AND THEIR ORES.

Iron, .... 61

Do. in Worcester, ' - - 61
Do. in Sterling : Chromate of Iron in Curamington and Blanford ;

Phosphate of Iron, - - - 62

Iron in Hopkinton, Hubbardston, and Hawley, - 63
Do. in Bernardston, Somerset, Vt. Winchester, N. H. and

Cumberland, R. I. - - - 64
Do. in Montague and Maiden : Hydrate of Iron in Lenox and

Richmond, - - - 65
Brown Oxide of Iron, in West Stockbridge, Salisbury, Ct. Benning-
ton, Vt. and Cranston, R. I. - - 6G
Bog Ore, - - - - 66
Ochres, &c- • - - - 67
Lead in Southampton, - - - 68
Do in Northampton, West Hampton and Williamsburg, 69
Do. in Hatfield, Leverett, Goshen and Whately, - 70
Copper in Greenfield, - • - 71
Zinc : Manganese, - - - 72
Manganese in Plainfield, Conway, Hinsdale, and Winchester,N. H-:

Tin, .... 73

Silver: Gold in Somerset, Vt, - - 74

Idle Search after Gold and Silver, - - 77

Foolish Superstitions, - • - 78

Concluding Remarks, - - - 80^

PART II. TOPOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY.

Connection between Geology and Scenery, - 83

Saddle Mountain, - ' - - 84

Mount Washington, - - - . 86

Monument Mountain, Alum Hill, and other elevated spots, 86

Mount Holyoke. - . - 88

The Columns, and Titan's Pier, - - 90

Sugar Loaf Mountain ; Mount Tom, - - 91

Mount Toby, and Deerfield Mountain, - - 92

Wachusett, - - - - 93

Blue Hills, - - - - 94

Heights of various elevations in the eastern part of the State, 95

Vallies of Berkshire, - - - 96

Valley of the Connecticut, - 97

Ravine of Westfield River, - - 98

Ravine and Gorge of Deerfield River, - - 99

Valley of Worcester, and of the Merrimack, - 100

Boston Harbor : View from the State House, - 101

New Bedford : Narraganset Bay ; Nahant, - 103

Cape Ann, - - - - 104

Nantasket Beach : Cape Cod, - - 105

Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, Gayhead, - 107

Turner's Falls, - - - 108

South Hadley Falls: Shelburn Falls: Spicket Falls: Falls in

CONTENTS

1*

Fall River : Pawtucket Falls : The Gorge, alias the Glen, ^ 110
Cascade in Leverett : do and Natural Bridge, &c. on Hudson's

Brook, - - - -. ^^^
Canaan Falls : Southampton Adit: Sunderland Cave and Fissure, 112

Caverns in Berkshire, - - - 113

Purgatories, - - - 11^

Autumnal Scenery, - - - ^^^

Sketches of Scenery in Massachusetts, - 116

PART 111. SCIENTIFIC GEOLOGY.

Preliminary Remarks, - - - 1 19

Names and Classification of Rocks, - - 120

Additional Explanations of the Map, - - 121

STRATIFIED ROCKS.

Alluvium defined : Alluvium of Rivers, - - 122

Coast Alluvium- Salt Marsh Alluvium: Submarine Forests, 124

Peat ; its origin, - - - 1 25

Marl: Alluvium of Disintegration, - - 127

Curious Inscription : Alluvium of Degradation ; Bog Ore, 129

Oxide of Man^nese ; an alluvial deposit, - - 130
Power of Ice in removing Bowlders : Encroachments of the sea

upon the coast, - - - 131

Boston Harbor ; how produced, - - 132

Gain of the Land upon the Sea, - - 135

Action of Storms upon Cape Ann, • - 133

Dunes or Downs, - * - 137

Valleys of Massachusetts : how formed, - 138

Terraced Valleys, - - - - 14l

Change in the bed of Green River, • - 144

Ice Floods, - • - - 145

Valleys of Denudation or Excavation, - . 146

Diluvium defined, - - - 148

Its Situation and Extent in Massachusetts, • 149

Bowlders, - - - - 152

Consolidated Diluvium, - - - 157

First Proof of a southerly movement in our diluvium, 158

Peculiarities in the Diluvium of Berkshire County, - 162

Second Proof (diluvial grooves,) of a southerly current, 166

Origin of Diluvium in Massachusetts, - - 170

Epoch of the last Deluge, - - - 172

Diluvial agency in other parts of the world, - 173

Mounds in the Western States, - - 175

Stratification of Diluvium, - - 176

Minerals and Organic Remains in Diluvium, - 177

Tertiary Formations defined, - • 178

The most Recent Tertiary, - - 178

Remarkable Disturbances in its Strata, - 179

Position and Thickness of Its Strata, - - 181

Mineral Contents, - . . 154

* CONTENTS.

Organic Remains, - ♦ 187
Theoretical Considerations, - - 188
Plastic Clay ; Its Mineralogical Characters, - 189
Mineral Contents, - . . . 193
Organic Remains, - - - 195
Dip, Direction and Superposition of the Strata, - 201
Plastic Clay in Truro, Duxbury, and Nantucket, - 202
Theoretical Considerations, - • 206
Supposed Volcanic Agency at Gay Head ; Geological Specula-
tions of the Aborigines, - - 208
New Red Sandstone : Proofs of its existence in the Connecti-
cut Valley, . . . 211
Mineralogical Characters of this Rock, - 213
Topography of this Formation, - - 220
Dip, Direction and Thickness of the Strata, - 222
Mineial Contents, - . . 228
Organic Remains, - - - 234
Theoretical Considerations, - - - 243
Graywacke : Whether identical with that in Europe. 252
Mineralogical Characters, - - 254
Topography of Graywacke, - - 269
Dip, Direction and Thickness of the Strata, - 272
Mineral Contents : Anthracite, - - 276
Organic Remains, - - - 284
Theoretical Considerations, - . 285
Argillaceous Slate : Its definition and classification. 286
Mineralogical Characters, - - 287
Its Topography, - . - 288
Dip, Direction and Thickness of the Strata, - 289
Mineral Contents, - . - 290
Disturbances in the Strata, - - 291
Theoretical Considerations, - - 294
Limestone: Encrinal Limestone of Bernardston, - 295
Berkshire Limestone : Discussion concerning its position and age, 296
Blanford Limestone: Belchertown, do - - 304
Micaceous Limestone, - - - 305
Limestone in Whitingham, Vt. in Bolton, Boxborough, Littleton,

Acton, Carlisle, and Chelmsford, - - 807

Limestone in Smithfield, R. I. - - 311

Limestone in Stoneham and Newbury, - 312

Origin of Limestone, • - - 313

Scapolite Rock : Mineralogical Characters, - 315

Quartz Rock : Order of Superposition in the older rocks, 316

Mineralogical Characters of Gluartz Rock, - 317

Its Topography, - - . 320

Dip, Direction, and Character of the Strata, - 322

Mineral Contents, - . - 323

Theory of Gluartz Rock, - • 323

Mica Slate : Mineralogical Characters, - 325

Its Topography, -" . - 329

Its Stratification, with the Dip and Direction of the Strata, 335

Veins of Secregation in Mica Slate. - - 339

CONTENTS XI

Mineral Contents, - - - 340

Theory of Mica Slate, - - - - 347

Talcose Slate : Its Definition. - - 349

Mineralogical Characters, - - - 350

Its Topography, - - - 352

Dip, Direction, and Character of the Strata, - 355

Mineral Contents, - - - 356

Theory of Talcose Slate, - - - 361

Serpentine : Mineralogical Characters, - 362

Topography, Stratification, and Associated Rocks, - 363

Mineral Contents, - - - 368

Theory of Serpentine, - - - 368

Hornblende Slate : Dr. Macculloch's Views, - 370

Its Mineralogical Characters, - - - 371

Its Topography, - - - 373

Dip, Direction. &c. of the Strata, - - 376

Mineral Contents : Theory of Hornblende Slate, - 377

Gneiss: How distinguished from Granite, - 378

Its Mineralogical Characters, - - 379

Its Topography, - - - 381

Its Stratification . Dip and Direction of the Strata, - 385

Mineral Contents, - - . . 339

Theory of Gneiss, - - - 394

UNSTRATIFIED ROCKS.

Modes in which they occur and their theory, - 396

Manner of representing then:\ on the Map, - 397

Greenstone: Its Definition, &c. - - 398

Its Mineralogical Characters, - . 399
Its Topography, - - -405

Relative Position of the Greenstone of Massachusetts. - 411

Veins of Greenstone, - - - 414

Chemical effects of Greenstone upon other rocks, . 421

Mineral Contents, - - . 425

Lincolnite, - - . . 429

Theory of Greenstone, - - . 43I

Porphyry: Its definition, - . 434

Its Mineralogical Characters, - , 435

Its Topography, - . . 433

Its Geological Position, - - 439

Mineral Contents, - - . 449

Theory of Porphyry, - - . 44 j

SiENiTE : Its definition, and Mineralogical Characters, 442

Its Topography, .... 445

Its Pseudo-Stratification : Veins in Sienite, - 446

Its Geological Position, - . . 459

Mineral Contents, - . . • 45J

Theory of Sienite, .... 452

Granite: Its definition, and Mineralogical Charcters, 453

Its Topography, . . - 458
Its Pseudo-Stratification ; Phenomena of Veins and Protruding

Masses of Granite, - . . "" ^go

XII CONTENTS.

Mineral Contents, .... 488

Theory of Granite, . . . • 495

Theory of Central Heat, . - - 50 i

Fluvial Theory, - - - - 503

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS.

Origin of Metallic Veins, Beds, &c. - - 505

Direction and Dip of Metallic Veins and Beds in Massachusetts, 506

Elevation of Mountains and Systems of Strata in Massachusetts, 507

Explanation of the Sections and Map of the Direction of Strata, 507
Systems of Strata of cotemporaneous Elevation in Massachusetts, 509

Oldest Meridional System, - - - - 510

The Trap System, - - - - - 513

The Latest Meridional System, - ■ - 514

The North East and South West System, - - 515

East and West System, - - - - 517

North West and South East System, - - - 519

Ancient Deluges, . • . . 52O
Theory concerning the Force by which Systems of Strata were

elevated at Successive Epochs, - - 521

Concluding Remarks, - - - 523

PART IV. CATALOGUES OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS.

Introductory Remarks, .... 525

■Catalogue oi Mammalia in Massachusetts, - - 526

of Birds in do - - 528

of Reptiles in do - - 534

of Fishes in do - - • 535

of Shells on the Sea Coast of do - - 538

of do on the Land and in Rivers in do - 542

of do by the Boston Natural History Society, 544

of Crustacea in do - - - 548

of Areneides or Spiders in l,he United States, 550

of Insects in Massachusetts, - • 553

of Radiata in do - • - 602

of Plants in do - . - 604

APPENDIX.

Catalogue of Specimens in the Government Collection of Rocks

and Minerals, - - - - 653

General Index, .... 677

Index to the Catalogues, - - - 693

REPORT.

PART I.

ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY.

To His Excellency Levi Lincoln, Esq,

Governor of Massachusetts.

Having in a good measure executed the commission received
from your Excellency, bearing date June 25, 1830, and directing
me to make a geological examination of the State ; 1 beg leave to
present you with the fust part of my Report.

My commission contemplates an exhibition of the different rock
formations in the State, upon the Map of the Commonwealth now
in progress. But as it must necessarily be a period of considerable
length before that work can be completed, I have constructed a
small map from such materials as already exist, and delineated
upon it the various kinds of rock that prevail in the State. These
are shown by different colors and simple markings, easily under-
s-tood by reference to the tablets on the lower part of the sheet.

To avoid confusion, I have placed on this Map only so much of
topography and geography, as was absolutely necessary. All the
mountains and smaller rivers, with the boundaries of the towns,
have been omitted ; the center of each town being indicated by a
small circle. For the same reason, I have employed only six
different colors to mark the rocks ; although more than twenty
kinds are represented. But these, with a few exceptions, may
be grouped together, as they are in nature, in general divisions ;
the rocks in each division being so intimately related, that in an
economical point of view, they may be regarded as varieties ;
although, in a scientific point of view, their differences are very
important. All the rocks of a group have a common color on the
Map ; and the different sorts are delineated by means of dots,
crosses, circles, he. In short, it has been a great object with me,
so to simplify the INIap as to render it easily intelligible ; while it

1

14 Economical Geology.

exhibits all that is important to the practical man, as well as to the
scientific enquirer. In the first part of ray Report, I shall explain
the different formatirns on the iMap,only so far as shall be neces-
sary in illustrating our geology uith reference to the useful arts ;
reserving the most important scientific remarks to a subsequent
period.

It will be seen that I have extended the Map a short distance
into the adjoining states. This was done chiefly with a view to
exhibit certain beds of ore, or other interesting minerals, which
occur just beyond our limits. In a statistical point of view, these
are nearly as important as those found within the State; and for
this reason I shall notice such minerals in my Report.

In laying down the geology of the eastern part of Rhode Island,
I have been much assisted by the communications of Col. Joseph
G. Totten of Newport. In the geology of Berkshire, I have
been greatly aided by the geological map of that county, published
a few years since by Professor Dewey.

It has been my intention to give to each rock precisely that
relative extent on the Map which it occupies on the earth's sur-
face. To do this with perfect accuracy, over an extent of more
than seven thousand square miles, would be almost an endless
task : especially when we recollect, that over the greater part of
the surface, the rocks are covered by loose soil ; so that in some
instances, no rock in place shows itself to the traveller, for an ex-
tent of thirty or forty miles. In such cases, indeed, this stratum
of sand, clay, and gravel, has been exhibited under the name of
diluvium. Still, under the most favorable circumstances for ob-
servation, the effort to give on a map the exact boundaries of each
particular rock, must be regarded as only an approximation to the
truth. Yet, for all practical purposes, such approximation an-
swers nearly as well as entire accuracy. If I have not misunder-
stood my commission and instructions, I was to have principally
in view, in my examinations, practical utility ; not neglecting how-
ever, interesting geological facts, which have an important bearing
upon science. Under such impressions I have gone over the State
as rapidly as seemed to me consistent with the accomplishment
of these main objects. In attempting to construct such a map as
is appended, in the time that has been devoted to the survey, I
am not without fears that I shall be thought to have aimed at
too much ; or that it will be supposed little dependence can be
placed upon it. Had I not previously become acquainted with
the geology of nearly one half the State, from my own observa-
tion, or the published accounts of Professors Dewey, Webster, and
the Danas, I should not have been able to accomplish this object,

Division of the Report. 15

with any confidence in the correctness of the results. And as it is,
I am aware that the Map may need several minor alterations ;
though I feel quite confident of the correctness of its leading fea-
tures. To obtain such corrections before the completion of the
contemplated map of the State, is one strong inducement, thus
early to present this Report, and the accompanying Map.* For,
should the Report in any way be made public, I shall hope that
gentlemen of intelligence, in different parts of the State, will do
me the favor to communicate any errors or omissions which they
may notice.

I propose to divide my Report into four parts. The first part
will embrace the Economical Geology of the State ; or an
account of our rocks, soils, and minerals, that may be applied to
useful purposes, and thus become sources of pecuniary profit.

The second yart will embrace our Topographical Geology;
or an account of the most interesting features of our scenery.

The third part will consist of our Scientific Geology ; or
an account of our rocks in their relation to science.

The fourth part will consist of catalogues 'of the native min-
eralogical, botanical, and zoological productions of the Common-
wealth,' so far as they can be obtained, agreeably to a resolve of
the Legislature, approved by your Excellency, February 2, 1831.
Several gentlemen, distinguished for their attainments in natural
history, have generously offered to furnish these lists in those
branches with which they are most familiar.

To illustrate the first and third parts of the Report, I have iu
accordance with directions from your Excellency, collected speci-
mens of every variety of rock I could find in the Common-
w'ealth ; and in all cases where a rock is quarried, or might be
quarried in several places, I have endeavored to obtain specimens
from each locality. I have collected likewise all the ores of im-
portance found in the State, as well as the other simple minerals,
which could be obtained without much difficulty or delay. I did
not suppose that my instructions authorized me to be at much ex-
pense and trouble in procuring every rare mineral that has been
described as occurring in the State ; although this object may still
be accomplished, if I have mistaken the intentions of the Govern-
ment. The collection which I have made for the use of the
Government contains 1550 specimens. I do not know to what
use the Government intends to devote this collection. But sup-
posing it would be placed in some public situation, in order to ex-
hibit to the citizens the geology and mineralogy of the State, I

* The Geolog-ical I\Iap contained in tlie Atlas accompanied the first part of this
Report in iti first edition; but none oi' the other drawing'd.

16 Economical Geology.

have endeavoied to obtain from all the important quarries and
beds, whence stones are derived for the purpose of architecture
or ornament, specimens which would fairly exhibit the qualities
and value of each. About 130 of these specimens I have had
polished, or smoothed and varnished, in order to bring to light
their real qualities.

I have also, in accordance with my instructions, endeavored to
collect all the important varieties of rocks and minerals in the
State, for the use of each of the colleges in the Commonwealth :
though the number of specimens is not as great as in the collec-
tion for government; amounting to a little more than 900 speci-
mens for each college.

In presenting a view of our economical geology, I shall first
make a few remarks upon the different soils found in the State, as
connected with the rocks over which they lie. And since it is an
acknowledged fact, that all soils had their origin in the disintegra-
tion, or decomposition of rocks, it might seem easy, at first thought,
to ascertain the nature of the soil, if we know the integrant and
constituent parts of the rock underneath it. Thus, in a soil lying
above granite, we might expect that siliceous sand would be the
predominant ingredient ; next, clay, with small quantities of pot-
ash, lime, magnesia and iron ; because these are the constituents
of granite. But several causes so modify soils, as to render all
conclusions of this kind extremely uncertain. In the first place,
the character of a soil depends more, in general, upon the nature
and amount of the vegetable and animal matters it contains, than
upon the nature of its other ingredients. And in the second
place, the agency of running water, not merely of existing streams,
but of mightier currents to which the surface has been exposed
in early times, has been powerful in modifying the loose coverin^^^s
of the rocks. This aqueous agency has often covered one rock
with the spoils of another ; and sometimes mixed together the
worn off fragments of half a dozen, and accumulated them in im-
mense quantities in particular districts. These circumstances have
rendered the subject under consideration an extremely diiScult
one ; and very few general principles have yet been settled con-
cerning it. Indeed, so far as I know, little attention has been
given to it in this, or other countries. Still, there is such a thing
as peculiarity of soil, occasioned by the peculiarity of the rock
from which it principally proceeded, I shall notice any peculiar-
ities of this kind, that have struck me, in the soils of Massachu-
setts ; but I shall not enjoy much advantage from comparison, not
having found but few observations of a similar kind, made on the
eastern continent. I shall begin with the stratum tiiat lies above
everv other ; — viz. alluvium.

Alluvium. 17

Alluvium.

Jn this part of my Report, I shall not enter into a systematic
and nnnute description of the various formations represented on
the accompanying geological Map. Such description belongs niore
appropriately to the scientific part. I shall here describe the
different strata only so far as is necessary to the particular purpose
I have in view.

Alluvium is, for the most part, that fine loamy deposit, which is
yearly forming from the sediment of running waters, chiefly by the
inundations of rivers. It is made up, of course, of the finest and
richest portions of every soil over which the waters have passed.
Hence alluvial meadows have always been celebrated for their fer-
tility. No extensive alluvial tracts occur in Massachusetts ; al-
though limited patches of this stratum exist not unfrequently along
the banks of every stream, and v/ith the adjoining elevated ground
covered by wood and pasture, constitute not a few of the most pro-
ductive firms in the State. Even where Deerfield river winds its
way among the lofty and precipitous spurs of Hoosac mountain,
which crowd so close upon the path as almost to throw it into the
shade at noon-day, the traveller is sometimes agreeably surprised
to see a luxuriant meadow open before him, rewarding the labors
of some thrifty farmer. No alluvial tracts, however, have been
thought of sufficient extent to deserve a place on the Map, except
one or two salt marshes a little northeast of Boston, and several
meadows along the Connecticut, Deerfield, and Housatonic rivers.
Those of Longmeadow, Springfield, Northampton, Hadley, Hat-
field, Deerfield, and Northfield, have long been celebrated fortheir
unrivalled exuberance and beauty. Those in Great Harrington,
Stockbridge, and Sheffield, are scarcely less inviting.

There is one variety of alluvial soil in this State, that deserves
more attention from our agriculturalists. I refer to those numerous
uncultivated swamps, which have for ages been the reservoirs of
rich soil, that has been washed thither by rains and brooks. To
reclaim them, does, indeed require not a little labor and expense.
But where the effort has been successful, the great and continued
exuberance of these spots, has astonished and amply repaid the
experimenter. Even in those cases where they cannot be re-
claimed, which I believe to be few, they ought at least to be con-
verted into manure, and spread again over those higher regions
around, from which, by slow aqueous agency, they have been
washed away. Very many of the most barren regions in the
State, might, by this means, be clothed with fertility and plenty.

18 Economical Geology.

Diluvium.

This occupies more of the surface in Massachusetts than any
other foi'ination. It is not generally distinguished from alluvium:
but it is usually much coarser, being made up commonly of large
pebbles, or rounded stones mixed with sand and fragments of ev-
ery size, which are olten piled up in rounded hills to a considera-
ble height ; and under such circumstances, as preclude the proba-
bility that it could have resulted from existing streams. Indeed,
it is spread over the highest mountains, wherever it could find a
lodgment, and appears to have resulted from powerful currents of
water, which, in early times, swept over the globe.

In a scientific point of view, this is one of the most interesting
formations in the State ; and in the proper place, I shall exhibit
several facts respecting its relations and mode of occurrence.
But in an agricultural point of view, it is the least interesting of all
our strata: for of all the soils, it is the most unfriendly to rich veg-
etation. And as it is spread in a good measure over every kind of
rock, it often prevents the formation of a good soil, from the de-
composition of the rock. It is in general easily recognised in the
most sterile places, in the form of low rounded hills, composed al-
most entirely of pebbles, or cobble stones, and sometimes larger
rounded masses of rock, called bowlders, mixed with coarse
sand, and covered with a stinted vegetation. It was evidently de-
posited by currents rushing violently over the surface ; since only
the coarse materials, which were driven along, were left ; while
the finer particles were kept suspended by the agitation of the wa-
ters. Some varieties of this diluvium may indeed be converted
into a soil of tolerable richness by manuring it abundantly, and
clearing away the stones. And generally too, the rains that have
fallen upon it for thousands of years, have conveyed its finer par-
ticles to the bottom of the vallies and cavities, with which this for-
mation abounds, and these being mixed with much vegetable de-
cayed matter, a soil of good quality is formed. So that within
the limits of this formation much good land occurs. But these
fertile spots ought perhaps rather to be denominated alluvium than
diluvium.

Had diluvium been represented on the Map wherever it occurs,
scarcely any other formation could have been exhibited. 1 have
marked the region as diluvial, only where it occurs in such quanti-
ties, as almost entirely to conceal every other stratum. It is most
abundant in the south east part of the Stale ; the counties of Ply-
mouth. Barnstable, Dukes, and Nantucket, being almost entirely
overspread by it ; so that in the three latter counties, 1 scarcely

Tertiary Formations. 19

found any rocks that did not appear to have been broken up and
moved from their original bed. Towards the extremity of Cape
Cod, this stratum is composed almost entirely of sand ; which often
constitutes those hills called downs or dunes* that travel inland by
the action of winds and do great mischief, by overrunning fertile
spots ; and on the eastern continent, by burying even villages and
cities. The most effectual remedy that nature has provided
against these encroachments, seems to be Beach Grass ; — (^Aru-
do arenarid, Lin. Psamma arenaria, Beauv.) which is able, not
only to fix its roots in the most barren ridge of sand, but also in
time to, fix the sand itself

Diluvial tracts of considerable extent exist in the county of Nor-
folk, hi the Connecticut valley, and along the western base of
Hoosac Mountain. None of them however are noticed on the
Map. Most of the islands in Boston Harbor are thus colored:
and a part of Maiden and Chelsea.

Tertiary Formations.

The only difference between these and diluvium, is, that in di-
luvium, the sand, pebbles, and clay, are confusedly mixed togeth-
er ; exhibiting only an imperfect stratification ; but in the tertiary
formations, these materials are arranged in regular, and generally in
horizontal layers, one above another, and ajjpear to have been
deposited at earlier epochs, and in calmer waters. Hence, when
the sandy stratum happens to lie uppermost, the soil v.ill be too
sandy ; but if this be worn away, so that the clay lies at the sur-
face, the soil will be too argillaceous ; or if the gravel stratum be
exposed, the soil cannot be distinguished from diluvium. Most
of the varieties of soil thus produced, may be seen in the valley of
the Connecticut ; where exists the most extensive tertiary for-
mation in the State ; extending nearly to Middletown in Con-
necticut. Upon the whole, there is little to choose in an agricul-
tural point of view, between those tertiary formations that occur
in Massachusetts, and our diluvium, although in England, some
of these formations, that embrace beds of loam and marl, are very
productive. But it is doubtful whether more than one of our ter-
tiary formations are identical with any in Europe. At any rate,
ours contain no marl, and very little loam ; and w^here the sand is
uppermost, much of the soil corresponds to those unimproved and
unimprovable tracts, that occur in the immediate vicinity of the
English metropolis — composed of what is locally denominated

* Dunes arc properly alluvial phenomena, thoufrb diluvial santl (as in the case
mentioned in the text) is often employed in their production.

20 Economical Geology.

bagshot sand. Where the clay predominates, however, cultivation
and proper manure produce a valuable soil. Of this description
are the small tertiary patches on the Map in the vicinity of
Boston. , There, in fact, the clay near the surface appears gener-
ally to have been disturbed, and to be a kind of loam ; and it is
doubtful whether they ought not rather to have been colored as
diluvium, than as tertiary. It ought also to be remarked, that the
sandy plains along Connecticut river, are very congenial to the
growth of rye, and are very easy to cultivate.

New Red Sandstone.

This is found in the valley of the Connecticut. Although
composed of numerous varieties of rock, the prevailing color is
red ; and the reddest varieties are most liable to decomposition ;
viz. a red slate and a red sandstone. No rock in the State disin-
tegrates so easily as this; nor has any other so impressed its pe-
culiar characters upon the soil. In Longmeadow, Wilbraham,
Southwick, West Springfield, Easthampton, and Greenfield, it is
common to see tracts of considerable extent, where the diluvium
and tertiary are chiefly swept away, exhibiting that reddish aspect,
which in England is so characteristic of soils derived from this
formation. The Devonshire butchers, it is said, are able to dis-
tinguish the sheep raised on this soil, by the color of their fleeces ;
and many local names in that country originated from the same
circumstances ; such as Rougemont Castle, in Exeter ; Red Hill
and Redford, in Somersetshire; Red Brook, in Gloucestershire;
Red Mire, Rotherham, &:c. in Yorkshire.

The new red sandstone is said to be associated with some of
the most fertile land in England ; especially that variety of the
rock denominated red marl. It is distinguished for the excellence
of its wheat, barley, beans, and cider. The sand resulting from
the decomposition of the coarser varieties of the rock, produces
most of the rye grown in England. In that country, however,
this formation contains not a little limestone, either in beds, or
impregnating the sandstone. But in Massachusetts, the lime is in
small quantity ; and hence, probably, it affords a soil inferior to
that produced by the English rock. Still, with us its soil is of
a superior quality. Its poorer varieties are excellent for rye. It
is also peculiarly w ell adapted for fruit. The grass grown upon it
is of a superior quality ; and it affords excellent pasture. The
establishment of the Shakers in Enfield, Ct., exhibits a favorable
example of the productiveness of this soil, when under a good
cultivation. The black, white and red oaks, with pignut hickory,
chesnut, and soft maple, (^Acer rubrum,) are the forest trees most
naturally produced upon this soil.

Slale and Iron Ore. 21

Argillaceous Slate and Grai/wacJce.

The argillaceous slate in the vicinity of Boston, is intimately
connected with the grayvvacke, and may perhaps be considered as
a variety of that rock. It is considerably different from the argil-
laceous slate of Worcester, Franklin, and Berkshire counties.
Every variety, however, furnishes by decomposition, a dark col-
ored soil, which, although somewhat apt to be cold, is capable of
being made very fertile. The central parts of Quincy, exhibit a
favorable example of the soil lying above this rock. The range
in Worcester county, is almost every where overspread with dilu-
vium, and in Franklin and Berkshire, this rock is so limited in
extent, as not very strikingly to develope the peculiarities of its su-
perincumbent soil. Professor Dewey, however says, that in
Berkshire 'the argillaceous district is more fertile and productive
than any other portion of the section, except the alluvial.'

Numerous varieties of rock, differing both in color and compor
sition, are associated under tlie term Graywacke, from the fine
dark colored shale or slate, containing the anthracite coal of Rhode
Island, to the coarse conglomerate or plum-pudding stone, of Rox-
bury, Dorchester, Dighton, Somerset, and Svvansey. IMost of
these varieties, however, appear to furnish a soil of good quality,
and sometimes of superior fertility. The Island of Rhode Island
exhibits the superiority of the soil of this formation, to that of
several others that surround it. As we proceed northerly, the
great quantities of diluvium spread over the surface, obliterate, or
greatly modify the soil peculiar to the formation. But in Dor-
chester, Roxbury, Brooklyn, Brighton, and Newton, it is exhibited
to great advantage ; presenting the finest examples of exuberant
farms and gardens in the Commonwealth ; although we must
not forget the very superior cultivation that has been bestowed
upon that part of the State. Still, such luxuriance as we there
witness — such fine fruit especially — could not be produced without
a soil naturally excellent.

Iron Ore.

No ore except that of iron occurs in sufficient quantity in the State
to deserve notice in an agricultural point of view. In the west pa^t
of Worcester county, the soil, for a width of several miles across
the whole State, is so highly impregnated with the oxide of iron,
as to receive from it a very deep tinge of what is called iron rust.
This is particularly the case in the low grounds ; where are fre-
quently found beds of bog ore. I do not know very definitely the
effect of this iron upon vegetation ; but judging from the genera^

2

22 Economical GroJogy,

excellence of the farms in the Brookfields, Sturbridge, Hardwick
New Braintree, Barre, Hubbardston, Sic, I should presume it to
be good. Certainly it cannot be injurious ; for no part of the
county exceeds the towns just named in the appearance of its
farming interest ; and nearly all the county, as may be seen by
the Map, is of one formation. It would be an interesting problem,
which in that county can be solved, to determine the precise influ-
ence of a soil highly ferruginous upon vegetation.

Steatite, Serpentine, Scapolite RocJi, Limestone.

The next rocks, in an ascending order upon the tablets attached
to the Map, are steatite or soapstone, serpentine and scapolite rock.
But they are of such limited extent as to deserve no notice in this
connection. The next rock, namely, limestone, is found only in
Berkshire county, in quantities sufficient to modify the soil over
much extent of surface. But in that county it occupies most of
the vallies ; while the mountains are chiefly mica slate. And the
fertility of these vallies is a striking evidence of the good influence
of disintegrated and decomposing carbonate of lime upon the soil.
Indeed, I believe that it is generally thought in Europe, that soils
of this description are more productive than any other, except
rich alluvions. And I apprehend that one of the greatest defi-
ciencies in the soil of the principal part of Massachusetts, is the
absence of lime. Probably if our farmers could procure this
article at a moderate expense, its application as a manure would
amply reward them for their trouble. Limestone that contains
much magnesia, is, indeed, said to be injurious to vegetation, un-
less it be upon peaty soil; or soil containing much vegetable
matter ; and this limestone is common in Berkshire county. But
it occurs there in beds, alternating with the pure carbonate of lime,
and I apprehend rarely produces any bad effect.

Qiiartz Rock.

It will be seen by the Map that one variety of this rock is asso-
ciated with mica slate, and another with gneiss ; so intimately, in-
deed, that its agricultural character may be considered the same as
that of these rocks. When it occurs in the state of pure quartz, it
is so little acted upon by the common decomposing agents, such as
air, heat, and moisture, as to exert little or no influence upon the
superincumbent soil ; except in the town of Cheshire, where it
produces a pure white sand.

Chlorite Slate, Talcose Slate, Mica Slate.

The first of these rocks occupies too little space to deserve any
notice in respect to the soil resulting from it. The second is in

ScJiistose Rocks. 23

general a mere variety of mica slate, laic taking the place of mica,
or being superadded to it. Where the talcose slate, however,
is most pure, so as in fact to be little else but slaty talc, with more
or less quartz, the soil which its decomposition produces, is decid-
edly inferior to that resulting from mica slate ; and probably this
is owing to the large quantity of magnesia which talc contains.

Mica slate produces a soil of medium quality. Some varieties
of it underlie tracts of superior excellence. But the most extensive
region of mica slate in Massachusetts, consists of the high and
mountainous region west of Connecticut river : so that it is diffi-
cult to compare the soil lying over it, with that of formations at a
lower level. The deep ravines, however, so common in the mica
slate, furnish many very fertile, though limited patches of ground ;
while the mountain sides are very superior for grazing.

Hornblende Slate, Gneiss.

Gneiss, which differs from granite only in having a slaty struct-
ure, occupies more of the surface of the State than any otljer
rock. It sometimes takes into its composition the black mineral
called hornblende; even losing its common ingredients; and then
it is denominated Hornblende Slate.

The soil resulting from the decomposition of gneiss is so well
marked, as not to be easily mistaken by an experienced eye. Its
predominant ingredient is a rather fine whitish sand ; and some-
times beds of extremely pure sand result from it, as in Pelham
and Shutesbury. Indeed, the appearance of the soil from gneiss,
indicates uncommon poverty and sterility. But facts do not cor-
respond to this anticipation ; for in no part of the State>do we
find finer looking farms, or the appearance of more thrift and inde-
pendence among their occupants, than in the region where gneiss
prevails ; I refer chiefly to Worcester county, most of which is
based on this rock. The western part of the range, however,
embracing the eastern part of Franklin, Hampshire and Hampden
counties, is in general characterized by a rather barren soil. But
this region is more elevated than the surface farther east. Where
it is not so high, as in Monson and Brimfield, we find the same ap-
pearance of fertility as in the towns farther to the east. It is a
question worthy of attention, however, how far the soil from our
gneiss may owe its agricultural character to the iron that so
generally accompanies this rock. Certainly the iron gives it an
appearance of sterility which does not belong to it.

Greenstone.

This is one of the varieties of rock embraced under the general
term traj) rock. The variety most common in Europe is basalt,

24 Economical Geology.

and the soil produced by its decomposition is said to be of a supe-
rior quality. The gieenstone of JMassachusetts, however, except
some of its rai'er varieties, is but little acted upon by ordinary de-
composing and disintegrating agents ; and is proverbially one of
our hardest and most indestructible rocks. Hence the soil that
covers it is generally quite scanty. It is, however, very peculiar ;
and we find upon our greenstone ridges, quite a number of plants,
shrubs, and trees, that are not found, except rarely, upon the other
formations. The eastern part of the county of Essex is in a
great measure composed of greenstone ; and its superior agricultu-
ral character, in general, produces a favorable opinion as to the
influence of this rock upon the soil, though very much must be
imputed to good management. This formation in the Connecticut
valley furnishes but little arable land, and that of rather a sterile
character.

Porphyry.

This rock oilers but little Intei'est in an agricultiu'al point of
view. It is of quite limited extent and is decidedly the hardest
and most unyielding of all our rocks. It occupies the greater
part of the surface, and the scanty soil that has formed a lodgment
in its inequalities, is not of the first rate character.

Sienilc and Granite,

Sienite is intermediate in its characters between greenstone and
granite, although most commonly it is only a variety of granite.
Both rocks are little liable to decomposition, and occupy a large
porportion of tl;e surface with their naked and rugged projections.
Still, the soil found among them, particularly on the granite, is gen-
erally of a superior character, probably from the fact that most of
it must have been derived from decomposed vegetable and animal
inatler. Hence it is usually of a dark color and fine texture, and
not coarse and sandy like the soil above the granites of Europe,
that more easily suffer decomposition.

Should the preceding cursory remarks be the means of exciting
the attention of intelligent agriculturalists, to the connection between
rocks and soils, an important object will be attained. I have said
enough to show that almost all known varieties of soil exist in IMas-
sachusetts. But much improven)ent remains to be made in our
agricultural concerns, before the excellencies of our soil are fully
developed. It is but a moderate estimate to say, that the general
adoption of an enlightened system of cultivation, would, in a few
years, double the produce and tlie value of our improvable lands.

Granite and Sienilc. 25

That is to say, such would be the speedy result, if all our I'armers
were to manage their lands as a few now do.

USEFUL ROCKS AND MINERALS IN THE STATE.

I shall next proceed to give an account of those rocks and min-
eral substances found in the Slate, which Ijave been, or may be
useful in the arts, and are consequently objects of pecuniary im-
portance, Tliose that are em))loyed for architectural or ornamen-
tal purposes, first claim attention ; because the State is peculiarly
rich in treasures of this kind. It will be easy to see, by a referer-
ence to the Map, how extensive are the formations from which they
are derived ; although it must not be concluded that every part of
a formation will furnish materials of equal value lor economical
purposes.

Granite and Sieniic.

Much confusion has arisen in the application of these terms.
They were originally applied to designate rocks very different, if
not in composition, yet in their geological relations. But most of
the rock that is generally described as sienite, is a variety of gran-
ite. This is certainly the case in Massachusetts. Wherever the
granite admits hornblende into its composition, I have considered
it as a sienite ; and not unfrequently the hornblende constitutes
the principal ingredient; taking the place, more or less of the
quartz and mica, so as to form a compound of hornblende and
feldspar. This compound forms some of the most beautiful va-
rieties of sienite, though extremely hard to work for architectural
purposes. But not a little granite that contains no hornblende
goes by the name of sienite. Thus, much of the Quincy granite
is wanting hornblende ; but being almost destitute of mica, and
having the close aspect of sienite, it is called indifferently by either
name.

The variety in the composition, color, and hardness of these rocks
in Massachusetts, is almost endless. The quartz and feldspar are
commonly white, yellowish and gray; the latter not unfrequently
flesh colored : the mica is very often black, but sometimes of a
silver color. When the quartz prevails, the rock is easily broken,
but hornblende renders it tough. The predominance of feldspar
generally gives the rock a more lively white color and renders it
rather easier to work. But I shall not attempt to describe partic-
ularly all the varieties of these rocks that occur in the State. An
inspection of the specimens which 1 have collected, will at once
give an idea of the kinds obtained at the principle quarries, and of

26 Economical Geology.

numerous other varieties which I have met with in different local-
ties. (Nos. 1-271 to 1348, and 1410 to 1458.*)

The very coarse vai-ieties of granite, which are found in some
parts of the State, do hy no means furnish a good building stone :
indeed, some of them hardly serve fo;* common walls. Much of
the granite in the vicinity of Connecticut river is of this descrip-
tion ; as also a considerable portion of the range which extends
from Soulhborough to Andover ; particularly along its northwestern
limits. But most of the granite in the eastern part of the State,
is of so fine a texture, as to answer admirably for architecture and
other economical purposes. Along with sienite, it extends around
Boston, running in a curvilinear direction at the distance of fifteen
or twenty miles. From Cohasset to Quincy, at the southern ex-
tremity of the curve, and from the end of Cape Ann to Salem, on
the north, the formation is most fully developed, and is there quar-
ried extensively. The Quincy quarries are probably the best and
most generally known ; and few citizens of the State are unacquainted
with the rock thence obtained, now so extensively used in Boston and
elsewhere. The quantities which those quarries (or rather moun-
tains)will furnish, are incalculably great. One railroad, as is well
known, has been used for several years to convey the granite from
the quarry to Neponset river, a distance of three miles. It is
thought, however, that the granite has not reached its minimum,
price. Yet even now, Boston is almost as much distinguished for
its granite structures, as the metropolis of the Russian Empire.

Some of the granite obtained on the north of Boston, cannot
be distinguished from that of Quincy. I observed the resem-
blance most strongly in Danvers and Lynnfield. At the former
place it is quarried, and fine blocks are obtained. Extensive quar-
ries are also opened in the north side of Cape Ann, in Gloucester.
The rock here resembles that of Quincy ; but it is generally
harder and of a lighter color. At these quarries no railroad (ex-
cept one of a few rods in length) is necessary to transport the
rock to the sea-side ; since vessels can approach very near the
spot. And, since the demand for this rock must increase, in our
country, for many years to come, and Cape Ann is little else than
a vast block of it, it seems to me that it must be regarded as a sub-
stantial treasure to that part of the State, — far more valuable than
a mine of the precious metals. At Squam, in Gloucester, I was
informed that blocks of granite had sometimes been split out sixty
feet in length ; indeed, 1 saw the face of a ledge from which they
had been detached.

♦ In all cases where numbers arc included in parentheses as above, in the sub-
sequent pages of this Report, they refer to the collection of rocks and minerals
which I have deposited in the hands of the Govcrnnientj and a descriptive cata-
logue of which is given in the Appendix.

Granite and Sienitc. 27

At Fall River, in Troy, which lies upon Taunton river, are other
extensive and interesting granite quarries. This granite, as the
Map will show, is connected with the Quincy range above de-
scribed. Yet the greater part of the granite in Plymouth and
Bristol is coarser than that of Quincy and Gloucester, and more lia-
ble to decomposition. But no rock can be finer for architectural
purposes than the granite of Troy ; and immense quantities have
been obtained from this locality. The large manufactories at Fall
River are built of it, as is also Fort Adams at Newport, Rhode Is-
land. The feldspar of this rock is a mixture of the flesh red and
light green varieties ; the former predominating : the quartz is
light gray, and the mica, usually black. It works easily, and has
a lighter and more lively appearance than Quincy granite. Blocks
of this granite have been split out from fifty to sixty feet long, as
the sign-post at one of the public houses at Fall River, will attest :
it consists of a single block. The contiguity of this granite to
water transportation, will always render it peculiarly valuable.

The granite range extending from Cohasset and Quincy,
through Randolph, Stoughton, Foxborough, &c., into Rhode Is-
land, with one interruption by graywacke, affords much valuable
stone for architectural purposes ; and it is wrought more or less in
every town through which it passes. About two and a half miles
to the west of Providence, R. I. it is quarried ; also in Johnstone,
five miles northwest of the^city ; and thence were obtained the
beautiful and magnificent pillars in front of the Arcade in that place

That part of this extensive deposit of granite, which is fully de-
veloped a little south-west of Dedham, furnishes some beautiful
varieties of stone. No better example can be referred to, than
the elegant pillars of the Court House in Dedham. This granite
is very fine grained, and so white, that at a short distance it cannot
be distinguished from white marble. The pillars just named were
obtained from some large bowlders near the dividing line between
Dover and Medfield.

The stone used in Boston under the name of Chelmsford gran-
ite, is found in a range of this rock, not connected with the deposit
that has been described above. Nor does it come from Chelms-
ford ; but from Westford and Tyngsborough. In the latter place,
it is obtained chiefly from bowlder stones ; but ledges are quarried
in Westford. I do not know why it has been called Chelmsford
granite, unless from the fact that large quantities are carried to
Lowell, (formerly a part of Chelmsford,) to be wrought. This
rock is pure granite, with no hornblende ; and being homogenous
and compact in its texture, it furnishes an elegant stone. Good
examples of it may be seen in the pillars of the United States

28 Hconomical Geology.

Bank, and in the Market House in Boston. These were from
Westford.

Four miles north of Lowell, a quarry of this granite has been
opened in Pelham, N. H. Blocks may be obtained from this
place of any length under thirty feet. It is a very fine variety,
is much used, and appears superior to the Chelmsford granite.

The Westford and Pelham granite is connected with an imper-
fect kind of mica slate, in which it seems to form beds, or large
protruding masses. In the same mica slate at Fitchburg, a little
south of the village, is a large hill of the same kind of granite.
This is quarried though not extensively, on account of the little
demand for the stone. Tiiis single hill, 300 feet high, and nearly
a mile in circumference at its base, migiit furnish enough to sup-
ply the whole State for centuries. Some of it, however, is too
coarse for architecture.

The manner in which the granite is usually split out at the
quarries is this. A number of holes of a quadrangular form, a
little more than an inch v.ide, and two or three inches deep, are
drilled into the rock, at intervals of a few inches, in the direction
in which it is wished to separate the mass. Iron wedges, having
cases of sheet iron, are then driven at the same time, and with
equal force, into those cavities ; and so prodigious is the power
thus exerted, tliat masses of ten, twenty, thirty, and even fifiy and
sixty feet long, and sometimes half as many wide, are separated.
These ma}'' be subdivided in any direction desired ; and it is com-
mon to see masses thus split, till their sides are less than a foot
wide, and their length from ten to twenty feet. In this state they
are often employed as posts for fences.

Respecting the price of the granite from these quarries that have
been described, I have not been able to obtain much information.
At Fitchburg, I was told that it was sold at the quarries, well
dressed, at forty cents the superficial foot; and at Squam at forty-
five cents.

The cost of hammering and fine dressing granite In Boston, in
the style of the Tremont House, I have been credibly informed,
is about thirty cents the superficial foot. Ordinary work, how-
ever, is from twenty-five to thirty cents ; and not unfrequently,
even as low as twenty cents.

Concord and Hallowell granite costs about fifty cents per foot in
Boston ; but are now little used.

Posts for store-fronts cost about thirty-four cents per foot in
Boston. The Columns of the Hospital were obtained for about
one dollar per foot.

To show how rapidly the price of granite ha-; fallen, I would

Granite and Gneiss. 29

state on the authority of a respectable architect in Boston, that
the cost of the blocks of the Quincy granite for the Bunker Hill
monument, delivered at Charlestown in a rough state, was thirteen
cents, three mills per foot ; and the cost of the unhewn stone for
the church built last year in Bovvdoin street, Boston, was fifteen
cents ; but six years before, the rough Quincy granite, for the
United States' Branch Bank, cost two dollars per foot.

1 have now given an account of the most extensive and impor-
tant quarries of granite and sienite in the eastern part of the
State. Granite is wrought more or less, however, not merely in
all the towns through which its ranges pass, but also in other places,
in their vicinity ; large blocks of it having been removed thither
by diluvial action in former times.

Although the granite in general, in the vicinity of Connecticut
river, is too coarse for architectural uses ; yet in Hampshire county
are several beds of a superior quality. Perhaps the best is found
in Williamsburgh, a few miles from Northampton. This rock,
(some of which may be seen in the front of a few buildings in
Northampton,) very much resembles the granite found in the vicin-
ity of Dedham, and yields in beauty and value to none in the State.
It exists in abundance in Northampton, Whately, and Williams-
burgh ; but has yet been quarried only on a very limited scale.

On the east side of the Connecticut, a very beautiful sienitio
granite exists in Belchertown ; in which the mica, when the horn--
blende is wanting, is very black. It is not surpassed in elegance
by any rock in the State ; but it has not as yet, to my knowledge,
been quarried at all. Indeed, very little real granite is employed
in the middle or western parts of the State, except in a rough
condition.

This sketch of the granite of Massachusetts, although brief^ is
sufficient to show that we have a great number of varieties, and an
exhaustless quantity of this most valuable material for durable
and elegant architecture. Numerous varieties not mentioned above,
which have fallen under my consideration, either in ledges or loose
blocks, will be found in the collection of specimens ; and some
of these are peculiarly beautiful. Numerous other varieties have
doubtless escaped my observation. Indeed, we may safely assert,^
that no part of the world is better furnished with this useful an4
indestructible rock,

Gneiss^

This rock is commonly known under the name of granite ;
and, indeed, it is composed of the same materials ; but in the
gneiss, the structure of the rock is slaty, and it splits in one direcn,

3

30 Economical Geology.

tlon better than in others ; yet this slaty structure is often hardly
perceptible, even in wrought specimens ; and hence for all archi-
tectural and economical purposes, the distinction between granite
and gneiss is of small importance ; though of much consequence
in respect to the science of Geology.

The quarries of gneiss in Massachusetts are perhaps even more
numerous than those of granite, though not in general so exten-
sively wrought. It forms admirable building stone ; and is in no
respect, that 1 know of, inferior to granite ; while the facility with
which it cleaves in one direction, renders it easier to get out and
dress ; so that it can be afforded at a less price. Accordingly we
find that a large proportion of the better class of buildings in the
extensive portion of the central part of the State where this rock
prevails, are underpinned by wrought blocks of it. Its fissile
character also renders it an excellent material for common stone
walls and flagging stones. The same property enables the quarry-
man to split out layers of it of almost any size, and only a few
inches in thickness ; and their surface is generally so even, as to
require but little dressing. Hence it is very common to see such
large stones of this description in front of very many of our
churches and other public buildings.

In Europe gneiss seems to have been applied to few useful pur-
poses. One of the latest geological writers in Great Britain, says
that ' this schistose (slaty) body serves no particular purpose in the
arts of life.' * Dr. Macculloch however mentions that the mica-
ceous varieties are employed in building and sometimes for roofing.f
This rock appears to be more perfectly developed in our own coun-
try than in Europe. There it seems chiefly to consist of the
granitic variety, or of that variety not uncommon here, in which
the layers are so contorted and irregular as to prevent its splitting
into parallel planes.

The western part of Worcester county, and the eastern parts of
Hampden, Hampshire, and Franklin counties, afford the best quar-
ries of gneiss. That branch of the Worcester range extending
into Middlesex county, and the range in Berkshire county, do not
furnish so good specimens for architecture, though by no means de-
void of interest in this respect.

The quarries of gneiss that are most extensively wrought, and
furnish the best stone are situated in the following towns : Wilbra-
ham, Pelham,Monson, Montague, Dudley, Milbury, Westborough,
Boylston, and Uxbridge. Much of the stone at these quarries can
hardly be distinguished from granite, even by the Geologist. The

* Ure's Geology, p. 100. t Macculloch's System of Geology, Vol. 2, p. 155.

Greenstone, Porphyry, Sfc. 31

Milbury gneiss, for Instance, is very much used in Worcester, and
does not there present any appearance of stratification, and very
little of a slaty structure : while the granite, that is quarried in
the east part of Worcester, is distinctly stratified ; and would
probably be called gneiss by most persons, rather than the Milbury
rock.

At these gneiss quarries it is easy to obtain blocks from ten to
twenty feet long, which are only a few inches thick. At Dudley,
1 was told that narrow slabs of this rock, such as would answer for
posts, or side walks, could be split out, and delivered in the centre
of the town for four cents per foot.

Greenstone.

This is one of the most enduring of rocks ; but it is usually
so much divided by irregular seams, into small and shapeless
blocks, that it is but little employed, either in the construction of
houses, or walls. Its dark color, also, renders it less acceptable
than granite or limestone. Still it is beginning to be used for
building houses, in its unaltered state. The irregular blocks may
be so laid with white mortar, especially in the Gothic style of
building, as to form a picturesque and pleasing structure. The
Episcopal Church, in the city of New-Haven, Conn, presents a
good example of this kind of architecture.

Hornblende Slate.

I do not recollect to have seen this rock employed in Massachu-
setts for any useful purpose, except for the construction of com-
mon stone walls. But I have noticed some very fine samples of
it in the flagging of the side walks of New-Havfin, obtained, I pre-
sume, in Connecticut, from the same range that passes through
Monson, Ware, &;c., in Massachusetts.

Porphyry.

This term, as it employed in the arts, embraces several varieties
of rock not designated by its strict geological sense. Although
upon the Map, I have included in the term, only the porphyry of
geologists, yet in this place, I shall describe all those compounds
occurring among us, which have been denominated porphyry in
the arts.

The first and most extensive of these, is the genuine feldspar
porphyry, represented on the Map in large quantities in the towns
of Medford, Maiden, Chelsea and Lynn, on the north of Boston ;
and in JVeedham, Milton and Braintree, on the south. This is the

32 Economical Geology.

oldest and most enduring of the porphyries, and, indeed, thehard-^
est of rocks. Its basis is generally compact feldspar, reduced
to a homogeneous paste, and of various colors ; as light purple,
red of various shades, brownish black, and greenish gray. The
imbedded crystals are either feldspar, or quartz alone, or existing
together in the same rock ; and their colors are very various, though
more usually white or gray. By these mixtures porphyries are
produced, rivalling in beauty the best antique porphyry. This
rock is polished with so great difficulty, that it is rarely used in our
country, either for ornamental or useful purposes. But it would
be strange if an increase of wealth and refinement should not
create some demand for so elegant and enduring a rock. When-
ever this shall happen, the vicinity of Boston will furnish every
variety that can be desired, and in blocks large enough for any
purpose. Quite a number of smoothed or polished specimens
may be seen in the collection. (Nos. ]23l to 1-269.)

The porphyry range on the north of Boston, is most perfect in
its characters, and in the greatest abundance at any one place ; al-
though the southern range spreads over a greater extent of surface.
In Lynn, and some other towns, I have observed blocks of porphy-
ry that were brecciated — that is, they were composed of angular
fragments of porphyry reunited. This furnishes a beautiful variety
for polishing. (Nos. 1264 to 1269.)

Sicnitic Porphyry.

When sienite contains crystals of feldspar imbedded in the mass,
it is said to be porphyritic ; and some varieties of this rock in the
eastern part of the State are very elegant. Essex county produ-
ces some of the finest specimens, particularly Cape Ann. Some-
times the imbedded crystals of feldspar, are white, sometimes flesh-
•colored ; and in Gloucester, I found a rock in which they \vere of
a rich bronze color. These sienitic porphyries are extremely ele-
:gant when polished ; but I am not aware that they are employed
3>t all fc8' ornamental purposes, in this country. (Nos. 1341 to 1346.)

Porphyritic Greenstone.

The ingredients of greenstone are often not easily distinguished
from each other by the naked eye ; and when, in such a case the
rock contains disseminated crystals of feldspar, it becomes porphy-
ritic. If these crystals are greenish white, and the base blackish
green, the rock is the green porphyry of the ancients. In Dor-
chester, Brooklyn, and Roxbury, according to the Messrs. Danas,
it occurs in rounded juasses ; and in small quantity, in veins, at
JMarblehead. But I have found it in large veins, traversing sienite

(Quartz Rock. 33

at Sandy Bay, on the northeast side of Cape Ann. Large
blocks might be thence obtained ; and if pohshed, it would consti-
tute a truly splendid ornament for the interior of a church, or a
private dwelling.

If the feldspar crystals be black, or grayish black, the rock is the
superb black porphyry of the ancients. This occurs in small beds
and rolled masses in Charlestown, and in veins of greenstone, at
Marblehead, according to the Messrs. Danas : but I have not
met with it.

The hornblende slate in various parts of the State, but particu-
larly in the region of the Connecticut river, is frequently porphy-
ritic ; and exceedingly resembles porphyritic greenstone ; being,
in fact, composed of the same ingredients; and differing only in
its slaty structure, and in the more distinctly crystalline character
of the hornblende. The disseminated crystals of feldspar are
usually white. In Canton and Easton, they are sometimes the
compact variety, yet retaining their form perfectly. A fine varie-
ty and in large quantity occurs in Heath, a specimen of which may
be seen in the collection. (No. 944.)

The magnetic iron ore in Cumberland, R. I. is profusely
sprinkled with crystals of feldspar ; and would doubtless form no
mean substitute for green or black porphyry. (No. 847.)

In Ipswich I found a bowlder of greenstone in which are imbed-
ded numerous distinct crystalline masses of jet black Karinthin.
(No. 1159.) The same rock occurs in Durham N. H , and on
the western slope of the Green Mountains in Vt. But I appre-
hend that the color of the rock is too dark to be employed much
for ornament.

Quartz Rock.

When this rock occurs pure, it can hardly be employed in archi-
tecture of any kind, on account of its breaking into fragments so
extremely irregular. But when it takes a small proportion of mica
into its composition, it is often divided, with mathematical preci-
sion, into layers of convenient thickness for building. The best
quarry of this kind that I know of, is in the west part of Washing-
ton, Berkshire county, about three miles south-east of Pittsfield
village. The layers vary in thickness from an inch, to one
or two feet ; thus affording materials for fine flagging stone, as
also for walls and underpinning. The quantity of this rock at the
quarry is very great.

Although quartz rock is usually, of all others, most easily affect-
ed by heat, yet that variety from the quarry at Washington, is re-
markable for its power of resisting heal ; and it is hence emi)loyed

34 Economical Geology.

for the hearths and walls of furnaces. Prof Dewey says that he
has * seen- this stone after it has sustained the highest heat of the
furnace for nionths, and found its surface merely glazed by the
high temperature.' It was transported to the iron works in
Bennington, Vt., until a similar rock was discovered in that town.
It occurs also in Williamstown. What peculiarity this rock pos-
sesses, that renders it able to resist a high temperature, I do not
know.

Another valuable variety of quartz rock is foimd near the quar-
ry above mentioned. But its use, as well as that of another va-
riety in Cheshire, will be noticed subsequently.

Mica Slate.

This rock is generally more uneven or tortuous in the structure
of its layers, than any rock in the State. But, like geniss, its lay-
ers are sometimes remarkable for their regularity. It then forms
an admirable stone for flagging, for hearths, and for situations
where there is an exposure to a moderate degree of heat. The
variety that occurs in Goshen and Chesterfield, Hampshire coun-
ty, is perhaps the best in the State for these purposes ; and in
these places, particularly in Goshen, it is quarried to a considera-
ble extent. In some cases this rock approaches so near to argil-
laceous, or roof-slate, that it is employed for common gravestones.
In Halifax, Vt., there is a quarry of this character ; and, I be-
lieve, also in Chesterfield, Mass. Sometimes it forms excellent
whetstones ; and from the quarries in Enfield and Norwich, large
quantities are obtained and extensively used.

Talcose Slate.

The principal value of this rock, in an economical point of view,
is derived from its power of resisting high degrees of heat. The
greater the proportion of talc in its composition, the more valuable
is it in this respect. A very fine stone of this description, for the
lining of furnaces, is quarried in Stafford, Ct., and is employed to
some extent in the furnaces in ]\Iassachusetts. I do not know of
any quarry of this kind in our own State ; but undoubtedly such
might be opened, since almost every variety of talcose slate exists
here. Indeed, 1 am informed by the Rev. Mr. Colton, of Am-
herst Academy, that talcose slate, equal to that in Stafford, may
be dug in Monson ; and it occurs of very similar appearance in
Hawley and Rowe.

In Plainfield and Hawley a variety of talcose slate occurs, in
in which are disseminated numerous crystals of black hornblende.
The talc is green and the quartz while, and the rock admits of a

Limestone. 35

polish. Sometimes the talc almost disappears ; and then we
have a white base with black crystals imbedded. In short, I feel
satisfied that this rock would form a tolerably good ornamental stone,
if wrought into tables, urns, chimney pieces, &c., &c. But of this
others can judge from the specimens which I shall place in the
collection already referred to. Large blocks of it may be obtained,
which would be very firm throughout. (Nos. 837. 838. 839.)

Limestone.

Next to granite and gneiss, this is the most valuable rock in the
State. Little advantage is derived from it, however, by any part
of the State except Berkshire county. Small beds of it do, in
deed, exist in the eastern part of the State; but they rarely furnish
blocks sufficiently large and sound, to be wrought into marble.
And on account of the high price of wood in the vicinity of Bos-
ton, it cannot be burnt into quick lime, so as to be afforded at a
less price than the lime brought from Maine. In many places,
however, it continues still to be burnt. Judging from the appear-
ance of the quarries, I should suppose that Bolton furnishes a
greater quantity of lime at present, than any other locality. The
stone here is mostly crystalline, and white, although it is apt to be
much mixed, as it is at every other locality in the eastern part of
the State, with a variety of minerals, that much injure it for lime.
Beds of this limestone occur at Newbury, Bolton, Boxborough,
Acton, Littleton, Carlisle, Chelmsford, and Stoneham. That in
Stoneham is peculiarly fine ; and could large blocks of it he ob-
tained, free from fissures and foreign minerals, it would undoubt-
edly answer well for satuary. When there shall be a greater de-
mand for a stone of this description, perhaps a farther exploration
will bring to light, at this quarry, many larger and sounder pieces.

On the south of Boston, at Walpole, is a bed of limestone of
a gray color and probably somewhat impure. It would, however,
make good lime : and indeed it was burnt in considerable quantity
some years ago. But until the lime from Maine and Rhode Is-
land, shall sell at a higher price, this cannot be profitably pre-
pared. It must be gratifying, however, to the inhabitants of the
eastern section of the State, to know that such abundant sources
of this valuable rock are within their reach, should their present
means of supply be cut off.

The limestone quarries in Smitlifiekl, Rhode Island, are so situ-
ated as to be of great importance to IMassachusetts, being accessi-
ble to a large portion of the southeastern part of our State, and
lying close to the Blackstone canal. The limestone here is white
and granular; very much resembling that in the towns northwest

36 Economical Geology.

of Boston, — especially that in Stoneham. It occurs in two prin-
cipal beds, about two miles apart. I was told by an agent of one
of the companies, which own this limestone, that not far from
twenty thousand casks of lime, containing from thirty eight to
forty gallons each, and worth nearly two dollars each, are annu-
ally prepared in the whole town.

Several beds of limestone may be seen on the Map in the eas-
tern part of the range of mica slate in Franklin county, west side
of the Connecticut, in the towns of Whately, Conway, Ashfield,
Colerain, &;c. But this limestone is quite impure, and is not gen-
erally distinguished, by the inhabitants of those towns, from the
mica slate. It becomes an interesting enquiry, to those residing
in the valley of the Connecticut, where quick lime is more ex-
pensive than in any other part of the State, whether this stone
can be profitably converted into mortar. Very few attempts have
yet been made to burn it, and those obviously quite unsatisfactory.
Those who made these attempts probably thought that the stone,
after burning, would slack with as much energp and readiness as
pure quick lime; and because the process went on slowly and
feebly, they have inferred that the lime would be of no value.
At least, I know this to have been the conclusion in one instance,
in which I had procured the burning of a considerable quantity of
this limestone, in a regular lirne kiln. But the mason, not seeing
it slack briskly, did not think it necessary to apprize me of what
he was doing, and mixed it with other lime, and defeated the
whole experiment. I have, however, burnt a few pounds of this
stone in a common chemical furnace, and found it to form a very
excellent mortar ; although requiring less sand than pure lime.
Bricks cemented with it two or three years since, still remain as
firmly united as ever.

This limestone contains a large proportion of silex, which, on
burning, becomes a harsh sand. Wishing to know how much of
pure carbonate of lime is contained in it, I powdered and dis-
solved portions of it, from different localities, in muriatic acid ;
and the results were as follows :

1. Purest variety from Whately; 100 parts contain carbonate
of lime 78 ; residuum (chiefly sand) 2:^ parts.

2. Compact variety from Conway ; carbonate of lime 58 parts ;
siliceous residuum 42 parts.

3. Poorest from Whately ; carbonate of lime 67 parts ; silice-
ous residuum 33 parts.

4. From Southampton ; carbonate of lime 40 parts ; siliceous
matter 60 parts.

I tried some specimens of our best limestones in the same
manner, with the following results :

Limestone. 37

1. Gray limestone from New Marlborough ; carbonate of lime,
98 parts ; residuum (chiefly mica) 2 parts.

2. Gray limestone from Walpole ; carbonate of lime 92 parts;
residuum 8 parts.

3. White crystalline, from Boxborough ; carbonate of lime, 99
parts ; residuum 1 part.

It is my decided opinion that the limestone;, described above,
in the primitive region of the Connecticut valley, may be usefully
employed either for mortar, or for spreading upon the soil. The
beds of it are quite numerous in all the towns where they are oc-
casionally marked. I think, however, that the best variety occurs
in Whately, where, should it ever come into use, on the north line
of the town, is a hill large enough to supply the whole valley of
the Connecticut for centuries. This locality is favorably situated
for working, so as to furnish that valley ; being not more than two
or three miles from the Connecticut, and the whole distance nearly
level. I cannot but hope that the attention of some enterprizing
gentleman may be directed to this subject; and should he succeed
in preparing even tolerable lime from this rock, he would confer a
great favor upon the inhabitants of that section of the State.

A large portion of the limestone in Berkshire is excellent for
burning into quick lime : and even in several towns where none of,
the rock occurs in ledges, so abundant are the loose masses, trans-"'
ported thither by a current of water in early times, that it is burnt
in considerable quantities. This is the case in Windsor, Peru, &tc.,
from whence lime is transported in wagons to the valley of the
Connecticut.

Probably, however, a still larger proportion of the lime used in
that valley, particularly in its northern part, is brought from Whi-
tingham, Vt., a town lying directly north of Rowe in Franklin
county. This limestone is white and crystalline, and it exists in
large quantities. It approaches within a kw rods of the Massa-
chusetts line, and may even pass over it in some places.

Two interesting beds of limestone of a peculiar character, have
been discovered, within a few years, in the valley of the Connec-
ticut, at West Springfield, a few miles south of Mount Tom. It is
chiefly the fetid limestone, though mixed with various impurities.
But it answers well, and that too on account of its impurity, for
water proof cement, or mortar that will harden underwater. It
was used on the Farmington canal, particularly in the construction of
the acqueduct across Westfield river. The same rock occurs at
Soulhington and Middletown, Ct., and I doubt not may be found in
many other places, along the river, associated with the new red

38 Economical Geologi/.

sandstone. I am not aware that fetid limestone has ever before
been used as a water proof cement. In Europe, and I believe in
New Yorkj the blue argillaceous limestone is employed. Pure
lime, however, will answer the purpose, if it be mixed with puzzo-
lana or tarras. The former of these substances is decomposing
lava, and the latter decomposing basalt. I doubt not but that de-
composing greenstone will answer as well ; and if so, it can be
found in abundance on the north of Boston, and near Connecticut
river, particularly in Greenfield and Deerfield. Lava, basalt, and
greenstone, are so nmch alike, that I think the latter well worth a
trial. Indeed, if 1 recollect aright, the experiment has already
been successfully tried in New Haven, Ct.

As the Springfield limestone is abundant, it would be very desir-
able to have it tried upon some land in the vicinity: for, if it an-
swers well in agriculture, (and I see no reason why it may not,) it
might prove an invaluable acquisition to the farming interest of the
Connecticut valley.

Postscript. — Discovery of good Limestone zn the valley of the

Connec ticut.

After the preceding remarks upon the limestones of Massachu-
setts were written, [ received specimens, through the kindness of
Mr. Henry W. Cushman, of crystalline carbonate of lime, found
in Bernardston, near the centre of the town, and a short distance
from the stage road from Greenfield to Brattleborough, Vt. I
immediately visited the spot, and found, indeed, a large bed of
limestone, connected with quartz rock, or argillaceous slate, not
less than fifty rods long, and three or four rods thick, appearing
at the summit of a hill, and dipping nearly southeast at a small
angle. In the limestone is a large bed of iron ore, which was
dug forty or fifty years since, and with the limestone sent to Win-
chester, N. H., to be smelted. Neither the limestone, nor the
iron have been thought worthy of attention since. But a kiln of
the former has recently been burnt, and found to produce a very
strong lime, although of a rather darker color than the white lime-
stones generally produce.* This results from a quantity of the hy-
drate of iron, which penetrates the seams of the rock : but this does
not injure the stone for mortar, and probably even makes it more
valuable. The bed is only three or four miles from Connecti-
cut river and on the bank of Fall river, a small stream that emp-
ties into the Connecticut. By going to Cheapside, in Deerfield,

•April 1334. Large quantities of this limestone have been burnt more recently
and it is getting- into use extensively. If more kilns were in operation, proba-
bly there would be a demand for the products. J am informed also that an effort
is now making- by an intellig-ent g-entleman to smelt the iron ore.

Marble. 39

(eight miles,) over a level and excellent road, water communica
tion with the whole valley of the Connecticut, will be reached.
I have little doubt, that if this limestone should be extensively
burnt, it will reduce the value of quicklime in that valley, from
twenty five to fifty per cent. : a benefit superior to any that could
befconferred by the discovery of a gold or silver mine.

I dissolved some of this lime, in diluted nitric acid, to see if it
contains magnesia. The solution was not milky, and therefore
no magnesia was present. I also dissolved 100 grains in muriatic
acid, and the siliceous residuum was only a single grain : the 99
grains are probably chiefly carbonate of lime ; although whatever
amount of oxide of iron was present, would also be dissolved.*

Marble.

The limestone of Berkshire is best known for the fine marble
which it produces. It is all of that variety denominated primi-
tive marble. It is always more or less crystalline, sometimes
very coarsely so. The prevailing color is white ; and this is the
variety most extensively wrought. Some varieties are snow white,
and admit of a very fine polish. From this pure white, the color
changes by imperceptible gradations to gray, and dove color.
These varieties form delicate marbles. But probably most persons
would say that the clouded variety, where the white and the gray
are fantastically mixed, is most elegant.

More or less marble is quarried in almost every town of Berk-
shire county, except a few on its eastern side. But the towns
where it is most extensively wrought are West Stockbridge, Lanes-
borough, New Ashford, Sheffield, New INIarlborough and Adams.
A few years since, Prof. Dewey stated the amount of marble
annually furnished by West Stockbridge, to be sixteen thousand
square feet, valued at ,^25,000 to .'^'SOjOOO ; the amount at Lanes-
borough, seven thousand feet; value ,^'10,000; and in Sheffield, to
the value of $8,000. In all the county, the annual value of mar-
ble was estimated to be more than $40,000. Still more recently
there were in operation in West Stockbridge, for sawing marble,
nine mills, moved by water power ; and two hundred hands were
employed. From twelve to fifteen quarries had been opened ; and in
1827, about two thousand seven hundred tons of marble were ex-
ported from this town. The marble used in building the city hall
in New York City was chiefly from this town. A part of the mar-

* Still more recently a bed of crystalline lime tone has been found in the north
west part of Blanford, which will be described in the third part of my Report. I
believe that as yet no attempt has been made to burn this rock into quicklime.

40 Economical Geology.

ble in the state house in Boston, was from the same place. - In
1828, a charge of two hundred and four pounds of powder was
put into the rock in one of the West Stockbridge quarries, and a
block from fifty to sixty feet square and eight feet thick, was raised
and as much more loosened.

The Lanesborough marble is of a superior quality, and a good
sample of it may be seen in the capitol at Albany. The New
Ashford quarries furnish a marble of the same kind ; and sever-
al quarries are opened. Only one mill is there erected for sawing
it into slabs. A mill of the same kind is in operation in Lenox,
and another at ^e\v Marlborough. In Sheffield, three quarries
are opened. In Al ford, two. In Egremont, a bed of marble lime-
stone extends nearly through the town.

There can be no doubt that greater facilities for the transporta-
tion of the Berkshire marble — such as a rail road to the Hudson
— would greatly increase the demand for it, by reducing its price.
Such facilities will undoubtedly be provided at some future time.
For as a country grows older, and increases in wealth and refine-
ment, its valuable and ornamental minerals and rocks will be more
sought after and used. The inhabitants of Berkshire cannot,
therefore, but regard their inexhaustible deposits of marble and
common limestone, as a rich treasure to themselves, and an inval-
uable legacy to their posterity.

The limestone of Smithfield, R. I., and of Stoneham, in this
State, bears a close resemblance to that which produces the cele-
brated Carara marble of Italy. But as yet, ^ew blocks have been
obtained at either of these localities, large enough and free enough
from fissures, to be used for statuary.

Serpentine.

In richness and variety of colors, this rock exceeds all others ;
and is, therefore, eminently suited for ornamental sculpture and
architecture. The prevailing color is green, of different shades,
spotted or clouded, or veined with other colors ; and hence its
name, from its spotted and striped appearance, bearing a resem-
blance to the skins of some serpents. In hardness, it varies very
much ; being in some instances very hard, and in others, as easily
wrought as marble.

This rock exists in Massachusetts in great abundance, particu-
larly in the Alpine part of the State, or in the Hoosic mountain
range. The most extensive bed occurs in Middlefield, in the south-
ern part of the town. This bed cannot be less than a quarter of
a mile in breath, and five or six miles long. The colors of the
rock are various, and its hardness unequal. If wrought, it might

Serpentine. 41

supply the whole world. It yields both the precious and common
varieties. There is another bed in the same town, associated with
steatite or soapstone. In the west part of Westfield is found
another extensive bed of this rock, extending into Russell, of a
much darker color, and containing green talc. This has been used
in a few instances for ornamental architecture, and has a rich ap-
pearance when wrought. Three beds of serpentine are found in
Blanford, and another in Pelham, in the southwest part of the
town. The color of this last is quite dark, and the quantity of
the talc is considerably large. A large bed occurs in connection
with soapstone, on the north side of Deerfield river, in Zoar,
near the turnpike from Greenfield to Williamstown. Specimens
from this place resemble those from the celebrated localities of
this rock at Zobilitz, in Saxony. Serpentine also exists at Wind-
sor in two beds ; and there is an imnjense bed of it in Marlbor-
ough, and another still larger in Cavendish ; as also in several
other towns in the lower part of Vermont.

The only locality of this rock in the eastern part of the State,
that I know of, is in Newbury, two and a half miles south of Nevv-
buryport, near the Boston turnpike, at an abandoned lime quarry.
The precious, or noble serpentine is found here very beautiful,
and very much resembling that of Cornwall in England. No ser-
pentine in the State will compare in beauty with this ; but per-
haps if the other beds were explored by blasting, they would put
on a different aspect. (Nos, 870 to 873.) Serpentine also ex-
ists at Newport, R. I., of a dark color and compact texture.

Serpentine and limestone, irregularly mixed, form the noted
Verd Antique marble. Such a mixture occurs at Becket, accord-
ing to Prof. Dewey, in a bed of gneiss. The limestone is also
sometimes mingled with the serpentine at Newbury and at West-
field. I cannot see why these varieties are not Verd Antique,
though I would not decide very confidently. At New Haven and
Milford, Ct., extensive quarries of Verd Antique marble have
been opened. It is the Ophicalce grenue, of Brongniart.

Considering the extent and variety of serpentine in Massachu-
setts, it seems not a little surprising that no efforts, or next to
none, have been made to use it for ornamental or architectural
purposes. In Europe, it is employed for trinkets, vases, boxes,
chimney pieces, and even columns of large size. In Spain, it is
said that churches and palaces abound with columns of this
description. If ever the serpentine of Massachusetts shall be ex-
tensively wrought, I doubt not that specimens will be obtained,
rivalling the finest varieties of Europe. It is not at present easy
to obtain hand specimens, that shall give a fair representation of

42 Economical Geology.

this rock, because it is injured to a considerable depth, from the
surface exposure.

Steatite, or Soapstone.

This is the softest of all the rocks employed in architecture.
This property, rendering it easy to be sawed or cut without injur-
ing an edge tool, and its greasy or soapy feel, are such striking
characteristics of this rock, that most people are acquainted with
it. It is sometimes called ^o«;s-^one, and sometimes in this coun-
try, freestone.

Next to the ease with which it may be wrought, its great power
in resisting heat, is the most valuable property of this rock. Hence
it is extensively employed for fire places and lurnaces.

It is also turned into crucibles and small furnaces for culinary
use. Inkstands are made of it in great numbers, and various other
articles. As it hardens in the fire, it is used in Europe for imita-
ting engraved gems. It has been employed in various countries
as a substitute for soap and fuller's earth. Spanish and French
chalk are varieties of steatite. Savage nations are said to mitigate
hunger by eating this soft mineral ; as however it contains nothing
alimentary, it can act only as a palliative of hunger.* Those vari-
eties that are most infusible are employed in England extensively
in the manufacture of porcelain.

Steatite, like serpentine, usually occurs in beds of no great ex-
tent. They are numerous in Massachusetts, and very commonly
they are associated with serpentine, or in the vicinity of it. This
is the case in tlie northeast pari of Middlefield, where one of the
finest beds of it, in the State, is found ; although it contains small
masses o^ hitter spar, which renders it less easy to work. But
this quarry has been explored more extensively than any other in
the State ; and the blocks transported to Northampton, and even
to Boston. In Windsor are not less than three beds of this rock,
from which the New Lebanon Shakers obtain it, for converting
into inkstands. 1 was told that a bed of it exists in Cheshire.
Another occurs in Savoy ; one in Hinsdale ; one also in Blanford,
which is wr{)U2;ht and produces an excellent stone. Two beds oc-
cur in Granville, which I have not visited. Another is opened in
Zoar, where are two distinct varieties, one nearly white, another
of a deep green. In Howe is another quarry, where these two
varieties are equally distinct. At the two last named localities,
however, the rock is distinctly green and white talc ; and indeed,
the two minerals (talc and steatite) are probably in every case
identical,

* ^ec Bioiigiiiart's Mineralogy.

Steatite, or Soapstone. 43

On the east side of Connecticut river are several beds of
this rock, more or less quarried in every instance ; but in general
not explored deep enough to develope the rock in its unaltered
character; for the air and moisture generally affect it for several
feet deep. In the south part of Shutesbury is one bed; in the
southwest part of Wendell another ; and two miles east of the cen-
tre of New Salem, a third. The quality of the rock at these pla-
ces, is not as good as that west of the river ; though it has scarcely
been explored at all, at the localities above mentioned.

In Groton is a bed of soapstone on which considerable labor has
been expended. Its width appears to be 10 or 12 feet, and it de-
scends into the earth towards the southeast; dipping about 30'^,
and lying between layers of mica slate. It is not of the best quali-
ty, being somewhat too hard; yet ils proximity to Boston, New-
bury port, and Salem, will probably render it an object of impor-
tance.

A bed of soapstone has recently been discovered in Worcester;
and the specimens thence obtained, (Nos. 403 and 1548,) show it
to be more elegant in appearance than any other in the State.
The bed (which J have not personally examined,) has yet (1834,)
been penetrated only about five feet : but should it prove exten-
sive, its situation so near the Blackstone Canal, will render it an
object of no little importance.

In the states adjoining Massachusetts, and not many miles
from its limits, several extensive and valuable quarries of soapstone
have been opened. In Vermont they occur at Marlborough,
Windhaijn, and Grafton. In New-Hampshire, very fine steatite
is found at Francestovvn. In Connecticut, a bed has been wrought
in Somers. The Grafton steatite is employed extensively and
successfully for aqueducts : the joints being connected by sheet
lead. A bed of this rock exists in Smithfield, R. I., although it
is not wrought ; there are beds also in several other places in that
state.

From the preceding statements it seems that in this State, and
contiguous to it, immense quantities, and every variety of steatite
exist. As yet, however, the working of it has hardly commenced ;
although almost every man is aware of the value of this rock ; and
there are few who do not sometimes stand in the need of it for
economical purposes. As the facilities for transportation are mul-
tiplied, and particularly in the mountainous part of the State, its
use will undoubtedly be greatly extended. At present, I believe,
the shops in Boston are supplied from Vermont and New Hamp-
shire.

44 Economical Geology.

GrayivacJce.

For the most part, this rock furnishes a coarse stotie only fitted
for a common wall ; but sometimes its stratification is so regular,
and its grains are so fine, that it answers well for underpiiming,
step-stones, &,c. It is quarried I believe in Brighton, and some
other towns in the vicinity of Boston. At Pawtucket, on the
Rhode Island side of the river, is an extensive quarry of a finegrained
and slaty variety, which I should judge would form a good flagging
stone ; and immense quantities have been taken away for this object
and for other purposes. On Canonicut island in that state, is also
a valuable quarry of this rock.

Graywacke is sometimes beautifully amygdaloidal ; that is, it con-
tains numerous rounded or almond shaped nodules of some other
mineral. In these instances, however, the base of the rock is rath-
er WacJcc, than graywacke. This wacke (which resembles indu-
rated clay,) often forms the cement of graywacke. In Brighton
it is of a reddish color, while the imbedded nodules are sometimes
white, and sometimes white feldspar with epidote, which is of a
lively green color; and these substances are not only in rounded
masses, but in veins of irregular shape. The rock is hard and ad-
mits an imperfect polish. It then resembles porphyry and is ele-
gant. A fine example of this may be seen at the residence of
H. A. S. Dearborn, Esq. in Roxbury, forming a pedestal for the
bust of his father. It is only slightly polished, but would general-
ly be mistaken for porphyry.

A similar amygdaloid occurs in Brookline, Newton and Need-
ham. A variety still more beautiful is found in Hingham. The
color of the base is chocolate red; and the nodules are red, green
and white. I do not know whether large blocks can be got out.

I think upon the whole, however, that the finest amygdaloid
occurs in Saugus, on the hill a few rods east of the meeting house.
The base is a pleasant green, and the nodules white compact feld-
spar, generally spherical, and thickly interspersed. I have little
doubt that large blocks can be obtained at this locality ; but as the
base is softer than the nodules, it can be only imperfectly polished.

Argillaceous Slate.

A more common name for this rock, at least for the most use-
ful variety of it, is roofslate ; because it is used for forming the
roofs of houses. I have been inclined sometimes to regard the
ranges in Quincy, Watertown, Charlestown, and Chelsea, as a
fine grained variety of graywacke ; but this question may be
more properly considered in the scientific part of my Report. At

Roof Slate> 45

any rate, this rock, in the towns above mentioned, does not split
into layers sufficiently thin for roofing. But it is valuable for
gravestones, the covering of drains, flagging stones, &ic. ; and for
these purposes it is extensively wrought in Quincy, Charlestownj
&;c.

NovacuUte.

This is a variety of argillaceous slate which is known in the arts
under the name of hone, oil stone, turkey stone, and whetstone.
It is in beds of argillaceous slate in Charlestown, Maiden and
Quincy. It is not, however, of a very good quality ; and I am not
aware of its being used for hones, or even for whetstones : although
it might answer the purpose, if better materials could not be
found elsewhere. M. Godon, in his account of the geology of
Boston and vicinity, says that a compact feldspar is found there
perfectly analagous to the turkey stone. I have found a variety
of this mineral in Newbury, which I apprehend, corresponds with
that described by this writer, and a specimen may be seen in the
collection ; but no fair trial that I know of has been made to em-
ploy this stone as a hone. (No. 1:206.)

Roof Slate in Worcester County.

The range of slate exhibited on the Map in the towns of Boyls-
ton, Lancaster, Harvard, Shirley and Pepperell, is associated with
the peculiar mica slate that contains the Worcester coal. It an-
swers for roofing in some parts of the bed and has been quarried
for this purpose in Lancaster. It has been. wrought considerably
in Harvard and Pepperell for gravestones ; and is transported a
considerable distance for this purpose. The stratum is narrower
near the north line of the State ; but I have found no time to as-
certain how far it extends into New Hampshire.

Connecticut River Slate.

Although a large part of Bernardston is represented as com-
posed of this slate, yet its characters are not perfectly developed,
till we pass into Vermont. In Guilford, Brattleborough, Dum-
merston, and even 50 or 60 miles farther north, it produces an excel-
lent material for roofs, writing slates, &.c. ; and extensive quar-
ries are opened in it in those towns. The best slate used in Mas-
sachusetts probably comes from this range. In Bernardston it is
quarried to some extent for gravestones.

Berkshire Slate.

The mica slate of the western section of the State, passes grad-
5

46 Economical Geology.

ually into roofslate, but in most instances the characters of the
latter are not very perfectly exhibited, until we have entered
New York. There, however, in Hoosic, and other towns, it is
quarried extensively for roofing ; and the western part of Massa-
chusetts is always sure of a supply of this valuable material from
that quarter if not within its own limits.

Graphic Slate,

This occurs in small quantities, along with the argillaceous slate,
in Lanesborough and WiUiamstown ; also abundantly in Benning-
ton, Vt. Prof. Dewey, from whose account I derive this fact,
does not state whether it is pure enough to be employed by artifi-
cers for drawing lines, and for crayons ; uses to which this mineral
has been applied in other countries.

New Red Sandstone.

This rock occurs in Massachusetts, only in the vicinity of Con-
necticut river ; along which, on both sides, ranges extend from
Middletown, Ct. to Vermont. It affords large quantities of good
stone for building and other purposes. Some of the numerous
varieties of this rock are slaty ; and either of a red, gray, or black
color. These varieties furnish good flagging stones ; and the side
walks of all the principal places along the river, are chiefly cov-
ered by them. In the more common varieties, the strata are from
six inches to two feet or more in thickness : and for the most part
the color is red, though sometimes gray. From these thicker strata
is obtained most of the rock of this formation used in architecture.
The most delicate variety occurs in Longmeadow and Wilbraham.
It consists simply of an almost blood red sand, cemented probably
by iron. It is remarkably uniform in its color and composition ;
and forms a beautiful and most valuable building stone ; though
liable to be easily injured and sometimes disintegrating by expos-
ure. The quantity of this rock is inexhaustible, and it occurs
only from three to five miles from Connecticut river ; the interven-
ing region being nearly level. A great number of quarries are now
explored ; but I have no means of determining how great is the
demand for the stone. The celebrated Chatham quarries, on the
banks of the Connecticut river, in Connecticut, are opened in the
same kind of rock, although a coarser variety.

Another variety of the new red sandstone, quarried in many
places in Massachusetts and Connecticut, is coarser than the Long-
meadow stone ; but being harder, it is more enduring, though less
elegant. This variety is quarried extensively for the Farmington
Canal, in the sandstone range south of Mount Tom in West

Porcdain Clay. / 47

Springfield. A gray and rather coarse variety is used in some
places, e. g. in Granby, Mass. This indeed, with the other va-
rieties mentioned above, forms excellent underpinning, door and
window caps, and foundations, and door steps ; and like the Berk-
shire marble, they are sometimes wrought into sinks and other sim-
ilar articles. The ease with which the rocks of this formation are
wrought, forms a great recommendation ; and, were they as endur-
ing as gneiss and granite, these latter rocks would soon be neg-
lected.

Tertiary Formations.

I suspect there are are only two varieties of these formations in
Massachusetts ; one developed most perfectly in the west part of
Martha's Vineyard, and the other, and the most extensive, along
the Connecticut river, although common in limited patches all over
the State. Neither of these formations furnishes stones sufficiently
firm for architectural purposes, although in a few instances, 1 have
observed limited beds of the clay, sand and pebbles, that compose
these formations, to be in a state of consolidation.' Nearly all our
clays, however, are in the tertiary formations, and these are so im-
portant in an economical point of view, as to demand a particular
description.

Porcdain Clay.

This is the purest of all the clays, and Is the only one em-
ployed in the manufacture of porcelain, or China ware. It re-
sults from the decomposition of granite ; and hence we might ex-
pect to find it in Massachusetts ; since we abound so much in
granite. As, however, the manufacture of this ware has but re-
cently been introduced into this country, little effort has been
made to discover this clay. It has been announced, as existing in
several towns in the State, although the bed in Savoy, described
by Prof Dewey, in his account of the geology of Berkshire, is
probably the only one known that merits a notice in this Report.
It is said to constitute a layer three feet thick, and of unknown
extent, several feet below the surface. It contains coarse particles
of quartz, which can, however, be separated by sifting. It resem-
bles the porcelain clay of Monkton, Vt., whicli is regarded as of
a good quality. It forms a very cohesive white paste, and cruci-
bles made from it, and burned in a common fire, were sonorous
when struck. A similar clay is said to occur in large quantity in
Canaan, Ct.

A part of the extensive clay beds on Martha's Vineyard, ap-
pears to be porcelain clay ; especially in Chilmark : though a large
proportion of mica is mixed with it.

48 Economical Geology.

Fotter^s Clay.

This is the clay so extensively employed for common pottery,
pipes, tiles, and bricks. And fortunately it is found on almost
every square mile in the State. We have two quite distinct vari-
eties. The purest, sometimes called pipeclay, is found almost ex-
clusively on Martha's Vineyard. This is wiiite, and contains usu-
ally so little iron, that when burnt, it becomes still whiter, and
will resist a high degree of heat. Hence it is employed for mak-
ing what are called fire bricks, which are used for lining furnaces.
White pottery is also made from it. But the more common clay
turns red on burning, in consequence of the oxide of iron in it ;
and this renders it much easier to be melted by the heat, and con-
sequently diminishes its value. If is of immense value, however,
to the State ; because good bricks may be made from it ; and be-
cause it exists so abundantly in almost every town. The same
tertiary formation that supplies clay so plentifully, yields an abun-
dance of sand for the niortar by which they must be cemented.
This sand, however, is generally rather fine ; and I am inclined to
believe, from all that I can learn, that our mortar is generally pre-
pared from sand that is too fine.

Suhsiitute for Fuller^ s Earth.

The common clay in the Connecticut valley, has recently been
employed in Northampton in the place of fuller's earth, in cleans-
ing cloth. A considerable quantity of it has also been sent down
the river, for use in other places. This clay is fine grained, and
when dry, adheres strongly to the tongue. It is said to answer ex-
ceedingly w-ell in the place of fuller's earth ; on this point how-
ever, 1 have my information at second hand. A clay of precisely
the same character has recently been put into my hands from Le-
ominster, where it occurs in alternatinglayers with sand. Some of
the sand of this tertiary formation, es})ecially in the gneiss region,
is of a delicate white color and quite pure. In some cases, w^jen
its finest particles are mixed with clay, it will answer very well for
giving a polish to brass and other metals. This variety is found
abundantly in Shutesbury. (No. 2.)

Clay used in the Manufacture of Alum.

The white clay of INIartha's Vineyard, is employed extensively
in the manufacture of alum, in Salem ; by the process of Chap-
tal, I suppose ; although the details are, I believe, kept secret.
By his method, sulphur and nitre, are burnt in a chamber with the
clay, wlhich, after a considerable time, is lixiviated, and the ley

Marl and Peat. 49

evaporated. There is indeed, a variety of clay, which contains
sulphur, that will produce alum without the addition ol" other ma-
terials ; but 1 cannot believe that from the Vineyard to be of this
description. At any rate, the alum which the Salem company
produce, is of a good quality, and is made in large quantities.
They formerly obtained their clay from Gay Head ; but they
now procure it of a better quality from the west side of the island,
in Cliilmark.

Clay as a Manure.

Writers on agriculture, speak of clay as next in value to marl,
for manuring light and sandy lands ; and I cannot but think that
our farmers have yet something to learn on this subject. Marl,
they cannot procure but at a great expense ; but clay is usually
at hand, and we have very much of the land which it will help.
Yet I am not aware tl)at in any instance the experiment has been
thoroughly made.

Marl

Marl for our farmers, scarcely exists in the State, except in a
k\v places in Berkshire county, where it is of little use, be-
cause the soil ahvady contains so much calcareous matter. It is
said to have been found in Lancaster, but whether in large or
small quantities, is not stated. Judging from the nature of the
surrounding country, I venture to predict that it will not be found
there in abundance. In Duxbury also, it occurs in considerable
quantity. In Pittsfield, is a bed of earthy marl, but not exten-
sive. It is found more abundantly, it is said, in Lenox; and it
exists also in Williamslown.

Peat.

This useful substance must be regarded as alluvial in its charac-
ter, since the process of its formation is now going on. It results
chiefly from mosses and other plants, more or less decayed. In
the eastern part of the State, it is found in great quantities. West
of Worcester, it has scarcely been sought after, on account of the
comparative abundance of woofd. It will probably, however, nev-
er be found so abundantly in the western part of the State, as in
the eastern. I have ascertained the existence of peat in the fol-
lowing towns, and do not doubt that it occurs in many others.
There are tW'O varieties ; the fibrous and the compact. In the for-
mer, the moss, turf, and roots out of which peat is formed, have
not lost their fibrous structure: but in the latter, they are convert-
ed into a compact and nearly homogeneous mass.

50 Economical Geology.

The fibrous and compact varieties probably exist at nearly eve-
ry locality. I am sure of their occurrence in Cambridge, Newton
and Lexington ; and in large quantities. Peat is abundant in
Seekonk, Uxbridge, Cohasset, Duxbury, Hingham, Medfield,
Walpole, Wrentham, Dover, Framingham, Sudbury, Topsfield,
Ipswich, and Nantucket.

It exists and has been dug in greater or less quantities in Pitts-
field, Hadley, Leverett, Shrewsbury, Lancaster, Southborougb,
Hopkinton, Medway, Halifax, Stoughton, Boylston, Reading, Mil-
ton, Needham, Concord, Billerica, Bedford, Wallham, Water-
town, Acton, Wilmington, Danvers, Chelmsford, Hamilton, and in
nearly all the towns in Barnstable county ; certainly in Yarmouth,
Brewster, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, and Truro. 1 have
marked on the Map, only the most important localities.

The value of peat for fuel, is generally known ; but I appre-
hend that it is not generally known that a still more important use
may be made of it in agriculture. Peat swamps in Massachusetts
are commonjy surrounded by light and poor land. While the
swamp itself contains too much vegetable matter, imperfectly de-
composed, the land around it contains too little. All that is need-
ed, therefore, is to employ the excess of the one, to supply the
deficiency of the other. Hence, as an English writer remarks,
' peat or vegetable matter, should be carried from the peat moss
to the poor soil, and the surface mould from the poor soil to the
peat moss.' The peat ought indeed to be converted into manure,
by lying awhile in a barn yard, or by mixing lime, or other sub-
stance with it ; and there are particular directions to be observed as
to the whole process, which this is not the proper place to explain.
Bucthey can be learned in works on agriculture; and whoever un-
dertakes thus to make use of peat, without learning the results of
enlightened experience on the subject, will probably fail in his
object. But since great benefit has been derived from the use of
peat as a manure, in England and Ireland, no reason can be as-
signed why it may not thus be applied in this country with equal
success.

I cannot but regard the existence of so large quantities of peat,
on Cape Cod and Nantucket, as a great blessing to the inhabitants.
Yet from the little of it, which I observed to be dug there, I am
apprehensive they do not realize its value. Most of the soil in
those counties is precisely of that kind, which needs the admix-
ture of much vegetable matter. If the peat swamps could be
drained, and after the removal of a portion of the peat, be covered
with lighter and warmer soil, but few years would elapse before
they would become fine grass plats ; while the sandy and more

Granular Quartz, Buhrstone. 51

elevated land, enriched by the peat, would produce large crops of
Indian corn, rye, and other vegetables. That this is not mere hy-
pothesis, lias been demonstrated on a small scale, at least upon
one farm, that of the Hon. John Reed, of Yarmouth. Since the
inhabitants of Cape Cod are beginning to turn their attention
more and more to the cultivation of the soil, may we not expect
that such a transformation will ere long be common.

A few other mineral substances, interesting in an economical
point of view, may perhaps be appropriately noticed in this place.

1. Granular Qiiartz and Sand for the Manufacture of Glass.

From some unknown cause, the granular quartz in Cheshire,
Berkshire county, is so much disintegated, that it easily crumbles
into a beautiful white sand. This forms a good material for glass,
and has been employed for this purpose a number of years ;
formerly in Cheshire and Warwick, Mass., and in Utica, N. Y. ;
and at present in Keene, N. H. It answers well for crown and
cylinder glass. The quantity is inexhaustible. It is sold at the
road, one mile from the bed, at 6 1-4 cents per bushel. The
sand is employed extensively in Berkshire in the process of saw-
ing marble.

I am inclined to believe that some of the sand associated with
the tertiary and diluvial formations in the State, particularly in the
gneiss region, is pure enough to be employed in the manufacture
of coarse kinds of glass : such for instance as is found in Pelham
and Leominster. The purest and coarsest variety, however, that
I have met with, forms the shores of Lock's Pond, in the north-
west part of Shutesbury. Similar sand, I believe, is used for
glass making in the eastern part of Connecticut. The Shutes-
bury sand has been recently employed with success as a substitute
for smalt, upon doors exposed to depredations from penknives
and pencils.

When examining the milk white quartz, that exists in mountain
masses in the east part of Cumberland, R. L the enquiry forced
itself upon my attention, whether it might not be employed in the
manufacture of glass ? Those particularly acquainted with that
manufacture, can, however, judge better of this matter than my-
self.

2. Buhrstone.

In the same hill that furnishes the fine stratified quartz rock for
architectural purposes, in Washington, three miles from Pittsfield,
a porous quartz is found, which greatly resembles, and is used in-
stead of buhrstone, for millstones. Whether geologists would

52 Economical Geology.

allow it to be real bubrstone, may admit of doubt ; since it is un-
questionably a rock of primitive formation ; whereas the real Paris
bubrstone, is a member of the tertiary formation. But in an econ-
omical point of view, this question is of little importance, since the
rock seems to answer nearly all the purposes of bubrstone so well
that it is employed somewhat extensively for millstones. These
are manufactured near the ledge, and are sold for seventy or eighty
dollars each. 1 am told that they answer well, especially for the
coarser kinds of grain. I should presume that the only difficulty
would lie in their being less tough than the genuine bubrstone.
The quantity at the ledge is inexhaustible.

Sometimes our citizens employ the finer and more compact vari-
eties of granite for millstones. I have seen even a coarse con-
glomerate, or puddingstone, used for this purpose. And while
upon this subject, I cannot but express my surprise that no attempt
has been made to employ our greenstone, and other hornblende
rocks, for millstones. In Great Britain, basalt has been, within a
few years, used for this purpose, and found even superior to the
French buhrstone ; and our greenstone is only a variety of the same
rock ; indeed, some of our greenstone cannot be distinguished, by
the eye, from the European basalt. It is generally extremely
compact and tough ; and although its preparation might require a
little more labor than the buhrstone, yet it would doubtless last
enough longer amply to pay for the additional labor. In the vi-
cinity of Boston and in the Connecticut valley, as may be seen on
the Map, greenstone exists in great quantities. It also occurs in
small beds throughout the whole extent of the gneiss region ; and
of a kind, which I should suppose from its appearance, would an-
swer the purpose even better than that of the extensive ranges
above mentioned.

Coal

Of this mineral, the object of so much interest in every civilized
country, there are found three distinct species ; all of which are
sometimes employed as fuel. The most common in Europe,
which is there considered the best, is the bituminous coal, or that
containing bitumen. This burns readily with a yellow or white
flame. A second species is the anthracite, or stone coal ; which
is generally described as burning without flame, because destitute
of bitumen. The anthracites of this country, however, burn
with the flame that results from the combustion of hydrogen ; this
gas existing in a state of combination, either with the carbon, or
in the water which the anthracite contains ; and it is liberated by
the heal. The great difficulty in the use of anthracite, consists

Coal 53

in igniting it : a difficulty which has ahnost disappeared before the
ingenuity of our countrymen. In Europe, anthracite has been de-
scribed as of little value : with the exception, perhaps, of Killkenny
coal. But our anthracite is either of a quality superior to the Eu-
ropean, or we have learned better methods of employing it. All the
coal obtained from the inexhaustible beds of that mineral along the
Susquehannah, Lehigh, and Schuylkill rivers, in Pennsylvania, is
anthracite ; and wherever it is skillfully used, I believe it is decided-
ly preferred to the best bituminous coals of England, or the United
States. The coal from Rhode Island, (chiefly from Portsmouth as
the north end of the Island) is also anthracite. The Worcester
coal belongs to the same species : indeed, every enlightened man in
this country now regards our anthracite as a great national blessing.
But in Great Britian, some of their geological writers speak of the
anthracites found in Ireland and on the European continent, as
* carbonaceous matters that can never be profitably worked, so as
to become objects of statistical interest.' — (Ure.) And Mr. Cony-
beare, in his admirable view of the English coal formations, speaks
of the deposit of bituminous coal, as ' the only one capable of be-
ing applied to purposes of extensive utility, which appears to ex-
ist in the whole geological series.'

A third sort of coal is commonly enumerated, called lignite ;
consisting of wood partially carbonized, and still retaining its form,
more or less distinctly. All the kinds of coal that have been men-
tioned, are found in Massachusetts ; the lignite on Martha's Vine-
yard ; the bituminous coal along Connecticut river, particularly at
South Hadley : and the anthracite at Worcester, and in small quan-
tities, in the north part of Middleborough, in Bridgewater, and
West Bridgewater, in Wrentham, and near the line of the State
in Cumberland, Rhode Island. It is found also in small quanti-
ties at Turner's Falls, at Southampton, and at Enfield Falls, in the
valley of the Connecticut. But do they occur in sufficient quan-
tity and of such quality, as to render them of any statistical value ?

The lignite exists in beds several feet thick, in the clay of the
Vineyard : and although used as fuel in some parts of Europe, it
burns so poorly that it will not be much used probably, until fuel
shall become much more scarce.

Genuine bituminous coal, in sufficient quantity to be worked to
advantage, has never been found, except in connection with a par-
ticular series of rocks, called the Coal Formation. Such a forma-
tion has long been supposed to exist in the valley of the Connec-
ticut : extending across the whole of Massachusetts and Connecti-
cut ; and the strata have been bored in South Hadley, at least, in
two instances, and once by a gentleman familiar with the real Eu-

6

54 Economical Geology.

«
ropean coal formations. Several years ago, I myself delineated a
coal formation, on a geological map of the Connecticut valley pub-
lished in the American Journal of Science. But further examin-
ation has brought me, unwillingly, to the conclusion, that no such
formation exists in that valley, and that the one which I then re-
garded as real coal measures, is in fact the new red sandstone, or
its equivalent. In another part of this Report, I shall give my
reasons for this conclusion. But I would remark, that 1 do not
feel so much confidence in this opinion, that 1 would urge the en-
tire abandonment of all efforts to find coal ; for the facts stated in
respect to anthracite, will justify the opinion, that even if the
rocks under consideration, are new red sandstone, bituminous coal
may exist in it, in sufficient quantities to be worth exploring ; al-
though in Europe it occurs in such rocks only in thin seams.
Certainly the coal found at South Hadley was of a superior quality.

If, as I suppose, the rock under consideration be the new red
sandstone, there is another fact that ought to be recollected, viz.
that this rock, in other parts of the world, is associated with rock
salt, salt springs, and gypsum. No trace of rock salt has been
found in the Connecticut valley ; and as yet only a small quantity
of gypsum has been discovered.

Professor Silliman found a little of this mineral in the greenstone
associated with the sandstone in Deerfield, and Mr. Davis, Princi-
pal of the academy in Westfield, found the same in thin scales,
between the layers of the shale, connected with the sandstone, on
the banks of Westfield river in West Springfield. I found a little
of it also in the shale at South Hadley canal. These facts are
sufficient encouragement for the research after gypsum. And
when we recollect that on account of the softness of this mineral,
it is liable to be deeply worn away at the surface, we should by
no means despair of its existence in the valley of the Connecti-
cut. I have compared a collection of specimens from the new
red sandstone, that contains the gypsum of Nova Scotia, with the
rocks of the Connecticut valley, and they can hardly be distin-
guished from each other.

As to anthracite coal, it seems to occupy a wider range among
the rocks, than genuine bituminous coal. Generally, however,
the former occurs lower down in the rocks, that is, in older rocks,
than the latter. Sometimes it is found in what are called transi-
tion rocks ; and sometimes in the primitive. In this country it is
found in both these classes of rocks. We have in the United
States, at least three extensive deposits of anthracite : the largest
is in Pennsylvania; the next largest in Rhode Island; and the
smallest in Worcester. I have examined them all, and have

Coal 55

come to the conclusion, that all the rocks containing this coal, are
at least as low down in the series as the transition class ; and I am
rather of the opinion, that they all lie below the Independent coal
formation of Europe ; I mean on the scale of rocks. J suspect
that the Pennsylvania anthracite occurs in the higher beds of the
graywacke, perhaps even in the millstone grit, and the Rhode
Island anthracite, in the lower beds of graywacke. There is no
geological connection between the Rhode Island and Worcester coal,
as Dr. Meade and others have supposed. By inspecting the Map,
the two localities will be seen to be separated by granite and
gneiss, from twenty to thirty miles across. The Worcester coal
occurs in an imperfect kind of mica slate. It is what Humboldt
calls transition mica slate : for a few miles north, it passes into
distinct argillaceous slate. Following the range south from
Worcester, it becomes more decidedly micaceous, and probably
there forms a bed in gneiss. Indeed, in Dudley, I saw the same
rock surrounded by gneiss, and highly impregnated with anthracite.

The bed of anthracite in Worcester, is about seven feet thick,
and has a moderate dip to the northeast. It has been explored
only a few feet, and the operations are now suspended. To con-
tinue them advantageously, it will be necessary to go down the
hill, and remove the soil so as to find the lateral outcrop of the
bed, in order to avoid an accumulation of water. This work has
been already commenced.

The Rhode Island beds of this coal were opened several years
ago, before the value of it was justly appreciated by the communi-
ty. The sales not being brisk, the works were abandoned, and
have never since been resumed ; so that on account of the rub-
bish, I was unable to ascertain the width of the beds. I have al-
ways understood, however, that there was abundance of coal.
The beds are less favorably situated for working, than that at
Worcester.*

The extensive, and rapidly increasing demand for the Pennsyl-
vania coal, is a conclusive testimony to its first rate excellence.
The experiments of Mr. Bull of Philadelphia, as well as those of
Professor Silliman, recorded in the eleventh volume of the Ameri-
can Journal of Science, show that the best Rhode Island coal is
not greatly inferior. The Worcester coal burns with more diffi-
culty ; but gentlemen who have fairly tried it, and on whose testi-
mony I can depend, assure me, that it may be employed success-
fully, and comfortably for fuel. There can be no doubt, that its
quality is inferior to the coal of Pennsylvania, and also to that of

" A more particular account of the Rhode Island coal beds and their exploration,
•will be given in the third part of this Report.

56 Economical Geology.

Rhode Island.* But it may be very much inferior, and yet for
many purposes, be exceedingly valuable. The fact is, anthracite
has to struggle with prejudices wherever it is first introduced, aris-
ing chiefly irom the comparative difficulty with which it is ignited ;
and it happens in regard to this substance, as with most things
new and untried, that the community generally feel, as if their
business was to find as many objections to it as possible ; and the
man who would bring any new substance into general use, needs no
small share of patience, and perseverance. Dr. Meade states, that
an experiment made several years ago at Smithfield, upon the
burning of limestone, with the Rhode Island coal, and another up-
on the burning of brick, in the vicinity of Boston, were thought to
be complete failures, because the heat was so intense, that the
surface of the lime and of the bricks was vitrified; whereas the
fact ought to have taught the experimenters, that a more careful
regulation of the heat would ensure success. Indeed, I predict,
that ere long, in nearly every case where a strong and steady heat
is required, anthracite will be found superior to all other kinds of
fuel; and that the anthracite of Rhode Island, and even that of
Worcester, will be considered by posterity, if not by the present
generation, as a treasure of great value. The Pennsylvania coal
may indeed, for a great many years, command the market; but I
apprehend, that the time will come, when the expense of its
transportation to the Eastern States, and the increasing demand
for it, will lead to the re-opening of the pits, that are now aban-
doned in New England.

In coming to the conclusion, that the anthracite of Worcester
and even that of Rhode Island, are inferior to the Pennsylvania
anthracite, geological considerations confirm the results of experi-
ments. Baron Humboldt, who has probably seen more of the
rocks of the globe than any man living, remarks, that ' anthracite
is a more ancient formation than coal, and a more recent forma-
tion than graphite, or carburetted iron. Carbon becomes more hy-
drogenated , in proportion as it approaches the secondary rocks.'
This last sentence, divested of its technical obscurity, means, if I
understand it, that the newer the rock in which the carbon is
found, the greater will be the quantity of hydrogen combined
with it : and we know that an increase of hydrogen will render
coal more combustible. Now if I am correct in the opinion, that

* According to the experiments of Mr. Bull, a pound of the best Pennsylvania
anthracite maintained ten degrees of heat in a room, 13 hours' and 40 minutes ; a
pound of the Rhode Island coal maintained the same heat in the same room, 9
hours and 30 minutes ; and a pound of tl^e Worcester coal, kept up the same heat
only 7 hours and 50 minutes. It is a curious fact that the specific gravity of the
Worcester coal, is one third greater tiian that of the coal from the two former lo-
calities.

Grayhite, Plumbago or Black Lead 57

the Worcester anthracite is contained in older rocks than that in
Rhode Island, and the anthracite of Pennsylvania, in rocks still
newer than those of Rhode Island, we might expect, that the new-
er would prove the best for fuel, and the older the poorest, be-
cause containing the least hydrogen. The quantity of carbon,
however, in the Worcester coal, is believed to be nearly as great,
as in that from Rhode Island and Pennsylvania ; although no
analysis has been made of the former. But carbon is less com-
bustible than hydrogen. Yet I can hardly believe, that a coal,
which contains probably not less than 90 per centum of carbon,
should not be employed, in some way or other, as valuable fuel.

The formation which I have denominated gray wacke, and which
contains the anthracite in Rhode Island, extends northerly in in-
terrupted patches, nearly across the whole of Massachusetts ; as
may be seen on the Map. The most southern patch, embraces
nearly the whole of Bristol and part of Plymouth county ; the
second branches from the first at Wrentham, and extends to Ded-
ham ; the third includes several towns in the vicinity of Boston ;
and the fourth is in Rowley and Newbury in Essex county. I
know of no reason, why one part of this formation should contain
anthracite rather than another ; and hence we may reasonably
look for it in any part of the gray wacke formation, exhibited on
the Map. The transition mica slate containing the Worcester
anthracite, occupies, as the Map will show, a large portion of the
northeastern part of the State ; and it would not be strange if
other beds of that mineral should be found in it.

Graphite, Plumbago, or Black Lead.

This substance has the color of lead, leaves a trace like that
metal upon paper, and bears the common name, hlack lead; but
it contains no lead. It is composed of above 90 per centum of
carbon, and the rest is iron and earthy matter. Hence it differs
but little from some varieties of anthracite. It seems indeed to
be the form in which carbon occurs in the oldest of the rocks.
In Massachusetts it exists in gneiss, at the most important locality,
which is in Sturbridge. It there occurs in a bed, varying in width
from an inch to about two feet, and traceable along the surface,
nearly one hundred rods. A number of years ago this bed was
opened ; and several tons of the graphite obtained. It was then
abandoned ; but within a ievf years the exploration has been re-
commenced, and already more than a hundred tons have been ob-
tained. In some places the excavation is 60 or 70 feet deep.
The quality of the graphite is excellent and would not suffer by
comparison, with almost any in the world. To what extent it
may be obtained, it is not })ossible at present to determine. The

58 Economical Geology.

fact, that the bed descends, almost perpendicularly, into the earth,
is rather unfavorable to the miner. Yet, as it is found upon ele-
vated ground, the mine can be conveniently drained by lateral
cuts or adits to a considerable depth ; and probably the explora-
tion may be profitably continued for a long time with little machi-
nery.

Graphite is employed for pencils, crucibles, lubricating machi-
nery, &;c. It occurs at several other localities in Massachusetts,
besides that in Sturbridge, but not in large quantities, except per-
haps in Hinsdale. A good bed of it has been opened in New
Hampshire.

A Substitute for Emery.

No real emery has yet been found in Massachusetts : but a
rock composed of garnet, anthophyllite, or augite, occurs in North
Brookfielcl, which is employed as a substitute for that mineral, and
it is said to answer well. The powder of the garnet, although
much inferior in hardness to real emery, is indeed sometimes called
in commerce, red emery. The rock in Brookfield is abundant, and
may prove valuable.

Tripoli or Rotten Stone.

At Paine's quarry of limestone in West Springfield, I found a
mineral which subsequent examination has convinced me is gen-
uine rotten stone : and so far as I have had opportunity of exam-
ining it, it appears to be of a superior quality. It occurs too in
large quantities, and under circumstances similar to those in which
it has been found in other parts of the world. I mean that it is
associated with fetid limestone ; being in fact that rock partially
decomposed, and still emiting a strong fetid odor when struck.
I hope that some mechanic, who has occasion to use this article,
will thoroughly test that from Springfield, as I know of no other
locality of any importance in the country. It does occur, how-
ever, at South Hadley falls, on the West Springfield shore. But
the quantity is small, and it is not there associated with limestone,
but appears to be an altered shale. (Nos. 217 to 221.)

Native Alum.

This valuable substance has recently been found in at least two
places in Worcester county. It occurs on a variety of the gneiss
rock of that county in delicate plumose or feather form masses
along with copperas. Both these substances undoubtedly proceed
from the decomposition of the rock and iron pyrites which it con-
tains. Hence, as we know that artificial means will aid the pro-
duction of coi)peras, we have reason to suppose that it will do the

Miscellaneous Minerals, and Mineral Springs. 59

same in respect to the alum, as we know is done in other rocks.
But no fair trial that I know of has yet been made 1 have re-
ceived this alum from two places, viz. Leominster and Barre. A
fuller account of it will be given in the third part of the Report.

Mineral Waters.

No mineral springs of much notoriety are found in the State, al-
though chalybeate springs are very common, and are useful in cu-
taneous and some other complaints. Nearly all these springs rise
in low ground containing bog ore. The Hopkinton spring is of
this description, and is probably more resorted to than any other
in the State. This contains, among other ingredients, carbonic
acid and carbonate of lime and iron. The spring in Brookfield is
similarly situated, and contains some magnesia and soda, as well as
iron. It is a place of some resort. A mineral spring exists in
Shutesbury, abounding in muriate of lime, and it is somewhat vis-
ited. Chalybeate springs exist in South Hadley, Deerfield, and
indeed, in almost every town in the State. In Mendon I was
shown a mineral well, in the waters of which, chemical tests indi-
cate muriate of lime and carbonic acid in a free state. No use
was made of the water, except as a substitute for yeast.

In Wiiliamstown is a tepid spring very much resembling that in
New Lebanon, N. Y. Bubbles of gas are constantly escaping,
which, according to Prof. Dewey, are atmospheric air, and not
simply nitrogen, which is common in such springs. The spring
furnishes a convenient place for a bathing establishment ; and
though the saline ingredients are in small quantity, the water is use-
ful in several cutaneous disorders. In Adams, Pittsfield, and in
Great Barrington, are springs useful for the same complaints. In
Hinsdale is a spring from which issues sulphuretted hydrogen ;
and from the decomposition of this gas, a deposit of sulphur is
made upon the earth around.

Other non-metallic Minerals ; either useful or ornamental.

It may be well in this place, perhaps, to notice briefly a few
other mineral substances in the State, such as are employed in
Europe for useful or ornamental purposes. In this country the
demand for them is yet comparatively small, and we have few ar-
tists devoted to their preparation ; so that no demand exists for
these minerals, as is the case also with our porphyries.

In Hatfield, is an immense quantity of the sulphate of baryta of
a superior quality. Within a few years, a patent has been taken
out in England, for the use of this substance as a paint, to be em-
ployed in those situations where lead paint is liable to be acted

60 Economical Geology.

upon by moisture, acids and other chemical agents. In such cases
this barytic paint is excellent. I have been in the habit, for sev-
eral years, of having various articles in the laboratory, such as the
pneumatic cistern, gazometer, Sic, covered with it ; and it answers
a good purpose, although I have prepared it, not according to the
patent, but simply by grinding it in a plaster mill and mixing it
with oil. The greatest defect in this paint, seems to be, that it has
less body than lead, although I doubt not that a remedy may be
found for this difficulty. When the baryta is thoroughly pulver-
ized, and mixed with boiled linseed oil and lampblack, it is supe-
rior to any thing I have ever seen, for labelling glass bottles, &ic.,
in a laboratory, and indeed for any situation exposed to active
chemical agents.

The new alkali, lithia, is found chiefly in two minerals, called
petallte and spodumene, which, in Europe, are very rare. But in
Massachusetts they occur in large quantities ; particularly the
latter. The former is found in Bolton, and the latter in Goshen,
Chesterfield, Norwich and Sterling. The lithia can now be ob-
tained, by a chemical process, from the minerals of these localities,
in any quantity ; and should it prove to be a useful substance, as
every alkali is likely to be, these minerals may become an object of
importance.

Among the minerals in the State, that may be employed by the
lapidaries, for ornamental purposes, may be mentioned chalcedo-
ny. Almost all its varieties occur in the greenstone ranges, in the
valley of the Connecticut, and some of the agates which it forms
are quite large, and need only polishing to be elegant. It occurs
also in various other parts of the State, and in masses of considera-
ble size, and it may be worthy the attention of the lapidary.

Agates, both banded and brecciated, are found in the State, made
up of quartz, hornstone, chalcedony, &cc. of various colors. The
largest and most perfect specimen of quartzose agate breccia, which
I have found, was shown me at Rochester centre ; and I was told
it was broken from a much larger mass, in the same town. (No.
1103.)

In Saugus near the centre, is a fine locality of red jasper. It is
notunfrequently striped, and if needed for ornaments, would admit
a fine polish ; as Nos. 388, 389, and 390, show. The bed or
vein has not been explored at all, except that a few fragments have
been broken off by the passing mineralogist.

We have beryls, somewhat numerous, and sometimes very large ;
but probably they are not delicate enough, and are too much divi-
ded by seams, to be employed for elegant ornaments.

A garnet or cinnamon stone was found by Professor Webster in

Ores of Iron. 61

Carlisle, which, in its natural stale, is a splendid gem. Good spec-
imens, however, cannot now be obtained, without farther explora-
tion of the soil, or the rock.

The quartz crystals, that occur at several localities, are very-
perfect, and might be used for watch seals, ring stones, spectacles,
&;c.; those, for instance, found at Pelham, Southampton and
Williamsburg. The smoky quartz occurs at a k\\ localities, and
is fine for ornaments. At Southampton, Pelham and Middlefield,
is found the yellow quartz, which in some instances, can scarcely
be distinguished from genuine topaz. The rose red quartz occurs
at several places, as at Chelmsford, Chesterfield, Chester, Wil-
liamsburg and Blanford ; and sometimes, I am inclined to believe,
of a good quality to be wrought into ornamental articles ; particu-
larly, at one or two localities recently discovered. The amethyst,
which occurs in greenstone, near Connecticut river, is of a delicate
color, and, if it can be obtained in sufficient quantity, may be em-
ployed in the ornamental arts.

Some of the adularia that is common in the gneiss of Brimfield,
Southbridge, &tc., I presume, would answer well for watch seals,
rings and trinkets ; particularly, a greenish variety, occuring near
the centre of the latter place. I have seen an elegant watch seal,
cut from the adularia of this locality. A polished specimen will
be found in the collection. (No. 1086.)

It ought not to be forgotten, that amber has been found in Mar-
tha's Vineyard, at Gay Head, and on Nantucket. At the latter
place one or two masses were found, weighing a pound or more.
The tertiary formation of these islands is precisely the place where
we might expect to find this mineral, especially in connection with
the lignite.

METALS AND THEIR ORES.

It remains only, in giving the economical geology of Massachu-
setts, to describe the metals and metallic ores which have been
found in the State, and are applicable to useful purposes. I shall
begin with the metal most abundant and most useful : viz.

Iron.

The bog iron ore is most common, but I shall give an account of
the different species in regular order.

Mine of Arsenical Iron and Carbonate of Iron, in Worcester.

In the town of Worcester, in mica slate, is a bed of these ores,
which was explored to some depth, a number of years ago, in

7

62 Economical Geology.

search of the precious metals, A little galena or lead ore is found
also, in the same mine. As the excavations are now nearly filled
up, it is impossible to judge of the extent of this bed.

Arsenical iron is seldom explored for ihe purpose of getting
malleable iron from it ; although it is sometimes employed for the
arsenic it contains, and for the preparation of sulphuret of arsenic.
The carbonate of iron is an excellent ore ; and has received the
name of steel ore, because it may be readily converted into steel.

JMlne of Carbonate of Iron and Zinc, in Sterling.

This is a bed, in mica slate, just like that at Worcester ; and
was extensively explored forty or fifty years ago, for the same
purpose which led to the opening of that bed, viz. the discovery
of gold and silver. The carbonate is the most abundant ore, and
lies scattered about the excavation, in considerable quantities ; al-
though the sulphuret is common, which is sometimes arsenical.
A reddish, foliated sulphuret of zinc also occurs here, in consider-
ble quantity, and some sulphuret of lead. Whether this mine
will be found worth exploring, it is difficult in its present state, to
determine. If it afford the carbonate of iron in large quantities,
it will certainly repay the effort. It lies about a mile and a half
southeast of the centre of the town.

Chromate of Iron.

It ought to be recollected, that a small rounded mass of this ore,
so valuable in the preparation of the paint called chrome yellow,
was found, a few years since, in Cummington, by Dr. Porter.

Postscript. — While the second edition of the first part of this
Report was passing through the press, I discovered the chromate of
iron in serpentine in Blanford. The serpentine itself has been
brought to light since the printing of the first edition, and occurs in
the northwest part of that town. The chromate is disseminated
through the serpentine, and exists in it also in considerable masses,
or in veins. I picked up specimens weighing from four to five
pounds ; but made no exploration to ascertain the quantity in the
rock. The mineralogical character of this mineral will be reserved
for the third part of the Report. It it hoped that this notice will
call the attention of practical men to this locality.

Phosphate of Iron..

The earthy variety of this ore has been found, in considerable
quantity, at the mineral spring in Hopkinton. It forms a bed, one
or two feet below the surface, and has been employed as a pigment.
It is said to exist also near Plymouth.

Ores oj iron. " 63

Sulphiirct of Iron, or Iron Pyrites.

This is the yellow ore so frequently mistaken for gold. It oc-
curs more or less in almost every rock ; but is of no use, unless it
exists in large quantities, and is of that variety which easily de-
composes. In such a case, it may be converted into the sulphate
of iron ; that is, into copperas. The ore is broken up, and ex-
posed to the action of air and moisture, when the change takes
place, and the lixivium is evaporated to obtain the copperas. In
Massachusetts, one can hardly avoid meeting with iron pyrites ;
and in the western part of Worcester county, the traveller cannot
but notice, that nearly all the rocks are coated over with iron rust.
This is the result of the decomposition I have spoken of In Hub-
bardston. the sulphate is so abundant, that a manufactory of cop-
peras has been established, and I believe success has thus far at-
tended the enterprise. I should presume that copperas might
be manufactured in several other towns south of Hubbardston ;
as in North Brookfield and Southbridge, although the rocks do not
appear as highly impregnated with pyrites in any place as in Hub-
bardston.

The decomposition of pyrites, in large quantities, often produces
a considerable degree of heat ; and sometimes pieces of rocks are
driven off with explosion. This is one of the sources of those
numerous stories which one hears in the country, concerning noises
heard, and lights with smoke, seen in the mountains. Such oc-
currences excite the belief of the existence of valuable mines in
the vicinity ; but they evince the existence of nothing more than
iron pyrites.

Magnetic oxide of Iron.

This is a valuable ore, affording from 50 to 90 per cent of iron.
It exists in several places in Massachusetts, and on the borders of
the State.

Hawley Iron Mine.

The principal ore here is the magnetic oxide, which is very
good, and the bed is favorably situated for exploration. The ore
does not seem to be abundant, the bed being rarely more than one
or two feet wide. It has been wrought to some extent; but the
operations are at present suspended. It belongs to Hon. Samuel
C. Allen. Micaceous oxide of iron occurs at the same bed.

The same bed of ore makes its appearance a mile or two south
of the excavation : and also, as I have been told, two or three
miles north, in Charlemont.

64 Economical Geology.

In Bernardston.

As already remarked in the postcript to limestone, this forms a
bed several leet thick in limestone, dipping at a moderate angle to
the southeast. When the ore was formerly worked, some com-
plaint was made, as if it did not produce the best of iron. But
probably the trials then made were very imperfect. The ore is
doubtless very abundant, andl should think well worthy the atten-
tion of the iron manufacturer.

In Somerset, Vt.

This bed is similarly situated to that in Hawley, and in the
same range of talcose slate, although twenty miles north of the
north line of Massachusetts. The ore, yielding 78 per cent of
iron, is of the first quality ; and this spot is peculiarly interesting
on another account, to which I shall refer in the sequel.

In Winchester, N. H.

This bed is only two or three miles north of the line of Massa-
chusetts, and the ore is said to be abundant, though for some rea-
son the working of it has ceased. The ore very much resembles
that from Franconia in New Hampshire.

In Cumberland, R. I.

Dr. Robinson says that he has obtained magnetic oxide of iron,
from * most of the thirteen mine holes ' which he visited in that
town. But the principal bed of ore lies about two miles northeast
of the meetinghouse, and constitutes a large hill. It is obtained
with great facility by blasting. It contains, however, several for-
eign minerals, so that as it is now worked, it yields only about 30
per cent of iron. This is probably far less than it contains ; for it
has a high specific gravity. The ore is smelted principally in
Massachusetts. It is owned by General Leach of Easton, and
will furnish an inexhaustible supply.

Magnetic oxide of iron is found at other places in Massachu-
setts ; as at Woburn, in a vein of greenstone, associated with sul-
phuret of copper : but at none of the localities, in quantity sufficient
to make it an object for the miner.

Micaceous Oxide of Iron.

This ore, which is found abundantly at Hawley with the mag-
netic oxide, furnishes perhaps the most elegant specimens in the
world ; and I know not why it should not produce good iron. In-
deed, I believe it has been smelted within a few years, along with
the magnetic oxide.

Qres of Iron. - 65

Vein of Micaceous Oxide in Montague.

Near the mouth of Miller's river is a hill of considerable extent,
which appears to be traversed by numerous veins of this ore. The
largest which comes in sight, is in the southeast part of the hill, at
the top of a ledge of mica slate and granite, and is several feet in
width. It is favorably situated for exploration, and unless the ore
is injured by an occasional mixture of sulphuret of iron, I do not
see why it might not be profitably wrought. Wood is very abun-
dant in the vicinity, and it is not far from Connecticut river. Good
micaceous oxide of iron, yields about 70 per cent of excellent
iron.

According to Professor Webster, thin veins of micaceous iron
ore exist in the porphyry of Maiden, which were formerly wrought
to some extent. It occurs also in gray wacke, at Brighton, and in
greenstone at Charlestown, according to the Messrs. Danas.

Hydrate of Iron.

Several varieties of ore heretofore regarded as distinct species
have lately been brought together under this name. It embraces
the brown and red oxides, and the argillaceous oxides, and of course
comprehends the greater part of the iron ores in the State. I shall
describe the different varieties under the names that have been
most commonly applied to them.

Beds of Srown Oxide of Iron.

This ore is of an excellent quality, and it occurs in the loose
soil above the rocks so as to be easily obtained. Hence it is used
to a greater extent, perhaps, in our country, than any other variety.
A very extensive series of beds of this ore, accompanies the lime-
stone that is so abundant along the western margin of Connecticut,
Massachusetts, and Vermont ; although, as the beds lie upon the
clay that is deposited above all the solid rocks, they have no neces-
sary connection with the limestone.

Beds in Lenox.

These have been explored to some extent in the village, and a
mile or two farther west. The ore is good, 1 believe, but at pres-
ent it is not used.

Beds in Richmond.

These appear to be numerous and extensive. They are wrought
to some extent.

66 Economical Geology.

Bed in West StocTchridge.

This furnishes good ore, and is explored more extensively than
any other I saw in the county. The fanner who owns it receives
thirty seven cents and a half per ton, of those who dig it.

In Salisbury, Ct.

The beds here are very large, and have been extensiv^ely ex-
plored. Tlie Salisbury iron is known far and wide.

In Bennington, Vt.

Here also the same ore is dug to some extent ; and these beds
seem to deserve a notice, because they lie, like those in Salisbury,
upon tiie borders of Massachusetts.

In all the beds of brown oxide of iron mentioned above, we find
the brown haematite in all its forms ; the compact, the fibrous, and the
ochrey brown oxide, or yellow ochre. Manganese also is found in
them all, and at Bennington in large quantities. It is, for the most
part, of a superior quality.

The red oxide of iron is found, in comparatively small quanti-
ties, at the localities above mentioned. It exists, also, in other
places in the State, and especially at Conway, with manganese ;
although it is not as yet, found in large quantities. Argillaceous
oxide of iron is likewise found at most of the hasmatite beds above
described.

In Cranston, R. I.

From this place General Leach procures, as he told me, very
excellent brown oxide of iron, for the supply of some of his fur-
naces in Massachusetts, and he represents the bed as inexhaust-
ible.

Argillaceous Oxide of Iron.

This is the most common species of iron ore in Massachusetts.
There are several varieties found here. On Nantucket and Mar-
tha's Vineyard, particularly at Gay Head, we find the nodular,
columnar, mamillary, pisiform, and ochrey varieties. On the
Vineyard these varieties are abundant enough to be an object for
the manufacturer ; and during the last war, I was told, they were
employed in the furnaces on the continent. In a pond, in Sha-
ron, has been found the lenticular variey of this ore.

Bog Ore.
This variety of the argillaceous oxide, is far more abundant

Bog Ore. 01

than any other, and has been used extensively in the manufacture
of cast iron ; for which it is chiefly adapted. In the following
towns it is found in large quantities : viz. Groton, North, West, and
South Brookfield, Carver, Hopkinton, Hardwick, New Braintree,
Oakham, Berlin, Sturbridge, Southbridge, Freetown, Dartmouth,
Rochester, Troy, Easton, and Sharon ; and in the following, it exists
greater or less quantities ; in Middleborough, Maiden, Seekonk,
Sheffield, Templeton, Warwick, Williamstown, Greenfield, North-
ampton, Springfield, Williamsburg, Dalton, Holland, Wales, Nor-
ton, Mansfield. Bridgewater, Stoughton, Spencer, Gloucester, and
on Martha's Vineyard : indeed, I can hardly doubt that more or
less of this ore may be found in nearly every town in the State.
1 found it so common that at length I ceased to enquire for it, and
the localities are so numerous that I have not attempted to exhibit
them all upon the Map.

It ought to be recollected, that the process by which bog ore is
deposited, is in many places now going on, particularly at the bot-
tom of ponds. The interval between one dredging and another,
was so variously stated to me, that I suspect it differs greatly in
different places. I presume, however, that it ought never to be
less than twenty years. But the fact, that there will be a renewal
of the deposit after a certain time is interesting : because it shows
that this mineral can never be entirely exhausted.

Gen. Shepard Leach,* of Easton, is the most extensively en-
gaged in the iron manufactory of any man in the Commonwealth.
He owns one blast and three air furnaces in Easton ; one blast fur-
nace in Foxborough, and another in Walpole : and two blast fur-
naces and four air furnaces, in Chelmsford. In these he employs
not far from five hundred men. He generally mixes the different
sorts of ore, or at least, two or three of them together for smelt-
ing. Extensive iron works are also carried on in Wareham.
Several furnaces exist in Berkshire, and a few in Worcester
county.

The preceding view of our deposits of iron, demonstrates that
we abound in this useful metal, and that the demand for centuries
to come, cannot exhaust it.

Ochres, &fc., used as paints.

There are two kinds of ochre, the red and the yellow, which
are merely pulverulent varieties of the red and brown oxides of
iron. The yellow ochre is abundant with our haematite and argil-
laceous ores, and is frequently employed as a pigment. Accord-

♦ Now deceased, (1834.)

68 Economical Geology. '

ing to Mr. C. T. Jackson, red ochre occurs in Boylston in a bed
four or five inches thick, mixed with clay. It has ah-eady been
mentioned, that the earthy phosphate of iron in Hopkinton, is
employed as a blue paint. Prof. Dewey mentions that a yellow
earth is found in Williamstown, from which great quantities of yel-
low ochre are obtained by washing. Dr. J. Porter states, that
yellow earth occurs in Monroe, which, when purified, affords a
* pale red paint.' The process of preparing it he says is now sus-
pended for want of a demand.

Lead.

Several ores of this metal are enumerated by mineralogists,
as 'occurring in Massachusetts ; but none is found in sufficient
quantity to render it of any statistical interest, except the sulphu-
ret, commonly called galena ; and all the important veins of this
species are confined to the vicinity of Connecticut river. ]\o
fewer than thirteen of these occur in that region of sufficient im-
portance to deserve notice. All these are in mica slate or granite ;
or they pass from the one rock into the other.

In Southampton.

The vein in the northern part of this town has attracted more
attention than any other in the region, and has been several times
described. It is six or eight feet wide where it has been explored,
and traverses granite and mica slate, the matrix or gangue contain-
ing the ore, being a mixture of quartz and sulphate of baryta. It
has been opened forty or fifty feet deep, in several places, and
masses of ore were dug out from half an inch to a foot in diameter.
As the vein descends almost perpendicularly into the rock, water
soon accumulated in such quantities, as induced the proprietors to
attempt reaching the vein by a horizontal drift or adit, from
the bottom of the hill on the east side. This was no small un-
dertaking, as the opening must be carried nearly a quarter of a
mile into the solid rock. It was persevered in, however, at a
great expense, for a distance of nearly nine hundred feet, when
one of the principal miners having died, and the price of lead
having fallen two or three hundred per cent, all operations were
suspended, and I believe the proprietors wish to dispose of the
mine. Had they continued this drift a few feet farther, there is
every probability that the principal vein would have been struck,
from one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet below the surface.
Perhaps, however, the work cannot be successfully and profitably
resumed, until the market shall cease to be glutted with lead from
Missouri ; but there can be little doubt, that immense quantities

Lead. 69

of ore may be obtained at this spot, it may then probably be ex-
plored with advantage. 1 do not doubt, however, that those who
first examined this mine were mistaken in the opinion that this
vein extends from INIontgomery to Hatfield, a distance of twenty
miles. Lead may indeed be found at intervals along a line con-
necting those places. But I have every reason to suppose, that
it proceeds from several distinct and independent veins.

The principal ore above described is the sulphuret; but there
have been found here also, the carbonate, sulphate, molybdate,
muriate and phosphate of lead, along with the sulphuret of zinc,
pyritous copper, and fluor spar. Mineralogists will greatly regret,
that mining operations have been suspended here, because they
were anticipating the developement of rich specimens of these
and other minerals.

Another vein of galena exists in the south part of Southamp-
ton, near the line of INIontgomery. It appears for several rods on
the surface, but is only afoot or two in breadth. A few years ago,
efforts were made to open this vein by a horizontal adit, but the
proprietors have become discouraged and abandoned the under-
taking.

In Northampton.

This vein is only a short distance north of the principal vein in
Southampton, above described. The gangue is radiated quartz,
and the walls are mica slate. Yellow blende or sulphuret of zinc
abounds here ; and the vein was formerly explored to a considera-
ble depth. It is several feet wide.

In Westhampton.

This vein has been usually described as existing in Williams-
burg and extending into Northampton. But so far as it exhibits
itself at the surface, it lies wholly in Westhampton — in quite the
northeast part of the town, only a few rods from the Northampton
line, and but half a mile from that of Williamsburg. The gangue
is quartz, and the vein is several feet wide, and may be traced 30
or 40 rods. But the quantity of galena is small at the surface,

In Williamsburg.

A vein of galena lies in the northeastern part of this town,
and probably extends into Whately. It is~ two or three feet wide,
and the gangue, as in nearly every other vein of lead in this re^
gion, is quartz. Manganese is found in the same gangue.

A second vein of quartz with galena occurs in this town, a mile
or two northeast of the one last mentioned. The quartz, how--

8

70 Economical Geology.

ever, appears only in loose masses on the surface, but to such an
extent, as can be explained only on the supposition, that a vein
exists in the rock beneath the soil. Pyritous copper is found in
connection with the galena at this place.

In Goshen.

According to the statements of Mr. Alanson Nash, who has
given a map and description of the lead veins and mines of Hamp-
shire county, in the twelfth volume of the American Journal of
Science, the same indications of a galena vein appears a little west
of the centre of Goshen, as those mentioned in respect to the
third vein in Williamsburg just noticed, viz. the occurrence of
masses of quartz containing galena. The rock in the region is
mica slate and granite.

In Whately.

In this town are three distinct veins containing lead. One is
about half a mile east of the first vein described in Williamsburgh.
It extends a short distance into Williamsburg, and more than a
mile into Whately. In its whole course, but particularly at its
southern part, it contains oxide of manganese along with galena.

A second vein, three or four feet wide, exists in a high ridge of
granite towards the southwest part of the town. It may be traced
along this ridge about three quarters of a mile.

The third vein is in the northwest part of the town, extending
some distance into Conway. Galena, in quartz, is the only ore
that appears on the surface. The width of the vein is six or
seven feet, and it traverses both granite and mica slate. It runs
along the western margin of a high hill, so that if it should ever
be explored, a lateral drift could be easily made.

In Hatfield. ^

About two miles west of the village in this town, we find a vein
of sulphate of baryta, from one to four feet wide at the surface,
running in a northwesterly direction and containing galena. A
shaft has been sunk in two places, from fifteen to twenty feet,
deep ; and the vein was found rapidly to widen in descending.
The immense quantity of baryta found here, gives the locality a
peculiar interest to the mineralogist.

In Leverett.

Although this town lies on the eastern side of Connecticut river,
yet the granite and mica slate, occurring there, exactly resemble
the same rocks found on the west side of the river : and there can

Copper. 71

be no doubt that both belong to the same general formation. Two
veins, the ore being cliiefly galena, are found of precisely the
same character as those on the opposite side of the river. That
in the southeast part of the town is in granite, not more than a foot
or two wide at the surface, and the gangue is sulphate of baryta.
The other is a mile and a half to the north of the first ; the gangue
is quartz, and there is almost an equal quantity of galena and
pyritous copper ; blende also occurs in small quantities. This
vein is several feet wide, and runs through granite and mica slate.
Both this and the one first mentioned, have been explored to the
depth of a (e\v feet.

It is impossible to form any confident opinion as to the probable
quantity of lead, which is contained in the several veins which
have been described, except, perhaps, in regard to that in South-
ampton, which has been explored to a considerable extent. In
many instances appearances at the surface are quite favorable ;
but whether the veins become wider, like that in Hatfield, or nar-
rov/er as they descend, can be determined only by actual explora-
tion. Of one thing, however, I think we may be assured, from
the facts that have been stated ; viz. that the central parts of
Hampshire county contain extensive deposits of lead, which may
be of great value to posterity, if not to the present generation.
Probably many more veins will hereafter be discovered, since little
examination has been made with a view to bring them to light.

Copper.

This valuable metal occurs in numerous places near the junction
of the greenstone and sandstone, in the valley of the Connecticut,
between New Haven and Vermont. Several veins of copper ore
are found in Connecticut ; and the only one in that state, that has
been explored to any considerable extent, lies on the borders of
Massachusetts, viz. in Granby. It has long been known under the
name of Simsbury mines, although it is within the limits of Gran-
by. Many years ago, before the war of the revolution, I believe,
this vein was explored to a considerable extent. Afterwards the
government of Connecticut made use of the abandoned shafts and
galleries for a State Prison. Since the removal of this prison to
Weathersfield, the exploration has been resumed, by a new com-
pany, and, as I am informed by the agent, with success. The
principal part of the ore is the red oxide, associated, however, with
green carbonate.

In Greenfield.

In the northeastern part of this town, on the banks of Connec-
ticut river, are two veins of copper ore about a mile apart ; the

72 Economical Geology.

most northern one being about one hundred rods below the mouth
of a small stream, called Fall River, and the same distance in a direct
line from the cataract in Connecticut river, sometimes called Mil-
ler's Falls ; but lately, and more appropriately, Turner's Falls.
These veins are several feet in width, and they pass into a hill
of greenstone on one hand, and under the river on the other
into sandstone. The gangue is sulphate of baryta and toadstone,
and the ores are the green carbonate and pyritous copper. Actual
exploration alone can determine whether these veins might be
profitably worked.

On the most southern of the small islands, in the middle of
Turner's Falls, has been found a vein of pyritous copper, of a
rich quality, and in considerable quantity. Indeed, several varie-
ties of the sandstone rocks in the vicinity, appear to be considera-
bly impregnated with copper.

Pyritous copper is associated with iron, in a vein, in greenstone,
at Woburn ; but not, probably, in a sufficient quantity, to be worth
mining. At several places in Cumberland, R. I., where excava-
tions were formerly made, are found gray oxide of copper and
pyritous copper with the green and blue carbonates.

Zinc.

The sulphuret of this mineral occurs, as has already been no-
ticed, in several of the lead veins of Hampshire county, and in
some of them in sufficient quantity, no doubt, to be wrought with
advantage, should these veins be ever opened. Those in South,
ampton, Hatfield, and Leverett, abound most in this ore. It is
useful in the manufacture of brass and white vitriol.

Manganese.

In a metallic state this mineral is of no use ; and indeed, it is
reduced to that state with great difficulty. But in the state of
oxide, it is extensively employed, both to remove color from
glass and to impart colors ; also in painting porcelain and glazing
pottery, and still more extensively within a few years, in the man-
ufacture of the chloride of lime, now so generally used in bleach-
ing and for disinfection.

At least three ores of manganese abound in the western part of
Massachusetts and on the borders of New Hampshire. It has
been already remarked, that more or less of the gray oxide exist?
in the iron beds of Berkshire, and Bennington, Vt. In the vicin-
ity of Connecticut river, however, or rather on the eastern slope
of Hoosic mountain, distinct veins and beds of manganese are
found.

Mans;anese and Tin 73

"b

In Plainjield.

Beds of the oxide of manganese occur in two places in this
town, one a mile west of the centre, and the other near the south-
west corner of the town ; and both in talcose slate. Two ores
are associated at both these places, viz. the common gray or black
oxide and the silicious oxide; the former investing the latter as a
black crust, and most probably proceeding from its decomposition ;
while the latter, when newly broken, is of a delicate rose red. I
suspect the silicious oxide predominates at these places ; and from
these beds, probably came by diluvial action, those numerous
rounded masses of silicious oxide in the vicinity of Cummington
meetinghouse ; although a deep valley intervenes, and the distance
is three or four miles.

An attempt was made, some years ago, to explore one of thes&
beds, under the impression that the ore was iron. But how ex-
tensive either of them is, it is difficult to determine, as each seems
to consist of a number of small beds, or rather the ore is inter-
laminated with the slate. The occurrence of so much silicious
oxide at these localities, is very interesting to the mineralogist,
because this ore is so rare in Europe.

In Conway.

A distinct vein of the black oxide of manganese several feet
wide occurs in the southeast part of this town, the gangue being
quartz. It has not been explored at all ; nor is the manganese
ore very abundant at the surface. I do not doubt, however, that
this ore may be found here in large quantities.

In Hinsdale, N. H.

An extensive bed or vein of the black oxide, and ferro-silicate
of manganese has been found in this town. It appears near the
top of a hill and the adjacent rocks are not visible.

In Winchester, N. H.

Between one and two miles east of the centre village in this
town, may be seen large quantities of the black oxide and ferro-
silicate of this metal of the same character as in Hinsdale. These
localities have, as yet, attracted no attention except from a few
mineralogists. My information and specimens were furnished me
by Mr. John L. Alexander of Winchester,

Tin.

I am able to say with perfect confidence that this interesting
metal exists in Massachusetts : but can ad^l little more. I found

74 Economical Geology.

only a single crystal of its oxide, weighing 50 grains. But this I
dug myself from a block of granite in the northwest part of Goshen,
and on reducing it to metallic tin, it corresponds exactly in every
respect with that metal from England. I have never been able
to find any more specimens, but it ought to be borne in mind that
in England, according to a geological writer of that country, ' it is
generally in the vicinity of a vein of tin ore, that disseminated
grains of tinstone are found in the rock.'

Mohs, in his Mineralogy, mentions that some small crystals of
tin were found in specimens sent to Europe from Chesterfield,
Mass.

Silver.

The only place in the State where this metal has been discov-
ered, is at the Southampton lead mine ; it there exists in a small
proportion — only 12 1-2 ounces to the ton, — in the galena. This
is a little greater than the average proportion in the English lead
ores ; but it is hardly worth the labor of separating it. It is not
improbable that when several other ores in the State, such as arsen-
ical iron, sulphuret of iron and of zinc, shall be accurately ana-
lyzed, they will be found, as in other countries, to contain a larger
proportion of silver. I would, however, rather discourage than
encourage, farther researches for this metal ; for as I shall soon
have occasion to state more fully, greater expense has been incurred
and more weakness and folly exhibited in such researches, than
the community is generally aware of.

Gold.

It may perhaps excite a smile, to see gold occupying a place in
a description of the minerals of Massachusetts. It has not indeed
been found in this State ; but I am able in this place, to announce
the existence of a deposit of this metal, in the southern part of
Vermont ; and I feel no small degree of confidence, that it will be
found in Massachusetts. A statement of the grounds of this belief,
may save me fi'om the charge of extravagant expectations.

I have already described an iron mine, as occurring in Somerset,
Vermont. It is owned by S. V. S. Wilder, Esq. of Brooklyn,
New York, who has erected a bloomery forge near the spot.
Sometime ago, one of the workmen engaged in these iron works,
saw in the American Journal of Science, a suggestion of Professor
Eaton of Troy, that since the gold of the Southern states, and of
Mexico, is in talcose slate, we might expect to find it in the same
rock in New England : especially about the head branches of
Deerfield river. He commenced an examination in a brook near

CI old 75

the mine, and was soon rewarded by the discovery of a spherical
mass of gold, of the value of more than a dollar ; afterwards he
found other small pieces. At the request of Mr. Wilder, I visited
this spot a few weeks ago, and found that an individual conversant
with the gold mines in the Southern states, and acquainted with
the process of washing the metal from the soil, had just been ex-
aming the region now spoken of. The result was a conviction,
that over several hundred acres at least, gold was common in the
soil. In a bushel of dirt collected in various places, he found about
three penny weights of very pure gold. Mr. Wilder proceeded
himself to exhibit to me an occular demonstration of the existence
of gold in the soil, by washing for it. From about six quarts of
dirt, taken a foot below the surface, we obtained (although not very
skilful in the manipulations of this sort) twenty or thirty small
pieces, weighing about seven grains. Indeed, by the aid of ray
knife, I picked two or three pieces from the dirt.

The iron ore is in beds in distinct talcose slate ; and a considera-
ble part of the ore is the hydrous, and contained in a porous quartz.
In this quartz, were found several spherical 'pieces of gold, scarce-
ly larger than a pigeon shot. It exists, also as in the Southern
states, in finer particles, in the yellowish iron ore. And specimens
of the quartz and iron at this place, cannot be distinguished from
what is called gold ore, at the gold mines in Virginia, and North
Carolina. Indeed, a suite of specimens from the Somerset iron
mine, could not be distinguished, except by labels, from a similar
suite from the south.

In every case in which gold has been found at this place, in the
soil, it was accompanied by more or less of iron sand, and some
distance north of the mine, neither could be found ; but how far
to the South and East it occurs, has not been ascertained. I am
inclined however to believe, that the gold at this locality, will be
found to be always associated with the iron.

We were told at Somerset, that several years ago, amass of gold
was found^in the bed of Deerfield river, three or four miles to the
south of the mine, which was sold for sixty eight dollars, and we
had no reason to doubt the statement. Certain it is, that a {ew
years since a piece was discovered by Gen. Field, weighing eight
and a half ounces, in New Fane, a town twelve or fifteen miles
east of Somerset.

Upon the whole, it appears to me that the facts above stated
justify the conclusion, that there exists a gold region in the lower
part of Vermont, of considerable extent and richness. * It may

♦ Some paragraphs have recently been going- the rounds of the newspapers, (Jan.
1834,) whose object is to throw doubt over this whole account of the Vermont
gold. The story which the writer'gives about the New Fane gold having been

76 Economical Geology.

be found to be very extensive, and probably is not confined ex-
clusively to the talcose slate formation ; for New Fane, I believe,
contains but little of this rock. The region west of Somerset is
little known ; the iron mine there, lies at the foot of the Green
IMountains, and it is chiefly a mountain wilderness for sixteen or
seventeen miles west of this spot.

The talcose slate formation, containing the iron and gold in Som-
erset, extends southerly, nearly across the Slate of Massachusetts;
passing through tiie towns of Rowe, Charlemont, the settlement
called Zoar, Florida, Savoy, Hawley, Plainfield, Cummington,
Worthington, Middlefield, &ic. Indeed, I know of no place, where
the formation is so perfectly developed in its characters, as in Haw-
ley and Plainfield. There is then, surely, as much ground for
presuming that gold will be found in Massachusetts, as there was
for predicting its discovery in Vermont. If an iron mine and
porous quartz, with hydrous iron, be necessary, we have these in
Hawley, in the talcose slate. And it ought to be recollected, that
the Vermont gold was found at the source of Deerfield river, and
that this stream runs directly south into Massachusetts ; and it
vi^ould be rather strange, if so violent a torrent, did not carry some
of the diluvium, containing gold, at least as far the limits of this
State. The places where I suppose gold might be found in Mas-
sachusetts, are in the vicinity of Hawley iron mine, or the Plain-
field beds of manganese, or along the banks of Deerfield river, in
Monroe, Florida, Zoar, and Charlemont : nor should the region
around the limestone and iron ore, in Bfernardston, be forgotten, in
an examination for this metal, although the rock there is not tal-
cose slate. Talcose slate occurs also in many other places in the
State ; particularly in Berkshire county, on the Taconic range of
mountains, and other eminences ; and here also are porous quartz
and hydrous iron. I have found time to make only a slight exam-
ination for gold, in one or two of the places above mentioned.
The surest method of determining the point, would be to obtain
some one, who is conversant with the gold regions at the south,

buried by counterfeiters, I heard told some years ag-o ; but it is extremely improb-
able ; and General Field, who found it, states that it contained crystals of quartz,
proving- it to be native gold at least. As to the Somerset gold, the writer cannot
be more sceptical about its existence than 1 was, when iirst I visited the spot : but
when I was actually able to find fragments almost any where over a wide extent
of surface, by digging where the soil did not appear to have been disturbed since
the time of the last delug-e, I could doubt no longer ; nor could I believe, as this
writer insinuates, that some speculating gold digger had been sowing southern
g-old there so extensively. That gold exists at Somerset cannot it seems to me be
reasonabl}' doubted any lorger ; but whether in sufficient quantity to be profitably
explored, I do not know. And I think the proprietors of the soil act very wisely
in not proceeding to incur much expense in digging and washing for gold, until
they are satisfied on this point.

Vinonary Projects. 77

and with the mode of washing it, to examine the places which 1 have
mentioned. It may indeed be doubtful, whether the discovery of
gold would be a public benefit ; since, as your Excellency has well
observed, it might lead to ' the greedy pursuit of this unce rtain
gain, and to the sure sacrifice of habits of industry and economy,
and virtuous self-denial, which the ordinary pursuits and require-
ments of business induce. We may doubt even, whether the
grass-covered hills of our own New England, are not a better
source of wealth, and contentment, than the precious metals
which the earth embosoms.' But, however political economy
might decide these questions, I suppose there are few individuals
who would willingly shut their eyes upon gold mines; and there-
fore I have made these suggestions on the subject, to prevent ex-
penditure upon useless and ill-planned projects, in search of this
precious metal.

^Idle search after Gold and Silver.

Were the history of the wild and ill-directed efforts that have
been made, even in Massachusetts, hi search of the precious
metals, to be written, it would furnish many striking illustrations
of the importance of your Excellency's suggestions. Permit me
here to state a few facts on the subject.

The large quantities of the precious metals carried to Europe
from South America, soon after its discovery, naturally produced
some expectation of finding similar treasures here. But I cannot
learn that our forefathers expended large sums in making excava-
tions, where there was no reasonable prospect of finding any tinng
valuable. It was reserved for their descendants to exhibit a credu-
lity and superstitious ignorance on the subject, that are both lamen-
table and ridiculous.

Perhaps, at the present day, a belief in the mysterious virtues
of the mineral rod, is the most common of these delusions. Prob-
ably many of our intelligent citizens can hardly credit the state-
ment, that there are men in various parts of the State, who profess
not a little skill in this enchantment, and are not unfrequenlly sent
for, one or two days' journey, to decide whether there be ore or
springs of water in a particular place. In general, but not always,
these professors of divination belong to the most ignorant classes
in society ; for not long since, a venerable and respectable man of
good education, sincerely thought it his duty, occasionally to pere-
grinate with his divining rod, because it would work in his hands;
and not a few intelligent men have a secret belief that the branches
of a witch hazle are attracted downward towards mineral sub-
stances, when in the hands of a certain individual.

9

78 Economical Geology.

The following train of circumstances often takes place. A
man, ignorant of mineralogy, finds upon his farm, a specimen of
iron pyrites, or yellow mica, or galena, which he mistakes for gold
or silver. Even if he shows it to a mineralogist, and is told that he
is mistaken, he suspects that his informant is deceiving him, in
the hope of getting possession of the prize himself He resolves
to begin an excavation. And he sees enough, in the shining parti-
cles of mica and feldspar that are thrown out, to buoy up his hopes,
until his purse is well nigh drained.

It was probably in some such way, that the excavations were
made in Worcester and Sterling, at the mines of arsenical iron and
carbonate of iron ; altliough, in these cases, there would be suffi-
cient ground for obtaining some of these ores, since they do some-
times contain silver. But 1 cannot conceive why such extensive
excavations were made, when a chemist might have easily settled
the question as to their nature, by analyzing 100 grains of the ore,
unless it was on the erroneous supposition, which 1 find to be com-
mon, that metallic veins generally become much richer and larger,
and even change their contents, as they descend into the earth.

The decomposition of iron pyrites, producing heat and sometimes
explosion, is supposed by some to be a strong indication of miner-
al riches in the earth beneath. The man of the witch hazel rod is cal-
led, and if he confirms the suspicion, as he usually will, the excava-
tion is commenced ; nor is it suspended until a heavy draft has been
made upon the man's pecuniary resources. An extensive excava-
ion was made, many years ago, I am told, in Hubbardston ; and from
the character of the rock there, I suspect that pyrites gave the first
impulse to the undertaking. In Pepperell, an individual has been
engaged for several years, in pushing a drift into the rocks, which he
has penetrated eight or ten rods ; although individuals who have
visited the spot, (1 have not,) can discover nothing but iron pyrites.

In theyear 1815, an individual succeeded in getting a company
formed and incorporated with a capital of eighty thousand dollars,
called the Easton lead and silver mining company. The fruits of
their labor may be seen in an excavation, an red granite nearly one
hundred feet deep, at present nearly filled with water. I could
not find a particle of ore, of any kind, in the fragments blasted
out. A final stop was put to the work, by the killing of two men
in blasting.

Forty years since, a shaft was sunk in Mendon, in search of the
precious metals. A little specular oxide of iron occurs at the
place.

Not many months since an individual called upon me, with
specimens of black blende or sulphuret of zinc, found in a neigh-

Visionary Projects. 79

boring town, and which he strongly suspected to be silver. I in-
formed him of its true nature, and seeing that the vision had got
strong hold upon his mind, I did all in my power to persuade him
not to engage in searching for the ore. But the only effect was to
stimulate him to commence an exploration with more ardor. The
zinc was found in a loose piece of rock lying in the field. The
man's impression was, that even if that ore was of no use, it
indicated something valuable beneath. Accordingly he commenced
digging. Ere long, his faith was strengthened, by some one's dis-
covering a light, during the darkness, near the spot ; and the last
time I heard from the man, he had penetrated the soil about seven-
ty feet.

The following case has been stated to me on such authority that
I do not doubt its correctness.

Some forty or fifty years ago, a farmer, residing not far from the
centre of Massachusetts, knocked off from a rock upon his farm, a
piece of ore, which he sold in Boston for a considerable sum, as a
rich ore of silver. From that time till the day of his death, he
searched in vain for the rock from which it was broken. The in-
ference which he drew from his ill success, was, that Satan, (who
is thought, b}' multitudes, to have unlimited power over the min-
eral treasures of the earth,) had concealed or removed the pre-
cious vein. Conceiving, however, that some of his posterity might
have more interest with that personage than himself, he reserved
to the right of digging the ore, in the instrument which conveyed
away his title to the land. His posterity were not forgetful of the
reservation ; but they were convinced it would be of no use to
them, unless they could meet with some individual who had en-
tered into a league, (as the phrase is with the class of people
whom I am describing,) with his Satanic majesty. Last year they
heard of such a man, a German in Pennsylvania, who had ob-
tained possession of a wonderful glass, througli which he could
discover whatever lies hid beneath the soil. The German was
persuaded to visit the spot, and when I passed through the place,
a little more than a year ago, an excavation was about to be com-
menced under his direction. And I have since been told that the
w^ork was prosecuted till the owner's property was well nigh ex-
pended.

Still more ridiculous than the opinions and practices above men-
tioned, are some still existing in a few places in the State, relative
to deposits of money, said to have been made by one Kidd, a cel-
ebrated buccaneer of early times. The statement is, that he fre-
quently ascended our streams a considerable distance, and buried
in their banks, large sums of money. These are supposed to be

60 Economical Geology,

guarded with sleepless vigilance by the personage mentioned be-
fore. But by the use of certain incantations, while digging for the
treasure, it may be wrested out of his hands : for instance, perfect
silence must reign during the operation, unless it be broken by
the reading of the Bible, and all must be done in the night. The
last instance of the practice of this mummery, which I have heard
of, occurred a few years since on one of the branches of Westfield
river. A hundred days' work were expended upon the enterprise
before it was abandoned. At one time those employed in this
work were greatly discouraged, by the intrusion of my informant,
who, in spite of all they could do by gestures, broke silence and
thus dissolved the charm. At another time, courage was revived
by finding an iron pot, containing some bits of copper, deposited
there, the day previous, by some boys, who had learned what was
going forward.

I have given these rather mortifying details, partly because I
doubt whether one tenth of our population are aware of the ex-
istence of such opinions and practices among us ; and partly in
the hope that the exposition may be instrumental in entirely eradi-
cating them from the minds of those who have been thus deluded.
For, like night fogs, they need only to be brought into the light of
day to be dissipated.

Conclading RemarJcs.

In concluding this summary of the economical geology of Mas-
sachusetts, I cannot but allude to the very imperfect developement
which has hitherto been made of our mineral resources. Judg-
ing from what we know at present, our granites, marbles, and
other rocks, useful in architecture, are undoubtedly the richest of
these resources. Yet it is only a few years, since these rocks
(with the exception of some quarries of marble,) have been em-
ployed at all for building ; and even now, only a few beds, and
these very possibly not the best, have been opened. In the vi-
cinity of Connecticut river, the inhabitants are just beginning to
learn that they have beautiful granite in their own hills and moun-
tains. The Berkshire marbles are wrought on a stinted scale,
compared with what they might be, were a railroad to furnish the
means of an easy transportation to the Hudson. And as to our
porphyries and serpentines, various and abundant as they are, it is
rare to meet with a single polished specimen. Our mineral veins
and beds, with the exception of a few mines of iron, and one of
lead, lie as yet almost untouched, and probably many of them
undiscovered.

These I'acti ought to be kept in mind in forming an estimate of

Concluding Remarks. 81

our mineral resources. Yet imperfect as is our acquaintance with
these, I think we need not fear a comparison, in this respect, with
any other part of the country. Other states possess particular
minerals which are more valuable and interesting, and calculated
to awaken public attention more than ours ; yet where is the teri-
tory abounding in a greater number of rocks and minerals, of real
and permanent utility, whose quality is excellent and whose quan-
tity is inexhaustible ? They are, indeed, of such a character, that
they will increase in value for several generations to come. That
is, we may calculate that the demand for them will increase dur-
ing that period, and this demand will lead to the discovery of va-
rieties really more valuable.

Thus far we have regarded our geology only in an economical
point of view. I hope to show in the subsequent parts of my
Report, that it is not less interesting to the man of taste and sci-
ence.

Respectfully submitted,

Edward Hitchcock.

Amherst College, Jan. 1, 1832,

TOPOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY.

PART II.

To His Excellency Levi Lincoln, Esq.

Governor of Massachusetts.

I have supposed that my account of the Geology of the State
would be quite imperfect, without some notice of our Scenery.
Strictly speaking, indeed, scenery is not geology : and yet the
contour of a country owes its peculiarities in a great measure to
the character of the rocks found beneath the soil : so that the
geologist, by a mere inspection of the features of the landscape,
can form a very probable opinion of the nature of the rock for-
mations. The extended plain, he will pronounce alluvial, or ter-
tiary. The precipitous ridge or mountain, if dark colored, will
indicate trap rocks; if light colored, granite: if the summit be
rounded, and the aspect red or gray, he will suspect it to be made
up of sandstone. The more extended and less precipitous moun-
tain ranges, stretching away over many a league, correspond more
nearly to the outlines of primary rocks. In short, the connection
between the aspect of the earth's surface and the nature of the
rocks beneath, is so obvious, that I have thought it would not be a
misnomer, to denominate an account of the natural scenery. Top-
ographical Geology. In the following sketch of the scenery of
Massachusetts, my principal object will be to direct the attention
of the man of taste to those places in the State, where he will
find natural objects particularly calculated to gratify his love of
novelty, beauty and sublimity. I have not the space, had I the
ability, to describe them with the vividness and fullness of the
poet or the painter. But by sketching their obvious features, I
would hope to induce gentlemen of leisure and intelhgence, who
are lovers of the beautiful, the sublime, and the picturesque in
nature, to visit and more minutely to describe them.

84 Topographical Geology.

The most striking objects in the scenery of a country, where
they exist, are high and precipitous mountains ; especially if ex-
tensive plains, traversed by rivers, stretch away from their bases.
I shall, therefore, in the first place, describe, those conspicuous
peaks and ridges in the State, whose summits afford wide and in-
teresting prospects.

Massachusetts is peculiarly mountainous. But mountain scen-
ery is not particularly interesting, if the slopes are gentle, and the
outlines of the hills are much rounded. It needs the sharp tow-
ering peak, the craggy and overhanging cliff, and the roaring tor-
rent beneath, to arrest the attention, and excite strong emotions.
Such objects are numerous in this State, especially in the western
part. Here we find some scenery that is truly Alpine. 1 begin
with the highest point in the State, viz.

Saddle Mountain.

We have in Massachusetts three lofty and extensive ranges of
mountains, crossing the State in a north and south direction. The
summit of the Taconic Range, corresponds nearly with the west
line of the State. The Hoosic Range is separated from the Ta-
conic by a valley several miles in width. It occupies all the east-
ern part of Berkshire county, and the western part of Franklin,
Hampshire and Hampden ; being from 30 to 40 miles broad, and
extending easterly to the valley of the Connecticut. East of this
valley is a belt of mountainous country, embracing ti)e eastern
part of Franklin, Hampshire and Hampden counties, and the
whole of Worcester county : but no specific name has been ap-
plied as yet to this range as a whole.

Saddle Mountain does not belong, properly speaking, to any of
these chains of elevated land ; though generally regarded as a spur
from the Hoosic range. But it is in fact an insulated eminence,
mostly in the town of Adams, and nearly surrounded by vallies,
above which it rises 2,800 feet, and nearly 3,600 above the tide
water of the ocean. It is chiefly the insulated character of this
mountain, that renders it so striking an object in the scenery. Its
summit is supposed to bear a resemblance to that of a saddle ;
and hence its unpoetic name. The highest point of the summit
has a much more appropriate designation, viz. Gray lock ; from
the hoary aspect which the upper part of the mountain presents
in the winter months. During that season, the frost attaches it-
self to the trees, which, thus decorated, it needs no great stretch
of imagination to regard as the gray locks of this venerable moun-
tain. As the cold increases, the line of congelation sinks lower
and lower, covering more and more of the mountain with frost

Saddle Mountain. 85

work, and a contrary effect results from an increase of the tem-
)3erature ; so that this line is frequently rising and falling during
the cold months, producing numerous fantastic changes in the as-
pect of the mountain.

The best route by which to ascend to the summit of Graylock,
passes up the southwestern declivity of the mountain, through
what is called xhe Hopper ; and over that spur of the mountain
denominated Bald Mountain, The ascent is so gentle that it may
be gained on horseback. Indeed, in one instance I was told that
a lady, accustomed to equestrian excursions, reached the summit in
this manner : and were the road in the upper part improved as it
might be, by a little labor, her example might be easily followed.
Another improvement, also, should be made before ladies are in-
vited to take this excursion. At present one is obliged to climb a
tree, to the height of 30 or 40 feet, in order to get an unobstruct-
ed view from the summit ; so that either the surrounding trees
should be cleared away, or a stone or wooden structure be erected,
that would overlook them.

I know of no place where the mind is so forcibly impressed by
the idea of vastness, and even of immensity, as when the eye ran-
ges abroad from this eminence. Towards the south you have a
I'ievv, more or less interrupted by spurs from the Taconic and Hoo-
sic ranges of mountains, of that fertile valley which crosses the
whole of Berkshire county. On your right and left, you look
down upon, or rather overlook, the Taconic and Hoosic mountains ;
which from the valley beneath, seem of such towering height and
grandeur. Beyond these mountains, on every side, you see the
summits of peak beyond peak, till they are blended with the distant
sky. The objects in the immediate vicinity of the mountain do
not forcibly arrest the attention ; though from the northern point
of the summit, I should suppose the valley of Williamstown must
be delightfully exhibited. Still, the vast depth of the valley around
you, as you stand upon Graylock, contributes no doubt to swell
the feeling of immensity and sublimity produced by looking abroad
among such a sea of mountains-

Upon the whole, however, I was more interested by the phe-
nomena exhibited in that part of the mountain called the Hopper,
than by a view from the summit. As the traveller descends from
Graylock, let him follow out the naked summit of Bald Mountain
nearly to its extremity, and then, on turning northerly, he will find
before him a gulph at least a thousand feet deep, the four sides of
which seem (although it is not strictly so) to converge to a point at
the bottom. The slope of these sides, is so steep, that one feels
dizzy on looking into the gulph. These slopes are all covered

10

86 Topographical Geology.

with trees of various species, among which are occasional patches
of evergreens, giving to the whole a rich and captivating appear-
ance. On the northeast side, however, may be seen the traces of
several Mountain Slides, by which the trees and the loose soil
have been swept away from the height, in some cases, of 1600
feet, and of considerable width. It is not niore than six or eight
years since one or two of these slides occurred ; and the paths
which they left behind, are yet entirely naked of vegetation. In
some instances of earlier date, we perceive the vestiges of the ava-
lanche, only in the stinted growth, or peculiar character of the trees,
that have sprung up. It is said that one of the most remarkable of
these slides, took place in the year 1784; and that one dwelling
house was swept away by the inundation, though the inmates es-
caped.

Scattered through the valley of Berkshire and among the high
ranges that bound it on either hand, are many other mountains and
peaks that present delightful and extensive landscapes from their
summits. There is, however, such a general resemblance in the
scenery of the county, that a particular description of each pros-
pect will be unnecessary, after what has been said of Saddle Moun-
tain. In the southern part of the county, the Taconic range
reaches a height not much inferior to that of Graylock. That
part of the range is called.

Mount Washington.

It lies in the southwest corner town of the State, (except a small
triangular unincorporated tract at the very angle of the State called
Boston corner,) and as it occupies most of the town, both have
the same name. It has two principal peaks ; the highest and most
northerly of which, rises 2400 feet above the valley of the Hou-
satonic, and 3150 above the ocean. The summit of the ridge is
mostly naked rock, with even very little shrubbery. The ascent
is easy on the easterly side, and the view of the plain of Sheffield
and the valley of the Housatonic generally, is delightful.

A somewhat interrupted range of mountains extends from Stock-
bridge through the easterly part of Great Barrington and Sheffield,
presenting several distinct peaks, which have different names, such
as Monument Mountain, in Stockbridge, and Alum Hill, in Shef-
field. Beartown Mountain extends from Stockbridge through
Great Barrington into Tyringham ; Rattlesnake Hill is an insulat-
ted mountain in Stockbridge. The mountain separating West
Stockbridge from Stockbridge, and Richmond from Lenox, is de-
nominated at its northern part, Lenox Mountain : and more south-
erly, Stockbridge Mountain. In Washington, and extending into

Mount Washington, ^c. 87

Pittsfield, is a lofty and rounded spur from the Hoosic range, called
Washington Mountain ; a name too much like Mount Washington.
In Canaan, Connecticut, a few miles beyond the Massachusetts
line, is a noble mountain ridge with a mural front on the southwest,
and several miles in extent, called Canaan Mountain. From all
these mountains, and others that might be named, magnificent pros-
pects are presented, which, in the midst of a general resemblance,
exhibit so much peculiar to each, as amply to repay the traveller
for climbing them all.

The same may be said of numerous distinct summits that crown
the broad ranges of the Taconic and Hoosic. It is extremely ex-
hilarating to the spirits of the tasteful traveller, as he traverses
these regions, especially in summer, to find such a constant variety
of landscape attending every change of place. For every new hill
that he climbs, he is rewarded by the discovery of some new group-
ing of the distant mountains ; some new peak or ridge rising fan-
tastically in the horizon ; some new village crowning the distant hill
with its neat white houses and church spire ; or some hitherto un-
seen valley opens before him, through which tumbles the mountain
torrent ; while the vast slopes of the valley present so much diver-
sity, softness, and richness of foliage, as to form a lovely resting
place for the eye.

In such mountainous regions it was natural for the first settlers
to select elevated situations for a residence. Hence in many in-
stances the tops of these ridges are crowned with many pleasant vil-
lages. Among those which are thus situated and afford the most
romantic prospects, may be named Blanford, Granville, Tolland,
Chester, Middlefield, Peru, Windsor, Chesterfield, Goshen, Cum-
mington, Plainfield, Ashfield, Hawley, Shelburne, Rowe, Heath,
and Leyden. To one accustomed to reside in a valley, it is inter-
esting to witness in one of these places, the setting, but more par-
ticularly the rising of the sun : when very probably he will see a
dense fog resting upon the vallies below, and shutting out the sun,
while it shines in all its glory upon the hills around the observer.

In the elevated region east of Connecticut river, a still larger
number of villages have been built upon heights commanding wide
horizons : and some these, being in a superior style of architect-
ure, are most attractive objects to the distant traveller. What for
instance can be a finer object, than the beautiful village of Leices-
ter, seen at the distance of six or eight miles ! or than Shrews-
bury, Grafton, Charlton or Rutland ! Similarly situated are Dudley,
Sutton, Mendon, Hopkinton, Spencer, New Braintree, Hardwick,
Barre, Petersham, Shutesbury, New Salem, Templeton,Winchen-
don, Princeton, Westford, Andover, Uc. The extent and beauty

88 ToyograpJiical Geology.

of the summer prospect from the last mentioned place have long
been the admiration of the traveller.

Mount HolyoJce.

We come now to the valley of the Connecticut, where is some
of the boldest and most beautiful scenery in the State. INIount
Holyoke in Hadley claims the first notice ; not on account of its
superior altitude, for it is only 830 feet above the Connecticut at
its base, and ahout 900 above Boston Harbor; but on account of
its peculiar position in respect to interesting objects around. It is
a part of a mountain ridge of greenstone, commencing with West
Rock, near New Haven, and proceeding northerly, interrupted only
by occasional vallies, across the whole of Connecticut, until it en-
ters INIassachusetts hetween West Springfield and Southwick, and
proceeds along the west line of the first named place, and along
the east line of Westfield, Easthampton, and Northampton, to the
banks of the Connecticut. Until it reaches Easthampton, its ele-
vation is small. But there it suddenly mounts up to the height of
nearly a thousand feet, and forms Mount Tom. The ridge crosses
the Connecticut, in a northeast direction, and curving still more to
the east, passes along the dividing line of Amherst and South Had-
ley, until it terminates ten miles from the river in the northwest
part of Belchertown. All that part of the ridge east of the river,
is called Holyoke : though the prospect house is erected near its
southwestern extremity, opposite Northampton, and near the Con-
necticut. And that is undoubtedly the most commanding spot on
the mountain, though several distinct summits, that have as yet re-
ceived no uniform name, aftbrd delightful prospects. It is not gen-
erally known, indeed, how a slight change of situation upon a
mountain, will often put an almost entirely new aspect upon the
surrounding scenery. A knowledge of this fact, might often give
a tenfold duration to the pleasure of the observer. The man who
means to feast to the full upon mountain, scenery, should be ac-
coutred in such a manner that he can turn aside from the beaten
track, urge his way through the tangled thicket, and climb the
craggy clifi\ There is a peculiar pleasure, which such a man only
can experience, in feeling that he has reached a point perhaps
never trodden by human foot, and is the first of the rational crea-
tion that ever feasted on the landscape before him.

In the view from Holyoke we have the grand and the beautiful
united ; the latter, however, greatly predominating. The observer
finds himself lifted up nearly a thousand feet from the midst of
a plain which, northerly and southerly, is of great extent ; and so
comparatively narrow is the naked rock on which he stands, that

Mount Ilohjokc. 89

lie wonders why the winds and storms of centuries have not broken
it down. He soon, however, forgets the mountain beneath him,
in the absorbing beauties before him. For it is not a barren un-
enlivened plain on which his eye rests ; but a rich alluvial valley,
geometrically diversified in the summer with grass, corn, grain, and
whatever else laborious industry has there reared. On the west,
and a little elevated above the general level, the eye turns with
delight to the populous village of Northampton ; exhibiting in its
public edifices, and private dwellings an unusual degree of neat-
ness and elegance. A little more to the right, the quiet and sub-
stantial villages of Hadley and Hatfield, and still farther east and
more distant, Amherst with its College, Gymnasium, and Acade-
my, on a commanding eminence, form pleasant resting places for
the eye. But the object that perhaps most of all arrests the at-
tention of the man of taste, is the Connecticut, winding its way
majestically, yet most beautifully, through the meadows of Hatfield,
Hadley, and Northampton; and directly in front of Holyoke, as if
it loved to linger in so tranquil a spot, it sweeps around in a grace-
ful curve of three miles extent, without advancing in its oceanward
course a hundred rods. Then it passes directly through the deep
opening between Holyoke and Tom, which its own waters, or more
probably, other agencies have excavated in early times. Below
this point, the Connecticut is in full view, like a serpentine mirror,
for nearly twenty miles. And through a deception, explicable by
the laws of perspective, there seems to be a gradual ascent of the
river, the w'hole distance, till at its vanishing place it seems eleva-
ted nearly to a level with the eye : just as the parallel sides of
a long avenue seem to approach nearer until they meet.

The valley on the south of Holyoke is not as interesting as that
on the west and north ; chiefly because the land is less fertile.
The village of South Hadley is indeed a pleasing object. But
Springfield, one of the lovliest spots in America, is too far removed
for an exhibition of its beauty. Other places south of Springfield
are indistinctly visible along the banks of the Connecticut : and
even the spires of some of the churches in Hartford, may be seen
in good weather, just rising above the trees. Still farther south
in that direction, may be seen the abrupt greenstone bluffs midway
between Hartford and New Haven ; and looking with a telescope
between these, other low hills may be indistinctly seen, which
may be the trap ridge encircling New Haven.

Facing the southwest, the observer has before him on the op-
posite side of the river, the ridge called Mount Tom, rising one or
two hundred feet higher than Holyoke, and dividing the valley of
the Connecticut longitudinally. The western branch of this val-

90 Topographical Geology.

ley is bounded on the west by the eastern slope of the Hoosic
range of mountains ; which, as seen from Holyoke, rises ridge
above ridge for more than twenty miles, chequered with cultiva-
ted fields and forests, and not unfrequently enlivened by villag-
es and church spires. In the northwest the Graylock may be
seen peering above the Hoosic ; and still farther north, several of
the lofty peaks of the Green Mountains (which are merely a
continuation of the Hoosic,) shoot up beyond the region of clouds,
in imposing grandeur. Nearer at hand and in the valley of the
Connecticut, the insulated Sugar Loaves and Toby present their
fantastic outlines : while far in the northeast stands in insulated
grandeur the cloud-capt Monadnoc.

Probably under favorable circumstances, not less than 30
churches, in as many towns, are visible from Holyoke. The
north and south diameter, of the field of vision there, can scarcely
be less than 150 miles.

The Columns.

Less than a half a mile south of the road leading to the pros-
pect house on Holyoke, and in the western face of the ridge, may
be seen some interesting examples of greenstone columns. They
stand side by side to the height of many feet, and as the lower
part of the outer ones has fallen down, their curiously formed
tops project from the cliff and seem to threaten the observer with
destruction. In the third part of my Report I shall describe these
columns more particularly. But I think they must prove attract-
ive to every one to whom a visit to the top of the mountain, is in-
teresting. The visitor, however, must not expect a very smooth
path in reaching them ; for he must clamber over a large amount
of debris, sloping at an angle of 45°.

Titanh Pier.

Standing upon Holyoke and facing the south, one has directly
before him, and as it were under his feet, the deep gorge between
Holyoke and Tom, through which Connecticut river passes. Fol-
lowing the western side of the mountain, as it rapidly descends to
the river, we find it terminating with a naked rock extending sev-
eral rods into the river, and nearly perpendicular on the side next
to the water, from 20 to 100 feet high. A considerable part of
this naked rock exhibits a columnar structure ; not in general as
perfect as the spot above described, yet sufficiently regular to re-
quire little aid from the imagination, to be regarded as artificial ;
though obviously demanding giant strength for its construction. I
have said that the columnar structure was not in general very per-

Ttitan's Pier, Mount Tow, Sfc. 91

feet. But if one can work his way along the western face of this
precipice at low water, he will find, near where the rock passes
under the river, the tops of numerous columns of great'^regularity ;
their upper portions have been removed by the force of the stream,
which for so many centuries has been battering this cliff with logs
and ice. By referring to the next part of my Report, a more
definite idea can be obtained of these columns. But from what I
have now said, every intelligent man will perceive that they
are very similar to those on the coast of Ireland, which form
Fingars Cave and the Gianfs Causivay. The nature of the rock
too, is essentially the same in all these places. Why then may I
not be permitted to denominate this rock, Titari's Pier? At
least, may I not hope by this description to attract the attention of
visitors to Holyoke to this spot ? Hitherto it has been passed un-
noticed.

Mount Tom.

As this is Iiigher than Holyoke, and insulated in the same great
valley, the view from its summit cannot but be commanding ;
yet most of the interesting group of objects around the base of the
former, is wanting around the latter. Hence Tom is not much
frequented ; while during the summer months, Holyoke is a place
of great resort.

I obtained from this mountain one summer morning, a striking
view, while yet the whole valley of the Connecticut was envel-
oped in fog, and Tom v.ith a few other elevated peaks connected
with the greenstone range, alone rose above the vapor. The
sun shining brightly and the wind gently blowing, gave to this fog
a strong resemblance to an agitated ocean. To the north and
south it seemed illimitable ; but on the east and the west, the
high mountain ranges that form the boundaries of the valley of
the Connecticut, constituted its shores. I could not but feel trans-
ported back, to that remote period, when this great valley was en-
veloped in like manner, by water, and Holyoke and Tom formed
only low and picturesque islands upon its surface.

Sugar Loaf Mountain.

No object in the valley of the Connecticut, is more picturesque
than this conical peak of red sandstone, which rises almost perpen-
dicularly 500 feet above the plain on the bank of the Connecticut,
in the south part of Deerfield. As the traveller approaches this
hill from the south, it seems as if it summits were inaccessible.
But it can be attained without difficulty on foot, and affords a de-
lightful view on almost every side. The Connecticut and the

92 To2>os;ra])hical Geology.

peaceful village of Sunderland on its bank, ap|3ear so near, that
one imagines lie might almost reach them by a single leap.

This mountain overlooks the site of some of the most sanguin-
ary scenes, tliat occurred during the early settlement of this re-
gion. A little south of the mountain the Indians were defeated in
1675 by Captains Lathrop and Beers : and one mile northwest,
where the village of Bloody Brook now stands, (which derived its
name from the circumstance,) in the same year. Captain Lathrop,
was drawn into an ambuscade with a company of 'eighty young
men, the very flower of Essex County,' who were nearly all
destroyed.

Deerfield Mountain.

A sandstone ridge commences at Sugar Loaf, and runs northerly
through Deerfield and Greenfield, into Gill, increasing in height
as far as the village of Deerfield, where it is 700 feet above the
plain on which that village stands. Standing near this point, on
the western edge of the mountain, a most enchanting panorama
opens to view. The alluvial plain on which Deerfield stands is
sunk nearly 100 feet below the general level of the Connecticut
valley ; and at the southwest part of this basin, Deerfield river is
seen emerging from the mountains, and winding in the most grace-
ful curves along its whole western border. Still more beneath the
eye is the village, remarkable for regularity, and for the number
and size of the trees along the principal street. The meadows, a
little beyond, are one of the most verdant and fertile spots in Now
England. Upon the whole, this view is one of the most perfect
pictures of rural peace and happiness that can be imagined.

Mount Toby.

This is a sandstone mountain of not less elevation than Mount
Tom ; and it is separated from Sugar Loaf by Connecticut river,
lying partly in Sunderland and partly in Leverett. It is separat-
ed also by a deep valley from the primitive mountains near it on
the east. It is a noble mountain, and as yet, is almost covered by
forests. The view from its summit is commanding, but it embraces
no objects of peculiar and special interest.

It has frequently been stated, and that too by very respectable
authority, that the ridges forming East and West Rock, Holyoke,
Toby, &:c., are a part of the broad ranges, which, commencing at
Long Island Sound, rise gradually towards the north into the Hoo-
sic and Green Mountains on the west side of Connecticut river,
and into Monadnoc and the White Mountains on the east side.
But a slight knowledge of the geological character of these moun-

Wachusett Mountain. 93

tains, is sufficient to show that the trap and conglomerate ridges
along the Connecticut, differ, toto coelo. from the primary ranges
on either side. And a slight examination of the topography of
these mountains, shows that the former are uniformly separated by
deep vallies from the latter, and have no geographical connection
except proximity.

What a pity it is, that so many of the most interesting moun-
tains and hills in Massachusetts have got attached to them such
uncouth and vulgar names ! How must the poets lines

scramble up and down

On disproportioned legs, like Kangaroo,

if such words as Saddle Mountain, Rattle Snake Hill, Bear Town
Mountain, Mount Tom, Mount Toby, Sugar Loaf, Blue Moun-
tain and Deerfield Mountain, be introduced. Holyoke, Taconic,
Hooslc and Wachusett, are more tolerable ; though most of them
have an Indian origin. It would have been fortunate, if our fore-
fathers had not attempted in general to supersede the aboriginal
designations. For what mountain can ever become an object of
much regard and attachment, if its beauties and sublimities can-
not be introduced into a nation's poetry, without producing the
most ridiculous associations ! Fortunately there are some summits
in the State yet unnamed. It is to be hoped that men of taste,
will see to it, that neither Tom, nor Toby, nor Bears, nor Rattle
Snakes, nor Sugar Loaves, shall be Saddled upon them.

In the eastern part of the State, the interesting mountains are
k\y. The loftiest and most striking is

Wachusett.
This mountain is in Princeton, whose general elevation, above
the ocean, is 1100 feet: and the mountain lifts its conical head
1900 feet higher, so as to be 3000 feet above Massachusetts Bay.
The ascent on foot is not difficult. From the summit, which is
little more than naked rock, the eye takes in a vast extent of coun-
try on every side. On the east and south the distant hills are com-
paratively low, and seem to possess an even outline. On the west
and northwest, mountain ridges and peaks succeed one another,
becoming more and more faint, until the distant Hooslc and Green
Mountains fade away into the blue heavens. Several neat villages
around the base of this mountain with numerous ponds of consid-
erable extent, give an interesting variety and liveliness to the pic-
ture. Probably more of Massachusetts may be seen from this
mountain than from any other in the State. It attracts numerous
visitors, and a small square wooden tower has been erected ou
the top.

U

94 Topographical Geology.

Blue Hills.

This is the highest and most conspicuous range of hills in the
vicinity of Boston. It is most elevated at its western extremity,
in the southwest part of Milton, where it rises 710 feet above the
ocean. A little to the southeast, and just within the limits of
Quincy, the summit is elevated 680 feet. Still farther east it is
570 feet. INortheast a little from this peak, is another 530 feet
high. The Monument Quarry in the northeast part of these hills,
is 390 feet high ; and Pine Hill, to the southeast of this quar-
ry, is 235 feet high. All these summits command extensive and
most interesting prospects. And there are some circumstances
that impart to these landscapes peculiar interest. One is the prox-
imity of these hills to Boston ; whose numerous edifices, masts,
spires, and towers, and, nobly peering above the rest, the dome
of the State House, present before the observer, a most forcible
example of human skill and industry, vieing with, and almost
eclipsing nature. And the high state of cultivation exhibited in
the vicinity of Boston, with the numerous elegant mansions of
private gentlemen, crowning almost every hill, and imparting an
air of freshness and animation to the valley and the plain, testify
how much taste and wealth can do in giving new charms to the
face of nature.

From these hills the observer has also a fine view of Boston
Harbor ; and this is another circumstance of peculiar interest.
For to look out upon the ocean is always an imposing sight ; but
when that ocean is studded with islands, most picturesque in shape
and position, and the frequent sail is seen gliding among them, he
must be insensible indeed, whose soul does not kindle at the scene,
and linger upon it with delight.

On JNIonument Hill, Is opened perhaps the largest of the
quarries of Quincy granite ; and from thence a rail road (the only
one of much extent yet existing in Massachusetts,) runs directly
to Neponset river: and this is another circumstance of peculiar in-
terest to the visitor of these hills. Let him ascend the granite
tower, which the proprietors of the quarry have erected on its site,
and he will have before him, not merely the rich variety of natural
and artificial objects above descibed, but this railway, also, stretch-
ing away for miles in a right line towards the river, with here and
there the cars going and returning. Such conveyances, however,
will soon cease to be a novelty in Massachusetts.

Many other hills of moderate altitude around Boston, particu-
larly on the south of the city, might be mentioned as a worthy of
a visit for the prospects presented from their summits. The heights
of the following are given on Hale's beautiful 'Map of Boston and
its vicinity.'

Hills in the vicinity of Boston. 95

In Quincy, near the Common, - - - - 210 feet

do. One mile north, ----- 175

do. A half mile farther north, - - 107
do. A little N. W. of Hon. J. Quincy's seat, 40
do. Great Hill, near the eastern extremity of

the town, ------ 94

do. Squantum, ------ 99

In Braintree, near the east line, - - _ - 205

In Weymouth, near the west line, - - - 210

do. Near Town River Bay, - - - 134

In Hingham, N. W. part of the town, - - - 112

do. On Crown Point, 102

do. A little rV. W. of Mr. Brook's M. House, 107

In Hingham, a little south of Mr. Brook's M. House, 75

do. Near the east line of the town, - - 230

111 Cohasset, near the west line of the town, - - 215

do. A mile south of Nantasket Beach, - 175

do. N. E. part of the town, close to the shore, 1 10

In Milton, at the Academy, - - - - - 208

do. One mile south of this place, - - 226

do. A mile west of the last, - - - - 217

do. N. W, part of the town, - - - 216

In Dedham, at Mr. White's M. House, - - 405

In Dover, Pine Hill, south part, - - - - 400

In Waltham, Prospect Hill, 470

do. Bear Hill, 510

do. Near the N. E. line of the town, - 570
In Lincoln, Dr. Steam's M. House, - - - 470

do. Mount Tahor, 370

In West Cambridge, near the S. W. line of the town, 320
In Watertown, N. W. corner, - - . - 310
In Charlestown, Prospect Hill, ----- 120

do. Winter Hill, 120

In Chelsea, Pulling Point, ------ 84

In Lynn, near Phillip's Point, - _ - - 135

do. Near King's Beach, 147

do. A mile N. E. of Lynn Hotel, - - 120
do. Half a mile north of '« " - - -125

do. A mile north of " '•' - - 140

In Marblehead, Legg's Hill, 160

do. Half a mile N. E. from do. - - 97
do. Three quarters of a mile N. E. of the last, 105
do. N. E. part of the town, - - - - 135
do. A little north of the village, - - 130

96 Topographical Geology.

In Marblehead, on Marblehead Neck, - - - 137

In Salem, east of Spring Pond, - - - - 197

do. N. W. part of the town, - - - 145

do. S. E. part of the town, - - - 175

do. A little west of South Fields. - - 186

Some of the views from the hills around Salem and those on the
promontory of Marblehead, are of an imposing character. The
extreme rockiness of the coast and islands strikes the observer at
first as evidence of irreclaimable sterility. But when he sees the
luxuriant vegetation of every cultivated spot, and the populousness
and elegance of Salem and many of the neighboring villages, the
contrast increases his pleasure.

Having thus noticed all the important hills and mountains in the
State, with reference to views from their summits, I proceed briefly
to sketch the picturesque scenery of particular districts. For we
have not seen all that is interesting in the scenery of a country, when
we have only looked over it from its elevated points. The ever
varying prospects which are produced by those elevations, to one
winding through the vallies among them, are often of the most ro-
mantic character.

The Vallies of Berkshire.

In exemplification of this position, let us suppose an observer
to pass from Williamstown southerly through New Ashford, Lanes-
borough, Lenox, Lee, Stockbride, Great Barrington, and Sheffield.
Till beyond New Ashford, he will be following one of the branches
of Hoosic river up the valley of Williamstown. On his right rises
the broad slope of the Taconic range of mountains; while on his
left, and near at hand. Saddle Mountain shoots up in imposing
grandeur ; and more distant, through a lateral valley, a part of the
Hoosic range is visible. If it be spring, these mountain sides ex-
hibit numerous species of trees and shrubs emulating one another
in putting on their party-colored foliage ; while here and there an
Aronia, or a Cornus, is entirely clothed with white blossoms before
the appearance of its leaves. If it be summer, these vast slopes
are covered from base to summit with a vegetable dress, embracing
every hue of green, from the dark hemlock and pine, to the almost
silvery whiteness of the white oak and poplar. If it be au-
tumn, that same foliage, now assuming almost every color of
the spectrum, and of hues almost as bright, presents one of
the most splendid objects in nature.

As the traveller appproaches New Ashford, the hills crowd
closer and closer upon his path, which winds among them in con-

Valley of the Connecticut. 97

formity with sinuosities of the river ; and a succession of roman-
tic and Alpine beauties is constantly opening before him.

Having reached the north part of Lanesborough, he begins to
descend into the valley of the Housatonic, which gradually widens
before him, and ere he reaches Sheffield, presents to his view a
number of most delightful villages, generally in the vicinity of fer-
tile alluvial tracts ; while on every side, mountains of various al-
titudes and of almost every shape, form the outline of the land-
scape. Where, for instance, does the traveller meet in any part
of our land with lovlier spots than Pittsfield, Lenox, Lee, Stock-
bride, and Great Barrington !

Valley of the Connecticut.

The circumstances that render the scenery of this valley so at-
tractive to the man of taste, are the extent and fertility of its allu-
vial meadows ; the precipitous boldness and irregular outline of
its trap and sandstone ranges, already described ; and the magni-
tude and beauty of the Connecticut, and of its principal tributa-
ries, the Westfield and the Deerfield, winding through the secon-
dary basins which their waters or other agencies have produced.
Let such a region as this be sprinkled over with villages like
Longmeadow, Springfield, West Springfield, South Hadley, Am-
herst, Sunderland, Northampton, Hadley, Hatfield, Deerfield,
Greenfield, and Northfield, and it needs the inspiration of poetry
to describe its beauties. Unfortunately, however, the valley of
the Connecticut remains yet to be described.

Several of the villages above named are sufficiently elevated to
overlook the surrounding region to a considerable extent, though
neighboring mountains still tower above them ; and thus are com-
bined the beauties and advantages of a location upon a hill, with
those to be found in a valley. The upper terrace of Springfield,
on which stands the United States Armory, is thus elevated. Still
higher is South Hadley, with Holyoke and Tom half encircling it
on the west and north, except where the Connecticut has opened a
passage between these mountains ; serving as a vista through which
is disclosed at greater distance the Hoosic range. From the Gym-
nasium on Round Hill in Northampton is one of the richest views
of fertile meadows, and mountains of fantastic shape, to be found
in the country. From the Gymnasium at Amherst is a similar
prospect; and from the College tower in the same place, one of
wider range and more imposing features. From the Seminary in
Greenfield, a southern prospect opens of enchanting beauty.

The opening of a new road along the banks of the Connecticut,
in the northwest part of South Hadley, has brought to light (1

98 Topograjihical Geology.

mean, to my own eyes,) a most lovely landscape. Standing on
the elevated bank and facing the northwest, you look directly up
the Connecticut river, where it passes between Holyoke and Tom;
those mountains rising with precipitous boldness on either side of
the valley. Through the opening, the river is seen for two or
three miles, enlivened by one or two lovely islands, while over the
rich meadows that constitute the banks, are scattered trees, through
which, half hidden, appears in the distance the village of North-
ampton ; its more conspicuous edifices only being visible. Far
beyond, and forming the remote outline of the picture, lies the
broad eastern slope of the Hoosic mountains. (See Plate IV.)

Another road has been recently opened on the banks of the
Connecticut in the north part of Springfield, a mile or two below
South Hadley Canal : and here, too, as you face the northwest, a
landscape full of interest opens before you. In full view towards
the left hand side of the picture, you have the Falls in the Con-
necticut and the entrance of the Canal on the north shore. A
little to the right of the Canal, a well built village occupies a beau-
tiful ampitheatre, whose elevated border is not less than 150 feet
high, and mostly crowned with oakes and pines. Beyond this, at
no great distance, however. Mount Tom occupies the back ground
with its bold and imposing outline. (See Plate VI.)

Three miles southeast of Sugar Loaf, in Deerfield, that peak
presents one of the most unique views conceivable. Its outlines
are so regular, that were the traveller to meet with it in Egypt, he
might, at first view, regard it as indebted to human art, for its pres-
ent shape. At any rate, in that country it would probably have
been wrought into a second Sphinx, or some other gigantic mon-
ster. But to the student of nature it is no less interesting^ as the
work of God. A little to the left, as seen from the place men-
tioned above, the southern point of the Deerfield Mountain, some-
times called North Sugar Loaf, appears, as well as the bold wes-
tern front of that range for several miles ; and a little to the right,
across the Connecticut, Mount Toby is in full view. The sketch,
Plate VII., was taken considerably nearer to Sugar Loaf, and dif-
fers somewhat from the above description.

Ravine of Westjield River.

Westfield river has found or formed a deep passage across the
whole eastern slope of the Hoosic range of Mountains, through
the towns of Westfield, Russell, Blanford, Chester, and Middle-
field. The ravine through which it passes, is for the most part
very deep and narrow, and cuts across, not only the general direc-
tion of the mountain ranges^ but across the rock strata also.

Ravines and Gorges. 99

Hence it might be expected that the sides of this ravine would
exhibit wild and interesting scenery. Nor will this expectation be
disappointed, if the traveller follows the Pontoosuc Turnpike
through this defile. Hills and precipices of every shape will
crowd upon his path, now approaching so as so form a narrow
gorge, and now gently retiring so as to leave room enough for some
industrious fanner to erect his habitation, and gain a subsistence in
the deeply embosomed glen. In passing through such a region,
the man destitute of taste will be heard speaking only of the
roughness, sterility, and gloominess of the country ; while the
man of taste and sensibility will be absorbed in admiring its beau-
ties and sublimities.

Ravine and Gofge of Deerjield River.

Still more remarkable is the gulf through which Deerfield river
passes, in a southeast direction, nearly across the whole of the
broad mountain range, between the Connecticut and Willjamstown
valleys. Perhaps the best route for visitina; this ravine, is to take
the turnpike road from Greenfield to Williamstovvn. On this
route the traveller will not come upon the banks of the Deerfield,
until he reaches the west part of Shelburne : but he will obtain a
most delightful view of Greenfield, as he ascends the high hills
west of that place ; and as to the defile, through which Deerfield
river runs between Shelburne and Conway, it is so narrow, and the
banks, of several hundred feet in height, are so steep, that it is
difficult even on foot to find a passage ; though full of romantic
and sublime objects to the man who has the strength and courage
to pass through it. From the west part of Siielburne, however, to
the foot of the principal ridge of Hoosic mountain in Florida, a
good road leads along the banks of the stream ; though in a few
places hard pressed between the hill and the river. In one spot
it is actually sustained a hundred feet above the river, upon piles
driven into the steep and naked declivity of a mountain slide.
But through nearly the whole of Charlemont, the hills recede so
far from the river, as to form an alluvial valley of considerable
width and fertility. The loftiness of these hills, however, and the
frequent openings of lateral ravines, through which the small trib-
utaries of Deerfield river disembogue, keep the attention of the
tasteful man awake. As he goes westward, these hills approach
nearer and nearer to the river, become bolder in their outlines,
and steeper in their declivities, till at length, in Zoar and Florida,
they slioot up, sometimes a thousand feet high, in a variety of
spiry and fantastic forms, and the traveller, as he looks forward,
can often see no opening through which the river can find its way.
TJie murmuring of its waters, however, at the bottom of the gulf,

100 Topographical Geology.

sometimes swelling into a roar, as they rush through some narrow
defile, tell him that they have found a passage. At length the
road leaves the river, and ascends the ridge, which in the vicinity
is alone denominated Hoosic Mountain, and which is here 1448
feet above the river. It is well to follow this road at least to the
height of a thousand feet, in order to look back upon the wild and
singular grouping of mountains, among which this river has strange-
ly found a passage ; and also to get a view of some of those vast
slopes of unbroken forest, which the sides of these mountains pre-
sent ; and which during the twilight, are most splendid objects.

In two or three instances it has happened that I have passed
along this ravine in the evening, when the moon was well above
the horizon ; and I can truly say, that the wildness and sublimity
of the scene were thereby immensely heightened ; so that 1 felt it
to be a privilege to be thus benighted.

Near the mouth of Deerfield River, in Deerfield, is a remarka-
ble gorge through which that stream empties into the Connecticut.
A greenstone ridge of 300 or 400 feet in height, has been cut
through in some way or other, in width only sufficient to suffer the
river to pass. This pass is in full view from the stage road be-
tween Deerfield and Greenfield where it crosses Deerfield river.

Valley of Worcester.

Apart from human culture, this geographical centre of Mas-
sachusetts would present no very striking attractions to the lover
of natural scenery. But this valley possesses precisely those fea-
tures which art is capable of rendering extremely fascinating.
And there is scarcely to be met with, in this or any other country,
a more charming landscape than Worcester presents, from almost
any of the moderately elevated hills that surround it. The high
state of agriculture in every part of the valley, and the fine taste
and neatness exhibited in all the buildings of this flourishing town,
with the great elegance of many edifices, and the intermingling of
so many and fine shade and fruit trees, spread over the prospect
beauty of a high order, on which the eye delights to linger. I
have never seen, in a community of equal extent, so few marks of
poverty and human degradation as in this valley. And it is this
aspect of comfort and independence among all classes, that en-
hances greatly the pleasure with which every true American heart
contemplates this scene ; since it must be considered as exhibiting
the happy influence of our free institutions.

Valley of the MerrimacJc.
The scenery along this river is characterized by beauty rather

View froin the State House. 101

than sublimity. The hills and mountains are rarely precipitous or
very lofty : but generally of gentle ascent and capable of cultiva-
tion to their summits. The attractions of the landscape consist
of a noble river, beautiful villages, and well cultivated fields and
meadows. To the man who loves to see natural scenery modified
by human culture, and on every side the marks of an intelligent
and happy population, with manufacturing establishments uncom-
monly flourishing, a ride down this stream on either bank, cannot
but be highly interesting. And when he approaches the ocean,
let him enter Nevvburyport from the north, across the chain bridge,
and he will have before him a delightful view of one of the most
beautiful towns in New England. And if he wishes still farther
to witness the riches of the surrounding scenery, let him ascend
the tower of the fifth church in that place, and a wide scene of
beauties on the land and the sea — natural and artificial — fills the
circle of his vision.

JBoston Harbor.

Let no man imagine that he has seen all that is interesting in the
scenery of Massachusetts, until he has made an excursion by water
in the harbor of Boston, as far at least as the Light House. A
city is always an imposing object when seen from the water, es-
pecially, if like Boston, its site be considerably unequal and slope
towards the observer. But the numerous islands in this harbor,
some of them exceedingly picturesque and even unique in appear-
ance, constitute no small part of the attractions of this delightful
excursion.

View from the State House.

Upon the whole there is not a more magnificent prospect in
Massachusetts, than that from the dome of the State House in
Boston ; and it will bear a comparison, it is said, with the most
celebrated views of a similar kind in Europe. This noble build-
ing stands upon Beacon Hill, the highest spot in Boston ; and the
lantern upon its dome is about 200 feet above the harbor. From
this elevation the whole of Boston, with its wharfs, shipping, and
public edifices ; all the islands in its harbor ; the shores of the
harbor lined with villages and cultivated fields ; and within a circle
of ten miles, not less than twenty villages, containing, with Bos-
ton, more than 120,000 inhabitants, are here surveyed at a
glance. Almost every dwelling of this numerous population,
is, indeed, visible : and it is rare to see in a circle of so small
extent, as many edifices so elegant ; and so few that indicate
extreme poverty and wretchedness. So richly cultivated is the

12

102 Topographical Geology,

vicinity of Boston, that it lias the appearance of a vast garden.
Yet we do not see here the traces of that vandal spirit, which, in
so naany parts of our land, is making sad havoc with our groves and
shade trees ; but enough have been spared or planted in this
vicinity to give a refreshing and luxuriant aspect to the scenery.
The political and moral considerations which irresistibly force
themselves on the mind when contemplating such a scene, cannot
fail greatly to increase the pleasure of the observer. What a
drawback upon that pleasure must it be, when the traveller is com-
pelled to say, as he cannot but say, when gazing on a large pro-
portion of the interesting scenery of the eastern continent,

'Art, glory, freedom fails, thoug-h Nature still is fair.'

On the contrary, how refreshing to the benevolent spirit, as it sur-
veys from this eminence the dwellings of 120,000 human beings,
to be assured that there is not a slave among them all ; and that
could the eye take in every part of the commonwealth, it would
read on every door post the inscription, ' all men are born free and
equal ;' a maxim which exerts a talismanic influence in defending
the feeblest inmate against oppression. Nor should the observer
forget, that this same maxim forms the basis of every law originat-
ing from the edifice on which he stands ; and that it is not licen-
tious liberty that is here enjoyed ; but liberty guarded by law, and
sustained by law : and that it is the general prevalence of knowl-
edge and virtue in the community, that renders it possible to sus-
tain a proper balance between liberty and law. Foreign nations
may predict that our beautiful republican system will be ephem-
eral. It will, indeed, pass away, whenever unprincipled ignorance
shall be permitted to bear sway. But so long as intelligence and
moral principle predominate in the community, the ark of liberty
is safe. At any rate, it is certain that we do now enjoy the bles-
sings of freedom, and the means, widely diffused, of intellectual,
moral, and religious cultivation. As a consequence, contentment,
competence, and happiness, are found even among the lowest class-
es in the community. The traveller of a benevolent heart will
rejoice to see, as he wanders over the hills and valleys of our
commonwealth, how very few in the community have not all the
essential means of human happiness within their reach. He need
not fear being detained for days in the wildest and most secluded
parts of the State. For scarcely will he find the hut, where if
really needing shelter, he will not find a welcome, and all that a
temperate man needs to make him comfortable. A man who has
frequently been thrown into such situations, or in other words, has
had opportunity to learn the character and circumstances of the

Nahant. 103

lowest as well as the highest classes in our community, will find
his pleasure greatly heightened in surveying our scenery. Let us
hope that succeeding travellers, through many generations, may
not be deprived of this same happiness ; and instead of indulging
in gloomy predictions of the downfall of liberty, let every man
strive to form and retain that intellectual, moral, and religious char-
acter, which is its only effectual support.

But I fear that I am wandering beyond my appropriate sphere,
by these remarks. I proceed to notice some other objects worthy
the attention of the man of leisure and taste.

New Bedford seen from its Harhor.

This flourishing place, already wearing the aspect of a populous
city, is seen to great advantage in sailing up its harbor. As the
ground on which it is built slopes towards the water, the various
objects of interest are thus brought into view, rising above one
another in a distinct and pleasing manner.

Narragnnsct and Mount Hope Bays.

An excursion from Taunton to Newport, Rhode Island, down
Taunton river, and Mount Hope Bay, and especially from Provi-
dence to Newport along Narraganset Bay, conducts the traveller
among scenery of great beauty and loveliness. The fertility of
most of the country, the neat villages along the way, the numer-
ous irregular contractions and expansion* of these bays, forming
capes, isthmuses, promontories, bays and harbors, in miniature ;
the islands that are occasionally interspersed, and the interesting
historical associations connected with that region, conspire to keep
the attention alive and to gratify the taste. Mount Hope, the
granite watch tower of the celebrated sachem Phillip, still com-
mands a fine prospect of the surrounding region ; and we see at
once why that sagacious chieftain selected this place for his re-
treat.

The north and south shores of Massachusetts Bay present much
scenery of such a sui generis or peculiar character, as to render
it extremely interesting to one accustomed to it. As a general
fact, there is so great a contrast in the appearance of the two capes
that form this Bay, that a visit to the one, only prepares the way
for rendering more interesting an excursion to the other. We will
suppose the traveller to start from Boston and first proceed along
the north shore of the Bay.

Nahant.
He will not fail to visit Nahant; which will be the* first place of

104 Topographical Geology.

peculiar interest he will meet with along this coast. It is a bold
rocky promontory, connected by a low sandy neck of land with
Lynn : or rather, it consists of two islands connected together,
and with the main land, by ridges of sand and pebbles. At low
water, a perfectly smooth beach of the finest sand is laid bare,
which constitutes the road from the mainland ; and this sand is so
firmly compacted by the perpetual beating of the waves of the
Atlantic, that neither horse nor carriage make scarcely a perceptible
impression. Hence the ride becomes a delightful one ; and although
the promontory itself has a very barren and desolate appearance,
yet the singularity of the surrounding scenery, the neatness of the
houses, built in a peculiar style, and the wide extent of the horizon,
conspire to render the prospect during the summer of a most at-
tractive character. It is a place of great resort in the warmer
months, and a steamboat plies daily between this place and Bos-
ton. The vicinity of the spacious hotel at Nahant is very interest-
ing to the geologist : but the particular characteristics of the rocks
must be deferred to a subsequent part of this Report.

Cape Ann.

I have already spoken of the rockiness of the coast in the vicin-
ity of Salem. As we proceed towards Gloucester, which occupies
all of what is properly called Cape Ann, the ledges multiply ; and
on the Cape the forests are mostly cut down, while the surface is
almost literally covered, either with rocks in place, or with bowl-
ders of every size. In the northwestern part of Gloucester partic-
ularly, the soil is almost wholly concealed by the countless number
of these rounded masses. Over nearly all the Cape, indeed, sien-
ite of every description meets the eye in immense quantities ; and
the traveller naturally enquires whither the soil has been carried,
which must once have covered the rocks ; and what mighty flood of
waters could have swept over this region with the fury requisite to
produce such devastation. Scenery of this kind, would be regarded
as extremely dreary, were not the desolation carried to such an
extent as to be interesting by its novelty. It is scarcely possible
for any man, however little interested in the bizarre of natural
scenery, to traverse this region for the first time, without having
his attention forcibly and constantly directed to the landscape
around him. And hence this must be one of the best excursions
for those afflicted with ennui, that can be found. More extensive,
however, and in general, finely contrasted with the scenery of Cape
Ann, is that along the south side of the Bay.

Cflfpe Cod. 105

Nantasket Beach and Hull.

Supposing the traveller to start as before from Boston, the long
and narrow neck of land connecting the settlement of Hull with
the mainland must not be passed unvisited. To say nothing of the
rocks, which at the head of this beach constitute almost the entire
surface, rivaling even Cape Ann in this respect, and which on the
shore present a remarkable and elegant variety of colors, the beach
itself, not less than four or five miles in extent, is much more inter-
esting than that leading to Nahant. The Light House and the
Brewster and other islands in view, as one advances toward Hull,
are picturesque objects ; and then the pleasant and sunny situation
of the little village of Hull, furnishes a convenient resting place
for the traveller.

In proceeding from this beach to Cape Cod. the traveller should
not fail to pass along the north shore of Cohasset — the most rocky
place perhaps in the Commonwealth.

Cape Cod.

But after passing Duxbury, the region of sand and gravel com-
mences; and to Provincetown, the extremity of Cape Cod, no
genuine ledge of rocks appears ; although bowlders of every size,
over the greater part of the distance, are common.

The dunes or sand hills, which are often nearly or quite barren
of vegetation, and of snowy whiteness, forcibly attract the attention
on account of their peculiarity : while the numerous windmills and
vats along the shore, for the manufacture of salt, are scarcely less
interesting to one not familiar with such processes. As we ap-
proach the extremity of the Cape, the" sand and the barrenness
increase ; and in not a iew places, it would need only a party of Be-
douin Arabs to cross the traveller's path to make him feel that he
was in the depths of an Arabian or Ljbian desert. Very different
from Bedouins, however, will he find the population of Cape Cod.
In the midst of the sands he will find many an oasis, where com-
fortable and not unfrequently pleasant villages have sprung up, in-
habited by a people of mild and obliging disposition, and not defi-
cient in intelligence, A large proportion of the houses on the
Cape are, indeed, but one story high. Yet they are for the most
part convenient and comfortable ; exhibiting the marks of a thrift
and independence which one would not expect, when he considers
eral the general barrenness of the landscape. I could name sev-
parts of Massachusetts, where the marks of poverty are far more
striking than on Cape Cod.

The sand is so yielding that the traveller will find it more con-

106 Tojyograjjhical Geology.

venient to leave his carriage 20 or 30 miles short of the extremity
of the Cape, and proceed on horseback : though it is practicable
to proceed with wheels. But for seven or eight miles before reach-
ing Provincetown; he must find his way almost without a tract
along the margin of a salt marsh during ebb tide. During flood
tide, he w ill be forced to wade through the loose and deep sand
higher up the beach. The view of Provincetown along this course,
is so peculiar, that the traveller feels himself amply repaid for his
labor. A semicircular bay is enclosed on the north and east by a
sandy beach and low sand hills almost destitute of vegetation,
which seem to threaten, and do in fact threaten, to bury the village,
and to fill the harbor. The houses, for a population not much
short of 2000, are erected on the margin of this bay, just above
the reach of the tide, and at the foot of the sand liills. These
dwellings are aln^iost as destitute of order in their position, as it is
possible they should be : such a thing as a regular street, wide
enough for carriages to pass, being scarcely to be found here ; and
why indeed, should they be, where travelling in a carriage, w^ould
be slower than on foot, and where but very little fodder can be ob-
tained, except by transportation, for horses. But the most singular
object in this place, is the numerous windmills erected between
the dwellings and the harbor, for pumping up the water into reser-
voirs for evaporation. When set in brisk motion by the wind, stand-
ing as they do between the traveller and the dwellings, as becomes
from the south, they give to the village a most singular aspect. In
short, a visit to Provincetown by land, would probably in most cases,
be quite as effectual a remedy for ennui and other fashionable com-
plaints, as a resort to Ballston and Saratoga.

In crossing the sands of the Cape, I noticed a singular mirage
or deception, which was also observed by my travelling companions.
In Orleans for instance, where the ocean is within a short distance
on either hand, we seemed to be ascending at an angle of three
or four degrees ; nor was I convinced that such was not the case
until turning about I perceived that a similar ascent appeared in
the road just passed over. I shall not attempt to explain this opti-
cal deception : but merely remark, that it is probably of the same
kind, as that observed by Humboldt, on the Pampas of Venezuela ;
' all around us,' says he, ' the plains seemed to ascend towards the
sky.'

In crossing the island of Nantucket, in company with Dr. Swift
of that place, T noticed the same phenomenon, though there less
striking. Afterwards, I saw it for miles on the plain in the south-
eastern part of Martha's Vinyard. In the latter case, the plain
was covered with low shrub oaks.

Water Falls. 107

Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard.

If the traveller wishes to enjoy more of the peculiar scenery of
Cape Cod, with some interesting variations, let him pass over to
Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard. The former island he will
find to be an extended plain, 15 miles in its longest direction, and
but slightly elevated above the ocean ; containing not one tree, nor
a shrub of much size, except in the immediate vicinity of the vil-
lage. Scarcely a dwelling will meet his eye, except a few unin-
habited huts, scattered along the desolate shore, as a refuge to the
shipwrecked sailor. Yet from 12000 to 14000 sheep, and 500
cows find nourishment on this island ; and in not a few places, es-
pecially in the immediate vicinity of the town, may be seen tracts
of land of superior fertility. It will strike the traveller at once, as
an interesting monument of industry, that nearly every part of the
dwellings, stores, &i.c., for the accommodation of more than 7000
inhabitants, must have been transported from the Continent. And
on acquaintance, he will find that they still retain the characteris-
tics of industry and hospitality, for w^hich they have long been
known ; and that the usual concomitants of these virtues, general
intelligence and strong local attachments, are not wanting.

Gay Head.

The most interesting spot on Martha's Vineyard is Gay Head ;
which constitutes the western extremity of this island, and consists
of clays and sands of various colors. Its height cannot be more
than 150 feet; yet its variegated aspect, and the richness of its
colors, render it a striking and even splendid object, when seen
from the ocean. The clays are red, blue and white; the sands,
white and yellow ; and tbe lignite, black ; and each of these sub-
stances is abundant enough to be seen several miles distant, arrang-
ed in general in inclined strata; though from being unequally worn
away, apparently mixed without much order. The top of the
cliff is crowned by a light house, which commands an extensive
prospect. Scarcely a tree is to be seen on this part of the island.
It is owned and inhabited by the descendants of the Indian tribes,
that once possessed the whole island. It will be seen in the sub-
sequent part of my Report, that this spot possesses peculiar at-
tractions for the geologist and mineralogist. During my last visit to
the spot, three days were fully occupied in interesting researches.

WATER FALLS.

We have one or two water falls in Massachusetts of sufficient
magnitude to be denominated cataracts. And as we might expect
in a mountainous region, cascades are numerous.

108 Topographical Geology

Turner^s Falls.

These exist in Connecticut river, near the point where the
towns of Montague, Gill, and Greenfield, meet. They are by far
the most interesting water fall in the State ; and I think 1 may
safely say in New England. At least, to my taste, the much
broader sheet of water, the higher perpendicular descent, and the
equally romantic scenery of the surrounding country, give to this
cataract a much higher interest, than is excited by a view of the
more celebrated Bellow's Falls on the same river, in Walpole, New
Hampshire : and probably the latter are generally regarded as the
most striking object of this kind in New England.

Above Turner's Falls the Connecticut for about three miles,
pursues a course nearly northwest, through a region scarcely yet
disturbed by cultivation ; and all this distance it is as placid as a
mountain lake, even to the verge of the cataract. Here an artifi-
cial dam has been erected more than a thousand feet long, resting
near the centre upon two small islands. Over this dam the water
leaps more than 30 feet perpendicularly ; and for half a mile con-
tinues descending rapidly and foaming along its course. One hun-
dred rods below the falls, the stream strikes directly against a
lofty greenstone ridge, by which it is compelled to change its course
towards the south at least a quarter of a circle.

The proper point for viewing Turner's Falls, is from the road
leading to Greenfield on the north shore, perhaps 50 rods below
the cataract. Here, from elevated ground, you have directly be-
fore you, the principal fall, intersected near the centre by two small
rocky islands, which are crowned by trees and brushwood. The
observer perceives at once that Niagara is before him in miniature.
These islands may be reached by a canoe from above the falls in
perfect safety. Fifty rods below the cataract, a third most roman-
tic little island lifts its evergreen head, an image of peace aud secu-
rity, in the midst of the agitated and foaming waters, swiftly gli-
ding by. The placid aspect of the waters above the fall, calmly
emerging from the moderately elevated and wooded hills at a dis-
tance, is finely contrasted v/iih its foam and tumult below the cat-
aract.

The country around these falls is but little cultivated. On the
opposite side of the river the observer will, indeed, perceive a few
dwellings and the head of a canal : But a little beyond, wooded
elevations, chiefly covered with evergreens, terminate the landscape ;
while in every other direction, the scenery is still more wild and
unreclaimed from a state of nature.

A sailing excursion from the falls, three miles up the stream, has

Turner's Falls. 109

all the attractions of a passage over a mountain lake, and proba-
bly the coves along the shore furnish as good spots for fishing as
now exist in the river. The geologist too, will find the vicinity of
these falls full of interest — but of this, more hereafter.

Three miles above Turner's Falls, Miller's river empties into
the Connecticut ; and near its mouth is a fall of considerable
height. Here also is a dam across the Connecticut, about ten
feet high. I apprehend these falls have been confounded with Tur-
uer's ; and hence the latter are sometimes called Miller's Falls.
They cannot, however, be said to have as yet any well established
name. For a reason which will be mentioned below, I ventured
some eight or ten years since, in a geological account which I pub-
lished of the Connecticut valley, to denominate these falls. Tur-
ner's Falls; and Gen. Hoyt, in his History of the Indian Wars,
has given them the same designation. I am aware, however, how
very difficult it is to make popular and prevalent, a new name for
any natural object ; although in the present case, I doubt not, that
every man acquainted with the history of this spot, would say that
to prefix the name of Capt. Turner to this cataract, is appropri-
ate and just.

About 160 years ago, a party of Philip's Indians, having joined
those living in the vicinity, resorted to these falls to take fish.
On the 17th of May, Capt. Turner, from Boston, marched from
Hatfield, with 150 men, and came by surprise upon the Indian
camp the next morning at day light. The Indians being totally
unprepared for an attack, fled in every direction ; some springing
into their canoes without paddles, were precipitated over the falls
and dashed in pieces. Three hundred Indians, and but one white
man, were killed. Yet the Indians who escaped, being joined by
others, fell upon Turner's party as they were returning, and made
a dreadful slaughter among them ; killing thirty seven, among
whom was Capt. Turner. Will not the public do the justice to
this brave but unfortunate officer, to send down his name to pos-
terity, associated with that of the spot where he conquered and
from fell !

During high water, the roar of Turner's Falls may be heard
six to ten miles. The magnificence of the cataract is greatly height-
ened at such a season.

In order to visit Turner's Falls, one must turn aside from every
great public road ; and although but four miles from the village of
Greenfield, this circumstance shows why they are so seldom re-
sorted to by travellers. (See Plate IX.)

13

1 1 0 Top ographical Geo logy .

Falls at South Hadley.

The descent of the water here being but a iew feet, these falls do
not in themselves possess any great interest ; and yet, as one of the
objects in the beautiful landscape which has already been described
as existing at this place, their absence would be sensibly felt by
the man of taste. (Plate VJ.)

Shelburne Falls.

These occur in Deerfield river where it enters the narrowest
part of that deep ravine in the primary strata, betvven Shelburne
and Conway, which has been already described. As a mere
object of scenery they are not so striking as Turner's Falls ;
though they exhibit not a little of vvildness and sublimity ; and
they are especially worth a visit from the geologist, as affording a
good exhibition of the effects of a mountain torrent upon the hard-
est of rocks.

SpicJcet Falls.

Spicket river is a tributary of the Merrimack, and a few miles
above its mouth in Methuen, it falls 30 feet. These falls are in
the midst of a flourishing manufacturing village, and are a beautiful
object, well worthy the attention and the pencil of the man of
taste.

Falls in Fall River.

These are most interesting on account of the economical purpos-
es to which the waters are applied : keeping in motion, as they do,
all the machinery of a large and flourishing manufacturing village
in Troy. Still, a stream of any size cannot fall 100 feet in the
course of a few rods, without presenting natural scenery of some
interest.

Pawtucket Falls.

These occur in the Merrimack, between Lowell and Dracut ;
and their romantic appearance is heightened by the bridge erected
at their head.

The Gorge, Alias, the Glen.

In the south part of Leyden, a large brook has worn a passage
from 10 to 20 feet wide, and from 30 to 50 feet deep, in the strata
of argillo-micaceous slate. The layers of the slate are nearly
perpendicular, and it is traversed by numerous cross seams, into
which the water penetrateSj and in winter freezes, expands, and

Cascades. Ill

thus assists in removing mass after mass of the rock from its place.
A slight inspection of the place will show that such was the mode
of its formation ; although one cannot but perceive that a great
length of time was requisite for the whole process. There, is not
the sliglitest appearance of any convulsion at this place, since the
original elevation of the strata. The correspondence between the
salient and reentering angles on opposite sides of this stream, is no
greater than exists in every stream ; and all the appearances at the
place forbid the supposition often made that these sides have been
separated from each other. The length of this gorge is from 30
to 40 rods. Above is a deep glen ; and below, the stream passes
through a deep ravine. Two water falls near the lower part of
the gorge add much to the interest of this spot. And although
the geological chronometer here exhibited, is to the reflecting mind,
its greatest attraction ; yet the wildness and ruggedness of the
scenery draw not a few visitors. The term ' glen,' usually applied
to this spot, is certainly a misnomer. For it is a gorge connecting
a glen with a ravine.

Cascade in Leverett.

I have recently ascertained the existence of an interesting water
fall on the northeast side of Mount Toby, in Leverett. The con-
glomerate rock of that mountain has been subject to powerful abra-
sion in early times; and being divisible into masses of great thick-
ness, by fissures nearly perpendicular to the horizon, the sides of
the mountain frequently present perpendicular walls of solid rock,
and sometimes a succession of precipices in the form of vast steps;
while the huge fragments that have fallen down, lie scattered along
the base. Such is the case at the spot above referred to; Vt^here
a large brook, called 'roaring brook,' comes tumbling down by a
few successive leaps from the height of 200 or 300 feet. The
waters have worn deep chasms in the rocks, and the scenery around
is of the wildest and most romantic character. Every thing there
— the lofty forests — the overhanging precipices — and the accumu-
lated rocky masses below — remain unmodified by the hand of man
just as the mighty agencies of nature have left them.

Cascade, Natural Bridge, and Fissure, on Hudson^ s Broolc.

The present falls on this rivulet, which run through the north
part of Adams, are of far less interest than the deep chasm which
its waters have excavated in the white limestone. This limestone
terminates on the south in a high precipice, over which the stream
once fell. But it has worn a fissure from 30 to 60 feet deep, and
30 rods long, in this limestone, and left two masses of rock connect-

112 Toyographical Geology.

ing the sides and forming natural bridges ; though the upper one is
much broken. The lower one Is arched, and the stream at present
runs 50 feet below it. The medium width of the stream is 1 5
feet.

Canaan Falls.

These are just within the boundaries of Connecticut, on the
Housatonic. The water takes two leaps within a short distance ;
the upper one of 20 feet, and the lower one of 70. It then foams
and dashes a short distance and takes a third leap of about ten feet.
The effect of the whole scene is imposing.

CAVERNS AND FISSURES.

Southampton Adit.

I have alluded in the first part of my Report, to this artificial ex-
cavation, 900 feet in length, at the lead mine in Southampton. It
is a perforation mostly in solid rock, large enough to admit a boat
with several persons; and in this manner might be entered with
perfect safety. Being unique in this part of the country, it had
become a place of considerable resort by gentlemen and ladles dur-
ing the summer months. At present the entrance is blocked up ;
but it is to be hoped that ere long the working of this adit will be
resumed, and an opportunity again afforded for so fine a subterra-
nean excursion.

Sunderland Cave, and Fissure.

The following section will, I apprehend, render intelligible, not
merely the form and situation of this cave and fissure, but also the
mode of their production. They occur in a conglomerate rock of
the new red sandstone, on the northwest side of Mount Toby, in
the north part of Sunderland. The conglomerate strata are sev-
eral feet thick ; and immediately beneath this rock lies a slaty mi-
caceous sandstone, which is very subject to disintegration ; as may
be seen a little north of the cave, where the conglomerate projects
several feet beyond the slate, whose ruins are scattered around.
The spot is perhaps 300 or 400 feet above Connecticut river :
yet there is the most conclusive proof in all the region around,
that water once acted powerfully, and probably for a long period,
at various elevations on the sides of this mountain : and not Im-
probably this aqueous agency assisted in undermining the conglom-
erate rock by wearing away the sandstone.

Sunderland Cave.

113

At A, and B, the rock is but slightly removed from it original po-
sition ; but in the space between these points, the slate appears to
have been worn away so as to cause the whole conglomerate stra-
tum, which is from 50 to 60 feet thick, and consequently of im-
mense weight, to fall down, producing the fissure a, and the cavern
b. The fissure is nine feet wide at the top, and open to d, 40 feet ;
below which it is filled with rubbish. The cavern is wider than
this in some parts, though very irregular in this respect. Its bottom
also is rendered quite uneven by the large masses of rock that
have tumbled down. In the deepest spot, (56 feet) the rocks are
separated to the surface, so as to let in the light from above. The
whole length of the cavern is 148 feet. Its general direction is near-
ly east and west. But towards its eastern part it turns almost at right
angles to the left, in consequence of the rock a, having been brok-
en in a north and south direction from the mass of the mountain.

Some who visit this spot are disposed to call in the aid of a con-
vulsion like an earthquake to explain the huge fractures there
exhibited. But after seeing so many other marks of the powerful
action of atmospheric and aqueous agents on this mountain, I can-
not but believe the cause I have assigned to be sufficient. The
place is well worth visiting by all who have not examined other
caverns and fissures extensively.

On the opposite side of Mount Toby, a little south of the cas-
cade that has been described, one or two other caves occur, more
irregular but less extensive than this. They have been produced
by the enormous masses of the mountain that have been here
mixed pellmell together.

Caverns in BerJcshire.

These all occur in limestone; and are so similar, that it is hardly
necessary to describe them separately. Two exist in the south
part of New Marlborough, containing several apartments and some

114 Topographical Geology.

stalactites. In West Stockbridge is a small one. In Lanesborough
is one 100 feet long, narrow and irregular, produced probably by a
subterranean stream. In Adams, a mile south of the north village,
on the Cheshire road, is a cavern of considerable interest ; con-
taining several apartments ; the largest of which is 30 feet long,
20 feet wide, and 20 feet high. A similar cave may be seen in
Bennington, Vt. And although these caverns will not compare in
extent with those in our western states, yet they will afford not a
little gratification, to those not familiar with subterranean excursions.

Purgatories.

I know not what fancied resemblances have applied this whimsical
name to several extensive fissures in the rocks of New England.
The most remarkable case of this kind is in Sutton, three and a
half miles south east of the congregational meeting house. It is a
fissure in gneiss, nearly half a mile long, in most parts partially
filled by the masses of rock that have been detached from the walls.
The sides are often perpendicular, and sometimes 70 feet high ;
being separated from each other about 50 feet.

This is an immense chasm : and I confess myself at a loss to
explain its origin. It is natural to suppose that its sides have been
in some manner separated from one another. But I can conceive
of no mode in which this could have been accomplished, but by a
force acting beneath : and this would so elevate the strata, that
they would dip on both sides /"rom the fissure. But I could dis-
cover no such dip. The inclination along the fissure corresponds
with that which is common in the region around ; viz. about 25°
N. E. In the vicinity of the fissure, however, the rocks are often
exceedingly broken into fragments : * and this circumstance indi-
cates some early subterranean convulsion. Still, I am rather in-
clined to refer these fragments as well as the fissure, to the long
continued action of the waves of the sea, when the spot was so
situated as to form a shore of moderate elevation. The next case
of a purgatory which I shall describe, will illustrate the mode in
which the waves might have produced such effects.

In Neu-port, Rhode Island.

In the southeast part of this town (perhaps it is within the lim-
its of Middleton,) the coarse conglomerate rock contains numer-
ous cross seams, which are parallel to one another, and nearly per-

* Visitors of the Sutton Purg-atory should recollect that such broken rocks fur-
nish a fine retreat for the Rattlesnake. I met with one among the debris of that
place. But as he kindly warned me that I was trespassing on his territory, I
thought it ungenerous to attack him, and we parted on good terms, mutually wil-
ling to be rid of each other's company.

Autumnal Scenery. 115

pendicular to the horizon. In one spot, in a high rocky bluff', two
of these fissures occur not more than six or eight feet asunder ;
and the waves have succeeded in the course of ages, in wearing
away the intervening rock, so as to form a chasm about seven rods
in length, and 60 or 70 feet deep ; the sides being almost exactly
perpendicular. This chasm is called Purgatory ; and the waves
still continue their slow but certain work of destruction.

On the south shore of Newport, a similar fissure occurs in
granite. It is, however, much less extensive, not more than
twenty feet deep perhaps : and the waves sometimes rush into it
with such violence that they are dashed not less than thirty feet
into the air. Even granite yields under this everlasting concus-
sion. This spot is called the Spouting Cave.

We have only to suppose the Sutton Purgatory to have been
once similarly situated in respect to the ocean, and we have a
cause adequate to its production. And yet, what an immense pe-
riod must the whole work have demanded !

^Autumnal Scenery.

Perhaps no country in the world exhibits in its autumnal scen-
ery, so rich a variety of colors in the foliage of trees, as our own.
But it is particularly beautiful in the more mountainous parts of
the land. The trees, whose leaves give the liveliest tints, are the
maple, the oak, the walnut, and the sumach ; while the pine and
hemlock retain their deep green : and if these species be fantasti-
cally mixed on a mountain's side, they present a splendid drapery,
which, though somewhat approaching to the gaudy, is yet ex-
tremely interesting. The change generally commences as early
as the middle of September, and does not attain its full perfec-
tion till after several frosts of considerable severity. The change
proceeds undoubtedly from an increased oxygenation of the color-
ing matter of the leaves ; analogous changes being easily produced
in the chemical laboratory by the addition of oxygen to certain
compounds,* as for example, the Chameleon Mineral. This pro-
cess in the eyes of a chemist does not seem, as I believe it does
to most men, a condition of sickness connected with the decay and
fall of the leaf. He views it rather as a beautiful illustration of
the means which nature possesses to produce variety. True, it is
one of the more advanced steps of vegetable life ; but does not
seem to be disease. Or if any are disposed to consider it such, it
ought to be looked upon as nature descending joyfully in her rich-
est dress into her wintery grave, in exulting anticipation of a
speedy resurrection.

* Annales de Chiinic et Je Physique, Vul. 38, p. 415.

116 Topographical Geology.

Although this phenomenon forms an attractive object to the ge-
ologist in his wildest excursions among the mountains, at the most
delightful season in the whole year for geological research, yet it
cannot be regarded as having any connection with geology. But
not being aware that any attempt has been made to preserve these
autumnal colors on canvas, I have taken the liberty to attempt
such a landscape, and herewith transmit it to your Excellency.
As it was necessary to watch with great care the proper time for
seeing these colors when in their greatest perfection, I have se-
lected a view of the village in which I reside ; and if I mistake
not it presents a tolerably good specimen of this kind of land-
scape.

Sketches of Scenery Accompanying this Report.

It has been in my power to obtain sketches of some of the most
striking scenery which has been described in this part of my Re-
port : and 1 take the liberty to forward the same for your inspec-
tion. I am indebted for them to Mrs. Hitchcock ; as I am for
nearly all the drawings and maps accompanying every part of this
Report. The landscapes are chiefly confined to the Connecticut
Valley ; it not having been convenient for her to accompany me
to distant parts of the State. They are the following.

1. Autumnal Scenery. A view in Amherst. (Plate II.)

2. A vieiv in Hadley. This was taken from the south end of
east street in Hadley ; standing on the banks of Connecticut river,
and looking southerly down the stream and through the gorge be-
tween Holyoke and Tom. (Plate 111.)

3. A vieiv from the south through the gorge between HolyoJce
and Tom. This was taken from a high bank on the east side of
the river, about a mile below the gorge. In looking through the
gorge, Connecticut river is seen making several extensive windings
through Northampton meadows, while at a distance, a most de-
lightful view of the village of Northampton and the Round Hill
School is obtained. (Plate IV.)

4. View from Mount Holyoke. This is a westerly view in the
direction of Northampton. It was taken about half way from the
base to the summit of the mountain. But it does not differ es-
sentially from the view at the summit. It is perhaps the most
delightful prospect in New England ; yet its character is such that
it must appear to great disadvantage upon a drawing. The cen-
tral parts of this landscape are considerably contracted, in order to
bring into view the whole of the remarkable curve in the Con-
necticut on the right. (Plate V.)

Slceiches of Scenery . Ill

5. Vieiv of South Hadley Falls. The falls are in theinselves
an object of little interest in this landscape. But the beautiful vil-
lage at their foot, the wooded amphitheatre in its rear, and Mount
Tom, towering in the back ground, with other objects of interest,
conspire to render this a very striking view. (Plate VI.)

6. View of Sugar Loaf Mountain. This sketch was taken
from the plain about a mile south of the base of this conical ele-
vation. On the right we look up the valley through which the
Connecticut runs ; and on the left, appears what is called North
Sugar Loaf: it being the southern precipitous termination of the
sandstone ridge that runs through Deerfield, he. Both elevations,
in order to exhibit a natural appearance, should be colored of a
reddish hue towards their summit. (Plate VII.)

7. Vieiv at the Confluence of Deerfield and Connecticut Riv-
ers. This was taken from an eminence about one mile east of
the bridge across Deerfield river between Deerfield and Green-
field, and near the residence of Col. John Wilson. That bridge,
seen through a gorge in a greenstone ridge, appears on the
left in the. drawing; beyond which, Deerfield njeadows open:
and in the distance, rise the primitive ridges of Shelburne, &ic.
Deerfield river flows towards the right hand side of the sketch,
where it mingles with the Connecticut that comes in from the
north. The bridge seen on the right in the drawing, is on the
Connecticut, a little above its junction with the Deerfield. Af-
ter uniting, these streams pass southeasterly, as may be partially
seen on the right hand side of the sketch. The bridge across the
Connecticut, connects Montague on the east shore with Greenfield
on the west. Above the bridge, may be seen an island ; and still
farther north, the river washes the eastern base of a greenstone
ridge, which, in the central parts of the drawing, is covered with
woods. These central parts are more contracted than a just pro-
portion would allow, in order to bring both rivers upon the same
sketch. (Plate VIII.)

8. Vieiv of Turner's Falls. This view was taken from the
place on the north or Gill shore, already described as the best
point for viewing the cataract. Near the small buildings on the
right, is the spot where occurred the bloody battle between Capt.
Turner and the Indians of which I have given an account. On
the eminence a little beyond, was an Indian fort. (Plate IX.)

9. Sketch of the Gorge or ' Glen' in Leyden. In this view
the observer looks northerly through one of the wildest portions
of the ragged chasm ; having before hi)n at least two interesting
cascades. (Plate X.)

Here I close the second part of mv Report. It has increased

14

118 Topographical Geology

under my pen beyond my expectations. But I could hardly
have said less consistently with giving any thing like a correct
view of our scenery. If what I have said should lead others to
visit and enjoy, as I have done, the spots that have been described,
I am sure 1 shall be the means of imparting much happiness, and
shall feel a confidence that I have not written in vain.

Respectfully Submitted,

Edward Hitchcock.

Amherst College, June 1, 1833.

SCIENTIFIC GEOLOGY.

PART ISI.

To His Excellency Levi Lincoln, Es(i.

Governor of Massachusetts.

According to the plan suggested in the first part of my Re-
port, I now proceed to the consideration of the Scientific Geol-
osrv of Massachusetts.

Having ah'eady given a view, professedly popular, of our rocks
and minerals which are interesting in a pecuniary respect, I shall
make no apology for entering into full details in this third part of
my Report, of all the geological phenomena in the State, that have
fallen under my notice, and seem of any importance to the science.
I shall endeavor, however, to avoid all unnecessary prolixity.

No science is making such rapid progress as geology. Even
since I received your Excellency's Commission, three years ago,
several important principles have been developed by able geolo-
gists, which I shall apply to the rocks of this region, so far as lam
able. In Europe geological researches have been pushed much
farther than in other quarters of the globe ; and it is an interesting
inquiry, how far the phenomena of rocks in other regions corres-
pond with those in Europe. I hope to show that the rocks of
Massachusetts exhibit some analogies of this kind, that prove an
identity of the causes that produced them.

The technical terms which I shall be under the necessity of em-
ploying, will be used, so far as I understand them, in the sense
adopted by the most recent and approved authors. Geology,
however, does not abound in terms of this kind ; nor shall I em-
ploy more than necessity requires.

I ought perhaps to remark that the term rocli, will be sometimes
enj ployed, as it is by most geological writers, to include the loose
materials and soils embraced in the alluvial, diluvial, and tertiary

120 Scientific Geology.

formations, as well as those solid masses, to which the term is lim-
ited in its popidar sense.

It is well known that there is not a little diversity among the
ablest writers in respect to the names of rocks. Under such cir-
cumstances an infallible nomenclature is out of the question. But
if, as I intend to do, I describe definitely what is included under
each name attached to the accompanying geological map, it seems
to me that the difficulty will be in a great measure obviated : es-
pecially as I shall present specimens to the Government, of every
variety of rock that is described. And should they take measures
(or preserving this collection, future geologists may know precise-
ly what is comprehended und ereach rock mentioned in this Report.

Geologists are not agreed whether it is best to describe rocks in
a descending or an ascending order ; that is, whether they shall
commence at the surface witli the most recent rocks, or with the
lowest hitherto discovered. Each plan has some advantages and
some disadvantages peculiar to itself. Without stopping to assign
the particular reasons, 1 shall choose a descending order ; that is,
I shall commence with the uppermost stratum : and in adopting
this course, I follow the example of most of the ablest geological
writers of the day, such as Brongniart, De la Beche, Lyell, Man-
tell, &tc.

As to the Classification of Rocks, there is also very much diver-
sity among the ablest writers ; although there has been great im-
provement in this respect within the last 15 or 20 years. Yet,
excepting a few general principles, the different systems for the
arrangement of rocks must be regarded as provisional merely,
awaiting the revision of some future Linnaeus in Geology. Among
the principles which I regard as established in the science, one is
the division of rocks into stratified and unstratified. This division,
therefore, I shall adopt. But instead of stopping here to explain
the subdivisions of these classes, I shall introduce a Tabular View
of the rocks in Massachusetts, arranged as nearly as possible in the
order of their superposition; and opposite their names, I shall put
down the most important and ingenious systems of arrangement
now in use amonc; geologists ; so that a comparative view of them
may at once be obtained. (See the accompanying Atlas, Plate
XIX.) The first column contains the names of the rocks under
which I describe them ; the second column, the varieties of each
rock observed in Massachusetts ; the third column, a catalogue of
minerals found imbedded in each rock ; and the remaining colunms,
the various systems above referred to. The simple minerals are
put down without any attempt at classification ; it being tliought
sufficient to refer them to the rocks in which thev are found.

Explanatory Remarks. 121

In describing the various rocks in the State, 1 shall, as far as
possible, follow a uniform order, giving first the mineraiogical char-
acters ; next the topography of the formation ; next the dip, di-
rection, &c. of the strata; next an account of the organic remains ;
next of the mineral contents ; and finally, add some theoretical
considerations. In many instances, however, this order cannot be
observed ; and in others, some of the above particulars will need
no notice. \

I was in doubt for a time whether it would be advisable to add
any remarks upon the theory of the rock formations, or the ex-
planation of particular phenomena. But such an addition seemed
wanting to complete my account of the rocks ; and I came to the
conclusion to attempt an explanation of all the most important
phenomena, which 1 describe. There will of course be a diversi-
ty of opinion concerning many of the theories, and especially con-
cerning the hypotheses, which I shall advance. 1 have given
those which are most satisfactory to my ovi^n mind, after consulting
several of the most recent, and most able writers upon geological
philosophy. While I could not but express plainly, my own de-
cided convictions, I hope I have not done it dogmatically.

A few words more may be necessary in explanation of the Geo-
logical Map. 1 have striven to reduce it to such simplicity, that its
plan and arrangement will be obvious by mere inspection. Some
things about it, however, may need elucidation. To avoid confu-
sion and mistake, [have employed but six colors; which, with
the exception perhaps of the blue, are so strongly marked, that
they can readily be distinguished by candle light. These colors
mark off the rocks of the State into what may be regarded as dis-
tinct groups : the members of each group, with the exception of
the fourth, being so nearly related, that they might even be re-
garded, in most cases, as belonging to the same formation ; or if
this term be too limited in its meaning, we might resort to the ter-
rain of the French geologists ; a word to which we have no one
in English exactly corresponding. The first group, however, em-
bracing all the unstratified rocks, would include more than one
terrain, if that term can embrace only the rocks produced during
one geological epoch, or period.* The second group embraces
only gneiss, and those rocks which are so intimately associated
with it, that they constitute but a single formation. The third
group comprehends mica slate and those rocks that are so closely
connected with it, as to show great similarity in the causes that
produced thern ; although perhaps not all of them were formed

* See Biongniart's ' Tableau cles Terrains,' &c. p. 1. Introduction.

12'2 Scientific Geology.

during the same epoch. The fourth group is miscellaneous, in-
cluding rocks that have no necessary connection or resemblance.
The fifth group includes all the consolidated rocks resulting from
sediment ; although obviously belonging to at least three distinct
formations. The sixth group, takes in all the unconsolidated beds
above the chalk, or its equivalent in this country, the ferruginous
sand formation.

The tablets attached to the Map will show the particular marks
by which the members of the diiFerent groups are distinguished
from one another : And to afibrd still farther means for accomplish-
ing the same object, and preventing mistakes, I have placed a
figure on each tablet, which corresponds with the same figure
placed upon the map in every place occupied by that particular
rock ; so that even if in any case the painter has applied a wrong
color, these figures will afford the means of detecting the mistake.

STRATIFIED ROCKS.

The uppermost portion of this division of the crust of the globe
consists for the most part of unconsolidated layers of sand, clay,
and gravel. The lower portion embraces all those solid rocks that
are divided by parallel and continuous seams. The stratified rocks
occupy in every country by far the largest proportion of the
surface.

Alluvium.

It is well known that a number of causes are daily operating to
modify the surface of the globe. In some instances new and solid
rocks are gradually forming; in others, and those far the most nu-
merous cases, the rock strata are wearing away, and the fragments,
carried by water to the lowest spots, are deposited in the form of
sand, gravel, clay, and loam. But all such deposits, whether con-
solidated or not, are denominated alluvium ; excepting only the
products of volcanoes.

Alluvium of Rivers.

The deposits produced by the overflowing of rivers, are the
most common and familiar example of this stratum. They will,
of course, consist of that heterogenous mixture which a swollen
and agitated stream sweeps along. When first the river issues
from the mountains and begins to spread over the plains, coarse
gravel and sand, and not unfrequently large bowlders, will be de-
posited. The finer materials, and most of the vegetable and an-
imal substances, being lighter, will float on farther before subsiding.

Alluvium of Rivers. 123

So that the portion of an alluvial tract which is nearest the mouth
of the streara, will generally be most valuable in an agricultural
point of view, being made up of the finest and richest loam.

It is quite obvious that the power of rivers in depositing alluvium
must be lessened by every successive innundation ; since the more
elevated the banks, the less frequently will the stream rise above
them ; and the less the amount of water thrown over the mead-
ows. In some places, along the Connecticut and its tributaries,
the banks have already attained such an elevation, that it is only
at long intervals that the floods are high enough to surmount them ;
and yet they are obviously the result of alluvial deposition.

The Connecticut and its tributaries, the Deerfield and the West-
field, furnish the only examples of river alluvium of much extent
and importance in the State. Some fine meadows of this de-
scription, however, occur on the Housatonic, in Stockbridge, Great
Barrington and Sheffield. Indeed, every river in the State, and
every brook, present limited tracts of this stratum. But only
those along the Connecticut and Housatonic were thought deserv-
ing of a place on the iNIap. In some instances the deposition of
the Connecticut, the Deerfield, and the Westfield, is 15 or 20 feet
thick. Logs, leaves, walnuts, butternuts &c. are frequently im-
bedded at that depth, and but slightly changed. Relics of this
kind, though of but little importance to the geologists of the pres-
ent age, may be viewed with great interest in future times, when
this alluvium shall have become consolidated and other formations
shall be imposed upon it.

The alluvial basin of Deerfield river, in Deerfield, is perhaps
the most remarkable example of this formation in the State. It is
shut in on all sides by high land, and the river is obliged to force
its way to the Connecticut through a narrow gorge in a high ridge
of greenstone ; and its direction where it empties, is almost oppo-
site to the course of the Connecticut. The Deerfield, being a
mountain torrent, and of less extent, is raised several hours earlier
than the Connecticut after a rain. It even begins to subside be-
fore the latter has risen much. But as the Connecticut swells, it
throws back the waters of the Deerfield over the broad basin
among the mountains, and sometimes retains it there for three or
four days, or even a week, -until the very finest sediment is depos-
ited. The consequence is, a rapid growth of alluvium, and great
fertility of soil.

It is interesting to observe in Deerfield Meadows the numerous
changes in the bed of the river, that have taken place at no very
remote period ; though none of much importance since the settle-
ment of the place by the whites. A map of these changes might
be instructive as illustrating the operation of existing geological

124 Scientific Geology.

agencies. But I did not judge it expedient to construct one, since
so manv other cases of more importance will require drawings. I
remark, however, that as the banks of this river are easily worn
away, constant changes are taking place with much rapidity by
the action of the stream, so that it must be a fine place for study-
ing fluviatile dynamics.

Patches of river alluvium are represented on the Map in Stock-
bridge, Sheffield, Great Barrington, Longmeadow, Springfield,
West Springfield, Northampton. Hadley, Hatfield, Whately, Deer-
field, and Northfield.

Coast Alluvium.

This sort of deposition is of two kinds. The first is produced
by tides and currents in the ocean, which frequently transport
large quantities of soil from one place to another, and cause it to
accumulate in those situations where their force abates, or is de-
stroyed. In the southeastern part of the State, such cases are nu-
merous : and I have regarded the sandy accumulations of this kind
in Provincetown ; opposite Chatham and Harwich ; on the north '
shore of Barnstable ; and in several places along the northwest
coast of Nantucket, as of sufficient extent to deserve a notice
upon the Map. Deposits of this kind on a smaller scale are very
common in the southeast part of the State.

Salt Marsh Alluvium.

Salt marsh alluvium results from the joint action of two, and
sometimes three causes : 1. from the decay of salt marsh plants ;
2. from the silt brought over the marsh by the tides ; and 3. from
the alluvial soil brought down by streams, when these happen to
empty through those marshes. The marshes in the vicinity of Bos-
ton consist chiefly of a clayey loam, with vegetables more or less
decayed, forming in fact an imperfect deposit of peat. The depth
of the peculiar pulpy soil of these marshes is rarely more than 6
or 8 feet. In the southeastern part of the State, the salt marshes
are much more sandy. In fact their character depends very much
upon the nature of the soil on the coast, since this is carried by
the sea into the marshes and deposited. Though salt marshes are
numerous along the coast, this kind of alluvium is marked on the
map in only two places, viz. in Charlestovvn and Chelsea.

Submarine Forests.

Though these have not hitherto been noticed in this country, I
am inclined to believe that they are not uncommon in the south-
east part of the State, and probably all along the Atlantic coast.

Submarine Forests — Peat. 125

They consist of the remains of ancient forests, now submerged a
few feet below the sea, though sometimes laid bare at low water.
The vegetables found in them are generally such as grow in low
land; and, indeed, peat not unfrequently occurs. This is the case
in the harbor of Nantucket, as I am informed by Lt. Jonathan
Prescott, of the U. States army. This gentleman, while superin-
tending the dredging of that harbor, found portions of cedar, ma-
ple, oak, and beach trees, some of them in an erect position and
accompanied by peat of an imperfect character. All the wood,
except the cedar, (^Cupressus thuyoiJes,) which was nearly as
sound as ever, was very much decayed. These relics were
buried by four feet of sand, and were about eight feet below low
water mark.

Another submarine forest exists at Holme's Hole, on Martha's
Vineyard. It is on the west side of the harbor, and was described
by the pilot as having the appearance of a marsh at low water.
Slumps have been found there in considerable quantity ; of the
cetlar at least.

■' Near the southwest extremity of the Vineyard, on the north
shore, \ was informed that another forest of a similar description
may be seen. On the north side of Cape Cod, also, opposite
Yarmouth, cedar stumps may be found (as I was informed by the
Captain of the Falmouth packet,) extending more than three
miles into Barnstable Bay, And Mr. Henry VVilder, of Lancas-
ter, who first directed my attention to this subject, says that the
same thing occurs in the bay of Provincetown, on the side oppo-
site the village. Farther inquiries will no doubt bring to light
many more instances of a similar character : for my opportunities
of observation on this subject have been but few.

Geologists are not a little perplexed, satisfactorily to account for
submarine forests. Some of them, it has been thought, might
have resulted from the breaking of the barrier of a peat swamp
by the ocean ; whereby it was drained and the soil rendered more
compact so as to subside below the level of the ocean. But in
general it has been supposed that these forests have subsided in
consequence of earthquakes or other internal movements of the
earth. But if it should be f)und, as there seems reason for be-
lieving, that they exist in every quarter of the globe, and at near-
ly the same depth beneath the ocean, a cause (like those just
named) which is local and irregular in its operation, will hardly
explain their occurrence.

Peat.

Various causes are in operation to produce an accumulation of
mud upon the bottoms of ponds, lakes, estuaries, he. In this

15

126 Scientific Geology.

mud various aquatic plants will take root, and by their decay will
swell the deposite. At length the pulpy mass nearly reaches the
surface when sphagneous and other mosses take root in it, along
with numerous other plants, and by their gradual decomposition,
the pond or the lake becomes converted, in the course of ages,
into a swamp or marsh. On digging into it, the bottom will be
found to consist, near the surface, of interlaced vegetable fibres
and roots, with only a small proportion of earth ; farther down the
vegetable matter will be found more decayed and compact, until at
length, in many instances, perfect compact peat, with occasional
layers of mud, will be discovered.

This is the simple and summary account of the origin of the
different varieties of peat. And since the process is daily pro-
gressing, it is properly an alluvial formation : though probably a
part of the peat in this State was produced previous to some of
the latest general and important changes which the earth has un-
dergone. According to this statement, almost any vegetable mat-
ters, that have remained for some time beneath the surface of the
soil, may be called peat ; and it may even be produced beneath
the sea by marine plants, such as the Zostera marina. It is only
within certain limits of moisture and temperature, however, that
proper peat can be produced : and hence in the torrid zone, the
decomposition is so rapid and perfect, that peat is rarely found.
Hence, too, in northern latitudes, the most elevated swamps are
the most favorable spots for its production : that is, for abstracting
the oxygen and hydrogen of the vegetable and leaving the carbon
to predominate.

Numerous as are the deposits of peat in Massachusetts, very
little need be said concerning it. The localities where it has been
found most abundant, are noticed on the Map ; though doubtless
many others would be found equally prolific, if sought after. All
the varieties noticed by authors — the marsh — the lake — the forest
— the maritime and the transported peat — are found here. In-
deed, according to the definition that has been given of this sub-
stance, it is perfectly obvious that not a town in the State can
be named where more or less of it does not exist. The eastern
section, however, is certainly best stored with those varieties that
may be employed for fuel. And it is an unexpected fact, that the
southeastern parts of the State, which abound with sand, contain
also a large amount of peat. According to a survey by Lt. Pres-
cott, the island of Nantucket and the small adjacent islands of
Thuckanuck, Muskegut, and Gravel, contain 30,590 acres ; of
which, 1050 are fresh ponds, and 650 are peat swamps : the beds
being from 1 to 14 feet thick, and generally of good quality. This
must afford an inexhaustible supply of fuel for the inhabitants ;

Alluviiiin of Disintegration. 127

and yet I was surprised to learn, that although the price of fuel is
very high there, peat is not much employed. This perhaps re-
sults from the habit of bringing almost every article used on the
island from abroad ; or more probably from the general thrift and
comfortable circumstances of the inhabitants, which enable them
to employ the kind of fuel that is most pleasant; and who is there
that would not prefer wood to peat.

The process by which peat is produced, must be every year
less prolific in its results ; especially in this country. Vov many
swamps are already so much filled as to raise the plants on their
surface too high to receive the requisite moisture. And besides,
the trees and shrubs are cleared away from many, and their sur-
faces converted into fields for producing grass. Some very fine
mowing lots of this description may be seen a little west of the
village in Nantucket : and over the whole surface of that island,
scarcely a tree or shrub is now to be seen, so that here the for-
mation of peat has probably in a good measure ceased. The peat
swamps there (as they now are in many parts of the southeastern
extremity of the State) were probably once covered with the white
cedar.

According to the Messrs. Danas, trunks of trees, generally of
some species of pine, occur in peat, several feet below the surface
in the marshes of Charles river.

Marl

In limestone regions, the waters generally contain more or less
of the carbonate of lime in solution ; and this, gradually depositing
along with the fine clay or mud held in suspension, produces one
of the varieties of marl. In a few places in Berkshire County,
such marl is now in the course of formation at the bottom of
ponds. In this marl (Nos. 12 to 16,) we find Planorbis parvus,
bicarinatus, and trivolvis, Lymnaea heterostropha and catascopium,
with a nondescript species of Cyclas ; all of which, except the
last perhaps, correspond with existing species in the same region.

Alluvium of Disintegration.

Very few rocks have the power of completely resisting the
united influence of air, water, heat, and cold. And some kinds
are powerfully and deeply acted upon by these agents. Perhaps
the new red sandstone is more affected in this manner than any
other rock in Massachusetts : and not unfrequently its surface for
several feet in depth, is converted into mere sand and gravel.
This becomes gradually mixed with the soil, and gives a decidedly
red hue to extensive tracts. Next to this sandstone — and I am
not sure but even more subject to decay — is our gneiss ; especially

128 Scientific Geology.

that in Worcester county. Hence in that part of tlie State —
hilly as it is — we sometimes scarcely see a rock in place in cross-
ing a whole township. In an excavation which I lately noticed
in Spencer, 1 had an opportunity of observing that a disintegration
liad taken j)lace in the gneiss, front 6 to 10 feet in depth. 1 could
distinguish the materials resulting from disintegration, from the
diluvium lying above them, by observing that in the former the
masses of gneiss, ren)aining undecayed, had a position parallel to
that of the layers of the solid gneiss beneath, being considerably
inclined ; whereas the fragments in the diluvium exhibited no such
parallelism. 1 have never seen a disintegration so deep as this in
the new red sandstone, though in the vicinity of New Haven, Ct.
its depth is several feet. Some varieties of trap rock, particularly
one on Connecticut river, whose base is wacke-like, and some of
the sienites in the eastern part of the State that abound in iron,
disintegrate, and even decompose, rapidly. Mica slate and lalcose
slate pre similarly affected, though to a less extent, as is also
argillaceous slate, and some varieties of slaty graywacke.

Quartz rock, for the most part, is one of the most indestructible
of all our rocks. Those rounded and smooth bowlders of granular
quartz especially, that are so common in the western part of the
State among the diluvium, appear in general to have bid defiance
to all decomposing agencies in past ages, and to be destined to
endure unchanged for ages to come. Yet I had recently pointed
out to me a rather curious, and somewhat instructive example of
these bowlders, lying in the extensive fruit-tree nursery of Mr.
Tracy, in Norwich. It was several feet in diameter, and though
not as smooth as some bowlders of this kind, yet I should not
have suspected that it had suffered the least waste, were it not for
an inscription that appears upon it. The name of John Gilpin is
marked on its upper surface, in a large fair hand, a few of the
letters only being indistinct. These letters are not cut in the
stone, nor do they consist of any foreign substance, like ink, or
paint, spread over it. But they are rendered visible simply by
the lighter color of the surface, where they were originally written ;
and by passing the finger over them, it is obvious that they project
slightly. Hence I infer that these letters were originally written
with some kind of paint, which prevented the rock beneath it from
decaying ; while the decomposing process went on gradually on
the other parts of the stone. Now as these letters must have
been written since the settlement of that part of the country, we
cannot suppose that more than 150 years at the longest have since
elapsed : and probably the period is much less. We have here,
then, a sort of measure for determining the rate at which hard
quartz rock will decay by atmospherical agencies.

Bog Ore. 1'29

Albivium of Degradation.

Three causes are constantly operating to degrade the mountains
and liills, and to fill up the valleys, viz : rains, frost, and gravity.
Tiiat they have not already reduced the earth's surface to a level,
is decisive proof tliat the globe has not existed in its present state
eternally. Such a result must ultimately proceed from these
causes, if tliey continue long enough in operation: and that would
be lo reduce the globe to an uninhabitable chaos : for if the present
dry land were spread uniformly over the whole globe, the ocean
would flow over the whole of it, even with considerable depth of
waters.

In precipitous ridges, particularly of trap formation, frost com-
mences the work of degradation. Water, penetrating the fissures
of these rocks, expands by freezing and forces them slightly
asunder. This makes room for a larger portion of water the suc-
ceeding winter ; and thus the process goes on until the columnar
masses of rock are urged downward by the force of gravity and
powerful rains. This is the origin of those extensive slopes of
broken fragments, or debris of rocks, which arrest the attention on
the mural faces of the greenstone ridges in the Connecticut valley.
Generally these fragments rise only about one half or two thirds
the height of tiie ridge ; though sometimes they continue to the
very summit : the process of degradation from this cause having
come to an end.

Instances of this kind have been regarded by geologists as a
kind of natural chronometer, demonstrating the recent origin of
the present state of the globe. No observations, however, have
been n)ade on the progress of this leveling process accurate enough
to compare it with historical records.

When the three causes of degradation above mentioned combine
iheir maximum energy on the sides of steep Alpine summits, they
produ-^e the well known and sometimes terrific phenomenon of
laiid-sJips. Though examples of these on a limited scale are very
common in Massachusetts, yet tiie only one worthy the particular
attention of geologists, is on the southwest side of Saddle Moun-
tain, at the place called the Hopper. But this has been partic-
ularly noticed in the second part of my Report.

Bog Ore.

In the western part of Worcester county, and over a large
extent of territory, the process by which this ore is produced and
deposited, is so manifest that it deserves description. The gneiss
rock there, abounds with the sulphuret of iron. This is continu-
ally undergoing a decomposition by the action of heat, air, and

130 Scientific Geology.

moisture ; and becomes changed, first into an oxide, and then,
some of it into a sulphate. The oxide usually imbibes more or
less of carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and is changed into a
carbonate ; which is soluble in water. Or this oxide, being washed
from the rocks by rain into cavities, meets with water containing
carbonic acid, by which it is dissolved. Once dissolved, it is
readily transported to ponds and swamps, and there deposited by
the evaporation of the water. In the region above referred to, this
process may be witnessed in all its stages. By breaking the rock
we find the sulphuret unchanged ; while the surface is coated over
with the oxide, sulphate, and carbonate. The soil, also, to a
considerable depth, exhibits very strikingly the color of iron rust ;
and in the low grounds the bog ore is abundant.

Probably a similar theory will apply to the production of this
ore in other parts of the State ; though I know of no spot where
the process is so obvious as in Worcester county. Indeed, the
fact that very many of our bog ore deposites are buried several
feet deep by soil, and occur on dry ground, shows that in those
places the process of its formation has long since ceased. In sev-
eral ponds in the southeast part of the State, it is said, however,
that it is forming rapidly.

Since iron is a mineralizer of organic substances, we might ex-
pect to find organic remains in bog ore. In that of Massachusetts,
I have noticed only vegetable relics. In New Braintree the
culms, spikes, and spikelets of grasses — mostly of carex — are com-
mon. The spikes and spikelets especially, are very distinct and
perfect. (No. 19.) Even the natural color of the fruit is some-
times preserved ; and to appearance it seems to be unaltered ; but
examination shows the whole to be only iron ore.

Oxide of Manganese.

I know not why geologists have omitted this substance in enu-
merating alluvial deposites. For it seems to have as good claims
to be regarded alluvial, as bog ore and peat. I refer particularly
to the hydrated oxide, or black wad ; which' is ordinaiily a mix-
ture of manganese, iron, and clay. This is certainly produced
daily by a process analogous to that which forms bog ore ; that is,
the decomposition of rocks containing manganese, exposes that
metal to be washed by water into cavities on the surface of the
earth, where it either incrusts other substances, or forms a separate
deposite. Instances of this incrustation may be seen every where
in the primary region west of Connecticut river ; and exaniples of
such deposition I have observed in Leverett, Whately, and Con-
way. These deposites are sometimes a foot in thickness, and
occur in low places, covered only by a few inches of soil.

Encroachments of the Sea. 131

Power of Ice in the removal of Boivlders in Ponds-

I am not aware that this phenomenon has been noticed on the
eastern continent ; and it has been but rarely observed on our
own. Its effects in modifying the face of the globe must be very
limited ; yet they deserve enumeration.

It is well known that water, by an apparent exception to a gen-
eral law, expands with great force when freezing, and even far
below the freezing point. Over a large extent of surface this
effect may be very considerable ; and when bowlder stones, lying
in shallow ponds, become partially enveloped in the ice, they
must feel the effect of this expansion, and be driven towards the
shore : since the force must always act in that direction. As no
counter force exists to bring back the rock to its original position,
the ultimate effect must be to crowd it entirely out of the pond ;
and perhaps to this cause we may impute the fact, that on the
margin of some ponds we find a ridge of bowlders ; while the bot-
tom, for a considerable extent, is free from them.

The removal of rock masses in this manner was first noticed in
Salisbury, Ct. ; and a statement published in Vol. 9th of the
American Journal of Science. I have seen no similar instance in
Massachusetts ; but Rev. Sylvester Holmes, of ^evr Bedford,
informs me, that an undoubted example of these travelling bowlders
exists in a pond in Carver, Plymouth county ; and that their
track in the mud is quite obvious.

Action of the Sea upon the Coast.

It would not be proper in this place to go into the minute de-
tails of this subject. Where the combined and often conflicting,
agency of breakers, tides, currents, and rivers at their mouths, is
to be taken into the account, it is obvious that very complicated
effects must result : yet in general it may be stated, that the sea
sometimes encroaches upon the land, and sometimes makes addi-
tions to it. Whether upon the whole these effects are balanced^
is a question upon which geologists are divided in opinion. My
object is merely to state such facts as have fallen under my notice-
in respect to the coast of Massachusetts.

Encroachments of the Sea.

The most remarkable example of this occurs in Boston Harbor.
Here, as is well known, are numerous picturesque islands, the
inner ones, nearly as far as the Boston Light, being composed
chiefly of diluvium; though on their shores, at a low level, not
unfrequenlly we find argillaceous slate and other rocks that occur
on the main land. But all the islands outwards from the Great

132 Snentific Geology.

Brewster, are nierely naked masses of rock, and it would be nat-
ural to infer that the diluvium had been removed from these, even
if we did not actually detect the process. But on the Great
Brewster, the work is going on before our eyes. Its eastern side
is a high bank of diluvium, obviously wasting away by the action
of the waves that roll in upon It from the wide Atlantic ; while the
extensive beach along iis southern side, is composed of the mate-
rials that have been swept away from its outer coast. The same
process is seen going on upon the outer side of several other
islands ; and on Deer Island an extensive wall of stone has been
erected by the U. States Government to arrest the progress of this
degradation ; which, if continued much longer there, would lay
open the inner part of Boston Harbor to the fury of the north-
easterly storms. From the sanie cause another of these islands,

(I have forgotten which,) when seen
from the northeast, exhibits an outline
as regular, and with a single house near
its centre, as fantastic as this drawing.
It seems to me that no man, accustomed to reason correctly
from geological facts to their causes, can hesitate, in view of the
appearances which these islands exhibit, to infer that all those
outside of the Great Brewster have been deprived of their dilu-
vial coat by the action of the ocean. Nor when we consider the
frequency and violence of northeast winds and storms upon this
coast, need we fear that the cause is inadequate to the effect ; al-
though it is not less than two and a half miles from the Great
Brewster to the outermost of the Graves. It does not, indeed,
follow, that all the intervening space between these outer islands
was once solid land ; so that the ocean has actually worn away 2
1-2 miles ; and yet, this seems highly probable. Indeed, the
mind is irresistably led to inquire whetlier the whole harbor has
not been produced by the same cause ; and when we see so many
islands scattered overfits bosom, which seem obviously the wrecks
of one continuous diluvial formation, and perceive that the rocks,
wherever they occur, are only a continuation of those occurring on
the mainland, the most cautious reasoner can hardly avoid the
conclusion that such was the origin of this harbor : or, at least,
that this was a powerful auxiliary cause in its forniation. Nay,
it is difficult to see why the same reasoning will not apply to the
whole of Massachusetts Bay ; and when we see with what tre-
mendous force the ocean must, for ages, have battered the hard
sienitic rocks of Cape Ann, and what an immense accumulation
of sand, gravel, and bowlders, has been made along the south
shore of this Bay we feel almost prepared to adopt this theory.
And yet, we are staggered in our belief when we reflect on the

Encroachments of the Sta. 133

immense period of time requisite for such a work ; and doubt
whether other geological facts do not indicate a later commence-
ment to the present order of things on the globe.

The proper place for learning the dynamical effect of northeast
storms upon our coast, is on the north east side of Cape Ann.
Rocks of many tons weight have been is this manner moved from
their beds, and driven inward a considerable distance. One has
only to visit this coast to be astonished at the marks everywhere
exhibited of the powerful agency of a stormy ocean, and to be
satisfied that nothing but the extreme hardness and unstratified
structure of the rocks has enabled them to resist its violence.
And when we learn that the rocks of Boston Harbor are softer and
schistose, we see a sufficient reason why they have given way be-
fore the breakers ; while Cape Ann, and the shores of Cohasset
and Scituate maintain their position.

Since the publication of the first edition of this Report, T have
received the following statement from Mr. Benjamin Haskell of
Sandy Bay, on the northeast side of Cape Ann, illustrative of
the power of the stormy waves of the ocean upon that coast.

' The northeast extremity of this Cape, known by the name of
Flat Point, differs from the general features of the coast, by ex-
tending into the sea with a gradual slope, instead of the bolder as-
pect of the adjacent shore. Upon this point the sea beats during
a northeast storm with a violence conceivable only to those
who have witnessed it. Here, at the distance of from 60 to 100
feet above high water mark, lies what a farmer would call awinrovv
of bowlders, which there is every reason to believe have been
thrown up within a few years.'

' These bowlders are irregular in form, and angular, their corners
being scarcely rounded by attrition. They exceed in size any
thing of the kind in this vicinity. A number of them would weigh
10 or 15, and some even 20 tons. But there is one far more in-
teresting than all the rest; both on account of its greater bulk, and
comparative regularity of shape, which renders the former easy
to be estimated, and thus affords the means of ascertaining the
maximum force of the Ocean in its anger. This rock was origin-
ally attached to a ledge about 5 feet above the level of the sea.
The broken surfaces correspond so exactly as leave no room to
doubt from whence it was detached. From this spot to the spot
where it now lies, the direction is south, a little westerly. The
distance 106 feet: but between the two positions there is a hol-
lowing of the ledge (not a recent one) over which it must have
passed, so that the ascent of the rock up this old-fashioned railway
cannot have been less than 10 feet.'

' The weight of this bowlder has been calculated with care, due
16

134

Scientific Geologij.

allowance having been made for irregularities of surface, and
found to be rising of 28 tons. What an illustration ofHydrodyna-
mics ? '

Several cliffs of clay and sand along the coast exhibit the com-
bined effects of the ocean, rains, frost, &c., in wearing away the
land. In Chilmark, on Martha's Vineyard, is one of these facing
the southeast, and at least a mile in length. It is novi^ rare that
the breakers rise high enough to impinge directly against the cliff:
but they wash away whatever materials have been brought down
by the rains. Gay Head, which is the western extremity of the
same island, presents a cliff of variegated clays, sands, fcc. not
less than 150 feet high ; and which standing exposed to the buf-
fetings of winds and waves from the sea, and to the wastes of
storms from above, exhibits perhaps the most instructive example
along the shore, of the effects of these agents. In the second
part of my Report, I described this cliff as a most picturesque ob-
ject of scenery ; but there is not likewise a more interesting spot
in the State, to the Geologist. And among other things he cannot
but notice the numerous fantastic forms into which the lofty mass-
es of clay have been worn, while the numerous bowlders and
pebbles along the beach attest the violent action of the sea. The
following sketch, hastily taken, will give some idea of the aspect
of the northwestern part of this cliff, as seen by a person standing
on the beach below, close to the water- To exhibit it in perfec-
tion, the various lively colors of the different kinds of clay should
be put upon it.

Oblique view of the Clay Cliffs at Gay Head.

A similar bank of clay occurs at the Light House in Truro, near
the extremity of Cape Cod. It lies exposed to the unbroken fury

Gain of the Land upon the Sea. 135

of the wide Atlantic, and the marks of slow encroachment upon
the land are quite manifest. Indeed, it is the prevailing opinion
in that region, that this Cape is wearing away along the whole ex-
tent of its eastern extremity, and extending farther into Massa-
chusetts Bay on the opposite side. I have no doubt that this is
the case. For the general current on that coast is towards the
south.

The same I presume is true of a considerable portion of the
eastern shore of Nantucket. From data, on which Lt. Prescott
places considerable confidence, he infers, that in one place, the loss
of land within half a century, has amounted to 3 or 4 rods in
width.

This advance of the ocean, however, must not all be imputed to
the action of currents. For when once a sand bank of consider-
able height has been raised on the coast, the sea breezes will drive
it inwards farther than tiie land breezes will bring it back. This
inland march is quite obvious on Chatham Beach, in the situa-
tion af a swamp, which, 50 years ago, was in the centre of the
beach ; but now lies near the eastern shore ; the body of the sands
having moved farther west. A salt meadow formerly situated on
the western side of the beach, adjoining the old north passage
into Chatham harbor, has been covered up, and now begins to be
disinterred on the eastern shore. A similar change of sides has
taken place in a peat swamp on Nauset Beach ; which lies north
of Chatham Beach, joining the mainland at Eastham.

I have described, in the second part of this Report, two exca-
vations in solid rock in Newport, Rhode Island ; one of which is
called Purgatory ; and these may be taken as a good example of
the action of the sea upon a rocky shore.

Gain of the land upon the Sea.

Very frequently the materials that have been swept away by
the sea, are again deposited by tides and currents along the same
coast, forming low beaches. This is the case in nearly all the in-
stances on our coast where the land is wasting away. Perhaps the
most remarkable example is Chatham Beach, at the southeastern
extremity of Cape Cod, which was probably all formed in this
manner. On the Cape I was informed that this beach had advan-
ced southerly, during the last 40 years, at the rate of a mile in
eight years. Des Barren constructed a chart of this coast in 1772,
and he says that the gain of this beach, for 30 years previous to
that period, was 2 1-2 miles, that is a mile every 12 years.

An intelligent writer in the Barnstable Journal, however, has re-
cently stated that it has advanced southerly only three miles in 70
years. He says that 20 years ago, this beach was an island ; and

136 Scientific Geology.

that there was a good harbor near its northern termination, which
is now entirely filled up ; so that no identation of the coast marks
its former situation. Webb's island, also, situated not far from
this harbor, is entirely washed away. In consequence of these
changes, it is well known that the harbor of Chatham, once
excellent, is nearly ruined ; and nothing can save it from com-
plete destruction but the forming of a new entrance.

Nauset Beach, already referred to, has likewise extended, ac-
cording to the same writer, a mile southerly in 50 years; and it
can extend no farther in that direction. In Nauset harbor the salt
marsh has so much increased within 40 years, that 300 tons of salt
grass are now cut where at that time only flats existed.

Monomoy Beach extends southerly from Chatham towards Nan-
tucket; and has been formed in a similar manner by increments
at its southern extremity. Not long ago the sea broke across the
northern part of this beach, so that it is now an island.

Sandy neck extends eastward from Sandwich, nearly across Barn-
stable harbor, and it continues to advance in an easterly direction.
There can be little doubt, also, that nearly, or quite the whole of
Provincetown was formed in the same manner, and ought to be re-
garded as alluvial.

In like manner Smith's Point, which is a low sand beach con-
stituting the southwestern extremity of Nantucket, has been pro-
duced by materials drifted thither by tides and currents from the
eastern side of the island. When Des Barres constructed his
chart, its extent was nearly the same as at present. But since
that time, as Lt, Prescott informs me, it has been from one to two
miles shorter. Whether the current that forms this beach passes
around the northern point of the island, or along its southern shore,
has not been ascertained : but it is certain that a current does set
around the northern point, and thence along the northwestern
shore, as certain facts prove, which I have not space to mention.
And probably it is this current chiefly which has formed Smith's
Point ; and not unlikely, also, the islands of Thuckanuck and
Muskegut, as well as the extensive shoals between Nantucket and
Martha's Vineyard. It may be likewise, that another current
passes along the south shore of Nantucket, aiding in this work, and
forming Nantucket Shoals. And perhaps the irregular action of
these currents, aided by unequal tides, may sometimes lengthen
out, and at other times curtail the low beach of Nantucket called
Smith's Point.

In several other places on the shores of Nantucket, there ap-
pears to have been an accession to the land, in the manner that
has been described. But I am too ignorant of details concerning
these spots, to be able to make any statements of interest about
their progress or extent.

Dunes or Doivns. 137

Considerations like the foregoing, often lead a man to feel as if
such low sandy islands as Nantucket, and others in its neighbor-
hood, were sliding from under his feet. But that no general
change of position has taken place in them is obvious from the
fact, that most of the cliffs on the shores of Nantucket at least,
exhibit regular layers of sand and clay, demonstrating its general
structure to be that of a tertiary formation, which has never been
removed since its original deposition. True, if the world exist
long enough, and these agencies continue to operate, the whole
island will change its position. But as the work has progressed
so slowly during the past 6000 years, the time requisite for its
completion must be immensely great.

Dimes or Doivns.

Sand is frequently thrown by the spray, or waves, during a
storm, so high upon the shore, that the reflux waves do not carry
it back. This being dried by the sun, is driven inwards by the
sea breezes, and in the course of time forms hills of considerable
elevation. Or sometimes the wind from the sea raises the sand
from a cliff of tertiary formation, and carries it inland. Thus are
formed those moving sand hills, which on the eastern continent, are
called dunes or downs, and which have excited so much interest
near the banks of the Nile. As might be expected, these dunes
are common along the shore in the southeastern part of Massachu-
setts. They may be seen in the greatest perfection and on the
largest scale, on Cape Cod ; particularly near its extremity.
They are frequently as high as 60 or 70 feet, and on the east end
of the Cape, they move towards the west, but at what rate, in any
instance, I was unable to ascertain. A series of these dunes, sev-
eral miles long, threatens the village and bay of Provincetown, and
large quantities of the beach grass have been transplanted to their
ridges for the purpose of arresting their progress. I observed also,
that the two species of the Hudsonia, which are common on the
Cape, present no small obstacle to the advancement of these
sands ; though never transplanted, that I am aware of, for this pur-
pose.

On both shores of Cape Cod throughout its whole extent, may
be seen dunes more or less extensive ; and by their snowy white-
ness they sometimes give great interest to the landscape. I cannot
learn that any of them have been productive of such extensive
mischief to farms and villages as has sometimes resulted from their
progress on the eastern continent. It would be strange, however,
if the future history of Cape Cod should not contain catastrophes
of this kind. Indeed, I have stated that they have aided in filling
up the harbor of Chatham already.

138 Scientific Geology.

Dunes of small extent, and of low elevation, occur on Nan-
tucket, Martha's Vineyard, some of the Elizabeth islands, and
in many places along the coast in the county of Plymouth. Move-
able sand hills also occur rarely in the interior of the State ; as,
for instance, in the Connecticut valley, in Montague, Hadley, and
in Enfield, Ct. But concerning these I know of no facts of spe-
cial interest, except that they are slowly advancing towards the
southeast; indicating the predominance of northwest winds.

Valleys.

Accurately to classify valleys, and assign probable causes for
their origin, is one of the most difficult problems in geology. The
man who takes only a hasty glance at the subject, is very apt to
impute all valleys to the action of existing streams. But it needs
only a slight examination to satisfy the observer that such a cause
is totally inadequate to the effect. It will not, for example, explain
the very common occurrence of one valley crossing another.
Hence geologists have been obliged to resort to several causes to
explain all the phenomena. The origin of one class of vallies,
they refer to the original elevation and fracture of the rocks by a
force acting from within the earth, and hence sometimes called
valleys of dislocation. A second class they regard as the result of
diluvial action at various periods, and hence called valleys of de-
nudation. A third class they suppose to result from the agency of
-existing streams.

I am not aware that any attempt has yet been made to classify
and point out the origin of the valleys of this country. Nor shall
I attempt to do this in respect to all the valleys even in Massachu-
setts. I have no expectation of doing any thing like justice to so
difficult a subject, except where long local residence has afforded
ample opportunity for re-examination and reflection. I shall there-
fore confine myself chiefly to the valleys in the region of Con-
necticut river ; though if J do not greatly mistake, these are by
far the most remarkable and interesting in the State.

It is only those valleys which are the result of alluvial action
that can be properly considered in this place. But as it will be
more convenient to treat of the whole subject together, I shall here
offer all the remarks I have to make upon it.

It is now generally admitted by geologists, that all stratified rocks
must have been originally deposited in nearly horizontal layers,
and subsequently elevated to their present inclined position by a
force acting beneath. Such a disturbance must have produced
many violent and extensive fractures in the strata and valleys of
every shape. And since in the mountainous parts of Massachu-
setts, the strata are mostly primary and highly inclined, probably

Valleys. 139

this is the manner in \Ahich most of our mountain valleys have
been produced. If, as is now also generally admitted, llie strata
were elevated from the bottom of the ocean, the retiring waters
must iiave acted powerfully upon the irregular surface, and consid-
erably modified the forms of the valleys. The agency of rains,
snows, and rivers, since that period, must have given them still
farther modifications. Nor ought we to leave out of the account
any other deluges of a date subsequent to that of the elevation of
the strata, that may have swept over the land.

The valleys through which the Connecticut and its tributaries
flow, are the largest and most remarkable in the State. The or-
dinary laws of physical geography seem here to be set at defiance ;
so much so, that a late ingenious writer* doubted whether I had
correctly represented the 'Geology of the Connecticut,' because
the course of the rivers, and the direction of the mountain ridges^
were described as having so little correspondence with the rocic
formations. But the features of the geology, as w^ell as of the
scenery, along this river, are too obvious to be easily mistaken in
their great outlines, which are alone concerned in this inquiry.
The relation of the rivers to the different mountain ridges and rock
formations, I hope to render intelligible by the aid of the accom-
panying Map, (See Plate XV.) on which are traced only the
chief outlines of the surface. To present all the smaller irregu-
larities of surface, I found would only obscure the points which I
wish to illustrate.

That portion of the valley of the Connecticut to which I shall
specially refer at this time, extends from near the north line of
Massachusetts to Long Island Sound at New Haven. It is bounded
by broad and generally lofty primary mountains; which, at the
northern and southern extremities of the valley, converge until
they almost meet, as may be seen on the Map. They are farthest
asunder about in the latitude of Hartford. This valley is divided
diagonally by a ridge of greenstone ; commencing on the south
with West Rock at New Haven, and extending, with (ew interup-
tions, to Easthampton, where it attains an elevation of about
1000 feet, and forms Mount Tom. Here it crosses the Connect-
icut, and on the opposite bank, forms Mount Holyoke; and con-
tinuing a kw miles farther, terminates in Belchertown, as already
described in the second part of this Report, This greenstone
range is separated by vallies from the primary ranges at its extrem-
ities; and there are several places where it almost entirely disap-
pears, as at the point in Hamden, through which passes the Far-
mington Canal: unless any are disposed to regard Mount Carmel

♦Darby's View of the United States, p. 164.

14© Scientific Geology.

in that town, as the southern extremity of the range, and the hills
to the southwest, as a distinct range. Several other hills and ele-
vated ridges of less extent, occur in this valley ; but it is unneces-
sary in this place to describe them.

In tracing the Connecticut through this valley, the geologist
will be surprised to find it crossing the greenstone ridge above de-
scribed, and that too in its highest part, viz. through the gorge be-
tween Holyoke and Tom. For he will naturally inquire, why did
not the river flow through that part of the valley west of the ridge ;
and following the course of the Farmington Canal, empty at New
Haven ? For it appears from the surveys on that Canal, that in
no place is that part of the valley more than 134 feet above the
present level of the Connecticut at Northampton ; whereas the
ridge through which it passes is from 800 to 1000 feet high. But
the surprise of the geologist will be still farther increased, when he
finds this river at Middletown, quitting the great valley above de-
scribed, and passing over the remainder of its course through a
deep ravine among primary mountains.

What inference shall we deduce from these remarkable facts?
Why, surely, that Connecticut river did not excavate its own bed ;
for had the barriers at Northampton and Middletown been higher
than 134 feet, above its present bed, it must have emptied into
the Sound at New Haven. We must seek some other cause, there-
fore, for the origin of the passage between Holyoke and Tom,
and for that through the mountains below Middletown.

Another inference is, that if the Connecticut ever formed a lake
in its present valley, it must have been rather limited and shallow.
For every place 100 feet higher than Northampton meadows at
present, must have been above the waters. It may perhaps be
thought that a barrier might have formerly existed at New Haven,
which was subsequently worn down. But this would have been too
mighty a work for any transient deluge to accomplish ; and
the idea that the land was for a long time sunk beneath the ocean
after the existence of the river, so as to be acted on by currents,
cannot be admitted, because this would have destroyed the river.
The existence of an extensive tertiary formation along the Con-
necticut, however, with horizontal strata, renders it probable that
this river did once form a lake in its present valley ; though I have
not been able to determine certainly whether this tertiary formation
was formed beneath fresh or salt water.

Not less remarkable than that of the Connecticut, are the beds
of its principal tributaries, the Deerfield, the Westfield, and the
Farmington rivers. As may be seen on the Map, these all cross
a high ridge of greenstone before they reach the Connecticut ;
and in the case of Deerfield river particularly, the gorge through

Terraced Valleys. 141

which it passes, not less than 250 feet deep, appears as if it must
have been worn down for the express purpose of suffering the
river to pass. And yet, this river has only to rise 80 or 90 feet
above its present bed, in order to find a direct passage to Connec-
ticut river on the south side of Sugar Loaf mountain. And so
the Westfield and the Farmington might have passed down the
western part of the Connecticut valley, and emptied at New Ha-
ven, had their beds been 100 or 130 feet higher than at pres-
ent. And such must have been the course which all these rivers
would have taken, had not the gorges through which they now
pass in the greenstone ridges, been excavated for them before they
began to flow, at least, to a considerable depth.

The direction of the primary strata, and the general course of
the valleys in the mountainous region on the west side of the Con-
necticut valley, is north and south. But instead of follow-
ing these valleys, Deerfield and Westfield rivers flow through
ravines, running in general across the strata, and across the gen-
eral course of the valleys. These ravines are, for the most part,
very narrow and deep, and the edges of the strata on their oppo-
site sides correspond. It seems difficult to suppose that these
rivers have produced these ravines ; and yet, since no similar ones
occur in the region, one hesitates to say that they were not formed
by fluviatile action. There is not certainly the same means of
proving their existence previous to that of the rivers, as in regard to
the gorges already described, through which these rivers and the
Connecticut flow. Concerning the passage of Farmington river
through the primary regions, I am too ignorant to be able to make
any definite statements.

Terraced Valleys.

Although there is demonstrative evidence, that the rivers under
consideration did not in all cases first excavate the valleys through
which they flow, yet there is on the other hand, evidence scarcely
less conclusive, that they have considerably lowered their beds
since they began to flow. Between the primary mountains, from
whence Deerfield and Westfield rivers, for example, issue, and
the greenstone ridges through which they pass, they have formed
alluvial basins, somewhat extensive, and sunk about 90 feet below
the general level of the bottom of the Connecticut basin. And the
banks of these basins are in some places curiously terraced ; the
different terraces being on a level on opposite sides of the basin.
If we start from the edge of the stream at low water, and ascend
a bank of 10 to 15 feet high, we shall come upon an alluvial
meadow, which is frequently overflowed ; and is consequently re-
ceiving yearly deposits. This may be regarded as the lowest ter-

17

142 Scientific Geology.

race. Crossing this, we ascend the escarpment of a second ter^
race, 30 or 40 feet in height, which may be seen at intervals on
the same level on all sides of the meadow. This second terrace
is rarely very wide in any place, and seems to be only the rem-
nants of a meadow, once much more extensive, which has been
worn away. Ascending from this second terrace, 40 or 50 feet,
up another escarpment, we reach the plain that forms the bottom
of the great valley of the Connecticut. This constitutes the up-
per terrace.

The above description applies to the principal terraces existing
on Westfield river, one or two miles west of the village, as well as
those one or two miles east ; and to those in Deerfield meadows,
as well as those on the same river in the upper part of Charle-
mont. Smaller ones occur farther up the stream on Westfield
river ; also on one of its tributaries ; and on Green river, a tribu-
tary of the Deerfield. I have also noticed imperfect terraces on
Blackstone river, below Worcester. One quite distinct may be
seen in West Brookfield, on a small branch of the Chickopee,.
which passes through that place. In short, terraces more or less
distinct, exist on almost every stream of much size in the State,
wherever the banks are low enough to admit of alluvial flats.

The banks of the Connecticut are less distinctly terraced in
Massachusetts, than the smaller streams that have been noticed.
Yet they exist on that river in several places within the limits of
the appended geological Map. In Vernon, a few miles south of
Brattleborough village, two quite distinct terraces may be seen on
the west bank of the river. Between Turner's Falls and the
mouth of INIiller's river, the same number appear, though less dis-
tinct. In passing southerly, we find the same number on the west
bank, in Pine Nook meadows, in the southeast part of Deerfield.
In the south part of Sunderland, and north part of Hadley, on the
east side of the river, two terraces appear, although they are at a
greater distance than usual from the river. Traces of them ap-
pear also, in Springfield and West Springfield. In most of these
eases they are discoverable on only one side of the river.

This peculiar arrangement of the sides of valleys, although
scarcely ever noticed by geological writers in this country, appears
to be very common on botli sides of the Atlantic. Dr. Bigsby
notices a striking case in Lower Canada; and Dr. Macculloch
represents them as nuruierous in Scotland. They appear to be a
distinct phenomenon from, the Parallel Roads, so ably described
by the last named writer.*

No observer will doubt but terraced valleys were produced, int.
some way or other, by the streams that now flow through thenio.

'Geological Transactions. Vol. IV. 11. 'U4.

Terraced Valleys. 143

And it is natural to impute them to the sudden bursting of the bar-
riers of a pond or lake, through which the stream flowed ; or to
the sudden removal of an obstruction in a river, whereby its bed
was rapidly deepened in soft soil, higher up the stream than the
obstruction. If, for instance, the greenstone barrier through
which Deerfield and Westfield rivers now pass, had been suddenly
sunk a number of feet by some convulsion of the earth, or pow-
erful ice flood, their beds would have been rapidly sunk by the
waters in the soft meadows above the barriers ; and thus terraces
might have resulted. But I may be permitted to doubt whether
£ny such sudden reduction of the river's bed is necessary to ac-
count for this phenomenon.

Let us suppose a period, when the bed of Connecticut river, in
the mountaninous region below Middletown, was yet so elevated
as to cause the waters to overflow the great basin between New
Haven and Vermont. At that time, the mouths of Deerfield and
Westfield rivers would have been on the western margin of this
lake, or in the places where they now issue from the primary
mountains. As the Connecticut wore down its bed, the lake
would gradually drain off, leaving the tertiary formation, which its
waters had deposited, perhaps 100 feet thick upon an average, with
an almost entirely level surface. The Connecticut, having found
its present bed, and the waters being drained from the valley,
Westfield and Deerfield rivers must also excavate beds in the ter-
tiary formation, above described, in their course to the Connecti-
cut. Their course would no doubt at first be extremely serpen-
tine, as that of rivers usually is, in flat countries. But as the bed
of the Connecticut gradually sunk lower and lower, so would the
beds of its tributaries sink : and then, would their waters, often
swollen by rains, and obstructed by ice, begin to wear away the
projecting banks, and convey them into the Connecticut. At
length, the banks on either side of the rivers would be worn down
and removed for a considerable extent. In other words, such
basins as now exist at Deerfield and Westfield, would be produced ;
less deep, however, and destitute of terraces. As this basin en-
larged, another process would commence. While the stream was
confined vcithin narrow limits, the alluvial matter, brought down
from the mountains, would be carried along to the Connecticut. But
as the basin enlarged, the water, when swollen by rains and melt-
ing snows, would spread over it, and becoming more calm, would
deposit the mud and sand in suspension. Thus the new formed
basin would be gradually filling up, and form an alluvial meadow
But as the bed of the river would continue to sink, ere long the
waters would rarely rise high enough to overflow the meadows ;
and for the same reason they could never be raised by alluvial de-

144 -' Scientific Geology.

position to the level of the plain through which the river first be-
gan to flow. The banks of the river having now become high,
the waters would again commence their depredations upon them,
and scoop out a second basin from the meadows just described. At
length all these meadows would be carried away by the stream,
except occasional patches, which would form a terrace around
their margin. The second basin, having nov/ become large enough
to enable the overflowing waters to begin to deposite their mud
and sand, a second meadow would be formed, which would go on
rising and the river sinking, until the floods could no longer spread
over them ; when a third basin would be formed ; and so on, as
long as the river continued to excavate its bed.

I have confined this illustration to the basins of Westfield and
Deerfield rivers, in order to render it more intelligible. But it can
easily be applied to the Connecticut, or any other river.

Green River.

A hundred rods south of the village of Greenfield, on the stage
road to Deerfield, Green River, a tributary of the Deerfield, has
left indelible traces of bavins; once run in a channel 40 or 50 feet
above its present bed. At that elevation, a ledge of sandstone
rocks bears the marks of having been once the bed of the stream,
as distinctly as if i^ had run there but yesterday. The water here
formed a cataract, 20 or 30 feet high ; and below the ledge, a
chasm, nearly as wide as the present bed of the river, is worn in
the rocks several rods long, which communicates with the present
channel. The pot holes left in the ledge of rock are some of them
6 or 7 feet deep, and one or two feet in diameter. The hill of
sand and clay, whi-^h now rises abruptly on the west side of the
present stream, probably once extended as far east as this cata-
ract and chasm ; and here was a ridge, which threw back the wa-
ters of the stream over the whole of Greenfield meadows, 4 or 5
miles in extent. For in various places along these meadows, we
find terraces ; generally two, but never more. The hill of sand
and clay, at this gorge was probably worn away gradually ; and as
the surface of the sandstone rapidly slopes towards the west, this
would cause the bed of the river to sink, and the terraces to be
formed. In this way the bed of the river has changed laterally
10 or 12 rods, and sunk 40 or 50 feet.

Perhaps the following sketch may assist in rendering the preced-
ing statement intelligible. It may not be entirely correct but it ex-
hibits the principal features of the spot.

Ice Floods.

145

ig^^ftn*^ ff

a, a, former bed of the river.

b, b, terraces : these are in the upper part of the gorge, and not
in Greenfield meadows.

d, d, level of the Connecticut valley : a tertiary hill with steep
declivity.

e, e, sandstone ledge.

g, Meeting House in Greenfield.

s, s, stage road to Deerfield.

i, i, i, successive ridges of sandstone more elevated than d. d.

Beds of other Rivers.

Judging only by the eye, I think we may safely state that since
the Connecticut and its tributaries began to flow through the great
valley that has been described, they have excavated their beds
nearly 100 feet. The Connecticut at Northampton is still more
than 100 feet above tide water at New Haven. At Springfield it
is only 64 feet. This will give a descent from the latter place to
the ocean of only a foot per mile, and considerably less if we
subtract the height of Enfield Falls. South Hadley Falls make
the principal difference between Springfield and Northampton.
Indeed, the medium descent of this river from the foot of Turner's
Falls in Gill, is probably less than a foot per mile. This is too
small to enable the water to produce scarcely a perceptible effect
in lowering their bed, for centuries, nay, not enough to prevent
their filling it up. So that probably the process of excavation in
the bed of that river, has nearly ceased.

Ice Floods.

There is, however, one agent of excavation, that still operates
to some extent, even in the Connecticut; and that is, ice floods.
Still more powerful is their effect upon smaller and more rapid
rivers. Whoever has not witnessed the breaking up of a river in
the spring after a severe winter, when its whole surface has been
covered by ice several feet thick, has but a faint idea of the prodi-

146 Scientific Geology.

gious force exerted at such a time. The ice, high up the stream,
is usually first broken in pieces by the swollen waters. Large
masses are thus thrown up edgewise, and forced underneath the
unbroken sheet, and the whole bed of the stream is blocked up ;
perhaps too, where the banks are high and rocky. The water ac-
cumulates behind the obstruction until the resistance is overcome ;
and the huge mass of water and ice urges on its way, crushing
and jamming together the ice which it meets, and thus gaining new
strength at every step. Often for miles the stream, prodigiously
swollen, is literally crammed with ice, so that the water disap-
pears ; and a slowly moving column of ice is all that is seen.
This presses with such force against the bottom and sides of the
stream, as to cause the earth to tremble, like heavy thunder, ':3
the distance of miles. Sometimes the body of ice becom-^- bj
large, and the friction so great, that the waters are unable toi.iap
it in motion ; and it stops while the river is turned out of its chan-
nel, and is compelled to flow in a new bed for weeks and even
months.

It is impossible that such floods should not operate powerful!/
to modify the surface in alluvial regions, and to excavate the beds
of rivers. I am confident that no other agent in the mountain tor-
rents of this tate is so energetic. One has only to examine the
banks and bed of a river after the ice has disappeared, as I have
often done in Deerfield, to be convinced of this. But I apprehend
that the maximum effect is seen in those rocky ravines, through
which such rivers as the Deerfield and the VVestfield pass, in the
primary i-egions. Masses of rock of various sizes, even 10, 15,
or 20 feet in diameter, may here be seen, some of them torn up
from their beds and removed a considerable distance, strewing the
bottoms of the streams, and at low water almost covering the sur-
face ; and others, only partially lifted from the parent rock, and
waiting for another convulsive effort of the torrent to detach
them, and give them an erratic character. In short, one sees in
such streams a cause fully adequate to the production of those nu-
merous bowlder stones that are scattered over the country : I
mean, a cause sufficient to detach and round them. Probably,
however, the expansive agency of water, frozen in the seams of
these rocks, contributes not a little to lift them out of their origi-
nal beds.

Valleys of Denudation.

When the strata of rocks on the opposite sides of a valley co-
incide, the conclusion seems inevitable that they once formed a
continuous stratum, and that the valley has been subsequently ex-

Valleys of Denudation. 147

cavated. The appearance in such cases indicates that it has been
scooped out by running waters : and yet, this might be the appear-
ance if water had only modified the sides and bottom of a fissure
produced by other causes. And in some cases, at least, it seeras
necessary to call in the aid of other causes.

I am in doubt whether there is more than one valley in Massa-
chusetts that is, strictly speaking, a valley of denudation. And
that is the passage between Mount Toby, in Sunderland, and Su-
gar Loaf mountain, on the opposite side of Connecticut river. I
have already described the appearance, and given a drawing of
Sugar Loaf, and the geologist will at once perceive it to be a re-
markable outlier, rising about 500 feet above the Connecticut,
composed of red sandstone ; whose strata dip to the east about 15".
On the opposite side of the river are red sandstone strata, dipping
in the same direction. Sugar Loaf appears as if it had been mod-
ified by the action of water, even to its summit ; and so on the
opposite side of the river, I have already shown, in the second
part of my Report, that Sunderland cave may be accounted for
by the undermining operation of water upon the softer strata.
And the valley of the Connecticut above this point exhibits none
of those proofs that the river could not have excavated it, which
exists as to the valley in general, and which I have already de-
tailed. This subject however, I shall examine more particularly
farther on.

Valleys in other parts of the State.

The remarkable and interesting valleys in Berkshire county, de-
serve long and careful study. After having passed across them
and through them several times, my decided conviction is, that for
the most part, they are valleys of dislocation, which have been
more or less modified by deluges and other abrading agencies.
The valleys in Worcester county seem to me to have had a similar
origin; and I may add also the valley of the Merrimack. 1 mean
that the original elevation of the strata gave to these valleys their
great outlines. And the general parallelism of most^ of these
valleys, agreeing also with that of the Connecticut, seems to in-
dicate that nearly all the great valleys of Massachusetts were pro-
duced at the same epoch. But I hope to render this subject more
i;.?Migible when I come to treat of the systems of elevation that
ar? found in our strata.

If it should seem that I have been very prolix in discussing the
subject of Alluvium, 1 beg it may be recollected that it is one
wh'icli excites at present an absorbing interest among geologists ;
and that scarcely no efforts have been made in this country to ex.-

148 Scientific Geology.

hibit the dynamies of causes now in action. I hope this fact will
afford me an apology for the imperfection of this effort.

2. DILUVIUM.

Under this term I include that coating of gravel, bowlders, sand,
and loam, which is spread over almost every part of the surface,
and which has been obviously mingled confusedly together by
powerful currents of water, subsequent to the deposition of the
regular strata. Hence geologists have referred it to the agency of
a general deluge ; and since it occupies the highest place in the
rock series, except alluvial and volcanic rocks, most of them have
regarded that deluge as identical with the one described in the
Christian Scriptures. But recently some respectable geologists
maintain, that existing causes, operating as they now do, might in
the course of ages, have produced all the phenomena of the rock
formations. Hence they deny the existence of such a deposit as
diluvium ; or, rather, they impute it to rivers, rains, frost, and other
existing agencies, and include it under alluvium. Others, how-
ever, regard diluvium as the result of various agencies, operating
at different periods ; among which are the floods produced by the
elevation of the rock strata at various times. But they do not
admit that we have in this diluvium any evidence of a deluge con-
temporaneous with that described by Moses.

It ought to be remarked, however, that these geologists do not
deny the occurence of such a deluge as is described in the Bible.
Some of them, indeed, are clergyman, and they merely^say, that
geology does not furnish any evidence of such a catastrophe, al-
though it affords no evidence to the contrary, but rather a pre-
sumption in its favor, in the fact so abundantly proved by the re-
cords of geology, that numerous extensive, if not universal delu-
ges, have occured since the creation.

That a transient deluge, like that described in the Scriptures,
could have produced, and brought into its present situation, all the
diluvium which is now spread over the surface of this continent,
will not, it seems to me, be admitted for a moment by any impar-
tial observer. It has obviously been the result of different agen-
cies, and of different epochs; the result of causes sometimes op-
erating feebly and slowly, and at other times violently and power-
fully. But the conclusion to which I have been irresistibly forced
by an examination of this stratum in Massachusetts, is, that all the
diluvium, ivhichhad been previously accumulated by various agen-
cies, has Tjeen modified by a poiverful deluge, sioeeping from, the
north and norlhivest, over every part of the State ; not excepting
its highest mountains. And since that deluge, none but alluvial

Topography of Diluvium. 149

agencies have been operating to change the surface. I shall now
proceed to give a history of this diluvium, with the reasons that
prevent me from assigning its present modified state to any other
cause than a recent deluge.

Tocography of Diluvium.

The most extensive diluvial deposite on the Map, is in Plym-
outh and Barnstable counties. Indeed, nearly the whole of those
counties (with the exception of the north part of the former,) might
have been thus colored with perfect justice. But as I had good
reason to believe that a granite ridge occurs where it is marked,
concealed by a few feet of diluvium only, I thought myself jus-
tified in extending that rock on the Map nearly to the extremity
of Cape Cod. 1 saw, however, no example of rocks in place
throughout the whole extent of the Cape, except perhaps a sin-
gle fissured rock, which has been powerfully acted upon by water ;
and which, if it be in place, is only the wreck of a granite ledge.
A view of this rock will be given farther on. In Plymouth
county, except at its northern part, the granite rarely appears,
and but seldom forms a cliff even fifty feet high. Every thing,
indeed, is buried by diluvium ; and, as the streams are few and
small there, it is extremely difficult to ascertain what is its geolo-
gy, except to say that it is diluvial.

The diluvium of Plymouth and Barnstable counties consists
almost entirely of white sand, some pebbles, and a very large
number of bowlders of primary rocks. These bowlders consist
chiefly of granite, sienite, and gneiss, with occasional masses of
graywacke conglomerate, compact feldspar, and porphyry. They
all correspond with the rocks found in place along the coast, in the
vicinity of Boston, and on Cape Ann ; and no one, it seems to
me, can see the marks of degradation along that coast, who will
not be convinced that a large portion of the pebbles and bowlders
of Plymouth and Barnstable counties, must have come from
thence. Along the range of elevated, and for that part of the
State, even mountainous land, which is colored as granite on the
Map, the bowlders are so enormously large, and so thick, that I
cannot believe they have been ever removed far from their native
beds. They are sometimes from 10 to 20 and even 30 feet in
diameter, and frequently occupy nearly the whole surface ; so
that one can hardly persuade himself, when he examines them
from a little distance, that they are not genuine ledges. Indeed,
I have repeatedly been deceived by their appearance, until I had
gone among them, and ascertained that they were detached bowl-
ders. On the road from Sandwich to Falmouth is perhaps as
striking an exhibition of this phenomenon as in any place, unless

18

150 Scientific Geology.

it be in the western part of Martha's Vineyard, in Tisbury
and Chihnark. The same appearance is striking, also, in Brews-
ter, on the Cape ; and I doubt not that genuine ledges of granite
may be found in those places ; although (with the exception of
Brewster perhaps,) I did not make the discovery. I have been
informed, however, that rocks in situ, do exist in Dennis. But
I have been so often deceived in this matter in that region, that I
dare not state any thing as fact concerning it, which I have not
carefully examined with my own eyes. At any rate, I cannot
believe that bowlders so large and numerous have been removed
many miles; for powerful as has been the diluvial current in the
eastern part of the State, I have seen no well ascertained instance
where whole mountains have been torn up and transported, as
they must have been in this case, if they came from the region
of Scituate and Cohasset, 40 or 50 miles ; and that too, through a
region of sand. And although much of the granite of these
bowlders resembles that of Cohasset and Scituate, yet I doubt
whether it is identical with it. Some of it I know to be quite
different.

The sand, which is the predominant ingredient of the diluvium
in the counties above named, was undoubtedly derived from a
tertiary formation, which has been broken up by diluvial action.
Remnants of this formation are occasionally seen on Cape Cod ;
and in Truro, so lofty and distinct are the cliffs of clay, that they
have been noted on the Map. Clay is found in other places on
the Cape ; but not in large quantities, and generally at a low level.
On Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket, this formation is much
more abundant and obvious along the coast ; though covered for
the most part in the interior with diluvium several feet thick.
Very likely this formation once occupied no small part of Massa-
chusetts Bay, and probably also Buzzard's Bay.

In almost every part of the State the diluvium is piled up into
elevations whose surfaces exhibit curves of every description ;
while the correspondent cavities are of various shapes. These
convexities and concavities resemble very much the sandy or grav-
elly bottom of existing streams, where the current has been very
violent ; except that generally those in the diluvium are on a vastly
larger scale. The following sketch may aid in imparting a correct
idea of these diluvial irregularities. It was taken in the southeast
part of Amherst, and exhibits several elevations from 10 to 20
feet high, composed entirely of gravel with no blocks large enough
to be called bowlders.

Topograjphy of Diluvium.

151

Diluvial Elev;Uiuii'5 ainl Dqnvs^ionM Amherst.

Standing upon the burying ground where rest the remains of
our Pilgrim Fathers in Plymouth, we have around us on almost
every side, and for a considerable distance, a fine example of these
elevations and depressions. I mention this spot, not because it is
more remarkable than many others for diluvial phenomena ; but
merely because it is so frequently visited.

In Truro, near the extremity of Cape Cod, the magnitude of
these elevations and depressions is truly astonishing. One finds
himself in a hilly and even mountainous country; the elevations
being often from 200 to 300 feet high, and very numerous; and
yet these are most obviously diluvial hills and valleys ; that is, they
are as obviously the result of currents of water, as those inequal-
ities of surface, of exactly the same shape, which we find in the
dry bed of a river. The fact is, this Cape, below Orleans, con-
sists almost entirely of coarse sand, which is more easily piled up
and scooped out than gravel ; and this explains the striking fea-
tures of the diluvium in the region of Truro, which is well worth
a journey thither to examine. But one has only to look at a map
of Massachusetts, to see that the idea of these effects having
resulted from the action of any existing stream, is absurd ; since
no current of water, deserving the name of a river, can exist on
that part of the Cape ; whereas the Mississippi, or St. Lawrence,
pouring through a mountain gorge upon a sandy plain, would be
scarcely adequate to produce the effects here witnessed. And as
to this being the result of the retiring or returning wave, when the
strata were first elevated, I shall lake occasion to show, before con-
cluding this section, that the opinion is improbable.

The same idea, of a force vastly greater than any now in action
in the State, having been exerted in the production of our diluvium,
forces itself upon the attention in many other places besides Truro.
All the eastern part of the State presents evidence of having been
swept over by a prodigiously strong current of water. Nantucket,

152 Scientific Geology.

Dukes county, and the Elizabeth islands, are almost entirely cov-
ered with a vast quantity of bowlders, gravel, and sand, most of
which must have come from the continent. On Nantucket, bowl-
ders and gravel are rare ; only four or five large blocks occurring
on the island ; although masses two or three feet in diameter are not
unfrequently met with : and these, consisting of granite, gneiss,
and quartz, were obviously transported from the continent. On
the Vineyard, the bowlders are very numerous, and some of them
very large ; and although some of them unquestionably proceeded
from the mainland, yet in one or two places, as in Chilmark, I
strongly suspect the existence of granite ledges a few feet below
the surface, from the quantity and size of the bowlders : and yet
one often sees very large blocks in the diluvial covering of the
clay cliffs, as for instance at Gay Head ; where one or two of them
that have rolled down to the base, are from 20 to 30 feet in diam-
eter. The Elizaljeth islands are entirely covered by a thick coat
of diluvium of a similar character ; and so is the whole coast, from
Cape Cod to Rhode Island, except that south of Rochester there
is much less of sand ; but tiie quantity of bowlders is prodigious ;
so that one often travels many miles without seeing a rock in place ;
although the surface is almost entirely covered by rounded masses
of almost every size. This is seen on almost any road from New
Bedford to Rhode Island,

Erratic Blocks and Roclcing Stones,

Passing northerly from Buzzard's Bay, the whole country east
of a line drawn from Providence to Boston, except the summits of
a few of the highest mountains, and some alluvial valleys, is cov-
ered with diluvii'.l blocks and gravel. But from Boston to the ex-
tremity of Cape Ann, embracing a considerable proportion of Es-
sex county, the amount of bowlders is prodigious; and some of
them are not less than 30 or 40 feet in diameter ; and yet so pow-
erful was the diluvial current, that these must have been removed
from their original position, and many of them now occupy the
summits of the highest hills in that region : presenting often a most
singular outline to the landscape. When one of these erratic
blocks is so poised upon a rock in place, as to be easily moved
it constitutes a rocking stone. Some of these, weighing from 10
to 100 tons, can be perceptibly moved by the strength of a single
man, applied to a lever; though the combined efforts of a hun-
dred cannot move them, but a few inches. Of two of these rock-
ing stones 1 have taken a sketch, on account of their peculiar ap-
pearance.

Boivhhrs and liockina Stones.

153

Rocking Stone in Chelsea.

The preceding sketch represents a mass of poryhyry, 10 or 12
feet in diameter, lying on a ledge of the same kind of rock in the
north part of Chelsea, near the toll gate, on the Newbury port
turnpike. The following is a view of a divided block of gneiss,
which is nearly 10 feet high, and is so accurately poised upon a
ledge of gneiss, that at a little distance it seems as if it could easi-
ly be thrown over; but this is no easy matter. It occurs in the
west part of Barre, on the road to Dana.

Double Kocliing Stone in Barre.

In Brewster, on Cape Cod, is an enormous mass of granite, 16
feet high, and 160 in circumference ; of which a drawing is an-
nexed. This is split into 6 or 7 pieces, and appears as if it had
been subjected to a powerful action of water, or some other agent,
in former times. Its size forbids the supposition that it has been
removed from its bed ; and probably it is the remains of a ledge
which diluvial currents have worn away or buried. The sketch
was taken from the w^esl.

A Rent Rock in Brewster, Cape Cod.

154 Scientific Geology.

I have noticed a rocking stone near the centre of Greenwich,
weighing 30 or 40 tons, which might be moved by a lever. One
may be seen in Chilmark, on Martha's Vineyard. In the 7th vol.
of the Am. Journal of Science, is a drawing and description of one,
of more than 46 tons weight, in Roxbury ; which ' a child of six
years old can easily move with one hand.' Mention is there also
made of one on the Salem Turnpike ; of three in the vicinity of
Providence, one in Foster, one in Warwick, R. Island, and one
in Framingham. Gen. E. Hoyt, also, describes one in the bed of
Deerfield river, in Zoar. Indeed, they can doubtless be found in
almost any part of New England.

But Cape Ann, of all other places in the Commonwealth, is
the theatre of bowlder stones. Over a great part of the Cape,
the trees and shrubs have been cut away ; and in many places of
great extent, the surface is literally covered by these rounded
and erratic blocks. ' Thus must the world have appeared to Noah,
as he came out of the ark, ' exclaimed my travelling companion,
as we came suddenly in view of a wide landscape near Squam, in
Gloucester, studded with bowlders. The view is, indeed, a most
singular one ; and cannot fail to impress every reasoning mind
with the conviction, that a deluge of tremendous power must have
rushed over this cape. Nothing but a substratum of unyielding
sienite could have stood before its devastating energy. The man
who views this coast and that of Cohasset and Scituate, is no long-
er at a loss from what region the countless blocks of granite and
sienite, scattered over the southeast part of the State, proceeded. ^

Mr. B. Haskell of Sandy Bay on Cape Ann, has furnished me
for the present edition of this Report, with the following description
of a rocking stone in that vicinity.

' We have a rocking stone within two miles of Sandy Bay,
which is equal to any in interest, that I have ever seen described.
Its shape, though tolerably regular, will not easily admit of its
measurement. Yet, I have no hesitation in saying that it will
weigh more than 45 tons. It can be moved by the effort of one
hand, and its motion is perceptible at some distance. Formerly
it attracted attention. You will find it described in Mather's Mag-
nalia. '

As we proceed westerly from the coast and rise upon the higher
lands of Worcester county, the quantity of diluvium decreases ;
though in many places very abundant. In general the higher parts
of m.ountains exhibit less of diluvial action than the lower regions.
But it is usually at an intermediate level, and neither upon the
highest nor in the lowest places, that the greatest amount of dilu-
vium is accumulated. On steep and narrow mountains, we could
not expect that much of this stratum would be detained, even if

Topography of Diluvium. 155

we admit that water could accomplish the Sisyphean labor of roll-
ing rounded rock masses up steep aud lofty escarpments. And in
the lowest grounds, existing streams have to a considerable extent
removed the diluvium, and in some instances covered it up. But
there is no mountain so lofty in Massachusetts as not to exhibit
marks of diluvial action. On Wachusett and Saddle mountains,
indeed, very few rounded masses of rock from a distance are to
be seen ; though their own surfaces have been acted upon by a
diluvial current, as I shall shortly state more definitely in speaking
of another part of this subject. On the lower and less precipi-
tous mountains of the State, however, bowlders of huge size, as
well as gravel and sand, are abundant.

The valley of Worcester abounds in diluvium ; especially in the
north part of the county. Proceeding towards the Merrimack,
through Sterling, Lancaster, and Groton, we find large accumula-
tions of diluvial gravel, exhibiting the irregular convexities and
concavities already described. We find in this region, however,
much fewer large bowlders than in most other parts of the State.
These become more numerous as we follow the Merrimack to its
mouth. Much of the diluvium, however, from Worcester to
Newburyport, consists of shirigle ; by whicb, I mean partially
rounded fragments of slate, and quartz rock ; resembling very
much the pebbles occurring on the sea shore.

On the south of Worcester, the region of country sloping to-
wards the Blackstone, especially on the west side of the river, ex-
hibits striking traces of diluvial agency. In some places, as in
Uxbridge, the bowlders of gneiss are large and numerous. As we
proceed towards Providence, this stratum becomes thicker; con-
cealing, indeed, nearly all the rocks in place ; and in the vicinity
of Providence a large proportion of sand is mixed with the gravel.
This proceeds from the tertiary formation which occurs near Prov-
idence, as well as in the southeast part of Massachusetts, and
which has been torn up in many places by the action of water.
The sand abounds on the west shore of Narraganset Bay, nearly
the whole distance to Newport.

The valley extending south from Oxford, through Webster into
Connecticut, contains, especially on its slopes, an abundance of
diluvium : so thick a coat, indeed, that the rocks in place are in a
great measure hid ; and hence it is quite difficult to ascertain the
boundaries of the different formations.

Between the Worcester and Connecticut valleys, the country
is mountainous ; with deep and interrupted valleys, whose general
direction is north and south. In some of these valleys the gneiss
rock is covered for miles by diluvium, and by alluvium of disinte-
gration. Indeed, this is often the case, in the more elevated parts

156 Scientific Geology.

of this region ; though the diUivial waters se&m to have exerted
less power here, than in the lower land in the eastern part of the
State.

The level part of the basin of the Connecticut, exhibits less
striking marks of diluvial action than the smaller elevations on the
margin of this tertiary plain. Some might even doubt whether the
tertiary deposite of this valley is not postdiluvian. But I think
that upon the whole, marks of diluvial action are too strong on its
surface to be referred to the currents of an ancient lake. For the
dilluvial coat is several feet thick in almost every place. We could
not expect that a general deluge, of depth sufficient to rise above
our highest mountains, would act as powerfully upon low and broad
plains, as in the vicinity of mountain defiles and gorges, through
which the water must have rushed with great power, even though
its general movement was moderate. And this view accords with
the present disposition of diluvium in Massachusetts. In Ber-
nardston, Franklin county, for instance, which lies at the north-
ern extremity of the Connecticut valley, we find a large amount
of diluvium, which was evidently washed from the region of argil-
laceous slate lying north, through two or three narrow valleys,
running north and south, down which the current must have
rushed with great force. Accordingly we here find, on the road
towards Northfield, a mile or two east of Bernard ston centre, an
example of diluvial elevations and depressions scarcely equalled
in the State ; exhibiting, as it were, the very gyrations of the
mighty torrent. But when this stream spread out over the broad
valley of the Connecticut, its violence and strength would greatly
diminish ; and hence this diluvium was not driven very far into
that valley. Yet at the east end of Mount Holyoke, where it
approaches the primary hills in Belchertown, we find a very pow-
erful diluvial agency to have been at work, in consequence of the
rush of waters through the gorge between ihe mountains, and also
through the valleys on both sides of Mount Toby, and among Pel-
ham hills on the north. So that in the southeast part of Amherst,
and indeed through its whole eastern part, as well as in Belcher-
town and Ludlow, the diluvial sand and gravel are piled up and
scooped out in a striking manner. And in general, as we begin to
rise from the tertiary plain of the Connecticut basin, we find a
greater accumulation of this stratum than on the plain itself, or high
up among the primitive mountains.

In passing over the mountainous region between ihe valleys of
the Connecticut and Berkshire, there is little in the character of
the diluvium worthy of special notice, till we approach the summit
of Hoosic mountain ; when we are surprised to meet with an im-
mense number of bowlders, which have been forced up the high

Topography of Diluvium 157

and steep western escarpment of that mountain from the vallles
of Berkshire. In these valleys, also, we find bowlders in abun-
dance, which have been driven over the Taconnic range from the
State of New York. But these facts will be examined more par-
ticularly farther on.

Along the western base of the Hoosic range, diluvium is accu-
mulated in large quantities : but in general, this formation is not as
abundant to the west, as to the east of Connecticut river.

As we pass from the Taconnic range to the Hudson, we find
vast accumulations of diluvium. The fragments decrease in size
as we approach the river, and within a few miles of it, diluvial
elevations and depressions, composed of gravel and sand, are nu-
merous and striking. The materials seem in part to have been
derived from a tertiary formation, Avhose lower clay beds are still
visible, a little east of Troy and Albany.

In Pownall, Vt., three miles north of William's College, is an
unique and interesting example of diluvium. It lies on the east-
ern side of Hoosic river, against a hill of mica slate ; and rises at
least 100 feet. It consists of pebbles of quartz and mica-
ceous and argillaceous slates, from three to four inches in diameter,
down to coarse sand : and a part of the mass is consolidated into
conglomerate and sandstone. (Nos. 25, 26, 27, and 28.) The
cement is carbonate of lime ; which having been dissolved in water,
has been diffused uniformly through the mass. It is not perceived
by the eye ; but on applying acid, a brisk effervescence ensues ;
and hence I infer that it was infiltrated in a state of solution. And
although I could perceive but (ew fragments of limestone among
the diluvium, yet as the whole region abounds in this rock, it is
hardly possible that it should not exist there, at least, in the state
of sand. This being admitted, the consolidation of this stratum
is easily explained by causes now in action ; and a question might
be raised, whether diluvium consolidated in this manner, does not
in fact become alluvium. I ought to add, that when thus forming
solid masses, it is as distinctly stratified as are most of our second-
ary sandstones and conglomerates.

How common may be consolidated diluvium in this country, I
cannot say. But I believe no account of any other locality has
been published. In Europe, geologists describe a similar rock, if
Brongniart's Terrains Clysmiens is synonymous with diluvium ;
for he says that 'the parts of the rocks of that class are sometimes
united by a base or cement chemically produced ; that is by solu-
tion.' * At any rate, the consolidated shingle bed, described by
Mr. Mantell in his Geology of Sussex, as occurring at Brighton,

* Tableau des Terrains, p. 66.

19

158 Scientific Geology.

in England, must be regarded as of the same character as that in
Pownall above described.

The most recent Deluge in Massachusetts.

The diluvial deposites in Massachusetts, whose topography I
have now described, were probably produced originally, by all the
abrading and disintegrating agents that were in operation on the
surface of the globe, between the time when the solid rocks were
deposited, and the last deluge. These agents, so far as we know,
were the same as are now operating to modify the earth's surface ;
and have been described under alluvium. Hence there must be
great diversity as to the times when the different portions of this
diluvium were produced. But I maintain that all of it has been
subject to the modifying influence of, at least, one general deluge
of waters in more recent times. This deluge, as I have already
staled, swept over Massachusetts from the north and northwest.
The proof of this position 1 now proceed to exhibit.

The first part of this evidence consists in tracing erratic bowl-
ders to the parent rock from ivhich they were derived.

When I began an examination of the State, I travelled east
and west ; commencing with the line of towns bordering upon
Connecticut, and returning through the line of towns next north.
Thus essentially have I gone over the whole State. And 1 had
not thus doubled my course many times, before [found, uniformly,
that in order to trace bowlders to their original beds, I must travel
north a greater or less distance. The discovery was frequently
of great service to me ; and I do not recollect that the principle
ever failed me. I have, indeed, sometimes found a straggling block
east or west, and even north of ledges of the same kind of rock;
but never anything more than lonely stragglers. It will be ex-
pected, however, that on such a point I should refer to particular
instances.

t have already remarked that granite and sienite constitute the
great mass of the bowlders scattered over the southeast part of the
State ; and that these correspond to the rocks of this character
on the coast that bounds Boston harbor. But similar rocks also
occur in place, occasionally, in the region where the bowlders are
found ; and, therefore, we cannot be sure that they were trans-
ported from a distance ; although in many cases the exact corres-
pondence between the specimens would leave little room to doubt
that such was the fact. But scattered among these primary bowl-
ders, we frequently find others of porphyry, compact feldspar, and
graywacke conglomerate ; rocks, which (except the conglomerate,)
occur only within a kv^ miles of Boston, both north and south. I
have found masses of porphyry as far down Cape Cod as Orleans ;

Bowlders traced to their Origin. 159

and near the southern extremity of Martha's Vineyard, the peb-
bles of this rock are quite numerous. In Tisbury I have seen a
mass of peculiar blood-red, compact feldspar, which occurs in place
in Hingham ; which would indicate the course of the diluvial cur-
rent to be a few degrees east of south. The porphyry pebbles
merely indicate a southern direction to the current ; since the oc-
currence of porphyry at Half-way-rock, east of Marblebead, shows
that this rock might formerly have extended far into the ocean.
Graywacke conglomerate occurs in the graywacke formation in
patches, from Rhode Island to Newburyport; and the bowlders
of it above spoken of, must, therefore, have been transported in a
direction a little east of south, in order to reach the west part of
the Vineyard, where I found them.

We shall find abundant confirmation of this opinion in respect
to the last named rock, if we pass from New Bedford to Rhode
Island, either close along the coast to little Compton, or farther
north, to Tiverton. The surface is covered with bowlders, chiefly
of granite and gneiss. But occasionally we meet with masses of
the conglomerate, whose diameter varies from one to twelve or fif-
teen feet. And by inspecting the Map, we shall see that the gray-
wacke formation, from which they must have been derived, is very
extensive in a north and northwest direction. Can there be a
doubt that such was the origin of these blocks ? If it was, then
the diluvial current must have been powerful enough to move
masses of this size, in some instances, not less than twenty miles.
The region of country intervening, however, is not very uneven ^
and in estimating the power of running water to move rocks, we
ought always to bear in mind, that they are but little more than
half as heavy when immersed in water as in air.

Another instructive region, in respect to erratic blocks of gray-
v/acke conglomerate, lies on the east side of Taunton river, in
Freetown and Troy, Along the river road the bowlders of this
rock predominate; and yet I could not find any of it in place:
but the rock there, so far as I could ascertain, is granite. These
blocks, therefore, must have been transported from the opposite
side of the river, in a south or southeast direction, in order to have
come from a graywacke deposite.

In several places, as may be seen by the Map, the tracts of
graywacke are bounded on the north by primary rocks ; chiefly
sienite, granite, and greenstone. And as we approach these pri-
mary rocks, from the south, even when eight or ten miles distant,
we begin to find their rounded fragments; until at length, and
that often at the distance of two or three miles from the primary
ledges, they equal, or exceed in number, those of graywacke ;
readering it often exceedingly difficult to ascertain the boundaries

160 Scientific Geology.

of the different formations. But on the other hand, no bowlders
of graywacke are found in the primary regions lying north of the
graywacke in place, except tl)ose very rare stragglers already al-
luded to ; whose situation can be explained only by supposing a
previous deluge in a different direction,

I think, however, that no geologist can examine the surface of
the eastern portion of Massachusetts, without having the inquiry
forced repeatedly upon his attention, whether the graywacke for-
mation, that now exists only in interrupted basins from Rhode
Island to New Hampshire, was not once continuous throughout
this whole extent. The direction and dip of its strata, as well as
its mineralogical character prove it to have been mostly produced
at the same geological epoch ; and the very powerful marks of
degradation, which some of its varieties exhibit, especially the
conglomerate, favor the opinion of its former continuity. And yet
no one will presume to impute such powerful abrasion to any single
deluge.

The particular towns, where we find the most striking examples
of a mixture of bowlders of granite, sienite, and greenstone, with
those of graywacke, which is the rock in place, are Attleborough,
Mansfield, Norton, Bridgewater, Brighton, Newton, Needham,
and Watertown. The Map will show, that a few miles northerly
from these towns, are deposits of granite, sienite, and greenstone.
On the other hand, in Stoughton, Randolph, Dover, Dedham,
Braintree, &c., we find graywacke bowlders, mixed with those of
the rocks in place ; and these were obviously derived from the
graywacke formations lying northerly from these places.

Perhaps the example more definite and decisive than any other
on the subject under consideration, occurs in Rhode Island. In
Cumberland a large hill exists of magnetic iron ore ; a considera-
ble part of which contains distinct crystals of feldspar, so as to be-
come beautifully porphyritic. A rock so peculiar cannot be con-
founded with any other. Now if we pass along the north, east,
and west sides of this bed of ore, even very near it, no scattered
fragments of it are seen among the bowlders. But on the south
side, they occur all tho way to Providence, decreasing in size.
Whether they may be found on the west side of Narraganset Bay,
south of Providence, I cannot say : but I met with several pieces
at the southern extremity of Rhode Island, in Newport, of only a
few inches in diameter. These must have travelled nearly 35
inies from their bed, in a direction a few degrees east of south. *

* An instructive example, similar to ihose in the text, is mentioned by Dr.
Charles T. Jackson in his interesting paper on the Macles of Lancaster, just
published, (June 1834,) in the first No/of the Boston Journal of Natural History.
He says that an immense quantity of bowlder stones containing macles

Diluvium traced to its Origin. 161

m several places in the southeast part of Worcester county, j
met with bowlders of a variety of porphyritic granite, distinguished
from every other kind in the State, by its remarkably large im-
bedded crystals of white feldspar. But it was not till I came
to Harvard, that I found this rock in place. On the north of the
ledge, I never met with a single fragment. In Waltham, however,
I did meet with one bowlder of this rock.

In the valley of the Connecticut, we meet with abundant traces
of a diluvial current from the north. Thus, the diluvium which
covers the red sandstone in the south part of Bernardston, and the
north part of Gill and Greenfield, is composed almost entirely of
detritus from the granite, argillaceous slate, and quartz rock, lying
a few miles north. In Amherst, the diluvial pebbles and bowlders
are granite, gneiss, hornblende slate, and red sandstone conglomer-
ate ; corresponding precisely with similar rocks in place in Lever-
ett and Sunderland, six or seven miles north. But probably a
fluvialist would regard all marks of this kind in the Connecticut
valley, as having resulted from the action of the river when its
barriers were yet unbroken below Northampton and Middletown.
And this explanation would probably satisfy the mind, were it not
for the evidence already exhibited, that the Connecticut could
never have been more than 100 'or 200 feet above its present
level : an elevation not sufficient to produce the diluvium that has
been described.

Another class of facts is still more inexplicable on the fluvial
hypothesis. On the east side of the greenstone and sandstone
range, which passes through the west part of West Springfield,
and which rises into mount Tom in Easthampton, we find mixed
with the bowlders of sandstone and greenstone, many others of a
peculiar sienitic granite, which occurs in place, on the west side
of the range above mentioned, in Northampton, Hatfield, and
Whately. These must have been driven over the greenstone
ridge by a northerly current : and yet, some of them are two or
three feet in diameter, and the ridge is several hundred feet high.
As we go northerly, still continuing on the east side of the green-
stone, the number and size of these bowlders increase. We find
them even upon the summit of mount Tom ; though as we ascend
this precipitous peak, their number and size diminish ; so that on
the top, 1 never saw one more than six or eight inches in diameter.

occur on the southeast side of the hill, where they are found in place : but none
on the northwest side of the hill. ' This fact,' says he, ' I consider of value in
geolog}', as it concurs with so many others, to prove, that at some period since
the creation, there has been a powerful current of water rushing over our contin-
ent from the northwest towards the southeast. It is highly probable that this was
effected by that last grand cataclysm which overwhelmed the world, and to which
the traditions and religious belief of every nation give ample testimony.' p. 55.

162 Scientific Geology.

Now this mountain rises nearly a thousand feet above the plain
which lies to the northwest ; and on that side it presents a mural
face several hundred feet high. Yet these bowlders must some-
how have been forced up this precipice ; since the bed from which
they originated lies in a northerly direction from the mountain.

On the banks of the Westfield or Agawam river, in the west
part of West Springfield, I found small bowlders of quartz, con-
taining galena and blende. Both the matrix and the ores corres-
pond exactly with those found in Southampton, Williamsburgh, and
VVhately. All the metallic veins in those towns lie in a northerly
direction from the spot where the bowlders were found ; and there
can be little doubt that they originated thence.

If we go to the large beds of serpentine in Middlefield and Blan-
ford, we shall find bowlders of this rock on no side of them but
the south. On that side, they are very numerous at first ; and
continue to decrease in number and size as we recede from the
bed. I noticed this fact most strikingly around the most northern
bed of serpentine in Blanford. In some instances, however, as in
the serpentine bed in Westfield, fluviatile action removed the
bowlders in a different direction. The Westfield river, in that
instance, runs easterly and crosses the serpentine ; and of course
has carried bowlders of it in that direction.

As we ascend the broad and lofty mountain i*ange, west of Con-
necticut river, we meet occasionally with rounded fragments of
well characterised granular quartz ; and their number and size in-
crease till we reach the western base of Hoosic mountain. But
in vain shall we search for this rock in place till we have begun to
descend Hoosic mountain. Along its western base are extensive
ledges of this rock, across the whole extent of Massachusetts, and
extending far into Vermont. And in going westward, the bowl-
ders increase in number and size till we reach the rock in place.
These facts lead to the conclusion, that the diluvial current in this
part of the State, came from a direction nearly northwest. This
opinion is confirmed by finding numerous bowlders in the valley of
Berkshire, of gray wacke ; an extensive formation of which, reach-
ing nearly to Hudson river, commences a few miles beyond the
western boundary of the State. Some fragments of this rock were
found by Dr. Emmons in Chester, on the eastern slope of
Hoosic mountain ; establishing the same conclusion. The force
of this current must have been very great, if it took place since
the surface of Berkshire county assumed its present inequalities.
For bowlders of several tons weight are found lodged at various
elevations, on the steep western escarpment of Hoosic mountain ;
and as already remarked, these bowlders, in large numbers, have
been actually carried over the top of the mountain, and driven

Diluvium traced to its origin. 163

southeasterly from 10 to 20 miles. I even found a fragment of
quartz breccia, a foot in diameter, in Easthampton, in the valley
of the Connecticut. It was of so peculiar a character^ that its
parent rock, on the west side of the Hoosic, could not be mista-
ken. To suppose that these quartz bowlders were forced by a
current of water up the steep side of this mountain, from 1000 to
1500 feet, if that current was at right angles to the direction of
the mountain, is absurd. Yet as the direction of the current was
very oblique to the direction of the mountain, it is possible that
there might have been power enough in it for the work. And it
ought also to be stated that the q^uarlz rock in Clarksburg seems to
be a spur from the Hoosic range and rises to an almost equal ele-
vation, although a valley of considerable depth intervenes. In
the east part of Cheshire, also, as well as in Savoy, the quartz
rock exists in situ, at a high elevation ; especially a variety that
is interstratified with gneiss. And no deep valley intervenes be-
tween its locality and the top of the Hoosic range. The situa-
tion of several valleys, also, along the western slope of this moun-
tain, is very favorable for enabling a northwesterly current of wa-
ters to drive bowlders up the declivity.

The graywacke bowlders which are scattered over the valleys
and hills of Berkshire, and which are sometimes of several tons-
weight, must have been forced over the Taconnic range of moun-
tains. But the western slope of this range is not general ly as
steep as that of the Hoosic ; and in several places transverse val-
leys occur : or rather depressions of the summit : as for instance^
the ravines through which the principal east and west road passes
in Hancock, and between Canaan and West Stockbridge. Still, a
prodigious force must have been exerted by the waters in carrying,
over this ridge such an abundance of coarse detritus.

Indeed, some may suppose it necessary to refer this diluvial ac-
tion to a period preceding the elevation of the strata : for to sup-
pose it produced by that elevation, will not relieve the difficulty ;.
since the wave produced by the rise of the strata, would not act
till Hoosic mountain was actually thrown up ; and besides, that
wave must have flowed from the west to the east ; whereas the
current that moved these bowlders must have come from a direc-
tion not far from northwest ; as appears from the diluvial grooves
and scratches on the rocks, which I am about to describe. But if
these bowlders were removed by currents previous to the elevation
of the strata ; that is, while they were yet in the bottom of the
ocean, how does it happen that the blocks are accumulated along
the western base of the Hoosic, and along its steep face, just as
they would have been, if they had met with that mountain to obr
struct their progress. •

164 Scientific Geology.

Wherever, we find valleys passing obliquely up the face of this
mountain, especially those running in a southeasterly direction, we
find them abounding with the peculiar quartz bowlders that have
been described, just as would be the case if these had been driven
up said valleys by water after their excavation. Had the bowl-
ders been spread over the surface before the existence of the val-
leys, why should they be so much more numerous in those valleys,
than upon the hills? Alluvial agents would, indeed, tend to ac-
cumulate them in valleys : yet by no means to the extent to which
we now find them, especially in broad valleys.

Upon the whole, I have no hypothesis on this subject to propose,
more free from difficulties, than that which imputes the removal
of these quartz and graywacke bowlders, in a southeasterly direc-
tion, to the same debacle of waters, which, in other parts of the
State, has swept the detritus southerly. What local cause should
have deflected the current towards the east, in the western part of
the State, and in the eastern part of New York, I can hardly con-
ceive : though, I shall shortly endeavor to show, there was con-
siderable irregularity in its direction in that region ; enough, per-
haps, to lead to the suspicion, that the deep valleys and ravines,
through which the waters must have rushed, might have consider-
ably modified their course. But I think that the change of a few
degrees in the direction of the current, is not so great an objection
to this hypothesis, as the Sisyphean task, which must have been
accomplished, if it be true, of urging upwards, over so long and
steep inclined planes, bowlders so large and so numerous. Mak-
ing every allowance for the reduction of the gravity of these bowl-
ders when in water, I confess, 1 cannot conceive how such a work
could have been effected by this agency. Yet neither can I con-
ceive how those diluvial elevations and depressions, that have been
described in various parts of the State, could have been produced
by a deluge. For tliey are on so large a scale, as to transcend by
far, the maximum effect, which 1 can conceive to be produced
by a flood of waters. Still it is undeniable that these did result
from such an agency. Hence I may underrate the power of that
same agency in the removal of detritus.

I acknowledge, however, that I should be inclined to refer the
diluvial phenomena in the western part of the State, to a different
and an earlier deluge than the last — perhaps to the retiring waves
when the strata were first elevated — did not facts forbid it. I
have mentioned some of these, and shall soon mention another
still more conclusive.

In stating the facts relating to the bowlders of sienite on mount
Tom, I have shown that the difficulty of accounting for their sit-

Diluvium on Mount Toby. 165

nation, is not confined to the west part of the State. Another
case still more remarkable, exists on mount Toby ; although not
embracing so wide an extent of country. To the height of sev-
eral hundred feet, the eastern side of that mountain is very steep ;
forming, indeed, in some places, a mere precipice, very diflicult
to scale. A narrow valley separates this side of the mountain
from the extensive gneiss range lying easterly, and rising gradually
into mountain ridges, nearly as high as Toby. Now on this steep
eastern escarpment of Toby, even to its summit, we find scattered
bowlders of gneiss, having precisely the characters of the gneiss in
the north part of Leverett and in Montague. True, the gneiss
range extends so far to the west in Montague, that a current of
water from the north, or from a (ew degrees east of north would
carry detritus towards the eastern slope of Toby, But how is it
possible that any aqueous agency could have driven it up so steep
a declivity ? There are three remarks that may afford the mind
a little relief, perhaps, in this difficulty. One is, that on the north-
east side of Toby, are several ravines, running northeasterly, with
brooks at their bottom ; and these might have once presented
slopes less difficult of ascent, than at present. Another is, that
the conglomerate rock of Toby, may have been much worn away
by alluvial agents since the removal of these bowlders, and con-
sequently the eastern slope of the mountain may have been form-
erly much less precipitous. Indeed, the great quantity of huge'
rocky masses that lie along the base, renders such a supposition
probable. Finally, these bowlders may have been removed to
their present situation ere the valley on the east side of the moun-
tain existed, and before the elevation of the strata into their pres-
ent situation. For I know of no circumstances in the region, that
are opposed to such a supposition.

There is also a suggestion that I wish here to make, respecting
all those bowlders which have been forced up steep declivities by
a force apparently greater than we can imagine water alone to exert.
We do know that where large masses of ice are frozen to the earth
and suddenly torn up by a deluge, or where a swollen current
urges along large quantities of ice, numerous bowlders, and
those of great size, are often thus borne up and removed to a
great distance. Now may not this cause of removal have been
in operation at the period of the last deluge ? Especially may we
not admit this, when we havC such conclusive evidence that that
deluge came from the north ? JMust not the polar ice have been
driven southerly in great quantities ? And might not the tem-
perature of this part of the globe have been so raised, that during
the continuation of the deluge, those masses of ice might have

2a

166 Scientific Geology.

boen frozen to the bowlders in the vallies so as to hft them from rhe
soil when the waters become more violent or have risen higher ?

I have also been led by the phenomena of ice floods to inquire,
whether many of those immense elevations and depressions
which some of our diluvium exhibits, might not have partly re-
sulted from the same cause ? For where a stream has been turned
from its bed by such a flood, and gone for weeks to find its way
through the crevices of large fields of broken ice, it sometimes
scoops out cavities and raises hillocks little inferior in si25e to those
occuring in our diluvium. Might not the diluvial waters have op-
erated in the same way, after having covered the surface of our
continent with vast accumulation of arctic ice ? ,

I throw out these hints in the feeble hope that they may
shed a ray of light on. an obscure and difficult subject.

Mixed v^'ilh the granite bowlders on the eastern slope of Hoo-
sic mountain, are masses of a peculiar kind of granite, distinguished
by its unusual tendency to disintegration. The parent rock, from
which it was derived, I have never yet discovered ; but predict
that it will be found along the western side of Hoosic mountain^
in Clarksburg, or farther north.*

Diluvial Grooves and Scratches upon the Rocks in Place:

The second argument that shows the direction of the last dilu-
vial current in Massachusetts to have been- towards the south and
southeast, is based upon the existence of grooves, furrows, and
scratches, upon the surfaces of the rocks, that have never been
moved from their place. The water-worn appearance of those
rocks, in every part of the State, which are undergoing no disin-
tegration at their surface, must, it would seem, arrest the attention
of a very careless observer : although I have been surprised to
meet with so few men who have noticed the fact. In some cases,
however, the rocks are not merely spioothed, but are grooved and
furrowed, as if heavy and irregular bodies had been dragged over
their surfaces. The following sketch exhibits a rock of this de-
scription near the turnpike, from Boston to Chelmsford, near the
one between Bedford and Billerica, and not hv from the sixteenth
mile stone from Boston. The rock is intermediate between gneiss
and mica slate. Its strata seams run in the direction a, a; and
the grooves and scratches in the direction b, b.

* Since the publication of the first edition of this Report, Professor Emmons has
informed me that this conjecture is true. I have accordino-ly exhibted on the ge-
ological Map accompanying the prasent edition, a patch of granite in that place.

Diluvial Grooves mid Scratches. 167

Diluvial Grooves in Gneiss : Billerica.

The direction of these grooves is nearly north and south; and
this is their general course in every part of the, State, east of Hoo-
sic mountain. Commonly, however, they run a few degrees east
of south, and west of north. I shall first mention several locali-
ties where these furrows correspond in direction to this description,
and then notice a few anomalous cases in the west part of the State.

One hundred rods east of the village on Fall River, in Troy,
are grooves and scratches on granite. Some of the bowlders ly-
ing on the surface here will weigh from 50 to 100 tons.

Similar grooves occur on a road leading from the south part of
Scituate to Hanover four corners. Tlie rock is granite.

Also in Abington, Randolph, Canton, Sharon, Dedham, and
Dover ; on granite and sienite ; very common.

Also on the conglomerate in Dorchester.

In passing from Worcester to Berlin, through Boylston, the like
appearances present themselves frequently on the surface of the
gneiss and mica slate.

Likewise in several places between Andover and Boston, on
granite and sienite.

The high hill of gneiss in the centre of Rutland, exhibits the
same.

On the top of Wachusett mountain, 3000 feet above the ocean, a
few rods northwest from the prospect house, these furrows may be
seen ; though less distinct than in many other places. The rock
generally on that side of the mountain, appears distinctly water-
worn.

In Westford, one mile north of the meeting house, on the road
to Dunstable, is a fine example, on tnica slate.

In Marblehead, on sienite, 15 rods southeast of the residence of
the Hon. William Reed, near a meeting house, are quite distinct
furrows.

They appear on gneiss, near the meeting house in Petersham,
though not very distinct.

168 Scientific Geology.

At the north end of Federal Street, in Greenfield, and also half
a mile northeast of the Episcopal church, on the road to Gill,
these grooves are very distinct, on red sandstone.

In the southeast part of Deerfield, near the banks of Connecti-
cut river, about two miles north of Sunderland bridge, they oc-
cur on trap rock. Also very distinct and numerous in the north
part of Sunderland, from 200 to 400 feet above the river, on
sandstone and greenstone. Other cases in the Connecticut valley
might be mentioned ; but as they might reasonably be imjxuted to
fluviatile action, if there were no other similar cases on higher
ground, I shall omit them. Indeed, I am in this case inclined to
believe them of fluviatile origin : except perhaps where, as ia
Gill, we find grooves on the tops of the highest hills.

Between Whitingham and Wilmington, Vt. are nunierous cases
on gneiss and mica slate.

A very fine example occurs on the lofty hill in the north part
of Rowe. This hill rivals even Hoosic mountain in elevation.
Near Rowe meeting house, is another example. Fifty rods south
of the Lieeting house in Heath — a point higher than the the cen-
tre of Rowe — are several other, though no very striking ex-
amples.

In Blanford is one of the most striking examples of diluvial
grooves in the State. The hill half a mile north of the congre-
gational meeting house, where it occurs, is very high ; overlook-
ing all the surrounding mountainous country.

A similar example may be seen near the meeting house in Nor-
folk, Ct. Also on Canaan mountain, 4 or 5 miles south of Mas-
sachusetts line.

On the conglomerate in the southeast part of Newport, Rhode
Island, may be seen diluvial scratches, running from 10 to 20 de-
grees west of north and east of south.

From what has been said concerning the distribution of bowl-
ders as we approach the western part of the State, we should ex-
pect that these furrows would there have a direction nearly north-
west and southeast. Accordingly, near the turnpike from Green-
field to Williamstown, on the top of Hoosic mountain, which is
about 2400 feet above the sea, Ave find grooves on the mica slate,
running W. 20*^ N. This is near the eastern margin of the moun-
tain. They occur, also, near the western margin ; having nearly
the same direction. In the northwest part of Windsor, just
where Hoosic mountain begins to slope westerly, I found grooves
running nearly north and south. But for 3 or 4 miles easterly
from the meeting house, are numerous distinct cases where the
course is almost exactly northwest and southeast.

Diluvial Grooves and Scratches. 169

In the west part of Worthington, which is several miles east of
the top of the mountain, these grooves run W. 30° N. But in
Midcllefield, where they abound near the meeting house, and the
residence of Gen. Mack, they run much nearer north and south.
On that part of Saddle mountain, call Bald mountain, also, are
faint scratches, very difficult to examine on account of their coin-
ciding so nearly with the direction of the layers of the rock. But
they run not far from north and south. Gray Lock, which is sev-
eral hundred feet higher than Bald mountain, is so covered with
vegetable mould, ^that I had no opportunity to discover diluvial
furrows, if they exist there.

In passing from Albany, N. Y. to West Stockbridge, Massa-
chusetts, through Greenbush, Schoodack, Nassau, and Chatham, I
met with several examples of diluvial grooves upon the surface of
the grayvvacke ; particularly in Schoodack and Nassau. Their
direction was almost uniformly N. W. and S. E. ; though some-
times approaching a few degrees nearer to north and south. The
surface of this rock in general, especially of the slaty varieties, is
too liable to decomposition to retain for centuries the marks of
former abrasions.; and I was rather surprised to meet with any in-
stances. Yet I am satisfied that some rocks retain these marks,
although their surfaces have suffered dibintegration to a much
greater depth than that of the grooves. For since the disintegra-
tion takes place at the surface only, the grooves and correspondent
ridges may remain, although layer after layer scales off. Yet the
ridges will be liable to suffer rather the most from atmospheric
agents ; and, therefore, in some rocks, they will probably soon
disappear.

It may be well in this place to suggest a caution against mistak-
ing the structure of the rock as revealed by disintegration, for these
diluvial furrows. Some varieties of mica slate exhibit a surface
extremely resembling one mechanically grooved. But in that
rock, the direction of these pseudo-grooves always corresponds
with that of ttie layers of the rock ; and thus the deception may
be discovered. But sienite and greenstone, which contain segre-
gated veins, sometimes present cases that are very perplexing.
One of these may be seen on the top of mount Tom, a few rods
north of the signal staff, erected for the Trigonometical Survey of
the State. The prevailing direction of the apparent furrows there,
is nearly north and south; and did they not run east and west
within a rod or two of the spot, I should have put down this as a
genuine case of diluvial grooves. But examination, after my sus-
})icion3 were excited by this circumstance, satisfied me that it is
only the internal structure of the rock, that is here revealed by the
unequal disintegration of the surface.

170 Scientific Geology.

But to return to a consideration of the diluvial grooves in the
western part of the State : I think it obvious, from the examples
that have been adduced, that the general direction of the waters
there, as well as in the eastern part of New York, must have been
from northwest to southeast. The two exceptions mentioned, I
think may be explained by their local situation, in consistency with
this supposition.

Now these furrows on Hoosic mountain, and in New York, are
as distinct as in other parts of Massachusetts : and^ there-
fore, we must consider them all as produced at the same epoch.
Had there been any great difference in the time of their produc-
tion, especially had one set of them been the result of the eleva-
tion of the strata, and the other of the last deluge — events that
form almost the limits of geological changes in point of time — the
oldest must have been lost, or become obscure. Whatever diffi-
culties attend the supposision, therefore, 1 think we must regard
all these diluvial grooves in the State as having resulted from the
same deluge.

It would be easy to multiply examples of this kind of diluvial
action. But the cases that have been described, occurring as they
do in every part of the State, and frequently upon its highest
mountains, seem sufficient to lead every reasonable man to the
conclusion, that these grooves and furrows were produced by the
large bowlders, which now strew the surface, and exhibit in their
rounded forms and smooth surfaces, the marks of powerful abra-
sion And since we uniformly find these bowlders to the south
and southeast of their parent rock, how can we doubt that a mighty
current of water has sometime or other swept over the surface
from the north and northwest ? It seems to me, that in regard to
Massachusetts, the evidence of such a deluge is complete ; and it
is difficult to see how it could be more conclusive.

Origin of the Diluvium of Massachusetts.

It is maintained by those geologists who account for all geolog-
ical changes by existing causes, acting with no greater intensity
than at present, that most of the stratum which I have described
as diluvium, has been produced and brought into its present state
by the action of existing streams, rains, frost, and other agents now
in operation. But the simple fact that the current must have had
a southerly direction in every part of the State, and has left traces
of its action on our highest mountains, renders such a supposition,
it seems to me, altogether untenable. For how could rivers have
risen so high ; or how, unless it were a single river, not less than
200 miles wide, could the waters have produced such eifects ?
The same difficulty is in the way of supposing, as do some fluvial-

Origin of Diluvium. 171

ists, that the land was once much lower than at present, having
been gradually elevated by earthquakes. Admit, if it be wished,
that the surface was once much lower than its present level : the
difficulty will still be to find a current 200 miles wide.

Other geologists, who perceive the utter insufficiency of such
causes to account for diluvium, have imputed very much of it, and
also diluvial grooves and furrows, to the retiring waters of the
ocean, when first the solid strata were elevated. I doubt not that
such was the origin of much of the diluvium that now covers the
globe. But I think it quite obvious that all the diluvium in Mas-
sachusetts, which was produced by this and other causes, has been
modified by a deluge long subsequent to the elevation of our con-
tinent from the ocean. For by examining the sections of our rock
strata, appenced to this Report, as well as the Map illustrative of
the course of the same, it will be seen that their prevailing dip is
easterly, and their general direction north and south. Hence the
anticlinal line of these strata, that is, their axis of elevation, must
be sought farther west than Massachusetts; and, consequently, the
retiring waters must have rushed from the west at that epoch.
But the actual current of the last deluge came from the north and
northwest, as I have abundantly shown ; and therefore, it could
not have resulted from the elevation of the strata.

In the eastern part of the State, however, it will be observed
that the strata of the graywacke formation run generally east and
west. But they dip northerly ; and hence the current of water,
which tlieir elevation produced, must have been towards the north ;
though if we suppose it to have been southerly, this formation is
loo limited in extent to account for diluvial action over the whole
State.

But tliere is another circumstance, showing that the last deluge
that swept over this State, was long subsequent to the elevation of
the strata. If we admit, Vv'hat I think is true, that the tertiary
formation exhibited on the Map along Connecticut river, was de-
posited before the last deluge, it will follow that the elevation of
the strata could not have been the cause of that deluge. For the
strata of this tertiary formation are horizontal ; and, therefore, must
have been deposited after the elevation of the strata of the solid
rocks beneath. Otherwise the strata of the tertiary formation
would also have been raised and dislocated. Hence there must
have been, at least, an interval long enough, between the elevation
of the strata and the last deluge, for the deposition of this tertiary
formation. And if we take the statement of Dr. Macculloch,* in
respect to the filling up of the lakes of Scotland, as a standard of

*Macculloch's System of Geology. London, 1831— Vol. I. p. .507.

172 Scientific Geology.

comparison, this will be shown to have been no ephemeral period.
He states that these lakes ' shoal ' at the rate of half afoot a cen-
tury : and I apprehend that the tertiary formation under consideration
cannot be less than 150 feet in depth. Nor can we suppose that
this is but a small part of the period that actually intervened be-
tween these two events : which may be regarded as almost the first
and the last of the geological catastrophes that have happened on
our globe. This opinion might be sustained by an appeal to facts
and principles : but I conceive that this is not the proper place for
entering into such discussions.

I may seem here, however, to be advancing opinions contradic-
tory to the Mosaic chronology of the globe. But they are simply
opposed to the prevaling interpretation of that record. If we only
suppose, what many of the ablest theologians and philologists main-
tain, and what geological researches imperiously demand, that
Moses, after describing in the first verse of his history, the original
creation of the universe ' in the beginning,' passes over in silence
a long intervening period, before he gives us an account of the
earth in its present state, and of the creation of its present inhabit-
ants, all apparent collision between geology and revelation vanishes.
Such an opinion I have adopted, not merely because facts in geol-
ogy demand it, but because it seems equally required by a fair
interpretation of the language of Moses.

But to return from this digression ; it seems to me that the fair
result of all the facts and reasonings which 1 have presented on
the subject of diluvial action is, that a mighty deluge has swept
from the north and northwest over every part of Massachusetts ;
and that it cannot be accounted for by the original elevation of the
strata of rocks ; nor can our diluvial phenomena be explained by
the agency of rivers, rains, frosts, or any other causes acting with
their present intensity. This deluge must, then have occurred since
the earth's surface assumed essentially its present form : and was the
last of those catastrophes to which this part of the globe has been
subject ; and which cannot be referred to existing agencies. The
inquiry naturally arises, whether this deluge was identical with that
described by Moses. I have already remarked that this question
can have no very great interest as bearing upon the veracity of the
sacred historian ; since nearly all geologists agree that their science
exihblts no evidence against the occurrence of such a deluge as he
has described. Yet, as it is a characteristic of human nature to go
from one extreme to another, and as it has been customary to impute
almost every geological change to the deluge of Noah, is it not
probable that philosopliers, disgusted with so much false reasoning
on the subject, will be apt to overlook even creditable geological
evidence of that event ? I have shown, if I mistake not, that the

Diluvial Action on ihe Eastern Continent. 173

last deluge in Massachusetts was universal, and that it was com-
paratively recent. The deluge of Noah is described as universal
over the globe ; and historical records give us no account of one
more recent. Where then is the objection against considering
them as identical ? Until some substantial reason can be given
against such a conclusion, is it not unphilosophical to refuse to
admit it ?

I have thus far reasoned exclusively from diluvial action in
Massachusetts. But there is evidence that the last deluge rushed
from the north over all that part of iXorth America, between Nova
Scotia and Lake Huron. Dr. Bigsby has stated facts in the sixth
volume of the Geological Transactions, and the Messrs. Lapham,-
more recently, in the 22d volume of the Am. Jour, of Science,
proving the truth of this statement in respect to the country about
our western lakes; and Messrs. Jackson and Alger, in their recent,
able memoir on the Mineralogy and Geology of Nova Scotia, have
drawn the same inference from the present position of erratic bowl-
ders in that country. Do not these facts, in connection with those
stated in this Report, render it extremely probable, that over the
whole breadth of North America, the current came from the north :
although deflected in some places by local causes ?

Nor is this all. The facts that have been observed in relation;
to diluvial action in England, Scotland, Ireland, Sweden, Germany,
Russia, and the Northern parts of Asia, seem to justify the infer-
ence, that the last deluge in those portions of the globe, came from
the north ; though modified in its course by local causes. * Hence
it would seem that this deluge, in all the northern parts of the
globe, had this direction ; and may have been produced by the
elevation of an extensive portion of the bottom of the Arctic
ocean. De La Beche, in his recent able Geological Manual, f
seems to regard the ' centre of disturbance ' as situated to the
north of Europe; and leaves us to infer that diluvial action m
America was merely the result of the mighty wave, proceeding
from that centre. But so far as I can judge from the accounts
which European geologists have given us of diluvial action, in that
quarter of the globe, 1 doubt exceedingl}' whether it has left traces
by any means as striking as in this country. As to grooves and
furrows in the rocks, for example, the writer above quoted says,
that ' Sir James Hall even considers that a rush over the land (in

* Mr. J. Phillips infers from recent examination in Yorkshire, England, that
the diluvial current there was from the north and north vest. And Mr. Mur-
chisson finds that the direction of the diluvial markings on the rocks in Brora
district, Scotland, is uniformly trom N. N. W. to S. S. E. Sec PhilosophicoX
Magazine, Vol. 2, N. Series, pp. 140 and 150.

t Page 164.

21

174 Scientific Geology.

Scotland,) has left traces of its course in the shape of furrows,
which the transported mineral substances, moving with great veloc-
ity, have cut into the solid rocks beneath.' Such language im-
plies that these traces are by no means common, as in our coun-
try. Have we not then reason for supposing that the ' centre of
disturbance ' might have been situated nearer to this continent than
to Europe ? Although the general direction of the current on
both continents seems to imply that its situation was not far from
the north pole.

The recent profound generalizations of Elie de Beaumont, in
regard to the elevation of mountain chains, at various epochs,
seem to have rendered it all but certain, that the deluge of history
was produced by such an event. This is the opinion of Beau-
mont. The elevation of a chain of mountains from the ocean's
bed, ' would produce effects in countries remote from the spot,'
says he, * similar to the sudden and transient deluge of which we
find traces, and of a uniform date, in the archives of all peo-
ple.'— ' If that historical event,' he adds, 'be nothing else but
the latest of the revolutions on the earth's surface, it will be nat-
ural to inquire, what chain of mountains was elevated at the same
date ; and possibly it will reach the case to remark, that the chain
of the Andes, whose breathing volcanoes are yet generally active,
forms a ridge the most extended, the most decided, and the least
changed from the actual external configuration of the terrestrial
globe.'* If it be true, however, that the diluvium? which I have
described, received its present form and position from the histori-
cal deluge ; and if the direction of the current in all northern
countries was from the north ; it is diflicult to conceive how either
the flux or reflux of the ocean, produced by the elevation of the
Andes, could have been in that direction. But the history of Ice-
land proves, that mountains have been elevated in the northern
part of our globe by internal forces, within a comparatively recent
period: and this circumstance takes away all improbabilities from
the supposition that the centre of disturbance was there at the time
of the Mosaic deluge. And is not this opinion strengthened by
the discovery of the antediluvian elephant, incased in ice, on the
shores of Kamtschatka : and of the tiger in the frozen gravel of
the same regions ; showing that the waters of the Arctic ocean
were poured over that country when these animals were enveloped,
producing such a change of temperature, that not until the pres-
ent century, did the ice melt aWay enough to disclose their re-
mains.

* Recherches sur quelques-imes Des Revolutions de la Surface du Globe. —
Paris 1830.

175

Mounds in the Western States.

Before concluding the subjects of alluvium and diluvium, I hope
I shall be excused for making a short digression. Although it
may seem arrogant in one who has never personally inspected the
celebrated mounds of our western states, so universally regarded
as the work of man, I hesitate not to advance the opinion with
great confidence, that they are almost universally the results of
diluvial and fluviatile action. To say nothing of their great num-
ber and size, which would render their construction a work of
ages for all the millions of the globe, there is one fact stated by an
acute writer, that must put the question at rest. He says that he
* had never examined one that was not composed of different stra-
ta of earth, invariably lying horizontally to the very edge of the
mound. '* Now I take it upon me to say, that it is altogether be-
yond the art of man to pile up large hills of loam, sand, clay, &;c.
so as to exhibit the stratified structure here spoken of. Let any
man but examine the alluvial or tertiary banks of a river having
a stratified structure, and he will at once see that human skill can
never imitate this work of water. These mounds, therefore, scat-
tered as they are in immense numbers over the western regions,
are the work of God and not of man. They were either piled
up by diluval action, or the they are remnants of tertiary forma-
tions, that have been rnostly removed by rains, land floods, and
deluges. We have an abundance of just such mounds in New
England, which need only a lively fancy to convert into the pro-
ducts of a once mighty and highly civilized people. The south-
eastern part of Massachusetts abounds with hills of this descrip-
tion. In the more central parts of the State they are less com-
mon. Yet the traveller will frequently meet with elevations of
this kind, which viewed in certain directions are regular cones.
Such examples may be seen in Franklin and its vicinity. One
occurs a mile or two east of the meeting house in Enfield, on the
banks of a small stream : and a similar one may be seen in Deer-
field, at the foot of Long Hill, two miles south of the village.
In making the road, one half of this mound has been dug away,
so as to exhibit its horizontal strata. Others may be seen on the
stage road between Belchertown and Ware. That such elevations
should have been selected, both in New England and at the west,
for the habitations, the forts, and the burying places of the abo-
riginals, is just what we might expect. And this circumstance has
doubtless given rise to the idea that these mounds are artificial.
Nor will the belief that we can point to monuments of human skill
more ancient than the pyramids of Egypt be likely to receive a
very strict scrutiny, or be easily abandoned.

* Illinois Magazine Vol. I, p. 252.

176

Scientific Geology.

Stratification of Diluvium.
Though in this formation the materials be confusedly mingled
together, yet it must not be understood that it is entirely homoge-
neous and destitute of stratification. ]n all deluges, during their
swelling and subsiding, there will be more or less of flux and re-
flux, of violence and quiescence in the waters, and of course the
materials deposited will be sometimes finer than at others.
This will lay the foundation for stratification ; and indeed, most di-
luvium exhibits as much of it as those coarse consolidated con-
glomerates in the older rocks, which sometimes alternate with
sandstones and even shales. This resemblance in their character
is interesting, because it proves an identity of causes in their pro-
duction. It is not very common, however, to see in our diluvium
a very sudden change from coarse to fine materials. I was hence
interested in the section of a diluvial hill in Schoodac, N. York,
through which (as laid bare by excavating the road,) there extended
a stratum of loam, the mass of the hill being made up of coarse
gravel. This stratum was only a foot thick at its upper extremity,
and dipped a few degrees towards the north. Near its lower ex-
tremity, it had been bent downwards nearly at right angles, as
shown below ; and the upright portions were drawn out, as if in a
plastic state when the lower part slid downwards. For to sup-
pose that the hill had thus sunk, will satisfactorily explain the
case; and as such an occurrence would; be more likely to
take place when the whole mass was saturated with water,
we should expect that the loam would be in a plastic state. Very
probably the inclined position of the whole stratum resulted froui
g slipping down of that part of the hill which embraced it,

Diluvial Bank : Schoodac, N. Y.

Mineral Contents.

Since diluvium embraces portions of every rock that rises to
liie surface, we might expect to find in it specimens of all the min-
(3r|s which the rocks in place contain. And it would be easy

Minerals and Fossils in Diluvium. 177

to enumerate a very extensive list, in this formation, in Massachu-
setts. But this could be of no use : and I shall only mention
the few which are of special interest.

The most important of these is native gold, which exists in di-
luvium in Somerset, Vt. The soil from which I saw it washed,
was taken only about a foot below the surface, and consisted of
loam, or of sand and clay, containing vegetable matter. Deeper
in the ground the materials are coarse. But to what depth the
gold extends, has not been ascertained. As I have given an ex-
tended description of the features of this gold region in the first
part of my Report, and shall hereafter more particularly describe
its mode of occurrence in the talcose slate, from which it has been
washed, I need not dwell upon the subject here.

A few years since, a mass of native copper was found in the di-
luvium of Whately, weighing 17 ounces avoirdupois. Its shape
was irregular, and it was partially coated with the green carbonate
of copper. There can be little doubt but this proceeded from the
newa'ed sandstone or the greenstone ; although in Massachusetts,
this mineral has not been found in either of these rocks.

Ur. Samuel L. Dana informs me, that recently a small mass of
lamellar sulphate of baryta, containing some specks of galena, and
with some quartz and feldspar attached to it, was discovered in di-
luvial gravel in Waltham. This fact is interesting, because, with
this exception, no baryta has been discovered in that vicinity.
Near the spot, however, rolled masses of quartz have been dug up,
containing galena. These facts certainly indicate a vein of these
minerals in the vicinity: and I venture to predict, that if ever it
is brought to light, it will be found north of the spot where the
diluvial fragments occur.

Organic Remains.

I know of no instance in which organic remains of any interest
have been found in our diluvium, with the exception, perhaps, of
several species of recent shells in two or three places. The
Messrs. Danas state, that in Cambridge, a common species of
Mya was found, forming a stratum of three or four inches thick,
in the side of a hill ; also strata of Mya, Mytilus, and Ostrea,
several inches thick, and from five to ten feet below the surface,
at Lechmere Point ; also fragments of Mya, 40 feet below the
surface, at Jamaica Plains, in Roxbury, and the fragment of a
similar shell 107 feet deep in the soil at Fort Strong on Dorches-
ter Heights. Similar beds of shells are also found on Nantucket ;
3uch as Natica, Pyrula, Venus, Crepidula, Solen, Pccten, Area,
he. as will be more particularly described when I treat of Plastic

178 Scientific Geology.

Clay. I am not certain that in any of these cases the shells oc-
cur in diluvium ; though I regard that as the most probable sup-
position.

3. TERTIARY FORMATIONS.

For a long time these formations were confounded with alluvi-
um and diluvium ; but they are clearly distinguished from both, by
the much finer state of most of the materials that compose them;
by the greater regularity of their stratification, by their relatively
inferior position, and by containing peculiar organic remains. As
appears from the Map attached to the recent geological work of
Mr. Lyell,* tertiary strata occupy more than half of the surface
of Europe ; yet geologists had paid very little attention to them
till the publication of the work of Cuvier and Brongniart, on the
Paris Basin, in 1811. In our country, although these formations
occupy a vast extent of surface, particularly in the southern
States ; embracing that broad tract along the coast marked on Mr.
Maclure's Map as alluvial ; yet have they received but very little
elucidation. Messrs. Morton, Vanuxem, and Conrad, have, how-
ever, recently devoted themselves successfully to this subject.

After the tertiary beds around Paris and London had been de-
scribed, it seemed for a long time to be taken for granted, that ter-
tiary strata all over the world must be identical with these : as if
those spots contained the types of the whole globe. But geolo-
gists now find that no formations are more independent than the
tertiary ; and that it is very difficult to ascertain a precise identity
of origin of any two basins, even when near to one another ; and
as to those that are widely separated, it is no easy matter to de-
termine whether they were deposited during the same geological
epoch.

I shall describe the tertiary rocks of Massachusetts under two
divisions: 1. The most recent tertiary ; and 2. the Plastic Clay.
These are distinguished from each other by their mineralogical
characters, their organic remains, and the different position of their
strata.

The most recent Tertiary.

The most extensive deposites of the beds of this class, are in
the valley of the Connecticut ; where they are marked on the
Map. They occur also, in small patches in many other places in
the State : but they have been marked on the Map in no other
place, except in Cambridge and Charlestown. The great resem-

* Principles of Geology, &c. by Charles Lyell, Vol. "I. London, 1833.

Newest Tertiary. 179

blance in the mineralogical characters of these beds all over the
State, their horizontal position, and the almost entire absence of
organic remains in them, so far as they have been examined, have
made it impossible to describe them as distinct deposites ; though
I have little doubt, that many of them, at least, are such. Yet
probably they do not differ much in age. But I leave to future
observers to settle what I have no means of deciding.

These newest tertiary strata consist of horizontal alternating
layers of white siliceous sand and blue plastic clay. Along the
Connecticut, the sand occupies the highest place in the series ; and
covers most of the surface. Its upper portion is disturbed and
piled up irregularly by diluvial action ; and sometimes mixed with
transported gravel. But where the streams have worn passages
from 10 to 15 feet deep, they have almost uniformly disclosed the
stratum of clay. And not unfrequently tracts of considerable ex-
tent are entirely swept of sand, whereby the soil is rendered high-
ly argillaceous. Generally the beds of sand and gravel appear to
be several feet thick ; but sometimes I have found numerous alter-
nations in the height of a few feet, or even a few inches — some
of the layers not being more than half an inch thick. Some
years since, I obtained the following rough sketch of a cliff, a few
feet in height, in Deerfield ; the face of which had recently been
laid bare by the sliding away of its outer portion. The beds a, a,.
&:c. h, h, &1C. c, and d, represent different horizontal layers of
sand and day ; the former becoming often very fine, and the lat-
ter sometimes approaching to loam. Some of the layers of clay
were not more than half an inch thick ; and these in general, with
the interstratified sand beds, appeared as if deposited from water
perfectly at rest. But the stratum c, presented a most remarkable
exception. It was composed of angular and rounded pieces of
clay, mixed with sand, and obviously resulted from the breaking
up of several thin beds oH clay and sand, by some unusual agita-
tion of the waters. The stratum d, was still more remarkable.
It consisted of sand and two layers of clay ; the latter being very
irregularly bent, as if, when in a [plastic state, it had been acted
on by opposing lateral forces.

If I mistake not, this section throws light upon the manner in
which some of the disturbances in the older rocks may have been
produced. Let the stratum c, be only consolidated by heat, or
otherwise, and we have a perfect conglomerated sandstone, or
graywacke. Let the stratum d, be not only consolidated, but par-
tially melted, so as to become in a good degree crystalline ; and
we have that variety of mica slate or quartz rock, in which the
planes of stratification do not correspond with the contorted schis-
tose layers. The undisturbed beds of sand, by tiie same igneous

180

Scientific Geology.

action, might be converted into quartz rock, 'or mica slate ; and
tlie interlaminated layers of clay, into argillaceous slate, or horn-
blende schist, or both. Thus from this thin tertiary formation,
might result hornblende slate, mica slate, quartz rock, argillaceous
slate, conglomerated grayvvacke, and sandstone : and these might
present much of the regularity and irregularity peculiar to each
rock. And to accomplish this, and also to give the strata an in-
clined position, we have only to suppose the same volcanic agen-
cy to be exerted, which we know has been a thousand times em-
ployed in the elevation of the strata, and in the protrusion of the
unstratified rocks. Indeed, from some of the sections and descrip-
tions given in the third volume of Lyell's Geology,* of the indu-
ration of the Newer Pliocene strata (newer tertiary) in the isle of
Cyclops, near mount Etna, it appears that a considerable part of
this transformation has there been accomplished.

!Jton>..v^...A/U^

^X^~*'AW.A'll^,,,,ll>>L^tt

idh^'Hiilh

ii^,M^^-;IVi<!;viLv^^v,si..;s^

■ ~— ■

Section of a Cliff of Tertiary Clay and Sand : Deerfield.

The preceding section was obtained on the side of a gully,
few rods west of the stage road at Long Hill, two miles south of
Deerfield north village. The last year, I obtained the following
sketch from a clay pit, recently opened, a few rods east of the
Academy, in Deerfield. The contorted portion of the wall of the
pit, was about three feet in perpendicular thickness ; and above
and below, (as shown on the sketch,) the layers of clay were
perfectly regular and horizontal. This proves beyond all question,

* Page 80,

Flexures in the Laminae of Clay.

181

that the disturbance must have taken place during the period of
the deposition of the clay ; and that the cause must have been a
transient one. A few rods farther to the east, as we pass up a hill,
a similar disturbance of the layers of clay appears at a higher
level, and of several rods in length ; proving that the cause, what-
it might be, recurred at intervals. This case differs from the one
first described, in there being no interstratified layers of sand, as
are shown in the preceding sketch.

Contortions in the Clay Beds : Deerfield.

Disturbances similar to the above are figured in the recent work
on geology by Mr. Lyell,* as occurring in the crag of England,
which belongs to his older pliocene strata. His sections exhibit,
however, much less of flexure than the above. His explanation
of the mode in which they were produced, by referring them to the
action of irregular and counter tides and currents, has a less felicit-
ous application, therefore, to the preceding cases, than to those in
England ; although I doubt not essentially correct as to both.

Position and thickness of the Strata.

There is no evidence, that I have ever been able to find, to
prove that these tertiary strata have been disturbed since their
original deposition. Nevertheless, the layers, or strata, are not
exactly horizontal. Where the surface beneath is slightly undu-
lating, the laminae of clay are conformed to the irregularity. This
produces a dip sometimes of two or three, or even five degrees,
and in one or two cases (the east side of north Sugar Loaf moun-
tain, in Deerfield, and the hill a mile south of Brattleborough east

♦ Principles of Geology, Vol. Ill, p. 174.

22

182 Scientific Geology.

village, for example) it falls but little short of 10". A less dip may
be seen in the clay hill east of Deerfield Academy : and in the east
part of Hadley, on the middle road to Amherst, the laminae conform
to the gentle swells and depressions of the ground. At the base of
steep hills, however, the clay beds are generally horizontal ; be-
cause, as I suppose, the declivity was too steep to permit of these
depositions in a comformable manner. This fact, and the circum-
stance that in those cases where there is a slight inclination of the
clay bed, the dip follows no general law, but conforms to the sur-
face, has led me to conclude that this tertiary formation remains as
it was originally deposited. I mean that the few cases of dip
which exist, do not prove any disturbing force acting subsequently
to the deposition of the forination. And I think we have in these
cases, the maximum of inclination in a sedimentary deposite of
of clay and sand, formed in still water. For since hills of every
degree of inclination must have existed in the bottom of lakes,
ponds, or the ocean, in which this formation was deposited, the
layers of sand and gravel would have remained in a comformable
position on every slope that was not so steep as to cause the ma-
terials to slide down. I think that in no case the inclination is
more than 10° ; although I have not applied the clinometer.

The measurement of a base line for a trigonometrical survey of
the State, in the valley of the Connecticut, by Col. Stevens, dur-
ing the year 1831, has furnished another proof that this tertiary
formation has not been disturbed since its deposition. For the
tracery of that line, (nearly eight miles long,) was made upon
this formation ; and the two extremities were found to correspond
in their level within three feet.

Mr. Smith, in his account of the Connecticut river valley in
volume 2:2d of the American Journal of Science, states that the
greatest elevation of clay beds along Enfield Falls, is about fifty
feet above the present surface of the river ; and this, if I under-
stand him, exceeds the general thickness of the clay beds in that
region. But as we descend into the basin in which the village of
Deerfield is situated, the clay, without any alternation of sand, is
exposed not less than 60 feet in depth^; and still the bottom is not
seen. A little east of the Academy, in the same town, the layers
of clay rise 30 or 40 feet above the plain, and at the same place
have been penetrated at the foot of the hill, 25 feet, without reach-
ing the bottom : so that in this valley, this single bed of clay, can-
not be less than 60 or 70 feet thick ; and it may be much more.
The stratum of sand above the clay is so much mixed in its upper
part with diluvium, that 1 can form but a very vague idea of its
thickness. It can, however, hardly be less than 15 or 20 feet.

I have no evidence that a stratum of sand is found beneath the
clay in the Connecticut valley ; though, as already mentioned,

Position and thickness of the Strata. 183

there are sometimes numerous alternations of the sand and gravel
in narrow strata, near the line of junction. Mr. Smith also states,
that in excavating the canal at Enfield Falls, the clay beds were
entirely cut through : and that between the beds and the new red
sandstone, was found a confused mixture of rounded masses of
sandstone, greenstone, graniie, and other primitive rocks, mixed
with red clay from 4 to i20 feet thick. This is an interesting fact ;
because it proves that in the interval between the deposition of
the sandstone and the tertiary formatioa under consideration, flu-
viatile and diluvial currents, similar to those that have since exis-
ted, must have been in operation.

The surface of the tertiary formation in the vicinity of Bos-
ton has been so much acted upon by diluvial currents, that as al-
ready remarked, I have been at a loss whether to describe it as
tertiary or diluvial. But there is no doubt, I believe, that genuine
clay beds, or layers of clay, do exist not far beneath the surface.
This clay is represented by the well diggers as extremely hard ;
and underneath it, are layers of sand and gravel. It is from 70 to
120 feet thick; and when [perforated, water rushes upwards with
great violence. The only genus of organic remains found in the
tertiary of the Connecticut valley, I have discovered also in the
clay of Charlestown ; unless I have greatly misapprehended its
character. But the same genus occurs also in the clay beds of
Nantucket ; which I have been inclined to consider as belonging
to the Plastic Clay ; so that this relic does not seem to afford
much aid in determining the relative antiquity of these several
beds.

As to other limited patches of tertiary in the State, ( excepting
the Plastic Clay, which occupies its southeastern part,) I know
almost nothing. I have seen only pits opened in them occasion-
ally, for the purpose of making brick. But although the clay ap-
pears to be mineralogically identical with that in the Con-necticut
valley, yet I have met in it with no sort of organic relic. These
beds must vary in relative level several hundred feet; occupying
as they do, the depressions of the surface in the various forma-
tions. This fact precludes the idea of their having been deposited
by the same body of waters, unless they constituted an ocean
deep enough to cover the whole surface of the Stale. And such
a submersion is rendered improbable by the horizontal position
of the layers of clay ; which shows that no elevating force has
acted upon the State since their deposition. Their production in
different and independent basins of water, such ponds, perhaps, as
now exist in Middleborough, Troy, Falmouth, Webster, &;c.*
— is the more probable hypothesis.

* The name of the principal pond in this latter place, although not given on
the Map, deserves to be mentioned, because it is so laconical and euphonical.
It IS Chargoggagoggraanchoggagogg.

184 Scientific Geology.

I call these various deposites the newest tertiary in the State,
but my only proof that they are newer than the plastic clay of the
southeast part of the State is, that the strata of the latter, at least,
at Martha's Vineyard, are inclined at a high angle; while those of
the former are horizontal. And we know that the older strata
are generally, though not always, more inclined than the newer.
I know of no place where these two series of strata are in con-
tact, so that their true relative position may be seen.

Mineral Contents.

I place in this formation the extensive beds of the hydrate of
iron, {Limonite, Beudant ; Prismatic Iron Ore, Mohs ; Brown
Oxide of Iron, Cleaveland,) which occur in the limestone val-
leys of Berkshire county ; and in connection with the same range
of limestone and mica slate, in Vermont and Connecticut. I am
aware that in doing this, I deviate from the opinion of several ge-
ologists, who have examined these beds, and seem inclined to re-
gard them as belonging to the mica slate or gneiss.* But I could
not find the slightest evidence, at any bed of this ore which I vis-
ited, that it is interposed between layers of mica slate, gneiss, or any
other solid rock. It is, however, usually associated with more or
less of clay ; and, therefore, I regard it as belonging to a tertiary
formation. Generally the bed is covered by nothing butdiluvium ;
and diluvial action seems sometimes to have disturbed the ore to a
considerable depth, so that my doubt has been, whether it ought
not to be placed even as high as diluvium, rather than whether it
belongs to the primitive rocks. Professor Silliman does, indeed,
speak of a ledge of gneiss, as being brought to view by the exca-
vation at Kent, in Connecticut, in the upper part of the mine;
and he considers this the roof of 'the vast bed of clay, which
forms the immediate enveloping matter of the ore.' Although I
have not visited the ore beds in Kent, I must be permitted to
doubt whether there be not a deception in respect to this point.
For the occurrence of a ' vast bed of clay, ' unconsolidated, in
gneiss or mica slate, is such a perfect anomaly in geology, that it
cannot be admitted without the strongest evidence. And when I
find these ore beds at Salisbury, West Stockbridge, Richmond,
and Lenox, most obviously lying above the primary rocks, I can-
not but suspect that this is the case also at Kent : though I would
not close my eyes against evidence to the contrary.

If it be admitted that this hydrate of iron belongs to a tertiary
formation, it by no means follows that its deposition was isochro-
nous with that of the newest tertiary in the valley of the Con-
necticut : and the occurrence in the former, of so much iron,

♦Am. Journal of Science, Vol. II. pp. 213 and 216: also Vol. VIII. p. 30.

Mintral Contents. 185

while it is very sparingly disseminated in the latter, is a presump-
tive argument against their production in the same menstruum.

The principal beds of the hydrate of iron in Berkshire county,
are found in West Stockbridge, Richmond, and Lenox. Out of
Massachusetts, the beds at Bennington, Vt. and at Salisbury and
at Kent, Ct. are best known. The most common varieties are
the brown hematite, and compact brown oxide, though the ochrey
brown oxide is very common, as well as the argillaceous oxide.
The hematite is often beautifully mamillary and stalactical. (Nos.
53, 54, 55.)

No one looks at the stalactical specimens of this ore, without
inquiring at once, whether heat must not have been concerned Jn its
production. For the specimens exceedingly resemble certain sta-
lactical varieties of lava, or the products of a powerful iron fur-
nace. And in their natural position, the stalactites usually hang
in a perpendicular position, as they would do if formed by the drip-
ping of tenacious melted matter. But after all, there seem to be
insuperable difficulties in admitting the igneous origin of hematite.
For how could heat have operated powerfully enough upon the
hematite to melt it, without melting, or at least indurating, the
clay in which it is enveloped ? Again, the occurrence of this ore
in calcareous spar and quartz, (which are usually of aqueous ori-
gin,) shows that it may be produced from water. It is likewise
now admitted, I believe, by the ablest mineralogists,* that ar-
gillaceous oxide of iron and bog, are only impure varieties of
hydrate of iron. And the bog ore is daily forming before our eyes
by aqueous deposition, and some of it is in fact the same as the
compact brown oxide. Only admit, then, that circumstances were
favorable to crystallization, when the hematite was in a state of
solution in the water percolating through clay, and may we not
conceive how that ore was produced ?

The oxide of manganese, sometimes delicately radiated, and
sometimes investing the hematite occurs probably at all the beds
of hydrate of iron that have been mentioned. I noticed it particu-
larly at the bed in West Stockbridge ; and it is well known that it
did exist in Bennington, Vt. in the same connection, in large quan-
tity.

Associated with the hydrate of iron in Richmond, in a bed
owned by Mr. Gates, there has been found a hydrate of alumina,
(alumina, 64. 8, water, 34. 7,) which Professor Torrey has named
Gibbsite, in honor of Col. George Gibbs, one of the earliest cul-
tivators, and most munificent patrons of mineralogy in our country.
It occurs mamillary and stalactical, of a white color. It may be

*Beudant's Mineralogie, Vol. II. p. 702: Dictionnaire Classique D' Histoire
Naturelle, Art. Fer Hydrate or Hydroxide : also Mohs Mineralogy, Vol. II. p.
410.

186 Scientific Geology.

obtained there abundantly : and a single specimen has been found
in Lenox. (No. 61.)

The nodular argillaceous oxide of iron and yellow ochre occur
occasionally in the tertiary region around Boston, particularly in
Charlestown and Cambridge.

Concretionary Carbonate of Lime.

In the clay beds of the Connecticut valley, a curious concretion
occurs, which has received the name of claystone, from its resem-
blance to indurated clay, that has been rounded by the action of
water. Indeed, I did not till recently suspect the presence of
carbonate of lime: but the application of an acid produces con-
siderable effervescence. The general shape of these concretions
is that of an oblate spheroid, sometimes so flattened as to become
lenticular, and sometimes nearly spherical. The spheroids are
usually joined together with considerable strength. They vary in
size from two inches, down to that of the smallest pigeon shot,
and some of these smallest are so numerously strung together, as
to become decidedly botryoidal. In other instances, the spheroids
are so intimately blended, that there are no interstices between
them ; and only slight convexities are exhibited, in relief, on the
surface. Not unfrequently that surface is studded with minute sphe-
roids, not larger than the head of a pin. Sometimes the concre-
tion is not spheroidal, but simply an irregular plate, often several
inches across. In no case does the thickness of these plates, or a
congeries of the spheroids, exceed that of a single layer of the
clay, which is rarely more than half an inch.

On breaking these concretions they are found to be perfectly
solid and compact ; exhibiting in no instance the slightest marks
of a concentric structure, such as we see in the oolite. Nor could
I bring to light a concentric arrangement of the materials by ap-
plying the heat of a blow pipe, even till the surface was fused.
Generally, however, the heat of a lamp alone will cause them to
burst asunder with considerable force. The mass is obviously
composed of carbonate of lime mixed with clay, such as that in
which they are found, consisting of alumina and fine sand, with
occasional fine scales of mica. The hardness of the concretion
is about the same as the common impure compact limestones. It
does not constitute any considerable part of the stratum in which
it is found. I have observed it in Amherst, Hadley, South Had-
ley Canal, Chicopee in Springfield, Greenfield, Stc. ; also in the
clay beds along the river Hudson, near Albany.

I have been thus particular in this description, because I have
met with but one account of any similar production in any tertia-
ry strata. It is obviously an example of the solid concretionary
structure, and must have resulted from chemical agencies. But

Organic Remains. 1 87

'<b

are concretions the result of crystallographical laws ? If so, why
are not crystals produced ? It seems to me that philosophy is
yet in the dark on this subject. At first it occurred to me that
these concretions were the oolite in a forming state ; and that the
consolidation of the clay would develope a concentric structure.
But my failure to bring this to light by the application of heat,
convinced me that the opinion is untenable.

The single account of similar concretions referred to above, is
that of Cuvier and Brongniart, in their description of the Paris
Basin. ' We find,' say they, ' towards the surface of that bed of
clay, (the Plastic Clay,) masses as large as the head, though often
much smaller, of nearly compact limestone, or made up of small
compact nodules, aggregated together as if by concretion. These
masses of limestone have their edges blunted and their angles
both salient and rentrant rounded, as if they had been plunged
into a liquid solvent.' *

Quite recently I have found in the gray argillaceous sandstone
at Sunderland cave, in Mount Toby, numerous renifortn concre-
tions, very much resembling those above described. And I find
that they effervesce with acids, which proves their identity. Some
of them so exactly resemble Unios in form, that 1 at first suspect-
ed them to be petrifactions. But a careful examination satisfies
me that the similarity is accidental. This fact shows us that the
same causes operated when this sandstone (a variety of the new
sandstone) was deposited, as when the newest tertiary was formed.
A fact analogous to the one just stated is mentioned by Dr.
MaccuUoch. ' In the argillaceous limestones, as well as in the
accompanying sandstones,' says he, ' highly flattened spheroids of
large dimensions are found attached in pairs by a cylindrical stem,
and imbedded in the surrounding rock.' f

Organic Remains.
The newest tertiary in Massachusetts, judging from the exam-
ation which I have made of it, is remarkably wanting in organic
remains. Indeed, I have found but a single genus, and even this
is in so imperfect a state that I have been unable to ascertain its
nature. It was probably some kind of animal : and some of the
specimens bear a considerable resemblance to the Ovulites mar-
gantula of Goldfuss' Petrifacta : but I have never seen in it any
thing of the ' poris minutissimis ad superficiem amussim depositis,'
which he represents as belonging to that petrifaction. Other spe-
cimens resemble the Scyphia of the same author, but the ' e fibris
reticulatis' is wanting. It is doubtful whether the sketches which

* Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles, par Cuvier, Tome 2. p. 341. Paris,
1825.

t System of Geology, Vol. I. p. 179.

188 Scientific Geology.

I have given of this relic, (Plate XI. Figs. 18, 19, 20, and 21,)
represent any thing more than fragments of it, worn into an ovoid
shape. Fig. 22, however, does certainly represent one extremity
of the animal unaltered : for it is still partly enveloped in loam,
and therefore has never been worn. But the fragments are some-
times cylindrical, varying in size from a quarter of an inch to more
than an inch in diameter. These usually perforate the strata of
clay perpendicularly ; that is, at right angles to the layers ; and
they are sometimes several inches long. The extremities, how-
ever, I apprehend are always similar to Fig. 22. The most
decisive evidence of organic structure which these remains exhi-
bit, is a longitudinal perforation of the size of a knitting needle.
They are, it is true, easily divisible transversely : but this seems
to depend upon the laminated structure of the clay that chiefly
composes them, and not upon the structure of the animal : for
the dividing plane conforms in all cases exactly to the layers of
the clay. Since clay forms the principal mineralizer, the outer
circumference of these cylindrical and ovoid relics, is often very
indefinite : and where exposed to rains, they are entirely washed
away. Along the central part, however, hydrate of iron seems
to have considerably indurated the clay ; and, indeed, this iron
often pervades the whole mass; giving it a rusty aspect, and
hardness sufficient to resist the action of rains. In such cases the
relics often stand out in relief upon the surface of the clay, which
has been worn away around them.

These remains I have found only in clay or loam. I have met
with them in three places in Deerfield, viz. a few rods east of the
Academy ; near the top of Bar's Long Hill ; and on the east side
of North Sugar Loaf. They are found also in Greenfield, on
Green River, southwest of the village : also in South Hadley, at
the Canal Falls ; and 100 rods south of them! I have found
them likewise in Charlestown, in clay ; and also on Nantucket in a
stratum of ferruginous sand. Among the specimens deposited in
the collection, (Nos. 47 to 52,) 1 apprehend several species may-
be made out.

Theoretical Considerations,

That these tertiary beds were deposited from a mechanical sus-
pension of their materials in water, can admit of no question.
But was it from salt water or fresh ? On this question the only
organic relic that has been found in these beds, throws no light;
because its nature is not understood. Still, 1 think we have some
grounds for forming an opinion in this case. For the horizontal
position of the laminae of clay in this formation, shows that no
change of consequence has taken place in the level of the surface,
since they were deposited. Hence, unless the level of the sea

Plastic Clay. 189

has sunk greatly since that period, it could not then have covered
the regions occupied by these beds. They were probably, tiiere-
fore, deposited from fresh water lakes and ponds. In the valley
of the Connecticut, that river must have flowed through the lake ;
or rather, an expansion of the stream formed the lake. The grad-
ual sinking of its bed at length brought the tertiatry strata suh
luce.

The probable absence of marine relics from these beds, is an-
other argument in favor of this hypothesis; and it would be com-
plete, were the fact certainly established.

•In respect to the tertiary strata in Charlestovvn and Cambridge,
their low level, and vicinity to the ocean, lead to the supposition
that they were deposited from salt water, by a process similar to
that which is now going on in the salt marshes in their vicinity.

Plastic Clay.

A cursory examination of the strata of Martha's Vineyard, ten
years ago, led me to adopt the opinion that they correspond es-
sentially with the Plastic Clay Formation of Europe : and 1 gave
an account of them under that name in the American Journal of
Science. Every subsequent examination has confirmed the opin-
ion then formed. And I have ascertained, also, that the same
formation exists in several places on the continent, in the south-
eastern part of the State; and likewise on Nantucket. Wher-
ever in that region sands prevail extensively, I have reason to
suppose this formation exists ; though lam by no means sure but
some of these sands may belong to a newer formation. At some
places, however, variegated clays underlie the sand, and fossils
are found corresponding with those on the Vineyard ; and such
strata I cannot but regard as identical with the plastic clay of that
island. It is on the Vineyard, however, that this formation is
most fully exhibited ; and I shall first describe the strata which
exist there, and compare them with the plastic clay in Europe.

There are but two places on the Vineyard where I have found
the strata laid bare to any considerable extent and depth. The
one is a cliff in the southeast part of Chilmark, laid bare by the
action of the ocean, and slowly wearing away from year to year.
The other is Gay Head ; which is an elevated promontory from
150 to 200 feet high, forming the western point of the island,
still owned and inhabited by the mixed descendants of the abo-
riginees. This spot is the most interesting and instructive. The
very heart of the formation appears to be here exposed. It con-
sists in general of interstratified, inclined layers of gravel, sands,
variegated clays, iron ore, and lignite.

23

190 Scientific Geology.

Mineralogical Characters.

1. Clays. These greatly predominate in the chfts at Gay
Head ; and by the vividness of their colors, attract the attention
of the most careless observer. Their variety in this respect is
very great ; but the following predominate. 1. White Pipe Clay.
This generally contains small plates of silvery mica, and obvious-
ly resulted from the decomposition of granite. 2. Blood Red
Clay. This is doubtless colored by the red oxide of iron, and
forms an important part of the cliff. 3. Red and White Clay.
This is a mixture of the two first varieties, and the two colors be-
ing often fantastically arranged, give to the cliffs a gay appearance.
4. Bluish Gray Plastic Clay. This is the most compact of all
the varieties. It often becomes nearly black, where it lies contig-
uous to the beds of lignite ; and when in contact with the white
and red varieties, a mixture of them all results.

2. Sands. Next to the clays the sands are most abundant :
though at Gay Head they do not exist in great quantity. They
are there sometimes interstratified with the clays ; and indeed,
some varieties of the clay contain so large a proportion of sand,
that it is not easy to determine whether they should be denomina-
ted clays or sands. Of the sands 1 have noticed the following
varieties. 1. White Siliceous Sand; generally fine, but some-
times coarse. This is the variety which is spread over almost ev-
ery part of the southeastern district of New England ; generally,
however, mixed with pebbles and bowlders, and constituting dilu-
vium.. It may be seen in its greatest purity near the extremity
of Cape Cod, where it is of snowy whiteness ; and also on Nan-
tucket. On the Vineyard it is generally yellowish from the oxide
of iron. 2. The same sand, cemented by the yellow hydrate of
iron, so as to form a loose sandstone. It is easily crumbled down,
however, and is not abundant. I have noticed it at Gay Head ;
in the cliff in the eastern part of Chilmark ; and on Nantucket,
a mile northwest of the town. 3. White Micaceous Sand. This
is in fact a mixture of silex, mica, and white clay ; the latter in-
gredient not being present in sufficient quantity to hold the parti-
cles together. Not abundant. 4. Green sand ; of a distinct but
dull green color. It is sometimes so mixed with clay, as to form
a compact mass, even when dry. It is interstratified with the red
and white clays at Gay Head, where alone have I noticed it. It
is this stratum that contains the greatest variety of the organic
remains at Gay Head ; and on this account, its exact geological
position is important to be known. It has been already remarked,
that the strata in this cliff dip nearly north, or rather a little incli-
ning to the northeast, at an angle varying between 20° and 45°.
Now the green sand lies near the northern extremity of the cliff,
though it is succeeded by other strata of the same clays that con-

Plastic Clay. 191

stltute the principal part of the clifF. Hence we may infer that
the green sand hes near the upper part of this formation, so far as
we can judge from this chfF: though as the horizontal distance
from one extremity of the clift' to the other, across the strata, is
not more than 80 rods, and this promontory appears to be merely
an insulated remnant of the formation, we cannot be sure that the
position of the green sand is near the upper part of the original for-
mation. It ought here, also, to be remarked, that the organic re-
mains found in this sand, such as crabs, shells and alcyonia,
are rolled ; and were obviously the ruins of some former rock.
Indeed, nodules of a peculiar conglomerate are found in this sand,
sometimes containing organic remains.

3. Lignite. As this constitutes beds sometimes as much as
five feet thick, it seems deserving of a description among the strata,
rather than as an imbedded mineral. It alternates with the clays,
principally with the blue variety, with which it is often intimately
mixed. More commonly it is comminuted and forms a dark mass,
somewhat resembling peat. But sometimes the woody fibre is
very distinct. In short, it seems like a deposite of peat, through
which logs are interspersed. It burns but poorly. The principal
beds lie not far from the middle of the cliff, and have a dip from
40° to 50° north.

4. Conglomerates. The most interesting of these is the osse-
ous conglo7nerate ; which consists of rounded quartz pebbles, rare-
ly more than an inch in diameter, with a cement of animal matter,
(?) clay, iron, and sometimes a minute portion of carbonate of
lime. It abounds in fragments, mostly rolled, of the bones and
teeth of animals ; some of them very large. It is sometimes as
hard, and broken with as much difficulty, as graywacke : but in
other places the coherence in not strong.

The strata of this conglomerate are from one to three or four
feet thick, and for some time I supposed that it had been deposi-
ted in a small basin on the edges of the elevated strata of clay
and sand ; for I found the bed, which I first discovered, to lie as
in the following sketch.

192 Scientific Geology.

The conglomerate occupies a projecting point of the cliff, cov-
ered at the top, and for a considerable extent upon its sides, with
sand and gravel, and exposed to degradation from winds and rains.
The edges of the conglomerate, however, project through the sand
at the edge of the cliff, where its curved position is obvious ; and
on one side a layer of clay appears above the conglomerate. Below
these beds the sand conceals the regular strata in the cliff: but the
inclined lines beneath the sand and gravel, in the foregoing sketch,
show the dip of these strata in the vicinity, wherever they are
visible ; nor could I doubt but the conglomerate bed is superior to
the clay, and a later formation. And I find that in some of the
tertiary strata in Europe, above the plastic clay, occur layers of
calcareous, ferruginous, and bony breccia ; as in the valley of the
Danube, described by Mr. JMurchisson.* But on further exam-
ination, I found in the vicinity of the bed of conglomerate above
described, two or three other beds distinctly interstratified wi^h
the clay and exhibiting the same dip. This rock does, therefore,
form a part of the plastic clay formation ; whatever we may think
of the case described above. And I cannot find that the like de-
posite, containing the bones of vertebral animals, occurs in any
plastic clay formation described in Europe; although in England,
pebble beds alternate irregularly with the sand and clays, but it
does not appear that these are consolidated.!

Another variety of conglomerate at Gay Head, consists of peb-
bles, chiefly quartz, cemented by a great abundance of the hy-
drate of iron, and often containing hollow nodules of the same.
I am not sure that this alternates with the layers of clay and sand.
On account of the great quantity of its debris, that has fallen
down upon the face of the cliff, I found it difficult to ascertain its
true position in regard to the strata of clay and sand. I was not
without a strong suspicion, that it might lie in nearly horizontal
strata upon the top of plastic clay ; nay, I was led to inquire
whether it might not be diluvium consolidated by iron.

A third kind of conglomerate has been already alluded to, as
existing at this cliff, in rolled masses, a {e\v inches in diameter, in
the green sand stratum. It occurs, also, very frequently along the
beach ; having been probably washed out from the cliff It is
unlike any rock that I ever met with. The nodules are almost if
not entirely quartz, and the cement a black compact substance,
highly bituminous, and slightly effervescing with acids. It ap-
pears like bituminous marlite, finely comminuted. As already
mentioned, in one piece I found the remains of a Zoophyte.

At the foot of the cliff, I also found rolled pieces of a yellowish

* Philosophical Magazine, March, 1831, Vol. IX. p. 218,
t Dc la Beche's Manual, p. 235. 2d Ed. London, 1832.

Hydrate of Iron. 193

gray rock, hard and compact, approaching hornstone. It appears
like argillaceous sandstone, which has been subjected to powerful
heat by the proximity of trap, such as occurs at Mount Holyoke,
on Connecticut riv^er ; but I have met with the like rock nowhere
else in the State, (No. 81.)

In a kind of ferruginous sand in this cliff, I met with one or
two small specimens of a rock of oolitic aspect ; (No. 80.) which,
however, effervesces but feebly with the acids.

Specimens of all the preceding varieties of clay, sand, lignite,
and conglomerate, will be fopnd in the collection made for the
Government. (Nos. 62 to 81.^

Mineral Contents.

The most interesting and abundant mineral at Gay Head, is the
hydrate of iron. The varieties are all argillaceous. The most
itnportant are the following.

1. Nodular. This is the the most abundant variety, and the
nodules vary in size, from that of a walnut to a foot in diameter.
Sometimes they are spherical, more frequently ovoid ; sometimes
ovoid flattened; sometimes composed of concentric layers of the
compact oxide and yellow ochre, with a nucleus sometimes of
sandstone in the centre, but more frequently hollow. These nod-
ules are generally mixed with a large proportion of coarse sand
and gravel, which unitedly form, as already remarked, a conglom-
erate. The flat nodules are sometimes slaty ; and it is on the lam-
inae of these, that the principal part of the vegetable remains of
this formation occur. Sometimes the nodule, when broken open,
is seen to envelope a flattened mass of lignite : showing conclu-
sively that the ore originally accumulated around this as a nucleus.
(Nos. 121, 122, 123.)

Nodular argillaceous iron ore exists also on Nantucket ; as well
as in other places on the Vineyard.

2. Columnar. Some of the larger nodules mentioned above,
being broken open, exhibit, as the result of desiccation, a colum-
nar structure in the interior: the columns varying in diameter from
a quarter of an inch, to one, and even two inches ; and in length,
from half an inch to three inches. The sides are generally une-
qual in size, and various as to their number. The axis of the
column is always parallel, I believe, to the shortest diameter of
the nodule. The space between the columns is generally
only sufficient to allow of the introduction of the blade of
a penknife. In some instances, where a shrinkage has taken
place, no regular forms are produced ; but the seams run in all
directions. I have not observed any case where the seams reach
to the surface of tjie nodule. The outer portion, from half an
inch to an inch thick, is compact gray iron stone.

194 Scientific Geology.

An examination of these nodules, leads one at first almost irresist-
ably to the conclusion, that they must have been once in a melted
state, and suddenly cooled at the surface : and the glazed iron-black
appearance of their internal surface, tends to confirm this opinion.
And yet, I doubt whether it is necessary to evoke the god of fire
for a solution of this phenomenon. For the mere desiccation of
nodules, containing so much argillaceous matter, will, it seems to
me, adequately explain the appearances. Of course the external
portion would first part with its moisture and become solid : and
as the water gradually escaped subsequently from the interior, the
shrinking would produce fissures within ; since the already com-
pacted crust would not permit the compression of the whole mass.
And as to the shape of the pieces, resulting from the shrinkage,
it seems to me that if the nodule be spherical, the fissures will
coincide essentially with planes passing through the centre of the
sphere. (See No. 126.) But if the sphere be that of a flat-
tened ellipsoid, the greatest shrinkage must take place in the direc-
tion of the plane, which coincides with the two longest diameters
of the ellipsoid: and, therefore, most of the fissures will be made
perpendicular to that plane, so as to produce columnar masses;
although there will be a proportionable shrinkage in a direction
perpendicular to the plane above mentioned, which will produce
at least one termination to the columns : and all the specimens
which I have examined, confirm this rationale of the appearances ;
(See Nos. 124, 125,) as does also the desiccation of clay on the
surface of the earth, producing columnar masses, which stand per-
pendicular to the horizon. I apprehend it will be found, that the
true columnar structure exists only in those nodules which are
flattened.

The existence, sometimes, of lignite in the centre of these nod-
ules, is another evidence that they never could have been com-
pletely fused, since the pieces of wood that were enveloped, must
have been entirely destroyed. I am aware that coal is sometimes
found in trap rocks, or between the trap and sandstones : but in
such cases, I apprehend that the fusion of the trap was only partial
as we know to be the case with many lavas.

Further : how could nodules of iron, in the midst of clay and
sand beds, have been exposed to a fusible heat, and yet the clays
and sands have remained unconsolidated ?

3. Mamillary. The tubercles of this variety are rarely smaller
than a buck shot, or larger than an ounce ball. When broken,
they exhibit no appearance of a radiated structure ; but are mass-
ive, though scales of mica and grains of sand are observable in
every part of this ore. (No. 120.) I cannot find that this variety
of iron is described in the books on mineralogy. I am informed
by Thomas A. Green, Esq. that it exists in much larger quantities

Orsrctnic Remains. ]})5

'^3

in the cliffs, four miles east of Gay Head, in the west part of
Chilniark, a little east of JMonimshi Bite, than at Gay Head,
where I found it,

4. Pisiform. The grains are rarely exactly spherical, and
seldom exceed the size of a small pea. Not unfrequently they
are distinctly reniform. Color, externally, blackish brown ; inter-
nally, yellowish brown. Aggregated into irregular masses with
clay and gravel. This ore seems sometimes to be the minerallzer
of alcyonia, shells, &:c. It is not abundant. (No. 119.)

5. Ochrey Broivn Iron Ore. This occurs mixed sometimes
with every variety above described : particularly with the nodular.
But it is never seen in large masses.

It is well known that the preceding are valuable ores of iron
for smelting ; and at Gay Head, particularly, they may be obtained
in abundance. That spot is still in possession of the descendants
of the Indians of Martha's Vineyard : and it is to be hoped that
the Government of the State will take measures to prevent their
being defrauded of this ore, which may prove of considerable
value.

Radiated SulpTiuret of Iron. This is very frequent and beau-
tiful in the osseous conglomerate and blue clay of Gay Head.
The nodules are sometimes perfect spheres ; from one to three
inches in diameter ; but generally more or less irregular ; the sur-
face often exhibiting one face of numerous cubic crystals ; but on
breaking the mass, the radiation is obvious. Such, however, is
the tendency of this ore to decomposition, that it is difficult to
preserve specimens long in a cabinet, unless excluded from the
atmosphere. Their decomposition produces of course sulphate of
iron, and sulphate of alumina and potash, or alum, which efflo-
resce on the clay. (Nos. 117, 118.)

Sulphate of Lime, or Selenite, exists at the same place in ta-
bles and acicular prisms, disseminated in blue clay. (No. 131.)

It is said that amber has been found floating in the ocean near
the cliff at Gay Head. I also found it in small quantities, connec-
ted with a vegetable relic in iron ore, at the same place. At
Nantucket, a mass of light colored amber was found, three or four
inches in diameter, which is now in the cabinet of T. A. Greene,
Esq. of New Bedford.

Native arsenic is said to have been found at Gay Head ; but I
saw none.

Organic Remains.

Although these are apparently not as numerous in the plastic
clay of Massachusetts, as in that formation in Europe, yet since
vegetable and animal relics are rare in New England ; and some
of those in the plastic clay are not found in the same formation in

196 Scientific Geology.

Europe, so far as I can ascertain ; I have felt not a little interest
in those which I have succeeded in obtaining, with much labor
and effort. But 1 regret, that in consequence of my insulated sit-
uation in respect to those gentlemen in our country who have paid
particular attention to our fossils, and the short time which has
elapsed since I discovered those under consideration, which has pre-
vented my consulting more than one or two of these gentlemen,
and every European zoologist, I shall not be able to give their gener-
ic and specific names as accurately and confidently as I could wish.
And the same remarks will apply to all the organic remains which
I shall describe in this Report. But as I shall give accurate draw-
ings of the most important species, whenever it is practicable, I
trust the deficiency will not be great. I had rather be regarded
as very ignorant on this subject, than by substituting conjectures
for knowledge, lead others to form false conclusions. It is a sub-
ject perhaps the most difficult of all connected with, geology ;
especially in this country, where there is so great a deficiency of
good collections of fossil remains.

Fossil Vegetables.

The lignite beds already described, prove the presence of a
large quantity of vegetable matter in this formation. This lignite
is sometimes ligniform, of a brown color, and distinctly fibrous:
sometimes It is hard and brittle ; and more commonly, it is friable.
I found a mass at the foot of the clifl^, which abounded in the im-
pressions of a monocotyledonous plant, bearing the closest resem-
blance to a Zostera. The mass resembled peat.

But most of the vegetable impressions at this cliff are dicotyle-
donous ; and exist only in slaty argillaceous iron ore. Although
these impressions are very distinct, exhibiting the minutest reticu-
lations of the leaf, yet every particle of the vegetable substance
is removed. This is true only of those instances where the im-
pressions are leaves. (Plate XI. Figs. 1, 2, and 6.*) The
shape of most of these leaves very much resembles that of an
Ulmus : but they are wanting in the serratures, which the existing
species in this country possess. Fig. 6 has serratures, or rather is
crenate, and resembles a Salix. On Fig. 2, may be seen the im-
pressions of 43ear-shaped seeds.

Figs. 7, 8, and 9, represent different individuals of another va-
riety of vegetable remains, occurring at the same spot, and in the
same iron ore. These are not mere impressions ; but a scale of
carbonaceous matter, mixed with amber, marks the spot where the
vegetable was imprisoned. The amber occupies longitudinal
ridges, which in the plate are represented by white stripes. It seems

♦All the organic remains that are figured are drawn ul' the natural size.

Animal Remains. 197

to me very obvious, that these remains must be the seed vessels of
coniferous plants. The amber shows that they abounded in resin.
They resemble unopened flowers of syngenesian plants : but they
contain too much resin for these, and have left too much undecom-
posed matter for so frail a substance. Indeed, although the com-
pound flowers, with their double calyx and strong receptacle, might
stand a better chance of being preserved in a fossil state than those
of any other kind of plant, yet I am not aware that a flower of any
sort has been found in that condition. Near one the specimens of
the vegetable under consideration, I observed an ovoid carpoli-
thes, about a quarter of an inch long, exhibiting the shell most
distinctly, and different from the pear shaped ones just mentioned.

Animal Remains.

Vertebral Animals. The bones and teeth of these animals are
more numerous at Gay Head than any other organic relics. Tliey
are found in the greatest abundance in the osseous conglomerate,
already described : but they occur also in the green sand, and in
a yellowish sand, associated with the green sand. For the most
part, the bones are not mineralized ; but frequently they are black
when broken ; and sometimes they are thoroughly impregnated
with iron ore. In general they are much broken and often rolled.
In one instance, however, I noticed a succession of large vertebrae,
one or two occiasionally being absent, for a distance of 10 or 12
feet. Some of these are 9 inches thick, and as much in length.
Nos. (104 to 108.) The head in this instance was wanting; and,
indeed, nearly all the other bones, except the vertebrae, and short
portions of the ribs. (No. 109). But it is improbable that these
could have been moved in so connected a state, far from the spot
where this huge animal died. In the green and ferruginous sand,
vertebrae are found only occasionally ; and they are generally
much smaller than those in the conglomerate ; but they are not
rolled.

It ought perhaps to be mentioned, that the largest vertebrae no-
ticed above, occur in the curved bed of conglomerate which lies
apparently upon the edges of the other strata. And yet, the
conglomerate and the contained bones, interstratified with the clay,
cannot be distinguished from those of this upper bed, except that
in this single instance the bones are rather larger and less broken
and rounded.

Such of these vertebrae, as I thought it would be of any use to
have drawn, are exhibited on Plate XII. Figs. 23, 24, 25, and
28. Pieces of the ribs, (some of them 4 or 5 inches in their
greatest diameter,) bones of the head, &;c. are in general so
broken, that a sketch of them would be useless. They will be
found among the specimens. All the vertebra; that are drawn,
arc from the green and ferruginous sand.

24

198 Scientific Geology.

All the varieties of teeth that accompany these bones, which I
could find, after a protracted search, are exhibited on Plate XI.
Figs. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16. The flat teeth. Figs. 11, 12,
and 13, are evidently those of the shark: and Fig. 12, must have
belonged to a giant species. Probably also the triangular teeth,
Figs. 14 and 15, belong to the shark ; and these are more numer-
ous than the others, and rather more broken ; though all of them
are very often much injured.

Fig. 16 appears to be the fragment of a crocodile's tooth ;
corresponding with one figured in Cuvier's Ossemens Fossiles. It
was found in the ferruginous sand, and it differs from all the petri-
factions noticed at this cliff, in tiiat it is converted into a substance
exactly resembling flint. It is hence not at all probable, that any
of the bones that have been described, were connected with this
tooth. (No. 103.)

It ought to be noticed, that sometimes masses of lignite are
contained in this osseous conglomerate ; and that in two instan-
ces, I found the bones penetrated by a cylindrical cavity, two or
three inches long ; pretty obviously the work of some lithodomous
shell. (Nos. 112 and 116.)

. We ascertain, then, with considerable confidence, the remains
of the crocodile and two or three species of sharks in this cliff.
None of the vertebrse or other bones which I have described,
however, seem to be those of the shark. They bear a much
nearer resemblance to those of huge saurian reptiles, which 1 have
examined in the geological collections at New Haven and Phila-
delphia : one of the vertebrae in particular, appears very much
like those of Plesiosaurus. At present I am inclined to believe
that the bones at Gay Head belonged to the lizard tribe : though I
dare not speak on this point with confidence.

The largest shark's tooth given on the plate, (Plate XI. Fig.
12,) is considerably broken ; and, therefore, its exact dimensions
cannot be ascertained : but the following measurement certainly
does not exceed the truth.

Greatest breadth of the part covered with enamel,
measured across the base, - - - - 2 inches.

The length measured on the enamel of the concave
part of the tooth, ------ 2 inches.

If we estimate the size of tlie shark to which this tooth be-
longed, according to the principles adopted by the Count Lace-
pede and Faujas St. Fond, in the ' Annales de Museum,' its length
must have been about 50 feet! Dr. Knox, however, thinks this
estimate too high.* But he describes a shark killed on the coast
of Africa, as having teeth which measured 1 1-2 inch in the di-

* Edingurgh Journal of Science, Vol. 5. p. 16.

Crustacea and Zoophijta. 199

rections mentioned above. Supposing the relative size of the
teeth to indicate the relative size of the animals, the fossil shark
at Gay Head must have been about 36 feet long ! Such was one
of the animals that swam in the ancient seas of this latitude ! And
this result corresponds with the conclusions of European geolo-
gists, that the extinct animals were generally much larger than
those now existing. The tooth of the crocodile at Gay Head,
shows, also, that when this animal swam in the waters of our con-
tinent, the climate must have been tropical ; a conclusion, which,
in respect to Europe, has been well established by a multitude of
similar facts.

If the vertebra and other bones above described, are those of
saurians, the great size of some of them corresponds with the con-
clusions just stated. In Europe it is well known that these rep-
tiles of a former world, disinterred from the rocks from time to
time, were of such gigantic size as almost to stagger belief Being
60 or 70 feet long, and having jaws with teeth equal in size to the
incisors of the rhinoceros, the Iguanodon must, as Mr. Mantell ob-
serves, have been ' a colossus in comparison to the pigmy alli-
gators and crocodiles that now inhabit the globe.'* Until far-
ther examination, however, it is only a probable conjecture that
the bones at Gay Head belonged to congeneric races.

I have already remarked that 1 had not met with any account
of an osseous conglomerate like that at Gay Head, in any of the
European formations of plastic clay. But bones of vertebral an-
imals do occur in one place, at least, in the clay beds of the Paris
basin. * M. Bequerel,' say Cuvier and Brongniart, ' has found in
the same bank of clay and lignite, (at Auteuil,) pyrites in great
quantities, bones of vertebral animals, whose class has not up to
this time, (1825,) been determined,' &,c.f

In 1830, Prevost says that ' the remains of reptiles (Crocodiles)
and fluviatile shells characterise the plastic clay of the environs of
Paris.' t

In the cliff in the southeast part of Chilmark, I found a frag-
ment of bone, which undoubtedly once belonged to a bird. It was
hollow and ai)parently about as much changed as most of the bones
at Gay Head. It was so enveloped in the clay that I could have
little suspicion that it was introduced subsecjuently to the deposi-
tion of the clay.

Crustacea. In the green sand at Gay Head we meet with well
characterised specimens of the genus Cancer ; although they are
in general much broken ; showing that they originally belonged to
a formation which was abraded or destroyed anterior to the pro-

* Geology of the S. East part of England; p. 260,

t Osseniens Fossiles, Tome 2d, p. 312.

t Diftionnaire de Hisloir Naturelle, Art. Terrains.

200 Scientific Geology.

duction of the green sand. The interior part of the specimen
consists of argillaceous matter, probably containing a large propor-
tion of oxide of iron : but the covering of the animal still retains
its black shining color, although apparently carbonaceous. The
broken state of nearly all the specimens, renders it difficult to de-
termine whether they belonged to more than one species, although
they probably did: and for the same reason I have thought that
many drawings would not be of use. (Plate XII. Fig. 31.)

Fossil crabs have not, I believe, been found in the European
plastic clay ; but they occur in the London clay, which is proba-
bly only the upper beds of that formation.

Zoophyta. In the bituminous conglomerate that occurs in rolled
masses in the sanje green sand, I found a branching zoophyte,
which may perhaps belong to the genus madrepora; though its
characters are indistinct.

In the same green sand, and also in the ferruginous sand associ-
ated with it, we find numerous concretions whose interior part ap-
pears to be compact argillaceous oxide of iron, with the pisiform
ore disseminated. Their shape is so exceedingly like that of sev-
eral of the alcyonia, that I suspect they are petrifactions of those
singular animals. They are generally more or less rolled, though
not as much so as the crabs. Plate XI 1. Figs. 26 and 27 repre-
sent two of these relics. Both of them resemble species of the
genus Manon figured in Goldfuss' Petrifacta. Fig. 27 looks like
his Manon Peziza.

On the surface of some of these specimens small pebbles are
sometimes seen ; and I have occasionally found them disseminated
through the specimen. In such case it may reasonably be doubted
whether an animal once occupied the place of the nodule. Yet
if the principal part of it be hydrate of iron, I can conceive how
a few pebbles might be introduced along with the iron as it gradu-
ally took the place of the animal. Still, I am not in a little doubt
as to the origin of these nodules.

Testacea. I found in the green and ferruginous sand at Gay
Head, the cast of three genera, of shells. As the shell itself
is wanting, the characters are indistinct ; and there is evidence
that the specimens have been more or less rolled ; but the two
bivalves are probably referable to the genera Venus and Tellina,
and the univalve to the genus Turbo. The mineralizer is the
same ferruginous fclay, or perhaps argillaceous oxide of iron,
which has petrified the crabs and zoophytes. Hence they
all probably had the same origin. Plate XI. Fig. 3, is a sketch
of the Venus : Fig. 5, of the Tellina : Fig. 4. of the Turbo.
The latter is obviously somewhat broken. I could find only two
specimens of it. Of the Venus,! found only three or four; but
I obtained 20 or 30 of the Tellina.

Section in Plastic Clay.

201

Dijj, Direction, Thickness, and Superposition, of the Strata.

In giving the character of the varieties of this formation, I have
anticipated much that properly belongs (othis place.

One peculiarity in the clay of this formation, both on the Vine-
yard and on Cape Cod, is the very general want of a slaty struc-
ture. The strata seams are also often indistinct ; so that it needs
careful examination to ascertain the dip or direction of the beds.
Sometime^; however, the schistose layers are obvious, as in some
part of the cliff in the southeast part of Chilmark.

1 have already remarked, that the strata at Gay Head, dip from
20° to 45° a little to the east of north ; and of course they run
nearly east and west. Without careful examination, however,
that cliff would be regarded as an unstratified mass of 'clay, sand,
and lignite. And in respect fo some part of it, particularly its
southern part, I am still in doubt whether the dip and direction of
the beds correspond to the above statement.

At the cliff in the east part of Chilmark, some of the clay is
schistose, and there we find tlie following section. A considerable
part of the cliff there, from 20 to 30 feet high, is covered by dilu-
vium, which has slidden down from the upper part. But where
the strata are exposed to view, they present the curved, contorted,
and inclined appearance exhibited below. Tlie general dip, it will
be seen, is towards the south, as the left liand side of the sketch
is the southern extremity of the cliff. The sketch embraces a
horizontal distance of about five rods. The geologist sees at once,
that such a cliff needs only to bo consolidated, in order to consti-
tute a graywacke formation ; as I shall show by presenting a sim-
ilar sketch of a ledge of graywacke in Newport, R. Island, when
I come to treat of that rock.

Section in llic Plastic Clay : Chilmark.

Inference.

After the preceding description, it seems to me that no geolo-
gist will hesitate to refer this formation to the Plastic Clay of Eu-
ropean authors. Tiic variegated clays, the interstralilied lignites

202 Scimiijic Geology.

with ambor, and the intermixture of marine animals with terres-
tial vegetable remains, must settle the question. Some peculiari-
ties, have, indeed been pointed out in the formation at the Vine-
yard. But they are fewer than we might expect in depositions
so widely separated from one another as this is from those in Eu-
rope.

I ought perhaps to remark that some of the ablest European
geologists are beginning to discard the Plastic Clay from the list
of formations, and to adopt other divisions of the tertiary strata,
founded upon what they regard as more definite characters. The
President of the London Geological Society, in his anniversary
address for 1833, rejects the term Plastic Clay: as does also Mr.
Lyell, in the third volume of his Principles of Geology. He di-
vides all the tertiary strata into four groups, distinguished by their
organic remains ; viz. the Newer Pliocene, the Older Pliocene,
the Miocene, and the Eocene — reckoning in a descending order.
The Plastic Clay falls into the Eocene, or oldest group.

Other ylaces covered with the Plastic Clay.

Nantuclcct.

I colored this island as underlaid with plastic clay, not without
strong suspicions that its surface may be composed of a formation
higher up in the series. Its surface is entirely spread over with
sand, whose upper part has been disturbed by diluvial action, and in
perhaps no place do its cliffs rise more than 100 feet above the
ocean. But clay exists beneath this stratum of sand, and is some-
what variegated, though generally bluish. In this clay I found a
single fossil tnuch disintegrated : l3ut it was a native of the forma-
tion, and was contained in ferruginous sand interstatified with the
clay. It resembles the genus found in the newest tertiary, as
mentioned in the proper place. Twenty or thirty feet higher, in
this same cliff, I found worn specimens of Natica hcros, (Say)
and Pyrula carica, (Lamark): but I am inclined to regard them
as either diluvial or alluvial. Yet Lt. Prescott informs me that
similar shells are found all over the island, from 10 to 60 feet be-
low the surface : and he presented me with an uninjured specimen
of the Pyrula carica dug up by a well digger, several years ago,
30 or 40 feet below the surface, along with many other shells ;
among which, were Mactra soliddissima, Venus mercenaria, and
castanea, Crepidula fornicata, Solen ensis, Pecten, Area, &c. : all
of which now inhabit the neioihborins: ocean. Can it be that the
diluvium is so thick as 30 or 40 feet ? Or must we suppose that
the spot where the town of Nantucket now stands, where these
shells were dug up, is alluvial ? Or finally can we admit that the
upjjcr stratum of sand on this island is one of the most recent of

Dip of Plastic Clay. 203

the tertiary formations ? The second supposition may probably
prove the true one.

I was not able satisfactorily to ascertain the dip of the clay beds
on Nantucket. But Lt. Prescott, on whose accuracy of observa-
tion I place great reliance, is confident that they dip a few degrees
to the south: and my own examination of soma quite limited clay
pits, rather confirms this opinion.

TVhat is the dip of the Plastic Clay 1

In no other place, except those above described, have I ob-
served the dip of this formation. But it will be seen that there is
great discrepancy in the dip as observed at two places on the Vine-
yard, and on Nantucket : and I confess my inability to determine
whether there is any predominant dip in these strata. It is interest
ing to ascertain that this formation has a dip at all ; since it seems
thus more nearly identified with the well known plastic clay of the
Isle of Wight, so well described by Mr. Webster ; and since also
this fact has such an important bearing upon the theory of the
formation. But it is doubtful whether its predominant dip can be
determined from patches so limited as those which are found in
Massachusetts.

Elie de Beaumont represents ' the extensive deposites, in part
tertiary, and in part diluvial, which lie between the Alleganies
and the ocean on the east, from Nantucket to Florida, as resting
directly on the inclined edges of the older rocks, and exhibiting
in themselves no traces of dislocation.'* But unless my senses
have greatly deceived me, we have on Martha's Vineyard most
decisive evidence of dislocation in one of the higher members of
these deposites : for Dr. Morton has proved, that farther to the
south, a part of the beds of this vast formation are equivalents of
the higher secondary strata in Europe. If, therefore, the inclined
position of the strata on the Vineyard be not a solitary case,
resulting from local disturbances, Beaumont's position is untenable,
and his inferences, dependant on that position, incorrect.

In Truro.

Truro is the extreme town but one on Cape Cod ; and on the
eastern shore is a patch of plastic clay, large enough for one or
two good farms, on which stands a light house, as at Gay Head.
The clays here are somewhat variegated ; though the predominant
color is blue. They exhibit also, the same unstratified aspect, as
at Gay Head; and are, I doubt not, another remnant of the same
formation. I did not, however, give the spot that protracted
examination which would be necessary to ascertain the dip of the

*Recherches, &c. p. 320, chap. 1.

204 Scientific Geology.

strata, and whether they contain any organic remains : not being
then aware that the formation had such important connections as
I now suppose it to have. The spot deserves further examination.

In Duxhury.

Clay is not unfrequently found beneath the sands of Cape Cod ;
though I am not aware that any cliffs of considerable height occur
except in Truro ; nor that any organic remains of interest have
been found in it. But in Duxbury, in Plymouth county, I have
ascertained, since the publication of the first edition of the first
part of my Report, that strata and organic remains exist there,
identical with those at Gay Head. I am much indebted to the
Rev. Benjamin Kent, of that place, for communicating to me a
very detailed account of these strata and relics, made out after
personal examination. It appears that 30 years ago, a well was
dug near the edge of a plain of considerable extent, about 4 1-2
miles from the sea, and nearly surrounded by a swamp. Coarse
gravel (diluvium) occupied the surface ; next came a layer of
' vegetable earth,' in which, 20 feet from the surface, was found
'a large fallen oak (?) tree.' Next a stratum of tough blue clay,
six inches thick ; next strata of ' iron ore, or gravel impregnated
with it :' ' below this, lay the shells, fee. in apparently fresh marsh
mud' (green sand ?) Here were found a very perfect shark's
tooth, (Plate XHI. Fig. 37,) the cast of a small species of Ve-
nus, (Fig. 40,) and the same species of Turbo that occurs at Gay
Head. (Plate XH. Fig. 4.) Mr. Kent took the trouble of having
a shaft sunk on the margin of the swamp in the vicinity of this
well ; and the strata penetrated, correspond with those mentioned
above. The water rushing into the opening, however, prevented
him from examining thoroughly for petrifactions.

Another well was opened 10 years ago, 80 rods nearer the sea
than the first mentioned, and at a lower level. After digging 13
feet, through strata similar to those in the first well, they came to
a solid layer of ferruginous sandstone, which arrested their pro-
gress. ' Angry with disappointment,' said the owner of the well,
' my man brought a thundering blow upon the rock, and through
it went ; and up spouted the water. We then cleared away and
found a plate of iron (ore) about two inches thick : under this
plate lay a bed of strong marsh mud, full of cohogs and clams,
and cockles, about two bushels of which we took out. In the
centre lay plainly a land animaVs hone, as large as my wrist, and
six' inches long, fractured, which vv^as given to some Society in
Boston.' This fine collection has nearly disappeared. Mr. Kent,
however, sent me a single specimen, a cast of a Venus, much
abraded, not to be distinguished in size and shape from that sketched
on Plate XII. Fig. 3. The mineralizer in this case is clay ; not

Ph'itlc Clays. 205

so much indurated but that it may he cut without difficuUy. And
this is the case with all the Duxbury specimens, except the shark's
tooth, which is not mineralized, or only partially so. In the spe-
cimen from the second well, mentioned above, in the cavity occu-
pied by the hinge, is a small quantity of green sand, exactly like
that at Gay Head ; which proves satisfactorily the identity of the
marsh mud and the green sand : and that the green sand of Gay
Head is identical with that in England, a comparison of specimens
shows.

Thus it appears that the proof is as strong as could be desired,
of the entire similarity between the plastic clay of Gay Head,
and the fossiliferous formation above described at Duxbury. True,
no variegated clays are mentioned at Duxbury : nor, if I rightly
recollect, do any variegated clays occur above the green sand at
Gay Head : but a blue clay only. And probably by penetrating the
strata deeper at Duxbury, the variegated clays might be brought
to light. A question hence arises whether the green sand ought to be
re garded as belonging to the plastic clay ? Some writers do, indeed,
limit the plastic clay formation to the variegated clays : but that
the lignites and green sand belong to the same formation, (under-
standing by that term, a consecutive and parallel series of strata
produced during the same geological period,) there can be no
doubt. Not improbably, however, the green sand in this country
occupies the same situation with regard to the variegated clays, as
the London clay does in England with respect to those clays.
But probably the London clay ought not to be separated from the
plastic clay.

The facts discovered at Duxbury render it extremely probable
that the extensive sandy deposites in Plymouth and Barnstable
counties are underlaid by plastic clays ; although the powerful di-
luvial action to which that region has been subjected, may have
spread these sands over other formations. The sands that occur
along the west side of Narraganset Bay, in Rhode Island, in the
vicinity of Providence, may probably belong to the same forma-
tion. It is to be hoped tliat when more of the cliffs and pits in
this formation have been examined, a richer variety of organic re-
mains will be brought to light.

Relative Position of Plastic Clay.

In Europe plastic clay lies immediately above the chalk. But
in this country the chalk appeals to be wanting ; and Dr. Morton
has shown satisfactorily that its equivalent is the Ferruginous Sand
Formation.^ In the middle and southern slates, the plastic clay

♦ Journal Acad. Natural Sciences, Vol. VI ; also American Journal of Science,
Vols. XVII and XVIII.

25

206 Scientific Geology.

lies immediately above this ferruginous sand. But I have no ev-
idence that this is or is not the case, in Massachusetts, except
analogy ; which, in the present case, must be considered very
strong in favor of the affirmative. The spot most likely to afford
light on this point is Gay Head. But the action of the sea has
been so powerful there, that little of the ferruginous sand, if it
once existed, has been spared.

Extent of the Plastic Clay Formation.

The patches of this formation that have been described in Mas-
sachusetts, are doubtless only the remnants of a vast extent of
these strata, extending at least from Cape Cod to the borders of
the Gulf of Mexico ; and how far eastward, where the Atlantic
now rolls, we can form no probable opinion : though there is some
reason for supposing that they once even reached Europe ; along
whose shores similar strata are found at present. As we proceed
southward along the coast from Martha's Vineyard, the plastic
clay appears on Long Island, in N. Jersey, and Maryland, at Nalch-
es, at the Chicasaw Bluffs, &.c ; according to the statements of
Mr. Finch.* If this should prove to be one continuous formation
as there is some reason for supposing, it will be by far the most ex-
tensive deposite of this kind hitherto discovered. We do know
that this and other tertiary formations, with the ferruginous sand,
which is the highest of the secondary rocks, occupy nearly all that
wide range of level country lying along the Atlantic coast of the
Southern States.

Theoretical Considerations.

It is universally agreed that all the tertiary formations have been
deposited from materials diffused or dissolved in water ; and it is
now generally admitted that these deposites took place in inde-
pendent basins and at various epochs. One of the most remark-
able facts in relation to these deposites, is the frequent alternation,
or admixture, of marine with fresh water or terrestrial relics.
Thus, at Gay Head, we have lignites and dicotyledonous vegeta-
bles mixed and probably alternating with the remains of sharks,
alcyonites, crabs, and marine shells. In some instances, such facts
may be explained by supposing alternate elevations and depress-
ions of the surface, so as to bring salt and fresh water successively
over these deposites. But more usually it is probable these strata
were deposited in estuaries, which were occasionally inundated
by fresh water : and as in early times the earth's surface was per-
haps, more level than at present, these inundations might be more
extensive than any that now occur.

*Am. Journal of Science Vol. VII. p. 31 : also Conrad's Fossil Shells Vol. I.
p. 14.

Theoretical Considerations. 207

Another interesting fact, which has been recently established by
Beaumont, Desnoyers, Boue, and others, is, that during the period
in which these tertiary deposites were proceeding, violent convul-
sions, succeeded by long intervals of repose, took place ; by
which some of the highest mountains on the globe were elevated,
and portions of these formations elevated, along with them ; so
as now to crown their summits. Such facts have opened a new
field for chronological geology : and in our country it is yet en-
tirely untrodden.

Another interesting fact, which appears to be well established in
the third volume of Mr. Lyell's ' Principles of Geology,'* is the
admixture of recent and extinct species of testacea in the the ter-
tiary formations. In his Newer Pliocene Strata, which is the up-
permost or most recent group, he finds that ' the proportion of liv-
ing species, where least considerable, usually approaches to one
half of the total number, and appears always to exceed a third. '
In the next inferior group, or Older Pliocene, the relative propor-
tion is not much different ; but this group is distinguished by cer-
tain peculiar species. In the Miocene Strata 1021 species have
been found, of which 176 only, or about 18 in 100, are recent.
And in the Eocene or oldest group, of 1238 species, 42 only are
identical with living species. This gradual decrease of recent spe-
cies as we descend deeper into the earth, corresponds with what
we know of the organic remains in the older fossiliferous rocks, and
seems to indicate successive destructions and renewals of animal
and vegetable life at various periods in the history of our globe.

Although the newest tertiary in this State appears to have re-
mained undisturbed since its deposition, yet it is interesting to find
that our plastic clay has experienced a convulsion, almost equal
to that by which its strata, in the Isle of Wight, have been thrown
into a vertical position. f As to the period when the strata at
Martha's Vineyard were elevated, I can say but little. I have
already expressed an opinion that a granite ridge passes along the
western side of that Island, not far beneath the surface : but I
have searched in vain there for any of the more recent unstratified
rocks. At present, then, I must conclude that we have no evi-
dence of the action of any disturbing force since the protrusion of
this granite. But in Europe, I believe no rock above the chalk
has been proved to have been disturbed by granite ; and hence I
hesitate to impute the elevation of our plastic clay to that rock,
especially on such equivocal evidence as I now possess.

* Pages 53, 5-1, 55.

t Geological Transactions, Vol. II. p. 161.

:sJ08 i Scientific Geology.

Supposed evidence of Volcanic Agerici/ at Gay Head.

The opinion, I ought, however, to remark, has been advanced
by writers too respectable to be passed unnoticed, that there are
traces of volcanic action at Gay Head. The great quantity of
lignite there mixed with the clay, giving the whole mass an ap-
pearance somewhat like cinders, and the ferruginous conglomerate,
in which the pebbles are coated over with the brown hydrate of
iron, often exceedingly resembling the conglomerated semi-fused
mass that is raked out of a furnace, would very naturally lead a
person, unpractised in geology, to refer them to volcanic agency.
These are undoubtedly the substances intended by Dr. Baylies,
when he speaks of' masses of charcoal,' and ' large stones, whose
surfaces were vitrified, '* It is now well understood, that neither
lignite nor the hydrate of iron, require heat for their production.

Geological speculations of the Aborigines.

Gay Head being naturally a place of resort for the Indians, they
could not but notice its peculiarities. And they had an advantage
over geologists of modern times in explaining phenomena. For
when a difficulty presented itself, they had only to call in the aid
of some mighty spirit, or giant, who once inhabited the spot.
This they have done in attempting to account for appearances at
Gay Head. I am indebted to C. C. Baldwin, Esq. Librarian of
the American Antiquarian Society, for an interesting extract, ex-
hibiting the Indian tradition on this subject. He has added anoth-
er extract, showing the Indian Philosophy of Fogs on the coast :
and another from the writings of Cotton Mather relating to some
fossil bones found in Virginia, which is a good exhibition of the
manner in which such facts were regarded a century ago. I take
the liberty to subjoin the entire letter.

Worcester, July 7, 1832.
My Dear Sir,

I will now comply with my promise in rela-
tion to the interesting Fossil Remains, which you found in your
recent visit to the Elizabeth Islands.

' The first Indian who came to the Vineyard, was brought thither
with his dog on a cake of ice. When he came to Gay Head, he
found a very large man, whose name was Moshop. He had a wife
and five children, four sons and one daughter ; and lived in the den.
He used to catch whales and then pluck up trees, and make a fire
and roast them. The coals of the trees, and the hones of the
whales, are now to be seen. After he was tired of staying here,

* Transactions of the Amer. Acad, of Arts and Sciences. Vol. II. part I.
p. 150.

Indian Philosophy. *• 509

he lold his children to go and play ball on the beach that joined
Neman's Land to Gay Head. He then made a mark with his toe
across the beach at each end, and so deep, that the water followed
and cut away the beach : so that his children were in fear of
drowning. They took their sister up and held her out of the wa-
ter. He told them to act as if they were going to kill whales ;
and they were all turned into Killers, (a fish so called). The sis-
ter was dressed in large stripes. He gave them a strict charge to
be kind to her. His wife mourned the loss of her children so
exceedingly that he threw her away. She fell upon Seconet, near
the rocks, where she lived sometime, exacting contribution of all
who passed by water. After a while she was changed into a stone.
The entire shape remained for many years. But after the Eng-
lish came, some of them broke off the arms, head, &,c. but the
most of the body remains to this day. Moshop went away,
nobody knows whither. He had no conversation with the Indians,
but was kind to them by sending them whales, &,c. ashore for
them to eat. But after they grew thick around him, he left them.'
iSee Mass. His. Collections, Vol. i. p. 139.

* In former times, a great many moons ago, a bird, extraordinary
for its size, used often to visit the south shore of Cape Cod, and
carry from thence a vast number of small children.

Maushop, who was an Indian Giant, as fame reports, resided in
these parts. Enraged at the havoc among the children, he, on a
certain time, waded into the sea in pursuit of the bird, till he had
crossed the Sound, and reached Nantucket. Before Maushop
forded the Sound, the Island was unknown to the Aborigines of
America.

Tradition says that Maushop found the bones of the Children
in a heap under a large tree. He then wishing to smoke a pipe,
ransacked the Island for tobacco ; but finding none, he filled his
pipe with poke, a weed which the Indians sometimes used as its
substitute. Ever since the memorable event, fogs have been fre-
quent at Nantucket and on the Cape. In allusion to this tradition,
when the Aborigines observed a fog rising, they would say, 'There
comes Old Maushop's smoke." — See Mass. His. Collections,
Vol. 5,j3. 57.

I have made the above extracts, thinking they might interest
you in your inquiries in relation to the bones at Gay Head. And
I cannot but be of opinion that the above interesting tradition about
the existence of the Giant, had its origin with the Indians from
their having found the skeletons of large marine animals. Per-
haps two hundred years ago, as late a period as the traditton refers
to, the bones might have presented very different appearances from
what they now do.

In the collections of MSS. belonging to the Society of which I

210 Scientific Geology.

am Librarian, are copies of letters addressed by the Learned Cotton
Mather to different persons residing in Europe. They are entitled
' Curiosa Americana.' Among them are eight letters to Dr. James
Jurin. One of these is entitled 'A Monstrous Dragon.' But be-
fore speaking of the paticular subject of his letter, he gives an ac-
count of all the stupendous snakes which have been described by
the ancients. The letter shall speak for itself It concludes as
follows :

' A few months ago, near the Falls of James River in Virginia,
Some [persons] digging a water course for a mill, by a small Run
of Water under the Side of an Hill, Ten foot under ground, they
found the Back bone of a snake, lying in such a form as this^^^^^.
They dug along from the Head to the Tail of it, both which were
much decayed, but the earth about the decayed parts was of a
different color from all the earth about it. These, with all the
bones, were found exactly of the same depth under ground. It
was about a mile and half distant from the great River, and about
one hundred and fifty miles from the sea. But now for the Prod-
igy. The Monster extends above one hundred and fifty foot in
length. A credible person who measured the Trench out of
which it was taken, brings the account unto us, and brings with
him one Joint of the Back bone, which the workmen gave him, and
which I find is Five inches and a quarter in depth. Five inches
and a half in width, Four inches and an half Diameter backwards
and forwards, and though it be grown very dry, and some of
it be worn off yet it weighs thirty three ounces and an half.
Monstum horrendum.

1 shall not go to trouble you with any of my poor speculations
on the subject : chusing and wishing rather to be instructed from
yours. And so, only praying for your Deliverance from a greater
Dragon than that whose Bones were lately found in Virginia, I
subscribe,

Sir, your most hearty Servant.'

Cotton Mather.
June 3, 1723.

I do not know that this letter has ever been published. That
fact may be ascertained by a reference to the Transactions of the
Royal Society, or the 'Philosophical Transactions.' The author
of the letter above, had, at the time of its date, in England as
well as in America, a high reputation for learning and it is altogeth-
er probable that it was published there. I have never heard
that it had been published in this country, and presume that it
never was.

New Red Sandstone. 21 1

Accept I pray you, my best wishes for your health and happi-
ness, and believe me to be with

Very great respect and regard,
Your Friend and Servant,

Christopher Columbus Baldwin, lib. a.a.s.

4. NEW RED SANDSTONE.

Terrain Poecilien et Peneens. Brongnlart.* Foecilite Co-
nybeare.f

Under this name I have included all the sandstone in the valley
of the Connecticut ; extending from New Haven, Ct. to the north
line of Massachusetts in Northfield. On a geological map, given
in the 6th volume of the American Journal of Science, I have
marked the inferior beds of this formation as Old Red Sandstone.
Nor do I now deny the existence of this rock in that valley. But
I have not discovered marks enough to identify it so clearly, as to
be justified in giving it a place on the Map. I think I can identi-
fy the upper beds of this formation with the New Red Sandstone
of Europe ; or rather, show it to be probable that these beds are
the equivalent of the new red sandstone. And not improbably
the lower beds correspond essentially with the old red sandstone
of Europe : for sometimes in that quarter of the globe, the two
series are in contact : as in Arran in Scotland ;J although generally
they are separated by the coal measures. But as long as we have
no certain evidence of the existence of the old red sandstone in the
valley of the Connecticut, it is better to consider all the beds of
the sandstone there, as belonging to the new red sandstone : nor
shall we have any difficulty in finding a place for the whole series
within the wide range embraced by the usual definition of this
rock.

In the paper above refered to, 1 formerly described the upper
beds of the sandstone under consideration, as the Coal Formation ;
not however, without suggesting doubts, as to its identity with the
coal measures of Europe. Thin seams of genuine bituminous
coal, do, indeed, occur in the series, in gray micaceous sandstone ;
and its resemblance to the coal measures of Europe, has induced
men of great experience to explore it for coal. But only a small
quantity has ever been found ; and it said that coal occurs also, in
the new red sandstone on the continent of Europe : so that the
occurrence of coal, is by no means certain evidence, that the

* Tableau Des Terrains, p. 244.

t Report on Geolosy for 1832, p. 382.

* MaccuUoch's Geologj^, Vol. I. p. 274.

912 Scientific Geology.

rock in which it is found, is the real coal formation of geological
writers.

For the most part, the ranges of greenstone in the Connecticut
valley separate the upper from the lower beds of the sandstone
under consideration : so that, if any should choose to distinguish
between them on the Map, they can do it, by recollecting that
the sandstone on the east side of the greenstone, belongs to the
upper beds ; and that on the west side, to the lower ones.

I found my opinion, that the upper beds of this formation are
the new red sandstone, upon the following facts: 1. The dis-
covery of a vertebral animal several feet long in East Windsor,
Ct. in one of the varieties of this rock, 18 feet below its surface.
Now, if I mistake not, no vertebral animal (except the relics of a
few fish, perhaps,) have ever been found below the new red sand-
stone ; especially bones that are merely preserved, and not at all
petrified, as is the case with those at East Windsor. In Europe
a few saurian animals have been found in this rock : and probably
it was an animal of this description that was found in Connecticut.
2. The occurrence of fossil fish, as at Sunderland; one of the spe-
cies of which, {P alaeothrissum frcslchencnsc,^ and the rock con-
taining it so exactly resemble specimens of the same from Mans-
field and Hesse in Germany, that Prof. AI. Brongniart could dis-
tinguish them only by their labels. But the rocks in Germany
containing these fish, belong to the new red sandstone group.
They occur also at Autun in France, and atone or two places in
Great Britian, with precisely the same characters ; the rock being
a member of the new red sandstone. Hence the probability is
strong that the rock containing them along Connecticut river, is
the new red sandstone, or its equivalent. 3. One variety of the
new red sandstone group in Germany, (the copper slate,) is
wrought, as an ore of copper: and veins of similar ores occur in
the Connecticut valley ; frequently passing from the sandstone into
the adjoining greenstone ; and in one or two cases, 1 have ob-
served thin layers of sandstone, considerably charged with the
green carbonate of copper. This may perhaps, be considered as
corroborative evidence that the formations in the two countries are
contemporaneous ; or that they were produced under similar cir-
cumstances, 4. The sulphates of baryta and strontia, are found
in the new red sandstone of England ; the latter ' stellated on
carbonate of lime' near Bristol ; and they occur under similar cir-
cumstances, as will be more particularly described hereafter, in
the sandstone group of the Connecticut valley. Magnetic iron
sand also proceeds from this rock here, as on the banks of the
Mersey, opposite Liverpool. 5. In Germany, bituminous marlite
occurs only in the new red sandstone group. Fetid limestone is
there, also a member of the same formation. In Massachusetts,

NeAv Red Sandstone, 213

likewise, the same rocks are similarly associated ; and I have late-
ly ascertained that a part of the slate containing ichthyoliles at
Sunderland, is the bituminous marlite. 6. Werner regarded the
variegated appearance of the new red sandstone as characteristic
of the formation ; and hence his name of ' hunter sandstein.' In
the Connecticut valley this aspect is not very common. But in
Bernardston, the lower beds exhibit it on a large scale : and on
the banks of Westfield river are several interstratified layers, afford-
ing beautiful examples of this structure in hand specimens ; and it
is particularly interesting that these cannot be distinguished by the
eye from specimens from Nova Scotia, associated with gypsum ;
and therefore unquestionably belonging to the new red sandstone
group. Similar specimens may be obtained at South Hadley Ca-
nal on the West Springfield shore.

Mineralogical Characters of the New Red Sandstone.

' Taken as a mass,* says De la Beche,* 'the group (of new red sand-
stone) may be considered as a deposit of conglomerate, sandstone,
and marl, in which limestones occasionally appear in certain terms
of the series ; sometimes one calcareous deposit being absent, as
the muschelkalk is in England ; sometimes the zechstein, as in the
east and south of France ; and sometimes both beiilg wanting as
in Devonshire.' 'The beds' says Dr. Macculloch,f 'are some-
times of a conglomerate structure, at others a fine sandstone and
occasionally schistose ; and in composition, the rock is calcareous,
argillaceous, or ferruginous, or all together presenting endless
variations of aspect and color.'

These descriptions correspond in general to the group which I
denominate new red sandstone in the Connecticut valley. Our
rock, however, is more deficient in calcareous matter than is usual
in Europe : though more or less of lime is scattered through all
the members of the group ; so that in some cases even the red-
dish shales slightly effervesce with acids : and might, therefore, be
properly called red marl. Nearly all the limestone in the group
is highly fetid ; though in some instances this passes into tliat which
is bituminous; and even into bituminous marlite.

It should be recollected, also, that this formation is wanting in
gypsum and rock salt ; two minerals found in it almost universally :
tliough as ment'ioned in the first part of my Report, a minute quan-
tity of the former has been found at West Springfield, and South
Hadley. I have, however, compared a suite of specimens from
the new red sandstone containing gypsum in Nova Scotia, with a
suite from the Connecticut valley, and with the exception of the
limestones, they can hardly be distinguished from one another.

♦Geological Manual, p. 380. t System of Geology, Vol. II. p. 227.

26

214 Scientific Geology.

Indeed, why may we not suppose gypsum and rock salt to be oc-
casionally wanting in this formation, as well as limestone ?

The following distinct varieties of rock compose the new red
sandstone in tlie valley of the Connecticut.

1. Conglomerates. A conglomerate, composed almost entirely
of the ruins of granite and mica slate, forms, in connection with
a sandstone of similar character, all the lower beds of this forma-
tion ; and these two varieties embrace all the rock in Massachu-
setts and Connecticut, that has usually been denominated old red
sandstone. The tvVo varieties pass into each other by insensible
gradations, and even the finest portion of the sandstone is coarse.
Tiie strata are from one to two, and even three or four feet thick;
and for the most part, the slaty structure is almost entirely wanting.
The prevailing and almost uniform color of the rock is red ; and
even the imbedded nodules, when not very large or compact, are
penetrated with this color. Yet where this rock approaches gran-
ite and mica slate, as in Bernardston, Greenfield, Deerfield,
Whately, and Southampton, it is somewhat variegated ; some por-
tions of it being of a light gray color ; as if a heat so powerful
had been applied to it, as partially to expel the iron, or change it
from an oxide into some other compound. The nodules of the
conglomerate are sometimes one or two feet in diameter ; but for
the most part, they are only a few inches thick. A variety oc-
curs in Bernardston, Southampton, &c. (J\os. 135, 136,) which
can hardly be distinguished in hand specimens from granite ; be-
ing composed of fragments, but little rounded, of quartz and feld-
spar ; the latter of a flesh color. Sometimes the nodules, as at
Sugar Loaf, in Deerfield, are graphic granite, which is often quite
beautiful ; the feldspar being of a lively flesh color.

In Greenfield and Bernardston, near the junction of the new
red sandstone formation with the argilio-micaceous slate, the con-
glomerate occurs, composed of argilio-micaceous slate and white
quartz. This was obviously derived ii-om the detritus of the slate
against which it rests. The general color of this rock is red ; and
even the mica slate on which it reposes, exhibits the same color
several feet from the junction. (Nos. 137 to 139.)

Another variety of conglomerate, which is found only in con-
nection with the upper beds of the new red sandstone, is of a
dark, reddish gray color, and is composed of fragments of mica
slate, talcose slate, chlorite slate, hornblende slate, and slaty quartz
rock, with occasional nodules of quartz, feldspar, and granite.
The cement appears to be the same materials comminuted. This
is the coarsest conglomerate in the Connecticut valley. It con-
stitutes a considerable part of mount Toby, in Sunderland, where
the imbedded nodules are sometimes three or four feet in diameter.
It extends through Montague, and at the mouth of Miller's river,
as well as on the opposite side of the Connecticut at that place,

Varieties of New Red Saiidstone. 215

it may be examined to good advantage. South of Sunderland 1
have not found it, except at Durham, in Connecticut. Unless
viewed on a large scale, this rock scarcely exhibits aAy stratifica-
tion. The strata are sometimes eight or ten feet thick. (I\os. 140
to 143.)

At Turner's falls a much finer and more compact gray conglom-
erate exhibits itself, composed of the same materials as the last,
except that it abounds more in quartz and feldspar. (No. 150.)

A reddish conglomerate, made up of nearly the same materials
as that first described, (except that it contains more slate,) abounds
among the lowest of the upper beds of this formation. (Nos. 144
to 147.) It is not as coarse as the last, and the strata are usually
less than a foot thick. It is common in mount Toby and on the
east side of mount Ilolyoke, in Granby.

Trap conglomerate is another variety of no small interest. It
reposes on the greenstone on the east side of mount Tom and
Hotyoke ; and consists of a mixture of angular and rounded masses
of trap and sandstone, with a cement of the same materials. The
nodules are sometimes one or two feet in diameter, and the strati-
fication is not very distinct. I do not doubt but the same rock
may be found on the east side of nearly all the greenstone ranges
in the Connecticut valley. Its thickness is but small, and its
mode of production obscure. (Nos. 151, 152, and 285.)

2. Sandstones. The lowest and most abundant sandstone in
this formation has been described with sufficient minuteness, in
connection with the conglomerate with which it occurs. It is
used somewhat extensively for architectural purposes. (Nos. 154
to 161.)

A sandstone, which, at a little distance resembles that just de-
scribed, is found among the upper beds of this formation in Long-
meadow and Wilbraham ; where it is extensively quarried. It
differs, however, essentially from the last variety ; being composed
chieHy of fine siliceous sand, with occasional specks of mica, ce-
mented probably by the red oxide of iron: for its color is almost
blood red. Its particles, however, do not cohere strongly ; and
this forms the only objection to its use in architecture. The ex-
tensive quarries in Chatham, Ct. are opened in this rock ; or in a
variety closely allied to it. Its strata are thick and rarely exhibit a
slaty structure. (Nos. 165, 166.)

Gray sandstone is not uncommon in this formation ; but it is
found chiefly in the upper part of the series ; or rather in the vi-
cinity of trap rocks ; as at Turner's falls, and on both sides of
Holyoke and Tom. It is nriade up of coarse gray sand — some-
times of comminuted granite entirely, as on Holyoke — and varies
in color from light to dark gray. In some localities, as in Granby,
the strata are thick, and the rock is scarcely schistose ; it is there

216 Scientific Geology.

used in architecture. In other places, the strata become thin-
ner. On the banks of Westfield river, in West Springfield, I
noticed a variety that resembles the grindstones brought from
Nova Scotia, though it is harder.

Grai/ micaceous sandstone. When the last variety takes mica
into its composition, it becomes more easily divisible into laminae ;
and where that n)ineral abounds, it is very fissile. Some specimens
of this kind, found in the vicinity of trap rocks, can hardly be dis-
tinguished, in hand specimens, from mica slate. (Nos. 177, 178,
179.) Gray micaceous sandstone abounds at Turner's falls, on
Mt. Toby, in South Hadley, in West S})ringfield, &ic.

Variegated sandstone. This is composed of alternating lami-
nae of light and dark red sandstone, usually somewhat micaceous.
The layers are not very evenly arranged ; so that their edges
present rather a fantastic appearance. I have scarcely met with
this rock except on the banks of Westfield river, half a mile west
of the village of West Springfield; where the characteristics of
the new red sandstone are more fully developed than any where
else in the valley of the Connecticut. The variegated sandstone
there forms thick and workable strata.

Brecciated sandstone. This is composed of fragments of mi-
caceous sandstone, which seem to have been partially fused and
then reunited. It is almost as hard as siliceous slate. It is found
about a mile east of Turner's falls, on both banks of Connecticut
river, forming a stratum some 20 feet wide. The stratification
and schistose structure are very obscure : but on the north shore,
the layers have evidently been forced upwards, so as to give them
somewhat of a spheroidal form. I hence infer that a mass of un-
stratified rocks, probably greenstone, lies beneath the sandstone at
no great depth ; and that when this was forced upwards in a melt-
ed state, it partially fused the sandstone. (No. 174.)

Red micaceous sandstone is not unfrequently a member of this
formation. The grain is usually fine, and indeed, it commonly ap-
proaches very near to shale, into which it passes: yet much of it
is too coarse and contains too much siliceous matter to be called
shale. It is very common along the east side of our greenstone
ridges, as at Turner's falls and in West Springfield. It is quite re-
markable for being divided into rhomboidal masses, by one or two
sets of parallel seams. On the north bank of Westfield river, in
West Springfield, this division is remarkably distinct, and the sur-
face of the rock presents an interesting chequered aspect. The
same is the case in the northeast part of Greenfield, just below
Turner's falls. (Nos. 191, 192.)

3. Shales. (Nos. 199 to 204.) Under this term I include all
the varieties of argillaceous slate, sometimes called slate clay,
found in connection with the secondary rocks. And in Massachu-

Shale. 217

setts such slate occurs only as a member of the new red sandstone
series : of that formation it constitutes a very important part. Its
colors are gray, red, and black ; and in hardness it varies from that
of tender schistose marls, to a degree of induration approaching that
of siliceous slate. The red variety is most abundant : especially
in the region of Enfield and Hartford, in Connecticut. Some-
times it takes mica and sand into its composition, and then passes
into the red micaceous sandstone, as already remarked. When
black, it is generally bituminous, as at Sunderland, and at Middle-
town, Connecticut ; where are found upon it the impressions of
fish and vegetables. Some of the black colored slate, as at Tur-
ner's falls, splits into irregular, somewhat weged shape pieces ;
and indeed, easily disintegrates and falls to pieces: when it resem-
bles comminuted coal. It frequently contains sulphuret of iron ;
which by decomposition, causes the slate to exfoliate : in some
places, also, as at Turner's falls, and on Chicopee and Wesifield
rivers, this shale abounds in nodules of argillaceous iron ore, of a
poor quality. Some of the black non-bituminous shale of this
formation, has almost lost its slaty structure in the process of in-
duration. Thin pieces of it give a ringing sound when struck.
This variety abounds in the vicinity of Turner's falls : as, indeed
nearly every other variety does. There we find a gray variety,
which is so soft that it may be impressed by the finger nail.

If it were possible to doubt that the new red sandstone formation
w'as deposited from water, the surface of some of the layers of this
shale would settle the question demonstrably. For it exhibits pre-
cisely those gentle undulations, which the loamy bottom of every
river with a moderate current, presents. (No. 198.) But such a
surface could never have been formed while the layers had that
high inclination to the horizon, which many of them now^ present :
so that we have here, also, decisive evidence that they have been
elevated subsequent to their deposition.

On Wesifield river, in West Springfield, both the red and black
shales are traversed by numerous veins of satin spar ; itself often
of a reddish hue. They are rarely more than an inch wide, but
often several feet long ; and run uniformly across the laminae of
the slate.

In the same place the black shale, as well as the bituminous
marlite, and some varieties of slaty sandstone, contain masses of
septaria, or the Lucius Hchnontii. They vary in size from an inch
to 5 or 6 inches in diameter, and are usually flattened or reniform.
The envelope appears to be argillo-ferruginous as well as calcare-
ous; and the cavities are lined, and sometimes filled, by white cal-
careous spar. The interior is divided into irregular masses, or
sometimes into polygonal prisms.

The hypothesis which imputes the cavernous structure of these

218 Scientific Geology.

argjllo-calcareous masses to desiccation, and their subsequent filling
up to the infiltration of carbonate of lime in a state of solution,
seems to me liable to few objections ; and, indeed, is quite satisfac-
tory. But I have already given it somewhat in detail, when
speaking of columnar argillaceous iron ore.

4. Limestones. (Nos. 205 to 216.) When the black bitu-
minous shale, that has been described, takes into its composition
enough of calcareous matter to produce effervescence with acids,
it becomes bituminous marlite. It is not very common in this
sandstone formation. Yet one finds it in considerable quantity on
the banks of Westfield river, in West Springfield ; and I have
ascertained that the stratum of slate in Sunderland, which contains
the best preserved relics of fish, is bituminous marlite. Although
this rock contains but a small proportion of calcareous matter, yet
it certainly does not deserve to be described as a distinct rock ;
and it may be conveniently mentioned under the head of lime-
stones.

Strongly fetid limestone occurs, interstratified with the micace-
ous sandstones of this formation, at two places in the northwest
part of West Springfield. At the most northern locality, I no-
ticed only a single bed about ten feet thick : but two miles south
from that spot, several beds, not far apart, may be seen, associated
with greenstone, as well as sandstone. The rock at both places
is of a dark gray color and nearly compact. Its fetid odor when
struck, is exceedingly strong, so as even to produce nausea. It is
wrought to some extent for water proof cement, and it answers
well. (Nos. 213 to 215.)

I doubt whether much genuine bituminous limestone exists in
the new red sandstone in Massachusetts. Yet when the bitumin-
ous marlite takes a large quantity of lime into its composition, it
becomes bituminous limestone ; and perhaps some of this variety
may be found in West Springfield. It is also said to occur in
Southington and Middletown, Ct. : and the fetid limestone, also,
(all of them connected with the new red sandstone,) in North-
ford, Ct.

At Turner's falls, on the north shore, I found, a few years ago,
a stratum of coarse argillaceous limestone, a foot thick, which was
neither bituminous nor fetid : but the subsequent removal of the
dam over Connecticut river, has covered the spot beneath the
waters.

On the banks of Westfield river, in West Springfield, we find
layers of what appears to be an argillo-ferruginous limestone, in-
terstratified with the slate, and only a few inches thick. Where
the water has laid bare this rock, it sometimes presents the whole
surface divided into small prisms of only a few inches in diameter
and length, whose axes are perpendicular to the planes of the

Associated Limestone. 219

strata. They have four or more sides, though irregular, and their
sides do not touch. They appear to have resulted from the same
cause as the septaria already described ; and I doubt not that both
the septaria and these layers of argillo-ferruginous limestone, might
be employed, as the former is in Europe, for the preparation of
valuable Roman cement.

From this sketch of the mineralogical characters of this group
of rocks, it will be easy to distinguish between the lower beds,
which have heretofore been considered as the old red sandstone,
and the upper ones, which have been called a coal formation.
The lower beds are distinctly stratified, but rarely slaty ; whereas
the upper ones are usually so ; although some varieties of con-
glomerate, scarcely exhibit any marks even of stratification. In
the lower beds is no shale. Their color is almost uniformly some
shade of red : but as already shown, the upper beds are of various
colors and shale is abundant.

The greater abundance of granite nodules in the conglomerate
of the lower beds of this formation, than in that of the higher,
has led some geologists to regard them as belonging to distinct
formations.

But as a general principle, it will not answer to conclude that
conglomerate to be the oldest rock, which contains rounded masses
of granite. For a deposite of granite might be so situated, that an
abrading current would tear ofi' large quantities of it, while much
later rocks might flank its sides in such a manner as to be almost
entirely protected from the water. The recomposed rock hence
resulting would therefore contain granite nodules chiefly. Whereas
it might be that the more recent rock above spoken of, once covered
the granite and was worn away by an agency that could not touch
the granite. Hence the earlier mechanical rock thus produced
would consist chiefly of fragments of the schists. Besides, geolo-
gists now generally admit that granite is a later rock than most of
the primary ones ; and sometimes even of the same age as the
highest of the secondary ; since there is evidence that it has been
protruded through the chalk : and finally, in the present instance,
some of the lowest beds of the sandstone under consideration, are
composed of fragments of the latest of the primary stratified l-ocks
in the region ; as in Bernardston and Greenfield, where the con-
glomerate is made up chiefly of argillo-micaceous slate.

Extensive ranges of greenstone are connected withr/the sand-
stone of the Connecticut valley. But I need spend no time in
the present state of geological science, to show that trap rock
cannot be a member of the sandstone formation, and that it was
subsequently introduced. Its characters and relative position will
be described when 1 come to speak of the unstratified rocks.

220 Scientific Geology.

Topography of this Formation.

With a single exception, all the new red sandstone hitherto
described in New England, lies in that part of the valley of Con-
necticut river, which extends from New Haven to the north line
of Massachusetts : and in this State none is found out of that
valley. An inspection of the accompanying Map, which marks
out this valley, (Plate XV.) will convey a definite idea of the
space covered by this formation. For the hills which are there
represented as bounding the valley, commence on the outer edge
of the sandstone. All the included space is sandstone, except
those ranges of hills which are drawn within the valley, which are
greenstone.

The single exception above referred to, embraces a valley 10
or 12 miles long, extending from Woodbury to Southbury, in
Connecticut, along a branch of the Housatonic river. There we
find the same varieties of sandstone, accompanied by analogous
greenstone, as in the valley of the Connecticut. The two valleys
are separated by a high ridge of primary rocks, through which
they have no lateral communication. We hence learn that the
causes which produced the new red sandstone group and the in-
truded trap, were not local in their operation. In New York, also,
according to Prof. Eaton,* this formation commences near Utica,
and extends 250 miles in length. East of New England, no new
red sandstone has been found nearer (ban Nova Scotia, where it
abounds in gypsum. From the able description of this rock by-
Messrs. Jackson and Alger, and from specimens furnished me by
this latter gentleman, I infer a greater resemblance between the
Nova Scotia and New England group, than between the latter
and that in New York, and those farther west : although of the
last named I have as yet only iew specimens.

As the general direction of the strata of the new red sandstone
in the valley of the Connecticut is north and south, and the dip
easterly, it will follow that the lower beds of the group must
occupy the western part of that valley. And I have already re-
marked that the greenstone ridges generally separate the upper
from the lower beds. In Gill, Greenfield, and on INlount Holyoke,
however, the observer will see schistose sandstones cropping out
beneath the greenstone ; though in receding westerly from the
greenstone, he will find the slaty character of the rock soon to
disappear.

In the central parts of the Connecticut valley, from South Had-
ley nearly to Middletown, the shales and finer sandstones prevail
almost exclusively ; so that in excavating 15,000 cubic yards of

* Survey of ihc Erie Canal, p. 102.

Topograi?hy of the New Red Sandstone. 221

stone at Enfield Falls, not a pebble as large as an acorn was ob-
served. * The prevailing color of the slate in that region is dull
red or chocolate ; and being easily decomposed, it imparts a like
hue to the soil. If we suppose, what I liave always observed to
be true, that the prevailing dip of the strata through the whole
valley is easterly, we cannot admit, as some have maintained, that
these finer strata were originally deposited in its central parts,
and the coarser materials on its borders, for then the finer strata
must dip on both sides of the valley towards its centre, or remain
horizontal ; and they could not dip under the coarser layers on
the east side, as they now do. We ought probably rather to infer,
that the higher and coarser strata have been worn away from the
central portion of the valley, because they would there be more
exposed to abrading agents.

The coa'.ser and the finer beds do not, however, in all cases,
occupy separate portions of the valley exclusively ; but in many
places they are interstratified in almost endless variety. The
section laid bare by the Connecticut, for three miles above, and
nearly a mile below Turner's Falls, of which a sketch will be
given in treating of greenstone, presents a good example for ex-
amination. The coarser varieties, however, are not so abundant
there, as at Mount Toby in Sunderland. On the west side of
Connecticut river, opposite Sunderland, Deerfield mountain ex-
hibits nearly every variety of the lower beds of the formation.
Let the observer pass to the east bank of the river at Whitmore's
ferry, three miles north of Sunderland village, and he will land
upon a ledge of the coarsest conglomerate that has just been de-
scribed. Lying directly above this, and dipping a few degrees
easterly, as do all the strata of Mount Toby, he will find the
black bituminous shale containing impressions of fish ; 10 feet
thick. Immediately above this succeeds a coarse conglomerate,
scarcely differing from that beneath, and forming a mass 200 or
300 feet thick. Proceeding southeasterly to the top of Toby,
not less than 900 feet above the river, he will find numerous al-
ternations of the coarsest conglomerates with the finest red and
grey sandstones ; or rather shales. And the passage from one
variety to the other is not in general gradual, but sudden ; so that
the line between the finest and coarsest materials is well marked.

It is very obvious, in such cases, that the finer layers of the
rock must have been deposited in still waters, and the coarser
materials have been the result of powerful abrading currents.
And I know not a more difficult point in the theory of the earth,
than to explain the cause of so many and so sudden changes from
motion to rest and from rest to motion, in the waters in which such

*Mr. A. Smith on Ihe Connecticut valley, Am. Jour. Science, Vol. XXII. p. 320.

27

222 Scientific Geology.

rocks- were formed. The facts might perhajjs be explained by
supposing these deposites to have resulted from the long continued
action of a river, carrying into the bottom of a lake or the ocean,
coarser materials during its floods, and the finer sediment at low
water. But the different nature of the materials composing suc-
cessive layers of the conglomerate strata, show that the current
must have swept over and torn up various rocks at different times;
and consequently must have come from various directions at suc-
cessive periods : except perhaps in those rare cases, where it wore
away the higher formations entirely. Now we cannot conceive
how any river should be made to pass over rocks so different as
we find in the alternating beds of mount Toby, at different periods :
it would require alterations in its bed, almost without number.

There is, however, one other mode of accounting lor the
facts in this case, which may perhaps be thought more satisfactory.
It seems to be proved beyond all reasonable doubt, that the vari-
ous mountain chains on the globe were elevated from the bottom
of the ocean at various epochs, in the earlier times of our planet.
And generally these elevations took place suddenly. Now the in-
evitable effect of such a protrusion of a huge mountain ridge, would
be to produce a wave in the ocean, which would overwhelm the
globe. This wave, flowing in every direction from the centre of
disturbance, would attain its greatest elevation in the antipodes of
that centre : and then there would succeed a reflux wave. Nor
would the waters settle into repose, until several mighty flood and
ebb tides had succeeded. Now a moment's reflection will convince
any one, that while this wave was rising and falling, it would rush
over any particular region in strong currents ; but when at its
maximum and minimum elevation, the water, for a considerable
time, would be nearly calm. Consequently, during the former
periods we should expect the materials of the rocks deposited
would be coarse : and fine during the latter period. And as
mountains were raised in different parts of the globe, the currents
would proceed from various centres, and thus sweep into the same
basin tlie fragments of different rocks. Such powerful convulsions
could not have taken place on the globe since man was placed upon
it; and it is probable that the new red sandstone was deposited
prior to his creation, while the earth was yet ' without form and
void, ' that is, a desert and unfurnished waste.

Dip, Direction, and Thickness of the Strata.

Although subject to local variation from local causes, yet the
general dip and direction of the strata of this formation are quite
obvious. The direction is not far from north an south, and the dip
easterly at an angle from 10" to 20°. Fifteen degrees is probably
about the medium dip : and I suspect the prevailing direction to

Dip, Direction, and Thickness of the Strata. 223

be a few degrees east of north. In particular places, however,
the dip is found at all angles, from 0" to 80°. This is remarkably
the case in the vicinity of Turner's falls ; as may be seen on the
section of that place to be given farther on. This extraordinary
dip, however, appears to be easily explicable from the proximity
of greenstone and granite ; as I shall attempt to show when I come
to treat of those rocks. Near the eastern extremity of Mount
Holyoke, also, these rocks mount up on the ridge of greenstone
at an angle of SS** or 60". Here too the direction of the basset
edges is about northeast and southwest. The presence of green-
stone in this case, also, as I shall attempt to show, will explain
these anomalies. In the West part of Westfield, and near the
centre of Hatfield, the lower beds of this formation have a dip to
the west of about Hf. The same is also the case in Bernardston.
In the north part of Hadley, I have observed strata running nearly
east and west, and dipping 10° north. The probable presence of
granite at no great depth in all these cases will readily account for
these exceptions.

Although the new red sandstone must come in contact with the
primary rocks on both borders of the Connecticut valley, yet I have
discovered the actual junction only in one spot. Haifa mile south
of the ' Glen, ' or Gorge, in Leyden, near a saw mill, the peculiar
conglomerate made up of argillo-micaceous slate and quartz, re-
poses upon that slate, and has a dip to the south from 20° to 30° ;
while the slate is nearly perpendicular, and the course of its edges
nearly north and south. Admitting the elevation of the slate sub-
sequent to the deposition of the sandstone, the southern slope of
the edges of the former in Leyden, will explain the southern dip
of the latter at this place.

The following are the dip and direction of the new red sandstone
in several places in Massachusetts, where it does not seem to have
been subject to local deviations.

Between West Springfield, and Westfield, along Westfield river,
east of the greenstone ; direction, north and south ; dip, 15° to
20o east.

Mount Tom, beneath the greenstone ; direction, north and south ;
dip, 15° to 20° east.

Most northerly lime quarry. West Springfield : direction north
and south ; dip, J5° east.

Rock Ferry, (S. Hadley, at Titan's Pier) ; direction, nearly
north and south : dip, 20" east.

Sunderland ; direction, generally north and south : dip, between
10° and 15'5 east. At Whitmore's Ferry, however, the stratum
containing the ichthyolites, is nearly horizontal ; but this is over-
laid by sandstone, dipj)ing east from 5" to i0°.

Deerfield ; (Sugar Loaf and Dcerfield mountain ;) direction,
north and south ; dip, 10° to 15° east.

224

Scientific Geology-

Do. at Hoyt's quarries, in the west part of the town ; dip, 15°
to 20" east.

Greenfield ; near the village ; dip, 20° to 30° east.

Other localities might be cited, but it seems unnecessary. It
ought, however, to be mentioned, that as we go south into Con-
necticut, where the breadth of this formation increases, we find
the dip to decrease ; so as in many places to be almost nothing.
Jn the vicinity of uustratified rocks, however, it presents much ir-
regularity.

As to the thickness of the formation under consideration, we
have not sufficient data for forming a very definite opinion. Per-
haps, however, we may obtain a proximate estimate, by examin-
ing an east and west section of the formation, across the south part
of Deerfield mountain, and the centre of mount Toby. The fol-
lowing sketch is not intended to be precisely accurate ; but only
to give a general idea of the relative situation of the two moun-
tains and the intervening valley, with the valleys between them and
the primary rocks on the east and west. There must always be
as is well known, more or less of distortion and want of proportion
in sections of this kind, where the horizontal scale must be much
smaller than the perpendicular one. In the present case, in order
to exhibit the proper dip of the strata, the valley through which
the Connecticut flows, is represented too jtvide.

It will be seen by this section, that the strata, both in Deer-
field mountain and mount Toby, as well as in the valleys,
have the medium easterly dip of the formation ; that is about
15°, though on a considerable part of mount Toby, it is hardly
10°. Two or three hundred feet above the river, on the east
side, may be seen a mass of greenstone : which, so far as I can
ascertain, constitutes a dyke or bed in the sandstone, and
divides the upper part of the formation from the lower :

Position of the Strata. 225

the characters of the two groups, being considerably diflerent.
Deerfield mountain, in its southern part, consists entirely of
the lower beds ; and the strata on the opposite side of the
river beneath the greenstone, correspond in dip and general
characters with those of this mountain. Mount Toby is prob-
ably not far from 1000 feet abov^e the river, and Deerfield
mountain varies from 500 to 700. These are much the most ele-
vated points of the new red sandstone in the valley of the Con-
necticut : and the enquiry immediately suggests itself to the geol-
ogist, whether the formation was originally of this height through-
out its whole extent, and has been subsequently worn away, except
these ridges : or whether these have been raised so much above
the general level by a force acting beneath. The latter supposi-
tion would seem most probable, were it not for the proof exhibi-
ted by the above section, that no peculiar disturbing force has ac-
ted on these mountains. Had that been the case, either their strata
would exhibit a different dip from the formation generally, or they
would not correspond on opposite sides of the river. It seems to
^me perfectly obvious, after inspecting both these mountains, that
almost the only change their strata have undergone, was their
original elevation about 10° to 15o, along with every part of the
formation. And hence we are compelled to suppose, that the top
of mount Toby exhibits nearly the original elevation of the
whole formation. For the idea that such insulated peaks and ridg-
es, as those under consideration, were deposited in the insulated
and inclined position which they now occupy is perfectly absurd.
Further we must suppose that the strata of mount Toby originally
extended to the top of Deerfield mountain ; as is represented by
the dotted line ^ C in the section. Nay, on this suppositon, all
the strata of both mountains may have extended to the western side
of the valley, as at A.

The immense period requisite to wear away such amass of rock
as this theory supposes to have once occupied the whole valley of
the Connecticut, will seem to most minds the strongest objection
against its adoption : I mean supposing it to have been effected by
such causes as are operating at present. But this is not a solitary
example, in which geological phenomena indicate the operation of
existing causes through periods of duration, inconceivably long.
We may in this case, indeed, as I have already shown, suppose
the occurrence of numerous deluges in the earlier periods of our
globe. Still, even with the aid of such catastrophes, the work
must have been immensely protracted. And why should we hes-
itate to admit the existence of our globe through periods as long
as geological researches require ; since the sacred record does not
declare the time of its original creation : and since such a view of
its antiquity enlarges our ideas of the operations of the Deity in
respect to duration, as mu^h as astronomy does in regard to space ?

226 Scientific Geology.

Instead ol" bringing us into collision with Moses, it seems to me
that geology furnishes us with some of the grandest conceptions of
the Divine Attributes and plans to be found in the whole circle of
human knowledge.

The objection of a writer in the American Journal of Science,*
that such a height of waters as would deposite mount Toby, must
have produced a lake nearly to the upper part of New Hampshire,
in the Connecticut valley, and thus have caused the same sandstone
to be produced higher up that valley than Northfield, loses its force,
when it is recollected that this formation was deposited before its
strata were elevated. For the elevating force undoubtedly changed
the relative level of different parts of the country. In this case,
the disturbing force must have acted beneath the primary rocks.
And besides, we have good evidence, which will be shown by and
by, that our new red sandstone was formed beneath the ocean.
We cannot then reason on this subject from present levels.

If the preceding statements and reasonings be correct, in order
to ascertain the actual thickness of the new red sandstone strata
in the Connecticut valley, above the river, we mustadd the height
of mount Toby above the strata seam EH, to the height of Deer-
field mountain : that is, B Eto E S=C N. It certainly will not
exceed the truth to call B E 800 feet, and E S 400=1200, the
thickness of the strata above the bed of the Connecticut. In no
place that I know of has this river cut through the sandstone : and
hence we are almost entirely destitute of means of ascertaining
the thickness of the strata beneath the river. If the primary strata
have the same slope beneath the sandstone, as above it, this rock
cannot be less than 1000 to 2000 feet thick, beneath the river, or
A D. But this is little better than conjecture : both because the
slope of the primary strata is very unequal in different places, and
because probably the surface beneath the sandstone, is as uneven
as it is in other primary valleys : which is evinced by the curved
structure of the sandstone strata in some places.

In the second part of my Report I have described the cave and
fissure in Sunderland, as having been produced by the wearing
away of the inferior schistose strata, probably by water. There
is another fact which the observer will notice in various places on
the western declivity of Toby. The thick sandstone and con-
glomerate strata are often arranged in steps or terraces of great
height and thickness. At first view the mountain would seem to
to have been elevated by successive throes of some internal
force ; each paroxysm throwing up the central part of the moun-
tain higher, and higher, so as to produce these offsets. But there
is too much regularity in the stratification to admit of such a sup-
position. 1 should rather impute this terraced structure to the

* Vol. XXU. p. 223.

Thickness of the Strata.

227

action of those currents of water, which have excavated the val-
ley of the Connecticut. The rock exhibits occasionally cross
seams of stratification, nearly at right angles to the surface of the
layers : hence currents of water, frosts, Sec. would remove suc-
cessive portions as wide as these cross strata. On some of the
terraces huge masses of the rock yet remain, raised from their
original bed and irregularly mixed, hxxi not far removed.

It will be seen on the accompanying geological Map, that the
greenstone ridge which is marked in Sunderland, crosses the Con-
necticut in the north part of that town and then forms its western
shore as far north as Gill. The section that has just been given
crosses the Connecticut a little south of the place where the green-
stone crosses the river ; and consequently the greenstone is rep-
resented as on the east side of the river with the sandstone beneath
and above it. But north of the place where the greenstone
crosses the river, through the whole extent of Montague and
Deerfield, the following section represents the relative situation of
the two rocks.

Now I cannot but regard this fact as some evidence that the
valley between Deerfield mountain and Toby, has been to a great
extent excavated by water. For I can hardly conceive how so
deep a gorge should have been produced in this greenstone ridge
or dyke, at the period of its protrusion : certainly not without
causing great disturbance in the adjoining strata ; of which I have
seen no traces. The continuity of this ridge is uninterrupted ; as
are the dip and direction of the sandstone strata. But the whole
aspect of this valley, and especially the contour of Sugar Loaf,
correspond with the idea of excavation by water. The rocks in
place, too, on both sides of the river, to the height of several
hundred feet, bear the marks, in numerous grooves, of powerful
abrading agents.

If such an hypothesis, however, be admitted, this work must
have been performed while the region under consideration was in
a state quite different from what it is at present ; and probably by

228 Scientific Geology.

other streams than the Connecticut and its tributaries. For I
have in another place attempted to show, that these streams have
not, to any great extent, excavated their own beds : although the
reasoning which proved this position, would not apply to the val-
ley between Toby and Deerfield mountain, except by way of
analogy. If water did excavate that valley, probably it was pre-
vious to the deposition of the tertiary strata in the Connecticut
valley ; since no change of consequence has taken place in the
surface, (I mean by elevation or subsidence,) subsequent to that
peiiod : whereas some change of this kind must have taken place
since the excavation of this valley, if other streams than the Con-
necticut and its tributaries performed the work.

But enough, and probably more than enough, upon a subject
which is obviously involved in great obscurity. I confess that the
position which I have taken, and the reasoning which I have ad-
vanced, do not satisfy my mind : but at present I can offer nothing
better.

Mineral Contents.
Copper.

The veins of Copper ore, occurring at the junction of this
formation with the greenstone, are the most interesting mineral
treasure of the new red sandstone. Here are found several spe-
cies : viz. the pyritous copper, red oxide, and green carbonate :
and several masses of native copper, have been found in the valley
of the Connecticut, which probably originated in these veins. The
veins are quite numerous from New Haven to Northfield, and not
unfrequently extend into both rocks, the sandstone and greenstone.
Their gangue is sometimes sandstone, sometimes trap, and some-
times sulphate of baryta. On the most southern of the islands at
Turner's falls, the gangue of the pyritous copper is a brecciated
sandstone, the vein crossing the regular strata ; though coinciding
with them in direction. That is, both run nearly nor(,h and south ;
but while the slate dips about 45° easterly, the vein dips westerly.
It would seem as if the intrusion of the copper ore had broken a
portion of the sandstone into fragments, and the materials had
been partially melted, so that on cooling, a chemical union took
place between them and the walls of the vein. On the edges of
the sandstone strata, for several feet and even rods, around this
vein, may be seen numerous crystals of lenticular carbonate of
iron. (No. 240.)

All the veins of copper ore in the formation under considera-
tion, run in nearly the same direction, so far as I have examined
them : that is, nearly north and south ; indicating some common
cause from which they originated.

Copper and Coal. 299

The vein of pyritous and the green carbonate of copper, half a
mile below Turner's falls, in Greenfield, affords a good example,
at low water, of the passage of the vein through the trap and the
sandstone. Although it has not been explored, veins of sulphate
of baryta, sometimes several inches wide, and accompanied by
copper, may be seen passing into both rocks. The trap is that
variety denominated toadstone ; the base being apparently indu-
rated clay. The red slaty rock connected with the trap, may be
regarded as a variety of shale, sometimes a little micaceous. As
nearly as I could determine, this vein is perpendicular ; and as it
passes northerly into a lofty hill of trap, it might in that direction
be advantageously explored. A few hundred dollars laid out
here, would probably determine the value of the vein.

1 have put down a second copper vein on the Map, a mile or
two south of the one just described. I did it on what I thought
good authority ; but subsequent examination has led me to doubt
whether it has an existence ; although I am aware how easy it is
to overlook such a locality without a guide.

The copper ore in Granby, Ct. (called the Simsbury Mines,)
appears so far as it has been explored, to be a bed lying entirely
between layers of sandstone, which dip to the east a little more
than 20°, and running between north and south, and northeast and
southwest. The red oxide is the principal ore, sometimes mixed
with a little of the green carbonate. The gangue appears to be
gray sandstone. Since this mine has been re-opened, about a
thousand tons of good ore have been obtained. A new adit is
now in progress, which will strike the bed of copper ore about
200 feet below the surface.

Although nothing but sandstone is found where this bed of ore
crops out, yet a greenstone ridge appears a few rods distant, and
the dip of the bed is towards the greenstone, and must therefore
pass under it, or intersect it.

Native copper has been found in small pieces at this mine.

Coal.

It has long been known that coal was found in the sandstone of the
Connecticut valley : and on this fact mainly has the opinion been
based, that a real coal formation exists there. But I think I have
satisfactorily shown that this formation must be referred to the new
red sandstone group. Yet if this be admitted, shall we infer that
there is no hope that it may contain coal in such quantity, and of
such quality as to be useful for fuel ? A few years ago, geologists
would liave peremptorily decided this question in the affirmative:
but in the present state of their science, it seems to me we may
at least reasonably hesitate, and perhaps draw a contrary inference.
It is now generally admitted that all coal has a vegetable origin ;

28

230 ' Scientific Geology.

and that simply by the long continued action of water, under cer-
tain circumstances, vegetable matters pass into the state of peat,
next into lignite, then into bituminous coal, and finally into anthra-
cite: though this last substance more commonly, perhaps, results
from the action of heat on bituminous coal : and if the heat be
powerful enough, even plumbago may be produced ; ' as wood has
been,' (thus changed) says Dr. ]\Iacculloch,* in my experiments,
and as coal is daily in the iron furnaces.' Such a change he found,
in one case at least, produced upon common coal, in the vicinity
of a trap dyke: hence he reasonably infers, 'that even the plum-
bago of the , primary strata, no less than the anthracite, might as
well have originated in vegetables, as that each of these should
owe an independent origin to elementary mineral carbon.'

According to this theory, why may we not hope to find large
quantities of workable coal in any formation where we find it in
small quantities ? For, the same causes that could produce it in
thin beds, might reasonably be supposed adequate to the pro-
duction of large masses. Anthracite is found in almost every rock
from lias to gneiss ; and bituminous coal occurs in the oolitic and
new red sandstone series, as well as in the proper coal measures. f
True, so far as we yet know, the coal measures contain the prin-
cipal deposites of the latter species in Europe ; and perhaps in
this country : though 1 do not admit that our bituminous coal
fields have yet been certainly identified with those in Europe.
But who knows whether the circumstances under which our new
red sandstone was deposited, might not have been such as to pro-
duce extensive masses of coal ? This would not constitute so great
a difference between our new red sandstone and most of that in
Europe, as the almost entire absence in the former of gypsum and
rock salt ; minerals which, on the eastern continent, are regarded
as eminently characteristic of this formation. In Yorkshire, Eng-
land, coal has been found in the new red sandstone : and on the
European continent, as in Poland, J occasionally in thin seams :
and it has been recently ascertained, that the Brora coal field in
Scotland, which is probably the equivalent of that of Tecklenburg
— Lingen, in Prussia, is contained in the lias;|| a formation which

* System of Geologj', &c. Vol. I. p. 298.

t See Brongniart's Tableau de la Succession at de la Disposiiion des Terrains
et Roches, &c. Paris, 1829. Also, Conybeare and Phillips's Geology of England
and Wales, Vol. I. p. 329. Al. Brongniart also describes, as occurring in the
Plastic Clay Formation of Mount Meissner in Hesse, ' a true anthracite — that is
to say, a dense carbon without bitumen, sometimes with a dull, sometimes with a
shining fracture. We here find a thicker bed of compact, solid, bituminous c^ir-
bon, having a nearly straight fracture, burning with facility, and presenting many
of the characters of true coal.'— Phil. Mag. Vol. II. N. Series, p. 108,

t Conybeare's Report on Geology, (1832) p. 390,

II Philosophical Magazine, Vol, II, N, Series, p. 101.

Coal. 231

lies above the new red sandstone : and, therefore, every pre-
sumption is in favor of finding coal in the new red sandstone ;
since this lies between the lias and the real coal measures. This
conclusion is still further strengthened by the fact, that Humboldt,
Daubuisson, and other able geologists, consider tiie red sandstone
group, and the coal measures, as belonging to the same formation.*
All these facts prove, it seems to me, that it was a hasty generali-
zation which limited workable coal to the coal measures ; and that,
therefore, we should not be prevented from searching for coal in
the new red sandstone of the Connecticut valley.

The coal in this rock occurs in^the form of thin beds and irreg-
ular nodules, which are rarely but a few inches in diameter. In al-
most every instance, it appears to be the result of the carbonization
of a single plant, whose form can be distinctly traced ; though it
is always broken into fragments, whose length rarely exceeds two
feet. At Whitmore's ferry, in Sunderland ; in the north part of
South Iladley, and on the north bank of Westfield river in West
Springfield, the coal is highly bituminous : though least so at the
last named locality. But at Turner's falls, in Gill ; at the South-
ampton lead mine, and at Enfiel'd falls, (Connecticut,) it is an-
thracite. At the junction of this same formation with the green-
stone at Berlin, in Connecticut, Dr. Percival has described a vein
of bituminous coal penetrating the greenstone. He says, how-
ever, that 'it more usually has the appearance of cinders so mixed
up with siliceous matter as to be hardly combustible.'

It becomes an interesting inquiry, whether local circumstances
will enable us to explain why the coal at some of these localities
is bitunjinous, and at others anthracite. 'We know,' says Prof.
Al. Brongniart,! ' that the coal which is in contact with the veins
or dykes of basanite, or trap, that traverse it, and that which ap-
proaches masses of porphyry, is less bituminous than other por-
tions of the bed, and that it even loses all its bitumen, and in
passing to the state of anthracite, exhibits, as it were, a kind of
vitreous texture, &ic.' Few. geologists will now doubt but the
proximity of granite produces a similar effect. Now at Turner's
falls we know that a large mass of trap is not far from the coal ;
and at Southampton, that granite is still nearer; and hence we
should expect the coal at these places to have lost its bitumen. I
am not aware, however, of the proximity of either of these rocks
to the coal at Enfield falls ; though ignorant of its particular loca-
tion. At Sunderland and South Hadley the trap is so far distant,
that we are not surprised to find bitumen. The existence of bi-
tuminous coal, however, in the trap at Berlin, Ct. is quite remark-

*De la Beche's Geological Manual, 2d Edition, (London, 1823.) p. 405.
t Tableau des Terrains, &,c. p. 263.

232

Scientific Geology.

able ; and the fact that a portion of it is converted into pseudo-
cinders, proves that heat does not necessarily drive out the bitumen.
The contorted condition of the strata at the locality of coal in
West Springfield, renders it quite probable that trap rock exists a
short distance beneath the surface. The pretty uniform dip of
the strata, where they are laid bare in that town several miles in
vpidth, by Westfield river, is from 15° to 20o east. But at the
spot just referred to, we find the anomaly which is here sketched.

It is a satisfactory explanation of this case to suppose that green-
stone, or some other igneous rock, has pressed upwards with such
force between A and E, as to give to the strata a saddle shaped
appearance for a few rods. (Four rods from A to E.)\ If this hy-
pothesis be correct, we can hardly conceive, as in the case at Ber-
lin, why the bitumen is not expelled from the coal. Upon the
whole, the cases that have been mentioned, show that something
more than mere proximity to roCks of igneous origin, is necessiiry
for the conversion of bituminous coal into anthracite ; although
heat is undoubtedly the principal agent.

Generally the coal that has been described, occurs in a gray coarse
micaceous sandstone. But at the locality at West Springfield, it
is found in bituminous marlite. At Sunderland, it is in bituminous
shale.

Lead, Zinc, and Iron.

The sulphurets of these metals occur in a vein at the junction of
the greenstone and this formation, in Berlin, Ct. as described by
Dr. Percival. Galena and Blende, I have observed in small quan-
tities in the fetid limestone of West Springfield, at Paine's quarry,
and blende at Meachem's quarry. Sulphuret of iron is quite
common in the shale every where. Nodular argillaceous iron ore
also occurs in the same rock, at Turner's falls. South Hadley Ca-
nal, &c. The carbonate of iron at Turner's falls, has been already
described : and I suspect No. 241 to be the same mineral from
South Hadley Canal : though it resembles cinnabar. But the
chemical tests do not indicate the presence of mercury. From
its solution in nitro-niurialic acid, prussiate of potash threw down a
dense precipitate of the prussiate of iron.

Rotten Sto7ic, 8fc. 233

Iron Sand.

Bushels of this substance, highly magnetic, may sometimes be
collected on the Montague shore of Connecticut river, 40 rods
below Turner's falls. Probably it proceeds from the disintegration
of the new red sandstone at the falls. Some of the iron-colored
grains are not magnetic enough to be taken up by the magnet and
resemble iserine.

Rotten Stone.

This valuable substance cannot probably be regarded as a simple
mineral, since in the present case, it is merely fetid limestone that
has been partially decomposed by the action of a mass of green-
stone in the immediate vicinity ; or by some other cause. It is found
at Paine's quarry in West Springfield ; and in large quantities. Its
quality appears to be very excellent ; and in an economical point ol
view, it deserves attention. It is found also at South Hadley Canal,
on the West Springfield shore ; though of hardly so fine a quality,
and in much less quantity. It is not there associated with lime-
stone. (Nos. 217 to 221.)

Fibrous Limestone, or Satin Spar.

The red and black shales, as remarked in another place, on the
banks of Westfield river, in West Springfield, contain numerous
veins of this substance from an inch to a mere line wide. Some-
times it forms a thin seam between the layers of slate. The same
mineral occurs along with the fish impressions at Sunderland.
Common calcareous spar exists in these rocks as well as satin
spar.

Concreted carbonate of lime is frequently found in this formation.
At West Springfield I found it an inch or two thick between the
layers of sandstone, near the southern bed of fetid limestone. At
the Sunderland cave, it forms small and imperfect stalactites on
the coarse conglomerate : and on the same conglomerate, on the
cast side of mount Toby in Leverett, I found a large quantity of it
coating over a perpendicular wall several inches thick. (Nos. 22G
to 230.) This had obviously been derived from the conglom-
erate by water ; and it shows that carbonate of lime is more fre-
quent in this formation than one would be led to suspect from its
general appearance.

Sulphate of Baryta.

This mineral, as already remarked, accompanies the veins of
copper ore in the new red sandstone in niost instances, both in
Massachusetts and Connecticut. In this Slate, it is most abundant
at the copper veins in Greenfield ; where it forms veins from riix
to eight inches wide.

034 Scientific Geology.

Sidiihate of Stronda.

This mineral occurs in radiated masses upon fetid carbonate of
lime in West Springfield. Its specific gravity is about four; and
before the blow pipe, it melts and gives a slight tinge of red to the
flame.

Sulphate of Lime.

I have already mentioned, on the authority of Mr. E. Davis,
that this interesting mineral exists in small quantity on the banks
of Weslfield river, in West Springfield. I have found it also, in
the form of selenite, on gray sandstone at South Iladley Canal, in
quite small quantity. These facts are suflicient to encourage far-
ther research after so valuable a substance.

In some of the seams of the fetid limestone of West Springfield,
J have noticed thin layers of purple fluate of lime.

It ought not to be forgotten, that in Europe, the new red sand-
stone group is one of the depositories of salt and gypsum, as well
as the rich mines of IMercury in Carniola : nor ought it to be
supposed that our new red sandstone has been examined thorough-
ly enough, to render it certain that the same minerals do not ex-
ist here.

It is now also pretty well ascertained, that the diamond mines of
Golconda and Panna in India, and those in South America, occur
in a conglomerate belonging to the new red sandstone.* And
when we consider how easily one might overlook so rare a sub-
stance as diamond, observers, I siiould hope, will recollect this fact
in their future examinations of this rock in Massachusetts.

Organic Remains.

In Europe the new red sandstone is rather remarkable for a
paucity of organic relics. And the same seems to be true in this
country. Enough, however, have been found in this rock in the
valley of the Connecticut, to throw considerable liglit upon the
circumstances under which it was produced. And judging from
the success which I have had in the few direct efforts which I have
made for discovering the fossils of this formation, I predict that
subsequent examinations will bring to light many more. Much
obscurity, also, rests upon the nature of several of those which 1
have found, which farther research will I hope remove.

The remains found in this forn)ation are both vegetable and an-
imal. The former I shall first notice.

Those fragments of vegetables which are not uncommon in cer-
tain varieties of the new red sandstone, and which present a thin
layer of coal, having the general form of the original plant, might

* Conybeare's Report on Geology, (183-2,) p. 395 and 398,

Organic Remains. 235

have belonged, in some cases to dicotyledonous plants. And their
extremely broken condition shows that they were transported from
a distance to the places which they now occupy. Mixed with
them, however, and much less broken, we find impressions on the
shale, in which usually little vegetable matter remains. These are
rarely more than an inch, or an inch and a half wide ; but No. 252
is more than 4 inches wide, and this is the largest I have met with.
These impressions are slightly striated longitudinally : and proba-
bly belong to the tribe of fossil plants Calamites ; possibly to the
Calamites arcnaceus of Adolphe Brongniart.* Yet 1 have rarely
noticed any distinct articulations in the specimens. Not unfre-
quently a thin layer of coal occupies the place of the vegetable ;
its surface still exhibiting a striated or furrowed aspect. In-
deed, I think it possible that even those specimens that are
so much broken, (No. 253) may belong to the same family of
plants.

De la Beche mentions that the Lyco'podites Sillimanni — a fos-
sil plant peculiar to America — is found at Hadley in Connecticut.!
No such town exists in Connecticut ; and I can have but little
doubt this is a mistake for South Hadley, Massachusetts ;
for I know of some gentlemen in Connecticut, who obtained
some years ago, several peculiar vegetable fossils at that place ;
though I hate not been so fortunate. Professor Silliman,
who probably sent this fossil to Europe, has no recollection con-
cerning it.

I obtained a single specimen several years ago at Sunderland,
and gave a figure of it in the Gth volume of the American Journal'
of Science, which bears considerable resemblance to the rachis of
the voJtzia hrevijolia, when destitute of fructification, as figured
by Ad. Brongniart in the 15th volume of the Annales de Sciences,
and found in the sandstone formation near Strasburg.

In some of the lowest beds of this formation, (those which have
been heretofore called the old red sandstone,) I have lately found
in Deerfield and Greenfield, a singular petrifaction, v/hich Dr.
Morton says, ' evidently belongs to the fossil genus Fucoides, of
which Dr Harlan has described a species from the sandstone of
Genesee, New York, under the name of F. Brongniartii. (Amer.
Jour, of Geology.) If your specimens were weathered, their
specific characters would be more obvious, and would probably
prove identical with those from Genesee. Dr. Harlan, however,
has used a specific name already in use : for among British fossils,
there is a F. Brongniartii enumerated in Woodward's Catalogue,
1830; which species is figured in Mantell's Geology of Sussex.'

* Histoirc des Vegetanx Fossiles, Plate 23. Fig. 1.
tManiwl, p. 419, 2cl edition.

236 Scientific Geology.

This Fucoides varies in size from one tenth of an inch to an
inch in diameter. More commonly it runs through the rock in a
direction corresponding to that of the laminae ; in which case it is
considerably flattened. Sometimes it passes obliquely through
the layers, and very commonly crosses them at right angles ; in
which last case it has a cylindrical form. It is rare to see a spec-
imen of any considerable length, that is not more or less curved ;
and I have never met with one that was branched at all. I have
noticed specimens a foot or more in length, and they may be
much longer than this, since I have not met with any large mass
of rock containing them. The sandstone in which they are found
is rather fine and quite soft, and easily disintegrates. They occur
near Hoyt's quarries, one mile west of the village of Deerfield;
and also a few rods south of the county jail in Greenfield, close by
the stage road.

The vegetable matter in these remains is wholly replaced by
sandstone. By breaking the specirbens transversely, a curious
structure is revealed. It may be described, by saying that the
cylinder is made up of convex layers of sandstone, piled upon one
another : and I observe that in the same rock all the specimens
have the convex side of these layers in the same direction ; so
that on one side of the rock you will see numerous button-like
protuberances, and on the other side corresponding concavities.
(No. 258.) But I do not know which side is uppermost in the
rock, in situ. Nor am I familiar enough, either with living or fos-
sil agamous plants, to know whether there is any thing remarkable
in this structure.

An examination of the species of Fucoides described by Dr.
Harlan, has convinced me that the one now under consideration is
not the same. However much the latter is weathered, it never
presents that distinct appearance of articulation which gives to
Dr. Harlan's species so much the aspect of an encrinite. His
species Is also often distinctly branched ; ours, so far as I have
observed, never. And even if they are identical, Dr. Harlan's
specific name must be abandoned because already applied to anoth-
er species. Under these circumstances, I venture to denominate
this species, Fucoides Shepardi; as a mark of respect for my
friend Mr. Charles U. Shepard of New Haven, whose claims to
such a notice, every naturalist, who has read his productions on
Natural History, will be ready to acknowledge.

Plate XIII. figs. 38 and 39 are sketches of two specimens of
this Fucoides. -^

Fossil Trunk of a Tree.
1 saw this interesting relic several years ago, in Dr. Smith's

Animal Remains. 237

collection in Soulhbury, Ct. It was obtained in that place in the
sandstone formation extending from Woodbury to the Housatonic ;
which, although separated topographically from the new red sand-
stone of the Connecticut valley, appears to possess precisely the
same characters. The specimen to which I refer was cylindrical,
eight or ten inches in diameter, higlily siliceous, and exhibited the
bark very distinctly ; which if I do not misrecollect, was carbona-
ceous. It was discovered in a swamp, and a laborer, mistaking it
for a stump of a recent tree, struck it with his axe; and being
vexed at the injury his instrument received, he in revenge broke
it almost to pieces. The unbroken fragment in Dr. Smith's pos-
session, however, was several inches long.

The circun)stances above related, render it probable that this
trunk, when first discovered, stood in the position in which it
grew ; as has been found to be the case in numerous instances in
the sandstones of Europe.

Animal Remains.

About thirteen years ago, an interesting discovery of the bones
of an animal was made in digging a well near Ketch's Mills, in
the east parish of East Windsor, Ct. The rock is a red con-
glomerate, belonging to the higher part of the new red sandstone,
and exceedingly resembles in color and hardness the conglomerate
X)f the lowest beds. The workmen penetrated five feet of soil be-
fore reaching the rock, and then blasted the latter to the depth of
eighteen feet, before reaching the bones. And although little care
was taken to obtain these in a proper state for examination, and
they were mostly scattered among visitors to the spot, yet the fol-
lowing facts may be depended on.

The most remarkable fact is, that these bones were not at all nnn-
eralized ; but retained the color and other characters of bones that
have long been buried. On exposure to the air, they were much
disposed to crumble down. Yet this was not universally the case,
as two or three small fragments, still in my possession, testify.
These bones belonged to a vertebral animal, about five feet long,
which lay horizontally in the rock ; and as the caudal vertebrae
were quite numerous, projecting in a curve eighteen inches beyond
the body of the skeleton, I suspect these bones belonged to a
saurian animal ; especially since such animals have been lound in
the new red sandstone in Europe.

Having understood that an individual in East Windsor, (for liis
own sake I will not mention his name,) had preserved several frag-
ments of these bones, and finding that geologists abroad were be-
ginning to doubt whether any such discovery had been made, I
travelled seventy miles, accompanied by an artist, in the hope of
being allowed to take sketches of the specimens. But I was not

29

238 Scientific Geology.

permitted even to look at them. 1 tried to console myself under
so unexpected a disappointment, first, by reflecting that 1 had not
received such treatment any where else ; and secondly, by repeat-
ing the sentiment — jparvum parva decent.

IchthyoUtes.

The remains of fish have been found on bituminous shale and
bituminous marlite, in Middletown, Ct. at Sunderland Mass. and
also in West Springfield and Deerfield. Sunderland, however, is
the only spot where they can now be procured. The shale there
forms the bank of the river several feet high : but the ichthyolites
are most abundant in the lower part of the bed, which corresponds
nearly with low water mark. 1 have dug out hundreds of speci-
mens at this spot ; though perfect ones are very rare to be obtain-
ed. On one layer of the rock, fifteen inches by three feet, seven
distinct impressions were visible. Indeed, I have not unfrequently
met with one fish lying across another, without the intervention of
a layer of shale : and from these specimens, I can easily conceive
how the mistake should have been made, that among the Monte
Bolca ichthyolites, one fish was found in the act of swallowing
another !

A thin layer of carbonaceous matter usually marks out the spot
where the fish lay ; except the head, whose outlines are rendered
visible only by irregular ridges and furrows. In some cases,
however, satin spar forms a thin layer over the carbonaceous
matter, and being of a light gray color, it gives to the speci-
mens an aspect extremely like that of a fish just taken from the
water.

We sometimes find the specimens a good deal mutilated ; so
much so, indeed, that the form of the fish is entirely lost : and the
scales and fins are scattered about promiscuously : and this too in
the vicinity of other specimens that are entire. Hence we cannot
impute this mutilation, as is usually done, to a disturbing force ac-
ting on the rock at the time in which the fish was enveloped, or
afterwards. But if we suppose that the fish, as they died, were
gradually enveloped by mud, it is easy to conceive how some of
them might have putrified and fallen to pieces, before they were
buried deep enough to be preserved : or it might be that the fish
was mostly devoured by some other animal ; and in either of these
ways, we might expect to find only scattered relics enveloped in
the rock.

The great resemblance of these ichthyolites to those found on
the bituminous slate of Mansfield, in Germany, has been already
noticed. Probably all of them belong to the genus Palaeothrissum.
I am inclined to believe that I have found four species. Plate
XIV, Figs. 45 and 48, are probably the same species : the out-

Zoophyta, 239

lines of the latter being sketched, merely because they are more
distinct than those of Fig. 45. Forty nine fiftieths of the speci-
mens at Sunderland belong to this species. Fig. 46 is a smaller
species ; differing very decidedly from the first, but very rarely
met with. Fig. 44 is still smaller : the scales being minute ; and I
have found only one specimen of it. The fish in this case, as may
be seen by the drawing, appears not to have lain upon itsside, as
they generally do, when it was enveloped in the rock. There is
occasionally found a specimen of greater length than any which
are sketched ; and yet the scales are smaller than those on Fig.
45 : I suspect this to be a fourth species : but I have no specimen
sufficiently perfect to permit a drawing to be taken.

MoUusca.

The only molluscous animal which I have detected in the new
red sandstone formation, was found in rolled masses in Amherst;
and the only specimen at all distinct, is sketched on Plate XI,
Fig. 17 ; and belongs to the College collection in that place. Al-
though much broken, there can be little doubt but it is an orthoc-
era. For a long time I supposed the rock containing this mould,
was a wacke-like trap : but I am now satisfied that it is a mica-
ceous sandstone, more indurated than is common. I should not
be surprised if it should hereafter appear, that the vicinity ol
Turner's falls is the spot from which this specimen originated.

At those falls I obtained the specimen No. 282, on whose sur-
face are some protuberances that much resemble a univalve shell :
but they may be concretions.

Zoojphi/ta.

Under this head I introduce a remarkable organic relic, which I
recently discoverd on the brown shale, or rather fine micaceous sand-
stone, on the banks of Westfield river, (generally called Agawam
river near its mouth,) in West Springfield. It is characterised by
grooves and correspondent ridges, which sometimes ramify, and
by small somewhat polygonal reticulations, which cover the entire
surface of the shale as far as the grooves extend. (Nos. 264,
265.) These reticulations are rarely more than one quarter of an
inch in diameter, and they diminish in size as we approach one
extremity of the impression. No animal or vegetable matter re-
mains upon the shale, yet the grooves and the reticulations are
quite distinct. Plate XIII, Figs. 34 and 35, are sketches of this
organic impression ; the latter showing the diminution in size of
the net work, towards one extremity. The reticulations and
grooves are of the natural size in both figures.

1 found this impression on the north bunk of Westfield river, ia

240 Scientific Geology.

the west part of West Springfield. The shale containing it pass-
es on one side under the river ; the impression still continuing in
that direction, as far as the rock could be examined. On the
other side, that is, northerly, I found it to extend eleven feet, and
at least two feet in width ; nor did the margin of the specimen ap-
pear in any direction. More recently the spot has been visited
by Solomon Lathrop Esq. of West Springfield, who has uncovered
the impression eighteen feet in length, and at least four feet in
width. Towards the north, he found the reticulations to become
finer, until at length the impression ceased to appear in that direc-
tion ; but how much farllier it extends under the river, he could
not ascertain. And he says, ' how much wider the impression is
(than four feet,) I cannot tell, but should presume several feet.'
Thus we ascertain the existence of an animal or vegetable relic, at
least eighteen feet long and four feet wide ! and it may occupy
twice or thrice that extent !

But which is it, animal or vegetable ? I have searched in vain
for any thing resembling it in Brongniart's Vegctaax Fosailcs, m
Parkhurst's Organic Remains, and in all other descriptions of a
similar kind, within my reach. But the reticulations certainly bear
a strong resemblance to those on some existing species of Gorgo-
nia, or sea fan; to the G. reticulata, for example, as figured in
Rees' Cyclopedia : although in this species we see nothing that
could have produced the grooves so obvious on the fossil. The
fossil Gorgoniae, also, as figured by Goldfuss, especially the G.
ripistena and injandihulfornm* bear considerable resemblance
to the iuipression from West Springfield : but these species are
only an inch and a half long. Yet some of the existing species
' in deep bays, and similar situations of the sea, no less fiivorable
to their growth and increase, attain to the gigantic height of ten
or twelve feet ; and from their number as well as magnitude ;
their remarkable ramose, and foliated or flabelliform appearance ;
interwoven structure, or coral-like texture, form a conspicuous por-
tion of those vast sub-marine ' groves of coral' that are sometimes
seen by navigators in the hotter regions of the globe. 'f

Upon the whole, I am strongly inclined to believe that this
interesting relic must have been an enormous Gorgonia. True,
no discovery has yet made of the central stem : but who knows
that the shale has yet been explored far enough in width to dis-
cover it. If so, this specimen may yet be found to be from eight
to ten feet in width ! J

*Petrifacta, Plate VII, fig. 2, and Plate X, fig. I.

t Rees' Cyclopedia, Art. Goigunia.

t While the proof sheet of this page for the first edition, was under examination,
I received, through the kindness of Professor Siiliinan, Mr. Withain's ' Ohscr-
valiuns on Fossil Vegetables,' Edinburgh, Ifci^l ; and las ' Description of a Fossil

Gofgonia. 241

No one, who admits this fossil to be a Gorgonia, will doubt, I
think, that it is an undescribed species. I therefore take the
liberty to dedicate it to Dr. C. T. Jackson of Boston, under the
name of Gorgonia Jacksoni. This I do without any personal
acquaintance with Dr. Jackson, in testimony of my respect for his
attainments and productions in geological and mineralogical science.

Plate XllI, Fig. 36, is a sketch of an impression found in the
same shale, only an inch or two higher up in the rock. (No. 256.)
It scarcely differs from the others, except in the absence of the
the reticulations. Mr. Lathrop, who sent me this specimen,
could discover none of these. But I have noticed that frequently
the reticulations are attached to a very thin layer of shale, which
easily cleaves off and leaves an impression precisely like that in
the figure. Hence I suspect that these reticulations will be found
connected with the grooves : although I can easily conceive of
different species in which the net work should be absent. And
Mr. Lathrop says, that such as are represented in the figure are
quite abundant, not only at the spot mentioned above, but also
half a mile nearer the village of West Springfield, wiiere he says,
* the leaves are larger, and in one instance the edge appeared
serrated.'

On the surface of the same shale, along the same river, we find
irregularly ramified masses of fiint, or silceious slate, from half an

Tree in the Ctuarry at Craigieith,' Edinburgh, 1833; and I was at once struck
with the resemblance between several of the drawings in those works, and
those which I have presented of the fossil described in the text. But Mr. With-
am's drawings represent sections — mostly transverse — of fossil trees a.s seen
through the microscope ; and therefore, the specimens from which they were
taken, cannot be remotely allied to the fossil at West Springfield, which con-
sists simply of an impression upon shale.

The botanist will also notice a resemblance between the drawing of the fossil
described in the text, and a drawing of the bark of the Xanlhorhaa hastilis, in
DecandoUe's ' Organographie Vegetale.' * But the latter exhibits only the
inner side of the bark, which would not be shown in a fossil state ; and it is clear
from Plates VII and VIII of that work, that the whole trunk of the Xanlhorhoea
would present a very ditferent appearance in a fossil state, from that of the West
Springfield relic.

Professor Silliman has kindly given me his opinion in respect to the character
of the sandstones in the Connecticut valley: and I shall lake the liberty to insert
it here. It will be seen that there is no real discrepancy between us on the sub-
ject. He is more confident than I am of the existence of the old red sandstone in
this valley ; while I merely say, that I have not evidence enough of its existence
to justify me in marking it on the Map. Professor Silliman, I trust, will excuse
the liberty which I take in copying his opinion from a private letter, since it is
the opinion of one who examined this subject much earlier than myself, and who,
in my earliest as well as latest geological pursuits, I have always regarded as
my counsellor, patron, and friend.

' My impression is,' says he, ' that both the old and the new red sandstone exist
in the great formation of Massachusetts and Connecticut : that the old lies the
lowest, and is palpably (at least here) granite ruins : that the new lies higher in
the series; and that the coal formation may come between them as elsewhere.'

* Plate VIII. Fig. 6, (I'aris, isar.)

242 Scientific Geology.

inch to an inch in diameter. I could not resist the impression that
this siliceous matter may have taken tlie place of a zoophyte : al-
thouj^h I have seen no certain evidence of organization. (No.
267.) But if the specimens that have been described are Gor-
goniae, we have certainly presumptive evidence that other zoo-
phytes would be found in the same rock.

Radiaria.

Under this name I have a specimen, perhaps still more remark-
able than the last, to introduce. It is from the fetid limestone in
West Springfield. Plate XII, Figs. 29, 30, 32 and 33, are intend-
ed to convey an idea of the most important varieties of this pet-
rifaction, which I have hitherto discovered. Fig. 33 exhibits its
most common form. This is composed of cylindrical bodies, usu-
ally less than half an inch in diameter, and several inches long,
running in a parallel direction through the limestone. On break-
ing them transversely, they are seen to consist of concentric lay-
ers of carbonate of lime, of various shades of color : the outside
of the external layers (and, indeed, more or less so of the others,)
being covered with small warty protuberances ; but showing no
marks of transverse septa. Not unfrequently a small perforation
occupies the centre of the cylinder; and at other times it is occu-
pied by calcareous spar, which probably entered by infiltration.
A radiated structure is generally quite obvious : especially
when specimens are newly fractured crosswise. (Nos. 268 to
277.)

Fig. 32 exhibits one of these cylinders, terminated by a sphe-
roidal head, and covered over with the warty protuberances that
have been mentioned.

Sometimes these cylinders enlarge and several of them (fre-
quently three) become united, so that the outer layers enclose the
whole : as is shown in Fig. 30.

In one or two instances, numerous small cylinders become uni-
ted in this manner, and form a rather confused mass in the centre,
surrounded, however, by distinct layers. In this case great en-
largement takes place, as in Fig. 29. The lower part of that
specimen, which cannot be seen in the sketch, exhibits numerous
small and distinct tubes, which by extending an inch or two, be-
come blended in the confused mass that occupies the central parts,
as seen on the upper surface in this figure.

The appearance of a concretionary structure is so marked in
some specimens, that one or two geologists, for whose opinions I
entertain a high respect, have even suggested whether this re-
markable substance be a real petrifaction ; and inquired whether
it may not be of a nature similar to the columnar limestone, de-
scribed by CajU. Bonnycastle with a plate, in the 20ih volume of

Theoretical Considerations, 243

the Am. Journal of Science. Judging from the plate, as well as
s|)eciinens which I have seen of that limestone, 1 am satisfied that
the specimens from Springfield are of a very different character,
and exhihit far more marks of organic structure. Indeed, 1 can
hardly doubt but they are real petrifactions ; but having examined
Goldfuss' Petrifacta, Miller's Crinoidea, Sowerby's Mineral Con-
chology, Parkinson's Organic Remains, &;c., I can find no fossil
resembling these. The new genus Marsupites of Mantel!* does
indeed, bear some resemblance to that under consideration ; but
they are probably different. General analogies only, have led me
to regard them as having resulted from the petrifaction of radiated
animals : though I am by no means sure that they are not of veg-
etable origin.

The specimens, Nos. 263 and 265, were obtained from the
shale that forms the north bank of Westfield river, in West Spring-
field : and from their general aspect, I suspect them to be Encri-
ni : though they may be of the same nature as the remains just
described. The mineralizer in this case seems to be argillo-ferru-
ginous limestone, except the central part.

Whether the Nos. 283, and 284, are to be regarded as organic
relics, I feel unable to decide.

Theoretical Considerations.

The new red sandstone series that has been described, consist-
ing chiefly of the fragments of older rocks from the surrounding
region, must obviously have been produced chiefly by the agency
of currents of water, which first wore away these rocks, and then
transported and deposited the fragments where we now find them.
By what agent or agents their consolidation was effected, we may
not be able, perhaps, in the present state of geological science, to
determine. We do know, however that water, air, and heat, may
all, under certain circumstances, accomplish this work. Water
may contain in solution some cement, say carbonate of lime, which
shall be deposited in tiie interstices between water-worn fragments
and thus unite them. Air, it is also well known, by abstracting
water from some of the materials that form rocks, does sometimes
effect their consolidation. Heat, likewise, in the same manner,
if it be sufficiently powerful, by producing also a crystalline
arrangement of the materials, will harden them into stone. Now
in the case of the red sandstone, all these causes may have con-
spired to effect its consolidation. The existence of beds of lime-
stone in this formation, and of carbonate of lime diftused through
some of the varieties of the shale, and even of the coarse conglom-
erates, shows that deposition from chemical solution in water, was

* Geology of the S. East of England, (London, 1833,) p. 114,

244 Scientific Geology.

one of the important agencies concerned in its production. The
inchned position of the strata, as well as the character of the or-
ganic remains, show that these rocks have been elevated from be-
neath the water, and of consequence have been, at least in part,
hardened by dessication. And the presence of trap rocks in the
midst of the formation, not to speak of other proofs of igneous
action, demonstrates the agency of heat in its consolidation.

It will naturally be inquired, how the red color, so characteristic
of the most important varieties of this rock, could have been pro-
duced. Undoubtedly it proceeds from the red oxide of iron, which,
in some way, has been diffused through the mass. But whether
heat or water was the agent employed, may be doubtful. We
find in breaking open the fragments in the conglomerates, that the
smaller ones are penetrated throughout by this coloring matter ;
while the larger ones are colored only to a certain depth. (See
No. 143.) Now, has the iron actually penetrated these nodules,
or has water or heat changed the iron, which they originally con-
tained, into the peroxide ? The latter supposition appears to me
most probable : and though air and water might possibly produce
such a change to some extent, yet I think we must call in the
agency of heat to explain the very thorough manner in which
some of the finer sandstones of this group have been colored red.
For I doubt whether air and water can do much in this process,
unless they also produce incipient decomposition.

In another place 1 have advanced an hypothesis to explain the
manner in which such sudden and numerous alternations of the
coarsest and the finest materials in this rock may have been pro-
duced : viz. by the flux and reflux of mighty deluges, caused by
the elevation of mountain chains in various parts of the globe.
Some of these waves may have resulted from the elevation of
the strata of the older rocks on which the sandstone rests uncon-
formably ; for the strata of the former are much nearer to verti-
cality than those of the latter ; and, therefore, must liave been
raised before the deposition of the sandstone, at least to some ex-
tent. In some cases, however, there is reason to believe that
the abraded fragments were transported southerly. Thus, the
conglomerate in Greenfield and Bernardston, near the argi Ho- mi-
caceous slate, out of whose ruins it was obviously formed, (Nos.
137, 138, 139,) lies south of the parent rock; though a stratum
of the slate might once have extended farther south than at pres-
ent, and have been worn away by the powerful reflux wave which
rushed easterly, when the Hoosic range of mountains was eleva-
ted. The fragments of the conglomerate of mount Toby and in
Montague, correspond somewhat with rocks found sevei'al miles to
the north, within the limits of Vermont and New Hampshire:

Theoretical Considerations. 245

though it must be admitted that these rocks also, might once have
extended farther to the south than they now do.

It is an interesting inquiry, whether the greenstone ranges now
existing in the very midst of the sandstone formation, were pro-
duced anterior to that rock, or during the same epoch, or after-
wards. In all the lower beds of the sandstone formation, I have
never found a single fragment of the greenstone ; and, therefore,
I infer that the latter rock did not exist previous to the deposition
of these beds. Nor have I found any of the trap in the conglom-
erates of the higher beds, except a narrow stratum, which I have
described under the name of trap conglomerate : and which lies in
immediate contact with the greenstone of Tom and Holyoke, so as
rest upon it. Greenstone must, therefore, have existed in the
vicinity, before the formation of this conglomerate ; and there is
only one difficulty in supposing the whole of the greenstone in
the Connecticut valley to have been produced immediately subse-
quent to the deposition of the lower beds of the sandstone. From
some facts to which I have already alluded, and which I shall de-
scribe more particularly in speaking of greenstone, it would seem
that the upper beds of the sandstone, those that lie even higher
up in the series than the trap conglomerate, have been disturbed
and elevated by the intrusion of the greenstone. Hence I should
infer, that the greenstone continued to be produced, until nearly
all the beds of sandstone had become consolidated : and that prob-
ably the existing trap ridges were the last erupted. From all
these facts, then, I infer, that greenstone began to be erupted not
far from the middle of the epoch of the deposition of the sand-
stone ; and continued to be thrown up at intervals, during the re-
mainder of the period in which the sandstone formation was ad-
vancing to its completion.

I have assumed it as a fact, that the sandstone formation under
consideration was deposited beneath the ocean, and subsequently
elevated. The proof is quite conclusive. Imperfect as is the ac-
count which I have been able to give of the organic remains in
this group, it contains enough, I think, to settle this point. To
whatever species the Fucoides that occurs in the lower beds may
be referred, we may be sure that it was a marine plant. For, says
Adolphe Brongniart, ' these plants (the Algae, including the Ul-
vaceae and Fucoideae,) grow almost without exception in salt wa-
ter ; certain Ulvae only being able to develope themselves in fresh
water.'* This opinion is still farther confirmed by what that same
writer says of the species of Fucoides found in the new red sand-
stone of Mansfeld, in Germany, including of course the bitumi-
nous marlite. 'Out of seven species,' he says, ' five to all appear-

♦ HiHtoirc clcs Vcgelaux Fussilcs, I Liviaison, p. 37.
30

246 Scientific Geology.

ance, belong to two genera which best characterise marine vege-
tation in the torrid zone.'* If the reticulated fossil, which 1 have
described, be a real Gorgonia, as I suppose, it furnishes another
conclusive proof of the marine origin of this formation : fortius
animal is exclusively marine. As to the fishes found in the shale
of this formation, Brongniart says, that ' many of them may be re-
ferred to genera living commonly in fresh water : but others are
generally marine ; ' and he infers from the other fossils that occur
in the same rock, that it was deposited in salt water. Concerning
the Palaeothrissum, the only genus of fishes yet found in our
sandstone, as no similar fish is now known to exist on the globe,
we cannot say whether it was an inhabitant of fresh or salt water ;
except that the other remains found in connection with this, so far
as we know their nature, are marine : and, therefore, we infer that
this fish was so too.

This conclusion corresponds with those that have been made in
other countries, as to the new red sandstone group. Every where
it is found, when carefully examined, to have had a marine origin ;
though some members of the series do contain fresh water remains,
or those of land animals, or vegetables ; and hence they are some-
times called fluvio-marine : that is, they were formed in estuaries,
or shallow seas, into which the organic products of the land and
fresh water were occasionally borne by rivers. But in the new
red sandstone of the Connecticut valley, no animal relic has yet been
found, which is decidedly of fluviatile, lacustrine, or terrestrial
origin ; although a part of the vegetable remains (the Calamites,)
undoubtedly grew upon dry land and in a tropical climate.

It is certainly an interesting thought, that this delightful valley,
which now forms so charming a residence for man, once constituted,
and for an immense period, the bottom of a tropical ocean, where
gigantic Gorgoniae, certainly 20, and perhaps 40 feet high, formed
coral groves, and Fucoideae more numerous, flourished. The as-
tonishing ciiange brought about in the course of ages, exalts our con-
ceptions of the wisdom and extent of the plans of the Deity;
and leads us to anticipate future changes, whenever those plans
require.

I have said that it was a tropical ocean. I mean that its tem-
perature was much higher than that of the ocean which now wash-
es our shores. For otherwise, how could sea-fans, larger than any
which our tropical seas now produce, have been sustained. The
fact that in early times, while the secondary rocks were depositing,
the climate in high latitudes must have been much warmer than at
present, is, indeed, so completely established by researches in
other parts of the world, that it would be strange if we should not

♦ Hist, des Veg. Poy. p. 43

Theoretical Considerations. 247

find the same thing to be true on this continent. But the few
facts which 1 have detailed, that throw any light on this inquiry, nil
tend to show that there is no exception here to the general law.
New England certainly had a tropical climate when the ocean that
deposited the new red sandstone stood over it. And Adolphe
Brongniart says, that two species of Fucoides, found in the Tune-
stone of Canada, approach very near to a genus of these plants
that now grows only in tropical seas : a fact that tends to corrob-
orate the views which have been presented relative to the new red
sandstone of the Connecticut valley.

A careful examination of the fossils of this sandstone, will con-
vince any one that their resemblance to any now found living on
the globe, is very faint : so that probably they cannot be referred
to the same genera, much less to the same species. This too ac-
cords with the facts that have been observed in other parts of the
world. The farther down in the series of rocks we penetrate, the
more unlike living animals and plants are those found in a fossil
slate. And it seems to be now pretty well established, that there
have been several successive creations and extinctions ol animals
and plants on our globe, before the production of its present or-
ganized beings. It is not certainly ascertained how many of these
destructions and renewals have taken place. Adolphe Brongniart
thinks that four changes of this kind are clearly discernible among
fossil vegetables.* Hence he infers, that there have been four
periods of vegetation since the creation ; each differing from the
other by a marked distinction in the species, and even genera of
plants, and in the numerical jiroportion of the different kinds.
During the first period, the strata, from the lowest fossihlerous
rocks to the lower part of the new red sandstone, were deposited.
The second period includes the time during which the new red
sandstone series was forming. During the third period, the veget-
ables lived, which are found between the new red sandstone group
and the chalk, including the latter. The fourth period commenced
after the deposition of the chalk, and reaches to the highest of the
tertiary deposites. During each successive period, the vegetation
becomes more perfect; that is to say. vascular cryptogamian plants
predominated vastly during the earlier jjeriods, while dicotyledo-
nous and monotylcdonous vegetables [)revailed during the last pe-
riod. The same is true in respect to animals. Those found in
tlie lowest rocks are extremely simple in their organization, and
vertebral anin»als, except perhaps a few fishes, do not appear low-
er down than the new red sandstone ; while land animals begin to
Hj)pear still higher in the series.

The conclusions of Dr. Maculloch appear to coincide neaily

■'• Dicliuiiuaiic D'Hi.-iuiic JNaliucllc, Ait. Vcstiau.\ lo.^siles

248 Scientific Geology.

with those of Brongniart ; and the formci writer takes animals as
well as vegetables into the account. 'Thus then,' says he ' if
these views are correct, 1 have demonstrated four extinctions of
antecedent organized creations : while there are two more perhaps
less satisfactorily proved.'* He seems to be disposed afterwards
to raise this number to seven, or even eight, including man and the
existing race of animals.

Sir Charles Bell, the most distinguished anatomist in Great
Britian, regards the great difference between the living and the
fossil animals, and between those in successive groups of rocks, as
decisive evidence of new creations. The principles of compara-
tive anatomy, he considers as proving this beyond all reasonable
doubt. ' Every thing, ' says he, ' declares the species (of animals)
to have its origin in a distinct creation, not in a gradual variation
from some original type ; and any other hypothesis than that of a
new creation of animals suited to the successive changes in the in-
organic matter of the globe — the condition of the water, atmos-
phere and temperature — brings with it only an accumulation of
difficulties. 't

Recent discoveries in astronomy render it probable that there
exist disturbing forces among the heavenly bodies ; very feeble,
indeed, but which must, after periods of immense length, produce
important and extensive changes and catastrophes among suns and
planets. And one cannot but inquire, whether there may not be
some kind of connection between these astronomical and geolog-
ical periods. But we ought to recollect, in the language of Pro-
fessor Whewell, that ' our knowledge of the vast periods both ge-
ological and astronomical, of which we have spoken, is most slight.
It is in fact little more than that such periods exist, that the surface
of the earth, has, at wide intervals of time, undergone great chan-
ges in the deposition of land and water, and in the forms of ani-
mal life ; and that the motion of the heavenly bodies round the
sua are affected, though with inconceivable slowness, by a force
which must end by deranging them altogether. It would, therefore,
be rash to endeavor to establish any analogy between the periods
thus disclosed ; but we may observe that they agree in this, that
they reduce all things to the general rule of finite duration.'!

It ought not, however, to be forgotten in this connection, that
not a few of the disclosures of modern astronomy give us reason
to believe, that some of the heavenly bodies are now in that semi-
chaotic condition, in which they arc unfit residences for such na-
ture as ours, and are in fact in a state similar to that in which the

* Syatem of Geology, Vol. II. p. 432.
+ The Haricl, its Mechanism, &.K. p. 115.
i WhcwL'U's LJridgwatei Treatise, p. 157.

Theoretical Considerations. 249

earth was for ages previous to the creation of man ; that is, slowly
passing from a desolate to a habitable condition. The comets ap-
pear to be in the extreme of desolation,, even in a gaseous state,
demanding periods incalculably long, by the operation of natural
laws, for their consolidation, and conversion into fit abodes for ani-
mal and rational natures. Possibly still farther removed from such
a state, may be the nebulae. The moon appears to be so far re-
deemed from the uncontrolled violence of volcanoes, as to be adap-
ted perhaps to some animal natures. Jupiter is not improbably
still covered by one wide ocean, in which such monsters as our
secondary strata disclose, may now have sway. In short, astrono-
my has disclosed enough of the geology of other worlds, to render
probable the conjecture, that they are undergoing those astonishing
changes, which seem to have taken place, or to be now progressing,
within and upon our own.

I am aware that such conclusions as these will seem to many at
variance with the sacred record. For IMoses speaks only of one
creation of plants and animals. But if it be only admitted, as it
seems to me the principles of a just interpretation demand, that
after mentioning the original production of the universe out of
nothing, he leaves untouched an indefinite period, of what may
be called the semi-chaotic state of the globe, we shall find no dif-
ficulty in reconciling every apparent discrepancy. For during this
long period, all those creations and revolutions which the strata
now reveal, may have taken place ; and the animals and plants
thus brought to light, are of exactly the character which we should
expect might exist in a semi-chaotic condition of the globe. But
of what possible use, in amoral point of view, and in a revelation
for the great mass of mankind, would it have been, to have given
an account of the creation and extinction of certain huge ferns,
sea weeds, zoophytes, and sea monsters, whose relics would be
brought toJight, not till several thousand years afterwards, by the
researches of geologists ?

That the first chapter of Genesis admits of the interpretation
which I have suggested, is rendered probable from the fact that
commentators of no mean name had adopted it long before geolo-
gists had suggested the difficulties that have been mentioned.
Bishop Patrick, for instance, more than 200 years ago, is full and
explicit on the subject in his Commentary. Not a few of the dis-
tinguished commentators and theologians of our own days have
advanced the same opinion. Suffice it to mention the names of
such men as Bishops Horsley, Sunmer, and Gleig : Dr. Chahners,
Dr. Buckland, Professors Kossenmuller, Conybeare, Whewell,
Jameson, Sir Charles Bell, Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Sharon Tur-
ner, &i.C.

So far then from finding in these facts and conclusions of gcol-

250 Scientific Geology.

ogy any objections to the Mosaic records, I find in them a striking
evidence ol the benevolence of the Deity. For during the long
period above spoken of, the globe was evidently preparing for the
residence of man, and the other animals that now^ inhabit it. Be-
fore their creation, its temperature was too high, and its surface too
liable to be broken up by volcanoes and drenched by deluges, to
be a secure and happy abode for the more perfect races of animals
that now inhabit it. But it was adapted to the nature and habits
of such aninmls and vegetables as we now find entombed in the
rocks. The overflowing benevolence of the Deity, therefore, led
him to- place such beings upon it ; and thus to communicate a vast
amount of happiness, which seems to be a grand object in all his
plans and operations. The vegetables that existed in those early
periods, have been converted, in the course of time, into the va-
rious species of coal now dug from the bowels of the earth; while
the remains of the animals of those times have become changed
into limestone. And even those violent volcanic agencies, by
which the successive races of plants and animals have been sud-
denly destroyed, have probably introduced into the upper part of
the earth's crust, various metallic veins very important to human
happiness. And in all this, we see indications of that same be-
nevolent foresight and care, for supplying the wants of his crea-
tures, to which our daily individual experience of God's goodness
testifies.

I deduce another moral consideration of no little importance,
from the facts and conclusions that have been stated. So constant
and uniform are the operations of nature in general, that philosophy
has always been prone to regard the universe as a most curious
machine, set in motion at the beginning by an all-wise being, who
having furnished it with every thing requisite to keep it eternally
in play, has left it to run on in the prescribed course, without his
interference, and without any need even of his direction and su-
perintendance. Indeed, some have thought this machine so per-
fect, as to need no creating and superintending Cause, if we only
admit it to have been eternally in motion. But these records of
geology show us that this supposed uniformity has been often bro-
ken in upon. For if the geologist can explain how the operation
of natural laws might destroy races of plants and animals, he must
admit a special miraculous interference in the creation of new ones.
The resemblances between the plants and animals in each of the
divisions of the strata, that have been mentioned, even to the very
limits of each division, and the suddenness of the change that then
takes |)lace in their characters, preclude the idea, so much of a
favorite with certain philosophers, that all was the result of a
gradual metamorphosis. Now if we thus ascertain that God has
specially interfered with the operation of natural laws in the in-

Theoretical Considerations. 251

stances under consideration, the presumption is, that he may in-
terfere again, whenever the good of liis universe demands. Thus
do we get rid of a liost of atheistical objections, with which the
the student of natural theology finds his path encumbered. It
would have been well, if some, who can see nothing but atheistical
tendencies in the principles of geology, had recollected, before
filling their pages with uncandid vituperation of this science and
its cultivators,* that it is the only science, with the exception per-
haps of astronomy, whose principles could furnish such a refutation.
Nor ought it to be forgotten that these very principles and de-
ductions of geology, that have excited so much of alarm and oppo-
sition among some friends of religion, and so much of premature
and groundless exultation among its enemies, have nevertheless,
when taken in connection with astronomy, developed and estab-
lished a law of God's natural government of the universe, grand
beyond al! others known to man ; and undiscovered, or only dimly
seen, by the great minds of other generations. I refer to the fact,
that 'per2)etual change is made the grand conservative and con-
trolling principle of the universe. Men have always seen and
felt this instability in respect to every thing on earth : and they
have regarded it as a defect, rather than a wise law of the natural
world. But they now find it to be equally true of suns and plan-
ets, as of plants and animals. ' Perpetual change, perpetual pro-
gression, increase and diminution, appear to be the rules of the
material world, and to prevail without exception.'! And this very
instability is the great secret of the permanence and constan-
cy of nature's operations, and of the adaptation of the external
world to the wants and ha[)piness of organized beings. It is 'a
principle superior to those grand rules which we have been accus-
tomed to regard as constituting exclusively the laws of nature, from
the security which we see in it, beyond the longest and apparently
most perfect periodical movements of our solar system. 'J In
fine, it is probably the most splendid display of the Divine skill
which the universe can furnish.

I have here entered only upon the limits of a wide field. I
cannot proceed farther. The great interest which every reflecting
man feels in speculations of this kind, and the expectation of being
misunderstood if I entered into no explanation, (should these la-
bors be made public,) have led me to venture thus far. ||

* See Penn's Comparati\^e Estimate of the Mineral and Mosaical Geologies, 2
Vols. 8vo. 2d Edition, London, 1825.
tProf. Whewell. Bridgwater Treatise p. 158.
JEssai sur la Temperature. De I'lnterior Dela Terre par. M. Cordier, p. 84.

II The connection between geology and the Mosaical record excites at the present
day so much interest, and so much crude matter appears on the suhjoci , that I trust
I shall be pardoned for refeiTing to those authors who have treated upon it in our

252 Scientific Geology.

5. GRAYWACKE.

This term, it is well known, has occasioned much perplexity in
geology ; and on many accounts, besides its cacophony, it would
bo well perhaps to expunge it from the science. Yet 1 could
find no term more convenient, as a sort of index, to an interesting
group of rocks, partly chemical and partly mechanical in their
structure, occurring in several places in the eastern part of Mas-
sachusetts. The varieties included in the group are quite numer-
ous ; and some of them exceedingly unlike the others in compo-
sition and appearance. Among them all it may perhaps be doubt-
ed, whether the exact classical graywacke of Werner can be found.
But later geologists have given the term a much wider range. ' It
designates, when taken in a more general sense,' says Humboldt,*
' every conglomerate, sandstone, and fragmentary or arenaceous
rock of transition formation, that is anterior to the red sandstone
and coal formation.' ' Viewed on the large scale, ' says De la
Beche,f ' the graywacke series consists of a large stratified mass
of arenaceous and slaty rocks, intermingled with patches of lime-
stone, which are often continuous for considerable distances.' 1
use the term in 'the general sense' described by Humboldt; and
include in it, both the 'graywacke group, ' and ' the lowest fosilif-
erous group, ' of De la Heche ; though 1 am not sure that our se-
ries embraces any limestone. And since the red sandstone does
not occur in the eastern part of the State, nor any other secondary
rock, I am not sure that the series under consideration, ought to be
regarded as filling up the whole space between the red sandstone
and the primary rocks. But every geologist who examines this se-
ries, sees at once that some members of it must belong to the old-
est of those rocks which some writers denominate transition.

own day. In some of the following works, however, such violent prejudices are
manifested, and sometimes such a deficiency of knowledge, respecting practical
geology, that the reader need to be well on his guard in their perusal, and to be
thoroughly conversant with the facts of the science.

Cuvier's Theory of the Earth : Conybearc's Introduction to the Geology of
England and Wales; De Luc's Letters on the Physical History of the Earth
with De la Fitte's illustrations : Penn's Comparative Estimate of the Mineral
and Mosaical Geologies : Fairholme's Scriptural Geology: The Mosaical and
Mineral Geologies Illustrated and Compared, by W. M. Higgins : Bakewell's
Geology, with additions by Prof Silliman, 2d American Edition : Dr. Maculloch's
System of Geology : Ure's Geology : Glcig's History of the Bible : Turner's
Sacred History : Chalmers Evidences of Christianity : Dr. Buckland's Reliquiae
Diluvianac: Rosenmuller Antiquiss. tcUuris Histona: Whewell and Bell's
Bridgwater Treatises : KnapjVs Theology Vol. I. : Bush's Notes on Gene-
sis, with several articles in the London Christian Observer and the Philosophi-
cal Magazine.

"•^Superposition of Rocks, p. 301.
t Geological Manual, p. 433.

Graywaclcc. 253

For the lower beds pass insensibly into primary rocks : and gen-
erally, a chemical agency is obvious in their structure, in the veins
of quartz by which they are frecjiiently traversed, and in their semi-
crystalline aspect. There is, also, a plumbaginous appearance in
the anthracite found in these rocks, v. Iiich does not exist, except
in the carbon of the older intermedial and primary rocks, and
which increases with the age of the rock in which it occurs. The
Rhode Island coal exhibits more of this character than that of
Pennsylvania : and that from Worcester appears much more like
mineral carbon than either ; which gradation corresponds with
the opinion 1 have adopted as to the relative ages of these several
coal formations.

Upon the whole we may be certain, I think, that the formation
under consideration in Massachusetts antl Rhode Island, is a mem-
ber of the series generally called transition. But whether it is
precisely identical with any European member of that series I sup-
pose we do not yet possess the data for determining. The only
organic remains yet found in this formation are vegetable ; which
will not enable us even to prove that it belongs to the transition
series, if a remark of Al. Brongniart be true, that ' no species of
plant has been found in the transition series, {terrains hcmilijsiens,)
which being ))eculiar to that class, diflers essentially from those
found in the later rocks.'* And we have seen that Adolphe
Brongniart regards as belonging to the first period of vegetation,
all the rocks below the new red sandstone.

After these explanations, I trust it will bo obvious that it is not
my object to identify the rocks in question, with the graywackeof
Europe : but simyhj to describe them as they are. And though
it would be gratifying to find that all our fragmentary and fossilif-
erous rocks correspond exactly with those of other continents,
yet I am more and more inclined to doubt whether such identity
can ever be made out. For if, as we have every reason to be-
lieve, these rocks were deposited in the beds of former seas and
lakes, as similar ones are now forming, why should we not expect
as mucli diversity in their composition and organic remains, in dif-
ferent quarters of the globe, as we should find in the sandstones,
conglomerates, and limestones, which would result from the con-
solidation and elevation of the sand, gravel, and calcareous matter
that constitutes the bottom of existing seas, estuaries, and lakes ?
Should such a consolidation and elevation take place, we might
perhaps find resemblances enough between distant strata to prove
them of contemporaneous origin, and the result of the same gen-
eral causes. Still, we should undoubtedly find much in each group
of strata, of a sui generis character, and not a few groups entirely

* Tableau clc^ Terrains, p. -^'Jl.

31

254 Scientific Geology.

peculiar and independent ; though produced during the same geo-
logical epoch. Hence, then, is it not best to direct one's chief ef-
forts to give a correct description of our rocks, rather than spend
the lime in attempts to identify them with European formations ?
Many writers seem to feel as if nothing were done, until this iden-
tity be established. But it may appear hereafter, that their labor
has been almost in vain. How much toil and perplexity have
geologists endured, in endeavoring to ascertain whether particular
formations ought to be referred to the transition class of Werner !
and yet, how few geologists there are now, who do not admit that
there is scarcely the vestige of a foundation for this class in nature :
regarding its introduction into the nomenclature, (in the words of
Mr. Greenough*) like an attempt ' to increase the list of primitive
colors by the addition of mixed tints, or the list of notes in music
by telling in the flats and sharps.'

In the present case, however, waving all general principles such
as have been alluded to, I freely confess that I am not thorougly
enough acquainted with the formation which I denominate gray-
wacke, to be able to decide whether it does, or does not, corres-
pond with any known European formation. Long and patient
study of its organic remains and relative position, with the advan-
tage of a residence in its vicinity, ought to be bestowed upon it,
before we can settle this question. On this account 1 regard it as
premature to describe as new, any of its anomalous varieties ; al-
though some of them differ so widely from the general type of
the group, that they really deserve distinct names, when these can
be applied without the danger of encumbering the science with
synonymes. If it be the geologist's object to advance the science,
he ought to forego the gratillcation, and it may be the honor, of
affixing new names to anomalous rocks, until they have undergone
a most rigid scrutiny. Indeed, in my opinion, very few of the
rocks in this country, except perhaps the primary ones, have yet
been examined thoroughly enough to render it certain that they
are so radically different from those already described in Europe,
as to deserve distinct names. Whoever covets the ephemeral
honor of applying them thus prematurely, may be sure that every
cautious and able geologist will refuse to adopt them ; and will re-
gard them as more indicative of self-sufficiency and vanity, than of
scientific acumen.

Mineralogical Characters of the GrayioacTce.

This rock varies in texture from the finest argillaceous slate and
shale, through all the grades of sandstones, up to the coarsest con-
glomerate and breccia. The imbedded nodules in the coarser va-

* Greenough's Geology, p. 233.

Grnywackc Conglomerates. 255

rieties, consist of almost every sort of primary rock found in the
eastern part of JMassachusetts : and the prevailing cement is ar-
gillaceous : sometimes, however, it is a paste of compact feldspar,
and at others of mica, talc, or steatite. Perhaps, however, a
particular description of the distinct varieties of this group will
convey tiie most accurate idea of its characters. I begin with
those which probably are most common, and most forcibly arrest
the attention of the most unpractised observer.

I. Conglomerates. The rouueied nodules in the variety that
abounds most throughout the whole extent. of the formation, (Nos.
287 to 292, and 307,) particularly in Roxbury, Dorchester, Digh-
ton, Swansey, and Somerset, consist of granite, sienite, compact
feldspar, and perhaps hornstone of various colors, porphyry, quartz,
argillaceous and flinty slate, novaculite, serpentine, and nephrite.
These vary in size from that of a pea to twoor three feet in diam-
eter. The cement appears to be chiefly the same materials in a
comminuted state : exhaling, however, an argillaceous odor when
breathed upon. Although the imbedded nodules are numerous,
yet they have the appearance, as INIr. IMaclure describes the older
conglomerates, ' as if the cement at the time of formation had a
consistence sufficient to prevent the particles from touching each
other.' The cement has generally a semi-crystalline aspect, and
adheres very firmly to the nodules. Sometimes the rock is trav-
ersed by veins of quartz, which are attached quite strongly to the
rock. So thick, and often indistinct, are the strata, that the
Messrs. Danas say that ' no stratification has been observed in this
Graywacke.'* But if one traverses the whole formation, he will
find abundant examples of this structure ; and in most places he
will discover it by careful examination ; the strata having in general
a northerly and easterly dip. This rock is also intersected by nu-
merous cross seams, more commonly perpendicular to the layers,
and remarkable for the exact division which they make of the im-
bedded nodules ; so that one part of the pebble appears on one
side of the seam, and the other part on the opposite side. Veins
of trap, also, sometimes traverse this conglomerate; as will be
particularly noticed in describing greenstone.

Another very distinct and most remarkable conglomerate occurs
at the south east extremity of Rhode Island, in Middletown, near
Sechuest Beach, three miles east of Newport. (No. 294.) It is
composed of elongated rounded nodules of quartz rock, and quartz
rock passing into mica slate, with a cement of talcose slate. The
nodules vary from the size of a pigeon's egg, to four, and even six
feet in their longest diameter, and constitute the great mass of
the rock. They are so arranged that their longest diameters are

*Mineralo£;y and Geology of Boston and its vicinity, 1818, p. 94.

256

Scientific Geology.

uniformly parallel to one another: lying in a north and south di-
rection : which corresponds with the layers of the schistose ce-
ment, and also with the general direction of the strata in tlie vicin-
ity. Both the nodtdes and the cement abound in small, distinct,
octahedral crystals of magnetic iron ore.

The above rough sketch of the southeast point of Rhode Island,
will assist in rendering intelligible the relative positon of this con-
glomerate, and also of three or four other varieties of this forma-
tion to be hereafter described. About a quarter of a mile from
the coast, three precipitous bluffs, a, h, c, several rods wide, sep-
arated by salt marshes from 15 to 20 rods wide, rise one or two
hundred feet, trending northerly, and converging; so as apparent-
ly to unite at no great distance. The two most easterly ridges
are very steep, and exhibit evidence of having been powerfully
abraded. The outer ridges, a, c, consist of the peculiar conglom-
erate abov^e described ; the central one consists of a hard gray-
wacke slate, and a very singular and puzzling rock, which I shall
venture to describe as an amphibolic aggregate. (No. 371.) Half
a mile southeast is an aggregate of quartz and mica to be described
in the sequel.

So much of the topography of these rocks, by way of anticipa-
tion, seemed necessary in order to explain the peculiar structure
of the conglomerate. The layers of the graywacke slate and
amphibolic aggregate run north and south, and dip west, from 60°
to 70°. And this, as already mentioned, is the direction in which
the nodules and schistose layers of the cement of the conglomer-
ate are placed. But no strata seams are to be seen correspond-
ing to the dip and direction of the slate. Yet the conglomerate

Graywacke Conglomerates. 257

is divided into horizontal layers, from six to ten feet thick ; and
also by fissures running east and west, perpendicular to tlie liorizon,
and parallel to one another, from 10 to 20 feet apart. These
fissures divide the thick masses of conglomerate so perfectly, that
they seem as if cut .through by the sword of some Titan. The
nodules through which the fissure passes, are divided very neatly,
and the parts present even surfaces, so as to give the rock a quite
peculiar aspect. At the southern extremity of the eastern rami-
fication of the range of hills above described, an immense quantity
of the conglomerate has been carried away by former diluvial ac-
tion, and the present bluff is terminated by a perpendicular wall,
exhibiting this bisection of the nodules in a most striking manner.
On account of the size, number, and parallel posiiion of these
nodules, this singular instance of fracture is much more remarka-
ble than in the variety of conglomerate first described.

No one can view this phenomenon without inquiring immedi-
ately into its cause. And it is obvious at first thought, that this
division of the strata must have taken place since their perfect
consolidation : otherwise the nodules, instead of breaking, would
have been drawn out of the paste. Nor could mere desiccation
have produced such an effect, for the same reason. Nor does
any hypothesis afford to my mind the least satisfaction, excejU
that which supposes these fractures to have resulted from a pow-
ful force, acting at right angles to the meridian, beneath the con-
glomerate, after its consolidation. And when we find large de-
posites of granite in the vicinity, we have ascertained the existence
of a power adequate to such an effect : although we might resort
to the hypothesis of Elie de Beaumont, which has of late excited
so much interest, and which imputes most of the fractures and
dislocations of the earth's crust to the secular refrigeration of its
internal parts, whereby its outward envelope becomes too large and
partially plicated.

Another important fact in respect to the conglomerate under
consideration, is the occurrence in it of numerous veins of quartz.
Some of them are not less than a foot wide ; and they are fre-
quently branched. These veins separate the imbedded nodules,
and are chemically united to the divided portions. These veins
and the semi-crystalline aspect of the cement of this rock, prove
it to be one of the oldest of the varieties which 1 have included
imder the term graywacke.

2. Breccias. These are distinguished from the conglomerates
by the angular shape of the imbedded fragments. One variety
(Nos. 29G, 297,) consists of fragments of reddish and ash colored
argillaceous slate, united by an argillaceous or an arenaceous ce-
ment. This aggregate is slaty, and the cement has a porphyritic
appearance. 1 have observed it only in a few places ; as at Na-

258 Scientific Geology.

tick and Randolph. Anotlier variety, approaching to slaty por-
phyry, appears to be composed chiefly of compact feldspar, united
by a cement of comminuted porphyry. This was found also in
Natick. (No. 298.) A third variety, (No. 299,) of which 1
found only a bowlder in Saugus, consists of gray compact feldspar
(?) and indurated wacke. (?) A fourth consists of fragments of
gray and yellowish green compact feldspar, united by an unknown
dark colored cement. (No. 300.) Tlie yellowish green variety
appears as if colored by epidote. This most singular rock occurs
at the head of Nantasket Beach, in Cohasset ; and when its ledg-
es are moistened by the spray, they present a most fantastic and
really a very splendid appearance, resembling exceedingly varie-
gated serpentine. The rock exhibits no regular strata, although
divided like the unstratified rocks generally by numerous seanjs.
It is associated with a conglomerate, similar to the variety first de-
scribed above, and I suspect it to be the rock marked in Cohasset,
on the n)ap of the Messrs. Danas, as ' Petrosilex.' If large blocks
can be obtained and it will admit of being polished, it will furnish
an elegant ornamental stone.

The conglomerate just mentioned, as associated with the brec-
cia at the head of Nantasket Beach, extends into Hingham ; and
both in Cohasset and Hingham, it assumes a character intermedi-
ate between puddingstone and breccia, by taking into its composi-
tion angular and partly rounded masses of porphyry, greenstone,
and amygdaloid. These are sometimes so numerous, that the
rock might easily be mistaken for a variety of trap. Neither this
rock nor the conglomerate, of which, indeed, it forms a part, ex-
hibit, so far as I could perceive, any evidence of stratification :
although being a rock of mechanical origin, it is undoubtedly strat-
ified.

As we pass from the range of porphyry and compact feldspar
on the south of Boston towards the graywacke, and if I mistake
not at the junction of the two rocks, (e. g. in Dorchester and
Canton,) we meet with a rock of a peculiar character, whose ori-
gin appears to be in part mechanical. The compact feldspar
seems to have suffered some degree of abrasion after its consolida-
tion, and the fragments to have been reconsolidated into a rock
more or less slaty, with the admixture of but few foreign ingredi-
ents. (No. 301, 302.) It would seem to have been partially
fused the second time ; or perhaps it might have been produced
by the partial cooling of the compact feldspar at its junction with
the graywacke. as it was forced through that rock while in a melt-
ed state. Tiiis would account for its semi-brecciated aspect and
slaty structure, and the occasional presence of foreign ingredients.
But this rock deserves a more careful examination than I have been
able to give it.

Quartsose Graywacke 259

Our compact feldspar is slaty in some other places ; as at New-
bury ; but it does not appear to have been recomposed.

3. (Quartz Rock, I thus denominate two or three singular
varieties of rock in the formation under consideration, because
quartz is their predominant ingredient.

The most remarkable of these varieties is developed very dis-
tinctly at the southern extremity of Rhode Island ; as may be
seen by the sketch already given of that portion of the Island.
It consists of coarse grains of hyaline quartz, of a purple color,
passing to deep blue and black, with talc or mica ; (it is difficult
to say which ;) the materials having a schistose arrangemenit.
(Nos. 303 to 306. The quartz bears a strong resemblance to pe-
liom, and constitutes a large part of the rock. The aggregate ex-
hales an argillaceous odor when breathed upon.

This same rock may be seen at the mouth of Fall River, in
Troy, where it is associated with an argillaceous slate, passing into
mica slate, and of a quite dark color from the carbonaceous matter
it contains. At this place, this slate and quartz rock are contigu-
ous to granite ; and they may be seen in Tiverton, lying directly
upon the granite. In Newport, also, granite cannot be far distant
from the same rock. Do not these facts furnish a clue to the
origin of the dark color of the quartz ? Was it not penetrated by
the carbonaceous matter of the black slate, while in a state of
partial fusion by the action of the melted granite ?

There can be no doubt but the quartzose rock above described,
is one of the oldest of the graywacke formation. Its position in
respect to the granite is proof of this. In Newport it lies between
the very ancient conglomerate that has been described, and the
granite ; although the granite does not appear, I believe, till we
cross an arm of the sea into Little Compton.

Another aggregate, in this formation, which may be called
quartz rock, consists of red or reddish hyaline quartz, somewhat in
grains, with a small quantity of mica, so that the rock always has
more or less of a slaty structure ; though this is not always seen
but by close examination. (Nos. 309 to 318.) In some instances
its layers become quite thin, in consequence of an increase of the
mica: but they are still genuine strata; for these layers have a
schistose structure, not coincident with their surfaces. This red
quartz rock exceedingly resembles red sandstone at a little dis-
tance : but when closely examined, it is found to consist chiefly of
red hyaline quartz, which exhibits little evidence of a mechanical
mode of production. It passes into a structure distinctly conglom-
erated, and may perhaps be the equivalent of Dr. Macculloch's
' primary red sandstone ;' though I have no evidence that it alter-
nates with any primary rock : and it contains no feldspar.

Sometimes this rock abounds with veins of quartz giving it a

260 Scientific Geology.

very rich appearance. I have noticed these veins most numer-
ously in the south part of Wrentham, near the place of explora-
tions for coal. (No. 318.)

4. Talcose Aggregate, (Sleachist ? Phillips and Wood) (Nos.
320 to 323.) This is a slaty rock, composed of grains of quartz
and sometimes feldspar, with talc or steatite. It lies hetvveen the
red quartz rock and the primary rocks in Walpole ; though not,
therefore, older than the quartz rock ; since the dip of both is such
there, as to bring the talcose rock uppermost. It often exhibits
distinct fragments of previous rocks, and passes into a breccia or
conglomerate ; as in a quarry in Cambridge, two miles west of the
University. It is not abundant in the grayvvacke formation ;
though many of the oldest varieties of this formation have a talcose
appearance.

5. Classical GraywncTce. I mean by this term to designate
the rock described by Werner's ablest commentator, Professor
Jameson. He says that Grayvvacke ' is composed of angular or
other shaped portions of quartz, feldspar, Lydian stone, anti clay
slate, connected together by means of a basis or ground of the
nature of clay slate, which is often highly impregnated with silica,
thus giving to the mass a considerable degree of hardness. The
imbedded portions vary in size, but seldom exceed a few inches
in breadth and thickness.' Brochant does not include in the term
graywacke, any variety of rock 'whose grains exceed the size of a
hazle nut.' Hence the conglomerates that have been described
above, cannot be regarded as classical graywacke. This is the
opinion of Professor Webster;* whose opportunities for a per-
sonal examination of European graywacke, give his decision on
this point great weight. But associated with these conglomerates,
we have rocks of a much finer grain, whose composition corres-
ponds essentially with the above definition; (Nos. 324 to 33-^1,)
although every ingredient may not in all cases be present. Some-
times the mass is colored red by the presence of the red oxide of
n"on ; as in Attleborough. But more commonly it is gray, as in
Rehoboth. It often becomes fine grained and passes into gray-
wacke slate, as at the quarries in Pawtucket ; where it is traversed
by numerous veins of quartz mixed with calcareous spar.

G. Graywacke Slate. This variety of rock is quite common in
this formation. Its colors are either gray or red ; and it appears
to be composed in a great measure of wacke. Mica, however,
sometimes enters into its composition. Its structure is always
slaty : but the layers are much more irregular and tortuous than
those of argillaceous slate, and its aspect more earthy ; though it
is no easy matter to draw a line between them. It is traver.'^ed
frequently by veins of quartz. (Nos. 335 to 340.)

* Boston Journal oi rhilosophy and the Arts. Vol. 1. p -M),

Varieties of Grnt/nmcJce. -2GI

7. Argillaceous Slate. The argillaceous slate in the eastern
part of the State is so intimately connected with the varieties of
rock above noticed, that it ought in justice to be described as one
of the members of the graywacke group ; although marked as a
distinct deposite on the Map. That this is one of the oldest va-
rieties of this group, I have no doubt ; but certainly not older
than some that have been mentioned. I am aware that fragments
of this slate occur in one of the varieties of conglomerate that
have been described ; and this not only shows the posterior pro-
duction of the latter, but renders it doubtful whether both rocks
were produced during the same geological epoch. But with the
knowledge that I possess of this series of rocks, I fear that an at-
tempt to divide them would only introduce confusion into my ac-
count. I would not pretend to a degree of accuracy to which I
have not attained.

I have no doubt that this argillaceous slate is the * transition
clay slate ' of the Wernerians, which they describe as associated
with graywacke. In various places in Rhode Island and Massa-
chusetts, it is highly impregnated with carbonaceous matter, so as
to become black ; and it usually forms the floor and roof of the
beds of anthracite. In general its color is dark gray, passing to
blue: sometimes of a chocolate color, and sometimes red. It is
rarely fissile enough to be employed for roofing, and frequently its
layers are two or three inches thick. The laminae, or rather strata,
are sometimes much curved ; as on Rainsford island, in Boston
harbor. Not unfrequently it passes into an imperfect novaculite ;
as in Charlestown, Roxbury, Weymouth, Newbury, and some of
the outer islands in Boston harbor. (Nos. 357 to 370.)

8. Amphibolic Aggregate. (No. 374.) Nothing is more diffi-
cult in many cases, than to determine the nature of the semi-crys-
talline minerals entering into the composition of some of the inter-
mediary rocks. They seem to have undergone some chemical
process, which has not been thorough enough to give them a fully
developed character. In the present instance the mass appears
decidedly crystalline ; yet I am in serious doubt whether amphi-
bole is the dark green mineral in it that exhibits a crystalline
structure. Another part of the rock presents an argillaceous as-
])ect and exhales an argillaceous odor when breathed upon. But
liad I found it among primary rocks, I should have regarded it as
by no means an anomaly there : especially after finding in it a
vein, four inches wide, of crystallized zoisite. Yet the position
of this rock, which has already been pointed out, in describing
the conglomerate of the southeast part of Rhode Island, clearly
proves it to be a member of what 1 call the graywacke series :
for it is situated between graywacke slate and conglomerate.

9. Varioloid Wackc. The rock which I thus designate, has

32

262 ScienfifJc Geology.

generally been regarded by ibose who have described the geology ^
of Boston and its vicinity, as amygdaloid. But it seems to me
that there are insuperable objections against the supposition that
the nodules in genera! were introduced by infiltration, or even sub-
limation ; the only modes by which geologists suppose the cavi-
ties of amygdaloid were filled. For they consist generally of
rounded masses of compact feldspar ; a substance which must cer-
tainly have been the result of igneous fusion. On the other hand,
the rounded form of these nodules, and their non-crystalline
structure in general, forbid the arrangement of this rock along
with the porphyries. But some writers regard variolites as rather
intermediate between porphyry and amygdaloid,* and such I sup-
pose to be the character of the rock under consideration. By the
term varioloid, I intend merely to designate the external aspect
of the rock; since the mode of its formation seems involved in
much obscurity : but its variolous appearance none can deny.

Brochant describes wacke as ' a substance intermediate between
basalt and clay.' This description will apply to the base of the
varioloid rock under consideration. It is found in Brookline,
Newton, Needham, Hingham, Brighton, and Saugus. But its
most important varieties are found in the three latter places, and
deserve a particular description.

In Brighton, the wacke is of a chocolate color, and quite hard.
The nodules are mostly rounded, and of the size of a pea ; but
sometimes they are much larger and irregular, approaching to the
form of veins. Compact feldspar, epidote. calcareous spar, and
quartz are the principal minerals of which they are composed.
Sometimes the external part of the nodule is compact feldspar, or
calcareous spar, and the central part epidote : and sometimes
quartz occupies the centre, invested by epidote. The epidote is
crystalized, although the cavities are in almost every instance
entirely filled. The foliated structure of the feldspar, and espec-
ially of the calcareous spar, is not unfrequently visible, though
generally these minerals are compact, and very hard. But the
two last seem to be strangely blended, as if they had been partially
melted together. (Nos. 373, 377.)

At a quarry about a mile southwest of Brighton meeting house,
this varioloid rock may be seen passing into conglomerate, showing
that it is only a variety of the gray wacke formation.

At Hinghani, the greater part of tliis rock is of a deeper red
than that at Brighton ; though some of it is of a light gray. The
basis is harder, owing perhaps to a mixture of compact feldspar.
The nodules vary in size from that of a pea to that of an almond ;
and consist of brownish red and greenish con)pact feldspar, with

* Traitc dc Mmeralo?ic, Pur, T. S. lU'iulanl, (Paris, 1830,) Vol. I. p. 5r.J>.

Varioloid Wackc. 263

carbonate of lime mixed with the latter, or in separate folia.
Not unfrequently the red compact feldspar encloses the green,
like that in Brighton. This rock is associated with a conglom-
erate of the grayvvacke formation. (No. 874.)

At the head of Nantasket Beach, I found a rolled mass (No.
375) of the varioloid rock, whose base is brownish gray, and the
notlules a greenish compact feldspar.

In Needham, this rock has a somewhat slaty structure, is hard,
and contains distinct crystals of feldspar of a light green color,
(No. 378.) But as the basis is obviously wacke, exhaling an
argillaceous odor, 1 can hardly persuade myself to place it among
the porphyries. Suppose this Needham rock were to be subject
to a degree of heat sufiicient to fuse the feldspar, without essen-
tially altering the wacke, I inquire whether the result would not
be a rock very similar to some varieties that have been described
as varioloid wacke. And may not this have been the mode in
which some of that rock was produced ?

The most remaikable of the varioloid rocks vi^hich I am de-
scribing, occurs at Saugus. Near the centre of the place, and
surrounded by granite, we find a rock, forming a hill one or two
hundred feet high, composed of a basis of green wacke and im-
bedded nodules of white compact feldspar, with an occasional
mixture of carbonate of lime. Tlie nodules are rarely so large as
a bullet; more commonly about the size of small peas, and in
some parts of the rock so very numerous that it seems hardly
possible they could have been infiltrated into cavities previously
made. (No. 372.) The basis is a pleasant green. I saw no
conglomerate or other variety of gray wacke in the vicinity.

It is obvious from the preceding descriptions, that in some in-
stances— particularly at 13righton — the nodules of this varioloid
rock must have been at least partially formed by the infiltration of
t:arlhs from a watery solution : but it would seem that this was
only a part of the process. For it is dillicult to conceive how
such minerals as compact feldspar and carbonate of lime could
have been deposited in a compact form from a watery solution ;
since they crystallize with so much readiness. It seems to me
that we must call in the agency of heat, after the infiltration took
j)lace, by which the crystals might be converted into a compact
mass, and all the cavities be filled, as they are in almost every
instance: and if we suppose granite, sienite, &.c. to have had an
igneous origin, we can be at no loss to provide for the requisite
heat. I had been rather disposed to regard much of this rock as
an example of the solid concretionary structure, especially that at
Saugus. But the occasional evidence of infiltration led me to
abandon that hypothesis. If the one hinted at above is more
satisfactory, I shall be gratified. The subject is certainly involved
in much obscurity.

2G4

Scientific Geology.

10. Flinty Slate. 11. Chert. 12. Jasper. I regard these
rocks as varieties of other rocks, altered by the proximity of
granite, porphyry, or trap: and in Massachusetts they are merely
altered varieties of the grayvvacke formation that has been here
described. Hence I shall treat of them in this place. The saga-
cious observations of Dr. Macculloch concerning the origin of
these rocks,* receive strong confirmation from their situation in
New England. And since this is a subject, concerning which
geologists are as yet not entirely agreed in opinion, I shall exhibit
the relative position of these rocks as intelligibly as possible, from
the examinations of them which I have been able to make.

Flinty Slate, or Siliceous Schist.

This rock I have found only in two places in the district which
I am describing ; viz. in Newport, R. I. and on the promontory
of Nahant. It is interesting, however, that in the former place it
occurs contiguous to granite, and in the latter, to trap.

It is not this slate alone which in Newport exhibits the influ-
ence of the proximity of granite : and it will save space to give an
account here of the whole of this interesting spot, to which I was

DC

Fcrt

lJ^^'''''''''j^

'"'"'"' ""'''"'"%'^'^^^ '^^F^""

mil\ ■:■.■:■■■■■:::■■

111"^'''"',',"*'!

AniJiracite
\Seds

Spoatimi
Cave

conducted by Col. Joseph G. Totton of the U. S. army, who has
become familiar with the geology of that region, and to whose
polite attentions I am much indebted.

* System ulGculugy, Vol. 1. Chapter XL

Flint!/ Slate. 265

The preceding rough sketch of the southwest part of Newport,
will give a correct idea of the relative position and extent of the
four or five rocks which are there associated, on a surface of four
or five square miles ; viz. granite, flinty slate, graywacke slate,
limestone, serpentine, and jasper. The flinty slate, it will be
seen, occupies a considerable space immediately contiguous to the
granite, and it is separated from the graywacke slate on its west
side, by a small ravine. The flinty slate exhibits various degrees
of induration, and more or less of a mixture of different minerals.
One variety has a gray color, an imperfectly conchoidal somewhat
splintery fracture, and is rendered porphyritic by small grains of
hyaline quartz. Another dark gray variety exhibits greenish and
white clouds. A third has a reddish base of an earthy aspect
and fracture, less hard than the preceding, and contains numer-
ous light colored, rounded masses, resembling hornstone, from the
size of a pin's head to that of a musket bullet ; giving it an
amygdaloidal aspect. If hard enough to receive a polish, it would
form an elegant ornamental stone. A third variety exhibits a
semi-crystalline aspect, and contains minute scales of mica. This
variety is traversed by veins of granite, composed of quartz and
flesh-colored feldspar. (Nos. 380 to 383.)

For the most part, this rock exhibits scarcely no marks of
stratification. But not unfrequently, even in the most highly in-
durated masses, the traces of a former slaty structure are distinctly
visible. In short, it is quite obvious, that it is the graywacke
slate, which has been subject to a heat so powerful as to indurate,
and for the most part, to melt it. I think it would be easy to
collect specimens exhibiting almost every gradation from gray-
wacke slate to flinty slate.

In the southeastern part of the above sketch, the granite cuts
off" the graywacke slate at right angles to the general course of
the layers : and the slate is indurated only a few feet from the
junction. The junction between the granite and the siliceous
slale is obvious in several places, particularly at a ledge at the
southwest extremity of the gratiite : and the two rocks are so
firmly united as to separate no easier than in any other direction.

The grayv;acke slate of this spot has generally the shining or
glazed appearance of the oldest varieties of argillaceous slate :
but in the extensive excavations that have been made in it for
the construction of Fort Adams, we see frequent examples of a
brecciated or conglomerated structure. It is also traveised by nu-
merous small veins of white quartz, sometimes combined with
flesh colored feldspar.

The serpentine is separated from the granite by a strip of flinty
slate. At its eastern extremity it seems to lie between the flir.ty
slate and the graywacke slule, and to have a stratified structure.

266 Scientific Geology.

But it probably extends to tlie southwest, (as shown on the sketch
by the crosses,) so as to cut across the northwestern point of the
sihceous slate. A valley passes through the flinty slate in the di-
rection in which the serpentine runs, and at its extremity, serpen-
tine appears in small masses attached to the flinty slate. It prob-
ably forms a sort of vein in the slate, though hid by the loose soil,
and at its northeastern extremity the gray wacke slate lies immedi-
ately north of it, as shown on tlie preceding sketch. I am in-
clined to believe, however, that the serpentine was originally in-
terstratified with, or formed a bed (if that term conveys any
definite meaning,) in graywacke slate ; though the extreme de-
gree of contortion in the slate, where the two rocks join, renders
it not easy to decide that point. The serpentine is compact, very
hard, and of a very dark color. It might easily be mistaken for
greenstone.

The limestone forms a small island, a little distance north of
the serpentine ; also a small point projecting into the harbor, near
Fort Adams. It is entirely destitute of stratification, is perfectly
compact, and nearly as hard as quartz. Its general color is a
grayish white ; but it abounds in gray spots, which resemble chert.
(No. 495.) Indeed, the whole mass seems to be well advanced
in the process of conversion into that substance. This seenjs to
be the case referred to by Dr. MaccuUoch, when he says; 'an
attempt to the production of this rock (chert) is often observed
where the process is still incomplete ; and it is evinced by the ex-
treme hardness which such limestones exhibit in the vicinity of
granite.'* He refers here to the primary limestones, which are
intermingled with siliceous and argillaceous matter : and that the
limestone at Newport is primary, in the sense-in which Dr. Mac-
cuUoch uses the term, is evident from the fact, that near the ser-
pentine, a portion of it is seen in the form of a bed, between the
layers of graywacke slate ; and the limestone associated with this
rock, is precisely the kind that is apt to contain a considerable
jiroportion of siliceous and argillaceous matter. In ordinary cases,
limestone is rendered more crystalline by the proximity of granite:
but where a certain proportion of argillaceous and siliceous mat-
ter is contained in it, the effect of heat will be to render it more
hard and compact.

A portion of the graywacke slate near Fort Adams is converted
into jasper. But a more particular description must be deferred
till I have finished what 1 have to say concerning flinty slate and
chert. 1 shall also have occasion to speak again of the striking
evidence, which the group of rocks above described in Newport
furnishes of the igneous origin of granite.

^ System of Geology, Vol. II. p. 285.

FVmtii Slate and Chert. 267

Flinti/ Slate of Nahant.

The greater part of this promontory is slenite. But enough ol
the argillaceous slate remains at its southeastern extremity, to show
the geologist the influence of trap veins in passing through it.
Ti)ese are quite numerous, both in the slate and in tlie sienite ;
and sometimes the greenstone is intruded laterally between the
strata of slate, in the form of beds. Yet the general dip and di-
rection of the slate appear to be but little affected by these veins,
although they frequently constitute more than half the rock. For
the basset edges of the slate run nearly east and west, and dip
northerly ; which corresponds with the general direction and dip
of the argillaceous slate in that region. Nearly all the slate, how-
ever, on this promontory is much indurated ; and a considerable
proportion of it converted into genuine flinty slate. The slaty
structure is rarely lost, except at the junction of the greenstone
and slate, where the two rocks are so intimately blended, that it is
not easy to fix upon the spot where either of them commences.
This corresponds with the opinion of Dr. Macculloch, that noth-
ing but the requisite degree of heat is necessary to convert argilla-
ceous slate into greenstone. (Nos. 383 to 385.)

Chert.

I have already described a conatus for the production of chert
from the Newport limestone. But at Nahant the process seems
in some cases to be nearly or quite completed. One observes
there, that a considerable proportion of the flinty slate contains
layers of a light gray substance, somewhat resembling in aspect
and fracture, certain varietes of pottery. (No. 386.) On exam-
ination we find intermixed with this sul3stance, a compact or even
semi-crystalline limestone. In short, we observe every degree of
induration and compactness from limestone to chert. There can
be little doubt, it seems to me, that this is a genuine case of the
conversion of argillaceous limestone into chert. For, says Dr.
Macculloch, 'originating in limestone, the transition from that rock
into the chert, is often so gradual, that no precise point can be as-
signed where the term indurated limestone h no longer applicable.' *
None of it, however, at this locallity has that chalcedonic aspect
which highly indurated chert often exhibits.

Jasper.

The jasper at Newport, to which I have already referred, oc-
curs a few rods south of Fort Adams. Two or three large blocks
of graywacke slate lie upon the shore, a considerable part of

* System ol' Geology, Vol. II, p. 281.

268 Scientific Geology.

which !ias been converted into red jasper, often mixed with a
greenish, translucent, sihceous mineral, so as to form an imperfect
heliotrope. Before the mouth blowpipe the greenish variety un-
dergoes no change, except a loss of color : but the red variety
loses its color, and becomes slightly glazed at the surface. (Nos.
387, 387 1-2.)

The manner in which this jasper has been produced, appeared
to me quite obvious: indeed, if I mistake not, we see the various
steps of the process. The rock contains a considerable quantity
of the magnetic oxide of iron ; which, according to the latest wri-
ters,* consists of one atom protoxide and two atoms of peroxide.
Now the effect of heat would be to convert this moiety of the
black protoxide into the red peroxide ; and the iron would serve
also as a flux for the fusion of the slate ; and thus genuine jasper
would be produced : for according to Mohs, 'jasper, with its va-
rious kinds, is formed, if besides the oxide of iron, clay enters into
the mixture, &ic.' f Those parts of the rock with which the iron
did not mingle, would form hornstone or heliotrope ; the latter
deriving its green color from the slate, which has a greenish as-
pect. As the vicinity of this locality exhibits so many marks of
the former action of powerful heat, can we doubt that in this man-
ner the jasper was produced ? and can we doubt but granite was
the powerful igneous agent employed ?

Saugus has long been known as a locality of fine jasper. It
exhibits a blood red, and generally uniform color ; though some-
times striped and clouded with white, so as to be very elegant
when polished. (Nos. 388 to 390.) I have been surprised, how-
ever, to find how easily it may be fused by the common blowpipe,
into a white semi-transparent enamel, containing bubbles; and I
can have little doubt but it ought to be referred to compact feld-
spar, which conducts precisely in this manner before the blowpipe.
I am inclined, however, to believe that it contains some argillace-
ous matter ; and it must contain the red oxide of iron to give it its
color. It occurs a few rods east of the hill of varioloid wacke,
which has been already described, as composed of wacke and nu-
merous nodules of compact feldspar and limestone. Now I sus-
pect that the action of granite on this rock, has converted a part
of it into this pseudo-jasper. For granite appears in place only a
few feet distant from the jasper ; though the actual junction is
hidden. If this be the true theory, then the composition of the
varioloid wacke is the same as that of the jasper ; and since com-
pact feldspar predominates in the former, it probably does in the
latter. And if I mistake not, very much of the compact feldspar

* Thomson's Chemistry of Inorganic Bodies, Vol. I. p. 487. Edinburgh, 1831.
t Mohs' Mineralogy, Vol. II. p. 3-28. Edinburgh, 1825.

Topography of Grni/ivackc. 269

in llie vicinity of Boston abounds in arcillaccous matter, as well
as iron. In Hingliam, indeed, it greatly resembles tbe Saugiis
jasper, though of not so rich a color.

13. Groywacke Liuiestonc. I have already stated tbe reasons
that induce me to believe the indurated compact limestone of New-
|)ort to belong to the graywacke formation : and 1 have nothing
more to add in this connection.

There is one other bed of limestone, which I strongly suspect
sliould be referred to this formation ; viz. in the west part of Wal-
pole. Wlien I visited the spot, I had no suspicion that this rock
had any connection with the graywacke ; especially as I observed
sienite within a few rods of it. Nor do my notes furnish any very
decisive evidence either way as to this question. The dip of its
strata, which is about 45° N. W. is the most important circumstance.
For 1 find tiiat the red quartz rock and talcose aggregate, which
have been described as occurring a little west of VValpole meeting
house, have nearly the same dip and direction, and are succeeded
on the west by sieniie. Hence I suspect that the limestone, which
lies two or three miles southwest from those rocks, may be con-
nected with them : and especially when I recollect, that in all
otiier cases where I have found limestone connected with sienite,
it is very white and destitute of stratification : whereas that at
VValpole, as already remarked, is stratified and is of a gray color.
Perhaps closer examination would discover organic remains. (No.
494.)

The bed of limestone in Bernardston is associated with argilla-
ceous slate, or quartz rock, and contains encrinites; so that prob-
ably its age corresponds with that of graywacke. But as it is
entirely disconnected with the graywacke, I shall defer a descrip-.
tion of it till 1 speak of the limestones.

Topography of the Graywacke.

I have anticipated so much of this head, that brevity may now
be consulted. It will be seen by the Map that this formation is
confined exclusively to the eastern part of Massachusetts and
Rhode Island ; and that it exists in several detached patches. On
the present which is the third edition of the geological Map, 1 have
connected the strip of graywacke passing through Dedham, Wal-
pole and Wrentham, with the broad deposite south of the last
named place. Nor should I be surprised, if future observers should
discover a connection between the graywacke range in Dedham,
Canton, and Randolph, and that in Quincy, Dorchester, &ic. ; al-
though I failed in finding it. The fact is, this rock in no place
rises into any thing like mountain ridges; and for the most part, it
occupies extensive plains, or gently undulating ground. Diluvium
also, is extremelv abundant over almost every part of it ; so that

33

270 Scientific Geology,

it is only occasionally, and often at distant intervals, that graywacke
is seen in place. Tiiis is particulaily the case in the most exten-
sive tract of the graywacke, which embraces the greater part of
Riiode Island, with nearly every other island in Narraganset Bay,
and a strip of uncertain width on the west shore of lliat bay, as
well as a narrow tract on the east shore in Little Compton ; and
as it extends northerly into Massachusetts, occupies the surface of
nearly twenty towns in Bristol and Plymouth counties. In Swan-
sey and Somerset, the most abundant conglomerate of this forma-
tion, (which for the sake of distinction I shall call the Roxbury
conglomerate, because in that place its characters are strongly de-
veloped,) forms several hills of one or two hundred feet in height,
producing striking outliers in the landscape. In Dorchester, Rox-
bury, Newton, Brookline, and Brighton, the hills of the same
rock are of moderate elevation ; rarely exceeding 200 feet : yet
this is the most hilly part of the graywacke formation in Massa-
chusetts. And its low level and the abundance of transported
fragnients that overspread it, render it extremely difficult to ascer-
tain its limits.

On the first edition of the Map, I put down a patch of gray-
wacke in Duxbury. But on njore mature reflection, I feel satis-
fied that I have not evidence enough, that the slaty epidotic rock
which occurs in that place, belongs to this formation. That it is
not the classical graywacke, I am certain : nor do 1 feel satisfied
what are the ingredients that compose it; though I suspect the
presence of compact feldspar in considerable quantity. Its dip
and direction coinciding with those of the graywacke, I was led to
suspect that it might be one of the anomalous varieties of that rock.
But I shall place the specimens in the collection among those from
the gneiss formation ; hoping that some geologists will be able to
examine tiiis rock carefully in its native situation. This I had not
time to do when I passed through the place. And I think it bet-
ter that it should not be noticed on the Map, than be referred to
any formation with no more evidence of its true nature than I at
present possess.

It appears, then, that all of the graywacke formation lying south
of the Blue Hills in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, forms but a
single tract. The slaty varieties predominate on the west side of
this tract; and on some of the islands in Narraganset Bay, this
slate appears to be passing into the primary schists, particularly
into mica slate. The red quartz rock is most abundant in the
south part of Wrentham, near the coal mine, and in that branch
of the deposite, which occupies the north part of Randolph. It
occurs, also, in the west part of Walpole, as already noticed, and
likewise in Abington. And from the bowlders of this rock which
I notic:ed in Scituate. mixed with the granite, I am suspicious that

Topogrophi/ of the Grayivackc.

271

It may be found in place from Abington to tbe coast, in a north-
east direction ; though I attempted to trace it in vain.

Around Boston we find another tract of the grayvvacke, occu-
pying a basin, of which the Blue Hills form a southern boundary ;
the porphyry hills .of Lynn and Maiden a northern, and the
greenstone ranges of Weston and Waltham, a western boundary.
The argillaceous slate connected with the graywacke, is all found
along the northern and southern sides of this basin, as may be
seen by the Map. The central parts are occupied by conglom-
erates and graywacke slate.

1 have already suggested the probability that Boston harbor
was produced by the wearing away of the graywacke formation.
That this series of rocks once occupied the harbor, is obvious from
the character of the islands, which are evidently the remnants oi
a once continuous formation. It is true that these islands are for
the most part covered with diluvium : but sometimes on their
shores, we find rocks in situ ; and in such case 1 have regarded
the whole island as composed of the rock which is thus developed.
On this principle, the geological character of the principal islands
in this harbor may be set down as follows :

Noddle's

Castle

Thomj)Son's

Spectacle Islands

Long Island

Pedock's

Gallop's

George's

Lovel's

Deer Island

Ap|)le

Great Brewster

Moon Island — Conglomerate

Hangman's Island — Sienite

Rainsford Islands

]Middle &. Outward Brewster

Boston Light

Egg Rocks
Calf Island
Green's Island
Governor's Island

>

CR

CO

It will be seen that a^-gillaceous slate'is the predominant rock
on the outermost of these islands. In general it is quite hard,
and has so little of a slaty structure, that one might well hesitate
to call it argillaceous slate. Frequently it appears to be a coarse
variety of novaculite. Argillaceous slate likewise appears on the
southern side of the promontory of Hull ; although the surface is
for the most part diluvial.

There can be little doubt that the peninsula of Boston has a
foundation of argillaceous slate. This is, indeed, the only rock
that has ever been found there in place. And from the occur-
rence of argillaceous slate in South Boston, and in Charlestown,
with a northerly dip in both places, it would be very surprising if
anv other rock should be found in Boston ; unless it were an in-

272

Scientific Geology.

truding mass of trap rock. But this slate on the peninsula is
buried deep by clay, gravel, and sand ; although, from the quan-
tity of diluvium found there above the tertiary beds, 1 have been
led to color the peninsula as a diluvial deposite.

The only remaining tract of graywacke to be noticed, is one of
limited extent, along Parker river in the south part of Newbury,
and extending, 1 believe, into Rowley. It consists of gray red
and variegated slates, slaty compact feldspar, with talc, and a con-
glomerate resembling that in Koxbury. Red compact feldspar
lies between this rock and the sienite ; and some of the nodules
of the conglomerate consist of red compact feldspar. This tract
of the graywacke appears to be very interesting, and deserves
a more thorough examination.

Direction, Dijj, and Thickness of the Strata.

Graywacke is celebrated in other countries for the irregularities
of its stratification, and the tortuosities of its slaty varieties. i\or
is this rock in New England lacking in these characteristics. The
observer will be satisfied, after an extensive examination, that the
predominant direction of the strata of this rock is not far from
east and west, and the dip northerly, generally approaching to 45
degrees. But he will be surprised to find in the western part of
the principal deposit, viz. from Randolph to Providence, and so
on to the southern extremity of Rhode Island, that the direction
of the strata is nearly north and south, and the dip east. The
following table exhibits the dip and direction of this formation in
various places, as I find them in my notes.

Mansfield,

Berkley,

Attleborough, (west part,)

do. (centre,)

Walpole,

Direction.

N. W. and S. E.
N. E. andS. W.
North and South.

do.
N. E. andS.W.

Pawtucket,' (Graywacke Slate,) S. 20" West.
From Providence to Warren,

Rhode Island. N. and South.
Seekonk,

Portsmouth, R. 1. (Slate,)

Newport, R. I. near Fort

Adams, (Slate,)

do. South part, (do.)

do. Southeast part (do.)

do do. Purple Quartz

Rock, N. and South

do.
N. E. and S. W.

N. and South.
E. and West.
N. and South.

Dip.

45° N. E.
N. W. small.
East, small.
50" West.
50to60'W. W.
70° easterly.

45" East.
10° East.
S.E. 40 to 90".

5 to 1 0° easter-
Various. [ly.
00 to 70° west.

80° East.

Direction and Dij) of the Strata.

273

West side of Narraganset
Bay (Slate,)
Middletovvn, R. I. Blue
Quartz Rock,
do. do. Amphibolic
Aggregate,
Between Warren and Bris-
tol, Rhode Island,
Tiverton Bridge, R. I.
(Slate,)
Little Compton, (Slate,)
Fall River, (Troy,) Slate
and Quartz Rock,
Swansey, (Conglomerate,)
West Bridgewater, (Slate,)
North Bridgwater,
Canton,
Milton,

Newton — north j)art,
Cambridge,
Watertovvn.

Direction.

and South,
and South,
and South.

E. and West.

N. and South.
N. E. and S. W.

E. and West.
East and West,
do.
do.
. do.

do. (nearly,)
do.
do.
N. E. and S. W

Dip.

10 to 15° East.

E. 80° East.
60 toTOnVcst.
10 to 20" North.
45° West.

Dorchester, (Conglomerate,) S. E. and N. W.
Roxbury, (^^O *^'o-

Natick, (Slate,) . . N. E. and S. W.

Newbury, (Slate and Con-
glomerate,) East and West.
Milton, (Argillaceous Slate,) do.

South Boston, do. do.

Nahant, do. do.

Hull, do. do.

Rainsford Islands, do. N. E. and S. W.

Charlestown, do. (near the

Insane Hospital,) W. a little N.

do. (in a quarry.) North and South.

do. (Winter Hill,) East and West.

do. (Near the

Powder House,) E. and W. nearly.

do.

do.*

do.*

4.5° North.
35 to 40° N.
30° North.
Northerly.
25 to 50° N.
60 loTO^N.
30" North.
60 to 70° N.
90°.
15 to 30° N. E.

do.
45" N. W.

45° N.
North, large.
50 to 60" N.
30 to40« N.
60 to 70" N.
Nearly 90^' S. E.

50" S. E.
10" W.

15 to 20" N.

15"N. N. E.

The predominant direction of the strata in this formation may
be seen on the annexed Map, (Plate XVI.) which shows the gen-
eral direction of all the strata in the State. Local exceptions, un-
less of great extent, cannot of course be shown on a Map of such

Professor Webster: See Boston Journal ol riiilooopliy, &.c. Vol. I. p. 280, ct

seq.

274 Scientific Geology.

limiled size. These exceptions are so numerous in the preceding
table, that one might be disposed to question whether any paral-
lelism in the direction, or uniformity of dip, can be made out.
But extensive examination will satisfy any one of the truth of the
general statement made above, that the prevailing direction is
easterly and westerly, and the dip northerly, with the exception
there named in Rhode Island, and of a tract from Rhode Island to
Randolph. Whether there is a particular line along which the
strata change suddenly in their direction from north and south lo
east and west, or whether the change is gradual, I have not been
able to determine ; though inclined to believe it sudden. The
central parts of the tract, near where the change must take place,
are so covered with diluvium as rarely lo exhibit rocks in place.
As to the cause of this anomaly, I am disposed to believe that
this graywacke belongs to two systems of elevation ; the one run-
ning nearly east and west, and the other nearly northeast and
southwest. In the conclusion of my Report, 1 shall examine
this subject more particularly.

It will be seen from \k^ . preceding statement of the direction
and dip of the strata, that there is much irregularity in the position
of the argillaceous slate connected with the graywacke: particu-
larly in Charlestown. But this in general is easy to be explained
by the intrusion of masses of greenstone, or the proximity of si-
enite.

The slaty structure of the slates included under graywacke,
does not always coincide with the stratified structure. 1 have ob-
served this to be the fact, particularly with a variety of the red
quartz rock, which in Randolph, \Valpole, Wientham, &.C., be-
comes slaty, by taking into its composition a larger proportion of
talc.

In South Boston, and on Rainsford islands, the argillaceous
slate contains a double set of seams, oblique to the strata seams ;
and thereby the rock is divided, often with great regulaiity, into
tables with rhombic or trapezoidal faces. (Nos. ^360, -361.)

In general, 1 doubt whether the argillaceous slate and the gray-
wacke slate of this formation, exhibit such striking tortuosities in
their layers, as European geologists describe in the corresponding
rocks in the eastern world. In some places, however, these cur-
vatures are remarkable enough in New England. On Rainsford
islands the argillaceous slate, although unusually fissile, is bent so
as to form a semicircle within the space of a very few inches. (No.
362.) But in the southern part of Newport, Rhode Island, in
the vicinity of granite, we find the n)Osi remarkable curvatures
in the graywacke slate.

The following sketch was taken fiom a cliff on the southeast
shore of that town. It is from 15 lo 20 feet high, and 30 or 40

Curvatures in Graij^vacJce Slate.

275

long, and the drawing does not at all exaggerate the tortuosities
and irregularities of the slate. The dark strip is a bed of anthra-
cite a few inches thick ; and the dotted part shows where the dilu-
vium has slidden down upon the rock. The slate is so highly im-
pregnated with carbon as to be quite dark colored, and might
perhaps be denominated shale. Near the anthracite bed it abounds
in vegetable remains. I could discover no strata seams distinct
from those that separate tiie layers of slate ; and it is very doubt-
ful whether this rock ought to be regarded as stratified at that
place.

Coast Section in Graywacke Slate : Newport, R. I.

It is obvious that this slate must have been bent into its present
form while yet in a plastic state ; although its elevation to a nearly
perpendicular position, might have been the result of a subsequent
convulsion. It will be recollected, that in giving a history of our
tertiary strata, I have exhibited some remarkable examples of
tortuosity in the clay beds, which bear a strong resemblance to the
one figured above; and perhaps both were produced in a similar
manner, however difficult it may be to assign any adequate cause.
Other similar cases I shall describe when I come to speak of mica
slate and gneiss.

In another place on the satne coast, near where the preceding
sketch was taken, the graywacke slate seems to have assumed the
form of a paraboloid, or an ellipsoid, whose longer axis coincides
nearly with the plane of the meridian. Tlie upper part of this
paraboloid having been worn away, leaves the basset edges of
the slate as exhibited below.

The dotted portion in the following sketch, is covered by debris
and sand ; but very ])robably the position of the laminae is as rep-
resented. The dip of the slate is outward on every side ; or in
such a direction as it would be, if tiie layers curved around a par-
aboloid, or ellipsoid, from which a segment had been cut off.

276

Scientific Geology

The proximity of granite explains satisfactorily the very great
irregularity in the position of the graywacke slate in Newport.

From the various statements which 1 have made in relation to
the geology of Newport and its vicinity, it will be obvious that it
is very rare to find so many objects interesting to geological curi-
osity brought within so narrow a compass.

As to the thickness of the graywacke formation, I am very much
in the (^ark. I am inclined, however, to believe that its perpen-
dicular thickness must be rather small. The want of lofty hills
in this formation, and the marks of powerful abrasion every where
exhibited, both in the loose fragments and in occasional outliers,
have impressed me with the idea that it was once far more exten-
sive than at present. It might not, indeed, have covered all the
space that now intervenes between its several tracts: but I see no
reason why much of that space might not have been occupied by
it : although 1 confess that this opinion is little more than hypo-
thesis.

Mineral Contents.

By far the most interesting and important mineral in the gray-
wacke formation is anthracite. Its most abundant and best known
locality is in Portsmouth, near the northern extremity of Rhode
Island. It was explored there somewhat extensively near the
beginning of the present century ; and Dr. Meade says, that the
vein then wrought was 14 feet wide ; and 'with only fifteen work-
men, they can raise at present from 10 to 20 chaldrons of coal
per day, besides keeping the mine free from water ; from which
they suffer little inconvenience.'* He speaks of the bed of coal
as ' not horizontal or vertical, but forming an angle of about 75°.'

A great variety of causes led to the abandonment of these ex-
plorations : but a few years since they were again resumed ; and
through the kindness of Dr. Thomas H. Webb, of Providence, I

♦ Bruce's Mincralogical Ji)urnal. Januaiy, 18-20, p. 84.

Anthracite. 277

have before me a letter addressed to that gentleman, from J.
Clowes, the intelligent agent employed to superintend this second
exploration ; from which I derive the following facts respecting
the anthracite of Portsmouth. The letter is dated February 18th,
1828; which appears to have been about the time when the work
was the second time abandoned.

The quantity of anthracite raised at these mines in 1827, by
20 men and 5 boys, was 2200 tons, and an equal quantity of
slack : that is, \ery small coal and dust. The former sold at the
mine for ^'4.50 per ton, of 2240 pounds ; and the slack for ^1
per ton. The slack was used for burning lime and bricks. The
best coal was mostly employed for fires in families, except in New
York, where it was used for making glass ; for generating steam
under the common circular or round boiler ; for blacksmiths ; and
.in general for any purpose where anthracites are employed.

The agent regards these mines as capable of furnishing an inex-
haustible supply. He represents the coal as occurring in veins;
but his descriptions apply rather to beds ; and I am almost certain
that it occurs in beds. Six of these have been exposed ; and
more than 30 are said to exist in that part of Rhode Island.
Their direction is southwest and northeast, and they dip southeast
from 40'^ to 90^

The following are the strata that were penetrated in sinking a
water shaft, or engine pit, 87 feet ; and in fifteen other places
they were found to be very similar.

Sand and gravel, ... 9 feet.

Dark colored slate, . . 12

Hard compact graywacke, . 23

Soft black slate, ... 4

Hard brown slate, . . 5

Soft fine gray slate, . . 1

Very hard brown slate, . . 17

Gray freestone, . . • 12

Coal, . . . . .4

Vegetable remains were found only in one of these excavations,
about nineteen feet below the surface.

The failure of the mining operations in Portsmouth, between
the years 1809 and 1816, resulted, according to Mr. Clowes, from
two general causes : 1. A want of practical skill in those who
conducted the operations. This prevented as much system in the
works as was necessary, and also the introduction of proper and
economical machinery. And he says, that ' amongst the many
losses, which contributed to work their ruin, that was not the
least, of allowing, or permitting the workmen to have from half
a pint to a pint of spirituous liquors during the working hours.
We neither allow nor permit any thing of the sort, nor is it allowed

34

27d Scientific Geology.

or permitted in any mining establishment in Europe. Instead ol
benefiting a man, it actually incapacitates him : and exclusive of
the immoral effects on the passions of the workmen, I consider it
a loss to the owners of at least one sixth of the whole manual labor.'
The second cause of failure, he says, lay in sending the coal
from tlie mines in an improper state ; that is, unsorted, and in too
large lumps. He says tliat the R. Island coal does not break eas-
ily when ignited, like the Lehigh coal, and that this fact and the
amount of impurities which it contained, injured its reputation in
the market. He thinks that if n)ixed in equal quantity with the
Pennsylvania or bituminous coal, it answers best for fuel : and he
says he has abundant evidence, that one ton of the R. Island coal,
mixed with a ton of that from Pennsylvania, is equal to two tons
of the anthracite from the latter state.

These facts, coming as they do from a practical and intelligent
man, I thought deserving of a place in this Report: for they ren-
der it probable to my mind, that the Rhode Island coal may be
again wrought ere many years. At present the prejudice against
it in market is so strong, that the owners have been obliged to aban-
don its exploration.

I have already mentioned that beds of anthracite, a ^e\v inches
thick, occur in the south part of Newport in graywacke slate. In
the war of the Revolution, the British troops, after consuming
nearly all the wood upon the island, endeavored to find coal at
this place; and the marks of their exploration still remain.

On the Map I have represented a bed of coal as existing near
the east line of Cumberland, another in the north part of Middle-
borough, a third in West Bridgwater, and a fourth in Wrentham.
I could not learn that much of this mineral had been obtained at
these places. The search for coal in Weymouth, mentioned in a
note to the first part of my Report, first edition, has not I believe
been successful.

An exploration is now going on in the south part of Wrentham,
principally by boring. In one place they have penetrated 180 feet
into a dark colored or anthracitous slate, which runs nearly east
and west, and dips north about 45°. But in no place have they
found pure coal : nor has any bed, even of that which is impure,
been discovered more than eighteen inches thick. The speci-
mens hitherto obtained, (No. 401,) are much mixed with pyrites
and slate.

It struck me that boring perpendicularly is not the most judicious
method of searcliing for coal in this place. I take it to be quite
certain, that the coal always occurs in layers between the laminae
of slate, and never in veins ; such a thing as a genuine vein of
coal being, as I suppose, inconsistent with the known laws ol chem-
istry. Hence then, as the strata dip 45° at this place, if a trench

Anthracite. 279

be dug deep enough to lay bare the basset edges, crossing them at
right angles, it must certainly reveal ail the beds of coal which the
rock contains. And since the loose soil is not more than ten feet
deep, this must be certainly the most economical course. The
discovery of beds of coal in other places by boring, leads often, 1
believe, into error : for generally the strata containing coal are
horizontal ; and then boring alone will bring the beds to light :
but where they are highly inclined, it is working to great disad-
vantage to bore into them perpendicularly. I have found several
times that foreign miners, who are ignorant of the principles of
geology, have led our citizens astray by assuring them that the
coal or the ore they are in pursuit of, lies deep ; merely because
such was the case in the particular mine in Europe with which
they were acquainted.

In all the cases mentioned above, the anthracite occurs in a
slaty rock, either gray or nearly black, which is associated with
coarser aggregates. Many geologists would denominate this slate
shale: but I should rather term it argillaceous slate, or graywacke
slate ; because I prefer the system of Macculloch, which regards
no rocks as shale, which lie as low in the series as graywacke.*
(Nos. 358 and 395 to 399.)

In no case have I found anthracite in any of those anomalous
varieties of the graywacke group, which 1 have described ; such
as the breccias, amphibolic, quartzose, and talcose rocks. These I
regard as the oldest varieties of this formation ; and the anthracite
I suspect occurs among the higher members of the series. I
know of no reason, however, why this mineral should not be found
in the oldest varieties. That the slate in which it is found in
Rhode Island, is closely allied to primary rocks, is obvious from
the fact that it abounds in veins of asbestus — and the same mineral
penetrates the anthracite.

So full a description of the external characters of the Rhode
Island anthracite has been given by Prof Siiliman, in his Journal
of Science,! that it seems unnecessary to repeat it in this place.
I shall merely notice some peculiar characters, which, if I mis-
take not, have an important bearing upon the theory of the origin
of this mineral and its connection with plumbago. In comparing
this coal with the anthracite from Pennsylvania, one is struck with
the superior semi-metallic or plumbaginous aspect of the former ;
as I have already remarked. But mere resemblance to plumba-
go is not all ; for, says Professor Siiliman, ' many of its surfaces
are covered with a thin film of a substance not to be distinguished
from plumbago, as it has the same lustre and softness, and stains
the fingers and marks paper in the same manner. A true plum-

♦ Classification of Rocks, p. 455. Also, System of Geoloffv, Vol. II. p. 243.
t Vol. XI. p. 87.

280 Scientijic Geology.

bago is found occasionally among the slates which accompany this
anthracite.' But in respect to the Pennsylvania anthracites he
says, ' there is rarely on these surfaces a plumbaginous aspect ;
and when it exists, it is less remarkable than in the Rhode Island
coal.' In the Worcester coal, I would also state, that the metallic
aspect is much more distinct, and the quantity of tlie substance
' not to be distinguished from plumbago,' much greater. Indeed,
several tons of it have been ground and sold for plumbago ; * and
I think an examination of No. 775, will satisfy any one that it is
genuine plumbago. The anthracite found at Cumberland, Rhode
Island, also, ' is more slaty than that of Portsmouth, it soils the
fingers more, and approaches graphite.' f The specimens from
the recent exploration in Wrentham, bear a resemblance in ap-
pearance to the anthracite from Rhode Island.

Now do we not ascertain from the preceding facts, a gradual
passage from anthracite to plumbago ? And if my view of the
relative age of the Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Worcester
anthracites, as they have been expressed in the first part of my
Report, are correct ; we see that this gradation corresponds to the
relative antiquity of the rock containing the mineral: that is, the
older the rock, the nearer does the mineral approach to plumbago.
I may not indeed, have shown very conclusively that the gray-
wacke formation of Massachusetts and Rliode Island is older than
the anthracite formation of Pennsylvania ; though the greater dip
of the slate, as a general fact, in the former, its more crystalline
aspect, and the occurrence in it of crystallised veins of absetus
and quartz, render this opinion probable. But as to the anthra-
cite formation in Worcester, it will be easy to prove, in the proper
place, that it is older than either of the others above mentioned :
and here it should be recollected we find the greatest quantity of
plumbago.

The anthracite from these different localities exhibits, in its
specific gravity, a correspondent approach to plumbago. Accord-
ing to Dr. Thomson, J the specific gravity of plumbago varies
from 1.9 to 2.32: but according to Beudant,|| from 2.08 to 2.45.
The first named author says, that he has never met with any an-
thracite whose specific gravity was as great as 1.5: Beudant,
however, says it varies from 1.5 to 1.8. Now according to Mr.
Bull, the mean specific gravity of the Pennsylvania anthracite,
from five localities, is 1.436.^ He states also the specific gravity
of the Rhode Island coal to be, 1.438 : But Prof Silliman, who

♦ Robinson's Catalogue of Minerals, p. 78.
t Cleavland's Mineralogy, Vol. I. p. 501.
t Inorganic Chemistry, Vol. I. p. 155.
II Traite de Mineralogie, Vol. II. p. 262.
§ Chemistry of the Arts, p. 3:?.

Anthracite. 281

appears to have conducted the process with great care, slates the
Pennsylvania anthracite to have the mean specific gravity 1.55,
and that from the Rhode Island, 1.75.* Mr. Bull places the
Worcester coal at 2.104. Upon the whole, though there is not a
little discrepancy in the above statements, we may, I think, safely
infer, that the Rhode Island coal is heavier than that from Penn-
sylvania : and the Worcester coal the heaviest of all, and nearly
equal to plumbago.

There is another fact that deserves to be noticed in this connec-
tion. Plumbago, it is well known, contains so much iron, that
some chemists regard it as a carburet of iron. Now from the
analysis of Mr. Vanuxen), f it appears that the Rhode Island an-
thracite contains a much larger proportion of the oxides of iron
and manganese, than that from Pennsylvania ; even more than
some specimens of plumbago. Do we not in this circumstance
perceive another evidence of an approach to that mineral in this
anthracite ? I am not aware that the Worcester anthracite has
been analysed ; nor have I time to attempt its analysis before com-
pleting this Report.

European geologists have satisfactorily traced the progress of
vegetable matter from the living vegetable matter into peat, and
thence to bituminous coal. They have, also, rendered it probable
that anthracite is only another step in the process ; although some
of them still doubt the vegetable origin of this variety of coal.
But in regard to plumbago, a somewhat prevalent opinion I believe
is, that it has been produced from elementary, rather than organized
carbon. Dr. Macculloch, however, says, that ' the coal of secon-
dary origin, containing vegetable remains is converted into plumbago
by the influence of trap ; as wood has been in my experiments, and
as coal is, daily, in the iron furnaces : so that even the plumbago ol
the primary strata, no less than the anthracite, might as well have
originated in vegetables, as that each of them should owe an inde-
pendent origin to elementary mineral carbon.' J

Elie de Beaumont has also given an account of anthracite, which
is associated in the Alps with graphite in clay slate, reposing on
lias. ' This graphite,' says he, ' is found in a bed of argillaceous
slate which contains vegetable impressions, similar to those which
accompany other deposites of anthracite in that country. This
slate exhibits on the surface of these impressions minute veins of
anthracite, and it forms a part of a series, in which, both above
and below, workable anthracite shows itself: all which proves that
the graphite is only a modification of the anthracite. This modi-
fication appears to be connected with the presence of certain feld-

* Journal of Science, Vol. XI. p. 89 and 92.
t American Journal of Science, Vol. X. p. 102.
t System of Geologv, Vol. I. p. 297.

282 Scientific Geology.

spathic rocks, wbich are probably only the raniifications of a huge
mass of feldspar situated near.' * If I mistake not, the circum-
stances under which these varieties of carbon occur in this coun-
try, throw some light on these inquiries, and render probable the
suggestions of Dr. Macculloch. The great number of vegetable
retnains found in connection with the Pennsylvania and Rhode
Island anthracites, must, it seems to me, satisfy every reasonable
man of the vegetable origin of this mineral in these instances.
But a plumbaginous substance occuis with the Rhode Island coal,
and the coal itself seems to be passing into plumbago. Still more
near to plumbago do we find the Worcester anthracite, and a part
of the bed is undoubtedly real plumbago. Here, however, we find
no vegetable remains, retaining their organised form, because the
rock belongs to the primary class ; being for the most part a bas-
tard kind of mica slate. Advancing one step farther, we find in
the gneiss rock of Sturbriflge — probably the oldest of all rocks —
a bed of well characterised plumbago. How very probable that
all these varieties of carbon have the same, and that a vegetable
origin ? How unphilosophical, when we can thus trace nearly
every step of the change, from one variety into another, to call in
the aid of other causes to account for the origin of one of them ?
We see here only the operation of the cause, or causes — what-
ever they were — by which, as we descend from the newer to the
older rocks, they exhibit less and less of a mechanical, and more
and more of a chemical arrangement of parts, and fewer and few-
er traces of organic remains : until, in the primary rocks, these
relics are nearly or quite obliterated. Why should we doubt the op-
eration of such causes upon coal, any more than upon other miner-
al masses ? And if we do grant this, w-e have an easy and satisfac-
tory explanation of the mode in which all the varieties of carbon
were produced, except perhaps the diamond : and from the fact
that the diamond breccia of India is surrounded by, and based
upon granite, we may reasonably conjecture that this mineral has
been produced from vegetable carbonaceous matter, that has been
fused, (for Prof Silliman has proved that it is fusible) and subse-
quently crystallised f And if it be true, that secondary coal is
sometimes converted into anthracite and plumbago by the influ-
ence of trap, why should we doubt but heat has been the agent of
those changes in ever}^ case; especially as it is difficult to con-
ceive how any other agent could have given to rocks and minerals
of a mechanical origin, a crystalline or sub-crystalline structure.

It will be perceived that I have anticipated some statements in
respect to the Worcester anthracite and the Slurbridge plumbago.

* Annals des Sciences Naturelles, Tome. XV. (1828,) p. 377.
t Edinburgh Jonrnal of Science, Vol. X. p. 184.

Minerals in Grayivacke. 283

This I have done that I might treat of their origin together, to
avoid repetition.

I have said so much in the first part of my Report, in respect
to the economical uses of the anthracite of our graywacke forma-
tion, that I need add nothing here. 1 cannot, however, but ex-
press my surprise, that the ablest European geological and chem-
ical writers should still represent anthracite as of little or no use,
except for furnaces ; when, for the last ten or fifteen years, so
many thousand tons of this mineral have been used in our prin-
cipal cities, along the whole Atlantic coast, in the parlor, the study,
and the kitchen ; and so much has been said of its value, for
these purposes, in our scientific and other periodical journals. ' In
an economical light,' says Dr. Macculloch, ' it must be fruitless to
search for coal below the old red sandstone, and generally speak-
ing, beneath the mountain limestone ; as to mine after primary
coal (anthracite as I understand him,) would be a wild project.' *
' Anthracite,' says Beudant, •' on account of the difficulty with
which it is kindled, cannot be employed but in furnaces with a
good draught.' f ' The difficulty which is experienced in the
combustion of anthracite,' says Dumas, ' is a very great obstacle
to every economical use of that body. — It is possible, indeed, that
anthracite will one day become useful in deep furnaces ; although
in almost every other process of the useful arts, its employment
can be hardly practicable, on account of the high temperature
which it requires to complete its combustion.' J

The other minerals that have been found in the graywacke of
Massachusetts and Rhode Island, are few and unimportant. It is
hardly necessary to mention such common and widely disseminated
minerals as iron pyrites, crystalline quartz, and calcareous spar.
Magnetic iron ore and the micaceous oxide, have also been found
in this group in small quantities ; and I have already mentioned
crystallized epidote, in the varioloid wacke. In the amphibolic
aggregate, in Newport, I found a vein of crystallised zoisite, about
four inches wide, and several feet long. In other parts of the
globe, graywacke is a repository of gold ; and the clay slate con-
nected with it, (transition clay slate,) contains the richest veins of
silver ill New Spain, according to Baron Humboldt. || But neither
of these metals have been found in these rocks in Massachusetts.

In the varioloid rocks of Brighton, Professor Webster has found
sulphate of lime and baryta. The latter is said to occur also
in Milton : and also fibrous limestone in thin veins in wacke.
Adularia and suiphuret of copper have been found also at Brighton.

* System of Geology, Vol. II. p. 305. London, 1831.

f Traite De Mineralogie, Vol. I. p. 717. Paris, 1830.

t Traite De Chimie Appliquee aux Arts, Vol. 1. p. HOG. Paris, 1828.

!l Superposition of Rock*^, p. 105.

284 Scientific Geology.

Efflorescent and massive sulphate of iron has been found, accord-
ing to the Messrs. Danas, on the argillaceous slate in Charlestown.
Dr. Robinson says that the graywacke, near Providence, is
traversed by veins of quartz, containing fluor spar.

In Brighton, in the varioloid wacke, I noticed fibres of green
asbestus traversing quartz, which, by the coloring matter of the
asbestus, was converted into prase. (No. 391.)

Organic Remains.

Having been disappointed in several efforts to obtain organic
relics in the graywacke formation, where I knew them to exist, I
am prepared to give only a meagre account of them in this place.

All those which I have met with, were probably of vegetable
origin.

In Taunton I was shown several imperfect specimens obtained
near the village, which evidently belong to some of the gigantic
races of plants now extinct, which flourished in the earlier peri-
ods of the world. I recognised them as bearing a strong resem-
blance to some of the larger species occurring in the coal mines in
the valley of Wyoming in Pennsylvania: but having had no op-
portunity to compare these specimens with drawings, or descrip-
tions, I can describe them only in general terms.

In Attleborough, east parish, a mile south of the meeting house,
I found an organic relic in a dark hard slate, which so much resem-
bles the Fucoides found in the new red sandstone of the Connec-
ticut valley, that I cannot but refer it to that genus ; not, however,
without doubts as to its nature. (No. 400.)

According to Dr. Webb,* vegetable impressions are found on
slate in Pawtuxet, which lies on the west shore of Narraganset
Bay, south of Providence. They seem to belong chiefly to the
fern tribes.

The same is true, I believe, of those found at the coal mines in
Portsmouth. It was probably from this locality that the two spec-
imens mentioned in De la Beche's Manualf were obtained. One
is the fern Pecopteris arguta ; and the other, the anomalous plant,
AsterophyUites equisetiformis ; which as yet has been referred to
no established class.

In the southeast part of Newport, where occur some narrow beds
of anthracite, vegetable remains are comujon. Of two of these
I have given a sketch. Plate XI. fig. 10, bears considerable re-
semblance to an Equisetum, as figured by Adolphe Brongniart on
plate 12, fig. 13, of his Vegetaux Fossiles. Plate XIII. fig. 43
may be a delicate species of Nevropteris of the same author. I
noticed there some other species of the same genus.

* Am. Journal Science, vol. VIII. p. 225.
t Pages 416 and 419, second edition.

Theoretical Considerations. 285

In the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences in Phila-
delphia, is a specimen from Newport, R. I. which, wiliiout doubt,
must be regarded as a SigiUaria ; that is, the trunk of an arbores-
cent fern : presenting cicatrices similar to those upon the gigantic
tree-ferns now growing in tropical regions.

Vegetable impressions have been found in considerable quantity
in the excavations for coal in Wrentham. The most common is
what I have supposed to be several species of Calamites, of Ad.
Brongniart. Some of them are several inches in width ; and are
marked out on the rock by a plaited layer of green indurated talc —
a most remarkable mineralizer! Plale XIII. fig. 41, represents
a small portion of one of those Calamites, which exhibits numer-
ous small seams running obliquely across the specimen, like the C.
nodosus of Brongniart. On fig. 4'2 may be seen two quite differ-
ent impressions : a and h are furrowed longitudinally, and appear
to be branched : perhaps a part of an Equisetum. The other
fan-like impression, with radiated strias, may perhaps belong to
the genus Cyclopteris of Ad. Brongniart : though I am not with-
out suspicion that this also may be au Equisetum.

Theoretical Considerations.

In general the theoretical views that have been presented in
relation to the origin of the new red sandstone, will apply to the
graywacke. Two or three circumstances only, in relation to this
latter rock, need any additional remarks.

One is the more decided evidence, which the graywacke pre-
sents, of the operation of chemical agencies in its production.
This is obvious in the more crystalline aspect of the rock in gen-
eral, and especially of certain varieties; and in the numerous
veins traversing it, which must have resulted from a play of chem-
ical affinities. And if it be admitted that internal heat in the
earth, which every thing proves must once have been very pow-
erful, has been gradually operating less and less upon the crust
of the globe, why is it not a natural inference, that the older the
rock the more crystalline would be its structure : that is, if we
admit that the heat has been great enough to change the arrange-
ment of the particles of rocks, whose origin was mechanical : and
it appears that such a change may take place, to some extent at
least, far below a melting heat. Only admit then, that the gray-
wacke is an older rock than the new red sandstone, (and it seems
to me that the veins in the former are sufficient to prove this,) and
we should expect in it a more chemical structure.

Another peculiarity in the graywacke, so far as we are ac-
quainted with its organic remains, is, that all of them are of
vegetable origin. Whether all of them grew upon dry land is not
so certain ; if, as I have suggested, a Fucoides occur in this rock.

35

286 Scientific Geology.

The beds of anthracite, however, prove that this rock was formed,
in part at least^ on a surface elevated above the waters. Yet we
must call in the aid of powerful currents to account for the accu-
mulation of rounded nodules, which are so abundant and so large
in some varieties of this rock : and then the inclined position of
the strata proves that they have been elevated since their deposi-
tion. Indeed, it seems difficult to explain all the phenomena in
this graywacke, or any other formation containing coal, with some
marine relics, without supposing at least one or two elevations
above, and depressions below the waters, during the period of its
deposition. And if we admit that various portions of the earth's
crust have from time to time been elevated, it is easy to conceive
that other portions must have been depressed.

The occurrence of the remains of arborescent ferns in this
rock, demonstrates the existence of a tropical climate in Massa-
chusetts previous to its deposition : a conclusion to which we have
already been brought in regard to the period in which the mate-
rials of the new red sandstone were produced. These facts har-
monize with those which have been brought to light in other re-
gions of the globe : and there seems no longer any reason to
doubt, that the temperature of the globe in early times must have
been far higher than at present. The region around Boston, and
consequently the whole of New England, was undoubtedly once
covered with dense tropical forests.

6. ARGILLACEOUS SLATE.

This is one of those rocks whose mineral character is clear ; it
being composed of schistose clay, more or less indurated. This
character, however, applies to the shale of the secondary rocks,
which few geologists now include under argillaceous slate. It also
applies to some of the slaty varieties of graywacke : and Dr. Mac-
culloch includes under argillaceous slate the whole of the gray-
wacke formation, as well as that argillaceous slate which is asso-
ciated with rocks older than graywacke. But De la Beche limits
the term to this last named slate, excluding the graywacke, which
he puts into a separate group. I prefer his arrangement upon the
whole; though in adopting it I find myself perplexed to deter-
mine whether the argillaceous slate around Boston, belongs to his
' Inferior stratified or Non-fossiliferous Rocks,' or is a member of
the graywacke group; where, for the sake of convenience, I have
described it. I am inclined to believe that it should be separated
from the graywacke; though with my present information, I can-
not say exactly where the dividing line should run. But the fact
that no organic remains have been hitherto discovered in this
slate, and the occurrence of its rolled nodules in some of the con-

Mineralogical Characters. 287

glotnerates of the graywacke, as well as its geological position,
render it probable that it is considerably older than most varieties
of graywacke.

In respect to the other patches of argillaceous slate exhibited
on the Map, there can be little doubt but they belong to De la
Beche's Inferior Stratified or Non-fossiliferous Rocks; though 1
doubt not but some of them would be placed by a Wernerian ge-
ologist among the ' transition clay slates.' But I regard it as quite
unprofitable to enter upon the long agitated question whether our
clay slate belong to the transition or primary class of rocks. It
will be in season to discuss this point, when any one can show
where the transition class begins or ends; and when there shall
be even a tolerable agreement as to the place in the series where
the primary class commences. A mere inspection of the tabular
view of our rocks, which I have given in the Atlas, will show that
our views on these points will depend upon the system or classi-
fication which we adopt. I shall feel satisfied if I can correctly
describe the position of this rock in respect to others. In what
follows, I shall leave out of the account the argillaceous slate in
the vicinity of Boston.

Mineralogical Characters.

The common argillaceous slate, which, in its most perfect state,
forms roof slate, is the only variety of importance belonging to
this formation. Tlfis passes by slow gradations into mica slate ;
so that it is often impossible to say where the one terminates and
the other commences. Hence some of the specimens which I
place under mica slate, other observers would place under argilla-
ceous slate, and vice versa.

The lamina? in the best varieties are straight and even : but as
it approximates to mica slate, they become minutely undulated,
the surface resembling exceedingly that of certain shales of the
new red sandstone already described. Some of these interme-
diate varieties are remarkably contorted : but these I shall describe
under mica slate.

In Guilford, Vt. through which the Franklin county range of this
slate extends, I have observed that it passes into a fine grained
variety of chlorite slate, and even perhaps into novaculite. That
range also abounds with tuberculous masses of white quartz.
Veins of quartz also occur in it, as I shall have occasion to show
more particularly ; and in Guilford we find protruding masses of
a porphyroid granite, passing into compact feldspar, and a slaty
mixture of this last mineral and quartz. The Worcester county
range, also, contains granite.

288 Scientific Geology.

Topograjifiy of the Argillaceous Slate.

With the exception of that in the vicinity of Boston, the Map
exhibits but three ranges of argillaceous slate : viz. in the coun-
ties of Worcester, Franklin, and Berkshire. And it happens that
in all these cases, except perhaps the first, the principal part ol
the range lies out of the State, either in New Hampshire, Ver-
mont, or New York. Two miles south of the centre of Halifax,
PI} mouth county, also, I found a delicate variety of argillaceous
slate, which I was informed was discovered in digging v.ells, and
that it lay immediately upon granite. (No. 363.) But whether it
exists to any considerable extent in that region, I am unable to say.

Worcester county Argillaceous Slate.

Some geologists would probably regard the slate that forms the
roof and floor of the mine of anthracite in Worcester, as argilla-
ceous slate ; and maintain that the range of this slate in Worces-
ter county, extends at least as far south as that spot. But I re-
gard that slate rather as a fine mica slate, much impregnated with
carbon, which gives it the appearance of argillaceous slate. In
almost every case the scales of mica are quite distinct: and at a
short distance from the mine, the rock assumes the characteis
of mica slate distinctly ; though here, as in most of the range of
mica slate extending from the mouth of INIerrimack river to the
State of Connecticut, much of the rock is so quartzose that it
might perhaps be regarded as quartz rock. I have not found any-
well characterised argillaceous slate, south of Boylston. And
north of this place, the country is so much covered with diluvium,
and so little hilly, that the slate does not often come into view.
I found the range, however, to become narrower on approaching
the north line of the State. Its characters appear most fully de-
veloped in Lancaster, where it has been quarried for roofing slate ;
and here the range is broadest. How far it extends into New
Hampshire I have not ascertained ; though I should not be sur-
prised to find it even crossing that State. In passing from Groton
to Townsend, I saw frequent examples of protruding masses and
veins of granite in this slate. It passes on either side into the
peculiar mica slate, already spoken of in Worcester county ; and
in this latter rock protrusions of granite are not unfrequent.

Franklin county Argillaceous Slate.

It will be seen by the Map that this range occupies a considera-
ble part of the town of Bernardston, passing into quartz rock on
the east, and into mica slate on the west, and embracing a consid-
erable part of two mountains of considerable heiglit. It is not,
however, till we pass into Vermont, that this slate assumes its

Ranges of Argillaceous Slate. 289

most perfect characters. In Bernardston it is qiiarrier!, indeed :
but not I believe for roofing slate. But in Guilford, wliich adjoins
IMassacliusetts, several quarries are opened for this purpose. It
there forms hills of considerable elevation ; and such is its charac-
ter farther north. It has been traced northward, in the valley of
the Connecticut, 80 or 90 miles, in Vermont ; nor do I know
that its northern limit has yet been ascertained.

Berkshire covnty Argillaceous Slate.

This ought perhaps rather to be called the argillaceous slate of
Renssalaer and Columbia counties : for the principal part of it
lies in New York, in the eastern part of these counties. Near
the western line of Massachusetts it passes into mica slate, talco-
argillaceous slate, and chlorite slate, by taking mica, talc, and chlo-
rite, more or less abundantly, into its composition. The same
rock forms hills and patches of limited extent in Williamstown,
New Ashford, Richmond, West Stockbridge, Egremont, and Shef-
field. But in no place in Massachusetts will it answer for roofing
slate. For this purpose it is wrought extensively in Hoodie, Leb-
anon, and Hinsdale, N. Y. I doubt very much whether the
whole of this stratum in Massachusetts should not be regarded as
an imperfect kind of mica slate, similar to an intermediate rock of
doubtful character occurring in Hawley, Plainfield, &lc., which I
have ranked with mica slate. Still, as Professor Dewey, who has
examined this rock more than I have, regards it as argillaceous
slate, I follow his judgment.

On the west, this range is connected with the gray wacke form-
ation of Renssalaer and Columbia counties ; and on the east, it is
associated with mica slate, and a limestone usually regarded as
primitive.

Dip, Direction, and ThicJcness of the Strata.

Excepting in the argillaceous slate connected wilh the gray-
wacke, I have not been able to find in this rock planes of stratifi-
cation running in a different direction from the laminas ; a circum-
stance very comnion, it is said, in Europe. But in general, strata
seams are discoverable, lying parallel to the slaty structure, as in
mica slate. The slate, indeed, contains numereus seams not coin-
cident with those of the strata : but there is rarely any continu-
ous parallelism among them.

The predominant direction of the strata and of the laminae of
slate in all the ranges of this rock, except that around Boston,
and that in Franklin county, is north and south, and the dip
large ; as the following extract from my travelling notes will show.

SDO Scientific Geology.

In Worcester county.

Harvard and Lancaster ; direction, north a few degrees east ;
dip, 901

Shirley ; direction, north and south ; dip, west, small.

Pepperell and Townsend : direction, north and south ; dip, 30"
to 60" east.

* In Franldin county.

Beraardston ; direction, north and south ; dip, 20" to 90" east.
Guilforc', Vt. ; direction, between north and northeast ; dip
near 9U**.

In Berlcshire county,

Taconic. range : direction, north and south ; dip, 15" to 70" east
If, as I have supposed, the strata seams are parallel to the 1am-
inse of the slate, and the dip approaches 90 degrees, then the ac-
tual thickness of this rock will not be much less than its breadth
on the surface. As to its perpendicular thickness, 1 know noth-
ing.

Organic Remains.

No vegetable or animal relic in a fossil slate has hitherto been
found in the argillaceous slate of Massachusetts. Since, however,
this rock in the eastern part of the State, is associated with gray-
wacke, and in the western part of the State, passes into the same,
it will not be strange if organic remains should hereafter be found
in it. Every range of this rock, however, in the State, we have
reason to believe, belongs to the oldest varieties of argillaceous
slate, which geologists have described.

Mineral Contents.

The slate of the Taconic range sometimes contains octahedral
crystals of magnetic oxide of iron, as well as the sulj)huret of the
same metal.

The clay slate in Charlestown, is frequently traversed by veins
of crystallized quartz and calcareous spar.

The most interesting mineral in this rock is the chiastolite, or
made ; which is found in Sterling and Lancaster. There is a
great variety in the manner in which the prisms are disposed.
The following are end views, of the natural size, of some of the
most interesting forms.

Chiastolite.

291

This mineral is quite abundant in the clay slate in these towns,
near the place where the rock passes into mica slate. It changes
insensibly into the mineral which has been generally called andal-
usite ; and the opinion of some of the ablest mineralogists of the
present day,* that made and andalusite are the same species, de-
rives support from this locality. 1 have found this mineral in small
crystals in a loose mass of argillaceous slate in the town of Wor-
cester. (No. 404.)

In the dark colored slate that lies immediately contiguous to the
anthracite bed in Worcester, I have recently found beautiful spec-
imens of green amianthus, (No. 1549) and good specimens, also,
of bucholzite ; (No. 1550) or if it be not bucholzite, I am greatly
mistaken. This latter mineral is now generally regarded as a va-
riety of fibrolite. The Worcester specimens, however, differ
considerably in appearance from the fibrolite of Lancaster, but
very much resemble the bucholzite found in the State of Dela-
ware. I have also been led to regard the rock embracing the
Worcester anthracite as a variety of mica slate : yet it would gen-
erally be called argillaceoui- slate ; and perhaps it ought to be.
At any rate, I have recently received, through the kindness of
Mr. Lucius F. Clarke, specimens of genuine argillaceous slate, from
Castleton, Vt. containing very well characterised bucholzite, asso-
ciated with very singular ovoid nodules of compact sulphuret of
iron.

Evidence of Disturbances in the Argillaceous Slate.

I do not here refer to those agencies by which the layers of this
rock have been elevated from a horizontal to a nearly vertical po-

* Beiidant's Traite de Mineralogie, Vol. II. p. 45. An interesting paper on the
identity of made and andalusite, with numerous drawings ot^ crystals from Lan-
caster, by Dr. C. T. Jackson, is contained in the first No. of the Boston .Journal of
NaturarHistory.ju.st published. (June, 1834.) He has clearly ascertained that the
two minerals are only varieties of one species.

292

Scientijic Geo/ngi/.

sition ; nor to those by which its usual flexures have been produced ;
but to some inoveinenls that have taken place in certain anoma-
lous directions. Tiie instances which 1 shall refer to, all occur in
the Franklin county range, and mostly in Guilford, Vt.

In some instances we find veins of quartz in the slate, as repre-
sented below. Here it is obvious, both from the curvatures in the
undulating ridges of the slate, and from the wedge-form shape of
the veins, that a force must have acted latterally on the edges of
the laminae, while they were in a partially plastic state : and that
an infiltration of quartz jnust have taken place subsequently. It
is not perhaps difficult to conceive how such a lateral action u)ight
have taken place, when the strata were originally elevated. The
specimen from which the drawing was taken, (No. 411.) was
found near the north line of Guilford, on the stage road.

Hi

i^»M

'Vii^xsoih^

In the principal quarry of slate in that town, on the stage road
to Brattleborough from Greenfield, are seen occasionally divis-
ions, perpendicular to the horizon, and to the lamina^., of the
slate, which are nearly vertical, and run north and south. Not un-
frequently, however, the slate at these cross fissures, when its edges
are viewed from above, is bent as in tlio following figures, which
exactly represent the specimens. No. 417 and 418.

Disturbances in the Clay Slate. 293

In the latter case the flexure is so great that the slate is partially-
broken ; and this is the case frequently ; sliowing tliat when
the disturbance took place, the rock was only imperfectly plastic.
The quarry where these flexures are exhibited, has been so much
excavated, as to leave a wall 20 or 30 feet high ; and excepting
at these transverse fissures, the laminae are remarkably even ; so that
the phenomenon is rendered very striking. It must obviously have
resulted from the unequal action of some disturbing force — per-
haps that by which the strata were elevated — whereby one por-
tion of the rock was pressed forward, faster than the rest ; though
in some places not enough to separate, but only to bend, the slate
while in a soft condition.

At the Gorge, or Glen, in Leyden, I found a series of such
slides on a small scale, exhibited by the slate : as in the following
sketch ; though perhaps the rock ought to be regarded as mica
slate. (No. 41G.) Here the echellon movement took place in a
direction at right angles to that described above.

Another disturbance, much more remarkable, appears at the
quarry in Guilford above referred to. In the following sketch the
observer faces the north, and looks directly upon the edges of
slate, as it remains at the north end of the quarry, in its natural
position. The almost uniform dip of the strata, in every part of
this quarry, is nearly 90'^; leaning, however, a little to the east.
And such is their position at the north end of the quarry, to the
height of 15 feet, as represented in the sketch. But from 10 to
15 feet of the upper part of the slate are bent towards the west,
so as to incline to the horizon at almost every angle, from 0 to 90°.
Where the flexure commences, the lamina? of the slate are quite
broken off, and not simply bent, as in the case of the disturbance
in a perpendicular direction above described. Hence I infer that
the former flexure was not produced so soon as the latter ; not in-
deed until the rock had become perfectly consolidated. The
quarry lies upon the western slope of a hill of slate, one or two
hundred feet high ; and the facts now related seem incapable of
explanation, but by supposing a prodigious blow to have been given

36

294

Scientific Geology.

to the top of the hill, directed from east to west obliquely down-
wards. But wiiat natural agent could have exerted such a force
on such a point, I confess myself utterly at a loss to imagine.
Among the endless variety of geological hypotheses that have
been proposed, T could not call one to mind, which would fipply
at all to this phenomenon, unless it be the supposition formerly ad-
vanced, that the last deluge might have been produced by the im-
l^inging of a comet against the earth I I confess I could not but
inquire whether this might not have been the point of contact !

Di.-Hurbance in the Argillaceous Slate : Guilford, Vt.

Theoretical ConsideratiGns.

When we consider the nature of the materials composing argil-
laceous slate, it seems difficult to assign any other origin to this
rock, than deposition from water. Indeed, one has only to look
at a clay bed, such as occurs in some of the tertiary strata, which
we are siu'e must have been deposited from water, to be satisfied
that he has before him clay slate in its unfinished state; since
nothing but the consolidation of the clay bed is wanting to con-
vert it into perfect clay slate. But what agency could have af-
fected this consolidation ? IMere desiccation would do much ; but
it is difficidt to believe that this could have produced so great a
degree of hardness, and that shining semi-crystalline aspect which
the ohier clay slates exhibit. Now we find the lamina of the
clay beds horizontal, or nearly so, and those of the slate highly
inclined ; and we trace evidences of a powerful force producing
flexures in this rock while in a plastic state. Why not then admit
that the agency, by which the strata were elevated and the plas-

Encrinal Limestone. 295

lie slate produced, was igneous ? And then we can easily con-
ceive how tlie rock should subsequently have been so thoroughly
indurated. Especially why hesitate, when the lused matter pro-
truded at the time of the elevation of the strata, meets us in al-
most every district of much extent, in the form of trap, porphyry,
sienite, or granite ?

7. LIMESTONE.

No rock is more widely diffused in nature, or less liable to be
mistaken, than the carbonate of lime. From alluvial marl to the
saccharine limestones associated with gneiss and mica slate, we
find an almost endless variety of this rock ; but in nearly every
case a drop of acid will enable a skillful observer to detect it and
distinguish it from its associates. A more formidable difficulty has
always met the geologist in assigning to the varieties of this rock
their true places in the scale of strata.

Most of the limestone in Massachusetts belongs unquestionably
to the oldest varieties of that rock. The newest varieties are the
fetid and bituminous, which are associated with the new red sand-
stone, and which have been already described. 1 have also given
an account of the white compact limestone of Newport, Rhode
Island, and the gray limestone of VValpole, with the suggestion
that they probably belong to the gray wacke series. All the other
varieties in the State, I shall describe in this place. And as the
localities are rather numerous, and the diversities of composition,
structure, and aspect, somewhat great ; I shall, to save repetition,
follow a topographical arrangement in the description.

Encrinal Limestone of Bernardston.

Since the first edition of the first part of my Report was pub-
lished, I have had the satisfaction of discovering organic remains,
of the family of encrinites, in the bed of limestone in Bernardston.
From the highly crystalline character of most of this rock, I had
been led to suppose it older than the encrinal or transition lime-
stone ; and that it formed a bed in the argillaceous slate of Ber-
nardston, which appears to be one of the oldest varieties of that
rock. But its organic remains settle the question of its position ;
and differing in dip and direction from the slate, I have been led
to doubt whether it really forms a bed in that rock. The slate in
the vicinity runs nearly north and south, and the dip is nearly 90° ;
but the limestone runs N. E. and S. W., and dips S. E. not more
than 20°. Besides, the rock that is found above the bed of lime-
stone, (No. GOl) appears to be mostly composed of quartz, and
probably ought to be called quartz rock. It docs not lie in imme-

5^96 Scientific Geology.

diate contact with the limestone, nor is the slate visible immedi-
ately beneath the limestone. Upon the whole, I am of opinion
that this limestone lies beneath the oldest variety of the new red
sandstone series, which has been described, and upon the argilla-
ceous slate, in an unconformable position. Probably further
research might settle this point satisfactorily.

Two species of iron ore occur in this limestone ; the magnetic
oxide, (^/wcr;j^, Beudant,) and the bog ore, or hydrate of iron,
(^Limonite ocreuse, Beudant.) The latter is disseminated through
a large proportion of the upper layers of the limestone, and also
forms masses, several inches thick, between these layers. It ex-
actly resembles the common bog ore, so abundant in our alluvial
formations. (No. 504.) This is not the only instance in which
J have found this ore between the strata of other rocks, as 1 shall
have occasion to show hereafter ; and Beudant mentions several
localities in Europe, where the Umonitc is found ' between the beds
of divers rocks.'

The magnetic oxide occurs as a bed in the limestone, lower
down than the bog ore. The bed follows the dip of the lime-
stone, and that rock is much impregnated with the ore in the vicin-
ity ; so as sonietimes to produce a sort of brecciated marble. (No.
472.)

It is very obvious that both these species of iron ore must have
been of contemporaneous production with the limestone, since it
IS Impossible to conceive how parrallel interstices could have ex-
isted between strata so little inclined, long enough to be filled by
w'atery infiltration, or igneous sublimation, or galvanic agency, —
the only modes by which metallic repositories have been supposed
to be filled. That the bog ore was deposited, as we find the same
ore now forming, seems highly probable. But I am not aware of
any theory which will satisfactorily explain how the magnetic ox-
ide, which consists of 69 parts of peroxide and 31 of protoxide,
could have been produced in conjunction with the limestone.

The encrinal remains in the Bernardston limestone are usually
quite imperfect ; but the transverse septa and the central perfora-
tion are generally distinct. Plate XIV. fig. 47, exhibits an end
view of one encrinus, about an inch in diameter ; and a view of
another, lying horizontally in the rock.

Berkshire Limestone.

This rock constitutes a portion of that extensive calcareous for-
mation, which occupies the western part of Connecticut, INIassa-
chusetts, and Vermont. It is one of the most extensive ranges of
limestone in the world, if we regard it as primary, according to
the general opinion of writers. That a part of it is primitive, in
the Werncrian acceptation of the term, there can be no doubt:

Berkshire Limestone. 297

for it is interstralified with gneiss and mica slate in the eastern part
of the range, and it is highly crystalline in its texture. But as we
go westerly, the interstratified mica slate passes into clay slate, and
the limestone becomes less crystalline, and assumes a gray, and
finally a dark color. Passing still farther west, across the clay
slate, mto New York, we soon come to a range of limestone deci-
dedly more recent, which Professor Dewey has denominated transi-
tion limestone, and Professor Eaton, metalliferous limestone. Cross-
ing this rock, which is only a few miles wide, we reach decided
graywacke ; and this, with some interruptions of limestone, contin-
ues nearly to Hudson river ; as may be seen on the Geological Map
by Prof Dewey, in the 8th vol. of the American Journal of Sci-
ence, and on the Geological Section of Prof Eaton, in his ' Canal
Rocks. ^

From this statement the geologist infers at once, that here is a
gradual passage from the oldest limestone to that which is associa-
ted with graywacke. But a singular anomaly in the superposition
of the series of rocks above described, presents a great difficulty
in this case. The strata of these rocks almost uniformly dip to
the east : that is, the newer rocks seem to crop out beneath the
older ones ; so that the saccharine limestone, associated with gneiss
in the eastern part of the range, seems to occupy the uppermost
place in the series. Now as superposition is of more value in
determining the relative ages of rocks than their mineral charac-
ters, must we not not conclude that the rocks, as we go westerly
from Hoosic mountain, do in fact belong to older groups ? The
petrifactions which some of them contain, and their decidedly frag-
mentary character, will not allow such a supposition to be indulged
for a moment. It is impossible for a geologist to mistake the evi-
dence, which he sees at almost every step, that he is passing from
older to newer formations, just as soon as he begins to cross the
valley of Berkshire towards the west. We are driven then to the
alternative of supposing, either that there must be a deception in
the apparent outcrop of the newer rocks from beneath the older,
or that the whole series of strata has been actually thrown over, so
as to bring the newest rocks to the bottom. The latter supposi-
tion is so improbable that I cannot at present admit it. But per-
haps we may explain the anomaly by supposing a deception in the
case. It may be that the relative position of the strata is as in
the subjoined ideal section.

293

Scientific Geology.

Gneiss and mica Slale.

In the greater part of the Hoosic range, the strata of gneiss and
mica slate are nearly perpendicular in their dip. As we descend
that mountain into the valley of Berkshire, we strike first a range
of quartz rock, whose stratification is very obscure, and which
moreover is much hidden by diluvium ; so that the junction be-
tween this rock and the mica slate and gneiss of the Hoosic range,
is rarely if ever exhibited. As we proceed west, we find success-
ive and sometimes interlaminated strata of limestone, and mica
slate ; whose connection with the Hoosic range is no where pre-
sented, as nearly all the larger streams of water and the vallies
run in the direction of the strata. Now may not the strata of Berk-
shire valley rest unconformably on the mica slate and gneiss of the
Hoosic range ? Certain it is that the dip of the former, although
in the same direction, is considerably less than that of the latter.
Jt may be, also, that another series of strata farther west, (ex. gr.
the clay slate, transition limestone and graywacke,) rest unconform-
ably on the edges of the rocks in the valley of Berkshire, which
may pass under this series, as the older mica slate, perhaps, does
under the quartz rock and limestone, as exhibited on the sketch :
or perhaps the rocks of Berkshire valley lie in a basin, whose east-
ern side is the Hoosic range, and whose western side is theTacon-
ic range. Then perhaps the transition limestone, clay slate, and
graywacke, may fill a second basin farther west. Another series,
perhaps, was deposited in a third basin still farther west ; and so
on till all the earlier rocks are included.

This view of the case is rendered more probable from the fact
which may be learnt by examining the sections appended to this
Report, (Plates XVH. and XVHl.) that the prevailing dip of the
rocks in Massachusetts is towards the east. Why then, it may
be asked-, is there any more difi^iculty in regarding the rocks of
Berkshire valley as resting unconformably on the the older strata,
than there is in respect to the new red sandstone of the Connect-
icut valley, which has an easterly dip, like the subjacent rocks ?

Berkshire Limestone. 299

The very great difference of mineral character, between l!ie newer
and the older rocks of the latter valley, is one reason why we do
not hesitate at all to regard the newer as unconformable to the
older: whereas in Berkshire, all the rocks appear to belong to the
oldest class ; that is, they are highly crystalline and destitute of
organic remains. And then the difference of inclination between
the varieties of the rocks in Berkshire valley, is much less than
in the valley of the Connecticut. Nevertheless, he must be a
poor geologist, who does not know that there is often far greater
difference in position and mineral character between many mem-
bers of the primitive class, than betiveen some members of that
class and others of the transition, or even of the secondary class.
So that the apparently primitive character of the rocks of Berk-
shire valley, is but a feeble objection against their, resting uncon-
formably on those of Hoosic mountain.

The greatest difficulty which I find in the way of admitting the
hypothesis above suggested, lies in the fact, that the change from
the older to the newer rocks, as one proceeds westerly across
Berkshire coimty, seems to be gradual : whereas, on this hpyoth-
esis, we should suppose, that since the rocks dip to the east, the
oldest members of a series ouirht to be found on the western mar-
gin of the several supposed basins; and that the change ought to
be sudden and great in passing into the basin next west. But so
different does the limestone of the western part of Berkshire ap-
pear from that in the eastern part, that INIr. Eaton proposes to
give the two varieties distinct names, founded entirely on their
mineral characters, that in the eastern part being decidedly the
oldest. I think, however, that in considering this question, we
ought to leave out of the account every bed of limestone occurring
in the gneiss and mica slate of the Hoosic range ; since this is un-
questionably the oldest of the saccharine limestone. And per-
haps the remaining portions of this rock may be found to belong
to a single deposit. At any rate, I regard it as premature to as-
sign a distinct name to any part of this limestone range, until one
part can be proved to have a different position, in relation to other
rocks, from the other. For after what Dr. Macculloch has writ-
ten on this subject, in his Geology of the Western Islands, and
in his System of Geology, it seems to me evident that mineral
characters alone can rarely determine even the class to which
limestone belongs.

Notwithstanding the difficulties which I have suggested to the
hypothesis under consideration, I know of no belter explanation
of this anomalous case. I am sustained in this opinion by that of
Dr. Emmons, of Williams College, whose acuteness of observa-
tion and accuracy of discrimination in the various departments of
natural history, are well known. It is to bo hoped that either he,

300 Scientific Geology.

or Prof. Dewey, whose local situations and geological experience
give them great facilities for examining the point, will ascertain
the true state of the case, and thus solve an interesting geological
prohlem. Since my attention has been called to it, I have not
felt justified by my commission in devoting the time and expense
requisite to its solution : since the examinations would delay this
Report another year.

The Berkshire limestone passes through numerous gradations
of texture and color, from the snow white, coarsely granular, and
crystalline variety in Adams, to the white almost sandy dolomite
of Sheffield, and to the dark gray almost compact variety in Wil-
liamstown, and to the variety even darker of West Stockbridge.
The specimens that have been polished (Nos. 4-28 to 442) will
show the principal varieties of marble thence derived. The
clouded varieties, although very rich, are less esteemed as marbles,
I believe, than the snow white, on account of their liability to be
shaky. This tendency results from the nature of these varieties;
composed as they seem generally to be, of limestone and argilla-
ceous slate. The difterent varieties are frequently interstratified
at the same quarry.

A large proportion of the Berkshire limestone, especially along
its western borders, is the magnesian. In Williamstown this oc-
curs crystallized, or as a rhondj spar: in Bennington, Adams, Lee,
Pittsfield, Stockbridge, Great Barrington, New Marlborough, Shef-
field, and indeed in nearly every town in the county, it occurs
either coarsely granular, and of a crystalline structure, or so finely
granular as to be pulverulent. This latter variety, which is gen-
uine dolomite, abounds most in the south part of the county, es-
pecially in Sheffield, where, according to Professor Dewey, it is
sometimes fetid. In Canaan in Connecticut, which lies contigu-
ous to Sheffield, this dolomite, which is of a snowy whiteness,
disintegrates abundantly ; leaving in many places loose crystals of
white augite and tremolite, which have fallen out. In other places,
as in Stockbridge, it is of a gray color.

This appears to be the oldest variety of magnesian carbonate
of lime that has been found ; corresponding to that described by
Beudant, as occurring in St. Gothard, interstratified with mica
slate.*

A considerable proportion of the limestone in West Stockbridge,
Lanesborough, and JNew Ashford, is fiexibie and elastic. Slabs of
it a few feet long, and from one to two inches thick, show these
properties very distinctly by supporting the ends, especially if
they are thorougldy wet. Generally the grain of this variety is
coarse and the structm-e rather loose ; I hough sometimes it is fine

* Mineralo^Mo, Tuine 1. 1). W.)2.

Flexible and Fetid Marble 301

grained. Usually it is white, slightly tinged with red ; but some-
times gray and dark colored. According to Prof. Dewey, it is
the common, and not a magnesian carbonate. The slab in the
collection (No. 501) is from New Ashford ; where it is abundant.
Its peculiar properties seem, to depend upon the agency of water :
and there are numerous facts that render it probable, that many
of the rocks in the interior of the earth are rendered soft and
flexible by this same agent : so that although marble and sand-
stone tliat will retain their flexibility after being quarried, are rare,
yet probably deep in the earth's crust they are abundant.

The non-magnesian as well as the magnesian carbonate of lime
in this county, is often fetid. In Stockbridge, this is sometimes
the case with that which is white and coarsely granular : in Wil-
liamstown, this variety is dark colored and fine grained, and in
Bennington it is nearly black.

The origin of the fetid odor in limestone, quartz, he, has been
variously explained. The natural explanation imputes it to ani-
mal matter, which has been imprisoned since the original forma-
tion of the rock ; and which is liberated in a gaseous form by fric-
tion or a blow. The odor is commonly said to be that of sulphu-
retted hydrogen : though I confess I do not perceive much
resemblance. But even if this be the case, putrescent animal
matter would furnish this gas abundantly. And if we adopt the
opinion maintained by some very able geologists, that all, or nearly
all limestones were produced from living beings, we can easily un-
derstand whence this animal matter proceeded.

In general the strata of the Berkshire limestone have a dip to-
wards the east, between 15" and 30°. In some instances it is
greater ; and Prof. Dewey, from whose account of the Geology of
Berkshire, in the American Journal of Science, I have derived
much assistance, says, that at the base of Saddle mountain, on the
northwest side, some of the limestone dips to the west, and some
is perpendicular, although the prevailing dip is to the east. He
has given also, in the same work, a drawing and description of a
singular conformation of the limestone strata near the College in
Williamstown.* Not improbably this is only an example ef a
concretionary structure on a large scale ; though possibly it might
have resulted from mechanical agencies in early times.

I have never seen either a mass of granite or of trap, or any
other unstratified rock, in contact with this limestone ; though not
improbably such junction may be found. The following is a
sketch of the shifting of a vein of while carbonate of lime, in a
slab of light gray marble, five feet long and three feet wide, taken

* Vol. IX. p. 19.

37

302

Scientific Geology.

from a quarry in New Ashford. «, ct, Is the vein of the carhonate
of lime, and d, d, a somewhat wedge shaped mass of dark gray-
limestone, five inches wide at its base, which is twice cut off, once
by each separate portion of the vein. At present there is no
fissures at all in the slab, and apparently it would not break more
easily in one direction than in another. As to the strip of darker
limestone, d, d, there is no more difficulty in accounting for its
presence, than for any other case of close union between different
varieties of a rock. But if we suppose the two veins, a, a, to
have been once united endwise, it is extremely difficult to imagine
how they could have been so slidden as to be brought into their
present condition. Dr. Macculloch has described a similar case of
disturbance in a slab of marble from Ireland in the Transactions of
the Geological Society.* But in that case it was not difficult to
imagine how the fragments of the vein, by a series of slides, might
have been displaced in the manner exhibited upon his drawing.
In the present case, however, I despair of being able to explain
that sort of double echellon movement, by which both the vein
and the dark mass of limestone have been displaced.

I am not aware that in any case the limestone of Berkshire
county forms hills of any considerable altitude. In general mica
slate, with quartz rock, composes those peaks and ridges so striking
and sometimes so lofty, in the great valley of this county. Wheth-
er the low level of the basset edges of the limestone results from
the greater liability of this rock to be worn away, or from its geo-
logical position, I am not prepared to say ; though inclined to re-
fer it to the latter cause.

In general the limestone under consideration retains its charac-
ters distinctly to the very line of junction with other rocks. But
not unfrequently the two rocks are intermixed near the place of
contact. The dark gray limestones, as already remarked, appear
to contain a mixture of argillaccious slate. Frequently we find
scales of mica disseminated in the limestones, and thin layers of

* Vol. IV. p. \m.

Limestone. 303

talc. Where the limestone comes in contact with mica slate, in
Canaan, Ct., we find a mixture in almost equal proportions, of
carbonate of lime, mica, and quartz. (No. 45G.)

In Stock-bridge and the south part of Lee, two or three varie-
ties of limestone occur of rather a peculiar character. The most
abundant of these has externally a dark gray color, occasioned by
one or two foreign minerals, which do not decompose so rapidly
as the carbonate of lime. When the specimens are broken, the
fresh surface is yellowish. What the disseminated minerals are,
I have not ascertained. From the general aspect of this rock
where it has been weathered, one would not suspect it to be lime-
stone ; and it scarcely exhibits any traces of stratification. (No.
454.) Farther east, at the village of South Lee, this rock is suc-
ceeded by white dolomite, whose strata dip west about 45". A
mile farther to the east, they are perpendicular.

A little east of the village in Stockbridge, I found specimens
which contained quartz and mica, and which appeared to be lime-
stone passing into mica slate, just as in Canaan, Ct. (No. 458.)
The same rock I found in the east part of Lanesborough. (No.
457.)

In passing from West Stockbridge to Chatham, N. Y. we find
the gray limestone traversed by innumerable veins of white quartz,
so that the mass becomes a real breccia. (No. 453.) This rock
is quite abundant near the line of the State. As we pass westerly
from this line, the limestone becomes of a darker color and rather
more compact, and alternates with bastard mica slate and argilla-
ceous slate. Frequently this limstone is traversed by numerous
veins of white calcareous spar, giving it a striking appearance.
(No. 452.) It is probably interstratified with graywacke slate in
Renssalaerand Columbia counties, N. Y.

I have already mentioned the crystallised tremolites and white
augite found in the dolomite of Canaan. The same minerals oc-
cur in the same variety of rock at Muddy Brook in Great Barring-
ton, and in New Marlborough, and the former in the south part of
Lee and in Shefiield. In the 14th vol. of the American Journal
of Science, I have described four modifications of the secondary
forms of the augite ; and Prof Dewey, in the 8th vol. of the
same Journal, mentions a fifth. In Great Barrington, the trenio-
lite is found in beautiful bladed crystals. This mineral is often
delicately fibrous, and sometimes radiated. Indeed, all the varie-
ties arc found at these localities. In Sheffield the fibres are some-
times more than two feet long, and embrace crystals of iron py-
rites. These fibrous masses are mistaken for petrified wood ; to
which, indeed, they bear a striking resemblance.

Carbonate of lime is often found crystallised in this rock in tab-
ular, lenticular, he, crystals. It is also more frequently found

304 Scientific Geology.

laminated. The agaric mineral, it is said, is found in a cave in
West Stockbridge. Concreted carbonate of lime occurs in the
difierent caverns that have been described in the second part of
this Re})ort. Some of the springs in VVilliamstovvn de})Osit calca-
reous tufa.

According to Cleaveland's Mineralogy, yellow tourmaline has
been found in Dalton, near the Housatonic, in granular limestone.

Blanford Limestone.

After the publication of the first edition of the first part of my
Report, Mr. Simeon Shurtleff of Blanford, discovered a bed of
serpentine in the northwest part of that town, and in the vicinity,
a bed of limestone. The former rock will be described in another
connection. The latter will be noticed here. Since their discov-
ery, 1 have had opportunity to examine them personally : but for
the specimens in the collection, 1 am indebted to Mr. Shurtleff.

The bed of serpentine is about four miles northwest of Blan-
ford meetinghouse, on the northeast side of a pond. Immediately
on the west it is succeeded by hornblende slate, which is only a
few rods wide, and then succeeds granitic gneiss. The limestone
is about one mile south of the serpentine, and about the same dis-
tance as the serpentine, east of the granitic gneiss ; and although
no hornblende slate appears between them, at the surface, proba-
bly it exists there. Indeed, no rock excejit diluvium is seen in
place around the limestone. It shows itself at the surface only
over a space whose diameter is about a rod. Its stratification is in-
distinct; though there is an a[)pearance of parallel division, cor-
responding to a plane which runs cast and west, and dips south
about 45°.

The limestone is coarsely granular, white, and crystalline ;
though it is mixed with a foreign mineral, perhaps augite, in consid-
erable quantity ; and this may prevent its being profitably reduced
to quicklime. It is well worth the trial, however, in a region
where no limestone is found. (Nos. 477, 478.)

No. 476 was broken from a coarsely granular limestone bowl-
der near the meeting house in Blanlbrd. It contains numerous
plates of graphite disseminated through the mass, and much re-
sembles specimens that I have seen from the shores of lake Cham-
plain : nor should I think strange, if it should apjiear that this
bowlder was brought from thence by the diluvial current, which,
as I have shown in another place, once swept over the western
part of the State from the northwest.

Limestone in Bekhcriown.

My attention has been drawn to a bed of limestone in Belcher-
town, just in season to mark it upuu iho third edition of the Map,

Micaceous Limestone. 305

and to notice it in this edition of my Report, It occurs on the
iaim of Justus Forward, Esq., half a mile east of the meeting
house. The specimen which was brought to me, and which 1
anallised, yielded only 25 per centum of carbonate of lime. Its
solution in nitric acid, also was milky, indicating the presence of
magnesia. But having visited the bed since, I find much purer
specimens. The bed occurs in gneiss, which there dips at a small
angle to the northeast. The soil has so covered the limestone
that the extent of the bed cannot be determined, until this is re-
moved. The bowlders on the surface, however, indicate its ex-
tent to be considerable : and so valuable would be a good limestone
quarry in that place, that I think some expense ought to be in-
curred by digging and blasting, to ascertain the nature and extent
of this limestone.

Micaceous Limestone.

This rock might very properly be regarded as a variety of mica
slate : for usually it contains both mica and quartz, the latter al-
ways ; and much of it is merely mica slate which takes carbonate
of lime into its composition. When the carbonate is in small pro-
portion, the schistose structure of the mica slate remains ; but
when the mica nearly disappears, the slaty structure also vanishes,
though still the rock is stratified ; the dip and direction conforming
to those of the mica slate. It forms numerous beds in the exten-
sive tract of mica slate on the western slope of the valley of the
Connecticut ; especially along the eastern border of the mica slate,
from Whately northwards. Several beds are marked on the Map,
merely to indicate that they are numerous, but without any inten-
tion of giving them their true situation and extent. In some
places, as in Whately, these beds occupy half the surface ; but in
general the mica slate greatly predominates, and for miles the lime-
stone disappears. (Nos. 459 to 467.)

The varieties of this limestone from Conway, Southampton and
Whately, mentioned in the first part of this Report as having been
anallised, contain respectively 58, 67, and 78 per cent, of carbon-
ate of lime. iVnother specimen from Williamsburg, from a bowl-
der to which was attached a mass of mica slate, yielded 63 per
cent, of the carbonate of lime. It also contained magnesia, since
its solution in nitric acid was milky. It is, however, doubtful
v^hether this s[)ecimen, (Nos. 468, 469,) ought to be connected
with the micaceous limestone under consideration.

The carbonate of lime in this rock is very liable to be sepa-
rated from the mica and silex by the action of air and moisture, so
as to leave the surface of the rock coated over with a gray porous
mass, sometimes even several inches thick. (No 467.)

This rock is frequently traversed by veins of granite. (No. 465.)

306

Scientific Geology.

The tortuosities of some of these veins is remarkable ; of which
examples will be given when I come to describe granite. I have
not generally observed any very striking effects produced upon the
limestone by its proximity to granite. In one case, however, if I
mistake not, a large quantity of argentine has been produced by
the action of the granite on the limestone. In a very wild and
unfrequented spot in the northeast part of Westhampton, (not in the
south part of Williamsburg, as all the authorities state,) a huge
mass of coarse granite lies in a valley, apparently in situ. At its
southern extremity, which is represented on the following sketch,
and which is an uneven perpendicular wall from 10 to 15 feet
high, project the edges of schistose rocks; most of which is mica
slate, but a part is micaceous limestone. These rocks appear to
be merely the fragments which adhered to the granite, when it was
raised through the slates, or when these were torn off from the
granite. ]\Iost of the layers are perpendicular : but some of them
towards the eastern side, are much bent and become almost hori-
zontal. Here the argentine, a, a, appears, lying for the most part
between the slate and the granite; penetrating both rocks, indeed,
a short distance, but not forming what ouglit to be called a vein in
either. It does not enter the granite, as far as I could ascertain,
but a few inches. And it is that part of the stratified rock that
lies in the vicinity of the argentine, which is micaceous limestone.

Argentine with Mica Slate and Granite : Westhampton.

Now my hypothesis is, that when the granite was protruded into
the mica slate and coarse limestone, while in a melted state, its
heat by decomposition or sublimation, or both, forced the carbon-
ate of lime into the cavities that were produced by the elevation
of the rocks, where it assumed the form of that very pure variety
of carbonate of lime called argentine or slate spar. Whether its

Origin of Argentine. 307

Intrusion among the sinuosities of mica slate caused it for the most
part to assume a similar structure, I do not undertake to decide.
Nor do I feel much confidence in any part of this hypothesis,
though it seems to me worthy of consideration.

In Vermont, near Connecticut river, limestone is found among
the layers of argillaceous slate. Here it is destitute of mica, and is
mixed with the argillaceous slate in such proportion as scarcely to
be distinguished from it, except by its effervescence with acids :
yet it appears to be closely allied to micaceous limestone.

Limestone of Whiiingham, Vt.

This bed of limestene, as may be seen by the Map, approaches
nearly or quite to the north line of Massachusetts, and lies near
the junction of a range of talcose slate and gneiss. It is stratified
and the dip is not far from 30° west, the direction being north and
south. By following down a small tributary of Deerfield river,
which has laid bare this limestone in the southwest part of Whi-
iingham, a good opportunity is afforded for examining its characters.
It is white and decidedly crystalline, though often containing bronze
colored mica, and sulphuret of molybdenum in small plates. I
found associated with it, also, actynolite, common augite, and mus-
site. Though a mile or two in length, the breadth of the bed is
very inconsiderable. Its geological associations render it certain
that this is one of the oldest varieties of limestone.

About 16 miles north of this bed, at an iron or gold mine in
Somerset, is a very elegant variety of dolomite, occurring in beds
in talcose slate. Some of it exceedingly resembles the purest
loaf sugar. (Nos. 483, 484.)

Limestone in Bolton, Boxhorough, Littleton) Acton, Carlisle,
and Chelmsford.

The geological situation of these limestone masses and their min-
eral character are so similar, that one description will embrace
them all. They all correspond to the description which Dr. Mac-
culloch gives of the limestone of Tirey, one of the Western
Islands of Scotland. ' It is,' says he, ' improperly called a bed, as
it is only an irregular rock lying among the gneiss without stratifi-
cation or continuity. In this respect it resembles the greater num-
ber of primary limestones found in gneiss and mica slate, and may
be considered as a large nodule.' * It will be seen by the Map
that all these masses are in a gneiss, formation which, however,
often passes into mica slate, and contains numerous protrusions and
veins of granite. The dip and direction of the gneiss surrounding
the limestone are visible at nearly all the quarries : but the lime-

* Western Island Vol. I. p. 48.

308 Scientific Geology,

stone itself rarely exhibits any distinct marks of stratification,
And as every one of these localites contains a quarry, a good op-
potunity is presented for examining the structure of the rocks.

In my own opinion, there can be little doubt that this want of
stratification results from the agency of granite. At any rate, if
this be admitted to be a rock of igneous origin, its contiguity to a
bed of limestone, while yet in a melted condition, will explain the
obliteration in that bed of the stratified structure : and I can imag-
ine no other cause that will explain it. I did not observe, indeed,
the contact of granite with the limestone, except at the principal,
or north quarry in Bolton. But at that place the stratified struc-
ture is more completely destroyed than at any other. Yet 1 did
not search for granite in the vicinity of the other masses of lime-
stone, as my attention was not till recently particularly called to
this subject ; and probably it may be found near most of them, if
not concealed by tlie soil. Or if not, there is evidence that gneiss
has been subject to a degree of heat little inferior to a melting
heat.

Nearly all the limestone at these quarries is coarsely granular
and highly crystalline. It is almost uniformly fetid also ; some-
times so much so as to produce nausea wlien struck, in a stomach of
much sensibility. This was very unexpected to me in limestone of
such great relative age ; the fetid limestones of Europe being
almost exclusively found in secondary rocks.

Although but a single bed of limestone is marked upon the Map
in each of the towns mentioned above, yet in most of them there
are several ; some of them one or two nfiles distant from one an-
other. In Bolton are two, in Boxborough one, in Littleton three,
in Acton one, in Carlisle two or three, and in Chelmsford two or
three. Not improbably others exist in the neighboring towns,
which escaped my notice.

The simple minerals imbedded in this limestone are numerous
and interesting. In general, specimens from the dlfterent locah-
ties cannot be distinguished ; though particular minerals are more
perfecdy developed at one place than at others ; and one or two,
perhaps, are found only at one quarry. The most common and
abundant mineral is scapolite. It occurs both crystalised and
compact ; and at all the localities above referred to. The crys-
tallised variety is most abundant at Bolton, Boxborough, Chelms-
ford, and Littleton ; particularly at the two first named places.
The crystals are sometimes transparent, more commonly opaque
and white, having begun to decompose. Sometimes the crystal
exhibits the the primary form, or a right square prism, acuminated
by four planes set on the lateral planes. IMore commonly, how-
ever, the lateral edges arc slightly truncated. Some of these crys-
tals are one or even two inches in diameter ; though in such

Minerals in Limestone. 309

cases generally imperfect. Often this mineral is compact, and the
color either white or lilac red. This red color, however, occurs
also in that which exhibits an aggregation of prisms. Bolton and
Boxborough yield an abundance of this beautiful variety.

It is probable that the mineral from Bolton, described by Mr.
Brooke, under the name of Nuttallite, is only a variety of scapo-
lite.

Augite, actynolite, pargasite, and radiated, fibrous, and brown
hornblende, are among the minerals found in this limestone; the
two first at all the localities, the third at Carlisle and Boxborough ;
and the fourth, according to Mr. Nuttall, at Bolton.

Phosphate of lime, sometimes in hexaedral crystals, but more
commonly massive, is found at Bolton, Boxborough, and Littleton ;
usually in scapolite. Its colors are green and purple.

Genuine petalite, (from which lithia has been obtained,) exists
at the south quarry at Bolton, associated with the scapolite.

At Chelmsford small masses of black serpentine occur in the
limestone, and at Littleton also of a lively green color.

At Carlisle, close by the turnpike from Concord to Groton,
Prof. Webster discovered a k\v years since, a splendid garnet,
which is probably a cinnamon stone. The specimens which can
now be obtained, give but a poor idea of the richness of some of
those which were first procured. Probably extensive exploration
might bring to light finer specimens. The same mineral is found
at Boxborough.

At Bolton rhomb spar occurs : and both there and at Boxbor-
ough, a beautiful variety of flesh colored calcareous spar in foliat-
ed masses.

At Bolton, also, a new mineral has been discovered, which Dr.
Thomson has denominated from its chemical composition, Bisili-
cateqf Magnesia ; and Mr. Shepard, with reference to its locali-
ty, calls it Bolionite.* It occurs in foliated masses in the lime-
stone. (Nos. 521, 522.)

In the same place, at the south quarry, sphene, or silico-calca-
reous oxide of titanium is not an uncommon , mineral in distinct
crystals. Tremolite, also, is said to occur there in fibrous mass-
es : also gadolinite, according to Professor Webster : also talc in
veins, as well as at Littleton.

Very delicate and beautiful amianthus is found in veins in the
limestone, about two miles southwest of the centre of Chelms-
ford. The fibres are sometimes two or three inches long, and re-
semble the finest and most beautiful white silk. The same min-
eral in small quantities is found at Bolton. (Nos. 523, 524.)

In season for the second edition of my Report, I have received

♦Shepard's Mineralogy, Vul. I. p, 232.

38

310 Scientific CcoIogy.

from Dr. Charles T. Jackson, a full account of several interestinc;
minerals found at the limestone quarries above described ; and 1
am happy to have the opportunity of annexing it to the preceding
statements, for the most part in tliat gentleman's own language.

Perhaps the most interesting minenl found at these quarries is
the spinelle, especially the ruby ; and it ought here to be mentioned
that its discovery was made by Dr. Jackson, in 1824, and not by
Prof Nuttall, as is usually stated. Besides the localities of spinelle
mentioned below by this gentleman, 1 ought to state, that the
pleonaste occurs at Acton, both massive and in regular octahedra.

* The ruby from Bolton,' says Dr. Jackson, ' is of a delicate
rose red, and will come under the head of Balass ruby. It gen-
erally occurs in flattened octahedra with cuneiform summits pro-
duced by the lateral elongation of the octahedron. It serves per-
fectly well for cutting glass, and in the place of the writing dia-
mond. I have given a k\x crystals to Mr. J. Bigelow, who has
used them for jewelling watches. The crystals are easily detached
from the matrix by means of muriatic acid, which dissolves away
the lime.

* I have several doubtful minerals from Bolton, which 1
shall this summer endeavor to determine. Those that arc pretty
well determined are the following.

' At Bolton in granular limestone imbedded in gneiss, AJlanite :
it occurs in the petalite in quadrangular rhombic prisms.

* littro-ctritc ? in rhombic and six sided prisms. I found a crystal
of this mineral one fourth of inch an long in the petalite.

' The above occur at Hildreth's quarry.

'The following were found at Whitcomb's quarry, situated
about one eighth of a mile from the former, and still explored for
limestone.

' Magncsite, Potstonc, or compact talc : in veins and nodules
three or four inches thick, associated with talc and rhomb spar.

' Serpentine. It occurs in rhombic]crystals which may easily be
measured by polishing the limestone in which it occurs, trans versly
across the extremities of the crystals. This mineral is found in
considerable quantity. The best specimens are found in a heap of
refuse limestone rock, between Hildreth's and Whitcomb's quarry.
The polished specimens are very handsome, and might be used
for ornamental purposes. It is fully equal to the verd antique in
beauty. Slabs three feet in length may easily be sawed out.
The serpentine is of a bright green color, and when broken, has a
conchoidal fracture and waxy lustre.

' At Littleton I found the following minerals in the limestone of
that place, which is a bed in gneiss, like that in Bolton, and oc-
curs near a little lake, called fort Pond.

* Scapolite in large prismatic crystals, from one and a half to two
inches in diameter, and seven or eight in length. It occurs in

Limestone of Smit/iJicUL 311

greasy quartz. The scapolitc occurs also massive in veins, and in a
compact form of a beautiful lilac color.

' j^etalite of a reddish tinge. Aiigitc and Sahlite. Spinc/lc
Pleonastc, SpineUeRnhij , and a very handsome hair brown iSjji-
ncUc, in limestone. The spinelle is associated with nodularj 6'arAtc?
and Fargasite. Serpentine, sometimes crystalized in rhombic
prisms. Fyrallolite of a grayish blue color, but it becomes changed
to yellow by the action of tlie weather, as it does before the blow-
pipe. (Boltonite of Shepard ? E. H.) Sjjhcne like that of Bolton.

' At Boxboro' the bed of limestone, like that in Bolton, occurs in
gneiss. It contains nearly all the species found at Littleton, and
furnishes besides the most perfect specimens of a beautiful wine
yellow garnet, which has been called cinnamon stone. It is dif-
ficult to obtain perfect crystals, although those with two or three
faces of the rhombic dodecaedron are easily obtained. Some in
my possession measure an inch across the planes. Boxboro' fur-
nishes the best crystals of brown spinelle, of pleonaste,^and of the
granular Pargasite.

' At Chelmsford, the limestone, still in gneiss, occurs in several
beds near each other. In this limestone, in 1825, 1 discovered a
fine sapphire blue spinelle, associated with tremolite. The crys-
tals were one fourth of an inch in length, transparent, and clear of
all imperfections. Having never seen this variety, I named the
specimens which I sent abroad, Spinelle Sapphire, or Cocrulean
Spinelle. They frequently occur in octahedra, laterally elon-
gated, with wedge shaped summits. I found, also, at Chelmsford,
nearly all the minerals which occur in Bolton. Black spinelle
frequently occurs, as at Boxboro' and Bolton, associated with
chondrodite, of an orange yellow or deep blood red color. I
have a fine specimen of asparagus stone, which I found at
Bolton, two inches long and one fourth of an inch in diameter.
It is a six sided prism, and of a beautiful bluish green color, with
very brilliant sides. Its gangue is calc spar, associated with sea-
polite and sphene in large crystals.'

Limestone in Smithfield, R. I.

There are two principal beds of this rock, a little more than a
mile apart ; the most easterly one, half a mile from Blackstone
river, being called the Dexter rock, and the other, the Harris rock.
I Iiave examined only the latter; and this occurs in that variety of
hornblende slate, which the Werenians call greenstone slate, and
transition or primitive greenstone. The slaty structure of a part
of the rock is quite obvious, though to a cursory observer, most
of the tnass resembles very much secondary greenstone, I am
satisfied that the Dexter rock occurs in the same slate, which in
fact, appears to be the talco-chloritic slate of that region, passing

312 Scientific Geology.

into hornblende slate. Though the parallel division, of the horn-
blende slate be evident, yet the limestone is destitute of stratifica-
tion ; forming an irregular mass, penetrated by projections from
the slate. It is white and distinctly, though not very coarsely
granular and crystalline. Some of it is dolomite. (Nos. 498 to
500.) It may be, and has been wrought as marble ; though it is
difficult to obtain large blocks without fissures. Sometimes it is
clouded. (No. 497.)

The imbedded minerals in this limestone are, with few excep-
tions, very difi^erent from those just described in the limestone beds
in gneiss in Massachusetts. In the Smithfield rock, talc is one of
the most abundant of the minerals, and it is often of a rich silvery
white color, associated with large prisms of rhomb and calcareous
spar. Some of the nacrite found at the Dexter rock is beautiful.
Nephrite exists here, also, in veins and nodules : also limpid quartz
in crystals, calcareous and brown spar, tremolite and asbsetus.

li, as seems to me extremely probable, the hornblende rock in
which this limestone occurs, has been subjected to the action of
powerful heat, we have a cause for the want of stratification in the
latter. And the occurrence of immense quantities of sienitic
granite in the vicinity, shows us whence the heat might have been
derived.

Limestone of Stoneham and Newbury.

In both these places the limestone is in irregular unstratified mas-
ses in sienite, except that the most northerly bed in Newbury is in
greenstone. For the most part, the limestone is either finely
granular, or compact, and white. That at Stoneham is trans-
lucent on the edges ; (No. 496.) and were it not for the numerous
seams and cracks in it, would prove a very fine article for*statuary
and other ornamental purposes. Two or three quarries have been
opened at each of these localities, only a few rods apart ; but
they are now abandoned. At Newbury, the great amount of for-
eign minerals present renders the limestone of little value, even
for the production of quicklime.

Atnong these minerals precious and common serpentine predom-
inate : and these being disseminated in the granular limestone,
form the ophicalce grcnuc of Brongniart,* which he mentions as
occuring at Newbury. f Specimens of this variety may be seen
among those that are polished in the collection ; (Nos. 896 to
899,) although the geological position of this rock, if 1 have not
mistaken it, is not above organic relics (epizoique) as that author
supposes it commonly is.

* Classification des Roches, p. (Kj.
t Tableau des Terrains. &c. p. .SSf)

Origin of Limestone. 313

Another beautiful mineralj often running in veins through the
ophicalcegremic, or the serpentine, varying in width from a mere
line to half an inch, is green amianthus. When a specimen is
newly fractured, this mineral presents a peculiarly rich appearance.
Its color is grass green and yellowish green. (No. 872.) Com-
mon asbetus occurs in the same situation.

Fibrous limestone, or satin spar, occurs in the same connection.
The fibres are sometimes four or five inches long, though the veins
of this mineral are quite thin.

Tremolite in radiated masses is not uncommon in this limestone.
Epidote also occurs here in crystals ; and white and gray varieties
of compact feldspar. Associated with the tremolite and epidote,
is found m.assive garnet.

The limestone at Stoneham, is not so much mixed with other
minerals as at Newbury. It occasionally, however, contains ne-
phrite. This mineral melts with great facility before the oxy-hy-
drogen blowpipe, and witliout difficulty before the common blow-
pipe, into a yellowish slag or scoria. Another grayish green min-
eral occurs in nodules in the limestone, and might easily be mista-
ken for the siliceous infusible mineral that has been described by
many writers under the name of hornstone. But it melts with
ebullition, not only before the compound, but also the common
blowpipe, into a shining black enamel. (No. 507.) It is probably
the allochroite, mentioned by Prof. Webster in the Boston Journal
of Philosophy, as occurring at Stoneham.

I am not aware that limestone has been found in other parts of
the world, entirely embraced in sienite ; which is the case at
Stoneham and Newbury, unless I am mistaken. At the time I
examined these localities, I was not aware of the importance of
this fact, and might have been deceived. But I saw no rock in
the vicinity of the quarries, except sienite : although, as I shall have
occasion hereafter to observe, sometimes the sienite north of Bos-
ton possesses a limited slaty structure, forming a kind of horn-
blende slate, or greenstone slate : the unmelted remnants, perhaps,
of the rocks out of which the sienite was formed. That this rock
had an igneous origin, seems to be at this day the opin-
ion of geologists. And admitting this, it is easy to see why the
beds of limestone, that have been described above, are destitute
of stratification.

Origin of Limestone.

Crystalized carbonate of lime, as we are taught by chemistry,
may be produced either by precipitation from aqueous solution, or
by the melting of uncrystalized masses of this substance under
strong pressure : and probably in both these ways are we to account
for the existence of primary limestone- Where this rock is in

314 Scientific Gcologi/.

regular strata, and no unstratified rocks exist in the vicinity, it is
reasonable to refer its origin to aqueous solution and crystallization.
But where there is evidence of the agency of heat, long contin-
ued, in the irregular position and unstratified structure of the lime-
stone, and the juxtaposition of granite, trap, &ic. ; it is not im-
probable that limestones deposited from water or animals, such as
chalk, marl, compact limestone, and coral reefs, may have been
melted and subsequently crystalised.

Thus far most geologists agree. But another point divides
them ; viz. whether all limestones have originated in organized
substances ? Dr. Macculloch * leans to the affirmative : but
another able geologist, Mr. Lyell,f defends the negative. Mr.
Lyell, however, does not object to the idea that ' every particle
of lime that now enters into the crust of the globe, may possibly
in its turn have been subservient to the jiurposes of life by enter-
ing into the composition of organized bodies ;' but to the opinion
that ' lime may be an animal product combined by the powers of
vitality from some simple elements.' Dr. Macculloch thinks his
views of the subject rendered probalije, by the great increase of
calcareous strata, the higher we rise in the series of formations,
and by the great extent of existing coral reefs. But Mr. I^yell
says that in ponds or lakes, which are not fed by springs contain-
ing carbonate of lime in solution, there will be no accumulation of
shells producing tufa and shell marl : one race of animals furnish-
ing by their decomposition only calcareous matter enough to sup-
ply the next generation ; and hence he infers that the animals do
not secrete lime. And he explains the greater quantity of calca-
reous matter in the newer strata, by the constant transfer of this
matter from the inferior to the superior rocks by internal heat and
springs.

But however, this point may be decided, it is certainly an inter-
esting thought that all existing limestone may have once formed a
part of organized beings. That much of It in the secondary rocks
did enter into the composition of animals, is obvious from the im-
mense quantity of their remains now found In such rocks. But
why are the primary rocks destitute of them ? Dr. Macculloch
says that he has found organic remains in one Instance, ' in a calca-
reous quartz rock situated beneath gneiss.' But he has also shown
conclusively that limestones full of organic remains, when in con-
tact with trap, are converted into highly crystalline masses, and
the organic remains entirely obliterated for a certain distance from
the trap. Such a change he supposes may have been undergone
by all the primary limestones.

* Systemof Geology, Vol. I. ]>.2-10.

I Principles ol' Geology, Vol. 11. p. iiUy. London, 183-3.

Scapoliic Rock. 315

It Is well known that calcareous soils are of all others most fer-
tile. Now if it be true that the quantity of limestone on the
globe is increasing, it will follow that there is a progressive increase
of fertility. Such a view would certainly accord with our ideas
of divine beneficence : but we should not forget the danger of
hasty inferences on such subjects.

8. SCAPOLITE ROCK.

Associated with the limestone and mica slate of Berkshire
county, which extend into Canaan, Ct., extensive beds or strata
occur, composed essentially of what I suppose to be compact scap-
olite. I have traced these strata in the town of Canaan, from
six to eight miles in length, and in some places from 100 to 150
rods in breadth. And I have no reason to doubt but they extend
much farther in length ; probably into Massachusetts on the north ;
and I cannot judge how far south. No one, it seems to me, could
regard masses of such extent and regularly stratified, only as a
simple mineral. And if I am not mistaken as to its nature, there
can be no doubt it is a new rock ; since in other quarters of the
globe, scapolite is rare even as a mineral. I thought at first that
it might be a compact variety of white augite ; since this mineral
does occur in connection with the same limestone. But the rock
fuses with intemuscence and without difficulty into a white enamel :
whereas I could not melt the augite from the same locality. The
following are all the varieties of this rock which have yet fallen
under my notice.

I. Classes exhibiting Aggregations of imperfect Prisms of
Scapolite ; too imperfect, however, to determine their form,
though the foliated structure is quite obvious. This rock is liable
to partial decomposition at its surface. 1 have found it only in
bowlders. (No. 540.)

2. Compact gray Scapolite, exhibiting a splintery fracture.
This is the most common variety. It is very perfectly stratified
in most instances, the strata varying in width from half an inch to
a foot or more. Generally the surface is partially decomposed to
the depth of more than half an inch, resembling some varieties of
amygdaloid, or variolite. On account of the evenness of its strat-
ification, it forms an excellent building stone, and is employed for
this purpose by the inhabitants of Canaan. Not unfrequently
these strata are divided by seams crossing the regular planes of
stratification nearly at right angles. (No. 541.)

3. A mixture of Scapolite and Dolomite. The proportion of
the two minerals is various. The limestone is most liable to de-
composition and leaves the scapolite in irregular masses ; giving to
the rock a most forbidding aspect. (No. 542.)

316 Scientific Geology.

4. Cojnpact ScapoUte, Quartz, and Mica. (No. 543.) This
appears to be mica slate or quartz rock containing a small propor-
tion of scapolite.

5. Granular (Quartz and Scapolite; containing also tremolite
and augite. (No. 544.) This variety is scarcely worth noticing.

The strata of scapolite rock in Canaan run in a direction not
far from northwest and southeast, and dip to the northeast at
an angle generally as great as 45". The principal part of the rock
seems to lie between the dolomitic limestone beneath, and the mica
slate above, which forms lofty ridges of mountains in Canaan. I
saw none of the scapolite rock in place, however, more than 200
feet above the limestone, though bowlders of it are frequently met
with on the mountain east of South Canaan meeting house to its
summit, on the road to Norfolk. I did not see the actual junc-
tion of the mica slate and scapolite rock, but the dip and situation
of the two rocks renders it almost certain that the latter does pass
under the former. On the lower side, the scapolite rock passes
by a gradual mixture into the limestone : as the specimens will
show. Upon the whole, the age of this rock is the same as that
of the Berkshire limestone, which alternates with mica slate ;
and which probably is not as old as that which alternates witli
gneiss.

It will be seen that the preceding description of this rock does
not differ — except in being more extended — from that which 1
gave in 18:28, in the 14th Vol. of the American Journal of Sci-
ence. If I could have referred it to any known group of rocks,
I should not have described it as new. But this was impossible.

9. QUARTZ ROCK.

Among the older rocks geologists have not been able to discov-
er any determinate order of superposition ; although each one ol
them is most likely to be found in in a particular connection. But
the same rocks are also found in several other connections, so as to
render all attempts to fix their exact place in the scale unsatisfac-
tory. Our rocks are as unmanageable in this respect as those in
Europe, but no more so ; showing that the same general causes
liave produced them on both continents. I have already shown
that our limestones are of various ages, and the same is true of
quartz rock, hornblende slate, and some others. Amid this great
uncertainty, as to the place in the series which the older rocks
ought to occupy, it is not easy to decide what is the best order of
describing them. It will be observed that I do not follow exactly
the same order in the account of the rocks which I am now giving
as is followed in the tablets attached to the Map. The order

T'arieiies of Quartz Rock. 317

order vvliicli I now follow, arnJ which agrees with that given on ihe
Tabular View of the Rocks in the Atlas, accords, as nearly as I can
determine it, with the order of nature : whereas on the Map, I
was obliged to have some reference to convenience of exhibition ;
one of the groups being miscellaneous.

Mineralogical Characters.

Quartz rock was first described by Dr. Maccnlloch ; and its chief
ingredient, as its name implies, is quartz. But it takes into its
composition, mica, feldspar, and sometimes blue schistose clay.
The following varieties are found in Massachusetts.

1. Pure Quartz. This exists in several states. First, hyaline,
white : generally in beds in mica slate. Secondly, compact, white,
or reddish, or dark blue ; in beds in argillaceous slate. Jt is quite
obvious that this blue variety has, in some way or other, been col-
oured by the slate ; either when first deposited from aqueous so-
lution, or when subsequently melted, if it ever has been, by heat.
Thirdly, coarse, granular, color gray, or reddish. These are the
most common varieties. Fourthly, fine, granular, or arenaceous;
sometimes disintegrated so as to form a beautiful white sand. (Nos.
545 to 5G5.)

2. Graivilar Poroits Quartz, with occasional fragments of foliat-
ed feldspar and black hornblende. This is the rock described in
the first part of my Report, under the name of buhrstone; for
which it is used. It is certainly a remarkable rock. Without
close inspection it would not be distinguished from the Paris buhr-
stone. But it is in fact finely granular ; and what is most remark-
able, is the occurrence in it of occasional fragments of foliated
feldspar and hornblende, rarely larger than a pea, and often not
larger than the head of a pin. These have evidently been subject-
ed to attrition ; and they give to the rock somewhat of a mechan-
ical texture. I have observed also in this rock, traces of mica
slate ; and the longest direction of the pores corresponds with that
of the strata seams, and gives the rock a slight claim to a slaty
structure. The pores or cavities are rarely large, but they are
disseminated through the whole rock ; and are most frequently
coated with a yellowish substance, which may be hydrate of iron.
The quartz in these cavities is slightly mamillary, sometimes show-
ing a tendency to crystallization. (No. 567.)

3. Quartz and Feldspar; the former in much the largest
quantity. This variety usually occurs in connection with gneiss,
and not in large quantity. (Nos. 571, 593, 600.)

4. Quartz and Mica. This differs from mica slate, only in
the predominance of the quartz. Usually this mineral is greatly
in excess : but occasionally the quantity of mica increases so much,
that it is impossible to say of particular specimens to which rock

39

318 Scientific Geology.

they ought to be referred. In such cases I have taken into con-
sideration the character of the surrounding region. If mica slate
predominates, and there be not an actual passage into decided
quartz rock, I have thought it useless to describe the rock as
quartz rock, even if for a considerable extent the quartz predom-
inates. Such cases as this are common in the mica slate range
extending from the mouth of the Merrimack to Connecticut.
And on the other hand, if quartz rock predominates, an occasional
excess of mica in some of its strata has not prevented me from
considering the whole as quartz rock.

The mica in this variety is arranged in a parallel position, and
it produces a schistose structure ; though sometimes the laminas
are so thick that they ought rather to be regarded as strata. In
other instances, the schistose layers are extremely tortuous and
very distinct from the stratification. I have observed this circum-
stance only in Berkshire county, as in Lee. (Nos. 57'2 to 580j
and 587 to 592.)

5. Quartz mid Talc. Some of the talcose slate in Hawley,
Plainfield, &c., occasionally becomes a slaty arenaceous quartz,
with seams of greenish talc. (Nos. 581 to 583.) Its color is
white, and this rock, in Hawley and Rowe, seen at a distance,
resembles gneiss. It is obviously a member of the talcose slate
formation ; and it may be questionable whether it ought not rather
to be described in connection with that formation.

6. (Quartz and Hornblende. Instead of talc, the white arena-
ceous quartz described under the last variety, sometimes contains
numerous distinct crystals of black hornblende. (Nos. 584, 585.)
It forms a beautiful rock, and if it would admit of a polish, might
be employed for ornamental purposes. It is less abundant than
the preceding variety. In the gneiss formation, there is a variety
in which greenish hyaline quartz contains flattened imperfect crys-
tals of actynolite. (No. 584.)

7. Q^uartz and Argillaceous Slate. I have observed this only
in Bernardston, in connection with the encrinal limestone. (No.
601.) The quartz is white and blue, and exhibits a brecciated
structure. It was probably colored by the slate ; but very few
fragments or layers of slate are now visible.

8. Quartzose Breccia. This consists of angular fragments of
granular quartz, connected by oxide of iron ; or of fragments of
mica slate, surrounded by radiated quartz. The variety found in
bowlders in Leverett and Amherst, (I have no doubt that the bed
from which they were derived is in Leverett,) contains but very
little iron, scarcely more than enough to give a part of the frag-
ments a reddish hue. (Nos. 602, to 608.) Another variety I
have found in Amherst, in connection with the gneiss formation,
in which the cement is magnetic oxide of iron. But the most

Varieties of (Quartz Rock. 319

interesting variety exists in numerous bowlders along the western
slope and base of Hoosic mountain. It consists of angular frag-
ments of white and reddish granular quartz cemented by brown
hematite. (Nos. 604 to 606.) In the cavities the hematite is
often iridescent and mamillary ; and the coat investing the frag-
ments, fibrous. The largest bowlders of this rock that I have
seen, (six to eight feet in diameter,) occur on the Pontoosic turn-
pike from Pittsfield to Springfield, in the south part of Dalton, at
the foot of the Hoosic range. But I have never found this rock in
place. It may be that the loose fragments have all proceeded
from a huge vein of this breccia. But from their size and abun-
dance, I rather presume that this rock will be found as a bed in
the common granular quartz of the vicinity. I found one bowl-
der of this rock ten inches in diameter, in Southampton; only two
or three miles from Connecticut river; affording another proof of
a northwesterly diluvial current in former times.

Professor Dewey remarks, that in Great Barrington and Shef-
field the fragments of quartz are united by a cement of quartz.

The most common gangue of the lead and manganese ores in
Hampshire and Franklin counties, is quartz. In a majority of
cases it is radiated quartz investing nuclei of micaceous slate.
Thus is produced a very curious kind of breccia. (No. 608.)
And since these veins are sometimes six or eight feet thick, the
quantity is great enough to deserve a notice in this connection.

9. Q^iiartzose Conglomerate. This consists of a paste of quartz
and mica, in which are imbedded numerous distinctly rounded
pebbles of granular or hyaline quartz. (Nos. 609, 610.) It pos-
sesses as completely the characters of a conglomerate as any of
the puddlngstones of the secondary formation. I have never
found it in place ; but cannot doubt that it is associated with the
quartz rock of Berkshire county. For its bowlders are not un-
common on the west slope and the top of Hoosic mountain. In
Windsor 1 found them unusually abundant. I have even found
small bowlders in the Connecticut valley, in Deerfield. It ap-
pears to be identical with the Conglomerate Quartz Rock of
Macculloch.* The size of the imbedded pebbles is usually about
an inch. It greatly resembles the rock that constitutes the first
ridge of the mountain range on the east side of Wyoming valley,
in Wilksbarre, Pennsylvania ; and which there probably underlies
the anthracite coal formation.

This rock, being most decidedly mechanical in its texture, will
throw some light on the age of the quartz rock, and associated
limestone of Berkshire valley, if it be admitted that it forms a
part of the series ; of which I think there can be but little doubt.

* Geological Transactions, Vol. I. p. GO. Second series.

320 Scientific Geology.

It will be perceived that the varieties, Nos. 5, 6, ami S, above
described, are different from any mentioned by Dr. Macculloch,
and so far as 1 know, by any writer.

In order to have a complete view of quartz rock, as it exists in
Massachusetts, we ought to recollect that two varieties (red and
blue,) have already been described as comprehended in the gray-
wacke formation.

Topography of Q^uartz Rock.

On the Map I have represented all the quartz rock in the State
(excepting that connected with the graywacke,) as associated with
mica slate, talcose slate, or gneiss. It is also more or less con-
nected with other rocks ; as with limestone in Berkshire, and with
argillaceous slate in Bernardston. But in all other cases, except
in regard to gneiss and mica slate, it is little more than a juxta-
position of the two rocks ; whereas the quartz rock alternates
with, and passes imperceptibly into, gneiss and mica slate. And
in fact it might be regarded very properly as a member of the
gneiss and mica slate formations.

In Cumberland, Rhode Island, I have marked a strip of quartz
rock as connected with the peculiar rock that prevails in that
place, and which I venture to denominate talco-chloritic slate ;
although its characters are very obscure. Or rather the quartz
rock lies between this slate and the graywacke on the east ; and
1 think also that it alternates with the talco-chloritic slate. \n
the northeast part of the town, it forms a hill of considerable
altitude, of snowy whiteness. More westerly its color is gray, and
it is of a coarser texture.

I take this opportunity to remark, that I do not feel confident
that even on the third edition of the geological Piiap, and after a
re-examination of that region, I have correctly delineated the
rocks of Cumberland and its vicinity. Its geology is certainly
very intricate, and deserves the long and careful study of some
one who resides in the vicinity ; and then it should be exhibited
on a map of a larger scale than mine. Since it is not in Massa-
chusetts, I did not feel justified in devoting so much time as was
desirable to its examination.

The range of mica slate extending from Webster to the mouth
of the Merimack, often passes into genuine quartz rock, and gener-
ally contains a large proportion of quartz. In the south part of
this range, in Webster especially, I noticed so much quartz rock
that I have represented a patch of it on the Map.

The gneiss formation on the east of this mica slate, especially
near the south part of Worcester county, is associated with exten-
sive strata of (juartz rock. In Sutton, and the vicinity, the latter
occupies a considerable part of the surface ; and there I have de-

Topography of (Quartz Rock. 321

linealed this rock on the Map. I have noticed it in several of the
towns northeast from Sutton, interstratified with gneiss and liorn-
blende slate. In the eastern part of Franklin county, in New Sa-
lem and Warwick, 1 have met with it in strata of a few feet wide
interstratified with gneiss.

Along the western border of the great gneiss range of Worces-
ter county, is another narrow stratum of quartz rock, in some
places associated with the gneiss, sometimes with hornblende
slate, and sometimes with mica slate. 1 have represented it on
the Map, as extending only from Leverett to the north line of the
State, because south of this place it is very narrow and frequently
interrupted. Mica slate is commonly associated with this rock
north of Leverett. On the opposite side of Connecticut river, in
Northfield, Mass. and Vernon, Vt. quartz rock forms one of the
members of a series of mica slate passing into gneiss, hornblende
slate, and argillaceous slate. In Vernon it is liable to disintegra-
tion and has been employed for the manufacture of glass. In
Bernardston, where it approaches the clay slate, as already re-
marked, it occasionally takes portions of that rock into its compo-
sition. But generally in Leverett and Northfield, it is that variety
which contains mica.

Berkshire county, however, contains the principal repository of
quartz rock. Here it is usually associated with mica slate; and
althougli it is re|)resented as lying contiguous to gneiss, yet I have
given my reasons elsewhere for the opinion that its position is un-
conformable to that of the gneiss. It sometimes forms hills of
considerable elevation : as INIonument mountain, in Stockbridge,
which is more than a thousand feet high. Compared with the
mica slate and gneiss, however, this rock lies generally at a low
level ; corresponding in this respect with the limestone. Tiie
largest proportion of this rock is gray or reddish granular quartz.
In Cheshire, it is extensively disintegrated, so as to form a good
sand for the preparation of glass. For the cause of this
disintegration 1 have sought in vain. The buhrstone in Wash-
ington, near Piltsfield, is another interesting variety ; and in the
same hill, the granular quartz is quarried extensively for architectu-
ral purposes, on account of the great regularity of its stratification.
I observed the variety containing mica, in Lee, Washington, Ca-
naan, Ct., &ic. ; though this is not the most common variety. The
situation of the breccias and conglomerates has been already
])ointed out.

It is also unnecessary to say anything farther in relation to the
quartz rock containing talc and hornblende.

In connection with the gneiss in the southeastern part of the
State, it may be remarked, that quartz rock occurs in considerable
(juanlity, as I have noticed in several places, having an agaiizcJ

322 Scientific Geology.

structure. That which I found in Rochester, is quite beautiful,
(a pohshed specimen of which may be seen in the collection.)
Some examination since the publication of the first edition of the
first part of my Report, has led me to suspect that this quartzose
aggregate is more abundant and extensive than I had supposed ;
perhaps extensive enough to deserve a place on the Map.

Dip, Direction, and Character of the Strata.

It requires in many cases careful attention to discern seams of
stratification in the purely granular quartz of Berkshire county.
They are never, however, wanting for any considerable extent.
And very frequently there exists a set of cross fissuros, nearly at
right angles to the planes of stratification. The same thing is true
of the quartz rock of Leverett and Northfield, in which mica is
sparingly interlaminated. (No. 577.)

In general, however, quartz rock exhibits great distinctness and
regularity of stratification, particularly the variety last mentioned.
Where the mica is in small quantity, the thickness of the strata is
considerable ; but as the mica increases, the layers are thinner, until
at length the rock becomes schistose. At the quarry in Washing-
ton, near the buhrstone locality, the stratified structure is beauti-
fully exhibited ; and it results from a minute quantity of mica, in
scales scarcely visible to the naked eye. The stratification of the
buhrstone, which lies at the northern extremity of the same ele-
vation, is much less distinct. But immediately beneath this vari-
ety, the rock takes so much mica into its composition as to become
slaty, — aim >st mica slate even. (No. 591.)

Tngeneril the dip and direction of the strata of this rock cor-
respt>nd to those of the gneiss and mica slate with which it is con-
nected. In Berkshire I have already remarked that the direction
is usually north and south, and the dip east, at rather a small
angle. At the quarry just mentioned, however, the dip is form 10
to 15" westerly ; but the buhrstone dips about as much in the op-
posite direction. And in the quarry we find veins of granite,
indicating the proximity of a larger mass of that rock ; though I
did not explore the surrounding region for it : but I think this
fact will afford a probable explanation of this anomaly in the dip
of the strata. In the northeast part of Windsor, high up the Hoo-
sic range of mountains, this rock dips north about 25".

The quartz rock in Northfield and Bernardston, west of Con-
necticut river, dips from 20 to 60° east, and runs north and south.
East of the river, its dip approaches 90° east. In Southborough
its direction its nearly east and west, and its dip northerly and
large. In Oxford and Webster, its direction is nearly north and
south, and its dip from 20 to 45" west; though in the west
part of Oxford I noticed a dip of 10" easterly, the rock being in-

Mineral Contents of Qiiartz Rock.

323

terstratified with gneiss. In Sutton the dip is from 30 to 35" north,
corresponding to that of the gneiss in the vicinity.

Mineral Contents.

Scarcely any rock in Massachusetts, is so destitute of simple
minerals as this : unless we include in it those metallic veins of
which quartz is the gangue. But these may more appropriately
be described under granite ; in which rock these veins for the
most part occur. Hematite iron ore, forming the cement of the
quartzose breccia in Dalton, is the most interesting mineral in the
quartz rock. Sulphuret of iron, also, has been observed in small
quantities in that quartz rock which is associated with talcose slate
in Hawley, &c. In Pittsfield, Worthington, fee, masses of quartz
are found of a yellowish color, and appear to be genuine ferrugin-
ous quartz. Sometimes this quartz passes into yellow jasper, and
also into chalcedony and hornstone as at Dalton.

Veins in (Quartz Rock.

In a few instances, as at the quarry of quartz rock in Washing-
ton, several times spoken of, veins of granite may be seen. But
generally the veins in quartz rock are quartz ; the vein being usu-
ally white and opaque, and the rock a mixture of gray quartz and
mica, — the latter mineral existing, however, in very small propor-
tion. In some instances the rock appears to be what the Weneri-
an writers denominated primitive siliceous slate. The following is
a sketch of a bowlder of about eight inches diameter, found in
Amherst. The principal part of it is gray quartz traversed by nu-
merous veins of white quartz.

Cluartz Veins in Q,uaitz Rock.

Theoretical Considerations .

The regularity of the stratification in quartz rock, and the fact
that silica is soluble in water, have disposed geologists, in all cases

324 Scientific Geology.

where it is possible, to impute to this rock an aqueous origin.
But like all the older rocks it appears subserjuently to have been
subjected to heat of a greater or less degree of intensity, whereby
it has been rendered compact. And no doubt in this way some
siliceous sandstones have been converted into solid quartz : as in
the Isle of Sky, in Scotland, where trap comes into contact with
the sandstone.

A complete theory of the formation of that variety of brecciated
quartz, which in Dalton is cemented by hydrate of iron, it is not
easy to form. The chief difficulty seems to be, to imagine how
the quartz was broken into such numerous angular fragments : for
after these fragments were piled together, it is not difficult to con-
ceive that the interstices might have been filled by the iron from
solution in water.

The same difficulty occurs in the case of those extensive metal-
liferous veins that have been referred to, whose gangue is quartz,
enclosing masses of mica slate and forming a kind of breccia.
But the whole subject of mineral veins has a great deal of mystery
iianging over it, and is probably less understood than any other de-
partment of geology.

What shall I say of the origin of the Washington buhrstone ?
We have every reason to conclude that the French buhrstone was
de|)osited from water. And that at Washington differs from it
chiefly in being more arenaceous and tender. Probably, there-
fore, it had a similar origin. But what shall be said of the occa-
sional fragments of feldspar and hornblende which it contains ?
Certainly these give it somewhat of a mechanical character, and
their production and introduction are difficult to explain. Can it
be, that subsequently to its deposition, it has been subject to the
action of a heat so powerful that a partial fusion took place, and a
few imperfect crystals of feldspar and hornblende were thus pro-
duced ? The granite exists in quantity not far from this rock, is
rendered probable by the facts already mentioned, viz. that veins
of it occur at a quarry of quartz rock in the same hill, and that
the strata at this quarry dip a few degrees to the west, while the
buhrstone dips about as much to the east. And this granite might
have furnished the requisite heat.

The conglomerate quartz rock originated probably like other
conglomerates ; that is, we must first suppose an abrasion of exist-
ing strata, and then a consolidation of the materials thus worn off,
either by heat or simple dessication. In the present case, heat
was probably an important agent. Otherwise I know not how to
explain the marks of a crystalline structure which it exhibits ; as
much, indeed, as the oldest mica slate. But until this rock is
found in place, it will be useless to spend much time upon its
theory.

Mica Slate. 325

The varieties of quartz rock associated with mica slate, lalcose
slate, and gneiss, probably had an origin similar to that of these
several rocks. That they have all been acted upon powerfully
by heat, 1 cannot doubt ; but not until after their deposition.
I confess myself inclined to the opinion, that all these strata origin-
ally resembled our present secondary strata ; and that the agency
of the unstratified rocks has rendered them crystalline. Thus the
quartz rock that contains some mica, might have been originally
a micaceous sandstone. But more of this hypothesis as we pro-
ceed.

It is gratifying to find that the quartz rock of Massachusetts
corresponds so closely with that of Europe. But we shall find
this to be the case generally with our primary rocks ; a proof of
uniformity in the mode of their production.

10. MICA SLATE.

It is usual to place this rock next to gneiss, or as the second in
respect to age among the stratified rocks. And in Massachusetts
it is not unfrequently associated with gneiss. But it is also asso-
ciated with every other rock, as high in the series at least as argil-
laceous slate: 1 mean in a conformable position. Hence I have
thought it best to introduce it before talcose and hornblende slate
and serpentine ; because these latter rocks, in the district under
consideration, are connected, scarcely without an exception, only
with gneiss and the oldest varieties of mica slate.

Mineralogical Characters.

It is hardly necessary to remark, in respect to a rock so com-
mon and well known, that its essential ingredients are quartz and
mica: and the anomalies of composition are fewer in this rock
than in most others ; although the varieties of aspect are numer-
ous. As I understand the subject, however, it is necessary that
the mica should be the predominant ingredient, in order to consti-
tute a rock mica slate. But in this case we must look to the
whole mass of the rock, rather than to hand specimens: forsingle
specimens may often exhibit the quartz in excess, and yet be re-
garded as mica slate. The following varieties of this rock I have
found in Massachusetts.

1. (Quartz and Mica: the former granular and laminar; the
latter in distinct scales and highly glistening. This variety is as-
sociated with the oldest rocks, as granite and gneiss ; and is obvi-
ously more highly crystalline than the other varieties. The lon-
gitudinal arrangement of the mica gives this variety sometimes a
fibrous appearance. (Nos. 614 to 626.)

40

326 Scientific Geology.

2. The same, containing a small proportion of Feldspar, and
thus passing into gneiss. (Nos. 627 to 636.) It is only when the
mica greatly predominates that this rock can with any propriety be
denominated mica slate.

3. Passing into Talcose Slate. In most cases the mica slate
under this variety, takes into its composition scales of greenish
talc. But sometimes, I apprehend, the mica becomes tender, al-
most losing its elasticity, and very much resembling talc, from
which it is scarcely posssible to distinguish it. When the talc
predominates, especially to the exclusion of the mica, the rock
then becomes talcose slate. (Nos. 637 to 641.)

4. Amphiholic and Garnetiferous Mica Slate. This variety
takes into its composition in large proportion, hornblende or gar-
nets ; usually both. From the fact that those minerals are com-
monly found together, I have made only a single variety include
them both. (Nos. 642 to 645.)

5. Staurotidiferous Mica Slate. In this rock the mica is in
very fine scales, and has the general aspect of argillaceous slate ;
except that when the strata are viewed edgewise, they exhibit a
striped appearance, in consequence of numerous layers of stauro-
tide, which appear to be co-extensive with the layers of the rock.
I should not have regarded this mineral as of importance enough
to constitute a distinct variety of mica slate, did 1 not know that
extensive ledges, like the rock just described, extend nearly across
the whole of Massachusetts, through the towns of Norwich, Ches-
terfield, Goshen, Hawley, and Heath ; and on the east side of
Connecticut river, it has been traced, with some interruptions,
from near Long Island Sound to Franconia, New Hampshire, a
distance of nearly 200 miles. Where it crosses Massachusetts,
however, it is but imperfectly developed. (No. 646.)

I wish here to remark, that when I coin a new term to prefix to
a variety of rock, it is rather for the sake of giving a laconic defin-
ition, than in the wish or expectation that it will become a perma-
nent name for the rock. Indeed, mere varieties need no distinct
names, except when an attempt is made to give a logical account
of a formation.

6. Spangled Mica Slate. The basis of this singular rock is the
same as in the last variety ; and the two are associated in Ches-
terfield, Goshen, Plainfield, &.c. Through this base are dissemin-
ated numerous thin foliated plates of a deep brown color, resem-
bling mica somewhat, but almost entirely destitute of elasticity
and brittle. Their length, (rarely more than a quarter of an inch,)
is usually twice as great as their breadth, and there is a decided
polarity exhibited in their arrangement: that is, their longer axes
all lie in the same direction, and the surfaces of the plates in the
same or in parallel planes ; so that light is reflected from many

Varieties of Mica Slate.

327

of them at once when the specimen is held in a proper position,
and thus a beautifully spangled appearance results. Not being
confident as to the nature of this mineral, I have given the rock a
designation which indicates merely this obvious property. These
spangles are pretty uniformly diffused through the mass, and their
surfaces rarely coincide with the layers of the slate. (Nos. 647 to
650.)

I found this same rock in rolled masses in Newport, R. I. And
Col. Totten informed me, that it exists in place on one of the
islands in Narraganset bay, — Canonicut Island I believe. At Plain-
field it is sometimes divided into rhomboidal masses by oblique
cross seams. (No. 649.)

7. Argillo-micaccous Slate. This exists wherever the mica slate
passes by gradation into clay slate: and such places are numerous
in Massachusetts. It exists also, in connection with the two last
varieties, in the range of slate passing through Chesterfield, &tc. ;
where the strata are perpendicular, and have a broad range of de-
cided mica slate on the east, and a similar extent of talcose slate,
hornblende slate, and gneiss, on the west ; which position is strong
evidence that this rock must be one of the oldest of the primary
strata. It does not, however, in this case actually pass into clay
slate. And I believe it will always be found to consist of fine
scales of mica, closely compacted, so as to give it an argillaceous
aspect. This rock sometimes contains large beds of white quartz,
which is frequently fetid. (Nos. 651 to 667.)

8. Arenaceous Mica Slate. In this variety the quartz is gray,
in fine sandy grains, and diffused through the whole mass, not
lamellar. (Nos. 668 to 712.) The mica is in fine disseminated
scales ; although the plates are usually parallel to one another.
The mass is usually imperfectly schistose, though more regularly
stratified tlian most other varieties ; and sometimes there exists a
double set of strata seams. Ordinarily it is not so much con-
torted in its layers as the older varieties ; but an intermediate vari-
ety is perhaps of all the mica slates most remarkable for irregular-
ity. The following are sketches of the curvatures, in Nos. 688,
689, and 690, which are from the Gorge or * Glen' in Leyden.

328 Scientific Geology.

In Norwich and Enfield this variety has been extensively em-
ployed for whetstones : the former locality is far the best, and the
latter is now nearly or quite abandoned*.

In general this variety occupies the highest place in the mica
slate series. Thus we find it on both sides of the valley of the
Connecticut, when first we pass on either side of the river from
the new red sandstone ; and the whole of the mica slate formation
in Worcester county is of this description.

This variety is very nearly allied to quartz rock. Indeed, in
respect to extensive tracts, it is often difficult to say whether it
should be denominated quartz rock or mica slate. Sometimes it
exhibits a double set of strata seams ; one set being oblique to the
other. It contains also not unfrequenlly beds or tuberculous mass-
es of white or sometimes blood red quartz.

9. Anthracitous Mica Slate. This is simply a very fine grained
mica slate, approximating to clay slate, which has been impreg-
nated and rendered black and shining by carbon. I am disposed
to regard the rock constituting the immediate roof and floor of the
anthracite bed in Worcester, as belonging to this variety, although
I am aware that it has been generally regarded as argillaceous
slate. But I think that in all cases careful examination will de-
tect the mica. Of this, however, more in another place. This
variety occurs, also, in Ward and in Dudley. (Nos. 717 to 719.)

10. Plumbaginous Mica Slate. This rock, differs from the
last only in exhibiting the gray aspect of plumbago, rather than
the dark color of anthracite. But probably in most cases very
little plumbago is present. Yet the resemblance is often striking.
This variety occurs frequently among the newer beds of mica
slate ; as for instance on the east side of Connecticut river in
buuthampton, Conway, Shelburne, &;c. (Nos. 713 to 715 and 718
and 719.)

11. Conglomerated Mica Slate. In Haverhill and Amesbury
I observed fragments of mica slate cemented by the hydrate of
iron, so as to form a conglomerate. (No. 716.) It is, however,
of very limited extent ; occupying only occasional fissures in the
rock, and is probably the result of slow disintegration, and the
subsequent infiltration of iron from the decomposition of pyrites.

In the vicinity of the sienite in Whatley, I found a bowlder ob-
viously composed of fragments of mica slate, which were once
partially fused. They are cemented together chiefly by feldspar.
The numerous nodules of the mica slate imbedded in the sienite
at that place will render this explanation rational, as I shall attempt
to show in describing sienite. (No. 724.)

12. Indurated Mica Slate. In the same region in Whatley, I
found a bowlder between quartz and chert, of a dark gray color,
exhibiting traces of an original slaty structure. (No. 725.) As

Topography of Mica Slate.

329

Dr. Macculloch says of a similar variety found in Scotland, ' it is
not enumerated with siliceous schists, because it has not been the
practice so to do ; but it bears a strong analogy to the primary va-
rieties of these.' *

13. Augite Rock. It may not be expected to see this rock placed
in this connection : since tlie rock of this name described by Dr.
Macculloch in Europe, is an unstratified overlying rock, associated
with basalt and greenstone. But the one here introduced, is of
entirely a different character. It is ordinarily composed of gran-
ular and semi-crystalised augite, of a greenish or yellowish color,
mixed with quartz in small quantity ; and is interstratified with
mica slate and hornblende slate. And since it occurs in too small
a quantity to be described as a distinct rock, I thought the proper
course would be to notice it in this connection. (Nos. 726, 727.)
I have found it only in Williamsburgh, two miles west of the meet-
ing house, at the locality of smoky quartz and plumose mica;
where its characters correspond with those mentioned above. But
Dr. Enmions informs me that it exists in Chester in the situation
exhibited below : that is, there exists in that town such an alierna-

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w .ii

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tion of strata. One of the beds of this rock is partly made up of
'a variety of paratomous ougite-spar, which cleaves into thin
plates and approaches nearly in some specimens to schiller spar.'
' Yet ' says Dr. E. ' I should not call the stratum Diallage Rock.'
(so it had been called) 'The loose bowlders which I first found
were aggregates of this variety of pyroxene and feldspir. I after-
wards found that they came from the mica slate and did not gener-
ally resemble granite.' Concerning the scapolite rock, placed by
Dr. Emmons on the above section, he has given me no informa-
tion.

Topograph)/ of Mica Slate.

It will be seen by the Map that this rock occupies several large
tracts in the State. And it exists, also, in smaller quantities, asso-
ciated in numerous places with gneiss and granite, but not shown
on the Map. Thus the region in Northampton, Williamsburgh,

♦ Classification of Rock.s, p. 380.

330 Scientijic Geology.

Goshen, &;c, colored as granite, is in fact nearly half mica slate.
But it would be impossible to represent the true relative position
of the two rocks ; and, therefore, I have colored the whole space
as composed of the predominant rock. And the same remarks
will apply to almost every other range of granite that is represent-
ed in the central or western parts of the State.

The mica slate of Berkshire is chiefly of those varieties that ap-
proximate to argillaceous and talcose slate. It there forms lofty
insulated mountain peaks, or continuous ranges. Saddle mountain,
nearly 4000 feet high, and the highest point in the State, is com-
posed of this rock. And so is the eastern part of Taconic range :
as well as nearly all those broken ranges of mountains extending
from Lenox through Stockbridge, Great Barrington, and Sheffield-
As a general fact, the limestone occupies the vallies ; and this
would be deemed conclusive proof that this rock was deposited
subsequently to the mica slate, did we not find it sometimes alter-
nating with the slate. Shall we then infer, that the limestone be-
ing much more liable to disintegration than the slate, has been de-
composed and abraded so as to bring it down to much the lowest
level ?

As we ascend Hoosic mountain, the mica slate assumes a much
more crystalline aspect and appears to belong to the oldest varie-
ties of this rock. It is essentially of the same character across
the whole mountainous range between the vallies of Berkshire and
the Connecticut : though as we approach the latter valley, we find
it sometimes assuming an argillaceous or arenaceous character ;
and in Leyden it passes into distinct argillaceous slate.

It will be seen by the Map, that the Hoosic mountain range,
(by which I mean all the mountainous region between the vallies
of Berkshire and the Connecticut,) is composed mainly of two
wedged shaped patches ; the one of gneiss and the other of mica
slate ; the first having its acute angle towards the north, the other
towards the south. And yet, according to the Map, which shows
the direction of the strata, (Plate XVI.) the strata extend unin-
terruptedly across both the wedges. And such I believe to be
the fact. It is my opinion that the mica slate and gneiss pass lat-
erally into each other; that is, as we go north, the feldspar de-
creases in quantity until it disappears ; and of course the rock is
mica slate ; and so vice versa. But the lateral passage of one
rock into another is extremely difficult to prove ; because, on ac-
count of the diluvium spread over the surface, we cannot trace a
stratum with certainty for any considerable distance. According-
ly this is a subject rarely touched upon by geological writers. I
recollect, indeed, but a single statement of any fact resembling
this : Dr. MaccuUoch speaks of the beds of red sandstone in Sky,
as 'changing their composition even according to the line of their

Topography of the Mica Slate. 331

prolongations :'* But they merely change from red sandstone
into gray quartz rock ; which might have resulted from the appli-
cation of heat. Yet I see no insuperable difficulty in supposing
that in one part of an extensive deposite, gneiss might have been
produced, and mica slate in another; 1 mean in the same stratum.
Some geologists suppose that these rocks were produced by direct
crystallization from aqueous solution : and on this hypothesis, I can
imagine how one portion of the menstrum might be destitute, or
nearly so, of feldspar : while the other part should abound in it ;
especially if the supposed lake or ocean were shallow. Other ge-
ologists suppose these rocks to have been originally deposited in
the condition of sediment, and that their crystallization resulted
from their subsequent partial fusion by heat. And certainly in
consistency with this hypothesis, may the change of composition
under consideration be explained. But as to the fact of such a
change in the present case, I would not wish to be very positive
without farther examination. It is, however, certain, that much
of the gneiss in the Hoosic range so much resembles mica slate,
that Prof. Dewey was led to describe it as such. But as it does
pass into distinct gneiss towards the south part of the State, and
especially in Connecticut, I have not hesitated thus to mark the
whole formation as far north as the rock contains any noticeable
quantity of feldspar. I suspect that careful observation might dis-
cover that the rock contains feldspar across the whole State, and
that the patch of gneiss represented in Whitingham, Vt. is a con-
tinuation of the range marked on the Map as extending only to
Savoy.

Near the central part of this range of mica slate, occurs a
range of talcose and chlorite slates, in conformable order, and pas-
sing insensibly into the mica slate. Hornblende slate and lime-
stone are connected with it still more intimately, as the Map will
show.

The mica slate on both sides of Connecticut river in Northfield,
is separated from the range just described, by a deposite of argillace-
ous slate conformably stratified and gradually passing into the mica
slate, though the direction of the strata of the clay slate is more
towards northeast and southwest than that of the mica slate on the
west : on the east, the mica slate becomes decided quartz rock ;
and thisacconipanies the mica slate, though often wanting, as far
south at least as Leverett.

The narrow stratum of mica slate marked on the Map in the
eastern part of Hampshire, and Hampden counties, is associated
with talcose slate on one side, and with gneiss on the other. From
having noticed occasional patches of mica slate among the gneiss

♦ Western Islands, Vol. I. p. 307.

332 Scientific Geology.

as far north at least as Enfield, I have been induced to extend the
stratum so far, in doubt, however, whether it be continuous over
the whole distance. In many other parts of the broad gneiss
range of Worcester county, I would here remark, we find limited
beds of mica slate, apparently interstratified with the gneiss. But
to exhibit all such cases on the Map would require immense labor,
and be of little service.

In the northwestern part of the gneiss range of Worcester
county, will be perceived on the Map, a succession of granite,
gneiss, and mica slate deposits. I have not in that case attempted
to give the exact extent of these several rocks in that region ; but
simply to indicate that such a succession of strata exists there;
and that the different members of it occupy the surface in about
the same ratio as the different colors. I apprehend that here is
another example of a different composition in the same stratum
prolonged. But I throw out this hint merely to excite others to
make that thorough examination which I have not been able to do..

In passing eastward we next come to the Worcester range of
mica slate, which has been several times referred to. This rock
has heretofore been regarded, either as graywacke slate, or talcose
slate, or both.* But after a careful examination of this formation
in various places, from the mouth of the Merrimack to Connecticut
line, I am constrained to regard it as one of the latest varieties of
mica slate : probably what Humboldt would call transition mica
slate. True, I have occasionally met with a limited portion of
this rock, which had somewhat of a mechanical aspect ; though not
much more so than I have found in every range of mica slate
which I have examined. In some cases too, there exists a glazing,
apparently talcose, on the laminae of the rock ; and this variety
certainly approximates closely to graywacke slate. Still, these
are not the predominant characters of the formation. Generally
the rock is composed of gray arenaceous quartz, and mica in mi-
nute scales : the rock exhibiting too much of a crystalline structure
for graywacke, and containing moreover, but little if any argillace-
ous matter. Where it contains considerable oxide of iron, as in
the northeast part of Worcester, it presents at a little distance the
dirty appearance of sandstone : but a closer examination will show
the characters above pointed out. I saw not the least trace, more-
over, of any organic remains in this formation ; nor have I any
evidence that such have ever been found. In short, though very
probably genuine cabinet specimens of graywacke slate may be
found in this formation, yet as a whole, I could not, without doing
violence to my convictions, refer it to any formation, but mica
slate. But as I shall place quite a number of specimens from this

* See Eaton's Canal Rocks and Geological Text Book.

Worcester Mica Slate. 333

formation in the hands of the Government, others by inspecting
them can form their own opinions as to their nature.

I ought to remark that quartz very frequently predominates
in this formation, and the mica almost disappears. Indeed, I am
by no means sure that quartz is not the predominant ingredient in
the whole formation : and if so, it ought to be denominated quartz
rock. And it seems to me that there is much more reason to doubt
as to this point, than whether it ought to be referred to graywacke,
or talcose slate.

As we approach the east and west sides of this range, the char-
acters of the mica slate become more decided ; and in this slate of
apparently greater antiquity, the veins and protruding masses of
granite are more numerous ; though they occur in every part of
the formation, and sometimes in the argillaceous slate connected
with it. Except in Worcester, Fitchburg, and Pelham, N. H.
no attempt has been made to give the actual number and extent
of these masses of granite on the Map ; but simply to indicate
where they are most numerous. I regard the frequency of the
protrusion of this granite, and the perfection of its character, as
some indication that the formation is older than graywacke. A
large proportion of the most beautiful granite in the State is con-
tained in this formation ; and it is entirely wanting i n hornblende ;
which circumstance if I mistake not, affords some presumption of
its being among ihe oldest of the granites.

But does not the occurrence of anthracite in this formation at
Worcester, decide at once that it cannot be mica slate ? Some
might, indeed, doubt whether that mineral is actually contained in
the rock under consideration ; because the slate forming the im-
mediate roof and floor of the mine so much resembles clay slate.
But the extent of this slate is quite limited, and then succeeds
the rock under consideration ; and I have already stated that I re-
gard the slate in which the anthracite lies, as an anthracitous mica
slate. I consider, therefore, the anthracite at Worcester as em-
braced in mica slate.

But can there be any doubt that anthracite does occur in
mica slate and even in gneiss ? The highest European authorities
are, I believe, unanimous on this point. If we consult the Tab-
leau cles Terrains of Brongniart, we shall see anthracite marked
in the stratum of gneiss that lies next to granite ; also in his Phylla-
diqiie, a variety of mica slate superior to the oldest variety of the
graywacke series, &ic. ' It has occurred,' says Dr. Macculloch,
* in gneiss, in micaceous schist, in primary limestone, and in a
conglomerate rock said to belong to the primary rocks.' * ' It
was believed for a long time,' says De Lafosse, * that anthracite be-

♦ System of Geologv, Vol. II. p. 296.

41

334 Scientific Geology.

longed exclusively to the primitive deposites. But it has been
since found that it abounds in the secondary and transition forma-
tions,' &ic.* ' Anthracite,' says Prevost, • belong^s almost exclu-
sively to the oldest of the deposites called transition ; where it is
met with in beds or veins in the midst of mica slate, of gneiss,
and of the schistes-phyllades, which overlie vegetable impres-
sions of the family of ferns. For a long time, it is true, it was
said that anthracite was found in primitive deposites ; but it is
probable that this term was applied to rocks and formations which
are now placed in the transition formation. It seems almost cer-
tain that no primitive anthracite exists. 'f I asserted in the first
part of my Report that some of the anthracite in this country, viz.
that at Worcester, occurs in primitive rocks, because it exists in
mica slate. A reviewer says that ' be has certainly spoken unad-
visedly when he asserts that it is so found in this country. 'J But
had he been aware that I reject the transition class, and conse-
quently, following Macculloch, include every variety of mica slate
and gneiss, the older varieties of quartz rock, and clay slate, in
the primitive class, he would have seen that my statement was in
perfect accordance with the authorities quoted above ; and their
correctness and high standing, I presume, he would not call in
question. When Prevost asserts that ' no primitive anthracite ex-
ists,' he means none which he calls primitive. But in the same
paragraph he says that tliis mineral does exist in mica slate and
gneiss; every variety of which, geologists of no mean name re-
gard as primitive. If this is all that is meant by the reviewer,
there is between him and me no difference of opinion, except in
the use of the word primitive.

If it be true, as I suppose, that the Worcester anthracite occurs
in mica slate, we see the reason why it passes into plum-
bago, as I have elsewhere shown that it does. For whatever
be the cause, as a general fact it is true, that the older the rock
in which carbon is found, the more compact it is, and the nearer
does it approximate to the semi-crystalized condition of plum-
bago.

On the first edition of the Map, a small patch of mica slate was
represented in Sherburne. But its extent, as I observed it, was
so limited that I have thought it best to omit it. I am not without
suspicion, however, that this rock may be found of considerable
extent, connected with granite, in Sherburne and in the towns
north of that place, as far as Sudbury at least.

The narrow strip of mica slate in Smithfield, R. I., represented
on the Map, associated with talcose slate, is of rather a peculiar

* Dictionnaire D'Histoire Natnrelle, Art. Anthracite,
t Diet. D'Hist. Nat. Art, Houille.

* Peter A, Browne, Esq. — Bucks county Intelligencer, Sept. 3, 1832.

Structure of Mica Slate, ^c. 335

character. It is decidedly arenaceous, and even resembles certain
micaceous sandstones. (No. 675.)

The tongue of mica slate exibited on the Map, as extending
through the east part of Andover into Middleton, is very probably
connected with the Worcester range ; since the direction and dip
of the strata correspond with those of that range ; and indeed I
have traced it nearly to the place of connection with the Worces-
ter mica slate. But commonly it is more decided in its characters,
and more crystalline in its texture, than the rock of that range gen-
erally ; especially where it approaches the coarse granite of An-
dover.

Slaty and Stratified Structure of the Mica Slate, ivith the Dip
and Direction of the Strata.

It is rare to find even a small portion of this rock destitute of a
schistose structure. But it is not uncommon to meet with exten-
sive masses in which it is very difficult to trace any strata seams.
In other places, however, no rock exhibits more regularity and
beauty of stratification. Such differences may in general be ex-
plained by local disturbances ; but sometimes no appearances will
warrant such an explanation of the phenomena. And it seems
reasonable to impute something to different proportions of the in-
gredients in the rock, and to peculiarities in the mode of formation.
In general, the less the quantity of mica, the more regular is the
stratification. The mica slate in Goshen, Chesterfield, &.C., which
is remarkably regular in this respect, consists, however, chiefly of
mica. Those varieties exhibit most of contortion and undulation
in the layers, which are of a plumbaginous aspect, and contain tu-
berculous masses of quartz.

Though our mica slate is sometimes divided by a double set of
parallel fissures, yet 1 have never met with any examples in which
the planes of stratification make an angle with the laminae of the
slate. The flexures of the laminae, however, seem in a great
measure to be independent of the planes of stratification ; and
the two structures appear to have resulted from different causes.
The two following sketches will illustrate this. In each case a
single stratum only is represented ; and it will be seen that the
curvatures of the laminae have no connection with the strata seams
which are represented by the parallel lines that include the
contorted layers. In these cases the strata are two or three feet
thick ; and they are generally thick ; sometimes eight or ten feet,
where the slate is much bent. The strata are often bent as well as
the laminae, and sometimes the curvatures of the former are par-
allel to those of the latter.

336

Scientific Geology.

Contortions in Mica Slate : AVhately.

Contortions in Mica Slate : Conway.

The following extracts from my travelling notes, will show the
dip and direction in numerous places of the strata of the different
ranges of mica slate that have been described. It has already been
mentioned that this rock, in connection with the limestone of Berk-
shire county, has a direction north and south, and a dip from 15°
to 30° east, often greater. Between Cheshire andLanesborough,
for instance, its strata dip from 60° to 90° east ; and between
Lanesborough and Hancock, from 30° to 40° east.

Hoosic Mountain Range.

Direction.

N. and S.

N. a little W.

N. and S.

E. and W.

N. and S.

Hoosic Mountain, western slope,

Florada, east slope of do.

From Chester to Becket.

Near Chester villiage,

Goshen, Plainfield, Havvley, >

Charlemont, and Zoar, 5

Goshen, northwest part of the town, E. and W.

Westfield to Blanford, N. and S.

Chester, Worthlngton, (east part,) ^

Chesterfiield, (west part,) > N. and S.

Cummington, (east part,) j

Dip.

20° to 90° East.
70° to 90° East.
80° to 90° East.
46° North

nearly 90° East.

25° North.
70° to 90° West.

nearly 90° VV.

Dijf and Direction of the Strata. 337

Cummington, (west pan,) N. and S. nearly 90° E.

Heath, N. and S. nearly 90° W.

Colraine, N. and S. nearly 90° E.

Whately, N. several degrees E. 70° to 90° East.

Conway ShelburneLeyden, ) j^_ ^^^ g_ 20° to 70° East.

rJuckland, and Aslineld, y

Leyden, (at the * Glen,') N. and S. 90°

It will be seen that the general direction of the strata in this
range is north and south, and the dip very great ; for the most part
nearly vertical. The most remarkable exception is that which oc-
curs in the northwest part of Goshen, where the strata run almost
east and west and have a comparatively small dip. Although
these strata are remarkably regular, yet I cannot but believe that
this peculiarity has resulted from the protrusion of that vast mass
of granite which lies a little east of the slate in that town, in Will-
iamsburgh, Northampton, Whately, Sec. I can easily conceive
how a vast mass of slate, might be thrown into an anomalous po-
sition over a considerable extent of surface, without affecting the
continuity of the planes of stratification in limited spaces.

In the Connecticut valley.

Direction Dip.

From Fitzwilliam to Richmond, (N. H.) N. and S. East.
From Richmond to Winchester, (N. H.) N. and S. 30° to 40° West.
From Winchester to Northfield, N. and S. nearly 90° East.

In Northfield, N. E. and S. W. 30° West.

Do. west side of the river, N. and S. 20° to 60° East.

In this range are frequent alternations of gneiss and protruding
masses of granite ; and in the south part of New Hampshire there
is a good deal of irregularity in the dip and direction of the strata.
That region needs farther examination and elucidation.

Worcester and Merrimack Vallies.

Direction. Dip.

Webster, N. and S. 45° West.

Ward, N. and S. 70° to 80° West.

Worcester, west of hill of granite, N. and S. 25° West.

Do. east of the same, various, 25° to 90° Easterly.

From Worcester to Berlin, N. E. and S. W. 20° to 90° N. W.?
Sterling, N. several degrees E. 60° to 70° West.

(This last is the most usual dip of this range of mica slate.)
Leominster, N. several degrees E. West, large.

Fitchburg to Lunenberg, do. 10° to 30° Easterly

Between Lunenberg and Shirley, do. Westerly, small.

Boxford, N. E. and S. W. 25° to 50" N. W.

338 Scientific Geology.

Direction. Dip.

Groton, • N. E. and S. W. 30" to 45° S. E.

Pepperell, do. nearly 90» N. W.

Tovvnsend, N. and S. 30° to 60« East.

Andover, E. and W. TO" to 90° North.

Methuen, (Falls,) E. and W. 20° to 30° North.

Tyngsborough to Dunstable, Southeast.

Methuen to Dracut, Northwest, large.

Lowell to Chelmsford, nearly E. and W. do.

Between Newburyport and Bradford, do. Northerly.

There would seem from the above statement, to be great irreg-
ularity in the direction and dip of the strata of this range. Yet it
must be recollected, that I was careful to notice all the important
anomalies in these respects, that fell under my observation ; while ■
I made few records where the usual dip and direction were observed.
Hence the statement above made, in respect to the usual dip and
direction, may be true, although not taught by the preceding table.
And the same remarks are in a measure applicable to other rocks.
To prevent any false inferences from such statements, I have drawn
the Map (Plate XVI) which exhibits the predominant direction ;
and the sections appended, which exhibit the predominant dip, of
the strata — anomalies being neglected, unless they are of consider-
able extent. In the range under consideration these inequalities
are somewhat numerous. Yet I am inclined to the opinion that
the mica slate along the western border of this range, is connec-
ted with that system of stratification which is exhibited by the
great body of the gneiss in the western part of Worcester county,
vvbci e the strata usually run north and south : while the great body
of this range is connected with the system of stratification that
prevails in the gneiss range, running northeast and southwest, in the
east part of Worcester county, and the west part of JMiddlesex.
South of Worcester the western margin of the gneiss lying east of
the slate, runs nearly north and south ; and hence the mica slate
there affects the same direction, except in the vicinity of the an-
thracite bed ; where it curves around the north end of the hill of
granite, west of the mine. As we proceed northerly, the gneiss
trends away more towards the northeast, and the mica slate con-
forms to it. Still farther to the northeast, the strata of the mica
slate turn more easterly : because the longer axis of the valley of
the Merrimack lies in that direction ; and in this the slate seems
to have been originally deposited.

These suggestions may explain some of the irregularities ap-
parent in the stratification of this mica slate. And when we re-
collect, that numerous masses of granite are protruded through
it — some of them of great extent, as at Fitchburg, for example —

Veins in Mica Slate.

339

I think we shall have no difficulty in explaining the remaining
anomalies.

The strata of mica slate in Sherburne, run northwest and south-
east, and dip northeast about 45°. This small deposit is very ob-
viously connected with that system of strata which appears in the
gneiss of the southeast part of Worcester county ; as will be man-
ifest when I come to describe that rock.

At Woonsocket Falls in Cumberland, R. I. a peculiar mica
slate appears, running south several degrees west, and dipping
southeast from 60" to 80".

Veins in Mica Slate.

These consist chiefly of granite and quartz ; but it will be more
convenient to describe them when treating of granite.

Some of the more close grained and imperfectly schistose vari-
eties of mica slate exhibit by disintegration, that kind of structure
which has been sometimes denominated veins of segregation :
that is, veins produced at the time of the formation of the rock, or
when it was in a fluid state, by the play of chemical affinities,
which in a measure separated the ingredients into different masses ;
so that when atmospheric agencies wear away the rock, the hard-
er parts remain in relief on the surface, like genuine veins. The
following is a sketch of a bowlder of mica slate, not more than two
feet in diameter, which exhibits a double set of these segregated
ridges, the smaller ones amounting to fifty five, and the larger ones not
being parallel to one another. I did not notice the direction of the
slaty laminae in this bowlder, but probably it coincides with that of
the most numerous ridges.

Veins of Segregation in Mica Slate : Chesterfield.

340 ' Scientific Geology.

Mineral Contents.

More simple minerals occur in this rock than in any other, with
the exception perhaps of granite.

To begin with the earthy salts : it is hardly needful to mention
one so common as calcareous spar, which always occurs more or
less in connection with limestone. It is in distinct crystals some-
times, also, in the mica slate ; as at Chester, where several of its
secondary forms have been noticed. The laminated variety occurs
in connection with the micaceous limestone in Whately, Conway,
&c.

The sulphate of alumina and potassa, or native alum, is not
unfrequently found efflorescing upon mica slate ; resulting from the
decomposition of the sulphuret of iron and probably also of feld-
spar, as this is the most probable source from whence it derives
the potassa. In Sheffield it is said that ' pounds of it can easily be
collected in as nearly a pure state as that of commerce.' * The
localities mentioned in the first part of my Report, in Leominster
and Barre, I am satisfied ought to be referred to the gneiss forma-
tion ; although in hand specimens, the rock in which the alum oc-
curs can hardly be distinguished from mica slate.

The phosphate of lime has been noticed in Williamsburgh,
Chesterfield, Chester, JNIiddlefield, Norwich, Hinsdale, &c. That
in Williamsburgh is in hexagonal delicately green crystals, and is
doubtless apatite. That in Chesterfield is associated with sappare ;
as may be seen on No. 750, and almost exactly resembles the
chrysoberyl of Haddam ; but the ease with which it is impressed
by steel, shows its nature at once. In Norwich this mineral occurs
in a gray quartz and black mica, and in the vicinity of granite.
One of the imperfect crystals which I found, (of which No. 728
is part,) was three inches in diameter, and six inches long.

Quite recently, in Westmoreland, New Hampshire, a very in-
teresting locality of crystalized phosphate of lime — in 6 and 12
sided prisms — with limpid and purple foliated fluate of lime
and fine sulphuret of molybdenum, has been discovered in the
mica slate, which is a continuation of that range exhibited on the
Map on Connecticut river in Northfield, &ic. Here also we find
an incrustation of the oxide of molybdenum, of a lively yellow
color as well as distinct crystals of feldspar and a great deal of
disseminated sulphuret of iron. In the loose soil above the rock,
there exists likewise not a little of the earthy oxide of manganese.
All these minerals occur together in the northwest part of the town
on the farm of a Mr. Lincoln. A better locality of fluate of lime

* Robinson's Cat. of American Minerals, p. GO.

Minerals in Mica Slate. 341

exists two or three miles east of his farm. The quantity of mo-
lybdenum at Mr. Lincohi's locality is much greater than I have
ever seen or read of.

Fluate of lime exists in small quantity in the mica slate in Con-
way ; and a green variety was found a few years since in the same
rock in Putney, Vt.

Almost every variety of quartz described in the books, occurs
in our mica slate. It is hardly necessary to mention crystalized
quartz, which is found almost everywhere, and in nearly every
rock. The white hyaline quartz, passing into white milky quartz,
exists in large beds, or tuberculous masses, in almost every part of
the mica slate. It is an interesting fact, that a large proportion of
this quartz is fetid in the Hoosic mountain range. I have observed
this variety on that range from the south part of Connecticut, to
the south part of Vermont, over an interval of more than 100
miles. Sometimes this hyaline quartz — as in Shelburne and Col-
raine — is tinged of a blood red color, and sometimes of a wine yel-
low, by iron. As the mica slate approaches to clay slate, the quartz
becomes bluish and greasy in its fracture. Sometimes, also, it is
pavoine or irised, as in Fitchburg, Leyden, he. It is found, also, of
a rose red color, in Williamsburg, Chesterfield, Blanford, and
Chelmsford. I am not certain that at the two latter places mica
slate is its'gangue, because I found it only in bowlders : yet I have
little doubt that such is the fact, That in Blanford appears to be
the finest ; and probably if some pains and expense were devoted
to getting it out, rich specimens might be procured.

In the mica slate in the southeast part of Conway, a vein of
quartz, six or eight feet thick, and nearly perpendicular to the ho-
rizon, runsN. 20° east. It is the gangue of two ores, the red ox-
ide of iron and the gray oxide of manganese : which, however, do
not occur in it abundantly at the surface. But they have imparted
a great variety of colors to nearly the whole gangue ; and rendered
a part of it very compact. Hence we find there brown and yellow
jasper, and sometimes chalcedony. The various colors, black,
white, red, yellow, and brown, are often intermixed, sometimes ir-
regularly, forming breccia agates ; and rarely in parallel stripes,
forming a banded agate. Some of these, if polished, would form
I doubt not elegant ornaments. (Nos. 738 to 743.)

At the same place we find a delicate variety of tabular quartz,
in which the laminae are as distinct and thin as the folia of feldspar.
Sometimes they are so arranged as to present the appearance of
pseudomorphous crystals ; and sometimes they so intersect as to
form cells. In the cavities of the compact quartz, there sometimes
occur minute crystals of quartz, giving the geodes a rich appear-
ance. (Nos. 746, 747.)

About one mile northeast of the College in Amherst, I have re-

42

342 Scientific Geology.

cently found numereus bowlders almost exactly resembling those
in Conway just described. Chalcedony and hornstone, however,
occur here rather more commonly. I cannot doubt but these mas-
ses were brought to that spot from the mica slate which occurs a
few miles north, both in Amherst and Levereit. The delicate
greenish hornstone, found by Mr. Shepard in Amherst and Pel-
ham, some years since, undoubtedly had the same origin. I do
not despair of discovering the parent vein.

Some of the quartz of these bowlders is yellow and in small
crystals. Yellow and irised quartz also occurs in mica slate In
Fitchburg. Jasper is found on the banks of Deerfield and West-
field rivers in rolled masses, and probably originated in mica slate.

The gangue of the lead, zinc and copper ores in Hampshire
county, is chiefly crystalized and radiated quartz : and these veins
sometimes occur in mica slate : but as they generally traverse
granite, 1 shall describe them in treating of that rock.

Not having visited the beds of manganese and iron marked on
the Map in Hinsdale and Winchester, New Hampshire, I am not
sure that they occur in mica slate, though strongly suspicious that
such is the fact. In the first part of this Report, 1 have stated all
the facts with which I am acquainted respecting these beds ; ex-
cept that I have since ascertained that nearly all of the mangan-
ese ore is the ferro-silicate, or Fowlerite. (No. 1027.)

The best locality of fibrolite that has been discovered in this
slate, is in Lancaster, near the village. It is found in a bowlder.
The fibrous structure of this mineral is sometimes almost changed
into the foliated. The masses are from an inch to three or four
inches long, and half an inch broad. It has been met with, also,
in some other places in the State.

Under argillaceous slate, I have noticed the occurrence of beau-
tiful amianthus and bucholzite in the slaty rock that embraces the
anthracite in Worcester. If my opinion be correct, in referring
that rock to mica slate, these minerals should be described in this
connection.

The localities of sappare are numerous. The best is Chester-
field ; from whence large quantities have been obtained ; some of
it finely crystalized and of a rich color. Its colors vary from
nearly white, to dark blue. It is not possible at present to obtain
specimens as fine as No. 750. It is found also in Blanford, Wor-
thington, Middlefield, Deerfield, &,c. The Rhoetizite is found
in Blanford and Russell, according to Dr. Emmons. In Canton,
Ct., sappare occurs crystalized and of a green color.

Of the situation of staurotide in Massachusetts, I have given a
general account in describing the staurodiferous mica slate. Ches-
terfield perhaps, near the locality of green and red tourmalines, is
as good a spot for procuring specimens as any one in Massachu-

Minerals in Mica Slate 343

setts. But no specimens found in this State equal those from the
western part of New Hampshire.

Dr. Emmons states in his Mineralogy, that pinite is found in
Chester : though he does not mention the rock in which it occurs.
I mention it here merely because mica slate is the predominant
rock in Chester.

If andalusite and made are the same species, then the most
abundant locality in Massachusetts is in Lancaster, in clay slate.
But the mineral which has been generally called andalusite, is
most abundant in Westford, in mica slate. And I am happy to
state that numerous specimens can be obtained from thence. It
occurs in the stone walls, from a hundred rods to a mile east of
the centre of the village, and may sometimes be found in distinct
prisms, greatly resembling specimens from Germany. It is of a
reddish color, and sometimes the masses are two or three inches
across. Generally they are accompanied by a fibrous mineral, re-
sembing talc : but I am not satisfied as to its nature.

Schorl is not common in mica slate. But in Norwich I found
a curved specimen of this rock, nearly a foot square, entirely cov-
ered with prisms of this mineral, of the size of a goose quill, and
generally acuminated- The specimen was weathered so as to
leave the schorl in bold relief.

Scapolite is found at Chester, as already mentioned ; and Dr.
Emmons in bis Mineralogy says that it exists ' in veins in mica
slate, associated with hornblende, pyroxene, and garnet ; but the
crystalization is generally confused and indistinct.' It is unneces-
sary to refer again to other localities of hornblende and pyroxene
aSjConnected with mica slate ; except to say, that Dr. Emmons men-
tions ' Middlefield, Chester, Hinsdale, and most of the mountain
towns in New England,' as containing sahlite and coccolite.

Garnet is more widely disseminated in mica slate than any other
mineral. It differs in size from an almost microscopic grain, to a
crystal of two inches in diameter ; and its colors are generally red-
dish, but sometimes black, even approaching very nearly to me-
lanite. In the slate containing the sappare at Chesterfield, the
reddish garnets are very numerous and sometimes quite large. In
the amphibolic aggregates, the garnets are usually black. In
Plainfield, Dr. Porter has found garnets disseminated in quartz.
Garnet and staurotide are usually associated ; as at Chesterfield,
Middlefield, and Chester. Tlie usual form of the crystal is a
rhombic dodecahedron, which is sometimes truncated on its edges.

The mica slate formation in Williamsburg, Middlefield, Chester,
Hinsdale, Cummington, Worthington, Plainfield, Sic, frequently
contains crystals of epidote. Generally they are imbedded in
quartz, and frequently associated with hornblende and augite. Zo-
isite, now regarded by able mineralogists as a species distinct from

344 Scientific Geology.

epidote, occurs also in Goshen, Havvley, Middlefield, Chester,
Hinsdale, Chesterfield, Conway, Windsor, and particularly in the
north part of Leyden, in large quanties. Indeed, it may be found
scattered over nearly every part of the Hoosic mountain range of
mica slate ; and on the same range as far northward into Vermont
as I have examined.

In the stone walls, fifty rods west of the residence of Gov. Lin-
coln in Worcester, several specimens of Idocrase were found a few
years ago, associated with massive garnet and pyroxene. It was
crystalized in right rectangular prisms, truncated on the lateral
edges so as to produce eight sided prisms. There can be little
doubt that the rock containing this mineral, belonged originally to
the mica slate range of Worcester valley. It appears from Beu-
dant's work on mineralogy, that it exists in mica slate in Europe,
although generally of volcanic orign. As the Worcester locality
is now exhausted, I am indebted to William Lincoln. Esq. for the
specimen. No. 765, in the collection. According to Dr. Emmons
the same mineral occurs in Chester,

The latter gentlemen has also found stilbite, heulandite, anal-
cime, and chabasie, with hexahedral calcarous spar, on mica slate
in the same town. I am not aware that these minerals (except ihe
last,) have before been found in this rock ; although stilbite oc-
curs in the Alps in granite rocks. But the others are confined
almost exclusively to trap rocks and metalliferous veins.

The mineral called anthophyllite, which some able mineralogists
yet consider as a doubtful species, is found in many places in the
Hoosic Mountain range of mica slate. It occurs in fibrous masses,
or imperfect prisms, imbedded in the mica slate. In Chesterfield
it is associated with sappare and garnets. In Chester it is connect-
ed with pyroxene, garnet, and staurotide. It is found also in Blan-
ford in abundance.

The mineral called Cummingtonite from its locality, (Curaming-
ton,) is thought by some mineralogists to be a variety of anthoph-
yllite. Prof. Dewey, however, who first described it, regarded
it as a variety of epidote. It needs farther examination. It is
found in several places in Cummington, and also in some of the
neighboring towns. I have found it likewise in Warwick, on the
east side of Connecticut river. Dr. Thomson is decidedly of opin-
ion that this mineral belongs to a new species allied to the kar-
pholite.

It is not uncommon to find a small quantity of sulphur upon the
mica slate in a pulverulent state, and proceeding from the decom-
position of some sulphuret. But there is no place where it is
found in sufticient quantity to be named.

The anthracite and graphite which I consider as connected with
mica slate in Worcester, I have already described. Graphite

Minerals in Mica Slate. 345

also occurs in mica slate, west of Connecticut river : as at C um-
mington, Chester, Worthington, he. But I know of no interest-
ing localities. The magnetic oxide of iron exists in the same mica
slate range, in disseminated octahedra : as in Blanford, Chester,
&z;c. Sulphuret of iron is met with likewise in the same situa-
tion. In Heath, some very handsome specimens of cubic crys-
tals have been found. In Hawley, it occurs massive in consider-
able quantity, near the junction of the mica and talcose slate.

On the top of a mountain in Canaan, Ct. there was found, twen-
ty years ago, a small mass of native iron. The mountain is com-
posed of mica slate. Several years ago I visited the spot and was
led to the conclusion, that probably a large mass of this mineral
might exist there, from the irregular action of the magnetic needle
in the vicinity. A full description of the spot was given by me in
the 14th volume of the American Journal of Science. In the
20th volume of the same work, it has been suggested by Mr.
Shepard, that the recent discoveries in regard to the magnetic po-
larity of rocks and mountains, even of those apparently destitute
of iron, will explain the facts which I observed on the Canaan
mountain, without supposing a mass of iron within it. But if I
understand this polarity of a mountain, it affects the needle more
or less on every part of its surface : whereas it was affected on the
Canaan Mountain only within the space of a few square rods of
level ground near the top ; although I judged that the whole top
embraced hundreds of acres. Hence I infer that we must suppose
some local cause acting there on the needle. And why may not
this be native iron, since it was near that spot where veritable na-
tive iron was knocked off from a bowlder ? If this be a reasona-
able supposition, it would certainly be very interesting to have it
confirmed ; since native iron, (except the meteoric,) is one of the
rarest of minerals.

One mile north of the village of Worcester, an excavation was
made several years ago in the mica slate in search of silver, he.
as already described in the first part of my Report. It is impos-
sible to ascertain at present how wide is the vein that was explored :
but the minerals thrown out, and lying around the opening, are
arsenical pyrites, carbonate of iron and galena. Sometimes the
arsenical iron is in distinct crystals in quartz ; but I could not ascer-
tain their form. A little west of the village of Worcester, these same
minerals occur in the stone walls, along with the idocrase, render-
ing it probable that this last mineral originated from that metallic
vein.

In Sterling, one and a half mile southeast from the village, are
two excavations in the same mica slate as that at Worcester : and
large quantities of similar ores have been thrown out. Carbonate
of iron is most abundant; arsenical iron less common. Blende, of

346 Scientific Geology.

a cherry red color, is found there in considerable quantity ; galena
also occurs, which is argentiferous, according to Dr. C. T. Jack-
son. Sulphuret of iron exists in connection with the ores that
have been mentioned, and pyritous copper also, with the carbonate
of iron. Before the compound blowpipe the blende was reduced,
and burnt with the flame peculiar to zinc, throwing off the white
oxide. Numerous quartz veins traverse the carbonate of iron, and
a considerable quantity of red oxide of iron occurs in the quartz,
probably proceeding from the decomposition of the carbonate.
The lamella of this carbonate at Sterling, as well as at Worcester,
are very much curved and commonly reddish white. These ores
at Sterling constitute beds in mica slate, whose direction is several
degrees east of north, corresponding to the general direction of the
range. The dip at the mines is 60" to 70' west.

The above ores need a careful analysis : for it is well known
that in other places they sometimes contain a considerable pro[X)r-
tion of silver and gold.

The micaceous oxide of iron described in the first part of the
Report as in Montague, is in veins traversing mica slate and gran-
ite, chiefly the former. But I have nothing to add to the descrip-
tion which [ have given of these veins.

Sulphate of iron is not uncommon in small quantities on the
mica slate of this State.

The only remaining mineral to be noticed in the mica slate of
Massachusetts, is the red oxide of titanium. It is very common
along the eastern margin of the Hoosic mountain range of mica
slate ; occurring in four or eight sided prisms, generally striated
and often geniculated. It is usual to find it associated with zoisiie,
as at Leyden, where numerous specimens have been found.
Sometimes it penetrates quartz, and sometimes is connected with
hornblende. In Shelburne I found it in distinct crystals in the
mica slate, without any other mineral. I have found it likewise in
Colerain and in Conway. At the latter place I found one or two
geniculated prisms, more than an inch thick ; also in small crystals
having the primary form, that is a right square prism. It is found
also in Williamsburg, Chesterfield, INIiddlefield, &ic. In Chester-
field I found a small quantity of what I take to be the titanite, or
ferruginous oxide.

Specimens of the greater part of the minerals that have been de-
scribed above will be found in the collection which is placed in the
hands of the government. To procure every one of those, which
have been described as occurring in the State, if not impossible,
would require so much of time and expense, that I have not felt
authorized to attempt it without special directions.

Theoretical Considerations. 347

Theoretical Considerations.

The prevailing opinion among geologists until recently has been
that mica slate and all the older primary rocks have been depos-
ited from a chemical solution of their materials in water. But this
opinion appears to labor under insuperable difficulties. It seems
to me to be opposed by the semi-mechanical character which some
of these rocks exhibit. But waving this difficulty, it is impossible
to conceive how the materials of all these rocks could have been
held in solution by all the waters on and in the globe; since the
earths that form them are scarcely soluble at all in water. Yet
even allowing such a solution possible, by what unheard of chem-
istry was it, that so many distinct minerals as enter into the com-
position of these rocks, or occur disseminated in them, should have
been crystalized at the same instant ? The supposition is opposed
by all that we know of the crystalization of different substances in
the laboratory in the same solvent. For they crystalize in succes-
sion, not simultaneously. But we know that the melted matter of
a furnace, if slowly cooled, will separate into different compounds,*
and the same result takes place in fused basalts, and in the lava of
existing volcanoes. Surely then, it seems to me that nature and
art both teach us that analogous cases of crystalization in the rocks
must have resulted from igneous fusion. But on the other hand,
the foliated structure of the stratified primary rocks, proves that
water must have been concerned in their formation ; and that they
could never have been in a state of complete fusion. I am in-
clined, therefore, to the theory which supposes that they were
originally mechanically deposited from water, like the existing
secondary and tertiary rocks, and that they have subsequently
been subjected to such a degree of heat as enabled their materials
to enter into a crystalline arrangement, without destroying their
structure. That the two things are compatible, seems probable
from the change of bulk produced on solid bodies by slight changes
of temperature, showing a motion among the particles ; from the
changes of crystalization that sometimes takes place in solid glass ;
from the columnar structure assumed by certain sandstones when
in contact with trap rocks ; and from the experiments of Dr. Mac-
culloch, who 'proved that every metal can completely change its
crystalline arrangement while solid, and many of them at very low

* In a recent visit to the Dyottville Glass Manufactory in Philadelphia, (May,
1834,) I obtained specimens beautifully illustrative of this fact. They consisted
of a green transparent glass, which contained distinct prismatic crystals : some
of them more than an inch long, and nearly white. They are as hard as glass,
and have a lamellar somewhat pearly aspect ; but their nature I have not deter-
mined. The agent informed me, that they were always produced when the re-
siduary matter in the furnace was slowly cooled. They finely illustrate the
mode in which simple minerals might have been produced in rocks.

348 Scientific Geology.

temperatures.' *' This theory also explains why it is that the pri-
raary and transition rocks become less and less crystalline the
higher we ascend in the series : for the higher they are, the farther
they lie from the source of heat. This theory, however, does not
suppose that all cases of crystalline structure in rocks has been the
result of fusion : for limestone and quartz rock might have been
deposited from aqueous solution. But if we suppose the source
of heat to be in the interior of die earth, it must have operated
more or less on every layer in the earth's crust ; and, therefore, if
this theory be true, probably all the older rocks have been more
or less modified by heat. That the crust of the globe have been
subject to the action of powerful and long continued heat, it seems
to me no one acquainted with geology in its present state can
doubt.

According to the theory just described, (I have not space fully
to defend and illustrate it, but Dr. Macculloch has done it in his
System of Geology,) argillaceous slate is nothing but shale, which
has been subjected to heat, and perhaps increased pressure : quartz
rock may have resulted entirely from aqueous deposition; or it
may have been subsequently indurated by heat. Between mica
slate and micaceous sandstone, there is a most striking analogy : in-
deed, it is no easy matter to distinguish by the eye between the
specimen of sandstone. No. 177. from Northampton, near a mass
of trap, and several specimens of mica slate. The same is true
of the micaceous sandstones near Turner's falls, which are also in
the vicinity of trap. The supposed origin of the other stratified
primary rocks, I shall point out in treating of them.

As to the elevation and dislocation of the strata of rocks, par-
ticularly the primary, I shall say more in another place. But the
manner in which the numerous flexures and contortions which
their lamina present were produced, deserves consideration in this
connection ; for these are more common in our mica slate than in
any other rock ; not even excepting gneiss.

These curvatures may have been produced before or subsequent
to the consolidation of the rock. I have already pointed out the
striking resemblance between the slightly undulating surface of
some of the shales in the new red sandstone, and the gentle ridges
and depressions at the bottom of almost every large river and
pond, or on the margin of the ocean. And if argillaceous and
mica slate had that origin which is supposed by the preceding the-
ory, the analogous irregularities, so frequent on the surface of ar-
gillaceous and mica slate, may be referred to the same cause as
that which produced them on the shale.

By comparing the sections which I have given of flexures in the

* System of Geology, Vol. I. p. 190.

Tdcost Slate. 349

newest tertiary formation, with those in our mica slate, it will be
seen that the latter might have had their origin in the former, if
we admit the theory that has been advanced of the origin of mica
slate. It may be difficult, indeed, to account for these flexures in
the clay : but that they were jDroduced by some mechanical force,
and not by igneous agency, I think it most manifest. And it seems .
to me, that a power which is adequate to the production of the
cases which I have described, is sufficient to account for a large
proportion of the minor flexures and contortions existing in clay
slate, and mica slate ; although I am not aware that but few ex-
amples similar to those which 1 have described, exist on the records
of geology.

So much for flexures and contortions previous to the consolida-
tion of the rocks. But these causes will not explain all the cases
that occur. Sometimes we find alternating layers of quartz in the
bent laminae ; and it would seem that the rock must have been
soft, when such flexures took place. If we suppose the existence
of a considerable degree of plasticity in the layers, mere gravity
(if the laminae were in an inclined position,) would have produced
flexures in them. In other cases the force which elevated the
strata might have operated unequally and produced a similar re-
sult ; though as I shall attempt to show hereafter, there is reason
to believe that this force sometimes acted laterally rather than
from the interior of the earth. And some flexures and contortions
are explicable only by supposing such lateral pressure.

Some facts lead us to suppose that mere moisture operates pow-
erfully, deep in the earth, to render the strata flexible. Some
limestones and sandstones exhibit this flexibility ; and even gran-
ite in some deep quarries, is easily impressible. Hence the re-
quisite plasticity may have resulted in many cases from water.
But if the primary stratified rocks have been partially fused, we
have another source from which this plastic state miglit have re-
sulted.

1 1. TALCOSE SLATE.

I shall include in this formation the three rocks represented on
the Map under the names of talcose slate, chlorite slate, and steatite.
INIy principal reason for adopting this arrangement, is, that in the
works of some of the ablest mineralogists, talc, chlorite, and stea-
tite, are but varieties of the same species : and when mineralogists
are not agreed that minerals are specifically distinct from one anoth-
er, it seems to me improper for geologists to regard those minerals
as sufficiently characteristic of different rocks, unless such rocks
43

350 Scientific Geology.

are widely diverse in their relative situation and structure. But
in the district under consideration, it happens that the rocks men-
tioned above, are, for the most part, oloviously members of the
same formation, using this term too in a very limited sense.

Dr. Macculloch describes talcose slate as differing from mica
slate only in the substitution of talc for mica : that is, it consists es-
sentially of quartz and talc. It is this variety that constitutes the
principal portion of talcose slate in Massachusetts. But other va-
rieties are found, as the following description will show.

Mineralogical Characters.

1. Schistose Talc. This variety is more or less distinctly folia-
ted and varies in color from blackish green to very light green, or
greenish white. (Nos. 789 to 793.) It is the least abundant of
any of the varieties.

2. Steatite. This is obviously only a scaly and semi-granular or
partially indurated variety of talc. 'We see,' says Beudant, 'by
these analyses, (which he had just quoted,) that the steatites dif-
fer from talc only by the presence of water. These substances
also occur together and in precisely the same geological position.
They appear even to mix in all proportions, and in some suits of
specimens, there seems to be a passage from one substance to
the other.'* These remarks correspond exactly with the steatite
of Massachusetts ; although we have some beds of steatite which
are associated with but a small quantity of foliated talc. But in
general, these beds constitute a part of the talcose slate formation.

The color of this variety is usually light gray. In some quarries
however, (as in Rowe and Zoar,) it is a delicate green ; and in
such cases the rock is obviously nothing but foliated talc, which is
so compact that it forms a fine stone for economical purposes. In
the quarries the green and the gray varietes alternate ; although
there is no seam between them ; and perfectly sound blocks may
be obtained, which are partly gray and partly green. (Nos. 794
to 805.)

3. Chlorite Slate. Sometimes this variety is foliated and of a
dark green color ; and in such cases I know of no means of dis-
tinguishing it from talc, except perhaps by its darker color. Gen-
erally it is slaty in this region, and very minutely scaly. In this
case it probably owes its slaty structure to a small proportion of
quartz which it contains. But the chlorite slate of the Hoosic
mountain range is remarkably pure ; and I may add, remarkably
regular and continuous in its slaty structure. (Nos. 806 to 816.)

4, Quartz and Talc. In this variety the talc is usually scaly,
and the quartz arenaceous. Sometimes, however, the latter is

♦Mineralogie, Tome II, p. 212.

Varieties of Talcose Slate. 351

coarsely granular, or hyaline. When the talc predominates, and
the quartz is in minute grains, they form the whetstone slate.
(Nos. 817 to 825.

In Smithfield, Rhode Island, this rock is extensively quarried for
whetstones. I learn from Dr. Webb, that the number annually
quarried at this place and sent away, can hardly be less than 5000
dozen. Indeed, so important has this manufactory become, that
the General Assembly of Rhode Island have passed an act to reg-
ulate the inspection and sale of the whetstones. It is not true,
as stated by Mr. Eaton, that all our whetstone quarries are in tal-
cose slate : for those in Norwich and Enfield are in decided mica
slate.

This rock is employed, also, as a substitute for fire bricks in the
lining of furnaces.

5. Q^uartz^ Talc, and Wica. This variety may be considered
either as mica slate, which takes into its composition more or less of
talc, or as talcose slate, containing mica. Probably but little of
our talcose slate can be found, that does not embrace a small pro-
portion of mica ; but talc and mica often resemble each other so
exceedingly, that it is very difficult to say whether the rock is tal-
cose or mica slate. I have felt this difficulty most in relation to a
considerable part of the slaty rock in Berkshire county. And al-
though I have there marked no talcose slate, yet I hardly expect
that all geologists will follow my example. (Nos. 826 to 831.)

The fourth and fifth varieties constitute the greater part of the
talcose slate formation.

6. Talc and Carbonate of Lime. Sometimes talcose slate lies
next to limestone, as in Whitingham, Vt., and near the junction
of the two minerals, they are mixed together. But the variety
is hardly worth naming. (No. 832.)

7. Talc, (Quartz, and Carbonate of Iron. It might be more
proper, perhaps, to describe the carbonate of iron as disseminated
through the talcose slate ; though the iron most commonly occurs
in the variety, No. 4. And this mineral, by its decomposition, im-
parts a character to this rock which will be noticed every where. It
abounds in spots of the color of iron rust, and this is particularly
the case where masses of quartz exist of considerable size. If I
mistake not, it is in this decomposed carbonate of iron, that native
gold occurs. (Nos. 833, 834.)

8. Talc, (Quartz, and Hornblende. The latter mineral is in
distinct though imperfect crystals scattered through the rock ; but it
occurs in such quantity, and over so great an extent of country,
that it seems proper to make this a distinct variety. It is found
along the eastern margin of the talcose slate formation, near its
junction with the mica slate in Hawley and Plainfield : and it
sometimes passes into distinct hornblende slate. (Nos. 835 to 839.)

352 Scientific Geology.

9. TuJc, Feldspar, and (Quartz. This variety is intermediate
between talcose slate and gneiss ; and differs from iFie latter rock
only by the substitution of talc for mica. It is obviously, howev-
er, a rock more mechanical in its character than gneiss ; the feld-
spar existing in coarse grains. This description applies particular-
ly to this rock in Smiihfield, R. I. (No. 840.) But in Hawley
the feldspar is scattered in crystalline masses through the rock,
forming a distinct porphyritic talcose slate ; (No. 841,) and it is
almost destitute of stratification.

Topography of the Talcose Slate.

The principal deposit of this rock in Massachusetts, is in the
midst of the mica slate of the Hoosic mountain range. It occu-
pies a very elevated portion of that range, and is there obviously
one of the oldest of the stratified rocks. 1 have traced this rock
20 or 30 miles into Vermont, where it is associated with limestone
and gneiss on the eastern slope of the Green Mountains ; and
probably it extends much farther north. In Massachusetts it is
most perfectly developed in its characters in Hawley and Plain-
field ; where it is several miles wide. Proceeding southerly this
formation becomes narrower, and at length appears to terminate
near the southern part of Bccket ; at least I have not observed it
farther south, and between Chester and Becket it is only a few
rods wide, alternating with mica slate and hornblende slate. The
chlorite slate forms a narrow stratum along the western margin of
the talcose slate, and I have not observed it quite as far south as
the talcose slate. But northerly 1 have traced it as far as Whit-
ingham, Vt., although I have not seen it in every place where I
have crossed the Hoosic range. But being a remarkably distinct
stratum, I have little doubt that it does extend as far, at least, as
it is represented on the Map, and that it is continuous ; since it
is so narrow that it might in many places easily be hidden by
diluvium.

I can have but little doubt that this stratum of talcose slate, like
the mica slate with which it is associated, passes laterally into
hornblende slate and gneiss : but I have nothing further to add to
the remarks already made on this subject.

Several beds of steatite are connected with this range of talcose
slate : viz. one in Marlborough, Vt. ; one in Rowe ; one in Zoar ;
one in Windsor; one in Middlefield.* and farther south, nearly on
the line of the strata prolonged, we find a bed in Blanford, and

*I have just been informed that another bed of steatite has been openecf in
Middlefield, half a mile south of that noticed in the text; and that it is selling-
at a high price. The specimen sent me is certainly of a very superior quality,
ftuer, I think, than any I have met with in Massachusetts. (June, 1834.)

TojJOgraphij of the TuIcohc Slate. 353

at least two in Granville. The bed of this rock in Hinsdale, that
in Cheshire, and that in Savoy, 1 have not visited ; but as the
gneiss and mica slate of that region frequently pass nito talcose
slate, not improbably they are connected with this rock. The
bed in the northwest 'part of Windsor, however, 1 know from ex-
amination to be in gneiss ; and perhaps those just mentioned are
in the same rock. In Zoar we find mica slate, talcose slate,
steatite, and serpentine, interstratified. The most easterly bed
in Windsor appears to be embraced in the chlorite slate. That in
Middlefield has talcose slate on the east side and hornblende slate
on the west. That in Blanford, one and a half mile southwest of
the meeting house, is in mica slate ; but on one side a huge vein
of granite lies in contact with the steatite. The bed in Smith-
field, R. I., is in talcose slate.

W^ith respect to the narrow stratum of talcose slate marked on
the IMap in the southeast part of Hampden county, and passing
through Stafford, Ct., Monson, he. I feel quite ignorant. 1 have
satisfied myself only that it lies between the mica slate and the
gneiss. The specimens will show that it produces a good lining
for furnaces. To this formation 1 refer the steatite in Somers, Ct.,
although I have not visited the quarry.

Since the publication of the first edition of this Report, I have
received from Mr. A.- B. Chapin, of Wallingford, Ct., an account
of the position and mineral contents of the steatite in Somers, as
well as important additional facts relating to other rocks in that
vicinity, which will be given in the proper place, and for which I
am much obliged to that gentleman.

' The talcose slate,' (steatite of Somers,) says he, ' forms an
isolated peak, rising to a considerable height above the surrounding
country, dipping from 20° to 25° to the northwest, and terminat-
ing abruptly at the southeast end.

The edges of the strata crop out at this end about half way
down the mountain, where it is covered by soil. Before arriving
at the foot of the bill, a dike of trap stretches along nearly per-
pendicular to the line of dip, rising a few feet above the ground.

It is not only evident that the talcose slate' (steatite) ' rests on
trap, but also probable that granite rests on the slate. Granite
or gneiss appear on the surface in every direction from the talcose
slate.'

The steatite beds marked in Shutesbury, ^yendeli, and New
Salem, are surrounded by gneiss of the niost decided character.
That in New Salem contains serpentine, also, of a black color.
The bed of serpentine, exhibited in Pelham, is a mixture of ser-
pentine and talc ; and is marked as serpentine, only because
that mineral predominates. It forms a bed in gneiss.

354 Scientific Geology.

On the 6661 h page of tlie first edition of this Report, a bed of
steatite, just discovered, was noticed, as occurring in Worcester.
I have not visited it; but it is found in the southeast part of the
town ; and I have reason to believe in gneiss. The proprietors
informed me, that as yet they have explored the bed only about
five feet in depth. The specimens (Nos. 403 and 1548,) show
that this is the most beautiful steatite yet discovered in the State ;
and should the bed prove to be a lar^e one, its proximity to the
Blackstone Canal will render it of hisih value.

The bed of steatite in Groton occurs in the Worcester range of
mica slate. But its situation and extent have been described in
the first part of my Report.

In Cu/iiberland and Smithfield, Rhode Island, two strips of
talcose slute are shown on the Map, separated by a range of
granite. Ttun not &ure that the granite will be found extending
uninterruptedly through these towns, as it is represented on the
Map. But in crossing that region, I have always found one or
two large beds of granite or sienile ; and probably these rocks
exist there in several beds in the talcose slate and mica slate.
Yet this alternation could not conveniently be shown on the Map.

On the west side of the granite in Smithfield we find a peculiar
kind of mica slate, (No. 675,) and a talcose slate, which has been
already described as a whetstone slate. The extent of surface
occupied by this variety — which is well characterised talcose slate
— I am unable definitely to state ; though it cannot be but a few
miles in any direction, unless it be towards the southwest.

In the east part of Smithfield, and on the east side of the granite
range or bed, the slate is often distinctly talcose ; especially in the
vicinity of the soapstone quarry, near the village called INIaysville.
But as we cross the strata towards the southeast, the characters
become very obscure and perplexing. In one place the rock can
hardly be distinguished from argillaceous slate ; in another it
greatly resembles gray wacke slate ; in another it is distinct chlorite
slate ; and in another it becomes hornblende slate. Epidote too
forms an ingredient in a large proportion of the rock. In short,
this series of slaty rocks is one of the most perplexing with which
the geologist meets. It extends over nearly the whole of Cum-
berland, where it is interstratified with quartz rock, and is suc-
ceeded on the east by quartz rock and graywacke. The strata of
all these rocks run nearly northeast and southwest, and dip to the
southeast. Taken as a whole, I am inclined to denominate the
predominant part of the series taJco-chloritic slate. Nor can I
resist the impression, that the whole series is the graywacke slate,
which, by the agency of heat, has been partially converted into
argillaceous slate, talcose slate, chlorite slate, and hornblende

Bip, 8fC. of the Takose Slate. 355

slate ; the heat not having been powerful enough completely to
accomplish the transmutation. And the contiguity of granite and
sienite would furnish the heat which this hypothesis demands.

But whatever may have been the origin of this series of rocks,
a perusal of Von Oeynhausen and Von Dechen's paper on the
junction of the granite and kiilas rocks of Cornwall, in England,
has led me to the opinion, that they greatly resemble the kiilas of
that country.*

The bed of steatite in this talco-chlorite slate in Smithfield, is
not of a very interesting character in an economical point of view.
That which is gray colored is so filled with brown spar (?) as to
be almost useless. A greenish scaly variety, (chlorite slate ?)
however, occurs, which is interesting. Fine foliated greenish
talc, also, abounds here. Decided chlorite slate is likewise abun-
dant at the quarry and in the vicinity. The steatite lies about half
a mile west of Blackstone river and of Maysville.

Dip, Direction, and Character of the Strata.

It is hardly necessary to say, that this rock is always schistose
in its structure ; though in' the most compact soapstone, both the
slaty and stratified structures are nearly obliterated. Yet in some
portions of the bed, they are usually visible. In both these
structures this rock corresponds very nearly with mica slate ;
except that the former is less contorted than the latter. Chlorite
slate is particularly remarkable in the Hoosic range, for the even-
ness and beauty of its layers, comparing in this respect with ar-
gillaceous slate. In both structures, so far as I have observed, the
dividing planes correspond : and I have never noticed a double
set of strata seams.

Dip and Direction of the Strata in the Hoosic Mountain Range,

Direction. Dip.

Florida, eastern slope of

Hoosic Mountain : the

talcose slate alternating

with mica slate, N. and S. 70" to 90o East.

Middlefield, do. 70° to 80° East.

Plainfield, Hawley, Charle-

mont, Rowe, Zoar, Cum-

niington, Chester, (west

part,) and Worthington, N. and S. nearly 90° East.

Somerset, Vt. (Iron Mine,) do. 20° to 90° East.

Whitingham, Vt. (Limestone

beds,) N. and S. 30° West.

* Philosophical Magazine, Vol. V. N. S. p. IGl,

356 Scientific Geology.

Rovve, (north part,) E. and W. South, small.

Whitingliam, Vt. (Chlorite Slate,) N. and S. nearly 90° East.

Peru, (do.) do. perpendicular.

Windsor, (do.) do. between 70° and 80° E.

It will be obvious from the above statements, that the strata of
almost all this deposit stand nearly at right angles to the horizon.
Very different is the case with the talcose slate in Smithfield, R. I.
Its predominant direction is nearly S. E. and N. W., and its dip
upon an average, only about 10° to 15° N. E. Indeed, in many
places it is nearly horizontal. The talco-chloritic slate in the
east part of Smithfield and Cumberland, runs generally about
15*^ or 20" west of south and east of north, and its dip is 20" to 30"
Southeast.

The bed of steatite in Groton dips to the southeast at an angle
of about 30°.

Mineral Contents.

This rock in the Hoosic mountain range, must be regarded as
a metalliferous deposit. Perhaps the most important metal which
it contains is iron. This is found principally in two places, viz.
in Somerset, Vt. and in Hawley, Mass. Smaller masses have
been noticed in other places ; but not in sufficient quantity to be
of interest in an economical point of view. At all these localities,
the ore is found in distinct beds in the strata ; and sometimes it
has a slaty structure, having every appearance of a contemporane-
ous origin with the rock.

I have already remarked, in the first part of my Report, that
the iron ore in Hawley embraces two species ; the magnetic oxide,
and the micaceous oxide. Both of them are of fine quality. The
micaceous oxide, especially, is as beautiful as any which has been
found on the globe, as the specimens will show. (No. 844.) This
bed does not occur, as is usually stated, at the junction of the tal-
cose and mica slate ; but two or three miles within the talcose slate
— that is, reckoning from its eastern margin.

The most valuable ore at Somerset is the magnetic oxide. With
this, however, is associated, often in the same bed, the hydrate of
iron. Several of these beds occur in the vicinity, and sometimes
they are connected with dolomite. The magnetic oxide is gener-
ally granular, and often easily crumbled into powder, which posses-
ses so much brilliancy that it has been used as a substitute for
smalt. It is so highly magnetic that it strongly attracts the fragments
of the ore that have been broken off, and exhibits decided polar-
ity ; so as to form very fine specimens of the natural magnet.
(No. 845.)

Vermont Gold. 357

I hav^e been recently informed by Dr. Holland of Westfiold,
that magnetic oxide of iron occurs in large quantity, probably in
talcose slate, in the northwest part of Blanford. The specimen
which he gave me is very free from earthy impurities and highly
magnetic.

The largest mass of iron ore in the region that I have undertak-
en to describe, occurs in Cumberland, Rliode Island. It is chief-
ly the magnetic oxide, and lies two miles northeast of the centre
of that place. But no rock is visible for a considerable distance
around this large hill of iron. Sienitic granite occurs, however,
not far remote, in one or two directions, and so does talco-chloritic
slate. And upon the whole, my belief is that the iron is connected
with the latter rock. For the large deposites of this ore in other
countries most frequently occur in the older schistose rocks, and
rarely in granite.* In Massachusetts too, no mineral is so widely
disseminated in talcose slate as magnetic oxide of iron.

A part of the Cumberland ore is beautifully porphyritic by the
presence of crystalline masses of white feldspar. In another por-
tion we find a mineral disseminated, which appears to be the ferro-
silicate of manganese. Imbedded nodules of what appears to be
serpentine are also found in the ore : and these substances proba-
bly do not a little injury to the ore. For I was told it did not
yield more than 25 or 30 per cent of iron.

In the first part of my Report, I have given a full account of the
native gold found in connection with magnetic oxide and hydrate of
iron in Somerset, Vermont. The usual gangue of the gold
is the hydrate of iron : but whether enough of the metal exiusin
it to render it an object to separate the gold, has not been deter-
mined. Usually quartz exists in connection with the hydrate of
iron. This is porous and contains the hydrate, and exactly resem-
bles the gangue in which gold has been found in the Southern
States. For comparison, I have placed specimens from Somerset
and from Virginia in the collection. (No. 848, 849, 850.)

This porous quartz and the hydrate of iron are very common
throughout the talcose slate of Hoosic mountain ; and the iron
results, if I mistake not, as already mentioned, from the decompo-
sition of the carbonate. Whether the hydrate at Somerset had
such origin, I have no means of ascertaining; but if ever gold
should be found at other places in this formation, I predict it will
occur in connection with this hydrate of iron.

Quartz and hydrate of iron then, appear to be the immediate
matrix of the gold of Somerset ; and talcose slate the rock in
which the quartz and iron are contained. It is rare that we can at
once trace this metal so satisfactorily to its original bed. But so

* Bendani's Mineralogie, Tome I. p. 622.
44

358 Scientific Geology.

far as can be judged by specimens, we may expect that such will
be found to be the situation of the gold in the Southern States.
For those specimens contain quartz, hydrate of iron, and talcose
slate. Nos. (848,849,850.)

The geological situation of the Vermont gold corresponds re-
markably with its situation in other countries ; particularly in Bra-
zil. It is described as occurring there, disseminated in a rock,
called by Al. Bronainart, Siderocristc {Eiseaglimmerscheifer of
Eschwege,) and composed of quartz with the specular and mag-
netic oxides of iron.* These are the two species of iron ore that
occur at Havvley : and it ought to be reccoUected, that in the vi-
cinity of the iron mine in that place, quartz predominates so much,
that I have described the rock as a variety of quartz rock. It is
said, indeed, that the siderocriste is connected in Brazil with mica
slate. But in the rock at Somerset mica occurs : and I am by no
means confident that some geologists would not regard it as mica
slate ; and besides, the mica and talcose slates are interstratified
and otherwise more intimately mixed ; so that I am disposed to
believe that the formation which I have called talcose slate, in
Massachusetts and Vermont, corresponds to that containing gold
in Brazil, as nearly as could be expected in countries so remote.
And although at Somerset the gold has been found chiefly in the
hydrate of iron, yet it probably exists also in the magnetic oxide,
and not improbably in the micaceous oxide at Hawley. The fer-
ruginous breccia that covers the siderocriste in Brazil, and probably
contains platina and diamonds as well as gold, has not to my
knov ledge been found in Vermont or Massachusetts ; yet it may
be found still, as very few researches have been made on this sub-
ject.

We ought to guard against the idea that all gold must cccur in
talcose slate, because we know that some does ; and because the
happy suggestion of Mr. Eaton on this subject led to the discovery
of that at Somerset. For veins of quartz containing this metal
traverse other rocks in France, Peru and Mexico. They occur
in granite, gneiss, mica slate, argillaceous slate, and talcose slate.*
Hence we may find it in all these rocks, which are so intimately
associated in Massachusetts and Vermont.

Another interesting ore in the talcose slate of the Hoosic moun-
tain range, is manganese. It exists in beds or interstratified layers
in the slate, precisely like the ores of iron above described. These
beds are found in Plainfield, and several of them occur near one
another, at two principal places, which are represented on the
Map : that is, we find smaller and larger beds within a few feet or

* See Tableau des Terrains, &c, p. 329: Classification des Roches, p. 83 : and
Dictionnaire D'Histoire Naturelle, Art. Or.
•f Dictionnaire D'Histoire Naturelle, Art. Or.

Minerals in Talcose Slate. 359

rods of one another. These beds are rarely more than three or
four feet thick. Their surface is black or dark gray, apparently
the common peroxide of manganese. But on breaking open the
the mass, we usually find its interior to be of a beautiful rose red.
This ore has been recently analyzed by Dr. Thomson, and found
to be a bi-silicate of manganese. In the stone walls, a little north-
east of the meetinghouse in Cummington, numerous large blocks
of this ore are found, which were probably transported thither from
the beds above described, by a diluvial current from the north :
though to reach this spot, they must have passed over a deep val-
ley, through which a branch of Westfield river now runs.

One never meets with this bi-silicate of manganese, which is not
coated over with the black oxide. I hence infer that atmospher-'
ic agencies produce this conversion. As the bi-silicate is rare in
other parts of the world, (indeed Dr. Thompson regards this as a
new species, distinct from the siliceous oxide, on account of the
double proportion of silex which it contains,) its great abundance
in Plainfieldand Cummington is a matter of joy to mineralogists.

Connected with the bowlders of this manganese ore in Cum-
mington, I found small but well characterised masses of carbonate
of iron.

The manner in which the above ores of iron and manganese oc-
cur in the talcose slate, forbid, it seems to me, the supposition some-
what extensively adopted of late,* that all metallic deposites in
solid rocks have resulted from sublimation, through the influence of
the heat produced by rocks of igneous origin. For although the
layers of the slate are nearly perpendicular, and therefore sublimed
matter might easily rise to fill a cavity from beneath, yet there
seems to be no more evidence that these ores were thus introduced,
than that the folia of the slaie had such an origin ; for the ores as well
as the slate are distinctly foliated, and often both are intimately in-
termixed. What objection is there, in such cases, against regard-
ing metallic deposites as having proceeded from solution and sus-
pension in water, just as we now find iron and manganese forming ;
and subsequently rendered compact and crystalline by the heat of
the unstratified rocks ?

In the beds of steatite that have been described, several miner-
als of interest occur. Foliated bitter spar exists in almost every
one of them ; especially at Middlefield, Windsor, Zoar and Marl-
borough, Vt. At Middlefield it is sometimes three or four inches
in diameter, enveloped in masses of delicate green talc; and is
either white or of a salmon color, so as to form elegant specimens,
as may be seen in the collection. In Zoar and Marlborough, and
also in connection with the serpentine in Newport, R. I. the col-

* See an article by A. L. Neckcr Philosophical Magazine, Sept. 1833. p. 225.

360 Scientific Geology.

lumnar variety, called miasite, occurs. In Marlborough and New-
fane, Vt., are found also those insulated rhombohedral crystals,
which Mr. Brooke describes as a new species, under the name of
carbonate of magnesia and iron. In the rhomb spar of Middlefield,
sometimes occur tremolite and hepatic sulphuret of iron. The
ligniform and compact varieties of asbestus are found in the same
steatite bed. They exist also in Zoar, where they are associated
with the new mineral picrosmine. At the soapstone quarry in
the east part of Windsor, has been found a small quantity of chro-
mate of iron of good quality. Sulphuret of molybdenum is said
also to have been found in the Middlefield steatite ; and the vari-
ety of talc called nacrite, occurs half a mile west of the meeting
house in that town.

No mineral is more common at these steatite beds than actyno-
lite. It is in bladed crystals, long and slender, yet generally very
distinct, being mostly six sided. It is found at Middlefield, Wind-
sor, Zoar, &c. But the finest specimens come from Blanford,
Mass., and Newfane, Vt. At the former place it is sometimes in
radiated masses.

It has been already stated that imperfect crystals of hornblende
are sometimes disseminated in one variety of talcose slate. The
finely fibrous hornblende I have also found in quartz belonging to
this same rock. But the most remarkable variety of this mineral
is the fasciular variety. The laminae, sometimes three or four
inches long, and generally more or less curved, are disposed per-
pendicularly to the layers of the slate, so that their edges appear
on the surface. When that surface is light colored, as in Nos.
864, 865, the distinctness and regularity of the fasicular and sco-
piform groups of hornblende are very striking. I am disposed to
believe this to be a variety of horblende not described : and cer-
tainly if it deserves a distinct name, none can be more appropri-
ate than fascicuUte, under which I long ago described it in the
American Journal of Science.

The chlorite slate abounds, throughout its whole extent, with
distinct crystals of octahedral iron ore. They exist also in the
common talcose slate, but not so frequently. The chlorite slate in
Windsor, also, near the most eastern soapstone quarry, contains
numerous crystals of the red oxide of titanium, imbedded in the
feldspar, or rather in graphic granite, which frequently occupies
the seams of the slate, or forms small irregular masses in it. But
although the specimens are fine, it is with extreme difficulty that
they can be obtained. It is a fact worthy of notice, that this rock
in Scotland, where it is traversed by quartz veins, abounds in titan-
ite ; showing a very great similarity in the causes by which it was
produced in distant countries.

Blue and green carbonate of copper are found in several places

Serpentine. 361

in Cumberland, R. I., in what I have described as talco-chloritic
slate. The same rock abounds in epidote, sometimes finely crys-
talline, according to Dr. Webb. And I infer from his description,
that theyenite associated with magnetic oxide of iron, is contained
in the same rock. ' The steatite of Somers,' says Mr. Chapin,
who will be again referred to in describing ' serpentine, affords a
variety of minerals : e. g. the sulphurets of iron, copper, tin, (ox-
ide ? E. H.) and molybdenum and virgin sulphur in geodes.'

Theoretical Considerations.

The views that have been presented relative to the origin of mica
slate, are applicable, almost without variation, to talcose slate.
The arguments proving that water must have been the earliest
agent in the production of mica slate, prove the same of talcose
slate ; as do those evincing the subsequent action of a high degree
of heat. To what circumstance the great abundance of magne-
sia in the talcose slate is owing, it'may be impossible perhaps ever
to determine. But its presence being once admitted, it is easy
to conceive how talcose, instead of mica slate, might have re-
sulted.

There is, however, one variety of talcose slate, which occurs
half a mile west of the meetinghouse in Hawley, and affords an
evidence not found in our mica slate, of the action of heat suffi-
cient to produce an almost perfect fusion. I refer to the porphy-
ritic variety, which I do not find described in European works. It
seems to me that everything which we know of the chemistry of
cry stalization, forbids the supposition that the porphyritic structure
can ever result from any other than an igneous solution. For in
what laboratory have distinct crystals been produced in the midst
of a mass essentially uncrystalized, except from heat ? But it is
well known that the porphyritic structure is not unfrequently met
with in rocks whose volcanic origin is certain ; even in the products
of existing volcanoes. What, then, but an unreasonable attachment
to hypothesis, should lead us to impute that to watery solution,
which, so far as facts have come to our knowledge, has never re-
sulted but from igneous solution ?

In the present instance the almost entire absence of stratification
and a slaty structure in the rock referred to in Hawley, gives ad-
ditional probability to the idea of its having been once in a state of
fusion.

12. SERPENTINE.

Perhaps there is no rock whose true nature and geological
relations are so little known as serpentine. Its external char-
acters are not, indeed, obscure ; and analysts have given, prob-

362 . Scientific Geology.

ably with accuracy, its ultimate elements. But is it an altered or
unaltered rock ? If altered, what was the original rock ? Is it
stratified, or unstratified ? primitive, or transition ? These are
questions on which geologists are not yet agreed. The Diction-
naire Classique D'Histoire iVaturelle, says, that serpentine is ' prin-
cipally situated in the latest of the primitive rocks and iu the in-
termediate class.' Brongniart doubts whether it is found so low as
the primary rocks ; (terrains agalysiens ;) and he says that ' no
rock of this group, (Ter. Plut. OjyhioUthique,) exhibits even a
tendency to stratification.'* De La Beche classes it with the un-
stratified rocks. f But Dr. Maculloch considers it as sometimes
stratified and sometimes unstratified ; and accordingly ennumerates
it in both these classes ; f and also as a venous rock. He says,
also, that it occurs in connection with granite, gneiss, micaceous,
chlorite, and argillaceous schists. His account of this rock corres-
ponds most nearly with its characters in Massachusetts ; and here
if I mistake not, it is almost always stratified. At least, the ex-
ceptions are less important than in the case of limestone ; and
since I have placed all our limestones in the stratified class, 1 shall
do the same with our serpentines. In almost all cases, also, our
serpentines are connected with the oldest rocks ; such as gneiss,
mica slate, and talcose slate : and if we have any rocks that are
primitive, serpentine is one of the number.

Miner alogical Characters.

1. Compact Serpentine. This embraces two mineralogical vari-
eties, the common opaque serpentine, and the translucent, delicate
green, noble serpentine. They are of various degrees of hardness,
and their fracture is sometimes splintery, sometimes granular, and
sometimes foliated-splintery. The colors and their intermixture
are very various. (ISos. 870 to 885.)

2- Serpentine and Talc. The talc is either foliated or in the
condition of steatite. Often it is very obvious that the specimen
is in an intermediate stale between serpentine and steatite. In-
deed, all the gradations between the two rocks may sometimes be
seen, particularly in the beds of serpentine aiid steatite embraced
in gneiss, in Pelham, Shutesbury, and New Salem. The color of
the rock in these cases is quite black. (Nos. 886 to 893.)

3. Serpentine, Talc, and Schiller Spar 1 In this variety, also,
the serpentine, as well as the foliated mineral which I presume to
be schiller spar, are black ; while the talc is green, and sometimes
quite brittle. This variety occurs only in Blanford, ^Russell, and
Westfield, so far as I have observed. (Nos. 894, 895.)

♦Tableau des Terrains, &c. p. 350.

t Geological Manual, Second Edition, p. 487.

* Syytem of Gcoloiry, Vol. -2. p. 197.

Localities of Serpentine. 363

4. Serpentine and Carbonate of Lime. The latter mineral in
this variety is white, and the former green, or black. The pro-
portions in which they are mixed is very various. The limestone
is generally saccharoidal, and thus this rock forms the Ophicalce
Grenue of Brongniart, who refers to Newbury as one of its local-
ities. (Nos. 896 to 899.)

Other minerals found in serpentine sometimes essentially modify
its characters : such as actynolite, asbestus, massive garnet, com-
pact feldspar, he. : but such varieties are hardly worth noticing
in this connection.

Topography, Stratification, and Associated RocJcs.

Since I have so particularly described the lo'calities of our ser-
pentine in the first part of my Report, it may be practicable, with-
out confusion, to bring together all that I know of its stratification
and associations, in a topographical order.

It will be seen, by the Map, that the most numerous and impor-
tant beds of this rock occur near the central parts of the Hoosic
mountain range, and especially in connection with, or in the vicin-
ity of, the talcose slate. In Windsor are two beds. The most
easterly bed is only a few rods from a bed of steatite ; the latter
appears in the hill forming the south bank of a branch of West-
field river, and the former in the opposite bank. Both the beds
are obviously interstratified with chlorite slate, not far from the
junction of this rock with common talcose slate. Its color is a
pleasant rather deep green ; its structure between granular and
splintery ; and it contains small disseminated fragments of chro-
mate of iron. It is distinctly stratified ; the strata running north
and south, and standing nearly perpendicular; which is the usual
dip of the rocks in the vicinity ; though the chlorite slate, a few
rods east of the serpentine, dips east about 70° or 80°. Not only
is this serpentine stratified, but I observed here, as well as in the
same rock in the west part of Chester, a structure which might
properly be called schistose ; especially where the rock had been
weathered. The slaty laminae, however, are rather thick and
irregular, nor do they extend through the whole bed.

The other serpentine locality in Windsor, is in the northwest
part of the town, on land of Samuel Chapman. It occurs at the
surface only in large bowlders ; though I cannot doubt but it exists
in place beneath the diluvium. The rock surrounding it is gneiss
alternating with mica slate. The serpentine resembles that in
Zoar, and like that passes into steatite so insensibly, that the eye
cannot distinguish between the two minerals ; — and specimens may
be found in every intermediate degree of hardness. But the ser-
pentine greatly predominates.

The situation of the serpentine in Zoar, is similar to that of

364 Scientific Geology.

the first bed in Windsor, just described. It occurs on the north
side of Deerfield river ; and the lateral edges of the strata are
here laid bare. They consist of talcose and mica slate, with green
and white steatite interstratified, the strata being not far from per-
pendicular. As nearly as 1 could ascertain, there are several beds
of the serpentine at this place: though the numerous fragments
of the rocks that are broken and mixed along these cliffs, render
it diflicult to determine all the alternations. It may be of conse-
quence to remark, that in one instance at least, 1 noticed the ser-
pentine lying next to the steatite. The serpentine at this locali-
ty is the common variety, and uniform in its color; but of a lively
green. In some instances there is a mixture of the serpentine
with the steatite.

In Marlborough, Vt. a little north of the limits of the Map, is a
very extensive bed of serpentine ; some parts of which, at least,
are distinctly stratified. In the west part of New Fane is another
bed, in which I do not recollect any marks of stratification ; though
it is several years since 1 visited the spot. Other large beds occur
farther north, in Vermont, as at Grafton, Cavendish and Wind-
ham, and they are found in a continuation of the same talcose and
mica slate range in which they exist in Massachusetts.

The most northern bed of serpentine in Middlefield is connected
with the bed of steatite in that place already described. The bed
in the south part of the town is the largest in Massachusetts ; be-
ing from four to six miles long, and perhaps 80 or 100 rods wide.
It extends into the west part of Chester, where it appears on the
east side of Westfield river, rising to the height of 300 to 400 feet ;
and is succeeded on the east by talcose slate, which rises still
higher. I examined this rock in the south part of Middlefield,
and found it distinctly stratified ; the strata running a little east oi
north, and dipping easterly, from 70° to 80° ; corresponding, in
these respects, with the adjoining strata. On the west this bed is
succeeded by distinct hornblende slate, both in Middlefield and
Chester. In the latter place the serpentine is stratified with a good
deal of distinctness, and exhibits also a slaty structure. The dip,
corresponding with that of the talcose slate on the east, and the
hornblende slate on the west, is nearly perpendicular ; and the di-
rection rather more east of north than in Middlefield. Form-
ing the east bank of the river, the ledges of this rock seem
to have suffered much from abrading agents ; and the surface is
much broken to pieces and the sides very steep.

I observed the Flora of this serpentine ledge to be rather pecu-
liar. It abounds with the sassafras and Prunus borealis ; the for-
mer of which, especially, is scattered rather sparsely over the
neighboring hills. Polygala paucifolia, Saxifraga pennsylvanica,
and Convallaria bifolia, I noticed also in great quantities. Ilex

Chromate of Iron. 365

canadensis T observed likewise, as well as a rare species of Aren-
aria. Lichens and mosses, however, are rarely seen upon this ser-
pentine.

Specimens that may be called noble serpentine do occur in Mid-
dlefield ; but for the most part the rock is the common variety, of
a pale green color, and somewhat foliated structure, abounding,
however, in dark spots from the presence of chromate of iron.

Following the direction of the strata southerly from Middlefielda
few miles into Blanford, we come to the bed of limestone, discov-
ered since the first part of my Report was finished, and which I
have already described. Little more than a mile north of this
limestone, and about five miles northwest of Blanford meeting-
house, on the old road to Becket, and on the northeast side of a
pond, there exists abed of serpentine which shows itself at the sur-
face over a space about 30 rods in diameter, and it rises 30 or 40
feet above the general level. This large bed evidently occupies
the same geological position as that in Middlefield ; for the horn-
blende slate, frequently epidotic, lies in immediate contact with it
on the west side ; and though no rock in place appears on the
other side, yet we have much reason to believe that talcose slate,
or talco-micaceous slate, exists there. Not improbably this ser-
pentine is connected without interruption with the Middlefield
deposite. This would make the whole bed ten or twelve miles
long.

The Blanford bed is for the most part as distinctly stratified
perhaps as that at Middlefield ; and its tendency to a slaty struct-
ure I think more distiuct. The dip and direction of the strata
seem to correspond to those of the hornblende slate in immediate
contact, viz. the direction north and south, and the dip east, 60°
to 70°.

The chromate of iron mentioned in the first part of my Report,
is the most interesting, and indeed the only mineral that I noticed
in this serpentine. It is disseminated through the rock in grains,
and also forms veins or tuberculous masses resembling magnetic
oxide of iron ; being black and granular, or compact. But I judge
it to be chromate of iron for the following reasons. 1. It has com-
municated a peach blossom color to small portions of steatite or
talc that adhere to its surface. 2. The color of its powder is a
dark brown. 3. It is not magnetic. 4. Fused with borax, it pro-
duces a beautiful green glass.

Should this mineral be found in considerable quantity at this
place, it would be quite important in an economical point of view,
since it sells in market from 40 to .^'60 per ton. 1 am inclined to
believe it disseminated in small grains through nearly all the ser-
pentine of the Hoosic mountain range, and not improbably large
masses of it may be found in various places.

45

366 Scientific Geology,

Since the publication of the first edition of this Report, Dr. H,
Holland of Westfield, has examined the chromate of iron at Blan-
ford, and does not find it very abundant. But ' at Chester, north
of Blanford about five miles, I have discovered,' he says, ' quite a
vein. The ore is more compact and rich than that from Blanford,
which yields only about 30 per cent, of chrome. I have made the
chromate and bi-chromate of potash and lead, and intend making
the pigment, chromic green : The only compound of chrome that
will defray the expense of manufacturing, even if the ore cost
nothing. This ore is now only il'-So per ton, stamped and made
fine.' These statements of Dr. Holland are fully confirmed by spec-
imens which he has kindly presented to me, both of the Chester
chromate of iron, and of the beautiful salts which he has obtained
from it. I cannot but hope that the effort which he is making in
this manufacture may be successful ; and I am confident that the
one will be found abundant in most of our serpentine deposites.

Four or five miles south of this bed of serpentine in Blanford,
is another, not more than 40 to 50 rods east of the soapstone quarry
ore and a half miles southwest of the centre of the town, which
has been described. This serpentine is in mica slate, which dips
easterly ; and it is distinctly stratified. There is nothing striking
in its appearance. The width of the bed is several rods.

I have reason to suppose that another bed of serpentine exists
in the eastern part of IBlanford, though I have found only bowl-
ders. But the specimens are of so peculiar a character, that I can-
not refer them to any known bed. They consist of green serpen-
tine, talc, and sometimes schiller spar ? (No. 892.)

The serpentine bed in Westfield is in mica slate, whose layers
lean only a few degrees to the west. I speak here of the most
southerly point of its appearance. Here it is about four rods wide.
It occurs near the junction of the new red sandstone and the mica
slate. This mica slate contains numerous veins and protruding
masses of granite ; and one mass of this rock lies within three or
four feet of the serpentine, if it does not actually touch it. The
serpentine is distinctly stratified ; the dip and direction of the strata
conforming to those of the mica slate. Its predominant color is
black ; but it contains a mixture of indurated greenish talc, and an
amphibolic mineral of a gray color. (No. 893.) A considerable
part of the rock, however, contains granular carbonate of lime :
or rather in some parts of the bed this mineral predominates, and
the serpentine is disseminated through it in small pieces. (No.
899.)

Nearly half a mile north of this spot, serpentine again appears
on the north bank of Westfield river in Russell ; and I have strong
reasons for believing it to be a continuation of the bed in Westfield
just described. The rock in Russell is a mixture of black serpen-

Deposites of Serpentine. 367

tine with green, the latter being sometimes very compact and
traversed by veins of indurated talc (?) or Deweylile. (?) (No.
885.)

I can hardly doubt but many more beds of serpentine might ea-
sily be discovered in the Hoosic mountain range, if ever it shall be
an object to make such discoveries. I make this inference from
the fact that I have found some of those above described, under
circumstances the most unfavorable.

On the east side of Connecticut river but few beds of serpen-
tine have been found in Massachusetts. That marked in Pelham
occurs in the southwest part of the town, and exhibits itself over
an area of only a kw square rods. One may doubt whether
this rock should be called serpentine, or steatite : for these two
minerals enter into its composition. In general, however, the
latter, which is of a black color, predominates. It also contains
a considerable quantity of asbestus. This bed lies in gneiss; al-
though the actual contact is hidden by the soil. But at a little
distance on both sides this rock appears, and no other rock occurs
in the vicinity.

The steatite marked as occurring in Shutesbury appears to be
passing in some parts into black serpentine; as may be seen from
the specimen, No. 805. At the steatite bed in New Salem this
change is still more decided, so that large blocks of what must be
called black serpentine are found there. (No. 890.)

In giving an account of the limestone found at Newbury, I have
mentioned nearly every important circumstance respecting the ser-
pentine of the same spot. It occurs there in veins or irregular
masses of only a few inches in diameter. It will be seen by the
polished specimens that several varieties at this locality are very
beautiful ; but they are so intersected by various minerals that only
small pieces can be obtained.

At one of the limestone quarries in Littleton, I observed that
small masses of green serpentine were disseminated in the rock.
(No. 489.) At Bolton, also, according to Dr. Jackson, it occurs
in considerable quantity.

The only remaining deposite of serpentine within the limits of
the Map, is in Newport, Rhode Island. And under graywacke
I have already given so full a description of the situation and char-
acters of this rock, that any thing more seems unnecessary in this
place. From that account it is obvious that this serpentine be-
longs to a much later geological epoch than any which I have de-
scribed; probably as late as the graywacke ; and if there be any
example in the region embraced by tlie Map, where the ser-
pentine occurs in a vein of considerable size, Newport is the lo-'
cality.

368 Scitntific Geology-

Mineral Contents.

Serpentine bears a strong analogy to steatite in its mineral con-
tentSj as well as in several other respects. Nearly all the simple
minerals that have been described as existing in our steatite, occur
also in the serpentine. The beautiful green amianthus of New-
bury has already been mentioned, and the asbestus of Pelham; as
well as the amphibolic mineral, (probably actynolite,) in Westfield.
At the latter place well characterised actynolite occurs ; and ac-
cording to Mr. Emerson Davis, anthophylite also. Here is like-
wise found a mineral, occupying a vein nearly a foot in width,
which has been called petalite. But in hardness it corresponds
more nearly with scapolite. It needs farther and more accurate
examination. At the same place, as well as in the serpentine at
Newbury, we find massive garnet. In Russell, in a supposed con-
tinuation of the Westfield serpentine, are found veins of amian-
thus traversing the rock, which rock verges towards a mineral that
occurs in the Middlefield serpentine, as well as that of Newbury,
and has been denominated Deweylite, in honor of Prof. Dewey.
Chalcedony is also found in the Middlefield serpentine ; and it
sometimes passes into hornstone. Large rolled masses of these
minerals, sometimes weighing 200 pounds or more, often agatized
have been found in Middlefield and Chester, which probably pro-
ceeded from some serpentine locality. Dr. Emmons says, that
steatite is crystalized distinctly in the serpentine at Middlefield ;
and he does not regard ^ these crystals as pseudo-morphous ;
although mineralogists have generally considered the crystals of
steatite as such ; and Beudant makes a distinct variety of them
under the name of pseudo-morphous steatite. The crystals
at Middlefield certainly correspond in form exactly to those of
quartz. In the serpentine of that place drusy quartz occurs, which
is extremely beautiful. In the serpentine of Newfane, Vt., a sim-
ilar drusy quartz has been found abundantly. Here also occurs
chrysoprase ; and sometimes the small crystals of quartz occu-
pying the cavities of the rock have the color of the chrysoprase.
At the same place General Martin Field has discovered pimelite.

Theoretical Considerations.

The preceding description will show that the serpentine of Mas-
sachusetts corresponds essentially, as to position and character,
with those serpentines in Europe that are connected with the oldest
rocks. But I am not aware that any statements which I have
made, will throw additional light on the obscure subject of its ori-
gin. From the statement of Dr. MaccuUoch * and De La Beche,t

* Edinburgh'^Jouinal of Science, Vol. I. p. 1.
t Manual of Geology, p. 497, 2d edition,

Origin of Serpentine. 369

as to the connection between serpentine, trap, and limestone, one
would be led to infer that the first mentioned rock might have re-
sulted from a mixture of the trap and limestone. But the serpen-
tine of Massachusetts does not favor such an idea. The precious
serpentine of Newbury probably lies between sienite or green-
stone and the limestone ; and such is its position in the cases de-
scribed by these writers. The Westfield serpentine also contains
a mixture of carbonate of lime, and in one or two other beds it
may be found in small quantity. But in general our serpentines
are entirely separated from limestone ; and in respect to the gneiss
east of Connecticut river, containing one or two of these beds,
the whole extensive range does not to my knowledge embrace a
single bed of limestone. But in all cases, (except perhaps
that at Newport,) our serpentines are associated with talc,
either pure and foliated, or as steatite, or chlorite slate, or ^talc
and quartz. The two minerals, (talc and serpentine,) are inti-
mately blended together and pass into one another by insensible
gradations. And in all the cases described by the writers above re-
ferred to, talc was present. Is it not natural then to suspect that
serpentine is talc, or talc serpentine, altered by heat ? And since
the talc is schistose and the serpentine massive, the latter must
must have been produced from the former. In some cases it is
easy to imagine that the internal heat might have been powerful
enough to produce perfectly fused, and of course compact serpen-
tine, protruding among other rocks in the form of veins ; while at
other times the fusion was only partial, not sufficient to destroy
entirely the stratification. The great similarity in the chemical
composition of serpentine and talc also favors the idea that they
had a common origin. Both are composed essentially of silex
and magnesia, with a considerable proportion of water. What
the original rock could have been, which, with one degree of heat
or with heat applied under certain circumstances, could have been
converted into talc, and with another degree of heat, or with
heat applied under different circumstances, could have produced
serpentine, 1 am at a loss to imagine ; though we do find talcose
rocks among some of the older of those that are fragmentary.
But I make these observations with little expectation that they
will stand the test of observation. It may be found that serpen-
tine has been produced from various rocks, which contained the
necessary ingredients. But that heat has been employed in its
production, cannot, it seems to me, be reasonably doubted ; nor
that it is a metamorphic rock. And these facts explain at once all
the diversities of opinion, respecting its stratification and relative
age, which we find among geologists.

370 Scientific Geology.

13. HORNBLENDE SLATE.

1 use this name as a translation of Dr. Macculloch's llornhlendc
Schist; and I includeunder it the same varieties of rocks. These
varieties are such as otlier geologists have described under the
names of hornblende rock, hornblende schist, primitive greenstone,
and greenstone slate ; all of which, I believe, occur in Massachu-
setts. In reading Dr. Macculloch's masterly description of the
primary rocks of Scotland, I can hardly conceive that he is not de-
scribing those of New England ; so perfect is the correspondence.
Hence I have followed that geologist in describing most of the
primary rocks; though 1 reject some of his distinctions. But upon
the whole, I know of no geological writer who will compare with
him in treating of the older rocks. I can by no means say the
same in respect to his account of the newer rocks. For he obvi-
ously endeavors to depreciate the value of an accurate knowledge
of organic remains found in the secondary and tertiary rocks ; and it
is but too evident that the reason is, that he himself can make no
pretensions to distinction in this department of knowledge. As to
Dr. Macculloch's views of geological theories, also, in his last
work, entitled ' A System of Geology,' whatever opinion may be
entertained of their correctness as a whole, I think no one who care-
fully examines them, will hesitate to acknowledge them, every
thing considered, as remarkably profound, ingenious, and judicious.
This remark, however, ought perhaps to be limited to his theories
in respect to the primary rocks, for the reason above suggested.*

I have thought it proper to make these remarks, because I have
so often in this Report followed the opinions, and applied the the-
ories, of Dr. Macculloch, in the explanation of geological phenom-
ena.

* After having published so many separate geological works, and so many sep-
arate papers in the periodicals and transactions of learned societies, which were
distinguished, for the most part, for the calm and dispassionate manner in which
they were written, how unexpected to find in this last work, produced in mature
years, so much of overweening self-conceit, so much of rude and overbearing
intolerance, and of low jealousy and envy towards the distinguished school of
geologists that are now advancing the science with unexampled rapidity ! While
he exhibits the principles of geology with a clearness and power to which I con-
fess I know of no equal, he exhibits also a bitterness of feeling and violence of
prejudice, to which, I had almost said, I know of no parallel. What a pity that
a work, which might have gone down to posterity as a splendid monument of the
commanding geological and chemical ability of its author, and have proved al-
most the ' Principia' of geology, should have infused into it so much of the leav-
en of depravity, as to excite disgust in the reader, strong enough to destroy almost
every feeling of respect! Of the private history and character of Dr. Maccul-
loch I know nothmg. His geological writings alone have led me to make these
remarks. May he live long enough to publish an cx))urgated edition of his Sys-
tem of Geology, and thus free his setting ami from that angry fiery cloud in which
it is nowcvelopcd.

Varieties of Hornblende Slate. 371

All the varieties of rocks mentioned above, viz. hornblende rock,
hornblende schist, primitive greenstone, and greenstone slate, oc-
cur, I believe in Massachusetts ; and the system which regards
them as separate formations, and some of them stratified and oth-
ers unstratified, has long rendered their history obscure and per-
plexing. But by uniting them, as Dr. Macculloch has done, and
regarding them as mere varieties of the same formation, very much
of this obscurity vanishes. In Massachusetts their characters cor-
respond with those given by the writer so often referred to. Al-
though for a limited space the hornblende rock and the primitive
greenstone appear, without close inspection, to be unstratified, and
wanting in a schistose structure ; yet the unstratified character is
very limited, and a fresh fracture will commonly reveal an obscure
slaty structure.

Miner alogical Characters.

1. Of Hornblende alone. Sometimes this variety is laminar,
and sometimes fibrous. When fibrous, it is slaty ; when laminar,
no slaty structure can be perceived, nor any stratification, even in
beds of considerable extent. This is the rock that has been some-
times called hornblende rock. (Nos. 914 to 928.)

2. Hornblende and Feldspar. Generally the hornblende is
crystalline, and the feldspar foliated, or granular; but sometimes
both ingredients are compact, and this mixture forms a good ex-
ample of primitive greenstone. In this variety there is usually
little appearance of stratification, or of a schistose structure ;
though this is not generally true of the whole bed. And some-
times, as in Whately, where this rock often assumes a columnar
appearance, a schistose structure may still be seen. Sometimes
the feldspar in this rock, as in the west part of Northfield, is fine-
ly granular, or even assumes a pulverulent appearance ; while the
hornblende is distinctly crystalline. When the ingredients are
both crystalline, the rock furnishes a good example of hornblende
slate. This variety is usually interstratified with gneiss and
passes insensibly into that rock. (Nos. 929 to 951.)

In Whately is a curious variety of hornblende slate, in which
the hornblende is light green and the felspar white and compact.
A casual inspection would leave the impression that the rock is si-
enite. But a little attention shows a very decided slaty structure.
The hornblende also predominates. This is the only example I
have met with, in which the slaty variety contains compact feld-
spar without being porphyritic. (No. 947.)

Associated with a large proportion of the hornblende slate in
the vicinity of Connecticut river, is a variety that falls under the
present division, that is most decidedly, and sometimes very beau-
tifully porphyritic. The feldspar is yellowish white, between foli-

372 Scientific Geology.

ated and granular, although sometimes retaining the form of the
crystal in considerable perfection. The hornblende is sub-crys-
talline, and in the greatest quantity. Sometimes scales of mica
are present. The slaty structure may ilsually be seen in this va-
riety, though less distinct than in most other varieties of this rock.
There is scarcely a more distinct variety of porphyry in the State
than this; and as it admits of being smoothed, and probably pol-
ished, it would form undoubtedly an interesting ornamental stone.
It is more common to meet with this rock in rolled masses than in
beds ; and hence I infer that its beds are rather limited. (Nos. 944
to 946.)

I have found a remarkable variety of this porphyrltic hornblende
slate in Canton and Easton, near the Blue hills, and also in Wal-
tham, in rolled masses. Its peculiarity consists in the feldspar be-
ing compact, exhibiting the form of the crystal. The feldspar is
white and the schistose structure of the rock distinct. (Nos. 948 to
950.) Whence this rock originated I am unable to say ; though
probably somewhere not far from the outer limits of the granite
range, which lies west of the greenstone and sienite around Bos-
ton. It is quite obvious that this rock must have been so nearly
fused as to destroy the foliated structure of the feldspar, yet with-
out essentially impairing its crystalline form.

3. Hornblende and (Quartz. (Nos. 952 to 957.) In general,
this variety probably contains some feldspar also. The hornblende
in a crystalline state forms the principal ingredient. The quartz is
granular. The rock is slaty ; and is sometimes traversed by veins
of quartz or granite. It does not form a common variety.

4. Hornblende , Feldspar, and Mica. This approaches to gneiss :
but I do not call it gneiss when the hornblende predominates.
The mica is usually in small quantity, and the feldspar and quartz
sometimes traverse the rock in numerous minute veins, which seem
to have been frequently cut off and shifted by one another. (Nos.
958 to 963.)

6. Hornblende and Epidotc. This latter mineral sometimes
constitutes so large a proportion of the rock, that I thought it ought
to be regarded as a constituent of one of the varieties of horn-
blende slate. Generally it is granular and disseminated through
the rock, giving it a peculiar green tinge : but sometimes it is im-
perfectly crystalized in cavities, and sometimes in veins. (Nos.
964, 964 1-2, 965.)

6. Hornblende and, Chlorite. This variety is rather uncom-
mon : but I have met with it in Whately, Shelburne, and perhaps
some other places. Sometimes it passes into genuine chlorite
slate. (No. 967.)

7. Actynolite Slate. This is found in gneiss in Shutesbury ;
and I know of no other well marked locality. It occurs near the

Topography of Hornblende Slate. 373

mineral well near the centre of the town. The rock is slaty and
is composed of fibrous actynoliie, foliated feldspar, mica, hornblende
and quartz, arranged somewhat in layers. It is obviously only
gneiss which takes into its composition a large proportion of acty-
nolite. In Belchertown I found a loose specimen, in which the
actynolite was granular and in large quantity, and the rock was
not slaty. (Nos. 968, 969.) Since the ablest mineralogists now
regard actynolite and hornblende as the same species, I cannot sefe
how Dr. Macculloch can be justified in making a distinct rock of
actynolite schist, as he has done. It certainly can lay claims to
be considered only as a variety of hornblende slate.

I doubt not that other and still more compound varieties of
hornblende slate might be found among our rocks : for this rock
passes by imperceptible gradations into almost all those with which
it is associated. Under talcose slate, I have" noticed, for exam-
ple, a variety containing hornblende, which might as well have
been reckoned in this place. Under mica slate, I have also no-
ticed an amphibolic variety, in which the hornblende sometimes
predominates.

Topography of Hornblende Slate.

Every deposite of hornblende slate which I have examined in
New England, is associated either with gneiss, talcose slate, mica
slate, or quartz rock. The small patch represented on the Map
in the vicinity of the beds of limestone in Smithfield, R. I., is ap-
parently associated with talco-chloritic slate; though as we go
westerly, we find it alternating with gneiss : indeed, I suspect these
three rocks are sometimes interstratified. Much of the hornblende
slate in the vicinity of the lime quarries, is decided primitive
greenstone, and greenstone slate ; and it also passes insensibly into
the talco-chloritic slate.

Most decidedly associated with gneiss is the range of hornblende
slate represented as extending northeasterly from Grafton to Bil-
lerica. In some places, as at Marlborough, its hornblende charac-
ter is fully developed; and it there becomes as nearly greenstone
slate perhaps as any rock in the State. But generally this stratum
is more or less intermixed with gneiss, so that sometimes one sees
only traces of it. Yet as I usually found the deposite well char-
acterised in the region where it is marked, I thought it proper to
give it as a continuous range on the Map. Generally between
this hornblende slate and and the granite on the east, the surface
is composed of diluvium, so as to hide the junction of the two
rocks.

Extending from Stafford in Connecticut, to Athol, in Worcester
county, the Map exhibits another narrow stratum of hornblende
slate, very similarly situated to that just described. I have met

46

374 Scicntijic Geology.

with narrow beds of this rock still farther north, and probably it
might with truth be extended across the whole State. But I
saw it so rarely north of its present termination, that I thought it
best not to carry it across the State. This rock is generally crys-
talline in its aspect, and is mixed with feldspar and quartz in con-
siderable quantity : being obviously in nearly all cases, but a vari-
ety of gneiss. And it ought here to be remarked, that in many
other places in the broad gneiss range of Worcester county, the
rock takes so much hornblende into its composition, that it prop-
erly becomes hornblende slate. Some of these beds — as in Pel-
ham — bear a closer resemblance to unstratified secondary green-
stone than any other member of the primary rocks : indeed, I do
not see but they must be regarded as genuine trap rock ; (No. 1111.)
and I have accordingly placed specimens from them among those
of greenstone.

The deposite of this rock in the west part of Northfield, north part
of Gill, and east part of Bernardston, is represented as in contact
with mica slate, quartz rock, and new red sandstone : and such 1
believe to be its associations ; though recent examination has led
me to suspect that gneiss alternates with the mica slate. The
hornblende slate of this region is sometimes slaty ; but very fre-
quently it is decided primitive greenstone, exhibiting even some-
times a passage into sienite. In some parts of the bed no marks
of stratification, or slaty structure, appear ; but they are almost
uniformly present in other parts. In one instance, at least, a vein
of white fetid quartz, nearly a foot wide, traverses this rock. This
spot is on the road from Gill to Bernardston. The quartz near the
edges of the vein contains foliated masses of feldspar.

Four other deposites of hornblende slate are represented on the
Map, surrounded by mica slate, in the western part of Franklin
county. I have recently ascertained that the deposite, which ex-
tends from Colrain to Conway, is associated with a limited stratum
of gneiss, whose characters are fully developed in the east part of
Buckland. The hornblende slate lies principally in the west pait
of Shelburne, occupying a high hill.

In respect to the other three patches alluded to above, I have no
remarks to make, except to say that I do not suppose I have very
accurately marked out their true limits, or situation. I know that
in the vicinity of the spots where they are marked, I have re-
peatedly found hornblende slate. But I also know, that nearly all
analogical reasonings as to the situation of this rock have failed me.

About one mile north of Whately meetinghouse, we find a lim-
ited deposite of hornblende slate, on the west side of the street,
probably succeeding the red sandstone. Passing westerly not
more than 100 rods, we cross almost every variety of this rock,
that has been named : the common hornblende slate, which pre-

Dip, Direction, ^c.,of the Strata. 375

dominates : also that containing epidote, which is frequently divided
into rhomboidal masses of considerable regularity : then we come
to primitive greenstone, where the slaty and stratified tendency
begins to be lost in the trappose or columnar: next we strike the
peculiar variety, already described, as containing white compact
feldspar : finally succeeds mica slate. In describing sienite I shall
refer again to this spot.

The strip of hornblende slate marked along the eastern margin
of the gneiss range in the west part of Hampden county, and the east
part of Berkshire, is so intermingled with the gneiss on one side,
and with the mica slate and talcose slate on the other, that it is no
easy matter to fix upon its true position or extent. I have exhib-
ited it in those places where I found it most abundant. But view-
ing it rather as a variety of gneiss, I do not regard its exact situa-
tion or extent on the Map of any great importance. Traces of
this same rock may be seen all along the eastern margin of the
talcose slate ; and in Plainfield and Hawley, it is not uncommon
to find examples of pure hornblende slate : though usually the
hornblende forms the least abundant ingredient, and ought perhaps
to be considered merely as crystalized hornblende disseminated
through talcose slate.

Some of the hornblende rock in Granville and Tolland Is lam-
inated, and the size of the lamins is often gigantic. In the latter
place, half a mile east of the meetinghouse, I have seen imper-
fectly prismatic masses not less than a foot in length and one or
two inches wide. I apprehend that this hornblende slate in these
towns, is connected with the extensive ranges of that rock which
one crosses in passing from Lee to Becket. But I am so doubtful
about the true situation of this rock along the western part of the
gneiss range in Berkshire county, that I have forebore to represent
it on the Map. In the east part of Lee and west part of Becket,
it is associated with augitic gneiss : and both these rocks are obvi-
ously varieties of gneiss.

In respect to the gneiss, hornblende slate, mica slate, and tal-
cose slate, represented on the Map as occupying a considerable
part of the Hoosic range of mountains, I take this opportunity to
remark, that whoever expects in passing transversly or longitudin-
ally over this region, to find as sudden and decided changes in the
rocks as are shown on the Map, will be disappointed. On the
Map the change must be represented as sudden : but I have often
travelled for miles in that region, in great uncertainty what rock
prevailed. In such cases, one can give the line between different
formations only by approximation.

376 Scientific Geology.

Dip, Direction, &fc. of the Strata.

I cannot but regard the hornblende slate of Massachusetts, as
belonging to the same geological epochs as the gneiss, mica slate,
and talcose slate ; that is, it seems to me they were all produced
by essentially the same causes, and during the same periods of
lime. Hence we should expect, (if this opinion be correct,) that
the dip and direction of the strata would correspond with those of
the strata that have been mentioned. And such is the fact : though
upon the whole, this rock approaches more nearly to verticality in
the dip of its strata, than any other rock in the State ; as the fol-
lowing notes will show.

Direction. Dip.

Middlefield, - - - N. and S. 70° to 80'' E.
Becket, east part, - - N. and S. 90°

do. west part, - - N. and S. 70° to 80° E.
Granville, - - - - N. and S. 90°

Blanford, north part, - - N. and S. 90°

do. northwest part, - - N. and S. 60° to 70° E.

Rowe, north part, - - E. and W. South, small.
Chester, west part, - - N. and S. 90°, nearly.

Shelburne, . . - N. and S. 45° to 90° E.

Bernardston, east part, - - N. and S. 50 to 60° E.

Monson and vicinity, - - N. and S. 45° to 70° W.

Westborough, - - - N.E. and S.W. 50° to 70o N.W.

Marlborough, - - - N.E. and S.W. 80° to 90o N.W.
Cumberland, R. I. - - N.E. and S.W. 40° S.E.
Smithfield, R. I., linoe quarries, S.E. and N.W. 30° to 45° N.E.

I have already alluded to the tendency of the hornblende slate
to divide into rhomboidal masses. I have observed this no where
so distinctly as at Whately. There, also, the masses sometimes
affect a columnar form ; (No. 938.) though perfect columns of any
great extent are rarely the result.

This rock is frequently remarkable for the numerous and com-
plicated contortions which its layers exhibit, often rivalling in this
respect, mica slate and gneiss. Not unfrequently these irregulari-
ties appear to be increased by the passage of granite veins through
the rock, as in Granville.

Mineral Contents.

So far as it has been examined, no rock in the State appears to
be so barren of interesting minerals as this. Garnets are perhaps
the most common, and generally they are of a blood red color —
probably in some cases the pyrope. In Rowe, epidote occurs in
this rock in a state of such purity that it deserves to be mentioned.

Origin of Hornblende Slate. 377

In Middlefield and Chester, sphene has been observed in it. In
its cavities also, not unfrequently, as in Charlemont and Wliately,
I have noticed tolerably distinct crystals of feldspar. The im-
mediate gangue of the plumbago mine at Sturbridge is hornblende
and feldspar ; and the former minerals constitute the gangue, to a
considerable extent at least, of the arsenical cobalt of Chatham,
Ct. Red oxide of titanium I have also found in hornblende in
Leyden. Other minerals will undoubtedly be discovered in this
rock, upon farther examination. Hitherto mineralogists have paid
very little attention to the geological situation of localities in our
country.

Theoretical Considerations.

It easy to apply to hornblende slate the theory which imputes
to the primary rocks an origin partly aqueous and partly igneous.
For it is a very fusible rock, and may hence easily be conceived
to have been sufficiently heated to enable it to assume the crys-
talline aspect, which it almost always exhibits. But from what
rock did the hornblende slate originate ? The researches of Dr.
Macculloch appear to have thrown a gleam of light upon this
difficult question, ' As far as a single fact can prove such a case,*
says he, ' the origin of hornblende schist from clay slate is com-
pletely established by the occurrence in Shetland of a mass of the
latter substance, alternating with gneiss and approximating to
granite. Here those portions which come into contact with the
latter, become first, siliceous schist, and ultimately, hornblende
schist ; so that the very same bed which is an interlamination of
gneiss and clay slate in one part, is in another, the usual alterna-
tion of gneiss and hornblende schist.'* In another place he says,
* it would appear that the fusion of clay slate, whether primary or
secondary, is, under various circumstances, capable of generating,
either the common trap rocks, or the hornblende schists : nor is it
perhaps difficult to explain, by a more gradual cooling, and conse-
quently, a slower crystalization, the particular causes which may
have determined the latter rather than the former effect. 'f

This theory, if admitted, explains satisfactorily the approxima-
tion of hornblende schist to unstratified trap rocks. For some
portions of the clay slate would very probably be so entirely
fused as to obliterate all marks of a stratified and schistose struc-
ture : and hence by slow crystalization might result hornblende
rock and primitive greenstone.

I have observed no facts in Massachusetts very decisive in re-
spect to this theory. But since granite does occur in connection

* System of Geology, Vol, I. p. 210.

* System of Geology, Vol. II. p. 171.

378 Scientific Geology.

with some portions of our clay slate, 1 doubt not but such may be
found here. I have made no examination on the subject worthy
to be named. It is my opinion, however, from what I know of
the range of slate extending into Vermont and New Hampshire
from Franklin county, that in those states would be the most likely
places for such facts to be developed. The passage of gray wacke
slate into talco-chloritic slate, and of this into hornblende slate in
Smithfield and Cumberland, Rhode Island, has probably also a
bearing upon this theory.

The remarks that have been made in relation to porphyritic
talcose slate, will apply with still more force to that variety of horn-
blende slate which is porphyritic. For in the latter case this struct-
ure is more distinct and perfect than in the former. And the the more
I reflect upon the subject, the more satisfied I am, that a porphy-
ritic structure must, in all cases, have been the result of the agen-
cy of heat.

14. GNEISS.

This rock occupies more of the surface in Massachusetts than
any other : and in all countries of much extent hitherto examined
it is one of the most extensive of the formations. Quartz, mica,
and feldspar, are its common and essential ingredients ; though
hornblende is so often present, that some writers regard its claims
to be considered essential, as equal to those of the other three min-
erals. It is obvious, therefore, that the mineralogical constitution
of this rock is the same as that of granite. The only difference,
indeed, consists in the stratified and slaty disposition of the gneiss.
This character, however, sometimes becomes very obscure ; and
then it is almost impossible to distinguish between the two
rocks. They might, therefore, be regarded as varieties of one
another : differing only in the mode of their production, as in the
case of the stratified and unstratified limestones and serpentines.
Little advantage, however, would be gained by such an innovation ;
and granite and gneiss have so long been considered as classical terms
in geology, that if possible they ought to be retained ; lest that
neological spirit, which vain ambition nourishes, should unsettle
every principle of the science.

The gneiss of Massachusetts corresponds almost exactly to that
described by European geologists, particularly by Dr. Macculloch.
Our gneiss, however, does not to my knowledge alternate with
clay slate, as it does in Scotland. 1 am inclined also to believe,
that ours exhibits a greater regularity of stratification, producing a
fine rock for architectural purposes.

Varieties of Gneiss. 379

Although in general the characters of gneiss are tolerably dis-
tinct, yet an almost infinite variety of specimens may be obtained,
slightly differing in the color, arrangement, or proportion, of the
ingredients. They may, however, be reduced to a few leading
varieties.

Mineralogical Characters.

1. Granitic Gneiss. (Nos. 972 to 992.) I suppose this va-
riety to be the granite-gneiss of Humboldt. It certainly ap-
proaches very near to granite ; and in hand specimens cannot be
distinguished from a coarse grained variety of that rock. Even
for an extent of several yards, we can sometimes discover no
marks of a schistose or stratified structure ; but those structures,
at least the schistose, usually appear at no great distance, to pre-
vent our regarding the rock as granite. It might, indeed, on a
superficial view, be considered as a vein of granite in gneiss. But
the masses will be found too irregular for such a supposition ; and
often they are bounded on all sides by well characterized gneiss.
It would explain the mode in which this rock presents itself, to
suppose that a slaty rock was once in a state of partial fusion,
while some portions of it were perfectly melted, so as to crystal-
lize in the form of a coarse granite ; the principal part of the
mass cooling before the slaty structure was entirely lost. In trav-
elling several miles I have sometimes been at a loss to decide
whether the rock were gneiss or granite, until a very careful exam-
ination disclosed a partially obsolete parallelism of the mica. I
think, however, that there is a slight peculiarity of aspect in most
of the granitic-gneiss of Massachusetts, which would enable me to
distinguish it from genuine granite even in hand specimens, which
were totally destitute of a parallel disposition of parts. But it is
difiicult to describe the exact nature of that peculiarity.

2. Schistose Gneiss. (Nos. 993 to 1022.) This is probably
the most common variety of our gneiss. The structure is foliated
like that of mica slate : though sometimes granular with a lami-
nar tendency. Some of the best quarries in the State I regard as
belonging to this variety. It passes frequently into mica slate by
the disappearance of the feldspar.

3. Laminar Gneiss. In this variety the different ingredients
occupy distinct layers. When the mica is black, or there is an
interiamination of hornblende, the different laminae are remarkably
distinct and regular. In some instances, perhaps, this rock may
be regarded as composed of alternating layers of gneiss and mica
slate, or hornblende slate. (Nos. 1023 to 1040.)

4. Porphi/ritic Gneiss. The structure of this variety is more
or less slaty. But it embraces distinct crystalline masses of foil-

380 Scientific Geology.

ated feldspar. Most commonly these masses are somewhat ovoid ;
but in some instances they present the regular forms of the crys-
tals. The color is sometimes white or gray : but a reddish hue
predominates. The imbedded masses vary in size from a quarter
of an inch in their longest direction, to two inches ; and they some-
times constitute the largest portion of the rock. This variety
sometimes answers well for architectural purposes. (Nos. 1041
to 1050.)

5. Amphibolic Gneiss. I thus denominate that variety which
takes a small proportion of hornblende into its composition : not
sufficient to form hornblende slate. This mineral is usually dis-
seminated in black foliated masses, from the size of a pin's head
to half an inch in diameter, through the rock. It occurs only in
the vicinity of hornblende slate. (Nos. 1051 to 1054.)

In the southeastern part of Worcester county is a beautiful rock,
extensively quarried, which I refer to this variety. One meets
with it abundantly in Mendon, Grafton, and the south part of
Worcester, in blocks got out for building; but I do not know
where are its quarries. The rock appears to be a granitic gneiss,
composed almost entirely of quartz and feldspar, through which
are disseminated numerous black crystalline masses of hornblende,
which have a somewhat parallel arrangement. This parallelism is
almost the only mark by which I distinguish this rock from gran-
ite. It might with propriety be termed sienitic gneiss. (Nos. 983
and 986.)

Epidotic Gneiss. This variety usually contains hornblende as
well as epidote. The latter mineral is very frequently in veins
and generally compact. It is sometimes, however, disseminated
through the rock, giving it a peculiar green tinge. Were this not
a common variety of gneiss, especially in the vicinity of horn-
blende slate, it would not deserve a distinct description. It is
closely allied to the epidotic hornblende slate. (Nos. 1055 to
1061.) When the epidotic gneiss happens to be porphyritic, it
forms a beautiful ornamental stone. (No. 1043.)

7. Augitic Gneiss. This interesting rock is usually composed
of quartz, feldspar, and lively green augite, in coarse grains or par-
tially crystalline masses. Occasionally we see present grains of
black hornblende. The augite seems generally to have taken the
place of the mica. The augite is disseminated in various propor-
tions through the mass and the slaty structure is quite indistinct.
(Nos. 1062 to 1065.)

8. Anthophyllitic Gneiss. In the west part of Enfield and in
Belchertown, anthopyllite is disseminated through the gneiss in
such quantity, that it deserves to be considered an ingredient of
the rock, if it be proper thus to consider amphibole, epidote, and
augite, in the three preceding varieties. This rock is composed

Tojyography oj G7iciss. ' 381

almost entirely of feldspar, quartz, and anthophyllite, the mica
being rarely present. (Nos. 1066, 1067.

9. Arenaceous Gneiss. I have found this rock only in one
well marked locality, viz. at Southbridge, Worcester county ; but
it seems to me sufficiently peculiar to deserve a distinct notice. It
is composed entirely of quartz and feldspar, which, (particularly
the latter,) are in a finely granular slate ; embracing, however,
small but distinct crystals of red garnet. Between the layers of
the rock we find a substance which approaches to talc. This rock
is quarried and is employed for lining furnaces. (No. 1068.) Per-
haps it ought to be described under the next variety.

10. Talcosc Gneiss. This is composed of feldspar, quartz, and
talc ; the first ingredient in the largest proportion. Its structure
is irregularly schistose : but it has the aspect of a rock formed in
part by mechanical agency. As 1 have met with it only in one
place, (between Smithfield and Providence, R. I.) and did not
there examine it carefully, I am not prepared to say whether it
ought to be regarded as the Protogine of European geologists,
(No. 1071.)

Topography of the Gneiss.

There are in Massachusetts four separate deposites of gneiss : one
in the Hoosic mountain range ; two in the central parts of the
State ; and a fourth in the vicinity of New Bedford, in Plymouth
and Bristol counties.

Hoosic Mountain Range.

Under mica slate I have already given a general description of
the situation of this gneiss, and the reasons that lead me to suspect
that it passes laterally, or in the direction of the strata, into mica
slate. Throughout nearly the whole extent of Litchfield county,
in Connecticut, this gneiss range is most distinctly characterised.
As we proceed northerly into Massachusetts, its characters become
less decided. The feldspar is less abundant, and the mica more
so ; and hornblende frequently abounds in it ; so that viewed on a
small scale, it may often be regarded as mica slate. Along the
eastern slope of Hoosic mountain, the rock becomes sooner con-
verted into mica slate than along the western slope. On this latter
side, indeed, distinct gneiss continues nearly across the State, as
may be seen on the Map ; and I am by no means sure but careful
research may trace it entirely across the State ; so as to connect it
with the gneiss that appears in the lower part of Vermont, along
the eastern talus of the Green mountains. At any rate, that Ver-
mont gneiss appears distinctly characterised in the southwest part
of Whitingham, near the beds of limestone, as shown on the Map ;

47

382 Scientific Geology,

and from thence I liave traced it as far north as the Somerset iron
mine. Here then we have two edge-shaped ranges of gneiss,
with their acute angles towards each other, while the space be-
tween them is occupied by mica slate and talcose slate; and
sometimes we find these slates, for a limited space, passing into
gneiss. There is certainly then some probability in the supposi-
tion that all these schistose rocks may belong to one formation;
and that the varieties resulted from local peculiarities in the mode
of formation.

In passing from Becket to Lee, we cross strata of decided
gneiss, till within three or four miles of Lee, when the rock con-
tains a considerable proportion of hornblende, and at length be-
comes decided hornblende slate. Still nearer to Lee, the horn-
blende is replaced by green augite, and augitic gneiss hence re-
sults. Within two miles of Lee, we meet with limestone ; which
often contains a mixture of augite ; and this mineral, being decom-
posed at the surface, yet projecting beyond the limestone, the
whole rock exhibits a brown and very rough and irregular aspect ;
exceedingly like similar compounds at the lime quarries in Bol-
ton, Boxborough, Littleton, &;c. — This augitic gneiss certainly de-
serves a more thorough examination than I have been able to
give it.

In the western part of this gneiss range in Connecticut, beds of
coarse saccharine limestone are common. But I have never been
able to find one of this description, in Massachusetts ; though I
suspect their existence, as in New Marlborough.

The limited patch of gneiss marked on the Map, in Buckland
and Shelburne, lies chiefly in the ravine through which Deerfield
river passes. In its most elevated parts, (as on the western slope
of the high land in the west part of Shelburne, and on the opposite
side of the river in Buckland, on the stage road between the two
bridges over Deerfield river,) this rock is very regular in its stratifi-
cation : but at the bottom of Deerfield river, at and below Shelburne
Falls, it is the granitic gneiss, almost destitute of stratification, and
contains hornblende. The feldspar here is in small proportion ;
and some of the rock might properly be denominated quartz rock.

These facts have led me to inquire, whether the greater regu-
larity of stratification in the higher parts of this deposite, might
not proceed from the fact, that the lower parts are nearer to that
igneous power, which, according to the theory that I have else-
where explained, has partially fused some portions of the primary
rocks, and entirely fused other portions ? Here the upper strata
are perfectly regular and continuous : but as we descend, we find
the rock approximating nearer and nearer to unstratified granite,
yet retaining some faint traces at least of a schistose structure. Is
it reasonable to suppose, that a little deeper excavation would dis-

Worcester County Gneiss. 383

close perfectly well characterised granite ? The light which I
fancy this spot throws upon theory, is the most interesting circum-
stance connected with this deposite.

Worcester County Gneiss.

The broad ranges of gneiss in the central parts of the State,
which for distinction's sake may be called the Worcester county
ranges, next claim attention. That range, which lies west of the
mica slate deposite in Worcester valley, extends across the whole
of Connecticut to Long Island Sound on the south, and probably
through all the western part of New Hampshire, and I know not
how much farther north. The most elevated point of this range
in Massachusetts is Wachusetl mountain, in Princeton, which rises
-3000 feet above the level of the ocean. This is a remarkable in-
sulated peak, nearly twice as high as any other part of Worcester
county. Its stratification does not exhibit much of that irregular-
ity, which w^e should suppose must have resulted from its having
been elevated so much above the surrounding country : though its
stratification is certainly very obscure. And I am rather inclined
to ascribe such an origin to this mountain, than to suppose the
surrounding country to have been once equally elevated and sub-
sequently worn away ; since the rock composing it possesses no
peculiar power of resisting disintegration and abrasion, that is not
possessed by the gneiss of the whole range.

I would repeat here, however, a remark made under diluvium,
that the gneiss rock of Massachusetts appears to be peculiarly
liable to disintegration ; especiilly where it abounds in sulphuret
of iron. Hence it is that the gneiss region of Worcester county
furnishes so excellent a soil. As we go westerly upon this range,
and get into the limits of Hampshire and Franklin counties, more
of the naked rock appears ; and the soil generally is much poorer.
But in Worcester county generally the rock appears in place but
seldom; and the hills are much rounded. In the gneiss region of
Hoosic monntain, that has been described, tlie hills are generally
steeper, and the country for the most part more elevated. The
soil also, is not as rich or deep as in Worcester county.

I have reason to believe, though not from personal examination,
that the Monaduc and White mountains in New Hampshire, are
essentially composed of gneiss, and insulated in a manner similar
to Wachusett : being in a continuation of the same range.

Porphyritic gneiss prevails extensively along the western mar-
gin of the Worcester county gneiss range, in the town of North-
field, INIass., and Winchester, N. H. It appears also very con-
spicuously on the high iiill east of Ware village. This is one of
the most rocky spots in the State ; and the crystalline masses of

384 Scientific Geology,

feldspar are here unusually large. This range of porphyritic
gneiss extends norllierly through Dana, Petersham, &.C., lying im-
mediately east of the hornblende slate exhibited on the Map. It
can be traced south from Ware also, through Palmer, fee. Indeed,
it is the most extensive deposite of this variety of rock I have
ever found. It appears that the peculiar causes that produced it,
operated over a great extent. Judging from the great regularity
of the rock formatians in this country, I predict that a strip of it
may be found extending northerly from Long Island Sound as far
as the gneiss reaches.

From Hubbardston, both north and south, to the boundaries of
the Stale, and in breadth several miles, the characters of the gneiss
are greatly obscured by the iron aspect which the rocks have as-
sumed in consequence of the decomposition of pyrites. The
same appearance is frequent in other parts of the range.

Granitic gneiss abounds in various parts of this deposite : but
rather more I think in the southern than in the northern part of
the State. In the west part of Charlton, for instance, and so oc-
casionally all the distance to Brookfield, one is often at a loss
whether the rock be gneiss or granite. In Uxbridge, in the range
east of the mica slate, the same variety abounds ; and still more
frequently on the east side of the Blackstone in Mendon.

That range of the Worcester county gneiss just referred to,
which extends northeasterly into Middlesex county, posseses some
peculiar characters. In another place I shall attempt to show,
from the dip and direction of the strata, that it belongs to a differ-
ent system of stratification from the gneiss west of Worcester val-
ley. But I refer now to other peculiarities. One is, that it con-
tains numerous beds of limestone, which are entirely wanting in
the western range. Another is, that it passes so frequently into
mica slate; the two rocks often alternating, and indeed, in some
places, the slate predominating. Indeed, it would not be strange
if some future geologist should regard a part of this range as mica
slate. A third peculiarity is, that it abounds, especially towards
its northeastern extremity, in veins and protruding masses of gran-
ite.

I have found it very diflicult to determine the exact eastern
limits of the gneiss range under consideration. I mean the line of
its junction with the granite. Much of the gneiss near that line is
granitic, and of course difficult to be distinguished from granite.
In some places the beds and veins of granite increase in number
and size as we go easterly, until at length the gneiss occupies only
a small proportion of the surface. Near the junction of the two
•Ocks, also, diluvium is very abundant , which increases the difli
culty of fixing their limits

Tojwgraphy of Gneiss. 385

New Bedford Gneiss.

On the first edition of the Map, I represented a deposiie ot
gneiss extending from Rochester to Little Compton : but subse-
quent examination has rendered it doubtful to my mind, whether
any thing more than small insulated patches of this rock are to be
found west of New Bedford. Gneiss of a peculiar character,
does, indeed, appear in Little Compton; but in the intervening
space I have never met with any rocks in place but granite ; and
this rarely. For the accumulation of diluvium in that quarter of
of the State is very great ; and, indeed, the towns of New Bedford,
Fair Haven, and Rochester, might be regarded as dilluvial without
impropriety ; but as I have met there with gneiss in some instances,
1 do not hesitate to represent a deposite of gneiss in those
places ; being, however much in doubt as to its actual limits.

Almost all the varieties of gneiss that have been described, may
be found in the vicinity of New Bedford. In that place it is schis-
tose, and passes into mica slate. There, too, we find a beautiful
variety of porphyritic gneiss in bowlders ; tlie masses of feldspar
being flesh red and about the size of a hazle nut.

Schistose and Stratified Structure : Dip and Direction of the

Strata.

In no rock in the State are the slaty and stratified structures so
distinctly marked in the same rock, as in gneiss. The strata are
usually thick ; and where no local cause of irregularity exists, re-
markably even and continuous. Hence the facility with which
the quarrymen cleave out slabs of gneiss, 20 or 30 feet long, and
half as many wide. But these same slabs, when dressed, often
exhibit a schistose structure of remarkable irregularity, — the 1am-
ina3 being much bent and composed of different ingredients, so as
to give to the rock the appearance of a variegated or clouded
marble. The underpinning of most of the buildings in Amherst,
particularly of the village church, exhibits this appearance most
strikingly. The rock, however, will not cleave in the direction
indicated by these contorted layers, any easier than in other di-
rections. And hence, in strictness of language, it ought rather to
be regarded as a foliated than a schistose structure. Hence, too,
this structure does not injure the rock for architectural purposes.

The following sketch exhibits a very striking case of this foli-
ated structure, as it is developed on the surface of a bowlder, sev-
eral feet square, lying by the side of the road in Colebrook, Con-
necticut ; a few miles south of the Massachusetts line. These
curvatures are much larger than is usual and more distinct. They
appeared to be entirely independent uf the stratification.

Jk

*%

387

Scientific Geology.

Curvatures in the Folia of Gneiss : Colebrook, Ct.

These curvatures are not, however, confined to the lamina? of
gneiss, but are sometimes seen in the strata. About one mile be-
fore reaching the meetinghouse, near the centre of New Marlbor-
ough, on the south side of the road, the traveller will see an
overhanging ledge of stratified gneiss, dipping from 40° to 50°
east, whose edges are bent as in the annexed sketch. The whole
length of the strata here exhibited, (from A to B,) is 12 feet ; and
their breadth about four feet. This ledge has been described by

.'■1 Can m toll aUi ui UJiciss; New Marlburou'.

Direction and Dip of the Strata.

387

Prof. Dewey, under the name of mica slate ; but I have already
given the reasons that have led me to differ from him on this point.

The suggestions that have been made in treating of mica slate,
in regard to the causes of such flexures in rocks, are equally ap-
plicable to the rock under consideration ; and therefore 1 shall add
no more in this place on the subject.

It will appear from the following notes, relative to the dip and
direction of the strata of gneiss in Massachusetts, that this rock
conforms to at least three systems of stratification. The Hoosic
mountain range, and the western part of the Worcester county
range exhibit one system ; the branch of this latter range, which
extends into Middlesex county, belongs to a second without much
doubt : that portion of it in the southeast part of Worcester county
and in Rhode Island seems to belong to a third, and perhaps the
New Bedford gneiss to a fourth. But more of this hereafter.

Hoosic Mountain Range.

Cheshire, east part,

Windsor to north part of Peru,

Chester to Becket,

Colebrook, Ct. to West Granville,

Whitingham, Vt. - - -

Wilmington, Vt.

do.
Buckland,

to Somerset,

Brimfield, _ _ .

do. to Sturbridge,
Sturbridge to Charlton,
Monson to Sturbridge through

Wales and Holland,
Plumbago Mine, Sturbridge,
Sturbridge through Southbridge
to Dudley, the dip gradu-
ally decreasing, -
Oxford, west part,

Charlton to Brookfield,
Western, > - .

Enfield, . - - -

Direction.

Dip.

N. and S.

20° to 30° E.

N. and S.

East.

N. and S.

80" to 90° E.

N. and S.

nearly 90° E.

N. and S.

30° W.

N. 30" E.

30° to 70° W.

N. and S.

West, large.

N. and S.

10° to20°E.,&;

10" to 20° W.

the latter rather predominating.

Worcester Valley.

Direction.

Dip.

N. and S.

45° W.

N. and S.

20° to 80° W.

N. and S.

45° W.

N. and S.

45° to 70° W.

N. 30° E.

60no70''N.W.

N. and S.

60° to 25° W.

N. and S.

10° E : usually

west, and large.

N. and S.

20° to 40° E.

N. and S.

nearly 20° a

little S. W.

N. and S.

90° nearly.

3S8

Scientific Geology.

Enfield to Amherst,
Spencer, centre, -

do. two miles east,
Hardwick, . . -

do. to Spencer,
New Braintree,

Ware, _ - - -

Leicester towards Worcester,
Pelham, west part,

do. north part, - - -

do. to Prcscott,
Shutesbury, - - -

do. Lock's Pond,
Leverett, north part, -
Petersham, - - - -
Hubardston, - . -

Rutland, . - . .
Princeton, embracing Wachusett,

do. towards Sterling,
New Salem to Ternpleton,
Warwick, . - - -

Warwick to Royalton, -
Winchendon, west part, to Ash-

burnham, - - -
Ashburnham to Fitchburg,
Townsend to Rindge, N. H.
Rindge, N. H., west part,
Winchester, N. H. towards

Northfield,

Direction.
N. and S.
N. and S.
N. and S.
N. and S.
N. and S.
N. and S.
N. and S.
N. and S.
N. and S.
N. and S.
N. and S.
N. and S.
N.W. h S.E
N.W. SiS.E.
N. and S.

and S.

and S,

and S.

and S.
N. and S.
between N.E
and North,
N. and S.

N. and S.
N. and S.
N. 30° E.
N. and S.

N. and S.

N.
N.
N.
N.

Dip.

10" to 30o E.

West, small.

20° E.

SO*' to 30° W.

20° W.

20° to 300 W.

20o W.

West, small.

20no 30° W.

15° to 20° E.

20° to 30° E.

45" to 90° E.
, 45" N. E.

0° to 450 N. E.

40° to 50° W.

30o W.

E. very small.

10° to 20° E.
nearly horizontal.

nearly 90o.

Easterly.
60° to 800 E.

West, various.
West, small.
10° to 25° N.W.
30° to 40° W.

20°to 30° E.

Range East of Worcester Valley : North part of the Range.

Dip.

60° to 70° N.W.
60° to70o N.W.
90°.
60"to90oN.W.

70°to80oN.W.
20°to90°N.W.?

Bolton, - . -
Boxborough, limestone quarry

do. west part,

Carlisle,

Chelmsford, limestone quarry,
Worcester to Berlin,
Concord, . . ~

Worcester, southeast part,

Direction.
N.E.andS.W.
N.E. andS.W.
N.E. and S.W,
N.E. and S.W.
N.E.andS.W.
N.E. and S.W.
nearly N. and
South.

N. several de-
grees E.

nearly 90° W.
70" to 80° W.

Minerals in Gneiss. 389

South part of the Range.

Din^ctinn. Dip.

Worcester to Grafton, - - S. several de-

grees W. 45" to 90" W.

Grafton to Upton, - - S.E. and N.W. N. E. small.
Mendon, - . . . S.E. and N.W. 20'to 30" N. E.
Douglass, - - - S.E.andN.W. aS'toGO^N. E.

Westborough to Hopkinton

Springs, - - - S.E. and N.W. 30« N. E.
Uxbridge, - - ~ E. and W. to

-S.E. and N.W. 25°N.andN.E.

Sutton, - „ _ _

E. and W.

30" to 35° N

do. Purgatory,

S.E. and N.W

25° N. E.

Burrillville and Smithficld, west

part,

nearly E. and

West.

25" to 30« N.

New Bedford Gneiss.

Dirpction.

Dip.

New Bedford, (town,)

E. 20" N.

55° N. W.

do. Palmer's Island,

E. and W.

35" N.

Rochester, - - - -

E. and W.

35° N.

Little Compton, R. I.

N.E.andS.W.

35' S. E.

The greatest irregularity in the dip, as shown in the preceding
table, exists in the gneiss in the western part of Worcester county.
Yet the direction is pretty uniform, being usually north and south.
And in respect to the dip, I think it obvious that a westerly dip
predominates, being rather largest towards the western side of the
range. Thus it is represented on Plates XVII. and XVIII. From
those sectional views, it will be seen that this westerly dip is most
uniform across the southern part of the range. In the central sec-
tion, the dip becomes east towards the western part, and still more
so in the most northerly section.

The smallness of this dip in many places is another striking cir-
cumstance in this range. If we have any rock that would be se-
lected for the oldest described by geologists, it is this gneiss ; and
hence we see how deceptive was the old rule, which taught us that
the relative ages of rocks might be determined by their dip.

Mineral Contents.

In some parts of the world gneiss is remarkable as the repository
of a number of the precious stones. In Ceylon, for instance,
where gneiss is the prevailing rock, it contains of the quartz fam-
ily, rock crystal, amethyst, rose cpiartz, cat's eye, prase and hy-

48

390 Scientific Ocology.

alite ; also topaz, schorl, pyrope, cinnamon stone, zircon, spinell'e,,
sapphire and corundum.* Hitherto the gneiss of Massachusetts
has not yielded so rich a supply. But it affords enough of the
same minerals, to prove a strong analogy hetween the causes that
produced these deposits in parts of the globe so widely separated.
Especially will this be true, if we regard the limestone beds in the
northeast branch of the Worcester gneiss range, as a part of this
formation ; and this is certainly reasonable. For in these beds
have been found spinelle, a garnet which is probably cinnamon
stone, asparagus stone, nephrite, and precious serpentine ; and the
following statement will show that several others of the Ceylon
minerals have also been found in the gneiss itself.

By far the most important mineral hitherto found in our gneiss,
is graphite. As described in the first part of my Report, its most
important locality is in Sturbridge. It occurs in other places,
however, as in North Brookfield, in Brimfield, in Hinsdale and
New Marlborough ; though I am not sure that in the two last
named localities, the gangue is gneiss. The plumbago in Stur-
bridge, which is situated only two miles north of the Connecticut
line, and near the western line of the town, has been explored in
some places to the depth of 60 or 70 feet. I have already de-
scribed it so fully as to render it necessary to add only a few re-
marks respecting its geological situation and mineralogical charac-
ters and associations. It is most decidedly a bed in a dark colored
gneiss, which here dips from 60° to 70° west and runs N. 30°
East, and S. 30" West. In immediate contact with the gneiss,
we find frequently lamellar brownish hornblende, which is also dis-
seminated to a considerable extent in the gneiss.

The lusture of this plumbago is highly metallic. Its structure
is between scaly and fine granular. Sometimes, however, there is
an obvious approximation to distinct crystals : though mineralogists
are not agreed that this substance has ever been found in such a
state. JudgingI however, from specimen. No. 1075 and from
what the workmen told me, I suspect that if crystalized graphite
occurs any where, it may be found at Sturbridge.
There is another variety found at this locality, which is distinctly
fibrous : the fibres being from one to two inches long. On exam-
ination these fibres are found to be composed of distinct lamellae,
which are sometimes so bent as to give the mass a fibrous appear-
ance ; as happens in certain varieties of mica slate : but more
commonly these lamellae actually separate longitudinally into very
narrow prisms, like prismatic mica. (No. 1074.)

At this mine I noticed phosphate of lime in small quantity.
At the most southerly excavation, also, I noticed hydrate of iron,

* Geological Transactions, vol. 5. p. 318.

Minerals in Onciss. 391

in across fissure in the gneiss, and forming witli the ingredients oi
the rock a brecciatcd mixture. Vegetable reUcs are sometimes
seen enveloped in the mass. Half a mile north of the meeting
house in North Brookfield, I notice a similar breccia, forming a bed
in gneiss a foot or two in thickness : though here 1 saw no vegeta-
ble remains.

In both these cases, I think we must regard this iron ore as hav-
ing been infiltrated into cavities in the gneiss, at a recent date ;
and therefore, in fact, as an alluvial deposit ; although at Brook-
field the iron forms a distinct bed in the gniess. But the rock con-
tains abundance of decomposing sulphate of iron, which, as we
have already seen produces bog iron of exactly the same aspect
as that above described ; and it is not impossible that from this
cause a cavity in the rock that was originally small, might have
been much enlarged ; while the exfoliated fragments would go to
make up the brecciated mass above described.

After what I have said under graywacke and mica slate, in re-
spect to the origin of anthracite and plumbago, it will be repe-
titious to add any thing farther on this subject. It may be that I
am too much captivated with the beautiful simplicity of the prin-
ciple, which refers every variety of peat, lignite, bituminous and
anasphaltic coal, and plumbago, to a vegetable origin. But at pres-
ent, I must regard that opinion as far more probable than any other.

It will be well for observers to bear in mind a remark of Dr.
Davy relating especially to the gneiss of Ceylon. 'It is worthy of
remark,' says he, 'that graphite is generally found in company
with gems. I have had so often occasion to make the observation
that I now never see the former without supposing the presence oi
the latter.'*

A mineral occurring in our gneiss, and often confounded with
graphite, is the sulphuret of molybdenum. I have noticed this
in Brimfield in scales ; and in the north part of Shutesbury, a lit-
tle east of Locke's Pond, it has been found in hexagonal plates
nearly an inch in diameter.

The mineral found in our gneiss, which next to graphite v^/ill ex-
cite most interest in an economical point of view, is the native
alum mentioned in a postcript to the first edition of the first part
of my Report. It is found efflorescing on that schistose variety
of gneiss, which is passing into mica slate. There is mixed with
it more or less of sulphate of iron, and both minerals proceed
from the decomposition of iron pyrites, and probably feldspar.
This last mineral contains, as is well known, a considerable quan-
tity of potassa ; and I can imagine no other source from whence
this essential ingredient of alum should be obtained. Nor will
any one doubt, who has seen how thorough is often the decompo-

^Geological Trans, vol. 5. p. 323.

392 Scientific Geology.

sition of the gneiss that contains pyrites, that this potassa might be
separated. I am not aware that alum has been heretofore
found in gneiss : l)ut since this rock does contain so much potassa,
and if it can be thus separated from the feldspar, why may not
our gneiss prove a very prolific source of alum ? I do not know
that any special efforts have been made to ascertain whether it
can be procured in much f|uantity from the rock in Leominster:
but recently 1 have received a specicnon from l^arrc, and it occurs
also in Ware. And I can have no doubt that any part of the
gneiss range, where pyrites is decomposing, will produce it. It
may be hoped tiiat a fair trial will erelong bo made to obtain this
substance. This is not the proper place to make suggestions as to
the best mode of proceeding. Suffice it to say, that no effort
should be made on a large scale, without consulting some practical
ciiemist.

The Worcester county gneiss ranges contain in many places,
an abundance of blood red, often ruby red, and translucent garnets.
Often they are extremely minute and jjcrfectly crystalized ; but
sometimes, as in Brookfield, they arc more than half an inch in
diameter, and the crystal is very imperfect. At length it becomes
perfect pyropc. And it is a curious fact that there is a strip of
gneiss, (sometimes approximating to mica slate,) extending from
Norwich in Connecticut, half across, and probably entirely across
Massachusetts, which abounds in this mineral. This strip jiasses
along the western part of Wales, Brimfield, Ware, &c. In no
place, however, except Brimfield, is the color of this garnet so
delicate as in Norwich, Ct., where it is found in mica slate.

The foliated masses of feldspar in the porphyritic gneiss passing
through Brimfield, Ware, &c., are frequently a delicate adularia.
In Southbridge, in a decomposing ledge of gneiss, near the centre
of the place, the feldspar is of a delicate green, yet almost trans-
parent; being quite elegant when polished. (No. 1086.) In cav-
ities in the gneiss in Boxborough, I found distinct, yet not hand-
some crystals of feldspar. The same occur with actynolite, augite,
and sphene, in Pel ham.

Common schorl is frequently seen in the gneiss of Massachu-
setts, as in Athol, Pelham, and New Braintree. In the latter
place, the crystals have distinct acuminations. Often, as in Athol
and Pelham, epidote, sometimes in crystals, is associated with the
schorl.

In the New Bedford gneiss, as I was informed by T. A. Greene,
Esq., epidote occurs along with the red oxide of titanium. In the
gneiss in Pelham, I have noticed some crystals of sphene as just
mentioned. But the sphene which I lately found in the augitic
gneiss in the east part of Lee, is finer than any I have met with
in New England. (No. 1091.) The crsytals are very oblique
rhombic prisms, variously modified at their extremities ; resem-

Minerals in Gneiss. 393

bling those represented on Plate Xll, figures 47, 48, and 49, ol'
Beudant's Mineralogy.

It lias already been repeatedly stated, that the sulphuret of iron
is one of the most abundant of the minerals in the gneiss of Wor-
cester county. In Hubbardston, as I have mentioned elsewhere,
this ore is wrought for the preparation of copperas. In the
gangue of the ore occurs a mineral which exceeding resembles
peliom, though it may be blue quartz. It deserves farther exam-
ination.

Magnetic oxide of iron is sometimes met with in small dissemin-
ated masses in gneiss, as in Athol and Shelburne.

Arsenical sulphuret of iron is said to occur in Leicester in
gneiss.

In Pelham we meet in this rock, with well characterised speci-
mens of anthophyllite.

In that town, also, is a great abundance of finely crystalized
quartz. Some of the crystals are (juite delicate. They are com-
monly limpid, though sometimes of a light brown color, and some-
times of a fine topaz yellow-, being genuine yellow quartz. Rare-
ly are they amethystine. Not unfrequently large cavities are drusy,
and present fine specimens. The crystals vary in size, from two
inches in diameter to the fineness of a sewing needle. It is not
easy to ascertain the precise situation of this quartz in the gneiss ;
since it is seen only in loose masses scattered over several acres.
Probably, however, it constitutes a vein. I observed no metallic
substance in it, except a little sulphuret of iron.

Associated with this quartz are found beautiful specimens of
mamillary chalcedony. (No. 1002.) Rarely it is of a milk white
color; but commonly of a delicate blue. Sometimes it may be
seen investing distinct crystals of quartz, thus showing its origin to
be watery infiltration beyond all question.

It has already been mentioned that steatite and serpentine occur
in beds in our gneiss. In Milbury, a variety of the former has
been found, which has been called vennicuHte, on account of its
singular property of shooting forth vermiform masses when exposed
to heat : thus giving to the specimens, when in the fire, the appear-
ance of worms in motion.

I have seen a specimen of gray copper from Rrimfield ; and
from the geological constitution of that region, I infer that it orig-
inated from gneiss.

In Washington, Ct., the gneiss contains mesotype and stilbite ;
and at Bellows Falls, on the Vermont shore, a radiated miner-
al of the zeolite family, with another in small and distinct crystals,
which 1 shall describe under greenstone, as a new species, by the
name of Lincolnitt.

394 Scientific Geology.

Theoretical Considerations.

Since gneiss is composed of the same simple minerals as granite,
it is natural to infer that both must have had a similar origin. And
especially are we led to such a conclusion, when we see in grani-
tic gneiss a gradual passage from the one rock into the other. That
granite has resulted from heat, instead of aqueous deposition,
seems to me to be so well established, that the opinion that imputes to
it such an origin, ought no longer to be regarded as hypothesis, but
as legitimate theory. Thus it is regarded by nearly all the
ablest geologists of Europe ; and in the proper place 1 hope to
show that our granite presents equally strong evidence of such an
origin as that on the eastern continent. At present,! shall assume
that theory to be the correct one, which supposes granite to have re-
sulted from the melting down of other rocks; the fused mass hav-
ing cooled so slowly as to present a confused crystalization. It is
at least a probable supposition, that the rock out of which it was
produced, was of mechanical origin, and consequently stratified.
Now if the central heat was not sufficient entirely to melt this
stratified rock, yet it would be powerfully affected a considerable
distance upward from the molten mass. The layers in immediate
contact with the melted portion, would be partially fused, and hence
give origin to granitic gneiss. Another portion might be convert-
ed into porphyritic gneiss ; another into lamellar ; another into
schistose; k,c. All the rock we may suppose so near the fluid
granite, and so long in contact with it, before cooling, that a crys-
talline would succeed to a mechanical arrangement of all its ingre-
dients, without losing the stratified disposition.

The facility with which this hypothesis explains the graduation
of gneiss into granite, and the crystalline and especially the por-
phyritic structure of the gneiss, is the principal argument in its sup-
port. Such effects we know might have resulted from heat : but
they could not have resulted from watery solution.

As to the mechanical rock from which gneiss was produced,
according to this theory, we are left only to conjecture. Most prob-
ably it was a coarse micaceous sandstone, which resulted from the
disintegration of granite, previously existing. When hornblende slate
alternates w'ith the gneiss, we have only to suppose that formerly
clay slate was interstraiified with the sandstone : and wiiere there is
an interlamination of mica slate and gneiss, we have only to suppose
that in some portions of the sedimentary rock, the necessary in-
gredients for tlie production of feldspar were wanting. In the
same manner, the quartz rock associated with the gneiss, might
have proceeded from a sandstone composed chiefly of siliceout;
sand.

Theoretical Considcratio7is. 395

According to this view of the subject, granite, and perliaps other
piiniar)' rocks, must have existed anterior to those which now form
the crust of the globe ; and from the detritus of which, the exist-
ing primary rocks were produced ; being subsequently indurated
and crystalized by a new eruption of granite and other unstratified
rocks. Thus we trace a number of successive epochs of renewal
and destruction, before the earth assumed its present form : and
now we see the process of destruction going forward. To these
changes the mathematician* who first developed the fundamental
principles of this theory saw no marks of a commencement, — no
prospect of an end ; and hence he has been supposed to defend
the hypothesis of the vrorld's eternity, and to exclude a Deity
from its creation and government. But surely his own theory did
not teach him that the earth had existed in more than two stales
anterior to the present ; viz. the state that preceded the existence
of our present primary strata, and that which included these only.
And had he been acquainted with the history of organic remains,
as the subject is now understood, he might have known that there
is no proof of more than five or six extinctions of animals and plants
antecedent to the creation of the present races ; and still farther,
he might have known that each successive creation exhibited a
greater degree of perfection in animal natures ; thus proving a pro-
gressive state of things : which implies a commencement. And
the whole history of the rock strata shows a corresponding im-
provement in the state of the globe, pointing us back to an origi-
nal beginning. Further, had this philosopher been as well ac-
quainted with the chemistry of nature as with her mathematics, he
must have known, that an intensely heated globe could not have
existed eternally in that state ; and that as there must have been a
period when it began, so there will be a period when it will cease to
radiate heat ; and, therefore, the fundamental principle of his the-
ory should have taught him, that probably the world had a begin-
ning, and will have an end. Indeed if I understand geology aright,
so far from teaching the eternity of the world, it proves more di-
rectly than any other science can, that its revolutions and races of
inhabitants had a commencement, and that it contains within itself
the chemical energies, which need only to be set at liberty by the
will of their Creator, to accomplish its destruction. Because this
science teaches that the revolutions of nature have occupied im-
mense periods of time, it does not, therefore, teach that they form
an eternal series. It only enlarges our conceptions of the Deity ;
and when men shall cease to regard geology with jealousy and nar-
row-minded prejudices, they will find that it opens fields of re-
search and contemplation as wide and as grand as astronomy itself.

* Dr. Ilutton.

396 Scientijic Qeology.

UNSTRATIFIED ROCKS.

I have already described several rocks, (ex. gr. limestone, ser-
pentine, and one or two varieties of iiornblende slate,) as some-
times stratified and sometimes unstratified. But the rocks which
I include under the present division, are never stratified in the
proper sense of that term. They are, indeed sometimes divided
into parallel masses : but in such cases this peculiar form seems to
result from that kind of crystalline arrangement called the concre-
tionary structure. The question so long agitated, whether these
rocks, particularly granite, are stratified, seems at last to be satis-
factorily settled in the negative. This character, therefore, may
with propriety be employed to designate one of the great classes of
rocks.

Unstratified rocks occupy but a small part of the surface of any
country. In Great Brltlan Macculloch says they ' do not cover a
thousandth part of the superficies of the island.' In Massachusetts
however, as may be seen by the map, they form at least a quarter
part of the surface.

These rocks occur in three modes: 1. In irregular protruding
masses, intruded in almost every manner among the stratified rocks,
and enlarging downwards indefinitely : '2. In tiie form of veins of
various sizes, and often ramified : 3. As overlying masses. It
has been stated, also, that they exist interstratified with other rocks :
but an examination of all such cases has shown, that such inter-
laininated masses are always connected with an unstratified mass,
and are merely veins, which for a time coincide in direction with
the strata.

One cannot examine the unstratified rocks with attention, with-
out perceiving that their mode of production must have been in
some respects different from that of the stratified rocks. Not long
since the general opinion was, that they originated from the crys-
talization of their ingredients dissolved in water. At this day the
belief in their igneous origin has become nearly as universal. In re-
gard to the trap rocks, indeed, this opinion is almost unanimous.
Why there should be any more hesitation in assigning a similar ori-
gin to granite, I confess myself unable to imagine. I should almost
as soon deny that the red rays of the spectrum proceed from the
sun, after admitting that the six other colors were produced by
that luminary. I am constrained thus early to express my convic-
tion of the igneous origin of all the unstratified rocks : for I have
found that opinion marvelously to simplify the history of these
rocks ; and to clear up many difliculties inexplicable on any other

tatrodiictorij Itcmarlcs. 397

theory. To regard these rocks as they occur in the primary, sec-
ondary and tertiary classes, as independent of one another, and of
the same age of the formations in which they occur, and thus to
describe them as primary, transition, secondary, &c. produces in
this part of geology a perfect chaos. But to regard them all as
merely varieties of the same meked mixture, whose peculiarities
resulted from the modes in which they were cooled and crystalized,
and intruded among the stratified rocks, does certainly relieve the
mind of a host of doubts and difficulties, and render the history of
these varieties comparatively easy, whether the theory be true or
false. On this supposition we are no longer surprised to find it
impossible to draw any definite line between the different varieties,
nor to find them all united in the same mountain mass.

It must not however, be understood that this view of the sub-
ject implies that all the unstratified rocks are of the same age.
For in this respect there is evidence of nearly as great diversity as
exists among the stratified rocks. And their intrusion among the
stratified rocks affords an important clue for determining their rela-
tive ages. It is obvious, however, that the intrusion of the former
among the strata of the latter, only proves that the unstratified rock
was formed posterior to the stratified one. And on this principle
it has been shown, that granite has been protruded even since the
deposition of the chalk : while basalt has cut through even the
supercretaceous rocks; and finally, tlie products of existing volca-
noes overspread diluvium and alluvium.

So well satisfied am I of the correctness of these views respect-
ing the unstratified rocks, that I have been strongly tempted, accord-
ing to the suggestion of Dr. Macculloch, to treat of all those that
occur in Massachusetts as a single family ; being convinced with
him, that' geological philosophy must adopt this (proposal) sooner
or later.' But if that geologist shrunk from taking the lead in such
an innovation, well may I. Tiie members of the unstratified class
in Massachusetts are not numerous ; and I have concluded to treat
of them all under four divisions, viz. greenstone, porphyry, sienite,
and granite.

There would be some advantages in treating of these rocks in
an ascending, instead of a descending order: that is, in beginning
with granite, taking sienite next, porphyry next, and greenstone
last. For this is the order in which in general they seem to have
been produced. But for the sake of uniformity, and to secure
some other advantages, I shall invert this order.

A few words may be needful in this place, in respect to the
manner in which these rocks are represented on the map. From
the intricate manner in which the greenstone, sienite, and granite
are mixed together, in the vicinity of Boston, I found it inipossible
to give them precisely their true relative space in the delineation.

49

396 Scientific Geology.

I therefore colored the whole space occupied by them all, as gran-
ite ; and then, having observed that as a general fact the green-
stone was first met with, on lines radiating from Boston, then por-
phyry and sienite, and lastly granite, I represented these several
rocks as occupying spaces somewhat in the form of concentric
bands. Wherever I observed these rocks intermingled, however,
I have endeavored to represent their mixture by scattering dots
and crosses somewhat promiscuously in tlie region. This method
of course can give only an approximation to the truth. In the
valley of the Connecticut, these rocks are scarcely ever so con-
fusedly mixed together; and, therefore, it is only in the eastern
and northeastern parts of the State that such a course has been
adopted. The porphyry forms only two ranges, which are dis-
tinct; the one on the north, and the other to the south of Boston,
except that a narrow strip of compact feldspar, — the base of por-
phyry,— is marked in the northern part of Essex County. Por-
phyry, however, passes by insensible gradations into sienite, but
the change commonly takes place in a vertical and not in a hori-
zontal direction.

15. GREENSTONE.

The most approved definition of this rock makes it to consist of
hornblende with compact and common feldspar: some add clink-
stone also: but as this substance does not occur in this part of
our country, it is of no importance in the present instance, whether
it be added or not. A mixture of hornblende and feldspar, the
former in much the largest proportion, and both of the minerals ex-
hibiting but little of a crystalline structure, constitutes the great
mass of the trap rocks of Massachusetts. Other varieties do
indeed occur, composed of different ingredients : but as these are
found in such small quantity, and are obviously accidental varie-
ties, I have thought it most judicious to describe them all under
the term greenstone. Such a liberty I have frequently taken in
the case of the stratified rocks ; and I think it still less objection-
able in the case of the unstratified ; because there is much more
diversity of opinion among geologists as to the ingredients that
compose the latter. These ingredients are often so little crystal-
line, as to be exceedingly obscure in their characters ; and it is,
therefore, no wonder that such diversity exists even in the state-
ments of the ablest writers. Especially is this not surprising, when
we recollect, that until recently, it was thought essential to a good
description of these rocks, that the observer should be able to prove
that they belonged either to the primitive, transition, or secondary
class of the stratified rocks. It was bad enough to be obliged to

Varieties of Greenstone. 399

stretch the stratified rocks upon this Procrustean bed, although
here tl)ese artificial divisions imd some appearance of naturalness;
but in the unstratified rocks, no facts could be found on which to
base such an arrangement; and, therefore, imagination must sup-
ply the necessary characters. The consequence was, that minute
and ever varying mineralogical characters in the trap rocks were
studied with scrupulous exactness ; while their geological position
and chemical and mechanical influence on other rocks, were scarce-
ly noticed.

Mineralogical Characters.

1. Hornhknde and Feldspar : the mixture more or less gran-
ular. Commonly the ingredients are so fine that they are with
some difficulty discerned by the naked eye. Hence it is not easy
to determine always whether the feldspar is compact or foliated.
Frequently I believe, however, that both varieties will be found,
and that often in the same specimen. The crystalline structure of
the hornblende is usually very indistinct. In the eastern part of
the State, however, where this rock is associated with sienite, the
two ingredients are often very distinct and the texture crystalline.
A variety occurs on Mount Holyoke and in West Springfield, in
which the ingredients are very coarse, and the feldspar, which is
foliated, is of so dark a color as with difficulty to be distinguished
from the hornblende. (Nos. 1127, 1128.) The feldspar is
arranged in stripes, like a ribbon, as in the sienite near Boston.

The compound that has now been described, constitutes the
principal part of the greenstone dikes, ridges, and hummocks, in
Massachusetts. (Nos. 1106 to 1135.) The same compound
occurs also in other forms, as will be seen in the sequel.

2. Columnar. This differs from the preceding variety only in
form : for its composition is almost uniformly the same. Nearly
all the greenstone in the valley of the Connecticut exhibits more
or less of a conatus at a columnar structure, except the tufaceous
variety. Yet it is the finely granular variety, that exhibits the
most perfect forms. A similar conatus appears in some of the beds
of greenstone in the eastern part of the State, especially in Charles-
town : but these columnar masses are so imperfect, compared with
some of those in the Connecticut valley, that I shall limit my re-
n)arks entirely to the greenstone occurring in that valley : and as
it is more convenient, I shall in this place give the topography of
the variety under consideration.

Nearly all the ridges of greenstone in the valley of the Con-
necticut, (for a reason that will appear in the sequel,) present on
their western sides, a nearly perpendicular face. Usually, how-
ever, the angular fragments that have fallen from these precipices,
have accuniulated at the bottom, so as to form a steep talus, reach-

400 Scicniific Geology.

ing half or two tbirus the distance to the summit ; and sometimes
entirely to the top. VVlieie the rock appears in the face of the
cliff, it is almost always more or less columnar ; sometimes as
much as 30 or 40 feel in height. In some cases one set of columns
is separated from another set, above or below, by a stratum or
mass of trap tuff.

There are, however, only a few places where these columns are
very perfect. Along the west side of the greenstone ridge that
forms the eastern part of Deerfield mountain, in several places,
about a mile east of the village, they exhibit great regularity. Usu-
ally their diameter here, — and the same remark will apply to every
other locality, — is between two and three feet; rarely as small as
one foot ; and the number of their sides between four and six.
They are sometimes distinctly articulated ; the joints varying from
one to three or four feet in height. The articulations are usually
curved, at their ends presenting frequently a convexity on the up-
per side, and a concavity on the lower. The breadth of the sides
is considerably une(|ual ; and with this exception, perhaps, these
columns might compare in regularity with those of basalt from
Ireland.

I have already given a general description, in the second part of
my Report, of an exhibition of greenstone columns towards the
southern extremity of Holyoke, in the western face of the hill. At
that place we see but little of articulation : but a most remarkable
disintegration, or rather exfoliation, is there constantly going for-
ward ; as the immense number of fragments at the base of the cliff
testifies. The pieces that split or scale off, are of almost every
shape ; but they are commonly rather thin, sometimes in curved
laminae an inch or two thick. When the lower part of a column
begins thus to scale off, the fissures take such a direction as to
leave the under side of the column, still projecting from the preci-
pice, in the form of a hemisphere, or more commonly in the form
of a paraboloid ; and not unfrequently of a lenticular form. And
in one spot at least, the upper portion of two or three rows of col-
umns is suspended over the head of tlie observer, appearing like
numerous iron kettles, not less than three feet in diameter, hanging
from the rock. This is certainly one of the most singular natural
objects that 1 have ever met with ; nor can one feel at perfect ease
beneath such a piazza, when he sees by how feeble a hold these
masses of immense weight are sustained ; and how instantly one
of them falling would grind him to powder.

I have been at a loss to decide, whether the exfoliation which
is exhibited at this spot, takes place according to an original struc-
ture of the rock, or is produced by the natural action of the dis-
integrating agents; such as air, moisture, heat, and cold, upon
rocks of a peculiar form, I can hardly admit the latter suppose-

Columnar Ci rccnstonc. 401

tion ; when, on breaking the fragments, they are found, except for
a nnere line at the surface, to be so entirely unchanged. Yet this
curved form of exfoliation is not the only one exhibited on this
greenstone range. More frequently the columns split longitudi-
nally, into somewhat irregular pieces, from one to six or more
inches in diameter. All along the western side of Mount Tom,
examples of this kind may be seen ; and the quantity of fragments
of this sort, accumulated at the base of this mountain, is immense.
Sometimes these fragments are very regular in their forms ; pro-
ducing prisms of three, four, five, &-c, sides, and three to six inches
in diameter. (Nos. 1136, 1137, 1138.) Again, as at Titan's
Pier, described in the second part of my Report, concave layers
of the rock (No. 1139) cleave off from the upper extremity. A
joint of this description will sometimes contain several quarts of
water; and I have seen one of them standing by a farmer's well,
which was used as a substitute for a wash-bowl ! Upon the whole,
1 am of opinion that the form of these exfoliations depends upon
original structure, which the disintegrating agents above mentioned
reveal, but do not create.

1 know of no spot where so good a view of the ends of these
greenstone columns can be obtained, as at Titan's Pier above
mentioned. They are exhibited to the best advantage on the west
side of the ridge, where it passes under the river: and at low wa-
ter, we can see the ends of the columns forming the bottom of the
river, as far as the eye can reach. The following sketch repre-
sents above twenty of these colunms, as they present themselves
at low water, and close to the water, at the spot ju>f mentioned.
The sides were not measured except by the eye, and I am confi-
dent that there is quite as much, probably more regularity in the
columns themselves, than in the drawing. The sides, it will be
seen, vary from four to six. The upper ends of these columns
are considerably convex : whereas only one rod farther from the
water, as already mentioned, they are decidedly concave. And
although it is possible that in the first case the form might have
resulted from the action of the river, yet from all that I have
seen, I much doubt whether the upper or lower end is uniformly
convex or concave.

402 Scientific Geology.

Ends of Greenstone Columns at Titan's Pier.

Both at Deerfield and at Holyoke, one sometimes meets with
columns tliat are considerably curved. In general they are
not perpendicular to the horizon, but lean from 10° to 30o towards
the east. Hence they stand about perpendicular to the strata of
sandstone beneath.

The two varieties that have now been described comprehend
the greater part of the grunstein of Werner, the diorite of Hauy,
and the diabase of Al. Brongniart. These writers, however,
mention only compact feldspar as an ingredient : but Dr. INIaccul-
loch very properly adds common feldspar.

3. Compact. Ir. this variety, which is almost entirely homo-
geneous and finely granular in its texture, the different ingredients
cannot be distinguished. In some cases it is probably only indu-
rated clay, or wacke, with some dark coloring matter : in other
cases, it may be hornblende and feldspar, completely melted to-
gether. The aspect of the rock approaches closely to some vari-
eties of basalt ; but it is doubtful whether we have any trap rock in
this part of America, which was produced at the same epoch, or
is composed of precisely the same mixture, as the European basalt.
The variety under consideration occurs generally in the form of
veins; as at Nahant, &;c. (Nos. 1140 to 1143.)

4. Chiefly Greenish Compact Feldspar 1 Tl)is is a beau-
tiful rock ; but its characters are very obscure. Perhaps it ought
to be described under porphyry : but its great resemblance to the
traps, has led me to place it here. It occurs in Essex county along
with sienite, common greenstone, &lc. (Nos. 1144 to 1147.)

5. Indurated Clay. This variety is of limited extent ; occur-
ring only at the junction of greenstone and shale; as at Titan's
Pier. In aspect it approaches to hornstone ; being of a light gray
color. In the same mass with this rock, we usually find angular
pieces of compact trap : so that in fact it might have been described
under in?/? tufa. (JNos. 1118 to 1150.)

Varieties of Grcenstonr. 403

6. Hornblende, Augite 1 and Feldspar. The hnnihlondc in
this coiDpound is in crystalline fragments ; and the mineral which
1 suspect to be augite, is of a greenish aspect, but scarcely crys-
talline. The feldspar is sometimes foliated and in small quantity.
It occurs only at JNahant, a little distance northwest of the Hotel:
and the most remarkable circumstance in relation to it, is its appa-
rent regular stratification. This is the only instance that 1 know
of in Massachusetts where a trip rock exhibits those parallel di-
visions. I do not, however, regard them as real strata, for reasons
that will be hereafter mentioned. (Nos. 1152 to 1155.)

1 should not have noticed the above as a distinct variety, had
not its peculiar aspect excited the suspicion that it might be a do-
leritc of the geologists of continental Europe. I do not feel satis-
fied what is its real composition ; and I have even had a sus[)icion
whether it may not be the hyjjcrsthene rock of Maccullocli.

1. Porphyritic. There is considerable diversity in the com-
position of the rocks included under this term. Their characters
and situation deserve a particular notice, since they are frequently
usefid for ornamental purposes. (Nos. 115G to 1164.)

On Cape Ann a variety occurs, which resen)bles the black por-
phyry of the ancients, and appears to be the traj) imrpJujry of
Werner, and the melaphyrco{ Al. Brongniart. 1 shoidd describe
it as having a base of common greenstone, with large imbedded
crystals of greenish foliated feldspar. Sometimes these crystals
are more than an inch in diameter. It occurs at Sandy Bay, near
the village, in veins in sienite. A similar rock is found in veins at
Marblehead, according to the Messrs. Danas : also in rolled masses
in Dorchester, Brookline, and Roxbury. I have noticed the same
rock in rolled pieces in Easton, except that the feldspathic crystals
are white. (Nos. 1156, 1157.)

In Ipswich, west part, I found a rolled mass which appears to
be a greenstone with numerous foliated masses of a shining black
color, which I at first suspected to be feldspar : but I am satisfied
that they are /iTomji/a'/i. (No. 1159.)

A considerable part of the eastern or upper side of the green-
stone in the Connecticut valley, is very different in its composition
from the principal part of the ridges. The basis of the rock is
wacke-like ; and some of ii is amygdaloidal, and some of it por-
phyritic. The foliated masses of feldspar, however, are so small
and so numerous, that I doubt whether it might not with quite as
nmch propriety be reckoned as common trap. I doubt whether it
contains any hornblende. Its general color is grav. (Nos. 116.'3,
1 164.)

Occasionally we meet among the greenstone of that part of the
State, with other varieties that are more or le^s porphyritic. No.
1161, from Deerfield has a compact homogeneous base, nearly of

404 Scienti^r Geology.

the color of brick, with a few small imbedded crystals of feldspar.
It is found in the same mass with common greenstone ; but seems
to have been exposed to a higher degree of heat. No. 1 160,
from Turner's Falls, has a variegated base, whose nature is not
obvious, with crystals of feldspar.

8. Amygdaloidal. This structure, like the porphyritic, is
found in nearly all the varieties of greenstone that have been de-
scribed. The following are the most common of our amygdaloids.
(Nos. 1166 to 1175.)

Wilh a base of hornblende and feldspar : the first variety of
greenstone above described. I have never seen any of this amyg-
daloid very regularly columnar : still it very frequently exhibits a
columnar tendency. And it is a curious fact that the cavities often
run lengthwise of the column, and are parallel to one another ; so
that the rock resembles a block of wood, which worms have bored
through repeatedly in a longitudinal' direction. I have observed
some of these cavities a foot or two in length. (No. 1166.) On
account of the compactness of this rock, these cavities are usually
filled with foreign substances, such as calcareous spar, chalcedony,
quartz, chabasie, Lincolnite, &;c. The best spot that I know of
for obtaining specimens of this rock, is one mile directly east of
the academy in Deerfield.

In the same ledge, as well as in other ledges, the amygdaloid
abounds in spherical or spheroidal cavities, filled with quartz or
calcareous spar.

What particular causes produced these different forms in the
cavities, it may not in the present stale of knowledge be possi-
ble satisfactorily to ascertain. That they were all produced by
an elastic fluid, while yet the rock w as in a plastic state, seems now
generally admitted. Must not the different forms which they have
assumed, be imputed to inequality of pressure? And yet the air
vesicles in a mass of ice exhibit the same variety of shapes, some
of them being cylindrical, some spheroidal, and some spherical :
nor can we in this case impute their form to inequality of pressure.
But whatever the cause be, as in both instances the effect results
from refrigeration, may it not be the same ?

The most usual amygdaloid in the Connecticut valley has a base
which appears to be wacke. It occupies, as already remarked,
the easterly part of the ridges wherever I have examined them.
For the most part, it is liable to partial decomposition to a con-
siderable depth from the surface, and the imbedded minerals have
entirely disappeared. When they still remain, calcareous spar is
the most common. Not unfrequently, however, foliated chlorite
occupies most of the cavities ; and sometimes, as at Turner's Falls,
they are filled with chlorophoeite. Green earth, or earthy chlo-
rite, is still more frequently present. Sometimes the base is of a

t^aritties of Greenstone. 405

reddish hue ; but commonly of an earthy gray. In such cases
the rock exceedingly resembles a toad in appearance, and is prob-
ably similar to, if not identical with tiie toadstone of some of the
English geologists. When the cavities are empty, the rock can
hardly be distinguished from some recent lavas. (Nos. 1170 to
1174.)

All these varieties with a wacke-like base, exhale a strong ar-
gillaceous odour when breathed upon.

The greenstone in the eastern part of the State is rarely amyg-
daloidal.

9. Concreted. The argillaceous substance above described, as
forming the base of certain acnygdaloids, sometimes contains nu-
merous distinct concretions of the same substance, apparently more
indurated. They are generally spheroidal ; and the concentric
crusts not more than a line in thickness. Sometimes I have ob-
served tlie central nucleus to consist of a rounded mass of amyg-
daloid enveloped by coats of indurated clay or vvacke. The di-
ameter of these concretions is sometimes six or eight inches : but
usually not more than two or three. They sometiujes occur im-
bedded in the next variety to be described. Their most abundant
localities, which I have noticed in INIassachusetts, are in Deerfield,
east of the village, and on Mount Holyoke, near the road from
Amherst to Granby. (Nos. 1176, 1177.)

10. Tufactous. This embraces all those rocks that are com-
posed of fragments of any of the varieties of greenstone that have
been described ; whether these fragments are angular or rounded ;
united by ' trap sand,' or the same materials in a comminuted state.
Sometimes, however, the rock consists of angular fragments ot
greenstone, cemented by calcareous spar. In this case it is obvi-
ous that the spar was introduced by watery infiltration, after the
fragments had been piled together. In other cases, it is equally
obvious that the fragments have been melted together: for we dis-
tinguish the different materials of which they consist, only by the
different colors; it being no easier to separate the rock along the
line where the fragments unite, than in any other direction : and
I do not suppose it possible to unite fragtnents so finnly except by
fusion. (Nos. 1178 to 1186.)

Topography of the Greenstone.

The parts of the Stale in which greenstone occurs in sufficient
quantity to be noticed on a Map, are only two. In the eas'ern
and northeastern part of the State, it will be seen that there are
extensive ranges. As we pass beyond the grayvvacke and argdla-
ceous slate that encircle Boston on the north, west, and south, we
usually find greenstone to be the predominant rock. Even on the
south, in Milton, kc. where porphyry is represented on the Map

50

40(i

Scientijic Geology.

as succeeding to the graywacke and clay slate, we usually meet
with narrow na^ses of greenstone, probably in some cases inter-
posed among ilie layers of slate. On the north of Boston, in the
slate of Charlestown particularly, such masses or beds of green-
stone are common ; and some ol them so large that 1 have noted
two of them on the Map. In this slate also, as well as in the
graywacke in other places, (as at Roxbury,) the greenstone is
found in veins. At Nahant they are sometimes forty feet thick,
in argillaceous slate and sienite.

Jf we proceed from Boston, after striking the deposit of green-
stone aboved named, we shall soon find that it is passing into sien-
ite, and mixed with sienite in almost every conceivable mode. In
one place the greenstone seems to form a distinct vein in the sien-
ite, the two rocks being well defined at their line of junction. In
another place, the sienite seems to form veins in the greenstone ;
although in such cases it is no easy matter to determine which
rock should have the posteriority : But from the general fact,
which 1 think obvious in this region, that the greenstone has been
produced subsequently to the sienite, I think we should be cautious
in reversing this order without good evidence. In son)e cases,
however, we meet with a reddish sienite containing numerous and
sometimes large angular and rounded fragments of greenstone. I
give a rough sketch below, of one of these cases, which 1 observed
in Marblehead, a little west of the town. In this case the base
of the rock is rather a red granite than sienite, being entirely des-
titute of hornblende.

Granite and Greenstone : Marblehead.

Instances similar to this are to be seen every where in the re-
gion under consideration. And they certainly appear as if the
greenstone had been partially melted down in the granite ; though
the heat was not great enough to complete the fusion. Or rather,
may it not be probable, that the perfect fusion of the rock out of
which those unstratified ones were produced, gave rise to the gran-
ite : while those portions that were not so entirely fused as to ad-
mit of entirely new and perfect combinations and crystallizations,

To])ogra})hy of Greenstone. 407

might have formed those portions of the rock which I call green-
stone, although some of it might as well perhaps be denominated
sienite, I atn aware that it is not yet well ascertained, how the
sanie materials should at one time have produced granite, at an-
other sienite, at another porphyry, and at another greenstone. But
some other facts which I have noticed on this subject, and which
will be detailed in speaking of granite, render it somewhat proba-
ble that the more or less perfect fusion of the materials may have
been the principal cause. According to this hypothesis, we might
explain how it happens that greenstone and sienite for the most
part, were produced since the formation of granite. For geology
furnishes abundant evidence that the temperature of the interior of
the earth has been gradually sinking, since the commencement of
these processes. And then again, the later any rock was erupted,
the less chance it has had for undergoing a second fusion, which, it
may be, is all that is necessary to convert it into some usually de-
scribed as older variety of rock. However, I will not dwell upon
a suggestion that is so very hypothetical.

As we proceed farther liom Boston, the sienite increases and the
greenstone decreases in quantity, and we begin to find granite des-
titute of hornblende, which at length often becomes extremely
coarse; as in Billerica, Andover, &,c. The greenstone, however,
occasionally appears associated with the perfect granite, as with
the sienite; though I do not recollect any instance where the pass-
age from the greenstone to the granite is gradual, as is the case
between greenstone and sienite. Generally the greenstone forms
veins in the granite. I have sometimes traced them not more than
a foot or two wide for several rods, (as in Weymouth,) retain-
ing their direction and width with almost mathematical exactness.

In the manner that has now been described; is the greenstone of
the eastern part of the State intermingled with its unstratified asso-
ciates, as the youngest member of the group. To mark out the pre-
cise limits of this rock in that section would require immense la-
bor, both on account of the great quantity of diluvium that overlies
the rocks, and the difficulty of drawing the line in all cases between
greenstone and sienite. Nor, if it be correct that all these
unstratified rocks are mere varieties of the same family would such
a demarcation be of any great use ; although I could wish to see it
done ; since in that way many facts might be brought to light im-
portant to geology.

Rarely does the greenstone under consideration form ridges or
elevations of any considerable height. In Weston, Waltham, Lin-
coln, Lexington, and West Cambridge, this formation attains its
greatest elevation ; which is never as much as 500 feet above the
ocean.

408 Scientific Qcologij.

Tlie greater part of the greenstone under consideration is ex-
ceedingly hard and compact, and the ingredients are with difficulty
distinguished. When passing to sienite, however, th&y become
coarse and highly crystalline. Very frequently the rock has a
greenish aspect, from a quantity of epidote which is disseminated
in it, or forms narrow veins, or a coating upon the surface. It is
not common, except where it is associated with the graywacke, to
see it exhibit that brown dirty aspect so common in the trap
rocks of posterior date.

Occasionally we find examples of a slaty structure in this green-
stone. And it must be regarded as really a slaty structure, not
the result of a concretionary deposition.* For the slate generally
appears to be genuine hornblende slate, sometimes rather less crys-
talline, however, than that rock generally is. I recollect at this
moment but three places where this slaty greenstone was observed :
viz. in Lincoln, on the turnpike between Andover and Boston in
Stoneham, and near the line between Reading and Wilmington.
In a theoretical point of view this fact seems to me important ; and
I shall recur to it in the sequel.

Variety No. 4. that has been described on a preceeding page, is
found in connection with sienite, a mile or two north of Byfield
Academy. IS'ear the academy we find red compact feldspar: but
I do not know that this is at all connected with tlie greenstone. On
the north side of the Merrimack river, in Salisbury, opposite New-
bury port, this same variety of rock occurs in juxtaposition with
sienite. Its aspect not a little resembles the varioloid wacke in
Saugus ; and I am not without strong suspicions that it may be
the same rock highly indurated. And it strengthens this suspicion
to find that sometimes in Newbury it exhibits a varioloid struc-
ture.

The Map exhibits the most northerly of the greenstone ranges
in the Connecticut valley with which I am acquainted ; though in
Vermont and New Hampshire in this valley, greenstone occurs in
connection with argillaceous and mica slate ; but probably this is a
variety of hornblende slate. The greenstone which 1 am now de-
scribing, is associated with the new red sandstone ; and ridges of
it may be seen extending almost uninterruptedly from New Haven,
Ct. to the north line of Massachusetts. The principal ridge com-
mences with West Rock, at New Haven, and extends from thence,
almost in a right line;, to IMount Tom in Massachusetts. In Con-
necticut several other ridges and hummocks of this rock exist to
the east of this principal one ; as may be seen on a geological map
of the Connecticut valley, which I prepared for the 6th volume of
the American Journal of Science.

♦Dr. MaccuUoch, however, regards the slaty structure as a variety of the con-
cretionary.

Topography of Greenstone. 409

The prineipal greenstone ridge above noticed, crosses the Con-
necticut river between Holyoke and Tom, and carving towards the
east, terminates in the north-west part of Belchertown. At the
southern extremity of Mount Toby, however, we meet with anoth-
er much more diminutive ridge, or dike of this rock, which ahnost
coincides in direction with the meridian through Sunderland, and
crossing the Connecticut river near the north hne of that town,
rises in Deerfield to a much greater altitude, forming the eastern
half of that range of hills which occupies the eastern part of that
town and Greenfield. In Deerfield the eastern side of the green-
stone is very gentle in its slope, and precipitous on its west side.
But in Greenfield, although the western side continues to present
a mural face, its eastern side also is very steep ; being washed by
the waters of the Connecticut. This ridge terminates at Turner's
Falls in Greenfield. Another parallel ridge commences at the
same place, only a few rods distant but on the opposite side of a
small river, (Fall river,) in Gill, and extends n)ore than a mile to-
wards the centre of that town. Beyond the extremity of this
ridge, I have not found any greenstone except that which I have
described as a member of the hornblende slate formation. A de-
posit of this, as may be seen by the map, commences in liie north
part of Gill, only three or four miles north of the point where the
greenstone already described terminates.

The external aspect of the greenstone in the Connecticut valley,
is very different from that of the same rock in the eastern part of
the State. Much of the latter is of a dark color, or when exam-
ined nearer, of a green aspect, from the presence of epidote. But
the former almost universally exhibits a gray or iron rust color,
either from incipient decomposition, or from the presence of oxide
of iron.

The most common variety of the greenstone in the Connecticut
valley is a fine grained mixture of hornblende and feldspar. This
is sometimes columnar, as already described. Not unfrequently
too, it is amygdaloidal ; though the more perfect this structure, the
less perfect the columnar. Trap tuff is also much more frequent
than 1 formerly supposed. Sometimes we find a mass of it over-
laying a mass of colunms ; and sometimes it forms an irregular lay-
er between the ends of successive stories of columns. A mile
east of the village in Greenfield, a variety of tuff constitutes a large
part of a ledge of greenstone, which in some places is more than
a hundred feet high. I have observed this rock on the west side
of Mount Tom. also on Holyoke, and various other places. It
must be carefully distinguished from the trap conglomerate, that
has been already described as a member of the new red sandstone
formation, lying upon the eastern side of Mount Holyoke and
Tom. The real trap tuff contains no fragments of sandstone ;

410 Scientific Geology.

whereas in the trap conglomerate, the sandstone usually forms the
cement. But the two rocks obviously pass into each other.

The boldness and wildness ol the scenery in the Connecticut
valley result principally from the greenstone ridges that have been
described. The summits of these are often very irregular, owing
to the peculiarity of the mode in which they were produced, or to
subsequent abrasion by water.

In those portions of the Slate that are composed of gneiss, par-
ticularly in Worcester county, we frequently meet with bowlders
of a rock that appears when broken, exceedingly like the unstrati-
fied greenstone that has been described. It is, however, more
decidedly crystalline in its structure ; yet I am inclined to believe
that it ought to be regarded as unstratified greenstone : certainly
near the west line of Pelham, where is a bed of considerable ex-
tent. The erratic blocks are often two or even three feet in diam-
eter; and in the bed is no appearance of stratification. In two
instances, (in Rutland and near the mouth of Miller's river, in Mon-
tague,) 1 have met with genuine veins of greenstone in gneiss; in
neither case, however, of much width ; in the latter about two
feet.

Under talcose slate I have mentioned, on the authority of
Mr. A. B. Chapin, a ledge of greenstone connected with that
rock in Somers, Ct. That gentleman inforn)s me, also, that trap
(greenstone) occurs in several places in Connecticut on the east
side of Connecticut river; as in the southeast part of Manchester,
and the eastern part of Glastenbury ; where it contains copper
ore : also near the church in Vernon, in Bolton, and in Som-
ers. Mr. Chapin rather inclines to the opinion that these are
points of a continuous range, extending northerly from Wethers-
field, and connected with the new red sandstone. But since that
at Somers is associated with talcose slate, I am suspicious that at
all these places it may be connected with primary rocks ; and in
fact belong to a hornblende slate formation ; though 1 doubt not
but it is genuine greenstone. Whether it be connected with pri-
mary or secondary rocks, is of little consequence, except so far as
relates to the epoch of its production. At present I am disposed
to believe that beds or irregular masses of greenstone are much
more common than I had formerly supposed, along the western
margins of that talus of primary rocks, which forms the eastern
margin of the valley of the Connecticut. Sometimes these beds
are in talcose slate, as in Somers ; sometimes in gneiss, as in Pel-
ham ; and doubtless sometimes in other rocks. But they are al-
ways quite distinct from the trap ranges of that valley described
above.

Topography of Greenstone. 411

Situation of our Greenstone in relation to other Rocks.

This subject has be€n necessarily somewhat anticipated. But a
more particular statement of lacts concerning it seems desirable.

It has already been stated that our unstratified rocks occur in
three modes: first, as protruding irregular masses: secondly, as
overlying masses ; and thirdly, as veins. The first and last modes
are most common.

Since most of the greenstone in the eastern jiart of the Slate is
not connected with stratified rocks, it must be referred to the first
of these modes ; except in those comparatively few instances, where
it forms veins in the other unstratified rocks. I have never been
able to find a satisfactory example, in which the greenstone distinct-
ly overlies either porphyry, sienite, or granite ;* although in numer-
ous instances I have found a gradual passage from this rock into
the two latter. But this is as likely to take place laterally as in a
vertical direction. Examples of this gradual transition between these
rocks are common south of the Blue Hills, as in Ran olph, Stough-
ton, &,c.

Wherever I have seen this rock associated with the graywacke
and argillaceous slate in the eastern part of the State, it either oc-
cupies veins, or protrudes itself in sonie other form, among, or be-
tween the strata. Professor Webster, however, says, that it is
sometimes superincumbent upon the clay slate in Charlestown.f
It has there also the appearance of being regularly interstralified
with the slate. But 1 am satisfied that this is a deception ; that
is to say. these supposed beds are connected with some unstratified
masses. Yet I think it extremely probable that some of the
greenstone in the vicinity of Boston has resulted from the fusion
of clay slate; and perhaps it is possible that a particular portion of
the slate might be converted into greenstone, while that around it
might remain but little changed ; and in such a case, the rock
might at the surface appear interstralified with the other. In such
a case, however, we should rather expect that the slate would be
converted into hornblende slate : and Professor Webster says that
some of the clay slate in Charlestovvn does pass into hornblende
slate : and I would remark that much of the greenstone in the vicin-
ity of Boston resembles exceedingly that variety which is associated
with hornblende slate : indeed, as already stated, some of it is as-
sociated with hornblende slate. But for the most part it appears to
have been subject to so entire a fusion that the schistose and strat-
ified structure is lost ; and hence it seems most proper to describe
it as unstratified greenstone: although if it be true that all green-

*Professor Webster says that it overlies compact feldspar in Charlestown; Bos-
tou Journal of Philosophy, vol. 1. p. 282.

tBost. Journal Philosophy, vol. 1. p. 285.

412 Scientific Geologij.

stone results from the same source as hornblende slate, It may be
difficult in some cases to distinguish between them.

Prosessor Webster, in his excellent account of the geology of
the region around Boston, states that the veins of greenstone in the
graywacke conglomerate of that vicinity, run about 10° W. of
South, and 10° E. of North. All such veins are probably of near-
ly cotemporary origin : their parallelism being explicable only on
the supposition of their having been produced by the same cause.

The promontory of Nahant presents an interesting exhibition of
greenstone veins, both in the argillaceous slate and the sienite. 1
have, however, described these veins so fully under graywacke,
that a few more facts only need be added. Only a small remnant
of the slate remains upon this promontory : and this is intersected
by so many and so large veins, that nearly one half of the surface
is greenstone. And yet the layers of the slate appear to have
been but little thrown out of their original position : for their dip
and direction correspond essentially with those of the same rock in
other places. In such cases it seems to me impossible that the
slate should have been solid at the lime the greenstone was intrud-
ed among it, unless we suppose it to have been cut through with
numerous fissures : and occurrence which in the present case is
hardly probable ; since some of the veins are ten feet thick, and
quite numerous: and I cannot conceive how mere desication
should have produced such fissures. But I can conceive how
melted matter may have been forced through unconsolidated clay,
without disturbing it latterly but a short distance : and perhaps this
was the mode in which the veins at Nahant were introduced. If
so, it is probable that the consolidation of the slate, and even its
conversion into flinty slate, might have resulted from this intru-
sion.

There is one fact, however, that rather militates against such a
supposition. We find there two sets of veins; one of which in-
tersects the other; and penetrates the adjoining slate. We here
trace distinctly three epochs of formation of the slate and green-
stone. First the slate, secondly the veins that intersect it, and are
themselves intersected by other veins : thirdly, those veins that
cross both the first named veins and the slate. As to the intervals
between the production of these three varieties of rock, we can
scarcely form a conjecture. The slate having been deposited ori-
ginally irom water, must have required a period of considerable
length, previous to its consolidation: But the two sets of veins
might have been introduced almost simultaneously ; since this
might have resulted from two paroxysmal efforts of the same erup-
tive force.

The greenstone occupying these veins at Nahant, varies in tex-
ture from the finest siliceous slate, to coarse sienite. The veins

Concretionary Structure of Rocks. 413

sometimes run parallel to the strata, and would be regarded by-
some geologists as regularly interstratified with the slate. And
they would be confirmed in this opinion by the apparently distinct
stratification of one of the varieties of the greenstone on this
promontory, particularly at a place about fifty rods northwest of
the large hotel. The rock here is coarse and appears to be pass-
ing into sienite : It is divided into parallel portions by seams a kw
inches apart ; and looking only to this spot, I do not see why the
evidence of stratification is not almost complete. But if, as an
almost universal fact, greenstone, sienite, and granite, are certainly
not stratified, it is a presumptive evidence that they never are so :
Apparent exceptions it is reasonable to explain on other principles.
And in the present case, there is a principle that may afford a solu-
tion of such a case as that mentioned above. I refer to the for-
mation of concretions in the unstratified rocks. That they are
frequently formed in all the varieties of these rocks, the records
of geology will testify. Usually, however, they are only a few
feet, or a few inches in diameter. But what reason can be ad-
duced why they may not be produced of mountainous bulk ? Their
origin is, indeed, obscure : but probably their formation depends
upon some modification of the laws of crystallization. And if so,
who can tell through how large a mass of matter these laws may
operate. In an example of apparent stratification in our granite,
which I shall shortly describe, we have an opportunity of ascer-
taining that the layers are of a spheroidal form, although they
cover a mountain of no inconsiderable size. And in all cases
which I have met with, it is only a part of the rock that is appa-
rently stratified. This is the case at Nahant. There must then
have been a peculiarity in the cause that could thus have affected
one portion of the formation and not another. In some instances
I have explained a partial and non-continuous stratification in rocks,
(ex. gr. limestone and hornblende slate,) by supposing one part
entirely, and the other only partially melted. But in the rocks
under consideration, the division of the pseudo-strata is too distinct
to admit of such an explanation : while the schistose structure is
always wanting. Upon the whole, it seems to me that in the pres-
ent state of our knowledge, sound philosophy requires that appa-
rent stratification in rocks usually unstratified, should be regarded
only as examples of a concretionary structure.

The geologist who may have occasion to spend several days at
Nahant, will do well to give the spot a very thorough examination.
I do not flatter myself that I have brought to light all the interest-
ing facts which may be there developed ; although I have exhibit-
ed enough to show it to be an interesting field for research.

The protrusion of the unstratified rocks through the stratified
ones by internal igneous agency, now admitted by most geologists,

51

414 Seicjitific Geology.

has led observers to examine carefully for evidences of mechanical
disturbance near the line of contact. They have, 1 believe, found
less proof of such disturbance by the intrusion of greenstone, than
in the case of the older rocks, as sienite and gnnite. Every such
case, therefore, deserves to be noticed. If 1 mistake not, the fol-
lowing sketch of a vein of greenstone in argillaceous, slate is an
example of this sort. The dike is about 10 feet thick, and the
general dip of the layers of slate in the quarry, is about 30" south-
east. But as shown in the figure, near the greenstone it is consid-
erably curved upwards in the contrary direction. The quarry,
where this example occurs, is about half a mile north of the Pow-
der House in Charlestown.

.^-.

Greenstone Dyke in Clay Slate : Charlestown.

For the most part, the greenstone in the valley of the Connec-
ticut, is interposed in thick masses or beds, between the strata of
sandstone. In Massachusetts I have never met with a mass of
this rock which I have regarded, strictly speaking, as superincum-
bent : though in Connecticut, such examples are said frequently
to occur. And I am apprehensive that not a few geologists would
describe Holyoke and Tom as instances of overlying rocks. For
on examining their western precipitous faces, we frequently find
the sandstone cropping out beneath the greenstone : and if we go
to the other side of these ridges, it is rare that we find the sand-
stone lying upon the greenstone. Yet this is sometimes the case ;
and the sandstone always appears at no great distance in the val-
ley, having such a dip as would cause it to rise above the green-
stone. I hence infer, that originally, nearly all the greenstone
was interposed between the strata of sandstone ; and that subse-
quent abrasion has removed the latter rock. Even in those cases
where we find insulated masses of the trap lying upon the sand-
stone, there is reason for supposing that it is the wreck of one of
these interposed masses : disintegration and abrasion having effect-
ed the destruction of the other portions of both the rocks.

At Turner's Falls, Connecticut river has disclosed, between
Montague and Gill, an interesting section across the sandstone and
greenstone, not less than three miles long. In the 6th Vol. of the
Am. Journal of Science, I inserted a very detailed view of this

Section near Turner^ s Falls. 415

section ; but having examined it recently with more care, I shall
give a corrected sketch ; which, though less particular, will I trust
be found more accurate and instructive. It commences on the
western side of the greenstone ridge against which Connecticut
river impinges, a little below Turner's Falls, and by which its
course is changed from northwest to south. At the western base
of this ridge, the sandstone crops out beneath the greenstone, dip-
ping perhaps 20° or 25° east. After passing easterly over this
ridge, we find at the mouth of Fall River, another variety of the
sandstone, mounting upon the greenstone at an angle of about
45o ; that is, dipping easterly by that quantity, and running nearly
north and south. Proceeding in the same direction, the sandstone
continues only a few rods, perhaps 15, when we find it on the
north shore of the Connecticut river passing under another ridge
of greenstone, 15 or 20 rods thick. On the east side of this
second ridge, we find a similar variety of slaty sandstone dipping
about 50° east. Several varieties of sandstone, some red, some
gray, some fine grained, and some coarse grained, appear, as we
j)ass along the same shore, with a dip between 40° and 50<2 east,
for more than a mile. There we strike a somewhat more elevated
ridge, which appears on both banks of the river, consisting of a
brecciated indurated sandstone, described among the varieties of
new red sandstone, whose strata are somewhat saddle shaped on
the north shore, though quite indistinct. Beyond this point the
shores for some distance are less bold, and no rock is visible for
half a mile. When it again appears, the direction of the strata
becomes east and west, and the dip from 30° to 40° south. Hence
only the horizontal edges of the strata can be shown on the sec-
tion. But when we come within 100 rods of the mouth of Mil-
ler's river^ the sandstone slate or shale is suddenly bent upwards
several degrees on its eastern edge, so as to dip westerly. On the
southern bank the very spot where the flexure takes place is visi-
ble. Advancing towards the mouth of Miller's river, the westerly
dip rapidly increases, and within a few rods it approaches 90°.
Then for a considerable distance succeeds a coarse conglomerate,
in which I could perceive no marks of stratification. For a few
rods beyond this rock, diluvium hides the rock in place, and then,
before reaching Miller's river, we strike a formation of gneiss,
hornblende slate, and mica slate, with granitic gneiss and granite,
which constitute the western margin of the gneiss range of Wor-
cester county. The strata of these rocks, at the mouth of Miller's
river, and on the east bank of the Connecticut, (for we have now

416

Scientific Geology.

reached the spot wliere this river runs southerly,) run a little west
of south and east of north, and dip to the west between 30° and
40°.

Wcit.

East.

Section between Montague and Gill.

It will he perceived that the above section is intended to em-
brace every thing important on both banks of Connecticut river,
and is not meant to be geometrically accurate. Those parts which
are the most interesting occupy more than their proper proportion
of the distance ; but this produces no geological error. The part
of the section most likely to produce an erroneous impression, is
where the sandstone strata are represented by horizontal lines : for
these strata, as already stated, do in fact dip 30" to 40° south.
This change in the direction of the strata appears to result from
the fact that the greenstone ridges, towards the western extremity
of the section, with the accompanying sandstone, take a north-
easterly direction for two or three miles, rising into considerable
hills, and forming an axis of elevation, to which the strata just re-
ferred to are in a measure conformable. Not improbably also, the
elevating force, which has acted on the side of the gneiss and
granite, may have operated in wheeling these central strata still
farther, so as to bring their direction nearly east and west.

In another place 1 shall refer to the important bearing which
this section has upon the theory of the origin of our greenstone:
but in this place I wish to show more particularly the relative sit-
uation of the greenstone and sandstone. It will be seen that the
former occurs in somewhat wedge-shaped masses, between the
strata of the latter, and I believe that the above section represents
the mode in which nearly all the greenstone in the Connecticut
valley occurs. On the western slope of Mount Toby, in Sunder-
land, we find a narrow strip of the greenstone interposed between
the sandstone strata ; although I cannot say that it is wedge-shaped ;
the opportunities for ascertaining, the dip being very poor. Along
the western and northwestern face of Mount Holyoke, however,
we meet with the sandstone in several places, (although not very

Vast DyJce or Bed of GTeenstone. 417

easy to find,) passing under the greenstone with a dip of 15o or 20".
On the opposite side of the mountain the strata are sometimes
found elevated 50° and even 60°; as may be seen where the stage
road from Northampton to Belchertovvn crosses the greenstone
ridge ; and as we recede from this ridge, towards the east, or south-
east, the dip diminishes. In the west face of Mount Tom, we
find the sandstone passing under the greenstone at a dip from 15°
to 20°: but on the east side of the mountain, it is no greater;
and, therefore, I cannot say that this eminence has a wedge-shaped
form. South of Tom the sandstone both on the east and west
sides of the greenstone ridge, has a less dip than in the cases above
mentioned. Still, however, the greenstone seems to form a mass
interposed between its strata.

Are we to regard the long ridge of greenstone extending from
New Haven to Belchertovvn, as a vast dyke, or as a bed, or simply
as a protruding irregular mass ? Its great length, (though not
greater than the celebrated Cleaveland dyke in England,) and es-
pecially its great width in some places, will hardly permit us to
call it a dyke, as geologists usually employ that term. A still
stronger objection in the minds of many, would be its general con-
formity in direction to the strata of sandstone. But near its north-
ern extremity, it is obvious that this conformity is in a good meas-
ure lost. For Holyoke, running nearly east and west, evidently
crosses the strata in some degree : or rather, these same strata
which farther south have their western edges elevated by the
greenstone, on the southern side of Holyoke, have their north-
western edges raised : although, as the mountain makes a gradual
curve to the right, the strata appear to be conformed to its sides.
Upon the whole, however, while we must admit, it seems to rae,
that this extensive range was originally protruded through the strata
of sandstone in the same manner as dykes are, yet it may be bet-
ter to regard it as a protruding ridge, rather than apply a term to
it which has not usually been so extended in its meaning.

Genuine and distinct veins of greenstone in the new red sand-
stone of the Connecticut valley, are not common. In Massachu-
setts I have not met with one ; but in Connecticut they are more
common. The following is a sketch of a case of this kind, which
I took several years ago, in a ledge a little east of East Rock, near
New Haven, on the turnpike road from thence to Middletown.
Most of the ledge is a red rather coarse sandstone, from 20 to 30
feet high. The lowest stratum is a fine grained red sandstone ;
the next above it, a coarse gray sandstone, about six inches thick.
Tlie rock dips from the observer about 25° ; so that it must be rep-
resented as horizontal on the section. The vein of greenstone is
about a foot wide at the bottom, and something more as it as-
cends. It appears to consist of indurated clay, or wacke. It as-

418

Scientific Geology.

cends through the sandstone at an angle of about 45° with the hor-
izon, and on the upper side of it the different layers of sandstone
are elevated, so as not to correspond vtith tho same layers on the
opposite aide of the vein. The coarse gray stratum above men-
tioned, exhibits this effect most obviously.

Greenstone Dyke in New Red Sandstone ; East Haven, Ct.

The inferences of a theoretical nature from such a case as the
above, if there is no mistake in my representation of it, are too
obvious to escape the notice of any one. If we have not proof
here of an internal force erupting the matter of the vein, I know
not how such proof could be given. But more of this in another
place. I thought the case too interesting not to be noticed, al-
though out of Massachusetts ; and I shall take the liberty in seve-
ral other instances, as 1 have already done in some cases, to intro-
duce examples from other parts of New England, illustrative of
important geological principles. In respect to the veins of the un-
slratified rocks, especially, I shall give the results of my observa-
tions for the last twelve or fifteen years in various parts of New
England, since the subject is one of special interest.*

*To show how the examples which I shall adduce ore regarded by a distin-
guished geologist in Europe, I take the liberty to subjoin a translation of a letter
which I received two or three years ago, froni Counsellor Von Leonhard, Profes-
sor of Mineralogy in the imiversity of Heidelberg, Germany, in answer to a com-
munication which I had previously made to him at his request, detailing several
of the most striking cases of veins and protruding masses, which are embodied
in this Report. I give the letter entire, since several of the examples given by
this veteran savani although to be met with in a few works, are yet not com-
monly to be found.

" Heidelberg, December 14, 18-29.

" Sir, Your letter of the 20th October, with which you have favored me, I have
duly received. A thousand thanks for the trouble yoix have taken to enlighten me
with so many interesting facts concerning the granite eruptions of your country.
Your observations are of the highest importance, and it is very much to be de-
sired that you should publish them forthwith.* You have requested that I should
give some account of the elevation of granite in this country as well as in
England and France.

" One of the most interesting observations that have been made on this subject,

•In a substqurnt Iclirr 1 roiuosicii Prof. Lconh.inl to m.iko such a use of these facts as hi; thought
proper; ami not tinliku:y soincuf Iho cases which I shall inodiice, have ere this been publislieit ai
Germany.

Protrusions of Granite.

419

On the south side of mount Tom, on the bank of a small steam,
and close by a saw mill, which is only a few rods from the stage

is Ihat of Weiss, near Meissen in Saxony. Granite, or ratiier sienitc, there ap-
pears superimposed upon the plancrkalk which belongs to the chalk formation.

A hundred paces from my house is a protrusion of granite. The prodominant
rock in the vicinity is the variegated sandstone. In one place we see the strata of
sandstone bent upwards and tlie granite beneath.

" You are doubtless acquainted with the important observations of J. Hall, in
Galloway in Scotland. Veins of granite, a a, &c. have penetrated the transition
argillaceous schist, bb, &c. enveloping also the fragments, cc c, of the same, and
overspreading the schist in part. The schist has suflered numerous disturbances
from the influence of the granite and is changed at the place of contact by, the
volcanic heat.

" You .speak of j'our greenstone. Is it diorite or doleritc 7 From your descrip-
tion I suspect it to be dolerite,* that is, a greenstone into whose composition am-
phibole enters, and not pyroxene.

In the Hartz facts occur similar to those which you have observed. I shall be
much obliged to you when you send another box of minerals for exchange to the

'After what I have written on this rock, it Is hardly necessary to say that this conclusion is correct-

420

Scientific Geology.

road from Norihampton to Hartford, the following case occurs in
the new red sandstone. A deposite of greenstone, the remains of
a large vein or protruding mass, is here seen to lie in an oblique
direction upon the elevated edges of the sandstone. Towards the
upper part of the section, the layers of sandstone are curved con-
siderably upwards, so as to increase the dip of their upper extrem-
ity, raising it, indeed, almost to 90". Must we not impute this

Camptoir, to put in some specimens of greenstone, that I may institute a compari-
son. In the Hartz we see that the diorite assumes an amj-gdaloidal texture, be-
coming cellular near its point of contact with the schist. Does any such phenom-
enon occur with you 1*

Transition Schist.

" Since I had the honor of writing to you, I have continued without intermission
to collect facts for my work on the Basalts. But it will be a long time before I
can bring it to a conclusion. In 1828 I visited Auvergne. This without contra-
diction is classic ground as to this matter. You are doubtless acquainted with
the work of Srope, {Central France.) But I have ascertained some new and
quite interesting facts. Among others the projecting mass of basaltic conglom-
erate which rises through the beds of lacustrine limestone, (it bears the name of
Pii]l dc la Plqvette,) emblraces fragments of that limestone full of many fine crys-
tals of mesotype and apophyllite. Last summer I visited the Suabian Alps. In
these mountains we find a number of important facts. We count there at least
thirty eruptions or elevations of basaltic breccias through the beds of Jura lime-
stone; and these conglomerates contain a number of small fragments of lime-
stone, which have been variously modified by the heat of the conglomerates.

"Finally, I pray you to preserve in full, an account of the phenomena of bas-
alt, diorite, and amygdaloid, as well as of the conglomerates which accompany
them ; and I would request you to send me these details.

*******
*' I have the honor to salute you with the greatest respect :

" Yours with devotion,

Leonhard."

•Precisely tlie same, as I shall mention more particularly farther on.

Chemical Effects of Grernstone.

421

flexure to the protrusive force of the greenstone, when first it was
elevated to the day hght ?

Juncliun of Greenstone and Sandstone : Mount Tom.
Chemical Effects of Greenstone upon other Rocks.

In other parts of the world, it is a common case to find the
rocks lying in contact with the greenstone, essentially changed in
tlieir characters, for a greater or less distance from the place of
junction. This is most striking where the limestone is the rock
invaded by the trap. Similar effects are not wanting in the rocks
of Massachusetts, that are traversed by greenstone. Yet it ap-
pears to me that they are hardly as common or striking as in some
countries ; judging from the descriptions of geologists. One rea-
son may be that greenstone here rarely comes in contact with lime-
stone. The following are the principal examples of this phenom-
enon which 1 have met w^ith.

The influence of greenstone veins at Nahant, in converting ar-
gillaceous slate into flinty slate, and where carbonate of lime was
present, into chert, has been fully described under gray wacke.

Professor Webster describes a mass of trap, in Charlestown, as
superincumbent upon a rock which he calls compact feldspar,
' which has many of the characters of clay slate, and in the im-
mediate vicinity of the trap rock has a degree of hardness, a com-
pact structure, and fracture almost like that of hornstone, — the slate
seems to have undergone a great and remarkable change.'*

In season for the present edition of my Report, I have received
from Dr. C. T. Jackson, an interesting account of a dyke of
' Greenstone Trap,' traversing the gray wacke conglomerate in
Roxbury. It is on Mr. Dudley's farm nearly opposite the seat of
Gen. H. A. S. Dearborn, Esq. The strata of the conglomerate
there run N. W. and S. E. and dip N. E. 30" : the dyke runs
north and south and dips 80° W. At the top of the ledge it is ten
feet wide and nine feet at the bottom: the ledge being 31 feet in
jierpendicular height. The conglomerate near the dyke contains
an abundance of serpentine.

* Boston Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 1. p. 28'2.

52

422 Scienliftc Geology.

'This dyke,' says Dr. Jackson, 'consists of a mass of green-
stone trap, black on the surface, but when broken exhibits a green-
ish color liaving crystals of feldspar scattered through the mass
sometimes rendering it poiphyrytic. The dyke is very much de-
composed on the surface and separates into regular triangular or
four sided prisms, which may be taken out by the hand. The
paste of the conglomerate is very compact near this dyke, and
serpentine is found mixed with the rock, and sometimes covering
the whole rock with a bright grass green colored polished surface,
but generally the serpentine is much decomposed where the junc-
tion of the trap and conglomerate takes place, it being converted
into a greyish white powder. Sp. Gr. of the trap — 2.304. Be-
fore the blowpipe it melts into an opaque black enamel. With
carbonate of soda melts and is decomposed with difficulty, effer-
vescing considerably. The glass being placed in dilute muriatic
acid leaves a deposit of silica. The powder of the mineral is grey-
ish or bluish gray. It attracts the magnetic needle, but the mass
does not possess polarity. From the above examination it will
appear that the paste of this trap consists of feldspar and horn-
blende intermixed, and that it contains prot-oxide of iron, as a com-
ponent. The hornblende and feldspar are often distinctly observ-
able by the eye. The feldspar appears to yield to the action of
the air and water, so that the decomposed pieces consist mostly of
hornblende and are easily crushed. The decomposed surface is
of a deep brownish black color, the color being produced by per-
oxidation of iron. I shall soon make a chemical analysis of this
trap. I suppose this dyke to have been protruded through the
superincumbent conglomerate by expansion of subterranean origin,
and that this power raised up and indurated the conglomerate,
which is considered of transition formation. 1 have observed in
many places the passage of our greenstone into sienite, and think
we shall be obliged hereafter either to make sienite more recent,
or to place our greenstone at a remoter origin than is generally be-
lieved to belong to that rock.'

In the Connecticut valley the most striking chemical effects pro-
duced upon the sandstone by the greenstone, are induration, a vesic-
ular structure, and change of color. In the 17th vol. of the Am.
Journal of Science, Professor Silliman has described a most inter-
esting example of all these effects, as they appear in a quarry,
nearly a mile long, at Rocky Hill, about three miles southwest of
Hartford. ' The trap is here superincumbent upon the sandstone,
and this latter rock is changed to the depth of about four feet be-
low the junction. Ascending from that depth, it begins to grow
firmer ; the color grows lighter, the red vanishes and it becomes

♦ Bostun Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 1. p. 282.

Chemical Effects of Greenstone. 423

dark gray — Hglit gray — ash gray, and in some places almost white ;
while at the same time the firmness is much increased, so that from
being a very soft and tender argillaceous sandstone, easily splitting
into laminae, it has become hard, and difficult to break, striking
fire with steel like an overburnt brick, and Its fissile character is
almost or quite destroyed.'

<But this is not all. At the depth of about two feet, rather less
than more, the altered sandstone begins to grow vesicular. Fine
pin-hole cavities make their appearance; they are very numerous,
and the solid substance which surrounds them becomes semi-vitre-
ous.and loses the appearance of sedimentary or fragmentary matter ;
as we ascend towards the trap the vesicles increase rapidly in size,
and at and near the junction they are both numerous and large.'

This vesicular structure is still more remarkable in the trap, ex-
tending several feet upwards ; and near their junction, the two rocks
can hardly be distinguished, and appear as if melted together.

Similar phenomena, more or less strongly marked, present them-
selves both in Connecticut and Massachusetts, where the contact
of the two rocks is visible. On the east side of Mount Tom in
Northampton, and on the south side of Holyoke, the vesicular char-
acter of the sandstone is most obvious : as is that also of the green-
stone. (No. 286.) From the description that has been given of
the relative position of these rocks in those places it will be recol-
lected that the sandstone is uppermost. The cavities are some-
times filled with some mineral, as carbonate of lime, subsequently
introduced ; but the red color of the rock is generally retained :
sometimes, however, it is not easy to distinguish this amygdaloid-
al sandstone from trap, without close inspection. Yet in most cas-
es the line of junction is distinct, and the schistose structure of the
sandstone is not lost. The greenstone, as already mentioned, is in
these instances much more vesicular than the sandstone, and to an
unknown depth. The cavernous base, the cavities not being usu-
ally filled, differs but little from indurated clay; and some circum-
stances have led me to suspect that the rock in fact consists of ar-
gillaceous sandstone or shale, which has been fused.

A little below Turner's Falls on the Greenfield shore, the junction
of these rocks may be advantageously examined, where they occu-
py the same relative position as above mentioned ; that is. the sand-
stone is the superior rock. There it dips from 40° to 50" : but I
did not perceive in it any cavities ; nor is the red color or the fissile
character destroyed. Connecticut river here has worn away nearly
all the sandstone, except an occasional patch, for one or two miles :
but where these patches remain, a fine opportunity is afforded for
observing the junction. And in some places I noticed that small
rounded masses of the amygdaloid were partially entangled in the
sandstone : as if, when the melted mass of greenstone was forcing

424 Scientijic Geology.

its way upward, and pressing hard against the incumbent sandstone,
portions of tiie former rock, while yet partially solidified, were worn
off and rounded by the latter. More frequently we see fragments
of the sandstone insulated in the greenstone; being perhaps unnielt-
ed portions of the former rock.

For several feet below the surface of the amygdaloid at this lo-
cality, it is not UQconmion to see that rock divided into parallel por-
tions, whose surfaces correspond in dip and direction with the strata
of sandstone. The thickness of these layers is from one to four feet.
But they do not extend through the whole mass of rock, andean,
therefore, hardly be considered as genuine strata.

The existence of so much amygdaloidal greenstone on the east-
ern or upper side of the ridge, (for it must be recollected that such
is tbe dip of the sandstone embracing the trap as to render the east-
ern the upper side, ) while it is comparatively rare and far less por-
ous and irregularly situated in the lower parts of the range, leads
naturally to an inquiry as to the cause. It may be sufiicient to say,
that the gaseous matter extricated by the intense heat of a large
mass of rock in a state of fusion, would naturally be forced to its
upper part by the greater pressure below: although in the exam-
ple described by Prof. Silliman, such does not appear to have been
the case. Since, however, the base of the rock on the east side of
the ranges above named, is more argillaceous and less crystalline
than that of the rock on the western or lower side, I am disposed to
believe the former more favorable for retaining the gas or vapor
than the latter.

When the water is low we have an instructive exhibition of the
junction of greenstone with the subjacent sandstone at Titan's Pier
in South Hadley. A considerable part of the trap near the sand-
stone is a breccia ; and one of the ingredients is clay, indurated al-
most to the hardness, and exhibiting the light gray color of horn-
stone, although not exactly that substance ; especially if a mixture
of limestone in the original rock be essential to its production.
This seems rather to have formed the paste in which are ce-
mented dark pieces of trap. This rock extends but a short dis-
tance upwards from the line of junction.

The most interesting effects at this spot are exhibited, however,
in the sandstone beneath the trap. Like that near Hartford, for
two or three feet its schistose structure is in a great measure oblit-
erated, although its stratification remains. It is also of a light gray
color. On breaking it, it exhibits a semi-crystalline structure,
bearing considerable resemblance to some varieties of fine grained
granite. (No. 170.) But the most curious fact of all is, that this
rock exhibits in some places a decided tendency to a columnar form.
I cannot say, indeed, that any perfectly formed prism can be found.
Still the sandstone exhibits several unequal sides of a prism, per-

Minerals in Greenstone. 4'25

pendicular to the planes of stratification, thus coinciding with the
less perfect columnar structure of the greenstone imn*re4iately
above : so that at a little distance one does not perceive the line
of junction between the two rocks.

I have met with no geological writer but Dr. Macculloch, who
has described examples of columnar sandstone ; and he mentions
but two cases in nature, both in Scotland. Another case, how-
ever, is noticed by him in the hearth stone of a blast furnace.*
This last example is very instructive, as showing that heat, if long
continued, may produce the columnar structure in sandstone even
though not intense enough to melt it. The application of this
case in explanation of the columnar structure of the sandstone at
Titan's Pier, is too obvious to render its formal statement necessa-

Some of the sandstone of the new red sandstone is highly mi-
caceous : this variety, where it occurs near the greenstone, can
hardly be distinguished from mica slate. (Nos. 177 to 179.) 1
will refer only to two localities of this rock, viz. at Turner's Falls
and at the north end of Mount Tom, at the spot where the sketch
on page 4:21 exhibiting the junction of the two rocks, was taken.
Can there be any doubt that these examples are in fact a partial
conversion of the sandstone into mica slate by the heat of the
greenstone ?

I know of but one place in the valley of the Connecticut where
greenstone comes in contact with limestone ; and that is in West
Springfield. Perhaps even there an actual contact does not exist,
yet the greenstone is separated from the limestone in some places
only by a narrow strip of sandstone. And a part of the limestone
is more or less frequently converted into tripoli : that is to say, the
carbonic acid is expelled, leaving the argillaceous and silicious mat-
ter by itself. Probably this was the effect of heat : though I am
not very confident that the tripoli was produced in this manner. A
part of the limestone at that place is very much indurated, so as
to possess almost the briltleness of glass when broken.

Mineral Contents.

It is not unexpected, though gratifying, to find in our greenstone
the same materials as occur in the trap rocks of Europe.

in describing the new red sandstone I have given an account of
several veins in that rock, of sulphate of baryta and native cop-
per, green carbonate of copper, with pyritous copper and the red
oxide of that metal. These veins often extend into the green-
stone a considerable distance. But for the particular localities 1
would refer to the description already mentioned.

*Sysiem of Geulogy, vul. 1. p. 112.

i)i6 Scientific Geology.

According to the Messrs. Danas,* a vein of magnetic oxide of
iron occurs in the greenstone at VVoburn ; though not extensive
enough to render it an object for the miner. Intimately mixed
with this ore is pyritous copper ; and this last is invested sometimes
with the muriate of copper. Quartz and amygdaloid at Brighton,
and rolled pieces of granite at Medford, contain the same mineral.
They state also that micaceous oxide of iron exists in the green-
stone at Charlestovvn.

According to the same gentlemen, asbesius is found in fragments
of greenstone in Brighton and Dedham ; and I have found it in
one of the anomalous varieties of this rock at Nahant. Probably,
however, it is comparatively rare.

Epidote, as already mentioned, exists abundantly in the green-
stone around Boston ; but never to my knowledge in that in the
Connecticut valley. Generally it is disseminated through the
greenstone ; but sometimes it occurs in veins, and is then usually
compact, though often crystalized. At Breed's Hill is a locality ;
and a much belter one at Nahant.

The cavities of the amygdaloid are sometimes occupied by a dull
green foliated mineral which appears to be chlorite. The folia
have in general a radiated structure, and sometimes invest calca-
reous spar. (No. 1173.) A little below Turner's Falls in Gill,
just at the mouth of Fall River, on the east bank, is the best lo-
cality of this mineral with which I am acquainted. More fre-
quently the cavities are occupied with earthy chlorite, and the
specimens of this kind are very common along the eastern side of
the ranges of greenstone in the Connecticut valley ; as in Green-
field, Deerfield, South Hadley, Northampton, and West Spring-
field.

At the locality just referred to at the mouth of Fall River, oc-
curs the rare mineral chlorophoeite : which has not to my knowl-
edge been found in any other place on this side of the Atlantic.
It is abundant in the projecting mass of greenstone that appears at
the junction of the Connecticut and the small river just mentioned ;
on the east bank of the latter ; and the spot can hardly be mis-
taken by any one desirous of finding it. This mineral, when the
rock is first broken, is of a dull green color : but after a few hours
exposure becomes nearly black. After long exposure, however,
some specimens assume a dark brown color. For the most part
the nodules, — often half an inch and sometimes more than an inch
in diameter, — exhibit a fibrous structure, the fibres radiating from
one or more centers in the same nodule. The mineral is easily
scratched with a knife and the powder is of a dull green color.
When fractured, however, it appears brittle. Sometimes calca-

*Mineralogy and Geology of Boston, &c. p. G6.

Minerals in Greenstone. 427

reous spar is enclosed within the chlorophoeite ; but very rarely are
tiie nodules hollow. If I mistake not, in one or two instances I
have observed a foliated structure in specimens. There seems
little danger of exhausting this locality. The same rock contains
disseminated prehnite, chlorite, and pyritous copper. It is how-
ever, but slightly amygdaloidal. Mr. Shepard has recently an-
nounced the existence of datholite in Middletown, Ct. in a rock
exactly resembling that containing the chlorophoeite ; nor can I
doubt but this mineral will be found in Massachusetts.

Prehnite has been found in the greenstone in the vicinity of
Boston, particularly in Charlestown. But it is more common in
the valley of the Connecticut. Near the chlorophoeite locality
just described, on the Greenfield shore of the Connecticut, it is
not uncommon in amygdaloid. There its color is nearly white.
In general it is more common on the eastern side of the greenstone
ridges, than on the western ; for example, where Deerfield river
cuts through a ridge of this kind in Deerfield, and on the east side
of the same ridge four or five miles farther south, in a part of the
town called Pine Nook : also in West Springfield. But it is found
likewise on the west side of these ridges ; as at a spot one mile
east of the village of Deerfield, and at another about the same
distance nearly east of the village of Greenfield. No very rich
specimens of this mineral, however, are met with in our green-
stone.

Augite of an iron black color and in imperfect crystals or in
veins, is sometimes met with in the tufaceous greenstone of tlie
Connecticut valley : as at a spot one mile east of the village of
Deerfield.

Several varieties of the quartz family are found in the green-
stone of Massachusetts, principally in that tjf the Connecticut
valley. Limpid crystalized quartz is found frequently in the form
of geodes, and sometimes these crystals are amethystine, of a del-
icate though not very deep color. This amethyst has been ob-
served one mile east of the village in Deerfield : on the same range
three miles south of this spot and east of the village of Bloody
Brook ; on Mount Holyoke : and in West Springfield. At the
latter place the crystals are sometimes smoky. (No. 1117.)

The quartz that occupies the cavities of greenstone, as at a spot
a mile east of the village in Deerfield, is sometimes tabular ; and
the folia are quite thin and delicate. Sometimes it is radiated,
and not unfrequently it contains tabular or prismatic and radiating
cavities, once occupied by a mineral. The radiating cavities were
perhaps once filled with Thomsonite ; at least they resemble that
mineral in form. I have seen them three or four inches in length,
and crossing one another from different centers.

Chalcedony is not an uncommon mineral in the greenstone of

428 Scientific Ocohgy.

the Connecticut valley. So far as I know it is wanting in the
greenstone around Boston : and this fact, with the almost entire
absence of an amygdaloidal structure, are marks of peculiarity
well worthy of notice. In the Connecticut valley the chalcedony
is usually in small nodules, rarely more than one or two inches
across. Most frequently its color is milky or smoky gray, and
sometimes it ajDpears to be real cacholong. At other times it is of
a flesh color, from the lightest to the deepest shade, forming cor-
nelian. Rarely have I seen it yellowish, and closely allied to sar-
donyx. These varieties are most common in the greenstone range
passing east of the villages of Greenfield and Deerfield, and on its
western face ; but rare on its eastern side.

All the above varieties of the quartz family are sometimes ar-
ranged concentrically, so as to form agates. Generally they are
small : but some specimens found by Dr. Cooley in the south part
of Deerfield, two miles northeasterly from Bloody Brook meeting
house, were quite large. The largest of these specimens, nine by
six inches in diameter and weighing 23 pounds, was composed of
an outer zone of greenish chalcedony half an inch thick ; then a
zone of flesh colored chalcedony : the center consisted of an ame-
thystine geode. The best of these specimens which I have been
able to procure for the collection (No. 1191.) is about six inches
by four : the outer zone is cornelian ; the second bluish chalcedo-
ny, and the remainder limpid quartz, almost filling the cavity.
When the puter coat is broken off, the specimen shows a strong re-
semblance to the human skull ; exhibiting protuberances and de-
pressions enough to satisfy the most sanguine phrenologist. An-
other specimen, three inches in diameter, exhibiting no less than
14 concentric bands, consisting of chalcedony and quartz of vari-
ous colors. This is a genuine fortification agate. Sometimes
fortification and eyed agates are exhibited in the same specimen.
It is to be feared, however, that this locality is nearly exiiausted ;
at least, until a long period of time shall have decomposed the
greenstone much deeper.

Calcareous spar is one of the most frequent of the minerals in
the greenstone of Massachusetts ; both in that in the eastern part
of the State and in the Connecticut valley. Generally it is the
laminated variety ; sometimes flesh colored, but mostly limpid.
Often it constitutes the cement of trap tuff. Sometimes it is in
distinct crystals.

A few years since, Prof Silliman detected selenite in amygda-
loid from Deerfield. It was white and retained its water of crys-
talization.

Several species of the zeolilic minerals have been found in this
rock in the Connecticut valley. Analcime has been frequently
said to be quite common ; but 1 am suspicious that calcareous spar

Lincghiite.

429

has been confounded wiih iliat mineral : and I dare not say that It
exists in our greenstone Nor am I sure that laumonite occurs as
far north as Massachusetts, although the greenstone in the vicinity
of New Haven contains it. As to chabasie there is no doubt but
it has been found in Deerfield, one mile east of the village. It is
ahvays crystalized, and almost invariably in the primary form_. an
obtuse rhomboid. The crystals vary from l-50th to l-4th of an
inch on their sides ; and these are grouped on tabular and pseu-
domorphous quartz, on prehnite, and on the greenstone : either in
fissures, or more commonly in the caviliesof the amygdaloid. This
mineral seems to have entered these cavities for the most part at a la-
ter period than many of the others with which it is associated. For
often we find it in the upper part of a cavity whose lower part is
filled with another mineral ; but never in a reverse order. The
amygdaloid in which this mineral occurs is extremely hard, and
hence the chabasie has been preserved. It is, however, quite dif-
ficult to obtain good specimens.

In the amygdaloid on the east side of the greenstone range in
Deerfield and Greenfield, I have observed a few rather poorly
characterised radiated specimens, exceedingly resembling the
Thomsonite of Scotland.

In the greenstone one mile east of the village in Deerfield, a
mineral occurs, closely allied in externa] characters to stilbite and
heulandite : and hitherto I have described it as stilbite. But in its
crystalline form it differs from both those species, and indeed from
any known mineral. I shall, therefore, venture to describe it as
new ; and I take the liberty to dedicate to your Excellency, as the
patron of science, under the name of

LINCOLNITE.

This mineral occurs in minute yet very distinct crystals, which
are right oblique angled prisms. Three trials on as many crystals
with the common gonometer, gave the following results for the an-
gles of the bases.

First crystal :
Second crystal
Third crystal :

Angles A, A, 61".
Angles B, B, 119°.
Angles A, A, 61°.
Angles jB, B, 120o.
Angles A, A, 61°.
Angles B, B, 120°.

The mean result of all the trials I have made does not vary
much from 60° and 120°. But this may vary from the truth half
a degree ; I think not more. The bases are commonly bright
enough for the application of the reflective goniometer : not so
the lateral faces.

53

430

Scientific Geology.

I have observed only one modification of this crystal, and that
consists of a slight truncation on the acute lateral edges, as rep-
resented in this figure. (No. 1 202.)

The height of the prism is about equal to the longest edge. It
yields to mechanical division only parallel to the bases. It has a
lustre somewhat pearly on the cleavage plane, and not unfrequent-
ly the folia are slightly curved. It is always white or colorless ;
sometimes transparent, but generally only translucent. In every
other character it corresponds with Heulandite and stilbite. On
hot coals it whitens, and before the blowpipe melts into a white
spongy enamel.

The crystals of this mineral are mingled, usually in the least
proportion, with crystals of chabasie ; either in the amygdaloidal
cavities of the greenstone, or in its fissures. 1 have rarely met
with a crystal whose longest side exceeded the tenth of an inch :
and most of the specimens in the collection will need a micro-
scope for their examination. It is very rare and obtained with
difficulty, though small specimens will reward the persevering col-
lector. (Nos. 1200 to 1204.)

At the same spot in Deerfield a radiated mineral occurs, forming
sometimes perfect spheres, of the size of an ounce bullet, which
may be Lincolnite, though perhaps it is stilbite.

This same radiated mineral is found at Bellow's Falls in Ver-
mont, encrusting gneiss. On examining some specimens which I
obtained there a few years ago, I perceive several distinct crystals
of Lincolnite, which are quite small. Quite recently I have ob-
tained more specimens ; and I am more and more inclined to the
opinion that the radiated mineral above spoken of, both at Bellow's
Falls and at Deerfield, is Lincolnite.

It is obvious from the preceding description, that this mineral dif-
fers from stilbite and Heulandite, only in its crystalographical char-
acters. Stilbite crystalizes in a right square prism. Heulandite
comes nearer to Lincolnite ; its primary form being a right oblique
angled prism. But the angles of its bases are about 50° and 130°;
differing 10° from those of Lincolnite. Such a difference cannot
be imputed to the imperfection of mensuration ; nor can I con-
ceive how it could possibly result from any modification of stilbite
or Heulandite. There is, therefore, as much reason for making

Theoretical Considerations. 431

this mineral a distinct species, as tliere was for separating Heuland-
ite from stilbite. I am aware tiiat mineralogists have of late ex-
ceedingly multiplied species by divisions of the stilbite of Hauy.
Beudant, especially, in the last edition of his mineralogy, (1880.)
has made no less than five : viz. stilbite, Heulandite, epistilbite,
hypostilbite, and spherostilbite ; the two last being added by him-
self. He supposes that when the same elements combine in dif-
ferent and definite proportions and under different forms, they
should constitute different species ; although in external characters
they differ but slightly ; and surely no scientific man can object
to this principle. But recent discoveries have shown that the
same elements, combined in the same proportions, are capable of
crystalizing in forms incompatible with each other. This may
prove to be the case with some of the new species separated from
stilbite, and with Lincolnite among the rest. Yet at present it
seems as well entitled to a distinct name as Heulandite, and better
than hypostilbite and spherostilbite, whose crystalline form has not
been ascertained : much better also than epistilbite, since the con-
troversy concerning it that has been carried on in the European
Journals. When this subject shall be better understood than it
now is, mineralogists may find it necessary to reform the list of
species ; nor can we now say which of them must be stricken out.

Theoretical Considerations.

There has been so decided a change within a few years in the
opinions of geologists as to the origin of the trap rocks, and there is
now so general an agreement in regarding them as igneous products
of early times, that a prolonged discussion of the subject in this
place will not be necessary. I shall only state the leading argu-
ments in support of this opinion, that will apply to the greenstone
of Massachusetts.

1. The resemblance in external characters between some varie-
ties of our greenstone and the jjroducts of existing volcanoes. The
amygdaloids are the most striking in their resemblance. In the
valley of the Connecticut it is easy to collect a suit of specimens
of this description, that could hardly be distinguished from speci-
mens that are frequently brought from the craters of volcanoes, ex-
cept by the greater freshness of the latter. Let a man pass from
Bridgman's tavern in the southeast part of Amherst, to Granby,
over the east part of Mount Holyoke, and in the pastures by the
road side, he will see hummocks of amygdaloid so much resembling
lava, as to remind him of the Phlegrean Fields. And a similar
a|)pearance is not uncommon in other spots on the east and south-
east sides of Holyoke and Tom.

Some writers regard the minerals peculiar to our greenstone,
such as chalcedony, the zeolites, prehnite, augite, SiC. as evidence

432 Scientific Geology.

of its igneous origin. But if, as is probable, most of these were
infiltrated from solution in water, this proof is not of much weight ;
especially since they have been found of late in several of the strat-
ified rocks, such as mica slate, gneiss, &;c. though I am not aware
that they have ever been discovered in rocks of exclusively aque-
ous origin.

2. The columnar structure of greenstone. The same colum-
nar form is assumed by lavas when they are slowly cooled ; but
in no case by rocks of known aqueous origin. How unphilosoph-
ical then, to refer this structure to aqueous agency !

3. The irregular manner in which greenstone is intruded
among stratified rocks. Water and fire are the only two great
agents in nature, as 1 suppose will by all be admitted, sufiiciently
energetic to have produced mountain masses of rock: so that we
must take our choice between them, unless we can show that both
of them were concerned in the work. Now I cannot conceive it
possible how any logical mind, that has observed trap rocks in situ,
or will attentively consider the manner in which 1 have shown our
greenstone to be intruded in the form of veins and irregular mass-
es among the stratified rocks, can conceive how they could have
been deposited in these modes from water. But they are exactly
the shapes which melted matter, forced from beneath, through and
among consolidated strata, would have assumed. What but a
wedded attachment to hypothesis, then, can j)revent us from ad-
mitting their igneous origin ?

4. The Mechanical effects of greenstone upon the stratified
rocks. I refer here to the evidence that our greenstone has ele-
vated, broken, and dislocated the strata in some instances, through
which it has been protruded. The section at Turner's Falls, ex-
hibits a good example of these effects, as well as similar effects of
the primary rocks, which last will be noticed farther on. Nearest the
greenstone on the upper side, we find the dip to be greatest, grad-
ually diminishing as we recede from the ridge. That this increase
of dip resulted from the protrusion of the greenstone, is evi-
dent, it seems to me, from the fact that beneath that rock the dip
is less, corresponding to that of the formation generally. A simi-
lar case I have described on Mount Holyoke in Belcherlown. I
have also given drawings of less extensive, though not less de-
cided cases of the agency of a mechanical force upon the strata
in juxtaposition with the greenstone, whereby a portion of these
strata is forced upwards, at Charlestown, Northampton, and New
Haven. All these facts, it seems to me, admit but one explana-
tion : and irresistibly lead the mind to the conclusion, that a force
must have acted in the interior of the earth, urging the greenstone
through the superimposed rocks in a fluid or semi-fluid state.

5. The chemical effects of greenstone upon the stratified rocks.

Origin of Greenstone. 433

At Nahant we have seen that it has converted clay slate into flinty
slate : in Charlestown a similar change has taken place. In the
Connecticut valley, much of the sandstone in contact with the
greenstone has become vesicular and some of it is highly indu-
rated ; and in one case at least, somewhat columnar. Its red color
too is often destroyed, its texture rendered somewhat crystalline,
and the micaceous varieties partially changed to mica slate. In
one case, also, limestone is converted into tripoli ; that is, its car-
bonic acid is expelled.

Now it requires no labored argument to show that such effects as
these could have resulted only from the intrusion among the strata
of rocks in a state of fusion, or intensely heated. It does not
require even a practised geologist to draw this conclusion : for the
facts, wherever they exist, impress every man who observes them
with this belief.

The occurrence of serpentine on the sides of a greenstone dyke
in grayvvacke conglomerate in Roxbury, as described by Dr. Jack-
son, is another interesting chemical effect of the trap. Indeed, I
know of no other possible mode of explaining this case but by ig-
neous agency.

Upon the whole I cannot see that any thing is wanting to prove
the igneous origin of our greenstone. It may be asked, indeed,
how it happens, that while existing volcanoes throw up their
matter in a conical shape, greenstone forms a continuous ridge, 70
or 80 miles long, with no appearance of a crater or craters. There
is reason to believe, indeed, that the mode in which greenstone has
been erupted, was considerably different from the operation of ex-
isting volcanoes ; and that probably the protrusion took place under
an immense weight of water : nor can it be imagined how a com-
mon volcanic force, which acts in the direction of the radii of a
circle, should thus operate lineally. But it is easy to conceive,
how the shrinking of the interior part of the earth by refrigeration,
faster than the exterior, would produce such linear openings, into
which the melted matter from beneath would readily force its way.
But more of this ingenious hypothesis in the sequel.

The columnar structure of the trap rocks has never yet re-
ceived a very satisfactory explanation. From the fact that clay
when drying divides into columnar masses, it is natural to inquire
whether the columns of trap had not a similar origin. There is,
however, one insuperable difficulty in such an hypothesis. The
desication of the clay always causes it to shrink, so as to leave in-
terstices between the columnar masses. But no such shrinking
has taken place among the prisms of trap. There are no spaces
between them : their sides actually touch. Perhaps in the pres-
ent state of our knowledge we caimot come nearer the truth, than
to consider this columnar structure as one of the forms of a con-

434 ScientifLC Geology.

crellonary structure. Yet this solution affords no great satisfaction
to the mind, so long as we are in doubt as to the nature of a con-
cretionary structure.

We liave seen that greenstone is sometimes divided by parallel
planes into masses exceedingly resembling strata. If they are not
genuine strata, what is their origin ?

In all the unstratified rocks, small spherical or ovoid concretions
occur, composed of concentric layers of greater or less thickness.
These concretions vary exceedingly in size, and are sometimes not
more than an inch in diameter. JNor do I know of any principles
in geology or chemistry that can fix any limits to their size. Sup-
pose now a concretion to have been produced of mountainous bulk.
It is obvious that if only a small portion of its surface be laid bare,
and only a few of its envelopes penetrated, these layers niay have
exactly the appearance of strata ; because their curvature is so
slight, for a small extent, as not to be perceptible. In this way
should I account for the laminar disposition of the trap at Nahant;
and 1 shall apply the same explanation to some examples still more
striking in the sienite and granite of the State. In one of these
cases I have satisfactorily traced out a concretion of mountainous
bulk, and thus found a confirmation to the theory I am advocating.

16. PORPHYRY.

Porphyry has been for so many centuries used as an ornamental
stone, and the term has been so often employed by lapidaries and
authors who were ignorant of geology, that its popular acceptation
is quite too loose for scientific description. Nor are geologists
exactly agreed as to its meaning. 'The term porphyry,' says
Macculloch, * is applied to a rock in which crystals of common
feldspar are imbedded in a simple or compound base.' ' The
word porphyry,' says a writer in the Edinburgh Review, ' signifies
at present a rock having a compact basis, through which are scat-
tered crystals of some other minerals.' 'Since the tin)e of Wer-
ner,' says the Dictionnaire Classique D'Histoire Naturelle, ' most
jnineralogists confine the name Porphyry to rocks with a porphy-
roid structure, composed of a paste of compact feldspar more or
less mixed, which envelopes crystals of feldspar ordinarily whitish.'
Brongniart defines porphyry as having a ' paste of amphibolic
petrosilex, red or reddish, enveloping obvious crystals of feldspar.'

Since porphyry passes into other rocks, we ought to recollect a
remark of JNIacculloch, that 'the term porphyry, when used in
geological description, must not always be taken too strictly in its
mineralogical sense.' With the latitude which this remark gives,
the porphyry of Massachusetts conforms to the strictest of the
above definitions.

Varieties of Porphyry. 435

Miner cdogical Characters.

1. Compact Feldspar. (Nos. 1206 to 1228.) This mineral,
more or less changed by other substances chemically mixed with
it, forms, I believe, the basis of all the porphyry in Massachusetts.
At any rate, I have found none the base of which I was not able
to fuse with a common blowpipe : and this fact, in connection
with another, that the great mass of our porphyry has a base of
well characterised compact feldspar, has satisfied me that this is
the predominant ingredient in the whole of it. But this compact
feldspar, both that which forms the paste of porphyry, and that
which contains few or no feldspar crystals, varies exceedingly in
color, in toughness, and in the ease with which it can be fused.
And to what but an admixture with more or less of other minerals,
can we impute these diflerences ?

It seems to me, that in the present state of geological science,
we may take it for granted, that compact feldspar has once been
melted. But what was the original rock from which it was pro-
duced ? Judging from the present constitution of the earth's
crust, we must suppose that rock to have been one in which feld-
spar only predominated, but did not exist alone ; or in some cases
perhaps, the feldspar formed only a small proportion of the whole.
The melting down of such rocks would produce just such varieties
of compact feldspar as we find to exist. Sometimes they would
be almost pure, while at other times they would contain so much
silex, or other earth, that they could scarcely be distinguished
from hornstone, jasper, quartz, &;c.; and their fusion would be
quite difficult.

Now it seems to me that there is too close a resemblance be-
tween this a priori reasoning and facts, to permit us to regard the
former as mere hypothesis. It obviously gives us a clew to the
whole history of compact feldspar, and prepares us to expect as
great anomalies in its characters as can present themselves.

Compact feldspar in the vicinity of Boston forms deposits of
considerable extent : I mean that variety which is so deficient in
crystals of feldspar, that it would not generally be denominated
porphyry. It is true, however, that a careful examination of this
rock, will almost always detect these crystals in it ; and sometimes
polishing will bring to light a porphyritic structure where it was
not previously obvious. Hence I have not hesitated to reckon
compact feldspar as a variety of porphyry. The variety most
wanting in feldspar crystals usually lies between genuine porphyry
or sienite on the one side, and graywacke on the other. A de-
posit of it thus situated, extends from Medford to Maiden. An-
other strip of it may be seen in the south part of Dorchester and
Roxbury, and in the north part of Milton and Dedham. The
same range, probably, appears and forms hills in Nccdham and

436 Scientific Oeology.

Natick. It is most likely the other extremity of this range that
appears in Hingham. Often a portion of these deposits, espec-
ially on that side where they unite with graywacke, exhibits
somewhat of a slaty structure ; and when describing graywacke,
I have mentioned a variety which is conglomerated compact feld-
spar. This was noticed near Neponset river, not far from the
line between Milton and Dorchester,

Although the compact feldspar under consideration assumes
almost every variety of color, yet there are certain predominant
colors. One of the most common is a grayish white : as in Med-
ford, where some of the rock has the aspect of granular quartz.
This variety sometimes assumes a yellowish tinge, as in Newbury ;
and this appears to be one of the purest varieties of this rock,
and the one, which, if any, will answer for Turkey stones. (No.
1206.) A dark gray color is another that prevails ; and some-
times it is obvious that the rock embraces fragments of indurated
slate, not perfectly incorporated with the feldspar. A more
striking and very common variety is red, of various shades, from
brownish to blood red. The latter variety abounds in Hingham,
where ledges of it may be seen a little north of the village ;
and an interesting exhibition of it is made at the excavation
for the Boston and Worcester rail road in Needham. Speci-
mens of this rock can hardly be distinguished from the jasper
so called, of Saugus ; and probably it is essentially the same
thing, viz. compact feldspar with a mixture of some other ingre-
dients. Both of them are fusible with some difficulty into a
semi-transparent porous glass. They correspond pretty nearly in
their characters to the rose petrosilex of Sahlberg, described by
Berthier in the 36th volume of the Annales de Chimie et de
Physique, and which he regards as a distinct species from com-
pact feldspar, and which Beudant has since described as such.
However, it seems to me that if we make a distinct species of
this variety, we must make a dozen others from the compact feld-
spar of Massachusetts. He would erect this into a new species,
chiefly because it differs from feldspar so much in composition.
But if compact feldspar had an igneous origin, should we not ex-
pect its composition to vary much according to the greater or less
quantity of foreign substances that happened to melt and mix
with the feldspar: nor would this be a reason for making distinct
species, so long as the constituents of feldspar predominated.
Some specimens of our compact feldspar of a reddish color ex-
hibit traces of a schistose structure, and are even traversed by
thin veins and layers of quartz. These melt with great difficulty.

These are the principal varieties of color that I have met with
in the non-porphyritic compact feldspar of Massachusetts. When
porphyritic, however, it exhibits several other predominant colors,
which will be mentioned in the proper place.

Varieties of Porj)hyr\j. 437

2. Antique Porphyry. {Porphyre antique, AL Brongniart.)
This variety constitutes the great mass of the porphyry in the vicin-
ity of Boston : and I call it antique because it so closely resembles
that used in the monuments and ornauiental furniture of the an-
cients. As to this point we have the testimony of Prof. A. Brong-
niart, who quotes ' Chelsea near Boston ;' as a locality of porphyry,
and says that ' it entirely resembles the antique porphyry '* He
might have added that probably as many, if not the same varieties
occur in the vicinity of Boston, as were employed by the ancients.
The specimens which I have placed in the collection, and the most
of which are polished, will render this statement probable. For if
I could obtain so many varieties during the little time that 1 have
spent in examining this formation, how extensive a suite might be
brought to light by long and careful research !

The compact feldspar that forms the base of these porhpyries
])resents numerous varieties and shades of color. One of the most
elegant, is a light green, such as occurs in Chelsea and Maiden;
(Nos. 12.54, 1256, 1257,) or the deeper green that I have met
with in Milton. (No. 1255.) Red of various shades is a still more
frequent color. (Nos. 1247 to 1253.) A reddish brown is some-
times met with. (Nos. 1240, 1241, 1243, 1258.) A nearly black
color more often : (Nos. 1234, 1235, 1236.) A gray color some-
times : (Nos. 1239, 1242, 1244,) and a purple color rather sel-
dom. (Nos. 1232, 1233.) The imbedded crystals are usually of a
light color, sometimes white, sometimes brown, and sometimes
greenish. Generally they are foliated, very rarely compact, and
distinguished from the base chiefly by the color.

3. Porphyry with a base of compact Feldspar, and tivo or more
minerals imbedded. (Nos. 1258 to 1262.) Feldspar and quartz are
the two minerals present ; but I have noticed usually small plates of
mica. Sometimes it is very obvious, indeed, that this rock is interme-
diate between sienite and porphyry. In other words, it seems to be
the former rock partly melted down into the latter. The porphyry
of the Blue Hills is chiefly made up of this variety ; though some
perfectly formed porphyry is found there. The quartz is usually
hyaline and smoky, and sometimes it forms the only imbeded mm-
eral ; the feldspar being all compact. In such cases especially,
where the base is of a light color, the rock exceedingly resembles
trachytic porphyry; (Nos. 1261, 1262,) and it will hardly admit
of being polished for ornamental purposes. That a porphyry,
which, by being thus associated so intimately with sienite, is proved
to be one of the oldest varieties on the globe, should so much re-
semble the most recent variety, proves that similar causes have op-
erated in its production at different and very remote periods.

* Classification des Roches, p. 108.

54

438 Scientific Geology.

4. Brecciated Porphyry. 1 know not how to describe this va-
riety better, than by saying that it is composed of angular frag-
ments of porphyry and compact feldspar, re-united by a paste of
the same n)aterials, which is itself also porphyrilic. Hence it ap-
pears that there must have been an original formation of these
rocks, (compact feldspar and porphyry,) which was subsequently
broken up, either by the mechanical agency of water, or the me-
chanico-cheniical agency of heat, redissolving and mingling the
materials. The fragments are of various colors, usually, however,
gray or red : and this proves that rocks from different localities
must have been mixed together. The paste is commonly in the
greatest quantity ; and the rock is as hard and broken with as much
difficulty as any other variety of porphyry. It is not a very com-
mon or abundant variety : but for ornamental purposes it affords
specimens of great delicacy. (Nos. 1263 to 1270.)

Topography of Porphyry.

Only three ranges of this rock are given on the Map ; and these
are all in the eastern part of the State. Two of them, — the prin-
cipal ones, — lie, the one on the north and the other on the south
of Boston, having their longitudinal direction east and west. The
third is in Essex county, extending easterly from Byfield Acade-
my, nearly or quite to the coast. This strip is chiefly compact
feldspar and mostly the red variety. It certainly deserves a more
thorough exan)ination than I have been able to give it.

In some places farther south, as for instance on the turnpike be-
tween Boston and Newbury port, in Topsfield, I observed a rock
in place, intermediate between porphyry and greenstone: and not
improbably genuine porphyry may be found in the vicinity.

This rock is most fully developed in its characters in the range
a little north of Boston, extending from West Cambridge through
Maiden and Medford to the east part of Lynn. The southern
border of this strip, certainly towards its western extremity, is
compact feldspar. The porphyry" (mostly antique, though some-
times brecciated,) forms a broken ridge of considerable height,
generally naked and precipitous on its southern side. On the
north it is succeeded by sienite, and the two rocks are so closely
connected that the line between them is very obscure and irregu-
lar. I am satisfied, however, that this porphyry range has been
usually represented too wide. This is the range that will proba-
bly furnish the best varieties for ornamental purposes, whenever
the public taste shall create a demand.

There is reason to suppose that this range once extended much
farther east than at present. For Hon. H. A. S. Dearborn in-
forms me that Halfway Rock, lying in the ocean several miles
east of Marblehead, is porphyry. Indeed, specimen No. 1264,

Geological Position of Porphyry. 439

which he presented to me, will show that it is the finest brecciated
porphyry in the State, which I have met with. Now as this
island lies nearly in the direction of the Maiden and Lynn por-
phyry range continued easterly, I infer that it did once reach so
far ; (and perhaps does now beneath the ocean ;) nor can we say
how much farther. We see here from whence proceeded the
porphyry pebbles that are so common along the southern shore of
Massachusetts Bay, and on the islands of Nantucket and Martha's
Vineyard.

The porphyry range south of Boston occupies much more of
the surface than that just described ; and yet I doubt whether it
contains so much genuine porphyry. It extends with some ap-
parent interruptions, (though I doubt whether there are any real
interruptions,) from Natick to Hingham, through a part of Need-
ham, Dedham, Milton, Braintree, Quincy, and Weymouth. I
have not found it, however, in the latter place, and have marked
the deposit of this rock in Hingham as insulated from the rest.
This patch is chiefly compact feldspar. The range, it will be
seen, embraces the greater part of the Blue Hills, the most ele-
vated land in the vicinity of Boston, its highest point rising more
than 700 feet above the ocean. But it is only the upper part of
this mountain that is composed of porphyry, and by no means the
whole of its summit neither: for sienite is frequently found there.
The porphyry is chiefly that variety which has a trachytic aspect,
being evidently intermediate between porphyry and sienite.

I have met with rocks approaching to porphyry in no other
places in the State, except one or two. In the sienite of Whately
I found a vein of compact feldspar two or three feet wide ; but
the foliated structure of the feldspar was not entirely obliterated.
In the argillaceous slate of Guilford, Vt., a quite distinct porphy-
roid granite occurs, and with it well characterised greenish com-
pact feldspar. These rocks are so obviously granite, imperfectly
melted down, that I have thought it best to describe them under
granite, and to place the specimens (Nos. 1467 to 1470) among
those of granite. A specimen (No. 1211) of the Whately com-
pact feldspar will be found in the collection.

Geological Position.

Of all the questions that have exercised the ingenuity of geol-
ogists, none appear to me more perplexing and unprofitable than
those which they have raised and discussed relative to the primi-
tive, transition, and secondary character of porphyries. In read-
ing Humboldt's remarks on the transition of porphyries, in his
Essay on the Superposition of Rocks, I have been reminded of a
man benighted in a quagmire. Every effort which he makes to
extricate himself, only plunges him in deeper. Am I asked

440 ScUntiJic Geology.

whether the porphyry of Massachusetts belongs to the Primitive,
Transition, or Secondary class? I reply that it belongs to none
of them, but is a member of a series of rocks consisting of gran-
ite, sienite, porphyry, and greenstone, which have been protruded
through, or among the stratified rocks, subsequent to their depo-
sition. I say protruded : for if there be ground for making any
theoretical inferences whatever in geology, it seems to me that it
exists in tliis instance. The mere existence of these rocks, there-
fore, among those of any particular stratified class, does not prove
that they were produced at the same epoch : it only proves that
the unstratified rock was of subsequent production. On the other
hand, if we find a stratified rock lying above others which are
penetrated by veins of an unstratified rock, while this superior one
is never thus penetrated, we may safely infer that it was deposited
since the protrusion of the unstratified rock. These seem to be
the two grand limits of our inquiries in respect to the ages of the
unstratified rocks. And if this were all that is meant when the inqui-
ry is made, whether they are primitive, transition, or secondary, a
satisfactory answer might be given. In respect to the relative po-
sition of the porphyry of IMassachusetts, however, 1 have but little
to say, because but few facts have fallen under my observation.
I have never met with an instance in which this porphyry was ex-
hibited in juxtaposition with any stratified rock : except as already
remarked, the compact feldspar succeeds to the graywacke as an
older rock and gradually passes into porphyry. This porphyry,
however, is associated, both on the north and south of Boston,
with sienite ; and in all cases, so far as I have observed, the 'por-
phyry lies above the sienite, and there is a gradual transition be-
tween the two rocks. This fact is most obvious in the Blue Hill
range, where one is often much perplexed to decide whether the
rock be sienite or porphyry. The sienite in these cases, however,
it is important to remark, is never so far as I know, that variety
consisting of compact feldspar and hornblende, which occurs as a
member of the overlying family of rocks, but that variety composed
essentially of feldspar, quartz and hornblende, which is connected
with granite. Hence 1 infer that our porphyry belongs to the
oldest varieties of this rock that have been described.

Mineral Contejits.

Although in South America, according to Humboldt, porphyry
forms the matrix of gold and some other metals, ^-et, in general
this rock is remarkably destitute of foreign minerals. It is so in
Massachusetts. In Maiden it contains a little specular oxide of
iron, and this is the only mineral hitherto announced as occurring
in it. A careful examination of specimen No. 1222 with a mi-

Origin of Porphyry. 44 1

croscope, has led me to the behef that it contains a minute quantity
of native gold. The quantity is so very small that an assay can-
not be made of it : yet it certainly bsars an exact resemblance to
native gold. The specimen is an extremely hard variety of com-
pact feldspar approaching flinty slate, from the Blue Hiils. I
should not allude to this circumstance were not the porphyry of
South America rich in this metal.

Theoretical Considerations.

Porpliyry, or rather its base, has more the appearance of hav-
ing once been melted than any of the unstratified rocks, except
perhaps some of the vesicular traps. It has been thought by
sotne distinguished writers that compact feldspar ought to be re-
garded as a mineral species distinct from common feldspar, chiefly
because soda is found in it more frequently than potassa, and often
exclusively. But one has only to examine the analyses of these
two substances, to see that in this respect there is great diversity
among both varieties. If compact feldspar is common feldspar or
albite that has been melted in connection with other minerals, we
ought to expect, as I have remarked in another place, that its
composition would not coincide with that of common feldspar.
And that it does result from this change in common feldspar, I
can hardly doubt, when 1 often see specimens that have not en-
tirely lost their foliated structure, being intermediate between the
two minerals. And then the chemical effects that have been pro-
duced on other rocks in the vicinity of compact feldspar, (exam-
ples of which have been mentioned under greenstone,) clearly
point us to an igneous agency.

1 have elsewhere elucidated the argument in favor of the igne-
ous origin of all rocks that are porphyritic, drawn from the chem-
istry of the subject. If that argument be valid, it is obvious that
it will apply with peculiar force to the rock under consideration.

It is not uncommon to meet with specimens of porphyry that
exhibit traces of an originally slaty structure in all or a part of the
materials composing it. This clearly points us to a slaty rock as
the source from which porphyry was derived. And sometimes
fragments of this rock, along with fragments of compact feldspar,,
flinty slate, he, are scattered through the mass as if partly
melted down; very much as fragments appear in the slag of a fur-
nace. They seem to be all but incorporated with the paste, and
the whole mass presents an appearance of a more perfect chemi-
cal union than any rock resulting from aqueous agency ever ex-
hibits, unless it be entirely crystalline.

Under what peculiar circumstances the matter composing por-
phyry was indurated, so as to prevent the greater part of the mass

442 Scientific Geology.

from assuming a crystalline state, it seems to me difficult to con-
jecture : and, therefore, I will not indulge in any speculations upon
it. The gradual passage of this rock into sienite, without any ap-
parent change of ingredients, seems to indicate that the peculiari-
ties of porphyry did not result chiefly from the nature of the
materials employed in its production.

17. SIENITE.

Most writers define classic sienite to be essentially composed of
feldspar and hornblende : the first ingredient in the greatest quan-
tity. It is essential also, that it should be connected with the
overlying or trap rocks. This definition corresponds but to a small
part of the sienite of Massachusetts. The greater part of it con-
tains quartz as a constant and somewhat abundant ingredient, and
mica is very often present. The most of our sienite is the granitic
variety, and might perhaps have been described as sienitic granite.
Yet in the eastern part of the State, it is very intimately associated
with greenstone ; and, therefore, I have thought it best to describe
all the varieties of rock, between greenstone and porphyry on one
side, and common granite on the other, into whose composition
hornblende enters, under the name of sienite. Macculloch's de-
finition, which he says ' alone rigidly accords with the common
definition of sienite,' embraces the most important variety of our
sienite : viz. a graniform mixture of feldspar, hornblende, and
quartz. And this definition I shall take as the type of the rock
now to be described.

The original specimen to which Werner applied the name sien-
ite came from Sienna in upper Egypt, whence were obtained many
of the Egyptian monuments, such as Cleopatra's Needle, Pom-
pey's Pillar, he. But this rock, it is now well known, is nothing
but a red granite with black mica and a very small proportion of
hornblende ; a rock quite different from what Werner supposed.
This mistake has occasioned almost endless confusion in geological
descriptions. Roziere proposed a remedy. Ascertaining that
mount Sinai in Arabia is composed of genuine sienite, he proposed
to change sienite into Sinaite : but geologists have unfortunately
neglected the hint.

Mineralogical Characters.

1. Feldspar and Hornhlende. This differs from greenstone
by the predominance of the feldspar : and yet it is obvious that in
respect to many specimens, and even very large deposits, it is dif-
ficult to decide whether they should be referred to the former or
to the latter rock. In almost all cases both the infrredients are

Varieties of Sienite. 443

more or less crystalline : though sometimes, as at Naliant, the feld-
spar seems to be passing to a compact state. The hornblende is
almost universally black ; the feldspar white, greenish, and yellow-
ish. (Nos. 1271 to 1285.)

I apprehend that by a careful examination of the specimens of
this variety, nearly all of them would be found to contain more or
less quartz : but quartz and feldspar, when seen through a micro-
scope, resemble each other so much, that it is not easy to decide.
At any rate, this variety insensibly admits quartz and mica into its
composition, and thus approximates to granite. It is hardly ne-
cessary to say, that on the other hand it passes into greenstone.
This variety, although elegant, is rarely wrought for ornamental
purposes, on account of the proverbial toughness of the horn-
blende.

2. Feldspar, Quartz, and Hornblende. This variety em-
braces nearly all the sienite in the State that is employed for archi-
tectural purposes, including the quarries at Quincy and those on
Cape Ann. Feldspar is the most abundant ingredient. This is
foliated, and commonly of a grayish, bluish, or yellowish color.
A hyaline quartz, varying in color from quite light to quite dark
gray, is very uniformly mixed with the feldspar, so as to exhibit
homogeneousness in the midst of variety. In general, the horn-
blende, which is black, is very sparingly disseminated, and hand
specimens often contain not a particle. Indeed, over extensive
tracts I have sometimes not met with any. Hence I regard this
hornblende as an unessential ingredient ; and consequently have
arranged under this variety a rock very common in the vicinity of
Boston, differing from that just described only by the absence of
hornblende. It is most common a considerable distance south of
Boston in the counties of Norfolk and Plymouth. In some in-
stances, as may be seen by the specimens, Nos. 1286 to 1308,
the feldspar is flesh red, or a liliac red, and in others of a blood red
color. Its great resemblance in structure and composition to the
Quincy and Cape Ann sienites, and the remarkable absence of
mica, have led me to associate it with the variety under considera-
tion : and in fact it forms a part of the same range. I distinguish
this rock from granite only by the absence of mica : yet it must
be obvious that this mark is not very satisfactory.

Sometimes the feldspar in this compound of that mineral and
quartz, is nearly or quite compact. I have observed this variety
most frequently in the north part of Essex county, as in Rowley
and Newbury. A like compound is connected with the sienite of
other countries.

3. Feldspar, Hornblende, Quartz, and Mica. In this qua-
ternary compound we have a still nearer approach to granite,
and generally it passes into granite by the disappearance of horn-

444 Scieni.ijic Geology.

blende and the increase of quartz and mica. Yet in all cases
where I have noticed it, this rock occupies a position between gen-
uine granite and the newer stratified rocks. Hence 1 infer, that
geologically considered, the difference between it and granite are
important to be noticed.

The feldspar ind iiornblende are the predominant ingredients in
this variety. The quartz is in so small grains that it is apt to es-
cape notice ; and the mica being usually black, is very easily mis-
taken for hornblende. In general all the ingredients exhibit a live-
liness of crystalline structure which is observable only in the old-
est rocks. The feldspar is ordinarily white, sometimes flesh col-
ored, and the hornblende black. The grain of the rock is com-
monly finer than that of the 2d variety. As yet it has been but
seldom employed for architectural purposes ; although it would be
beautiful and enduring. (1319 to 1340.)

4. Porphijritic Sienite. (^Nos. 1341 to 1 349.) I mean by this term
any sienite through which are interspersed crystals or foliated masses
of feldspar, so as to give the rock a porphyritic aspect. 1 do not
recollect, however, ever having seen the last variety above de-
scribed, porphyritic. And indeed, nearly all the rock which I re-
gard as porphyritic sienite in Massachusetts, and specimens of
which will be found in the collection, is almost entirely destitute
of hornblende ; and hence many geologists would regard it as por-
phyritic granite. But the specimens are rarely wanting in veins
and disseminated masses of compact epidote, and I cannot but re-
gard this mineral as more decidedly characteristic of our sienite
than hornblende. If this be present and the mica almost or en-
tirely absent, I have little hesitation in regarding the rock as geo-
logically a part of a sienite deposit.

The most elegant variety of porphyritic sienite that I have met
with in the State, occurs in Abington, and North Bridgwater, and
in other parts of Plymouth county. Its base consists' of quartz
and feldspar, with an abundance of epidote disseminated and in
veins. The feldspar crystals, that constitute it a porphyry, are of
a flesh color. There is also a dark colored mineral diffused
through the mass, which may be hornblende or mica. This rock
if polished would form it seems to me the most elegant ornamental
stone in the State. (Nos. 1344 to 1347.)

The sienite of Cape Ann is often porphyritic. In one place,
about half way between Sandy Bay and Gloucester Harbor, I
found a variety in which the imbeded feldspar crystals are of a
very rich bronze color, approaching in appearance to hypersthene.
but when this rock is smoothed its aspect is too dark to be ele-
gant. (No. 1343.)

5. Conglomerated Sienite. (Nos. 1350 to 1353.) This is a
most interesting variety on account of the bearing which its char-

Ranges of Sienite. 445

acters have upon the theory of the formation of sienite. I have
met with it chiefly in the compound No. 3, just described. The
rock in general does not differ from that variety ; but it contains
rounded masses of the oldest stratified rocks. It is in fact a real con-
glomerate ; and in some places the nodules are so numerous that it
has very much the aspect of the coarse pudding stones of the newer
rocks. The nodules vary in size from the diameter of half an
inch to that of six or eight inches. They are not smoothed, like
the pebbles in the more recent conglomerates, by mechanical at-
trition : but they appear like masses of rocks that have been partly
melted down by heat. In almost all cases hornblende predotni-
nates in these nodules : and often they consist of distinct horn-
blende slate. Sometimes they contain mica inconsiderable quan-
tity, and more rarely they consist chiefly of quartz and mica, the
former in excess, forming a kind of quartz rock. Feldspar is also
frequently present, especially in those cases where the schistose
structure is indistinct : and sometimes the nodule appears to be only
a variety of sienite in which the feldspar is in a smaller quantity
than usual. Upon the whole, 1 think 1 have ascertained the pres-
ence of hornblende slate, mica slate, and quartz rock, in these
nodules. When the rock is broken they are knocked out without
difficulty, like the pebbles from a common conglomerate.

The theoretical inferences deducible from these facts I shall re-
serve for the sequel.

6. Augitic Sienite. The presence of hornblende in this rock
and the absence of mica, have led me to call it augitic sienite rath-
er than augitic granite : although in position it is associated with
granite. There are two varieties. The first is composed of black
hornblende, greenish augite, and yellowish feldspar ; all the ingre-
dients except the feldspar exhibiting a very distinct and lively crys-
talline structure. This variety occurs in the northern part of
Belchertown. The other variety, which 1 have found only in
bowlders in Amherst, consists of augite and feldspar ; the
former being so arranged in the latter as to present the appearance
of letters. (Nos. 1362, 1363.)

Topography of Sienite.

The eastern, and northeastern parts of Massachusetts most
abound in sienite. A large part of Essex county is based upon it,
as are several towns in Middlesex. On the south of Boston it
spreads over a large part of Norfolk county and some part of
Plymouth. A glance at the Map will show where it prevails most
extensively. In all these places it forms hills of moderate eleva-
tion with no very striking characters. Its particular situation in
respect to greenstone and granite I have already described in
treating of the former rock.

55

446 Scientific Geology.

The only other place in the Slate where I have met with sienite
in place, is in the valley of the Connecticut. Here I have marked
two deposits of considerable extent. The first extends from Mount
Holyoke in Belchertown to Chickopee river and a little beyond :
the other, on the west side of the Connecticut, occupies a con-
siderable part of Northampton and Hatfield, and extends to the
centre of Whately.

Although sienite very much resembling that which exists in the
valley of the Connecticut occurs in the eastern part of the State,
yet none like that which is so conmionly employed for architec-
tural purposes in the eastern part of the State, known as the Quin-
cy and Cape Ann sienite, is found in the valley of the Connecticut.
Nor have I met with any in that valley which is porphyritic. In-
deed, I have arranged all which has come under my observation
in that valley, under the quaternary compound described as the
third variety in giving the mineralogical characters; although I
doubt not but one or more of the four ingredients may sometimes
be wanting. Perhaps all this sienite might properly be described
as sienitic granite, or granite which takes a proportion of horn-
blende into its composition.

The sienite in the Connecticut valley occupies a low level,
rarely rising into hills of more than 100 or 200 feet high. And
on the west side of the river a considerable part of the formation
is buried up by diluvium and tertiary strata.

The sienite of this valley sometimes exhibits a strong disposi-
tion to assume a columnar form. Perhaps this is exhibited no
where to better advantage than in the ledge by the road side about
a mile north of Northampton village. The cokmmar masses are
only a few inches in diameter, and are much less perfect than those
found in greenstone. The fact, however, is interesting, as indi-
cating a similarity in the causes that produced the two rocks.

PseudoStrdtiJication of Sienite.

At one of the quarries of this rock at Sandy Bay, Cape Ann,
on the road fiom thence to Squam, a remarkably fine example may
be seen of the division of this rock into parallel portions. Their
thickness varies from two inches to two feet, and great facility
is thus afforded for quarrying the stone.

As this apparent stratification extends only a few rods, while all
the rest of the sienite on the Cape that I have met with, is un-
stratified, we cannot regard this case as real stratification. I con-
sider it an example of the concretionary structure on a large scale.
But it is unnecessary in this place to dwell upon this explanation,
since I have already discussed it in treating of a similar phenome-
non in greenstone.

Veins in iSienitc. 447

Veins in Sienite.

Tliese are numerous and various- in tlieir probable mode of pro-
duction, as well as in their composition Some of them might
properly be denominated, ' veins of segregation :'* 'as they seem
to have been formed by a separation of parts during the gradual
passage of the mineral masses into a solid state.' In most cases
they appear to consist only of harder portions of tiie rock, which
become visible only by the weathering of the surface, when they
are left in projecting ridges, and at a little distance cannot be dis-
tinguished from injected veins. 1 presume that it will be found in
all cases, that these veins differ somewhat in composition from the
rest of the rock: and indeed, in some cases this is obvious, as
they contain more or less of a foreign mineral, such as epidote or
quartz.

The greater part of the veins in our sienite consist of materials
foreign to the nature of the rock, and introduced subsequently to
its original production. I do not say subsequently to its consolida-
tion : for it has appeared to me possible, that while a molten mass
of rock, say sienite, was in an incipient state of refrigeration, mat-
ter of a similar kind, still more intensely heated, might have been
injected into it so as to form veins. And the very near approach
which some of the veins in sienite and granite exhibit to veins of
segregation, has led me to the suspicion that they might have been
produced in some such way, rather than by the filling up of open
fissures subsequent to the consolidation of the mass of the rock.
However, very many of the veins in our sienite were obviously
produced in the mode last mentioned : for we find that lateral
slides, sometimes of considerable extent, have taken place along
the course of the vein ; and this could not probably have been
done till after a considerable degree of induration.

No substance is so common in the veins of our sienite as epi-
dote. Yet the veins of this description are far less conspicuous
than others, because they are so thin. Often they are easily
mistaken for mere seams. The epidote is commonly very com-
pact and resembles greenish compact feldspar : it has not, how-
ever, the toughness of that mineral, and it melts rather easily be-
fore the blowpipe into a black enamel. Sometimes the epidote
of these veins is semi-crystalline and well characterised. I think
that the lateral slides in the sienite n)entioned above, occur
more frequently in connection with these epidote veins than with
any other.

Tiie other substances composing veins in our sienite, are gran-

♦Sedgwick's Anniversary Address before the London Geol. Soc. 1831, p. 3.

448

Scientific Geology.

ite, feldspar, and quartz. The granite is most common : though
generally feldspar is greatly in excess, and frequently no mica is
present. Hence the vein, by a slight change, becomes entirely
feldspar, ordinarily of a reddish hue. In one instance only, which
has been already mentioned under porphyry, a vein two or three
feet wide consisted entirely of compact feldspar. The quartz
veins are frequently hollow and abound in delicate crystals of the
same mineral.

By far the most instructive exhibition of the veins that have
been described, occurs in Whately, a mile or two a little west of
south irom the congiegational meeting house. I subjoin a few
sketches of those that struck me as particularly interesting.

Veins in sicnite : Whately.

The above sketch represents an area about 10 feet long, and
6 feet wide, oa, Is a fine grained granite vein an inch wide at
the upper end, and decreasing downward: h, another granite vein
of fine grain, one foot wide : c, a similar one of equal width : d is
a fissure, or rather an epidote vein.

aa, Is obviously the oldest vein ; for it is cut off by b, and this
again by c. Hence we have here granite and sienite of four
epochs: 1st the rock of sienite itself: 2d the vein a; 3d the vein
6, protruded subsequently : and 4th the vein c, injected last of all.
At what epoch the vefn d cut off a, a, we have no means of ascer-
taining; only that it was previous to the formation of the vein c,
since this is not affected by the lateral slide apparent in a, a.

MaccuUoch says that ' there have been granites found where a
vein o( a. third granite traversed a vein of a second and different
one, which had previously traversed the mass of a first.'* The
preceding sketch proves a fourth production of granite : for there
can be no doubt but the sienite of Whately is a variety of granite.
But if the suggestion above made, relating to the successive pro-
duction of different granite veins, while yet the rock which they
traverse was in a fluid or semi-fluid state, be admitted ; we need

' System of Geology, Vol. I. p. 503,

Veins in Sienitc.

449

not suppose any long interval between the formation of these veins.
However, I do not place confidence enough in the suggestion to
make it the foundation of any important inference.

The rock in the following sketch is about 15 feet long. d,d, d,
Is a vein of feldspar, two inches wide at its western extremity :
but it ramifies at the other end and almost disappears, a, b, c,
Are veins of epidote, on each side of which the sienite has become
indurated so as to present ridges on the surface of the rock an
inch or two in width ; the epidote being a mere line in thickness.
These veins have cut off the feldspar vein and produced an
echellon movement of the central part, e Is a nodule of some
other rock enclosed in the sienite and cut off by the feldspar vein.

<P

'^ 7

Veins in Sienite : Whately.

We have here only two successive formations of granite, though
the epidote veins were protruded at a third epoch. And the lat-
eral movement of the sienite by these veins, indicates, it seems to
me, that although the rock was consolidated at the surface, yet
not probably to any great depth, when these epidote veins were
injected ; otherwise 1 cannot conceive how such a movement could
have been produced. A slight heaving of the waters of a stream
would break and produce various slides in the ice on its surface
when it was quite thin : but let the river be frozen nearly to the
bottom, and such movements would be produced with great diffi-
culty.

The following sketch was formerly inserted in the 6th volume
of the American Journal of Science : but such a curious succession
of echellon movements have been produced in the granite veins,
a, a, he. b, b, &tc. by the epidote veins, d, d, &tc. that I thought it
deserved a place here. The sides of the rock represented are
about 4, 6 and 10 feet, c Is a fragment of some stratified rock
imbedded in the sienite and cut through by the vein b. The
width of the granite veins varies from one to 2 1-2 inches.

450

Scientific Geologi/.
Rid dd ii

■ Veins in Sienite : Whately.

It is easy to conceive how the detached portions of these two
granite veins might be brought into alignment, (to continue the
allusion above made to military manceuvres,) but how they could
have been thrown into their present position, except when the
rock was in a fluid state, I am unable to conceive. And yet there
must have been consistence enough in the veins to prevent their
being diffused through the sienite. Does not this example lend
some plausibility to the suggestion that has been made, relative to
the protrusion of veins while yet the rock was in a partially fluid
state ? Or must we, in order to explain such a case as the present,
suppose a second fusion of the rock ?

Geological Position of Sienite.

I am not aware that any of the sienite of Massachusetts can be
properly called an overlying rock : that is, I have found no exam-
ple where it lies above other rocks. On one side it usually pass-
es by insensible gradations into granite and on the other into
greenstone and porphyry : or when these rocks are wanting, some
of the stratifled rocks, such as hornblende slate, graywacke, or
new red sandstone, repose upon it. At least this is the impression
I have received from all the examinations which I have made of
our sienite ; although I cannot refer to particular spots where
these various rocks are brought into the relations that have been
described. The low level at which our sienite is placed, has caus-
ed it to be very much covered with diluvium, so as to hide its
junction with other rocks. Yet in all cases where this rock oc-
curs, we find it between the oldest granite and greenstone, or the
earlier stratified rocks. Hence I infer that a portion of the mate-
rials of which granite is composed, under certain circumstances
were converted into sienite, and that these circumstances existed
generally in that portion of the melted granite nearest the newer
stratified rocks. Or if we suppose it erupted at a different epoch
Iroin the granite, certain causes always forced it upwards between
the granite and the newer rocks. Or if we suppose it to have re-

Minerals in Sienite. 451

suited from the melting down of the stratified rocks, then perhaps
their more or less perfect fusion produced the difference vvliich we
find between granite and sienite. But more of this last suggestion
in the sequel.

Mineral Contents.

The limits between sienite and granite, as well as between sien-
ite and greenstone, are so vague and unsettled, that it is not al-
ways easy to ascertain to which of these rocks, minerals described
by different writers belong ; since in such a case geologists will be
apt to give different names to the same rock. Genuine sienite, I
mean that which is best characterised, is in Massachusetts rather
barren of simple minerals: not quite so much so, however, as por-
phyry. By far the most common mineral is epidote ; whose char-
acteis and mode of occurrence [ have pointed out. The sienite
used for architectural purposes from the vicinity of Boston, contains
less of this mineral than any other variety in the State.

There is an interesting variety in the feldspar of this rock. In
Beverly a few years since, a considerable quantity of green feld-
spar was obtained from a rock near the centre of the place. The
bronze colored feldspar of Cape Ann has been already described,
and that which is of a lilac color in Hingham. In Charlestown a
a variety occurs in which the prisms exhibit stripes of various
colors, and some have proposed for it the name taenite, on ac-
count of its resemblance to a ribbon. On Holyoke and Tom I
have described a variety of trap in which this mineral presents a
similar appearance. According to Professor Webster, hypersthene
occurs in the sienite of Hingham along with hornblende. Ame-
thyst is said to exist in the same rock in that place.

In the sienite of Beverly, fluate of lime and zircon have been
found ; and the former mineral in the rolled masses of this rock
in Seekonk. In that of Charlestown Prof. IVuttall discovered
arragonite. Prehnite, according to Prof Webster, of superior
excellence, is found there in the sienite : and that gentleman has
recently informed me, that he has discovered in the same rock
very superior specimens of chabasie and laumonite.

' I have the satisfaction to state,' says Dr. C. T. Jackson, in a
letter lately received, ' that I have found a vein in the sienite of
Cambridge, consisting of calcareous spar, serpentine, prehnite,
laumonite, and chabasie. The three last occur in very handsome
specimens crystalized. The calcareous spar occurs crystalized
generally in the form of dog-tooth spar. It is of a honey yellow
color and is very brilliant.'

The veins of quartz abounding in delicate crystals in the sienite
of Northampton and Whately, have been mentioned. Associated
with these, I have sometimes found a mineral crystalized in four

452 Scientific Geology.

sided prisms, which I have been disposed to refer to red oxide of
titanium. The best place for obtaining these minerals, particularly
the quartz, is in Whately, about two and a half miles south of the
meeting house. Some of the drusy surfaces of this quartz pre-
sent a curious pseudomorphous appearance. (No. 1369.) It is
precisely such an appearance as would result from making random
cuts in the quartz, while in the stale of a paste, with a thin bladed
knife. Obviously it has proceeded from the infiltration of the
quartz around some mineral in thin plates, originally occupying
the cavities, and subsequently decomposing.

Following the eastern margin of this sienite about a mile south
into Hatfield, from the locality just mentioned, we find a vein of
sulphate of baryta, from one to four feet wide, running by the
magnetic needle W. 22 1-2° N., and dipping about 90°. This
baryta is the gangue of the sulphuret of lead, blende, and pyri-
tous copper. It has been excavated several feet, and the quantity
of baryta thrown out was immense.

Since the publication of the first edition of this Report, I have
received from Sandy Bay, in Gloucester, Cape Ann, well charac-
terised specimens of sulphuret of molybdenum. It is in plates
in a vein of quartz running through sienite.

Theoretical Considerations.

Sienite is very rarely found in Massachusetts in continuous veins
in other rocks like granite and greenstone. Sometimes, however,
as 1 have formerly stated, it penetrates sienite of a different va-
riety, or greenstone, in so many directions and in such large
quantity, that the rock so penetrated is divided into numerous frag-
ments forming a kind of breccia. Even in these cases, the sienite
which thus forms veins, contains but little hornblende. Upon the
whole the argument in favor of the igneous origin of sienite from
the mechanical or chemical effects of its veins, is comparatively
feeble.

In the conglomerated sienite whieh has been described, how-
ever, I think we have a peculiar and forcible argument in favor of
the former fusion of this rock by heat. Some other theoretical
inferences also result from the facts in this case, which will need
more minute details than have yet been given.

I have frequently observed this variety of sienite in the eastern
part of the State. But there the nodules are so nmch changed
in their characters that they seem to be only a variety of sienite.
It is in the valley of the Connecticut that the most interesting and
striking facts on this subject are developed ; and in that valley
Whately is the place that most particularly claims attention. The
following imperfect sketch will give an idea of the situation of the
conglomerated sienite there. It is the northern point of a range

Origin of Sicnite.

453

extending tlirough Hatfield and Northampton southerly : and it
here abuts against a limited deposit of hornblende slate, whose
strata run nearly N. E. and S. \V. as a, a, and stand nearly per-
pendicular to the horizon.

This slate is succeeded on the west by mica slate, b, b, b, which

indeed, sometimes alternates with the hornblende slate. On the
eastern side d, d, d, the sienite and the slate are covered by the
diluvium and new red sandstone of the valley of the Connecticut.
The sienite and hornblende slate are elevated not more than 100
or 200 feet above the general level of that valley : but directly
west of these rocks the mica slate rises more rapidly into ridges of
much greater elevation, forming the eastern margin of the broad
range of the Hoosic mountain.

Now I have been led by an examination of the spot just de-
scribed, (whose length is 3 or 4 miles and breadth less than one,)
to conclude that the sienite was formed by the melting down of
the hornblende slate. I infer this chiefly from the fact that this
rock, as has been described, contains nodules of this slate, ap-
pearing as if rounded, not by mechanical attrition, but by heat.
Why it should happen that the fusion of this slate should give
rise to the production of feldspar, we may not be able fully to
understand. And yet, if we suppose the hornblende slate to be
composed of hornblende, mica and quartz, as it sometimes is in
Whately, or that it alternates with mica slate, as it does there,
we shall have in the materials melted down, all the essential in-
gredients of feldspar, viz. silex, alumina, and potassa. A certain
degree of heat may be all that is necessary to enable these el-
ements to enter into the new combination that is necessary to the
production of feldspar. At any rate, I think I am not mistaken
in the fact, that as the imbedded nodules in the slate approach
more nearly to sienite in their characters, and recede from those
of slate, the greater the quantity of feldspar. What can this cir-
cumstance result from, but from the greater degree of heat to

56

454 Scientijic Geology.

which such nodules have been subject ? Their losing in so great
a degree the slaty character proves that they have been more
nearly melted.

Another circumstance lends in my opinion a plausibility to the
preceding suggestions. Towards the northern extremity of the
hornblende slate above described, and at least a mile distant from
the sienite, we find the slate composed of compact feldspar and
hornblende; audits schistose structure almost obliterated. There
is also a tendency in the rock to divide into colunmar and rhom-
boidal forms. Now in these facts we see, it seems to me, the ef-
fects of a heat sufficient to produce a partial fusion of the rock,
but not an entire obliteration of the slaty structure: sufficient Jbr
the production of feldspar, but not for its crystalization. All this
indicates a source of heat of great power at a small depth where
probably genuine sienite exists.

There is another fact which I have noticed in one portion of
this sienite, that lends still farther support to these views. Two
miles south of the spot where the sienite and slate meet, I observed
the traces of an obsolete stratification in the former rock, run-
ning in the same direction as the basset edges of the slate, indi-
cated on the preceding sketch by dotted lines. There is no actual
division of the sienite into parallel portions but only the marks of a
former division by a sort of segregated ridges. The existence of
the nodules of slate in the sienite proves that the fusion ofj the rock
was never complete ; and in these faint traces of original stratifi-
cation do we not see evidence of the same fact ; and in the coin-
cidence of direction between the strata of hornblende slate and
these marks, have we not presumptive evidence of the origin that
I have imputed to the sienite ?

These various facts and inferences have led my own mind to
make another inquiry. Do we not here see the reason why one
part of a deposit is sienite, and another part granite ; that is, a
rock destitute of hornblende ? When the fusion of a rock is com-
plete and the heat carried to a certain degree, may not the produc-
tion of hornblende become impossible, because those affinities and
polarities operate that produce other minerals, especially feldspar
and mica ? The sienite in the valley of the Connecticut at least,
occupies a position generally between the granite and the newer
stratified rocks. And if we suppose the heat to have been greater
at the lime of the production of these rocks, in proportion to the
depth beneath the surface, it is obvious that it must have been great-
er where the granite was produced, than where the sienite is now
found. For even if we do not suppose the sienite to have result-
ed from the fusion of stratified rocks, yet the proximity of its ma-
terials to these rocks must have greatly reduced the temperature
of these materials : and if the stratified rocks were melted to form

Granite. 455

it, still more certainly would such be the result. Whether the
position of sienite in other parts of the world is similar to that in
the place vmder consideration, I know not ; nor can I say wheth-
er that in the eastern part oH INIassachuselts will throw any light
upon these speculations.

This suggestion, as to the ground of difference between sienite
and granite, derives some support from the great scarcity of crys-
talized minerals in the former, compared with those in the latter.
I can imagine no cause for this difference so probable, as a more
or less perfect fusion of the materials. The history of porphyry
leads the mind to the same conclusion.

These hypothetical views I am aware are new. But I have
been led to form them from the facts that have been detailed ;
and if they are thought by geologists to deserve consideration, 1
hope that facts derived from other deposits of sienite and granite
will be brought to light to prove their fallacy or correctness.

18. GRANITE.

Having included under sienite all those unstratified granitic com-
pounds which contain hornblende as a constituent, the definition
of granite becomes easy. It is, indeed, the conmion definition,
which makes it to consist of quartz, feldspar and mica. Dr. Mac-
cuUoch adds hornblende : but it seems to me that this destroys
the usual distinction between granite and sienite. Granite may,
indeed, contain disseminated crystals of hornblende, as of garnet,
pinite, or any other mineral : but if the quantity of this hornblende
is so great that it must be regarded as a regular constituent of the
rock, I do not know why it should not take the name of sienite,
unless we should n)erge all sienite in granite : and to this I have
no objections. I can conceive, indeed, how the geological rela-
tion of granite with hornblende, may be such to granite without
hornblende, that it would be preposterous to attempt to separate
them: but I know of no such case in Massachusetts. Here sien-
ite occupies, as we have seen, a constant geological position in
respect to the granite about to be described.

Mineralogical Characters.

1. Common Granite. This variety embraces nine tenths of the
granite in Massachusetts. All those compounds of quartz, feld-
spar, and mica are included in it, which differ only in the size of
the ingredients, in the greater or less perfection of their crystal-
line structure, and in their color. In these respects they do dif-
fer almost infinitely, as may be seen by the numerous specimens
from various parts of the State in the collection. (Nos. 1372 to

456 Scientific Geology.

14GI.) Generally the quartz is gray, sometimes smoky, some-
times blue, and sometimes yellow. The feldspar is ordinarily
yellowish white ; sometimes green, as in Southbridge ; sometimes
blue, as in Leverett ; sometimes tinged with purple, as in Palmer ;
and more often flesh colored, as in the coarse granite found in
Blanford, Westfield, Amherst, &.C., and in the finer grained gran-
ite in the southeast part of the State. The mica is more com-
monly of a silver color; sometimes of a straw or gold yellow, or
greenish ; sometimes of a brown color ; sometimes black ; some-
times rose red ; and sometimes it is prismatic, as in Russell and
Norwich.

In magnitude the ingredients vary from that of masses one and
even two feet in diameter, to those so small that they can be dis-
tinguished but with difficulty by the naked eye. Those granites
that jiossess a fine grain are the only varieties that are employed
for architectural puiposes. The coarsest varieties are generally
found in veins.

2. Pseudo7)iorphous Granite. This is a variety that exhibits
a structure so peculiar that I have thought it deserves a distinct
notice. Suppose the quartz and feldspar requisite to form a coarse
granite to be united into a soWd mass. Suppose the mass to be
now penetrated in various directions by the blade of a thin knife,
and the cavities thus produced to be filled by plates of mica not
more than one fiftieth of an inch thick. Although these plates
would form solid angles, they would not intersect one another;
and so it is in tlie rock. The smallest fragment of the quartz and
feldspar are often separated by tlie mica ; but I have never seen
one plate of that mineral intersect another. The solid angles
which these plates form in the quartz and feldspar, however, ap-
pear like the projecting angles of crystals, and hence I have ap-
plied to this granite the term pseudomorphous. The mica is us-
ually of a deep bronze color and often the plates are four or five
inches across. (No. 1462.)

3. Porphyritic Granite. (Nos. 1463 to 1470.) In- this va-
riety, besides the ingredients composing the mass of the rock, and
which are quartz, feldspar, and mica, distinct imbedded crystals of
feldspar are superadded. In Europe the basis of this rock is said
to be fine grained : but in Massachusetts it is more commonly
rather coarse grained.

Perhaps the most remarkable porphyritic granite in the State
occurs in place in the west part of Harvard. (No. 1465.) It is
a gray rather coarse granite with while feldspar, and the imbedded
crystals are oftsn two inches across ; and being white, they give
to the rock a striking appearance ; and it has actually been mis-
taken by some writers for a conglomerate !

In Chester a large protruding mass of granite in the west part

Varieties of Granite. 457

of the town is porpl)yritic. The imbedded crystals are much less
than those just described, and of a gray color. The rock resem-
bles porphyritic gneiss ; but lacks both the laminar and stratified
structure. (No. 1463.)

Probably a part of the rock which I have described as porphy-
ritic sienite in the south east part of the Slate, as in Abington,
North Bridgwater, Fair Haven, &ic. may more properly be regard-
ed as granite. Indeed, as this rock is usually destitute of horn-
blende, perhaps the whole should be regarded as granite.

A very peculiar porphyritic granite occurs in the argillaceous
slate of Guilford, Vt. just without the limits of Massachusetts. I
should have described this rock as a porphyry, were it not obvi-
ously a granite that has been partially fused. We can easily trace
the gradations from the perfect granite to a rock composed of com-
pact feldspar and imbedded masses of quartz. (Nos.1467 to 1470.)
At first we perceive nothing peculiar, except that the granite ex-
hibits occasional spots of feldspar of nearly a milk white color,
and a little indistinctness in the foliated structure of the feldspar.
At length the feldspar becomes nearly all compact, and the mica,
reduced in quantity, is disseminated in the mass as well as the
quartz. Finally, the feldspar is perfectly compact and only grains
of quartz appear in it. The rock now begins to assume a slaty
structure, and seems in fact to be argillaceous slate that has under-
gone a kind of fusion. The unchanged granite in this case is fine
grained, and would form a beautiful stone for architectural pur-
poses.

It may be seen by the specimen. No. 145.5, that the granite
from the quarries in Pelham, New Hampshire, exhibits a porphy-
roid aspect, similar to that just described. But I have not visited
the locality and cannot say whether all the circumstances above
described exist in that place.

4. Graphic Granite. (Nos. 1471 to 1480.) In this variety,
which consists of quartz and feldspar only, the ingredients are
usually in lengthened prisms, so that the cross fracture presents
the appearance of written characters. It is the Pegmatite of the
French geologists. Dr. Macculloch thinks it occurs exclusively
in veins. But that is not the case in this country, unless every
protruding mass of granite be regarded as a vein. In the coarser
varieties of our granite, a portion of the mass — generally a small
proportion — is graphic : and there is no well marked line of dis-
tinction between the varieties. This is particularly the case in
respect to the pseudomorphous granite, so common in Conway,
Goshen, Williamsburgh, and Westhampton. In Goshen a few
years since, I found a specimen which afforded so perfect an ex-
ample of the graphic arrangement in this rock that 1 thought it
deserved to have its surface copied.

458

Scientific Geology.

Topography of Granite.

Probably there is not a town in Massachusetts in which more
or less of granite does not occur, either in situ or as bowlders.
And no rock is probably so generally known as this : though the
term is often very loosely applied.

To begin with the eastern part of the State : it will be seen by
the Map that granite lies between the sienite on one side, and mi-
ca slate and gneiss on the other, nearly across the State, from An-
dover to R. Island. Generally this granite is coarse, and it forms
no hills of much altitude. Obviously it has been powerfully abraded
by currents of water. In elevation it is intermediate between the
greenstone on one side, and the gneiss on the other; that is, as
we pass from the coast westward, we gradually ascend ; rising

Range ami Extent of Granite. 459

slightly from the alluvium to the grayvvacke ; still more as we
come upon the greenstone and the sienite ; still more to reach the
granite, and still more in the region of gneiss. The height of
land between the ocean and Connecticut river, is not attained till
we pass west of the valley of Worcester. A glance at the sec-
tions accompanying this Report will render these statements obvi-
ous. (Plates XVII and XVIII.)

The southern part of the range of granite above spoken of, is
fine grained and passes into sienite, especially in Rhode Island.
In the vicinity of Providence it is extensively wrought for archi-
tectural purposes. The splendid columns of fine grained white
granite in the Arcade in that city, were obtained from a quarry in
Johnstone, 5 miles northwest of Providence. 'They are twelve in
number,' says Dr. Webb, 'cut out of solid blocks, 21 feet long,
3 feet in diameter at the base, and weigh 11 tons each. It re-
quired 11 yoke of oxen to draw each one into town. It is calcu-
lated that it would have taken one man upwards of six months to
have wrought one of these columns. The stone for the first five
locks of the Providence and Worcester canal, was also obtained
from this quarry.'

The broad deposit of granite marked between Narraganset and
Buzzard's Bays, consists chiefly of the common varieties. Much
of it is extremely coarse. But in some places, as at Fall River in
Troy, the grain is fine and the rock well adapted to architecture.
Along the western border of this range the rock appears in place
in great abundance ; but as we pass easterly, the surface is almost
entirely covered with bowlder stones, mostly of granite. On its
northern margin, however, where we approach the graywacke, the
loose blocks of this latter rock are so accumulated upon the gran-
ite, and the country is so nearly level, that it is impossible to as-
certain the limits of the two rocks. As we go easterly into the
region of the Middleborough ponds, the difficulty increases ; and I
have put down an extensive patch of diluvium in that quarter on
this account. In the vicinity of New Bedford and Rochester the
same difficulty has perplexed me in ascertaining the limits between
granite and gneiss. Nor shall I be disappointed if the lines which
I have finally settled upon should need material alteration.

It will be seen that I have connected the Fall River range of
granite on the east, with the sienitic granite in Cohasset, Hing-
liam, &;c. Two facts have led me to do this. In the first place,
as we pass from Marshfield through Pembroke, Plympton, and
Carver, to Wareham, we do occasionally meet with a ledge of gran-
ite : and secondly the bowlder stones are nearly all granite. It
will be seen, however, that a great part of this region I have
marked as diluvial.

The Map will show, also, that I have extended a strip of granite

460 Scientific Geology.

from Plymouth into Barnstable county as far east as Brewster,
and carried another branch into Falmouth. These ranges follow the
highest ridges in the south part of Plymouth and in Barn-
stable counties. And although in no part of these ridges, with one
or two exceptions, have I found rocks in place, yet such is the
size and number of the bowlders as to satisfy me that they have
never been far removed from the parent rock ; and I cannot but
believe that ledges do exist a little below the surface ; and not im-
probably in some places, which have not fallen under my notice,
they may be found at the surface. Where first Cape Cod com-
mences, and nearly half way between Sandwich and Falmouth,
appearances are peculiarly indicative of granite ledges: and they
continue nearly to the village of Falmouth. As we go eastward
they are less striking, until we reach the town of Brewster, where,
as I have shown under diluvium, there is reason to suppose the
shattered crest of a ledge appears.

I am aware that it would have been accordant with truth to
have colored the whole of Cape Cod as diluvial. But my rule
has been not to exhibit that stratum when I could ascertain the
rocks beneath it. Others must judge, whether the evidence of
the existence of granite in place, in the region under considera-
tion, is probable enough to justify me in the course I have taken.

That gneiss range in the central parts of the State, which lies
east of the Worcester mica slate, abounds in veins and protruding
masses of granite : but I have thought it useless to attempt to rep-
resent them on the Map. My opinion is, that in going easterly
the granite increases in quantity until the gneiss and mica slate at
length disappear.

The Worcester range of mica slate contains numerous large
beds of protruding masses of granite ; some of them of great in-
terest, on account of their adaptedness to architectural purposes.
It must not be expected, however, that in all cases a deposit of
granite will be found in the precise place where one is marked on
the Map, in this mica slate. In Worcester the spot thus colored
is intended to mark out the true situation of an interesting deposit
of granite : the only one which I have discovered in the southern
part of the mica slate. The spot in Harvard, also, represents a
deposit of remarkable porphyritic granite. In Westford, Lowell,
and Tyngsborough, the spots colored as granite, indicate only that
numerous masses protrude in that vicinity. In Pelham, N. H. I
intended to mark the bed which is now extensively quarried. In
Pepperell, Townsend, and Lunenburg, I intended only that the
beds marked should stand as the representatives of numerous veins
and masses in those towns. The same is particularly true of the
spots marked in Leominster and Westminster. In passing from
the former to the latter place, granite is very abundant : and the

Range and Extent of Granite. 461

mica slate, sometimes for a considerable distance, disappears. A
spot marked in the south part of Fitchburg, is intended to desig-
nate the large hill of granite that furnishes so fine a building stone
in that town.

Except in the northwest part, I have colored no spot as granite
in the extensive range of gneiss in Worcester county. That it ex-
ists elsewhere I doubt not : as on the top of the hill in Spencer,
where one sees the granite obviously protruding through the pseudo-
gneiss strata: but I believe that much, which in that range has
been called granite, is nothing but granitic gneiss. It is only after
long experience in examining these rocks, that the difference is
perceived between granitic gneiss and real granite.

In the northwest part ofthis gneiss range, especially in the lower
part of N. Hampshire, we find the gneiss changing into mica slate,
with occasional masses of considerable extent of finegrained gran-
ite, generally excellent for economical purposes. The beds of
granite and mica slate which are there marked, are not intended
to represent the exact relative position and quantity of the three
rocks, but only to show that such a succession of strata is found
there, and that the mica slate and granite occupy a large propor-
tion of the surface.

The narrow range of granite extending from Amherst to the
north line of the State,, occupies an intermediate level between
the alluvial bottom of the Connecticut valley, and the high ridge
of gneiss bounding that valley on the east. It is an extremely
coarse granite, and for the most part occurs in the form of veins
or irregular masses in mica slate and gneiss. And in some places
these rocks very much predominate and we lose sight of the gran-
ite.

The patch marked as granite in the argillaceous slate of Guilford,
Vt., has been described in giving the mineralogical characters of
this rock. I would add, that the beds are somewhat numerous,
although but one is represented on the Map. The deposit in
Chester has also been described. The range extending from Con-
way into Connecticut, alone remains to be noticed. This occu-
pies the space between the sienite on the east, and the mica slate
on the west. More or less of the slate is intermixed with it through
its whole extent ; and on the west, and towards the south, this
slate abounds and predominates. The strips of mica slate running
into the granite, are intended merely to indicate the fact that they
do thus penetrate it, rather than to give an exact representation of
the particular places where this takes place.

For the most part the granite of this range is very coarse.
Not unfrequently, however, very coarse and very fine granite are
associated. In the granite patch extending from Norwich to

57

462 Scientific Geology.

Chesterfield, (and which implies only that beds are frequent In
that region,) the rock is coarser than any that I have found in the
State ; the plates of mica being sometimes a foot or a foot and a
half across. It is these coarse granite veins that are most prolific
in minerals of an interesting character.

For the most part this granite range occupies a low level : or
rather it is intermediate between the lowest and the highest of the
rocks on the western side of Connecticut river. Some of the
granite hills in Conway, Williamsburg, Whately, and Westhamp-
ton, rise higher than any others of the same rock in the State.
Their altitude, however, is only a few hundred feet ; and is far in-
ferior to the hills of mica slate lying immediately to the west.

Upon the whole, all the granite in Massachusetts lies remarkably
low in respect to other rocks ; and one cannot avoid the inference
when he examines its situation in almost all cases, that the abra-
sion of the stratified rocks may have brought the granite to light.

In the conglomerate of the new red sandstone, at the south end
of Sugar Loaf mountain in Deerfield, many of the nodules consist
of a delicate variety of flesh colored graphic granite. Whence it
originated I am unable to conjecture.

Pseudo- Stratification of Granite.

I have met with but one distinct example of this peculiar struc-
ture in the State : but it is a case of peculiar interest. It occurs
in the patch of granite marked in Worcester. It occupies the
hill, 200 or 300 feet high, a little northeast of the village. The
rock is composed almost entirely of gray quartz and white foliated
feldspar, with very little mica, and hardly differs from the sienite
of Cape Ann and Quincy ; although entirely destitute of horn-
blende. It is quarried in various places on the sides and top of
this hill, and in several of the excavations it exhibits a very dis-
tinct stratification. It is also crossed by numerous seams, nearly
perpendicular to the horizon, not having any uniform direction ;
and generally the apparent strata do not correspond on opposite
sides of the seams. This seems to result from their elevation or
depression on the opposite sides. I satisfied myself, however, that
the pseudo-strata conform on all sides nearly to the slope of the
hill, being horizontal at the apex, and extending over the sides
like the coats of an onion. If this be a fact, it shows conclusively
that this hill of granite is an enormous concretion. The concen-
tric layers, however, do not extend to every part of the hill : and
this fact proves that there is no real stratification in the rock.

Phenomena of Veins and Irregular Protruding Masses of
Granite.

The only modes in which I have met with granite in Massachu-
setts are those of veins and protruding masses. In some instances

Apparent Stratification of Granite. 463

regular masses with parallel planes are seen between the strata of
other rocks ; and on a superficial view, seem interstratified. But
careful examination has always shown me, that such masses either
cross the strata in a slight degree, or contract and expand like
veins : and seem indeed to be veins coinciding nearly with the strata
of the contained rock in direction. I can hardly say that I have
met with granite as an overlying rock, though a few cases, which
will be described farther on, exhibit this rock in a near approach
to such a condition.

The veins of granite in Massachusetts penetrate only the older
rocks ; the clay slate being the latest in which they are found.
All the older stratified rocks abound in them ; though in quartz
rock I have rarely met with any. In gneiss they are very com-
mon, especially in the gneiss range east of the Worcester county
mica slate : also in the vicinity of New Bedford : and in the
southern part of the gneiss range in Hampden and Berkshire
counties. Mica slate is penetrated by them and broken up by
protruding masses of granite, at almost every step, in the granite
range on the west of Northampton^ particularly in the towns of
Westfield, Blanford, Russell, Chester, Norwich, Williamsburgh,
Westhampton, Goshen, Chesterfield, Whately, and Conway. In
talcose slate they are very rare : in hornblende slate not common :
in micaceous limestone sometimes met with : in serpentine I have
never found one. In granite and sienite they are very abundant :
and almost always the ingredients are much coarser than the gran-
ite or sienite that contains them.

For eight or ten years past I have been in the habit of taking
rough sketches of those spots which I have met with, where gran-
ite veins and protruding masses exhibited any peculiarity which I
supposed might be interesting to geologists. Of these cases I
.shall now give an account. I doubt not but a very great number
besides these might be discovered by careful research. But to
search them out requires a great deal of labor and patience.

It ought to be premised, that in a large majority of cases, the
intrusion of granite veins seems to have produced very little dis-
turbance in the rocks containing them. They would seem to have
been open fissures filled by the injection of granitic matter, with-
out materially affecting the walls, except to unite with them chem-
ically. And the same is true to some extent in regard to irregular
masses of granite : that is, we do not always see any alteration in
the dip and direction of the strata in the immediate vicinity of the
granite. Yet in such case we usually find not far distant, an ir-
regularity in the i)osition of the stratified rock.

In giving the details which follow, it will not be easy to state
beforehand any definite order that will be adopted. The most
that I shall attempt will be to bring into juxtaposition those cases
♦ hat are analogous.

464

Scientific Geology.

The sketch below represents the manner in which the edges
of the mica slate lie in contact with a protruding mass of granite
in the south part of Conway.* At a, the slate runs north and
souti) and dips east: at b, it dips south: at c, west: and at d,
southeast. The sketch embraces an extent of only a few square
rods.

4 (1) Junction of Granite and Mica Slate : Conway.

No. 2 exhibits a similar case near the village of Blanford, close
by the road to Granville. The mica slate here runs nearly north
and south, and dips 80° west : except at the end of the mass of
granite, where the dip is nearly north, about 70° or 80°.

(2) Junction of Granite and Mica Slate : Blanford.

The following case I noticed in the west part of Leominster ;
where the numerous veins and masses of granite in the mica slate,
and the great confusion obvious in the latter, made me desirous to
spend more time in examining the surrounding region than I was
able to do.

* In all the following cases the uncolored part of the sketch represents granite ;
except that in a few cases (ex. gr. No. 9.) irregular lines are drawn to represent
the irregular divisions of granite.

'■\''-

Protrusions of Granite.

465

West

East

(3) Junction of Granite and Mica Slate : Westminster.

At b, a mass of coarse granite occupies the top of a hill of
considerable altitude. As we approach the road, descending from
the hill, the granite is mostly concealed by diluvium. At a, how-
ever, mica slate appears running nearly east and west. A few
rods to the west at d, it runs nearly north and south ; which is the
usual direction of the slate in that region. What but the disturb-
ing force of the granite could have turned the mass a, nearly 90
degrees ?

No 4 exhibits a protruding mass of coarse granite 20 or 30
rods long in mica slate. The slate does not seem to be disturbed.
It has an easterly dip of about 80°. The sketch was taken in the
northwest part of Norwich.

(4) Protruding mass of Granite in Mica Slate : Norwich.

The following sketch was taken near the road from Norwich to
Chester village, a little after we begin to descend the high hill on
which Norwich stands. Over many acres in that place the mica
slate and granite are mixed in the greatest confusion : but I could
sketch only limited patches, and of course it is scarcely possible to
give a correct view of all the disturbance that has taken place.
The sketch below embraces a space about S rods long and '3 rods
wide, c, g, h. Are protruding masses or veins of granite. a, h,

466

Scientific Geology.

c, d, Show the basset edges of mica slate. At a, its strata run
nearly north and south and dip rather less than 45° to the west:
which is the usual dip and direction in the vicinity. At b, and c,
the strata are turned so as to run nearly northeast and southwest ;
but the dip is increased only a few degrees. At d, they are still
more wheeled, and the dip is as high as 60° or 70°.

(5) Granite and Mica Slate : Norwich.

The next case is at the same place, and embraces a space about
16 rods long, a, a, b, n, n, m, m, Are veins of granite from one
to two feet wide, and c, a mass 10 feet wide. A large mass also
lies on the side d, d. At h, the mica slate is deflected only a few
degrees from the usual course of its strata, which is nearly north
and south. The dip there is 45° northwest. But in every other
part of the sketch, it will be seen that the mica slate is turned al-
most at right angles to its usual course, and towards the lower part
of the sketch it exhibits most remarkable curvatures. The dip
also, is in general greatly increased ; so that in the vicinity of e, it
is 80° north.

(6) Granite and Mica Slate : Norwich.

Protrusions of Granite.

467

I feel the inadequacy of such sketches to convey a just idea of
the very great confusion which this spot exhibits. But if any one
can examine such places and still maintain that granite was not
forced up through the slate while in a fused state, I can only say
that his mind must view facts in a very different light from my own.

The section below was taken at the same place as the two pre-
ceding sketches. It shows an irregular vein or mass of granite
protruding through layers of mica slate. The granite mass is only
two or three feet wide, and the mica slate four feet. It is obvious
that the upper portion of the slate has here been forced upwards by
the granite, so as to stand nearly perpendicular : the general dip
being about 45° west.

(7) Granite Veins in Mica Slate: Norwich.

In the northwest part of Norwich I sketched No. 8. Two beds
or veins of granite are here shown : the central one, or that be-
tween the strips of mica slate, from 6 to 10 feet wide, and the
outer one, which is but partly exhibited, 4 or 5 rods wide. One
object I have in view, is to show the curvature of the mica slate,
where the central mass of granite expands. But the principal
object is to show two sections across these rocks, four rods apart.

o

468

Scientific Geology.

The change in the dip from 80'^ west, to S0° east, on the section
from A to B, is striking; and is explicable alone on the supposi-
tion of a disturbing force exerted by these huge masses of granite.
The section below (No. 9) crosses from west to east, a ridge
of mica slate and granite, about four rods wide. The stratum a,
at its lower part, dips easterly about 25*^ or 30°; which is the usual
dip of the slate in the vicinity ; but the upper part of this stratum
is thrown up nearly perpendicular ; resting against the granite.
This granite, h, is 3 or 4 rods across ; when we find another stra-
tum of the slate, c, having an easterly dip of nearly 50°. Below
this another mass of granite, t/, appears ; but it is soon hid by the
soil. Locality, near the line between Conway and Williamsburg.

(9) Granite and Mic3 Slate : Conway.

No. 10 is in the town of Russell, on the road from Westfield to
Blanford. It represents a perpendicular ledge about 20 feet
square, where mica slate and granite come in contact. The layers
of the slate are perpendicular, and this rock is chemically united
to the granite. It is easy to conceive how the two rocks should
be thus weged into each other, if we admit that the granite was
erupted while in a melted state : but I am unable to imagine any
combination or peculiarity of circumstances, by which such a case
can be explained on the theory of the aqueous origin of granite.

(10) Junction of Granite and Mica Slate : Russell.

The next case I regard as one of peculiar interest ; chiefly,
however, on account of its locality. It is not in Massachusetts :

Phenomena of Granite T^eins.

469

but in Ackwortli, N. II. at a remarkable locality of beryls, rose
quartz, and crystalized mica. As the traveller approaches this
spot, he will observe, while yet several miles distant, a remarkable
conical, half-naked peak, chiefly of white granite, shooting up
about 300 feet above the surrounding country. This is the hill
represented in the sketch below, as seen on its northwestern side ;
along which a road passes. The prevailing rock in the vicinity is
gneiss ; but in this elevation it is chiefly hornblende slate, traversed
by an enormous granite vein a, and exhibiting at least two pro-
truding masses, b, and c, of granite. The vein varies from one
balf rod to four rods in thickness, and the mass b, is four or five
rods across : c, is only 10 feet wide. The general direction of the
laminae of the slate is north and south, and the dip from 15 to 20°
east: but we have here tiie most decisive marks of its having
been irregularly upheaved and disturbed by the protruding granite.
Near the foot of the hill the slate is bent upwards so that the

(11) Veins and masses of Granite in Hornblende Slate: Ackwortli, N. H.

chord of the curve is several rods long. But it is a curious fact
tbat the axis of the elevating force seems not to have coincided
with the direction in which the vein was erupted. For the high-
est point of the curve of elevation, near the foot of the hill, is to
the right of the vein at h ; and as we ascend the hill, we find the
slate curved upwards near the vein more and more, as is shown
in the drawing. Indeed, the granite of the vein seems to lie on
the elevated edges of the slate ; so that the lower side of the
vein dips southeasterly ; and does not cut the slate perpendicu-
larly. These facts would seem to evince, that the vein made its
way through the slate, not along the line of greatest pressure but

58

470

Scientific Geology.

on the north side of it ; probably because the slate there yielded
most readily. We may suppose the melted granite below, to have
gradually elevated the slate, until at length it burst its way later-
ally through that rock. Such cases, I believe, do sometimes oc-
cur in existing volcanoes.

The masses of granite, h and c, are probably other examples in
which the same molten matter burst its way laterally through the
slate. And it is an interesting fact in regard to the mass b, that
in some places it still projects over the slate several feet, forming
in fact an overlying mass. Instances of this kind 1 have rarely met
with in the granite of New England. I recollect but one case
precisely resembling this ; and that is in the town of Carlisle,
about two miles west of the meeting house, near an unfrequented
road ; where the granite has spread over mica slate several feet.
But the sketch of that spot I have unfortunately lost.

The following sketch, however, which I took several years ago,
appears to have a resemblance to those just described ; especially
to that of the vein a, in Ackworth, although I did not then ex-
amine the case as carefully as I should now. It occurs two miles
north of Chester village in Chester. The granite mass is several
rods wide, and the dip of the mica slate on each side of it, about
50 degrees west.

(12) Granite in Mica Slate: Chester.

In the 8th Vol. of the American Journal of Science, Dr. Em-
mons has described an interesting case of overlying granite in
Chester, with veins proceeding from it downwards. The mass is
5 rods in length.

A portion of the hornblende slate on No. 11 is seen running
nearly east and west, or at right angles to the usual direction.
Below the granite mass b, also, the strata are shifted almost 90°.

It is near the apex of this hill, that the interesting minerals
above mentioned occur, and on the side of the cone opposite to
that represented. The granite here is the coarsest I have ever
seen : and probably the largest berryls in the world are found in it.

No. 13 exhibits the manner in which mica slate is sometimes
enveloped by granite ; the latter rock decidedly predominating.
The spot here represented is several rods long, and occurs in

Phenomena of Granite Veins.

471

Chesteifield, a little north of the meeting bouse. The dip and
direction of the mica slate do not differ much from what is usual
in the vicinity.

(13) Granite and Mica Slate: Chesterfield.

The following case, No. 14, occurs about half a mile east of
the meeting house in Williamsburgb. A granite vein about four
feet wide, runs here in the direction of the strata of mica slate.
The dark stratum, a a, is hornblende slate, or perhaps amphibolic
mica slate : and it appears to have been cut off and separated lat-
erally a [ew feet. The upper mass of hornblende and mica slate
is insulated in the granite, the narrowest vein of granite, however,
being only three inches wide.

(14) Granite Vein in Mica and Hornblende Slate : Williamsburgh.

No. 15 represents two irregular masses of granite connected by
a vein, or rather by two tubercular masses of the same rock. They
occur in hornblende slate, two miles northeast of West Granville
meeting house, on the road to Blanford. The strata of this slate
usually stand perpendicular. Where thus penetrated by granite,
however, the dip varies from 70° to 90° west ; and its layers are
exceedingly contorted. Their usual direction, also, is very much
altered in some parts of the sketch. The sketch embraces a space
of several square rods.

472

Scientific Geology.

(15) Granite in Hornblende Slale : Granville.

No. 16 exhibits a mass of granite three rods wide, with mica
slate on each side, and embracing strips of mica slate from one
half inch to six or eight inches wide. The direction of the lay-
ers in these insulated suips corresponds with that of the mica
slate generally in the vicinity : viz. a north and south direction.
This case occurs in Chesterfield, one mile east of the meeting
house, on the road to Northampton. It is easy to explain it on
the supposition that the granite was erupted from beneath in a
melted state : but I find it hard to conceive how such effects could
have resulted from aqueous agency.

(16) Mica Slate in Granite : Chesterfield.

The sketch following represents a nearly perpendicular ledge of
gneiss, from 70 to 100 feet high, in the lower part of which a

Phenomena of Granite Veins.

473

mass of granite appears, which does not rise through the strata.
The gneiss has a small dip to the west, though somewhat irregular.
The vein of granite is from 10 to 12 feet thick, and rises thirty
feet. The locality is on the north side of Housatonic river, near
Southbury, Ct., close by what is called Zoar Bridge.

(17) Granite Vein in Gneiss : Zoar Bridge, Ct.

Nos. 18, 19 and 20 are representations of insulated masses of
mica slate and gneiss in large veins of granite. The vein in No.
18, whieh is in the north part of Shutesbury, is ten feet wide, and
the insulated mass of gneiss is almost three feet across in its long-
est direction. In No. 19, which is in Conway, the vein is fifteen
inches wide, and the mass of mica slate (which is the rock trav-
ersed by the vein,) is thirty inches long. In No. 20, the imbedded
mass of mica slate is eight feet wide and ten feet high ; the layers
standing perpendicular, and coinciding with those of the mica slate
generally in that place. In all the cases described, it seems im-
possible to doubt but the schistose rock is perfectly insulated in the
granite ; and if so, does it not point to an igneous origin for the
granite ?

(19) Mica Slate in Granite
Conway,

(18) Mass of Gneiss in Granite : Shutesbury.

474

Scientific Geology.

(•20) Mica Slate in Granite : Chester.

No. 21 differs but little from the preceding cases. Two granite
masses appear to be connected by two veins : the widest of which
is two feet, and the other only six inches thick. Thus a piece of
mica slate is insulated, and both this and the granite are cut by a
more recent vein of granite, fifteen inches wide. This case
occurs three miles northeast of the meeting house in Williams-
burgh. But I have not personally examined it, and am indebted
to Mr. Alanson Nash for the sketch.

(21) Granite and Mica Slate : Williamsburgh.

Veins of granite traversing granite are more frequent in Massa-
chusetts than in any other rock. Generally the veins are com-
posed of much coarser materials than the rock that contains them :
and by this mark alone can they be distinguished, except that some-
times the color of the materials of the vein and that of the con-
taining rock, are different. The following case occurs in the west
part of Whately, and exhibits a mass of granite of fine texture,
about fifteen feet long and ten feet wide, with mica slate on one
side. The dark part of the drawing represents this granite, and
the white strips crossing it are veins of coarse granite. Must we
not suppose such veins produced by the injection of granitic mate-
rials through a mass of granite while yet in a plastic state ?

Phenomena of Granite Veins.

475

(22) Granite Veins in Granite : Whatley.

In No. 23 a coarse vein, made up almost entirely of feldspar,
20 inches wide, traverses a rather coarse granite. This vein has
been cut off by a fissure crossing it nearly at right angles, and the
two parts are separated seven feet. This lateral movement must
have taken place after the consolidation of the rock. The case
occurs in the extreme southeast part of Newport, R. Island.

(24) Granite Veins in Granite : Gay Head.

(23) Granite Vein in Granite : Newport, R. I,

No. 24 represents an enormous bowlder of granite, from 20 to
30 feet diameter, lying at the foot of the clay cliff at Gay Head,
Martha's Vineyard, a, b, c. Are granite veins of the same epoch ;
as IS proved by their parallelism. These are all cut off by a vein
(1, of subsequent date, crossing them nearly at right angles. Here
then we have granite of three distinct epochs.

No. 25 shows us granite of four successive epochs of eruption.

476

Scientific Geology.

It is the sketch of a bowlder, 20 feet long and 10 feet thick, lying
in Westhampton. The great mass of the rock belongs to the
first epoch. The vein, a, a, a, was produced at the second epoch.
This was intersected by b, at a third or subsequent epoch. This,
as well as a, were intersected by the vein c, (and probably at the
same time by d,) at a fourth epoch. The lateral removal of the
middle portion of the vein a, seems to have resulted from the in-
trusion of the veins b, and c, whereby the wedged shaped por-
tion of the rock between them was crowded out of its place.

(25) Granite Veins in Granite : Westhampton.

I have heretofore described and sketched a case in which a
rock of sienite (sienitic granite,) contains granite veins of three
successive epochs. The case now described corresponds to that,
except that the base of the one sketched above, is genuine gran-
ite. Both of them, however, may be regarded as presenting us
with a granite erupted at four successive epochs : and this is the
greatest number that I have ever met with.

The next case is one of no peculiar interest, hardly worth pre-
serving indeed. The sketch shows a vein of coarse granite, 10
inches wide, traversing a mass of finer granite, and cutting off and
removing laterally another vein of coarse granite, 2 1-2 inches
wide. It occurs in Southampton, not far from the spot where an
adit has been made in the granite to reach a vein of galena.

(26) Granite Veins in Granite : Southampton.

Phenomena of Granite Veins.

477

No. 27 shows a granite vein a little more than a foot in width,
crossing strata of gneiss obliquely. After this vein was injected,
the strata of gneiss seem to have slidden down so as to cut off the
vein in at least two places, and near those spots the vein is consid-
erably reduced in size, as if in a plastic state when the disturbance
took place in the gneiss.

(•27) Granite Vein in Gneiss : Shutesbury.

The five next cases, viz. 28, 29, 80, 31 , and 32, were sketched
in New Bedford and Fairhaven : all but Nos. 29, and 31 on Pal-
mer's Island, in New Bedford Harbor. They all occur in gneiss.
No. 28 is interesting chiefly on account of the peculiar form of
the vein, which varies in width from two feet down to six inches.
It exhibits the vein as it appears on the basset edges of the gneiss
where the strata dip to the north about 35°.

(28) Granite Vein in Gneiss : Palmer's Island, New Bedford Harbor.

The surface sketched in No. 29 is nearly horizontal ; and the
strata of gneiss dip as in the last case. On one side the direction
of the strata is changed, apparently through the influence of the
vein, as much as 10° or 15°. The vein is 15 inches wide.

59

478

Scientijif Geology.

(29) Granite Vein in Gneiss : at the fort in Fairhaven.

No. 30 exhibits also the basset edges of the gneiss strata where
they dip 35° northerly. A mass of granite, a, which is several
feet wide where it first appears above the soil, sends off a very
crooked vein of six or eight inches wide, which connects with
another vein, b ; which last vein also sends off a narrow branch.
At d, the edges of the strata are curved considerably, obviously
in consequence of the granite in their vicinity.

(30) Granite "Veins in Gneiss : Palmer's Island, New Bedford Habor,

In No. 31 a vein of granite about six inches wide, is intersected
by another a foot wide. The strata of gneiss on one side of the
last mentioned vein have also been moved laterally about four
inches ; so that the seams do not correspond on opposite sides.
I am inclined to believe that it is an error in the sketch, that it
does not show a similar slide in the vein that has been intersected :
though I have no recollection on the subject. The basset edges
of the strata are here represented.

Phenomena of Granite Veins.

479

(31)"Granii;e Veins in Gneiss: Fairhaven.

No. 3"2 is a nearly perpendicular section, running nearly north
and south across the strata of gneiss, and showing an irregular
branching vein. The principal vein is two feet wide, the branch
about one foot. It will be seen that the general dip of the strata
is 35° ; and that this is increased to 40° on the lower side of the
vein. This is one of those cases which would be appealed to in
proof that veins were filled from above. The disturbance of the
strata, however, proves that it was not filled by crystalization from
aqueous solution. The lower edge of the section corresponds to
high water mark. The spot can well be examined only in a boat.

(32) Granite "Vein in Gneiss : Palmer's Island, New Bedford Harbor.

No. 33 was sketched from a bowlder of gneiss in the south part
of Tolland. It is traversed by a vein of granite a foot wide.
The only object is to show the change in the direction of the
strata on different sides of the vein.

480

Scientific Geology.

♦

(33) Granite Vein in Gneiss : Tolland.

For No. 34, taken in the northeast part of Williamsburg, I am
indebted to Mr. Alanson Nash, a, a, Appears to be the oldest
vein of granite in mica slate ; and is only two inches wide : b, h,
is a second vein ; as is proved by its cutting through a, a, and is of
the same width as a, a, : d, d, is a third vein ; as is proved by its
intersecting the two first. It is six inches wide : c, c, is a fourth
vein, two inches wide, intersecting d, d, longitudinally, and distin-
guished from that by being of a much coarser texture. This is a
very unusual occurrence: one which I have myself never seen ;
and we have here also granite of four epochs ; so that this exam-
ple, if there be no mistake in its representation, is a very interest-
ins one.

(34) Granite Veins in Mica Slate : "Williamsburg

Phenomena of Granite Veins.

481

In No. 35 a large protruding mass of granite rises from the soil
at the north end of a naked ledge of mica slate, which is two rods
wide, as represented on the sketch. From this mass of granite
an irregular vein proceeds nearly in the direction of the layers of
slate, embracing two or three nearly insulated strips ot mica slate.
I am not aware that any very instructive inference can be derived
from this case, except that it seems to me impossible to impute to
deposition from water, a mass of granite thus irregularly intruded
among the mica slate. It occurs in the west part of Whately.

(35) Granite Veins in Mica Slate : Whately.

No. 36 is situated near the same spot. It represents the in-
clined surface of a ledge of mica slate, through which a granite
vein of four feet wide passes. This embraces three masses of
mica slate of considerable size, which are evidently separated en-
tirely from the parent rock, except one of them nearest the upper
side of the sketch. The layers of the mica slate, in the direction
in which the granite was erupted, are obviously considerably curved,
as is shown in the figure.

(3G) Granite Vein in Mica Slate : Whately.

No. 37 represents a nearly perpendicular ledge of mica slate in
Conway, very much contorted, about two miles southwest of the
centre of the town. a, a, Are strata of connuon mica slate :

482

Scientific Geology.

b, is a stratum of amphibolic mica slate. The whole surface ex-
hibited is fifteen feet long and eight feet high. Through this ledge
runs a vein of fine grained granite a foot wide. The object of
giving the sketch is to show that this vein has produced no de-
rangement of the mica slate : for the different varieties of that
rock occupy the same relative position on the different sides of the
vein. Hence the vein was introduced subsequently to the consol-
idation of the slate ; and probably it was injected into an open
fissure. Hence, too, we must be cautious in imputing contortions
in mica slate, even in the vicinity of granite veins, to their erup-
tive force.

(37) Giaiute Vein lu Mica Slate. Conway.

No. 38 was sketched only 100 rods northeast of the congrega-
tional meeting house in Conway. It represents two granite and
several quartz veins, in coarse micaceous limestone, a, a, Ap-
pears to have been the oldest granite vein, and is a foot wide on
the right hand side of b, b, and twenty inches at the other extrem-
ity. This is intersected by another granite vein, b, b, and the two
extremities are removed asunder forty-two inches, c Is a curved
branch of this vein : 6, 6, is from twelve to eighteen inches wide.
s, s, s, s, s, s, s, Are quartz veins, from half an inch to two inches
wide, and one of them it will be seen, intersects both the granite
veins ; and, therefore, these quartz veins appear to have been of
posterior origin to both the granite veins, d and g, Are masses
of mica slate, with which rock the micaceous limestone, (that
constitutes the dark part in the sketch,) is interlaminated in the
vicinity. The direction of the layers of slate in the mass g, cor-
responds with that of this rock generally in the vicinity : but in
what manner the mass d, should have been thrown at right angles
to this direction, it seems difficult to imagine. It is obvious, how-
ever, that these granite veins have produced great disturbance in
this spot.

Phenomena of Granite Veins.
3

483

(38) Granite Veins in Micaceous Limestone : Conway.

In the same town and near the same spot, may be seen the
original of No. 39. We have here a vein of granite, 40 inches
wide, which sends off two branches ; the first at an angle of 20°
and the second at an angle of 50°. Both the branches are 18
inches wide, and the portion of the vein which continues in a di-
rect course is 14 inches wide. Intersecting these veins of granite,
we find several of quartz, whose width varies from one inch to
three inches ; and whose direction corresponds with that of the
continuous layers of mica slate. The probability is that these,
like most other quartz veins, were the result of the infiltration of
siliceous matter into fissures previously produced by desiccation or
mechanical force.

(39) Granite and Gluartz Veins in Mica Slate : Conway,

No. 40 is in the same town, a, a\s a granite vein approxi-
mating in direction to the layers of mica slate ; the two parts of

484

Scientific Geology.

which are separated by mica slate several feet, and one extrem-
ity is not as wide as the other. Tiie two parts are also siiifted lat-
erally by the two fissures, b, h. I confess myself unable to give
any satisfactory solution of the anomalies of this case.

(40) Granite Vein in Mica Slate : Conway.

No. 41 was sketched from a bowlder in Conway, merely on ac-
count of tiie peculiar form of the granite vein which traverses
mica slate. The widest part of the vein is only an inch across,
and this is reduced to half an inch at the other extremity. I
neglected to sketch the direction in which the layers of slate run.

(41) Granite Vein in Mica Slate : Conway.

No. 42 appears to be an example of the mechanical effects
upon the layers of mica slate, of a protruding vein of granite. It
occurs at Narrymore's quarry in the west part of Goshen ; where
the layers of mica slate are arranged with remarkable regularity.
The dip there is about 40° northerly : but where a granite vein of
four feet wide, (6,) protrudes in a nearly perpendicular direction,
the strata of the slate on the lower side of the vein, for the width
of eight inches, (a,) are bent so as to stand perpendicularly against
the vein. On the upper side of the vein, and immediately in
contact with it, the slate is hidden by soil : but it appears again a
few feet distant at c. This example was brought to light by the
quarrymen, and as it was sketched several years ago, ere this they
may have destroyed all traces of it.

Phenomena of Granite Veins.

485

(4'2) Granite Vein m Mica Slate : Goshen.

No. 43 represents a vein of granite, only one eighth of an inch
thick, traversing mica slate in Conway, one mile southwest of the
congregational meeting house. Strictly speaking it is a bed ; for
it is interlaminated with the slate and conforms to its tortuosities.
It is not perhaps easy to conceive how such a vein could have
been intruded between the layers of the slate, on account of its
extreme thinness. Perhaps it ought rather to be regarded as one
of the layers of the slate, produced in the same manner as the
laminae of gneiss.

(43) Granite Vein in Mica Slate: Conway.

No. 44 was sketched near the same spot. It represents the
edge of a thick stratum of mica slate, whose dip is 50° east : and
whose laminae correspond in the dip to the strata seams. Among
these laminae and running in nearly the same direction, are three
narrow and quite irregular granite veins, a Seems to have been
injected from below, and has no apparent connection with 6, which
would seem to have flowed in from above, c Is a third very nar-
row vein only one fourth of an inch wide, which has no connection
with the others.

I have sketched this case, because it seems more favorable than
any I have met with, to the old Wernerian notion of the filling
up of veins by infiltration from water. Yet there is nothing in the
case inconsistent with the igneous origin of the granite ; for if that
rock was originally in a molten state, it would flow horizontally
and downwards through any openings that were made for it : and
we have only to suppose that b and c have an unseen connection
with a mass of granite that has been forced upward. And that
such a mass exists in the vicinity, the vein a, having no opening
above, shows to be probable. Such masses also appear at the
surface in the vicinity.

60

486

Scientific Geology.

! 1

'II

(44) Granite Veins in Mica Slate : Conway.

No. 45 occurs in Goshen, not more than a mile or two from No.
42 ; and it is analogous to No. 42. It may be seen two miles
west of the village, on the old road to Cummington, on the mar-
gin of a pond. It represents a ledge of mica slate a few feet high,
whose strata dip from the observer, and whose basset edges only
appear. On coming within 30 inches of the mass of granite h,
the laminae of slate are bent upwards 20° ; and on the other side
of the granite, c, they actually stand perpendicular or even lean a
few degress from the granite. The width of the protruding mass
of granite, which is partly hid by the soil, is froni three to four
feet. It is common to see mica slate and other stratified rocks
as much disturbed in the vicinity of granite as this case exhibits :
but it is not common to meet with the disturbance on so small a
scale.

(45) Granite Vein in Mica Slate : Goshen.

The mica slate in the northwest part of Norwich is frequently
very regular in its stratification, dipping west 80° ; and this is the
case where No. 46 was sketched. A granite vein four inches wide
crosses the strata nearly at right angles, and the edges of the mica
slate show that the layers on opposite sides of the vein have been
moved a few inches laterally. The distinctness of the stratifica-
tion enables us to see this change more easily than is common.

Phcnomtna of Granite V^cins.

487

(4G) Granite Vein in Mica Slate : Norwich.

Nos. 47 and 48 represent granite veins in micaceous limestone
in the west part of Colrain. They are bowlders of about two
feet in diameter, and the veins only an inch or two wide. The
extremely serpentine course of these veins is the most remarkable

(47) Granite Veins in Micaceous Limestone : Colrain.

(48) Granite Vein in Micaceous Limestone: Colrain.

488 Scientific Geology.

circumstance about them. For I could not discover any cause
that makes them thus serpentize. The Hmestone appears per-
fectly homogeneous throughout, and is entirely destitute of any
appearance of a laminar, slaty, or stratified structure ; I mean so
far as these specimens are concerned.

I shall not in this place deduce any general theoretical inferences
from the facts respecting granite veins that have now been detailed.
In the sequel, however, I may refer to them again, so far as they
have a bearing upon theory.

Mineral Contents.

In every part of the world granite is the repository of very many
of the most perfectly crystalized minerals : an evidence that its
materials must once have been most thoroughly fluid, either by
water or heat. The number of mineral species in the granite of
Massachusetts is not quite as numerous as in one or two other rocks :
yet it contains several of the most interesting minerals in the State.

Sulphate of baryta is extremely abundant in it ; though the
most prolific locality, — that in Hatfield, — occurs in sienite, and has
been described. A considerable part of the matrix of galena, blende,
and copper ])yrltes, at the Sout[iam[)ton mine, consists of this
mineral. The most southerly vein of lead ore in Leverett, also,
abounds in it, as the gangue of the galena. And both the metallic
veins in that place are in granite. The baryta occurs generally in
foliated masses : sometimes in tabular crystals. The folia are
sometimes curved ; and sometimes, as in Leverett, the specimens
are coarsely granular. Tiie color is uniformly white.

Carbonate of lime is rare in granite : but in the vein of metallic
ores above spoken of at Southamption, we find it in distinct crys-
tals ; sometimes of a delicate straw color. I have observed ihere
a dodecaedeon composed of two six sided pyramids : a short six
sided prism acuminated by three faces • also the same with all the
solid angles of the prism truncated, producing a trapezoedron.
This mineral more frequently is laminated.

The situation of the argentine in Westhampton, partly in the
mica slate and partly in the granite, renders it proper to speak of
it as belonging to either rock : but under micaceous limestone I
have given a full description of its geological position|; and its min-
eraloglcal characters correspond so well with those that are given in
the books, that nothing more need be added. The locality cannot
for a considerable time, if ever, be exhausted ; unless it should be
visited by some of those insatiable collectors, who carry away spec-
imens by the ton. (Nos. 1490, 1491.)

This same mineral has been found at the Southampton lead mine.

At the most northerly vein of galena and pyrltous copper in
Leverettj I have found a few specimens of crystalized brown spar.

Minerals in Granite. 489

In Billerica and Stow, phosphate of lime has been found by
Professor Webster in very coarse granite : also by Dr. C. T.
Jackson, in the same rock in Lancaster, in connection with spod-
umene.

At the Southampton lead mine, green and purple fluate of lime
has been found, but not in large quantities: though should this
mine ever be wrought extensively, there can be little doubt that
abundance of it will be brought to light.

At the same place we meet with crystalized limpid quartz in
great abundance. Sometimes the crystals are penetrated through-
out by a yellow coloring matter, so as to form genuine yellow
quartz. Radiated quartz forms the greater part of the gangue of
the lead and copper ores, in the several veins of these metals that
have been described as existing in Hampshire county, in the first
part of this Report. In Chester, the quartz in this rock is some-
times rose red. In Goshen its crystals are sometimes of an ex-
tremely delicate smoke color; and in Williamsburgh, this variety
occurs uncrystalized in large quantity, about two miles west of the
meeting house. In Bristol, Rhode Island, occur fine specimens
of amethyst; which are said to proceed from the granite of Mount
Hope. This locality a few years since promised something for
the lapidary.

At the Southampton lead mine pseudomorphous quartz is some-
times met with. But the most interesting locality is in the galena
vein near the argentine locality, in Westhampton. The pseudo-
morphous crystals are very perfect, and have the form of hog
tooth spar, and of cubic fluate of lime. These crystals are hol-
low, and generally very drusy without and within. It is now,
however, very difficult to obtain specimens, especially of the va-
riety that has assumed the form of fluor spar. (Nos. 1501, 1502.

In Conway I observed that some of the quartz in coarse gran-
ite was highly fetid. The same is found is Chester.

A mineral is sometimes seen at the Southampton lead mine,
which appears to be hornstone. (No. 1502.)

Finite, according to Dr. C, T. Jackson, has been found in gran-
ite on George Hill in Lancaster, and of fine quality.

In the 20th Vol. of the American Journal of Science, I have
described a specimen of limpid topaz in granite, found upon the
White Hills in New Hampshire. In Haddam, Ct., it is well
known, occurs the chrysoberyl in the same rock.

Spodumene abounds in our granite. Goshen is its most abundant
locality. About two miles north of the village, it occurs on the
road to Ashfield ; and also about three miles northeast of the
centre of the town, on the road to Elainfield, at a locality long
celebrated for furnishing several interesting minerals. It is found
likewise in Chesterfield, Norwich, and Chester. In all these

490 Scientific Geology.

places its characters are similar. It occurs in prismatic masses
whose crystalline form cannot be determined. These masses are
sometimes four or five inches across, and sometimes of great length.
Dr. Dvvight of Cummington showed me a specimen from Ches-
terfield, containing a prism 21 inches long, yet broken off at both
ends. These larger masses are commonly of a white or gray
color, and resemble feldspar. But the smaller specimens are fre-
quently of a delicate green color, resembling very much the spod-
umene from the north part of Europe. A few specimens I have
noticed of a light rose color. (Nos. 1504 to 1507.)

This mineral occurs also in Sterlimr, in a srranite rock. This
spodumene has more of a pearly aspect than that in the western
part of the State ; as the specimens in the collection will show.
It is also of a more milky white color. (No. 1508.)

Dr. Emmons is of opinion that ' the large cleavable variety' of
lepidolite occurs in Goshen. Probably he refers to the mineral
that has been generally regarded as rose mica.

The varieties of mica in our granite are numerous and interest-
ing. The rose red, just referred to, has been found only I believe
in the northwest part of Goshen, where it sometimes occurs in
oblique rhombic prisms; which is its primary form. In the same
place, also, and likewise in the northwest part of Chesterfield, at
the tourmaline locality, a delicate yellow mica of various shades
is found under the same form ; and still more frequently, a trans-
parent or silver colored variety. But the most remarkable local-
ity of crystalized mica is in Ackworth, N. H. ; where are found
finer specimens, associated with beryls and rose quartz, than at
any other spot in this country. The crystals are distinct six sided
tables, disseminated through gray quartz, and attached to fine
grained feldspar. They vary in size from half an inch in diame-
ter to an inch and a half 1 have some reason to fear, however,
that this locality may not prove very prolific.

Prismatic mica is found in Goshen, Chesterfield, Norwich, and
Leverett. But the specimens which I have found in Russell are
the best. (Nos. 1512 to 1514.) The general color of the prisms
is light smoke gray ; but we sometimes see in them distinct strips,
penetrating deep into the specimen, of a very dark bronze color ;
appearing black, indeed, except in very thin plates.

Plumose mica (JMica fibreux, Beudant,) is quite common in
Williamsburg, in several places west and northwest of the village.
The name is derived from the resemblance between the arrange-
ment of its laniellfe and those of a feather ; which indeed is often
quite striking.

The granite of Massachusetts contains almost every variety of
the schorl family that has been found on the globe. Common
black schorl is most abundant. In Chesterfield and Goshen its

Minerals in Granite. 491

crystals are sometimes large, but generally quite imperfect. In
Norwich its crystals are terminated by pyramids. In Westford,
also, I met with it in small very short acuminated crystals. (No.
1547.)

Of tiie tourmalines we have every variety, except perhaps the
yellow and the white. Indicolite occurs at the greatest number of
localities. In Chester it is found in large crystals ; also in connec-
tion with the the green and red varieties in the northwest part of
Goshen, associated with several other minerals.

The most noted locality of green and red tourmalines is in
Chesterfield, on land of Mr. Clark. They are contained in an
enormous vein of granite in mica slate, which corresponds nearly
in direction with the layei's of the slate. This granite is crossed
obliquely by a vein, varying in width from six to eighteen inches,
of smoky quartz and silicious feldspar: or rather, the quartz forms
the central part of the vein, and the feldspar lies on each side of
the quartz : the green, red and blue tourmalines, with schorl and
sometimes beryl, passing through the feldspar and the quartz.
This cross vein has been laid open from twelve to twenty feet by
blasting ; and it is really, in the eye of a mineralogist, a splendid
object. I do not see that there is any prospect that it will soon be
exhausted ; although I doubt whether as fine specimens are now
obtained from it as formerly.

The crystals of green tourmalite and rubellite at this locality
occur in rounded prisms, deeply striated longitudinally. They
have been found an inch in diameter, but generally they are much
less, and the red are rarely more than one quarter of an inch :
sometimes they exhibit triedral summits. It is very common for
the rubellite to be enclosed in the green crystals, and sometimes a
thin layer of talc intervenes between the inner and the outer cryS'
tals. Col. Gibbs found three of the red crystals in one instance
aggregated together, and enclosed by one of green. The green
crystals also sometimes embrace indicolite, and sometimes indico-
lite encloses the green tourmaline, as may be seen by the speci-
mens Nos. 1521, 1522 and 1524. The green tourmalines, as well
as the rubellite, are sometimes entirely distinct from each other ;
especially when they are contained in the quartz. In some in-
stances I have met with marks of rather singular disturbances
which took place while the green tourmaline was crystalizing in
the quartz. The quartz is fissured into somewhat parallel laminae,
and together with portions of the crystal has been subjected to a
sort of ecJiellon movement, while in some places it has been so
compressed as almost to disappear. This last circumstance seems
to indicate that the disturbance took place before the crystaliza-
tion was completed. The following sketch is intended to repre-
sent this phenomenon.

492 Scientific Geology.

Crystal of Green Tourmaline in Cluartz : Chesterfield.

The colors of the tourmalines in Chesterfield are pretty uni-
form : but in Goshen they vary exceedingly. The rubellite is
rarely met with there ; but the indicolite is abundant ; and this
passes by numerous gradations into green tourmalines. Of some
specimens, indeed, it is difficult to say whether they should be re-
garded as blue or green. There also we meet with a yellowish
green tourmaline, (No. 1520,) which is associated with spodu-
mene. Sometimes also I have seen this mineral nearly brown and
even approaching to white. At Chesterfield the green variety is
opaque : but some of its crystals at Goshen, penetrating mica, are
translucent.

All the common varieties of feldspar are of course abundant in
our granite. Its ordinary color is white. But in Leverett it is
blue ; and often the folia are six or eight inches across. In Go-
shen I have met with it slightly green. The siliceous feldspar, or
Cleavelandite, is found as already noticed, at Chesterfield, where
it is commonly foliated, but sometimes coarsely granular. At Go-
shen the same varieties occur: and that which is granular exceed-
ingly resembles saccharine limestone. In Norwich it is found foli-
ated and of a light blue color. At the other localities it is always
white. Mr. Andrews, preceptor of New Salem Academy, finds
it in foliated masses in that town of that color. It is found also
at Chester. (Nos. 1535 to 1539.)

Beryls are frequently met with in our granite : though in gen-
eral they are not very delicate. Perhaps the most so is a limpid
beryl, occurring in Goshen along with spodumene, &-c. It is rarely
distinctly crystalized and is full of fissures. Sometimes it is of a
light rose color. (Nos. 1525 to 1528.) In Norwich and Chester-
field beryls are sometimes found of a great size ; — at the latter
place a foot in diameter ; but such crystals are irregular and de-
void of beauty. In Williamsburgh they sometimes occur smaller.

Minerals in Granite. 493

but more valuable. From Pelham I have a specimen of greenish
yellow beryl, of considerable beauty : beryls are said also to have
been found in Worthington : and Dr. Marshall showed me a fine
crystal 1 1-2 inch diameter, found in the granite of Fitchburg. In
Stow, also, this mineral has been found in granite.

It has been stated that iolite is found in the granite of Goshen :
but 1 have never n)et with it. In the granite of Haddam, Ct. it has
lately been found abundant and beautiful.

Garnet is less abundant in our granite than in several of the older
stratified rocks. Generally wliere it does occur, it is in quite small
crystals ; but it is commonly the precious garnet. In Bedford it
is said to be found in large and sometimes perfect trapezoidal crys-
tals.

If No. 1529 do not belong to the zeolite llimily of minerals, I
cannot tell where to refer it. I mean the radiated mineral upon
fine granite from Goshen.

1 believe that all the veins marked on the Geological Map, as
well as on Plate XVII, as lead veins, in Hampshire county and
the south part of Franklin, are either entirely contained in granite,
or pass from that rock into mica slate. Hence the minerals which
they contain may properly be described in this place.

The gangue of the most southerly vein in Leverett is sulphate
of baryta and quartz. It is only a foot or two in width, and is en-
tirely in granite. It contains galena only. The most northerly
vein in that town is several feet wide, and is mostly in mica slate.
It contains galena and pyrltous copper in nearly equal proportion.
The vein in Southampton to which I have often referred, and
which has been explored farther than any other in the State, trav-
erses granite and mica slate ; and the gangue is mostly quartz with
sulphate of baryta occasionally. Its extent and situation have,
however, been already given in the first part of my Report with
sufficient minuteness. Galena is the principal ore. Blende, how-
ever, is frequent, as well as pyritous copper. Here also have
been found the carbonate, raolybdate, sulphate, phosphate, and
murio-carbonate of lead ; the blue and green carbonate of copper
and vitreous black oxide of iron. Here also we find sulphate of
iron in small octahedra, truncated on all their angles. The car-
bonate of lead is found in tabular prisms with bevelments : also
in six sided prisms with four sided acuminations : also in triangu-
lar dodecaedra with their apices deeply truncated. The murio-
carbonate of lead is in light green groups of cubic crystals ter-
minated by tetraedral pyramids. Tlie sulphate of lead occurs in
small plates on the galena. The phosphate of lead exists in
spherical light green masses.

The vein in the south part of Southampton is said to have a
gangue of quartz containing galena, and to be not more than a foot
wide. I have not visited it.

61

494 Scitntijic Geology.

About a mile northeasterly from the adit in Southampton, a vein
of quartz, mostly radiated, several feet wide, traverses mica slate
chiefly, and contains blende and galena ; the former in much the
greatest quantity. The blende here, as well at all the veins in
the vicinity, is foliated, rarely in distinct crystals, and of a honey
yellow color.

The metallic vein inWesthampton, near the locality of argentine, is
very large.at least 10 feet wide ; thougli I could not ascertain its true
width. It is composed entirely of radiated and crystalized quartz,
surrounding small masses of some other rock, probably mica slate,
the whole mass having a brecciated appearance. Galena, the on-
ly ore that has been found here, is very sparingly disseminated. I
could not ascertain whether this vein is in granite or mica slate;
both of which rocks occur in the vicinity.

The veins in Williamsburgh, according to Mr. Nash, occur in
granite and mica slate, and the gangue is quartz. Only one of
them, however, has been discovered in the rock, their existence
being inferred from t.he loose blocks strowed over the surface. In
at least one of these veins, the oxide of manganese occurs, along
with galena. Pyritous copper exists there also, in small quantity :
and I found foliated blende. This latter ore appears to have a strong
tendency to decomposition, and often the cavity that contained it,
is filled with a dull red powder, whose true nature I have not as-
certained. But it is certainly not the oxide of lead, as Mr. Nash
has stated in the 12th volume of the American Journal of Science !
The three veins in VVhately have all a gangue of quartz, gen-
erally radiated. The most easterly one, according to Mr. Nash,
contains oxide of manganese as well as galena. The most north-
erly one is six feet wide and lies chiefly in granite. It contains
blende as well as galena. The two other veins described by Mr.
Nash 1 have tried in vain to find.

According to the Messrs. Danas, muriate of copper has been
found in rolled masses of granite in Woburn.

It is said, also, that specular oxide of iron occurs in Mendon,
and in Cumberland, R. Island, in granite.

In the 16th volume of the American Journal of Science, T have
given a very particular account of the single crystal of the oxide
of tin, which I found several years ago, at the well known locality
of several interesting minerals in the northwest part of Goshen.
Its form, if I did not mistake it, was an octahedron with a square
base : though the measurements of several of the angles did not
coincide with those given in the books. But as to its being gen-
uine oxide of tin, there can be no doubt: especially since the dis-
covery in Europe of this same substance in a specimen sent from
Chesterfield, Mass. as mentioned in iMohs Mineralogy.*

* Vol. II. p. 387. Edinburgh, 18-35.

Origin of Granitt. 495

Mr. Nuttall suggests with a doubt, that the phosphate of man-
ganese exists in Sterling, in connection with spoduniene. The
same mineral, whatever it be, is found in Goshen with the spodu-
mene.

Sulphuret of molybdenum has been found in granite in New
Bedford and Fitchburg.

The only remaining mineral to be noticed in the granite of Mas-
sachusetts, is the columbite at Chesterfield. It was discovered at
the tourmaline locality by Mr. C. U. Shepard, in right rectangu-
lar prisms with several modifications. The same gentleman found
this rare mineral in two places in Goshen, imbedded in spodu-
niene.

Theoretica I Considerations.

I have already expressed the decided opinion, that if an igne-
ous origin be assigned to the trap rocks, as is now done almost uni-
versally, a similar origin cannot be denied to granite. There is
not indeed, so great a resemblance in appearance, between granite
and recent lavas, as between these and the trap rocks : nor does
granite occur in coluiDuar masses. But except in these two re-
spects, the same arguments which prove the igneous origin of the
traps, equally apply, and sometimes I think with more force, in proof
of the original igneous fluidity and protrusion of granite. And if I
mistake not, there are one or two additional arguments in the case
of granite. I shall now briefly present these arguments as they
apply to the granite of Massachusetts.

1. I infer the igneous origin of granite from the inclined po-
sition of the older stratified. rocJis, The stratified and slaty struc-
ture of these rocks is conclusive evidence that water was the me-
dium of their original deposition. But if deposited in water, their
laminae could not at first have varied much from a iiorizontal posi-
tion : for we know of no examples in which depositions take place
in water, where the surface is inclined niore than a few degrees,
except perhaps in those limited cases, where tufaceous masses are
deposited from water charged with lime or silex, flowing down in-
clined planes. But the older stratified rocks are for the most part
highly inclined, often vertical indeed, as the accompanying Sec-
tions will show. (Plates XVII and XVIII.) They must, therefore,
have been elevated subsequently to their deposition. And when
we find that a large proportion of the organic remains in the sec-
ondary rocks are of marine origin, can we doubt that existing con-
tinents once formed the bottom of the ocean ? This opinion must
now be regarded as an established principle in geology. But by
what power was this elevation accomplished ? That it was vol-
canic in the sense in which that term is now generally employed, I

496 Scientific Geology.

very much doubt : because it. seems to have acted along extended
lines, and not from a centre or centres. An hypothesis as to its
nature, I shall suggest in another place. But 1 cannot conceive
how the stratified rocks could have been elevated as we find them,
without admitting two conditions. First, that the solid crust of
the globe must have been comparatively thin, in order to give
way to any internal force that we can imagine might act upon it.
Secondly, that a molten mass must have existed beneatli this crust,
so that when it was elevated in any particular part and depressed
in others, the fluid nucleus might have readily conformed to the
sinuosities of its inferior surface. Where, for instance, a long
mountain ridge was lifted up, if no such fused matter were forced
underneath it to occupy the cavity thus produced, it is difficult
to conceive how it could be sustained through a lapse of centuries.
Nay, it is difficult to conceive how such an enormous weight could
have been lifted up thousands of feet, if such a molten mass had
not been pressing against it beneath with considerable force, and
thus lending assistance to any lateral agency that might have been
in operation. Now if granite were not this fused plastic mass, we
shall search in vain among the rocks to find one that could have
been in such a state : for the trap rocks are not in sufficient quan-
tity to answer the conditions of this case ; and they are, moreover,
usually associated with the newer stratified rocks. But granite
corresponds both in its nature and position with such a supposi-
tion. And if v\'e exclude the agency of granite, 1 do not believe
we can account for the elevation of the strata which all admit has
taken place.

2. / infer the igneous origin of granite from the manner in
which it is intruded among the stratified rocks.

This argument is far more striking in the case of granite than
in that of greenstone. For it is hardly possible to conceive of
any anomaly of position which the former rock has not assumed
in relation to the stratified ones. Its veins are of every size and
shape, and they run in all directions through the superincumbent
strata ; and similar irregularities exist in its larger and less ramified
masses. True, they are rarely superincumbent upon the stratified
rocks ; and hence some have inferred that they could not have
been erupted like trap and lava, which often spread over the sur-
face to a great extent. There is, however, one consideration — to
waive all others — which it seems to me obviates this difficulty.
We have abundant evidence that the surface of the earth has
suffered a powerful abrasion in past ages; and since granite is
confessedly older than the traps, it must have suffered most from
this cause. Now who can tell but granite did once exist in over-
lying masses, and that those have been mostly worn away, and
their remains entombed in the later rocks which so abound in nod-

Origin of Granite. 497

ules of granite? If existing causes operate long enough, the
overlying masses of trap, now so common in various places, must
be thus swept away, and its veins and protruding masses alone
remain.

This argument, however, cannot be felt in all its force, without
connecting it with another circumstance which forms my next ar-
gument.

3. I infer the igneous origin of granite' from the mechanical
effects which it appears to have exerted upon the stratified rocks
in its immediate vicinity.

To illustrate these effects is a principal object which I had in
view in giving so many sketches of veins and protruding masses of
granite. Most of these cases seem to me totally inexplicable on
any other supposition than that of the protrusion of the granite
while in a fluid or semi-fluid state. But after all, such sketches
convey only a very imperfect conception of the actual marks of
disturbance, which the stratified rocks in the vicinity of granite
exhibit. Their dip and direction are changed in every possible
manner, and larger or smaller masses of the stratified rocks are
partially or entirely separated from the parent rock, and more or
iess enveloped in the granite, which is united to them chemically.
If any candid man will go into the towns of Williamsburgh,
Whately, Conway, Chesterfield, Goshen, Westhampton, Norwich,
Chester, Granville, or many others that might be named, and
carefully examine the irregularities which the mica slate there
exhibits, in many places, where granite is in the vicinity, and still
maintain that the granite was deposited from aqueous solution, his
mind must judge very differently from mine of geological evidence.
When I began geological investigations many years ago, my pre-
judices were in favor of the Neptunian theory. But an examin-
ation of such localities as I have above referred to, showed me at
once that I must change sides, or abandon the mountains and
study the subject only in the cabinet. In Massachusetts the me-
chanical influence of granite upon the neighboring rocks is a hun-
dred times more striking than in the case of greenstone ; nor can
I conceive how any effects of this kind could have resulted from
the deposition of granite from aqueous solution. But they would
be the natural results of the protrusion of the granite in a melted
state.

It ought, however, to be understood, that in very many places,
where the granite and the stratified rocks are in contact, no evi-
dence of the operation of a disturbing force, appears, except the
general evidence resulting from the inclined position of the strata.
I mean that such cases of disturbance as I have described and
sketched, are not common. I explain this inconsistency with the
igneous origin of granite, by several considerations. In the first

498 Scientific Geology.

place, it is reasonable to suppose, that originally many of the
masses of granite that now appear at the surface, were not pro-
truded through the slate ; being covered only by those strata which
have been subsequently worn away. In such case, almost the on-
ly effect which we should expect to find from the forcing upwards
of the granite, would be the regular and nearly uniform elevation
of the strata; since, if they were of nearly equal thickness and
strength throughout, the molten mass beneath would press almost
equaUy against their entire under surfoce. In the second place,
such a molten mass would soften and partially fuse the strata for
a considerable thickness above it; and, therefore, it might send
veins through the rock thus rendered plastic, without leaving marks
of mechanical pressure and disturbance. In the third place, such
molten matter would fill all the fissures and cavities previously
existing in the stratified rocks without producing disturbance.

These causes, it seems to me, to suggest no others, are sufficient
to show why we do not always find evidence of any peculiar dis-
turbance in the strata in contact with granite. But if these strata
were not of equal strength or thickness throughout, or if one part
of them was less softened by heat than the other parts, then we
should expect protrusions of granite to be the result, with traces
of mechanical violence ; and such probably are the cases which I
have sketched. Thus the anomalous as well as the usual modes
in which granite occurs, are explicable on this theory: whereas
the Neptunian, even if he can show how granite, as it usually oc-
curs, might have resulted from chemical solution in water, cannot
by the aqueous theory, explain the anomalies that have been de-
scribed.

4. / infer the igneous origin of granite from its chemical ef-
fects "upon the surrounding strata.

These effects, so far as I have noticed them in the region I
have undertaken to describe, have been detailed in various parts
of this Report ; and therefore I need only refer to them in a sum-
mary manner.

The conversion of graywacke slate into flinty slate, and of cer-
tain ferruginous portions of it into jasper, as well as the induration
of the limestone in the vicinity of the granite in Newport, R. Is-
land, are undoubtedly the most striking effects of this kind in the
region under consideration. I can conceive of no other hypothe-
sis to account for these changes which is not perfectly absurd.
Surely no one can think of explaining such facts by any probable
operation of an aqueous agency. And if an igneous agency, suffi-
cient to fuse the graywacke and the limestone be admitted, it must
have been sufficient also to fuse the granite.

The argument which I have drawn from the existence of ap-
parently semi- fused nodules of the schistose rocks in sienite in fa-

Origin of Granite. 499

vor of the igneous origin of that rc-ck, will apply also to genuine
granite on two grounds. 1. Sienite is only a variety of granite;
the two rocks being connected in the same continuous mass, even
in the very locality where the conglomerated sienite occurs. And
I cannot conceive how one part should have had an igneous and
the others an aqueous origin. 2. Similar rounded nodules do oc-
cur, though less numerously, in granite. (No. 14S6.)

I have often noticed an appearance on the surface of granite in
contact with mica slate, which I have not seen described ; but
which seems to have some bearing on this question. The surface
of the granite has a striated appearance ; as if, when in a plastic
state it had been crowded against the slate while at the same time
it was urged upwards. Usually a layer of quartz envelopes the
granite, and this is often of a bluish or muddy aspect, as if the
coloring matter of the slate had penetrated it. These effects,
partly chemical and partly mechanical, are easily explicable on
the supposition that the granite was protruded in a melted state
through the slate, and therefore lends some support to that theory.

Along the western border of the Connecticut valley, the lower
beds of new red sandstone in some places have in part lost their
red color, so as to become spotted. In the adit, for example, at
the Southampton lead mine, the rock has become gray throughout.
(No. 167.) Here we know that a large mass of granite exists
within a k\v feet of the sandstone. Now I have shown under
greenstone, that just such a change of color results in this same
rock, from a contact with greenstone : and scarcely no one now
doubts that the heat of the greenstone was the cause. Why then
should it be doubted in the case of granite?

5. I infer the igneous origin of granite from its crystalline
structure, and the numerous crystalizations of other substances
that have taken place in it.

These same facts I am aware have been adduced to prove the
aqueous origin of granite ; for since the products of volcanoes are
rarely crystalline, and many splendid crystalizations have taken
place from solution in water, it has been thought most reasonable
to suppose such was the origin of granite. But when has the
chemist been able from aqueous solution to obtain a solid crystal-
line mass of three or four distinct substances at the same time ?
I believe never. They always crystalize in succession. And
the difficulty is increased when we take into the account the hut
merous simple minerals that are found crystalized and enveloped
in the granite; each of the substances appearing as if they strug^
gled with one another for a place at the moment of deposition.

But on the other hand, if the fused materials of which glass is
composed, or melted basalt, or lava, be slowly cooled, they will
separate into distinct compounds, as has been done in the case of

500 Scientific Geology.

granite. If, however, they be cooled suddenly, a uniform rock,
or even a glass will be the result. Does not this fact lead to the
probable conclusion, that the degree of crystalization in any rock
depends upon the time employed in its refrigeration. Perhaps,
however, other circumstances are concerned in causing such a dif-
ference in structure as we find between basalt and granite.

This fifth argument was not adduced to prove the igneous origin
of greenstone, because the crystalline structure of that rock is so
imperfect compared with that of granite. Some of the other ar-
guments are much more satisfactory in the case of granite than in
that of greenstone. And upon the whole, I cannot see why the
evidence in favor of the Vulcanian production of granite is not
fully as strong as it is in respect to any of the trap rocks. But
as to the origin of the latter there is scarcely any diversity of opin-
ion. We may then safely predict that a like uniformity will soon
prevail in respect to granite. Indeed, we are informed on the
highest authority, that in Great Britain this uniformity of views
already exists. Five years ago. Dr. Fiiton, President of the Geo-
logical Society, said : ' In the speculative department of Geology,
nothing has been of late more remarkable with reference to its
history in this country, than the universal adoption of a modified
Volcanic theory, and the complete subsidence, or almost total
oblivion, of the Wernerian and Neptunian hypotheses ; — so that
what, but a few years since, was by some considered as hardihood
to propose in the form of conjecture, seems now to be established
nearly with the evidence of fact. It is no longer denied, that vol-
canic power has been active during all the revolutions which the
surface of the globe has undergone, and has probably been itself
the cause of many of them ; and that our continents have not
merely been shaken by some mighty subterraneous force, but that
strata, originally horizontal, have thus been raised, shattered, and
contorted, and traversed, perhaps repeatedly, by veins of fluid
matter ; — operations which have produced phenomena, so nearly
resembling those of volcanic agency, that to have so long disputed
the identity of their cause, is one of the most remarkable proofs
in the annals of philosophic history, of the power of hypothesis in
disturbing or concealing truth.'* ^

More recently Prof. Conybeare (than whom no higher authority
can be quoted in geology,) says that Leibenitz ' attributes the pri-
mary and fundamental rocks to the refrigeration of the crust of this
volcanic nucleus : — an assumption which well accords with the
now almost universally admitted igneous origin of the fundamental
granite and with the structure of the primary slates ; for the insen-
sible gradation of these formations appears to prove, that gneiss

* Anniversary Address, Feb. 15th, 1828.

Theory of Central Heat. 501

must have undergone in a greater, and mica slate in a less degree,
the same action; of which the maximum intensity produced gran-
ite.*

Brongniart and Beudant also, distinguished professors of geology
in Paris, and until recently Wernerians, in their Report on a Me-
moir of Elie de Beaumont, presented to the Academy of Sciences
in 18-29, remark as follows: 'The men)oir of M. de Beaumont
exhibits certainly one of the newest, boldest, and most ingenious
theories which have been proposed for a long time. It seems
even to demolish those theories which have the honorable preju-
dice of an illustrious name (Werner) on their side, as well as the
general opinion, and which have been adopted by many of the
members of this Academy. f

Theory of Central Heat.

The logical mind, that adopts these views of the origin of the
unstratified rocks, is irresistibly led to inquire into the commence-
ment and present state of the internal heat which has produced
such mighty effects. As to the condition of the globe when this
powerful agent began to modify its crust, little more than conjec-
ture can guide our inquiries. Astronomical observations render it
probable that the surface of the moon is composed almost entirely
of volcanic matter ; and that that planet is gradually cooling and
passing into a habitable from a state of desolation. Comets also,
appear to be in a condition still more chaotic ; the matter of which
they are composed being actually in some instances expanded into
vapor, in consequence of internal heat. The speculative geologist
inquires, whether such might not have been the early condition of
our globe ; and whether it has not been gradually cooling from the
beginning to the present time; while such animals have been success-
ively placed upon it as possessed natures adapted to its different tem-
peratures. That its surface must have been torn and ravaged by
the most powerful volcanic agency in early times, those who ad-
mit the igneous origin of the unstratified rocks must allow : and
that its temperature has been sinking, is rendered extremely prob-
able by the almost universal occurrence of animals of a tropical
character in the fossiliferous strata of high latitudes.

The surface of the globe has probably nearly or quite reached its
maximum of refrigeration, as several facts seem to prove. But
what is the present temperature of its internal parts? A great
number of observations made within a ^e\v years in different parts
of the world, in mines and other deep excavations, have brought
to light the interesting fact, that the temperature increases rapidly

* Report on Geology, p. 3G7, (1832.)
t Rapport, &c. 17.

62

502 Scientific Geology.

as we descend into the earth : indicating even, that at a depth less
than 100 miles, a heat exists great enough to fuse all known rocks;
and consequently, that the great mass of the globe beneath this
envelope, may now be a molten incandescent mass. Startling as
such a conclusion may be, to one who is not conversant with the
details and reasonings of geology, it seems to receive confirmation
from the occasional ejection of just such melted matter as the the-
ory supposes, from more than 200 volcanoes, which seem to form
the safety valves of the vast furnace. And then, still more nu-
merous extinct volcanoes testify to the more powerful operation
of this agency in former days. The facility too with which such
a theory applies to the explanation of a multitude of physical phe-
nomena, which cannot be here detailed, certainly strengthens the
conviction of its truth.

[t is but a few years since this theory was formally developed
in the scientific world ; and although it was viewed by many as the
very extravagance of hypothesis, yet it is interesting to see how
very rapidly it has gained credence. Nor can this fact be explained
without admitting that it carries with it strong marks of truth. The
state of opinion on this subject among European geologists, may
be learnt from the following paragraph of a recent able French
writer on Volcanoes. 'If, says he, ' I have dwelt long on the
the ideas of Cordier, it is because they are now professed by the
most illustrious geologists of our age. They rest, moreover, on
facts so numerous and so well established, that it is impossible not
to regard them as a faithful representation of what must have hap-
pened at the commencement of things, and of what is now taking
place. The hypothesis of central heat, and by consequence that
which imputes the origin of volcanic matters to a fiery mass in the
interior of the globe, may be placed in the rank of truths the
most firmly established. In proportion as observations multiply,
this hypothesis is confirmed : the small number of phenomena yet
involved in some obscurity, will be explained more easily than
those which have been brought to light before : and the system-
atic minds which still resist the evidence, w'ill soon find themselves
compelled to abandon their opinions, which have already fallen
into the most profound discredit.'*

'As to the central heat,' says Dr. Maccullocb, ' if there is not
ample proof of this, I know not that geology can furnish proof of
any thing,' Sicf

Even the chemical theory of volcanic action, which imputed it
to the oxidation of the metalloids, and which seemed a few years
ago to be enlisting able advocates in its defence, appears in Eu-

* Considerations sur les Volcans &c. par M. J. Girardin, Paris, 1831, p. 153.
t System of Geology, Vol. II, p. 408.

Theory of Causes noio in Action. 503

rope to be nearly abandoned. Even Sir Humphrey Davy, who
originally proposed it, subsequently abandoned it ; and says that
' the hypothesis of the nucleus of the globe being composed of
fluid matter, offers a still more simple solution of the phenomena
of volcanic fires than that which has been just developed.'* His
surviving brother Sir John Davy, however, still defends the chem-
ical theory, as does also Professor Daubeny. And it ought also to
be mentioned, that no longer ago than February 1834, Mr. Green-
ough, in his Anniversary Address before the London Geological
Society, strenuously opposes the igneous origin of granite, and the
doctrine of central heat.

Theory of the Sufficiency of Causes now in action, ivith 7io
increase of intensity, to account for Geological Phenomena.

Although the theory of central heat has been so generally
adopted as to excite at present but little discussion, yet a theory
has recently been fully and ably developed by a distinguished ge-
ologist,! relating to the dynamics of existing causes, which seems
likely to elicit much of talent and feeling in its examination. He
maintains that if the causes now in operation be supposed to have
acted during immense periods of past time, without any increase
of intensity, they may have produced all the phenomena which
the records of geology disclose. Those who take the opposite
ground, are ready to admit that the dynamics of existing causes
has been greatly underrated : nor do they suppose that any causes
different in their nature from existing ones, have been in operation
in past times. But they suppose these causes to have acted with
far greater intensity formerly than at present: and they appeal to
the following facts in support of this opinion, and in opposition to
the theory above stated.

1. The spheroidal figure of the earth renders it probable that it
was once fluid. Whether this fluidity was igneous or aqueous,
the operation of fire or water must have been far more powerful
formerly than at present.

2. Perhaps nine tenths of our present continents exhibit evi-
dence that their stratified rocks were formed beneath the ocean ;
and they must consequently have been subsequently elevated ;
and this not by little and little, but by paroxysmal efforts of vol-
canic force. But that force during the last 4000 years, seems to
have been by far too feeble to produce effects to be compared with
the elevation of a continent, or even a single mountain chain.

3. The products of volcanic agencies in early times, that iS; the un-
stratified rocks, appear to have been far more abundant than during

* Philosophical Transactions for 1828, Part II.

+ Principles of Geology by Charles Lyell, Esq. Vol. I. London, 1830 : Vol. II,
London, 183-2 : Vol. Ill, London, 1833.

504 Scientific Geology.

the last tew thousands ol" years. That is, the deposits of granite^
sienite, and porphyry, whose cotemporary production can be ren-
dered probable, are of greater extent than those of basalt, green-
stone, and trachyte : and these latter more abundant than the la-
vas of existing volcanoes : thus exhibiting a diminishing energy of
volcanic action.

4. A correspondent decrease of violence in this power, is obvi-
ous in the disturbances and dislocations of the stratified rocks by
the protrusion of the unstratified. That is, the oldest stratified
rocks exhibit far more of disturbance than those of more modern
date ; many of which have not been disturbed at all. This can-
not be explained by supposing that the older rocks have been af-
fected by all the paroxysmal efforts of volcanic power that have
occurred, whereas the newer ones have felt only the modern
throes : for the latter products of volcanic action, such as basalt,
greenstone, trachyte, and lava, appear but in a few instances to
have disturbed the older rocks.

5. The vents of existing volcanoes are always situated in the
midst of regions exhibiting marks of former and extinct volcanic
action ; and they occupy but a small proportion of those regions ;
indicating a comparative repose or diminution of the volcanic
power.

6. In correspondence with the preceding facts, we find the older
rocks, both stratified and unstratified, more crystalline in their struc-
ture than the newer ones ; an effect which would result from the
diminished agency of heat.

7. The character of organic remains implies a like diminution
of temperature : nor can the astronomical theory of Mr. Herschel,
making this diminution the result of a gradual change in the ellip-
ticity of the earth's orbit ; nor the geographical theory of Mr.
Lyell, which refers it to variations in the relative position of land
and water, and in the elevation and form of land ; afford any sat-
isfaction to the mind.

8. The occurence in the sedimentary rocks of immense beds of
conglomerate, indicates the occasional recurrence of powerful de-
bacles of water, to form and collect the materials for these rocks.
But we know of no cause now in operation adequate to the pro-
duction of such deluges. Yet if we admit the greater intensity of
volcanic power in past times, an adequate cause is provided.

9. Existing diluvium cannot be accounted for by causes now in
action. This point, in relation to the diluvium of Massachusetts,
lias been so fully discussed in the earlier pages of this Report,
that I need add nothing further in this place, except to say, that
the diluvium of other countries appears to be quite as difficult to
be accounted for by the fluvial theory.

Upon the whole, it seems to me that however easily a man may

Origin of Metallic Veins, ^c. 505

persuade himself in his cabinet, of the truth of the theory that
lias been examined, he cannot go forth among the mountains with-
out meeting its refutation everywhere ; and he must be continually
impressed with the vast intensity of force whicli aqueous and ig-
neous agents have exerted on the globe in former times.

Here terminates my account of the particular rocks of Massa-
chusetts. A few miscellaneous matters that could not properly be
introduced in any other place, will be added in conclusion of the
Scientific Geology of the State.

Miscellaneous Items.

1. Origin of Metallic Veins, Beds, &fc.

The metals sometimes occur in the rocks disseminated through
their masses : and in this case it is obvious that they must have
existed in the materials out of which the rock was produced, and
have been separated into small masses by chemical affinities, when
the rock was passing from a fluid to a solid state. The same was
probably true in those cases where the metals exist in tuberculous
masses in the rocks. When they occur in strings, that is, in small
veins so numerous as to give the rock a reticulated appearance,
they were probably segregated from the mass of the rock at the
period of its formation ; not improbably filling up the small cracks
produced by incipient consolidation. Metallic beds, where the ore
is interstratified with the rock, may, in many cases have resulted
from aqueous deposition, the ores having been subsequently modi-
fied by exposure to heat ; as I have more fully suggested in de-
scribing talcose slate. But when the metals occur in genuine
veins, as they usually do, the theory of their origin is involved in
great obscurity. The Wernerian dogma, that all veins were filled
by aqueous solution from above, is now exploded ; though in a
few instances they may have been formed in this manner. A
more recent and very ingenious hypothesis represents the contents
of metallic veins as having been secreted from the rocks by means
of galvanic electricity ; * and the change that takes place in its
contents as the vein passes into different rocks, certainly lends
some plausibility to this suggestion ; and it would seem probable
that the various layers of rocks and minerals that make up the
crust of the globe, must form galvanic combinations of great
power. A still more recent hypothesisf imputes metallic veins to
sublimation by the internal heat of the earth, which causes the
metallic substances to rise into the fissures that exist in the crust
of the globe. This hypothesis, also, is very ingenious; but my

* Fox in the Philosophical Trausactious for 1830, p. 399.
+ Neckar in Philosophical Magazine. Sept. 1832.

506 Scientific Geology.

own mind is not satisfied with any explanation that has yet been
proposed.

I am not aware that any facts which have come to my knowl-
edge relative to the metallic veins in Massachusetts, will throw
any light upon this subject. But as yet they have not, except in
a few instances, been penetrated far enough to develope facts of
much interest.

The direction of these veins is, however, a point that ought not
to be passed over in silence. For when we find veins corres-
ponding in direction, especially if in the same formation, we have
good reason for presuming that they originated in a common cause,
and at the same epoch. On Plate XVI, which shows the direc-
tion of the strata in Massachusetts, I have given the course of
most of the metallic beds and veins in the State by double arrow
heads. The following are the data from which I made the delin-
eation :

Direction. Dip.

1. Bed of Iron in Hawley ; North and South ; Vertical.

2. do. Somerset, Vt. do. 20° to 30° East.

3. Bed of Manganese, Plainfield,

(S. W. part,) do. nearly 90° East.

4. Vein of Lead, (most Southerly)

Leverett, do. nearly Vertical.

5. do. VVhately, (North part,) do. do.

6. Vein of Copper Ore on Island, .

Turner's Falls, do. Westerly.

7. Vein of Copper Ore in Green-
field, near Turner's Falls, do. Vertical.

8. Vein of Manganese, Conway, N. E. and S. W. do.

9. Vein of Lead, and Copper,

Leverett, (most northerly vein,) do.

10. do. do. Southampton, do. nearly, do. ?

11. do. do. Westhampton, do. do.?

12. do. Zinc chiefly,

Northampton, do. . do.

13. and 14. Two veins chiefly in

Whately,* do.

15. Bed of Copper Ore, Granby, Ct. do. 20° S. E.

16. Bed of Mag. Oxide of Iron,

Bernardston, North and South do.

17. Bed of Plumbago, Sturbridge, N. 30° E. 60° to 70° N. W.

18. do. Iron and Zinc, Sterling, N. several degrees E. do.

19. Vein of Lead, Hatfield, nearly N. W. and S. E. Vertical?

* On Mr. Nash's Authority.

^ .A

Elevation of Mountain Chains. 507

Regarding only the veins in the above table, and judging merely
from their course, we should infer that all of them were produced
at two epochs, except the single vein in Hatfield. But the great
difference between the age of the new red sandstone, containing
the copper veins, and that of the granite and mica slate contain-
ing the other veins, renders it probable that those in the former
rock must have been formed at a different epoch from those of
the latter. On this view of the subject we must refer these veins
to four periods: — 1. The veins of copper, 5 and 6, in the new
red sandstone ; — 2. The veins of lead, 4 and 5 ; — 3. The veins
8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 ;— 4. The vein 19. If the beds be
considered as connected in their origin with the veins, the number
of epochs of production will not be increased : since the beds, ] ,
2, and 3, will belong to the first epoch, and 15, 16, 17, and 18 to
the second.

2. Elevation of the Mountains and Systems of Strata in Mas-
sachusetts.

Geologists who saw that the existing continents of the globe
had obviously been raised from the bottom of the ocean, had
sometimes suggested that different mountain ridges had been lifted
up at different epochs. And they seemed to approach very near
sometimes to the discovery of the principle by which they could
determine the relative ages of these mountains. But it was re-
served for Eli de Beaumont to develope the true principles by
which we should be guided in such investigations ; and perhaps
no discovery in geology within the present century, has excited
so much interest among geologists as this. I could not, therefore,
be justified in closing my Report without an effort to apply these
principles to the mountains and systems of strata in Massachu-
setts. But as no effort of the kind has been made in this country,
I fear that I shall make but a feeble beginning.

Sections and Map of the Direction of the Strata accompanying

this Report.

In order to give as correct a view as I am able of the course of
our inclined strata and their dip, I have given Plate XVI to illus-
trate the former, and Plate XVII and XVIII, to exhibit the lat-
ter. For on these two circumstances the whole argument for prov-
ing the elevation of the different systems of strata at different
epochs, rests.

The instruments which I have employed for ascertaining the di-
rection and dip of the strata, are a good pocket compass and a cli-
nometer. I confess, however, that in consequence of the very
common oscillation of the dip and direction within short distances,
I have been much in the habit of depending upon the coiip d'oeil

508 Scientific Geology.

to obtain their average : being sure that I knew where the true
meridian lay, and having found by long trial that I could be more
accurate in this way, and especially in respect to the dip, than by
the use of instrun^.ents. But after all, every geologist must be
aware that all observations of this kind, made in the best manner,
can be only approximations to the truth. In most instances, how-
ever, they come sufficiently near the truth to form a good basis
for reasoning; since it is large differences only, in the dip and di-
rection, on which the conclusions rest.

In strictness, when the direction is given in this Report in de-
grees, about five degrees should be allowed for the westerly va-
riation of the magnetic needle.

It is only the predominant or general direction of the basset
edges of the strata that I have undeitaken to give on the Map.
The preceding pages of my Report contain numerous local ex-
ceptions : but unless these are on a large scale, as in Worcester,
Goshen, &c. they have not been represented.

Dotted lines are drawn on the Geological Map of the State,
(Plate I,) to show where the sections, given on Plates XVII and
XVIII, cross the country. Section A, crosses from east to west
near the northern part of the State. Section B, is intended to
cross near the middle of the State : though it deviates somewhat
from a direct course, in order to strike the granite and coal in
Worcester, Section C, passes through the southern part of the
State ; though when it reaches the northern corner of Rhode
Island, it tends more to the south, in order to terminate upon the
famous ' Plymouth Rock,' which is a large bowlder of a rather
peculiar kind of granite. (No. 1433) Section D, passes from the
northeast corner of the State to Boston ; thence it changes its
course slightly to reach Newport, R. Island. Above sections B
and C, a few short sections are introduced of interesting places ly-
ing too far north of the line of the general sections to be made
part of them. In these minor sections the same scales are era-
ployed as in the larger ones.

The horizontal scale used in all these sections corresponds with
that on the Geological Map : so that the sections are of exactly
the same length as the Map, measured on the dotted lines above
described. Hence any particular spot on the section may be found
upon the State Map, by laying the one upon the other. The
scale for laying off the heights is 1500 feet to the inch. I do not
suppose that I have always given the height of the surface with
much exactness. I have depended on several surveys that have
been executed within a few years for contemplated canals and
rail-ways, and on other admeasurements published by individuals,
for the height of the most important points along the sections.
But in some instances the course of these surveys did not corres-

Systems of Strata in Massachusetts, 509

pond with the line of the sections. In such case I could only ap-
proximate to the elevation.

The double scale necessarily employed in extensive sections of
this kind, gives so distorted a representation of the surface, and
consequently of the relative situation of the different rocks, as ex-
ceedingly to diminish the value of such representations. Geolo-
gists accordingly at the present day, place but little dependence
upon them : or rather tliey value them less just in proportion to
their distortion. ' Such sections,' says De la Beche, ' are little
better than caricatures of nature, and are frequently much more
mischievous than useful, even leading those who make them to
false conclusions, from the distortion and false proportions of the
various parts.'* If to this it be added that there is a strong temp-
tation to make up for a deficiency of observation by giving the rel-
ative position of rocks according to a favo|-ite theory, we shall be
persuaded that a large part of the sections hitherto published, have
conveyed to the mind nearly as much error as truth. A section
which exhibits only the truth, so far as the observer has ascertained
it from actual examination, forms too naked and uninviting a sketch
to satisfy the taste or ambition of many. Hence the imagin-
ation and the painter are taxed to make up the deficiency.

In the sections appended to this Report, however, 1 have endeav-
ored to present the dip and superposition of the rocks, only so far
as I have determined these points from actual observation. Where
for instance, as in the case of the limestone of Berkshire county,
I have not seen the actual junction of different rocks, I have left
a blank space between them. Notwithstanding these precautions,
I am afraid that these sections will convey some erroneous im-
pressions.

The principal object of these sections is to exhibit the actual
dip of the strata ; and this I have endeavored to give without
reference to the distortions of the surface.

Systems of Strata and Mountains of Contemporaneous Elevation
in Massachusetts.

A careful examination of the Map and sections that have just
been described, will satisfy any one, that although the rocks of
Massachusetts belong to several distinct systems of elevation, yet
the central ridge, or anticlinal line, of not one of these systems,
perhaps, passes through the State. We may, therefore, hope that
correspondent parts of these systems may be discovered beyopd
the limits of the State. But I shall first endeavor to point out,
as well as I am able, in chronological order, the different systems
that appear within the State.

♦Geolcsjical Manual. 2(1 edition, p. 545.

63

510 Scientific Geology.

A peculiar difficulty, however, meets us in attempting to ascer-
tain the relative epochs of elevation of our strata ; for most of
the newer strata are wanting in New England ; or rather their
number is much less than in some other parts of the world. In
the western part of this State, for instance, we have only the new
red sandstone and a single tertiary formation, not yet identified
with any in other parts of the world, to guide our inquiries in re-
spect to the epochs of elevation. And in the eastern parts of
the State, graywacke alone affords us any assistance in this mat-
ter; since the plastic clay and every other tertiary formation are
so insulated from the older rocks, as to form no grounds for any
other than hypothetical conclusions. For these reasons I find it
impossible to ascertain the exact place in respect to time, which
all the systems of elevation, that I think I discover in the State,
ought to occupy. Most of these systems appear to be of great
antiquity ; corresponding perhaps with the oldest that have been
described in Europe.

1. Oldest Meridional System. The meeting of the new red
sandstone of the Connecticut valley, with the primary strata of
Hoosic mountain range, in an unconformable manner, enables us
to infer with certainty, that the latter have suffered at least two
elevations at different epochs. For the sandstone has a medium
easterly dip of 15° or 20° ; while the mica slate, talcose slate, and
gneiss of the Hoosic range, approach to verticality in their dip.
Hence the latter must have received their principal elevation pre-
vious to the deposition of the former. There may have been more
than one epoch of elevation previous to that time : but we are
thus assured of at least one ; and the very considerable inclination
of the sandstone demonstrates an epoch of elevation subsequent to
its deposition. The last elevation seems not to have affected the
primary strata on the east side of the Connecticut valley, except
perhaps to a limited extent : for the force that raised the sandstone
was so applied as to lift up the western edges of the strata : and
if there had been a similar force operating on the eastern side o f
the valley, their eastern edges would also have been thrown up,
at least so as to keep them in a horizontal situation, if not to give
them a westerly dip.

All the primary strata, therefore, in Massachusetts, west of the
valley of Worcester, whose direction is north and south, I regard
as belonging to the oldest meridional system: and such is the general
direction of all the strata west of Worcester, with the exception per-
haps of the argillaceous slate, and associated strata in the north
part of Franklin County, whose situation will be more particularly
noticed farther on. The Worcester County range of strata may
not, indeed, have been elevated at the same time as the Hoosic
range : but I know of no facts that will prove that they were not

Oldest Meridional Si/stem. 5 1 1

raised at the same epoch ; and since the direction of the strata
coincides, we must refer them to the same epoch until counter evi-
dence be produced.

I think that an examination of the annexed sections will lead to
the impression that the elevating force, or rather the force of pli-
cation, which has formed the ridges and furrows of the system un-
der consideration, must have operated in such a manner as to raise
up the mountain ridges on the east and west sides of the Connec-
ticut valley, much higher originally than the valley : for amid all
the irregularity that is manifested in the dip of the gneiss range
east of that valley, we see that the predominant inclination, par-
ticularly towards the central and southern parts of the State, is
westerly; while on the west side of the valley, it is the reverse ;
although nearly vertical. This does not prove that the part now
occupied by the valley suffered a depression at the epoch under
consideration. For even if we suppose it to have been elevated,
a valley would have been the result, if the strata on the east and
west sides underwent a still greater degree of elevation. At any
rate, I think that the actual dip of the strata on the opposite sides
of this valley, render it probable, that it was originally a valley of
dislocation, and not of excavation : although, as I have argued in
other parts of this Report, extensive excavations may have sub-
sequently taken place within its limits.

The fact that the rocks of Berkshire valley have a less dip than
those of the Hoosic range, leads naturally to the inference, that
they, like the sandstone in the Connecticut valley, were not eleva-
ted during the epoch of the oldest meridional system. Yet their dip
being considerably greater than that of the sandstone, renders it
somewhat doubtful whether the Berkshire rocks were not at least
partially elevated earlier than the sandstone : and this fact excites
a suspicion that there may have been three epochs of elevation in
a north and south direction. The graywacke, however, between
Berkshire and the Hudson, has a very high easterly dip, sufficiently
great to be regarded as belonging to the oldest meridional system
and connected with the Hoosic range. And it is not difficult to
conceive how a series of rocks of considerable extent, forming only
a part of a system of elevation, may have been tilted up much less
than the group generally. So that upon the whole, I am greatly
in doubt whether the Berkshire rocks ought to be referred to the
oldest or the latest meridional system.

In tracing this oldest meridional system beyond the limits of
Massachusetts, it cannot be doubted that all that mountain range
from New York to Canada, along the western part of Connecticut,
Massachusetts, and Vermont, called in Massachusetts the Hoosic
range, and in Vermont the Green Mountain range, constitutes a
part of it. Nor can there be any more doubt, that a large part of

512 Scientific Geology.

that broad range forming the eastern side of the Connecticut val-
ley, and extending from Long Island Sound to Canada, at least as
far east as a line drawn from the mouth of Thames river through
Worcester valley, belongs to tlie same system. I mean, that if the
middle portions of these two ranges belong to the same epoch of
elevation, so must their prolongations north and south. Tiie east-
ern range embraces the highest land in New England ; including
Wachusett, Monadnock, and the White Mountains. Since these
ranges, however, have not been particularly described in New
Hampshire and Vermont, other systems of elevation may there be
connected with that under consideration. But the continuity of
these ridges renders it almost certain that the oldest meridional
system extends from one extremity to the other.

According to the best maps, the most elevated parts of the two
ranges that have been described, are arranged on a line bearing a
few degrees east of north. My own observations on limited por-
tions of their strata in Massachusetts, have not been accurate
enough to decide as to their course within a few degrees. I have
found the direction of the strata to correspond very nearly with
the meridian, except in anon)alous cases.

Beaumont, in his Rccherches sur quelqucs-unes des Revolutions
de la surface du Glohe,* notices cursorily the system that has now
been described; and he remarks, that ' without doubt it belongs to
an epoch more ancient than tliat of the northeast and southwest
beds that constitute the Alleganies properly so called.' He, how-
ever, makes no distinction between what I call the oldest and the
newest meridional system ; not being aware probably of any evi-
dence of two epochs of elevation.

In New Jersey and Delaware, primary ranges have been de-
scribed, running nearly norllj and south, which have been regarded
as a prolongation of tijose along the banks of the Hudson and the
Connecticut. They ought rather to be regarded as parallel ridges,
belonging however to the same system : and from some hasty ob-
servations which I made several years ago in New Jersey, I am
disposed to believe that the new red sandstone there, occupies the
same relative situation with respect to the primary rocks, as in the
Connecticut valley.

Examining the map of America, we perceive that a considera-
ble part of the Rocky Mountains have a north and south direction,
and that such is the general direction of the Andes, as well as of
several ridges in South America east of the Andes: and we know
that some of these ranges at least, are mainly composed of primary
rocks. But in every case, except some of the ridges last named,
their difference of longitude is so great as to render it extremely

♦ Chap. -2. p. 323

The TrajJ System. 5\S

uncertain whether they were elevated at the same epoch as the
system that has been under consideration.

2. The Trap System.

Tlie circumstances connected with the greenstone ridges in the
valley of the Connecticut, are such as to lead me, with not a little
hesitation, to regard them as erupted at an epoch distinct from all
the periods in which the other rocks in the State have been ele-
vated. On page 245, 1 have suggested the reasons that led to the
conclusion, that the greenstone began to be protruded through the
sandstone during the same time when the upper beds of the sand-
stone were depositing. Were it not for the occurrence of the trap
conglomerate on the upper side of the greenstone, we might al-
low that the greenstone was protruded at the same time when the
sandstone was elevated, or subsequent to that epoch. This cir-
cumstance proves that the higher beds of sandstone, or at least a
part of them, were deposited subsequent to the elevation of the
greenstone: otherwise, how could rounded masses of the green-
stone be found in the conglomerated sandstone. But in several
places, as at Turner's Falls, and on the southeast side of mount
Holyoke, these higher strata of sandstone are much more tilted up
than those beneath the greenstone : which seems to indicate that
this latter rock forced its way through the sandstone after the de-
position of the upper beds. These facts I confess are difficult to
be reconciled. But they prove, I think, that the greenstone was
elevated at a period (probably at more than one period,) dif-
ferent from that when the sandstone was thrown up.

The prevailing easterly dip of the sandstone containing these
ridges of greenstone could not have been the result of the protru-
sion of the latter rock : for the beds below the greenstone, are, for
the most part, quite as much inclined as those above it. This
proves that some other agency must have raised the sandstone j
except in those few cases alluded to above, where the greenstone
seems to have increased the inclination of the strata. Hence only
the sandstone in these limited spots can be regarded as belonging
to this system of elevation ; and it embraces only the trap ranges
extending from New Haven to Vermont. These, as may be seen
on Plate XV, run in general a few degrees east of north.

1 have in another place noticed a limited deposit of new red
sandstone and greenstone in Woodbury and Southbury, Ct. This
formation resembles exceedingly the analogous sandstone and
greenstone in the valley of the Connecticut. The direction of
the ridges of greenstone in the Woodbury valley corresponds very
nearly, also, with that of the trap in the Connecticut valley ; in-
dicating a synchronous protrusion. I omitted, in treating of new
red sandstone, to notice a similar formation, about 60 miles long
and 30 broad, in New Jersey ; and extending northerly into New

514 Scientific Geology.

York, at least as far as the Palisadoes on the Hudson.* Promin-
ent ridges of greenstone intersect this formation, running from north
to south, and resting on sandstone, shale, and conglomerates. In-
deed, taken as a whole, the rocks of this region extremely resemble
those in the basin of the Connecticut. The inclination of the
sandstone, however, is in general rather less in New Jersey, and it
is westerly ; that is, in a direction contrary to that of the sandstone
of the Connecticut valley. Consequently, the mural faces of the
greenstone ridges in the latter valley, are on the west side of the
ranges ; while in New Jersey they are on the east side. But this
does not militate at all against the conclusion that the trap ranges
in the two formations belong to the same system of elevation. It
merely renders it probable that an axis of elevation, or anticlinal
line, lies between them.

3. The Latest Meridional System.

I have presented the reasons that lead me to suppose the Hoosic
mountain range to have been elevated a certain distance before the
deposition of the new red sandstone. But the inclination of that
rock shows that subsequent to its deposition a second elevation has
taken place in the same range. The smallness of the dip in the
sandstone, proves that this second elevation must have been small,
compared with that which had been previously accomplished in
the primary strata west of Connecticut river. Yet there is every
reason to believe that this second elevating force acted on all the
rocks between Connecticut and Hudson rivers, and probably on
those farther west. And very probably much of the greenstone
in the Connecticut valley was lifted up along with the sandstone.
Hence we are to include in this system all the rocks between Con-
necticut and Hudson rivers ; probably the whole distance between
Long Island Sound and Canada. But there is no evidence that
the primary rocks east of Connecticut river, which I have included
in the oldest meridional system, except in one or two cases of
limited extent, were affected by this second elevating agency.
For if such had been the case, to as great an extent as on the
western side of the Connecticut, the sandstone would either have
been elevated without losing its horizontal position, or it would
have been tilted up so as to dip in opposite directions on opposite
sides of the valley. If then the primary strata east of the river
were affected at the epoch under consideration, it must have been
in a much less degree than the strata west of the river.

There is, however, in one place, striking evidence that an ele-
vation has taken place in the gneiss east of Connecticut river,
since the deposition of the sandstone. I refer to the section which
I have given in treating of greenstone, which extends from the

* Pierce in the Am. Jour, of Science, Vol. II. p. 181.

Northeast and Southwest System. 515

greenstone ridges west of Turner's falls, to the primary strata
bounding the eastern side of the valley. The change in the di-
rection of the dip of the sandstone as we approach the primary
strata, can be explained only by supposing an elevation of those
strata after the deposition of the sandstone. At least, the evidence
that such was the cause of this anomalous dip, is as strong as the
evidence that at the other end of the section the protrusion of the
greenstone has occasioned the increased dip of the sandstone.
But it is easy to conceive how a protrusion of granite might have
taken place in particular places, (and the section shows that gran-
ite is associated with the gneiss at the mouth of Miller's river,)
and have powerfully affected the incumbent strata for a small dis-
tance, without producing a perceptible effect over regions of great
extent. And upon the whole, I am inclined thus to explain the
case that has been referred to.

In the Connecticut valley no rock intervenes between the new
red sandstone and the newest tertiary. The strata of the latter are
horizontal, and were therefore deposited subsequent to the elevation
of the system under consideration. Hence we can only say, that
the period when this system was developed, was that which inter-
vened between the deposition of the sandstone and the newest
tertiary. Beaumont, however, who speaks of this system, as it
appears in New Jersey and Delaware, says, that there, ' the chalk
formation covers the prolongation of the ancient beds, which are
elevated in a nearly north and south direction, and which form the
borders of Connecticut and the river Hudson.' If he means, as
I suppose he does, that the chalk formation in those states is not
dislocated nor elevated, it will follow that the epoch of elevation
of this system occurred between the deposition of the sandstone
and the chalk.

4. The Northeast and Southtvest System.

This system embraces in my opinion a considerable part of the
mica slate in the valley of Worcester, all the northern part of the
gneiss range, which on the east side of that valley trends away to
the northeast, and the western part of the graywacke formation,
with the talco-chloritic and mica slate in Cumberland, Smithfield,
he. The dip and direction of the strata in the gneiss range exhib-
it, probably, the most distinct type of this system. They are more
uniform in this range than in any other perhaps in the State. The
direction is nearly northeast and southwest ; though I think rather
nearer to north and south than to east and west. The medium dip
is from 60° to 70° northwest. In the Worcester mica slate, the dip
and direction are much more irregular : though for the most part
its strata run nearly northeast and southwest and dip northwest at
a large angle. But towards the southern part of the range, they

516 Scientific Geology.

run nearly north and south ; and towards the northeast part of the
range, they run nearly east and west, conforming apparently to the
curve which the western margin of the gneiss forms. The western
part of this mica slate range appears to belong to the oldest me-
ridional systeni that has been described. As to the argillaceous
slate, contained in this formation, I suspect that also to be connected
with the same meridional system ; though I have not observed its
dip and direction in places enough to enable me to form a very
confident opinion on this point.

I am strongly suspicious, that the mica slate of Worcester val-
ley, will be found to be not perfectly conformable in its stratifica-
tion to the gneiss on either side of the valley ; in other words,
that the gneiss was partially elevated previous to the deposition of
the mica slate. If so, that epoch of first elevation is probably
the oldest in JMassachusetts. But there is so much of irregularity
in the dip of this rock, that I do not presume to erect another
system upon so uncertain a foundation.

An inspection of Plate XV, will show clearly that the gray-
wacke formation belongs to two very distinct systems of elevation ;
the one running nearly east and west, and the other not far from
northeast and southwest. A tract of some width, extending from
Walpole to Providence, and indeed to Newport, belongs to the
latter system ; although on the island of Rhode Island, there is
not a little irregularity in the dip and direction. Obviously this
part of the graywacke belongs to the northeast and southwest sys-
tem under consideration. The talco-chloritic slate in Cumberland
and Smithfield, also, as well as a part of the mica slate connected
with it, appear to belong to the same system ; and since the pre-
vailing dip is southeasterly, (although in this there is great irregu-
larity,) it would seem that there may be an anticlinal line between
the graywacke and the gneiss east of Worcester, which dips in a
contrary direction.

Along the western margin of the tongue of graywacke extend-
ing towards Sherburne, the direction of the strata corresponds with
this system ; for example, in Natick and Watertown, and probably
is to be reckoned as a part of it.

The tendency to a northeast and southwest direction, which I
have observed in the argillaceous slate of Guilford, Vt. has led
me to suspect that this also may belong to the same system. But
to render it certain, the formation should be examined farther
north, in Vermont and New Hampshire. The mica slate asso-
ciated with this clay slate on the east, in the southwestern part of
New Hampshire, should be examined with the same object in
view ; for I have observed this also to bear too much to the north-
east and southwest to belong to the meridional systems, except as
a local anomaly.

East and West System. 517

I have particularly described under sienite, a limited formation
of hornblende slate and mica slate in VVhately, running in a di-
rection which corresponds nearly with the northeast and southwest
system. If 1 do not misrecollect, the same series of rocks, em-
bracing serpentine and verd antique marble, west of New Haven,
have a similar direction. Perhaps both these cases are insulated
parts of this system.

I think it most probable that the northeast and southwest ranges
which I have now described, belong to a very extensive system of
elevation, of which the Alleghany mountains form a part. An-
other range of strata of vast extent, doubtless a part of the same
system, can be traced from the river Saguenai, 100 miles east of
Quebec, to Lake Huron. These consist of gneiss, mica slate,
greenstone, sienite, Stc, and have been regarded by Dr. Bigsby
as the most recent of the primary rocks.* But if we take Beau-
mont for authority, even these extensive ridges constitute but a
moiety of this system. It is his Pyreneo-Appenine system ; and
it includes the whole of the Pyrenees, a part of the Appenines,
the mountains of the Morea, a part of the Hartz Mountains,
Mount Atlas, and other ridges in Africa, particularly in Egypt,
the Carpathian Mountains, Mount Carmel, and Sinai in Palestine,
a part of the Caucasian chain, and of the Ghauts, forming indeed,
a set of parallel ridges around the whole globe ; and being the
most extensive and remarkble system that has yet been traced.

I ought perhaps, however, to suggest the possibility, that the
rocks in Massachusetts, which I have described as belonging to
this system, may be found connected with some other. For the
strata certainly for the most part, run nearer north and south by a
few degrees than the general course of the Alleghanies,

I have not found any of the more recent rocks in Massachu-
setts connected with this system, by which to judge of the epoch
of its elevation. We could learn here only that it took place
after the deposition of the graywacke. But according to Beau-
mont, it took place between the deposition of the chalk, and the
oldest of the tertiary strata.

5. East and West System.

This includes the greater part of the graywacke, granite, sienite,
porphyry, and greenstone, in the eastern part of the State ; and
probably the gneiss in the vicinity of New Bedford. Amid many
anomalies, the decidedly predominant direction of the strata of
graywacke, (excepting the portions connected with the last sys-
tem,) is east and west and the dip northerly. Not having made
many observations upon the New Bedford gneiss, and finding that

* Phil. Mag. Vol. II. N. S. p. 219.

64

518 Scientific Geology.

sometimes its strata tend northeasterly and 'southwesterly, I was
at first inclined to refer it to the last described system. But more
probably I think, it ?liould be connected with the system under
consideration.

So limited is the graywacke in some portions of the region em-
braced by this system, as I have stated its boundaries, that it would
be desirable to find other evidence that the granite, sienite, por-
phyry, and greenstone, along the eastern part of the State, belong
to the same system of elevation. And fortunately this evidence
is presented in the east and west direction of nearly all the moun-
tain ridges and chains of hills composed of these rocks. The
most striking example of this fact is the Blue Hills, made up of
sienite and porphyry, and forming the most elevated land in the
eastern part of the State. The porphyry range a little north of
Boston has the same general direction ; and so have many smaller
ridges to the south of the Blue Hills. In Sharon, Foxborough,
See, however, the sienite ridges assume a direction nearly north-
east and southwest, or somewhat nearer to the meridian than this.
This is the case with the Moose Hill range, for instance, which
is more than 400 feet high, and runs northeast and southwest ; and
this, with other parallel ridges in that vicinity, obviously belong to
the last system of elevation that has been described.* And this
is what we might expect, since a portion of the graywacke run-
ning through Walpole and Wrentham, and belonging to the north-
east and southwest system, occupies the valleys between these
ridges.

I have suggested in another place, that the disturbance which
the Plastic Clay Formation on Martha's Vineyard seems to have
undergone, may have resulted from the protrusion of granite. If
so, that granite was probably a portion of the east and west sys-
tem under description. According to these data, the epoch of its
elevation must have been subsequent to the deposition of the
Plastic Clay, and consequently later than the epoch of the north-
east and southwest system. But I regard this evidence as little
better than conjecture ; and therefore, I am greatly in doubt as
to the period when this system was elevated.

It is natural to inquire whether any traces of this system can
be discovered beyond the limits of Massachusetts. The only
means I have of forming any conjecture on the subject, consist of
geographical maps, which give the direction of chains of moun-
tains : and even in this respect they are so imperfect, as to the
more unexplored parts of our continent, that they leave one in
much doubt. I will only, therefore, say, that on our best maps,
a range of mountains extends along the southern border of Labra-

* H. E. Rogers in the Report on the Providence and Boston Rail Road, p. 59
and 61.

Northioest and Southeast System. 519

dor westwards : and that such is the direction of the rivers, which
farther west run on the north into Hudson's Bay, and on the south
into the bason of the St. Lawrence and great western lakes, as to
show that the elevated land, if not mountain ridges, in which these
rivers take their rise, have a direction nearly east and west. The
same is true of the region west of lake Winnipeck, and of a tract
several hundred miles long, on the south side of lake Superior, in
which the waters that flow into that lake take their rise.

6. Northwest and Southeast System.

No part of the region embracced by the Geological Map (Plate
I.) has occasioned me so much perplexity to ascertain the direc-
tion of the strata, as that in the vicinity of Blackstone river, near
the place where it passes into Rhode Island. The direction of
the strata of gneiss there, does not generally differ much from the
usual course of the river, and the pretty uniform dip is northeast.
Yet sometimes we find them running nearly east and west and
dipping north ; and this circumstance has led me to inquire, wheth-
er they miglit not in fact be connected with the east and west sys-
tem. I know not that it is yet settled, how much local causes
may alter the direction of strata of the same system in different
places. But my present impression is, that the strata under con-
sideration can hardly be connected with the east and west system :
and, therefore, 1 place them provisionally under a sixth system.
But 1 possess no data for forming even a conjecture as to the epoch
of its elevation.

In Dr. Richardson's account of the geology of the northwest
part of North America, observed during the recent exploring tour
under Capt. Franklin, we find him describing a part of the Rocky
Mountains as composed of four chains, terminating by the north-
ern ocean to the west of Mackenzie's River, and running about
S. E. and N. W. They consist of primary rocks : and I mention
them here, as a pretty strong indication that a system of elevation
with such a bearing exists on this continent. Such a direction,
however, is not common in North America in our mountain chains,
unless we go as far south as the isthmus of Darien.

In comparing the facts which have now been stated in regard to
the elevation of our strata, with similar facts developed in Europe,
I have been led to conclude that it is a considerably longer period
since the elevating force has acted in the United States than in
Europe. For we have slight evidence of any extensive distur-
bance here since the deposition of the strata above the chalk, and
not very conclusive evidence of such disturbance even so late as
the cretaceous period: whereas, in Europe, several systems of ele-
vation are reckoned of a later date. And this conclusion agrees

520 Scientific Geology.

with the iact that volcanic agency has not yet ceased on the east-
ern continent ; but in the United States, no traces ot its action,
since the earth assumed its present state, have been discovered.
For, if I mistake not, the existence of volcanoes in any region,
indicates less thickness in the crust of the globe than in other pla-
ces ; since the melted matter would be forced through the envelope
where it is thinest. Accordingly, the only experiments that have
been made in the United States upon internal temperature, indi-
cate a less rapid increase as we descend into the earth here, than
in Europe; and consequently a greater thickness of the earth's
crust on this side of the Atlantic.

All this would lead to the conclusion that our western continent
is older than the eastern : at least that such is the fact with its At-
lantic border. Beaumont, however, seems to be of a different
opinion. ' It appears,' says he, ' from the description of Messrs.
Vanuxem and Morton, that the ancient level, traced on the flanks
of the Alleghanies by the tertiary deposits and the alluvia, anterior
to that of existing streams, which cover their base, is no longer
horizontal. It rises gradually from New England to the Mississip-
pi, so that at the Isle of Nantucket it plunges beneath the level of
the ocean ; and from that point even to Greenland, no tertiary de-
posit has been discovered along the coast. It follows that the
American continent has experienced a sort of see-saw movement,
(inonvcmtnt de bascule,^ which has raised its western side and
sunk its eastern : so that we may attribute a very recent origin to
the Andes.' * I confess myself rather sceptical in regard to these
conclusions. But even if it be admitted that the western side of
this continent is of a comparatively recent origin, it may still be
true, that its eastern side was elevated at a very early period.

Ancient Deluges.

If it be true that continents and vast chains of mountains were
elevated at different periods, and by paroxysmal efforts, it is im-
possible but that deluges of tremendous violence and universal ex-
tent, should have been the consequence. Accordingly we find
traces of such deluges in the vast beds of conglomerates that ex-
ist in the sedimentary deposits ; and also in the frequent extinc-
tions and renewals of animal and vegetable life, which appear to
have taken place on the globe. For such deluges must have
been fatal to organized existence : at least to a great extent. But
I doubt whether geology is yet enough advanced to be able to
trace particular destructions of organized beings to particular
epochs of elevation with their attendant deluges. In respect to
the rocks of Massachusetts, I feel utterly unable to trace any such

* Recherches, &c. Chap. 2. p. 321.

Successive Elevation of Si/stems of Strata. 521

connection. Yet our rocks show the occurrence of several very
powerful deluges in early tinr.es. The earliest of these, by which
the materials of the Roxbury and Rhode Island conglomerates
were accumulated, must have been of great power : and if, as 1
suppose, the latter conglomerate was deposited much earlier than
the former, two such deluges must have been required. The new
red sandstone affords evidence of numerous deluges during its de-
position, in the many alternations of coarse and fine materials
of which it is composed. Two periods during its production ap-
pear to have been particularly distinguished for powerful diluvial
action. In the first, those conglomerated beds, made up chiefly
of the ruins of granite and associated with the lower beds of sand-
stone, were accumulated. In the second, that very coarse con-
glomerate, chiefly composed of various schists and connected with
the higher shales and sandstones, was brought into its present situ-
ation. The osseous conglomerate connected with the plastic clay
indicates diluvial action perhaps, though not of the most violent
kind, during the deposition of this formation.

Theory concerning the Force by lohich Systems of Strata were
elevated at successive epochs.

Although existing volcanoes often occur at intervals along ex-
tensive ridges of mountains, yet there is no evidence that such
ridges have been elevated by these volcanoes. Indeed, it is dif-
ficult to conceive how a volcanic force can operate except in the
direction of the radii of a circle : so that however numerous the
foci, they could not have produced mountain ridges having a com-
mon direction through several degrees of the earth's surface. Vol-
canic power then, in the common acceptation of the term, could
not have produced the systems of elevation that have been exam-
ined.

If the theory of internal heat be admitted, however, we are fur-
nished with a power adequate to the production of these sys-
tems, as ingeniously suggested by Beaumont. The outer crust of
the earth, according to the doctrines of central heat, has nearly
reached the limit of refrigeration : at least, it must cool much
slower now than the internal parts, if they are intensely heated :
and consequently, the internal parts must shrink more than
the exterior. Hence the envelope must from time to time become
too large to embrace the internal diminished parts, without suffer-
ing a degree of plication. That is, in some places the crust will
sink down, and in other places be thrown up into correspondent
ridges. Mere gravity, would produce this effect, unless the crust
had become extremely rigid. And a little reflection will satisfy
any one, that these ridges and valleys will correspond in direction
with the semi-circumference of the globe ; that is, with a great

0-2-2 Scientific Geology.

circle upon it : And such is the direction which Beaumont sup-
poses every known system of strata has taken.

According to this hypothesis, we see how it is that mountains
should be elevated at different epochs. For they result from the
effort which the crust of the globe is caused to make, from time to
time, to accommodate itself to the continually diminishing size of
the internal nucleus. Whenever a cavity is thus produced un-
derneatli any portion of the crust, its weight will cause its thickest
or least rigid portions to sink down upon the heated and it may be
fluid nucleus, and this will produce a lateral pressure sufficient to
elevate adjoining portions, while the weight of the depressed por-
tion will force tlie fluid matter into the cavities produced by the
elevations ; and it may be, even cause it to be erupted through
the ruptured summits of the ridges ; thus producing unstratified
rocks, along extensive lines, and not from circular craters, as lava
is now erupted from volcanoes. A change of this kind having
been effected, all would remain quiet until the secular refrigera-
tion had produced other cavities ; when a renewal of the same
process would take place. And I think it easy to conceive, that
a long series of such changes might take place without so sensibly
diminishing the magnitude of the globe, that astronomers should
be able to perceive their effects on the earth's rotatory motion
through decades of centuries. For the elevation would nearly
equal the depression.

From this view of the subject, it would appear that gravity has
been the principal force employed to elevate systems of mountains.
This, in consequence of the diminished size of the internal nucleus
• of the globe, would produce a lateral pressure on both sides of that
portion of the crust which was depressed, sufficient to elevate ad-
joining portions ; and to force up melted matter beneath and even
through the ridges ; and thus the ultimate effects would be pre-
cisely like that of an expansive force within the earth; except
that it would operate along extended lines and not in circular foci.

I am aware that many of the views of Beaumont, which I have
attempted briefly to develope, have been, and now are, ably and
warmly opposed by Boue and other geologists no less distinguished.
All, however, agree, I believe, that different formations, and con-
sequently different mountain masses, have been elevated at differ-
ent epochs ; which I regard as the fundamental and most impor-
tant principle concerned. Even if it be proved that distant par-
allel mountain chains were not of synchronous elevation, (which is
the principal point at issue,) it cannot materially affect the value
of Beaumont's researches. He certainly has the merit of bringing
together all that was known on this subject and of deducing from
thence some masterly generalizations, which must be regarded as
forming an interesting epoch in geology.

Concluding: Remarks. 5S3

Conclusion.

In drawing to a conclusion this protracted Report on the geolo-
gy of Massachusetts, it is natural to pause and look back upon
my labor. And I freely acknowledge that its great deficiency and
imperfection are its most striking features. I cannot, indeed, ac-
cuse myself of a want of diligence and effort to accomplish the
objects of my appointment. It is now a little more than three
years since I received my commission ; and during that period, in
addition to the ordinary labors of my profession, I have travelled
4550 miles for geological purposes, and collected for the Govern-
ment and for the three Colleges in the State, nearly 5000 speci-
mens of rocks and minerals: 1550 of which belong to the Gov-
ernment collection. Yet I cannot but perceive great imperfections
and deficiencies in my account of our rocks : and I have become
more and more impressed with the idea, that a much longer period
was indispensable to enable any man to obtain a full and complete
account of the geology and mineralogy of nearly 8000 square
miles of surface, so diversified as Massachusetts. Indeed, had I
not, previous to receiving my commission, travelled nearly as far,
and obtained nearly as much information relative to our geology,
as since that period, my Report could hardly have been tolerable,
if it be so now. As it is, I can regard it only as a commence-
ment of the work of exploring our rocks and minerals. The
field yet remains open for the admission of other and more able
laborers, who, I doubt not, may reap many an abundant harvest.
If my efl:brts shall aid or encourage those who may come after me,
they will not have been made in vain.

I cannot close without expressing to your Excellency, how grat-
ifying it has been to me, to act in this whole business, under the
direction of one whose views have been so liberal in regard to it ;
whose counsels and instructions have been so judicious and en-
couraging ; and whose personal attention and kindness have laid
me under very strong obligations.

Nor can I omit to mention the universal disposition which I
have found manifested by all classes of the citizens of the Com-
monwealth, and in every part of it, to do all in their power to
forward the objects of my commission. This is among the cir-
cumstances that gave so much interest to all my geological tours,
and renders the retrospect of them among the most delightful
recollections of my life. These excursions, I am happy to confess,
have greatly exalted my opinion of the kindness, intelligence, and
happy condition of our population, and sensibly increased my at-
tachment to my native State.

Finally, and above all, I would not close without acknowledg-

524 Scientific Geology.

ing my supreme obligations to Him, whose providential care and
kindness have followed me in all my wanderings, not permitting
even a hair of my head to be injured ; and who has enabled me to
bring at length to a conclusion, one of the most laborious enter-
prises of my days. To Him I desire to consecrate the fruits of
this labor and of all the subsequent labors of life. And should
they prove even slightly instrumental in promoting human knowl-
edge and happiness — two grand objects of the Divine Benevo-
lence— I know that they will be accepted.

Respectfully submitted,

Edward Hitchcock.
Amherst College, September 1, 1833,

A CATALOGUE

OP THE

ANIMALS AND PLANTS

IN

MASSACHUSETTS.

PART IV.

To His Excellency Levi Lincoln, Esq.

Governor of Massachusetts.

In executing the part of my commission which directed me to fur-
nish catalogues * of the native mineralogical, botanical and zoologi-
cal productions of the Commonwealth,' I have been greatly de-
pendant upon the assistance of several gentlemen distinguished for
their acquaintance with particular branches of natural history.
Their names will be found prefixed to the catalogues which they
have furnished. And I take this opportunity to testify to the
prompt and liberal manner in which they have executed this dif-
ficult task. I ought also to remark, that the catalogues which fol-
low, being for the most part the first that have been attempted in
this quarter of the country, cannot be supposed perfect or com-
plete. They are sufficiently so, however, to furnish a great
amount of new and valuable information respecting the organized
beings found within the limits of the State.

In respect to the minerals of the State, I have found it more
convenient to give an account of them in describing the several
rocks in which they occur, and also in the Tabular View of the
rocks appended to the Atlas ; and I judge it wholly unnecessary to
repeat the list in this place.

Respectfully Subiiiiited,

EitwAiM) Hitchcock.
Amherst College, October 1. lS:i3.

65

ANIMALS IN MASSACHUSETTS

I.— MAMMALIA

OR ANIMALS WHICH SUCKLE THEIR YOUNG.

In preparing the following Catalogne of our mammiferous ani-
mals, I have been permitted to make free use of notes kindly fur-
nished by Dr. T. W. Harris ; a gentleman so well known as an ac-
curate zoologist, that the value of this Catalogue would have been
much enhanced, could he have been persuaded to make it entirely
his own.

ORDER L— CARNASSIERS.

Vespertilio.

pruinosus, Say. Hoary Bat.

noveboracensis, Linnaeus. Red or Neu- York Bat. -
Sorex.

brevicaudus, S. Short tail Shren\ ~
Scalops.

Canadensis, Cuvier. Mole. ■
Condylura.

eristata.Desmarest. Star-nose Mole.

macroura, Harlan. Thick-tailed star-nose Mole. -
Ursus.

AmericaniTs, Pallas. Black Bear.*
Procyon.

lotor, L. Raccoon.
Gulo.

luscus, L. Wolverene, t
Mustek (Putorius.)

vulgaris, L. Weasel I

erminea, L. Ermine II

Canadensis, L. risher Weasel. (Dr. Emmons)
^martes, L. Pine Martin.

vison, L. (lutreola, Harlan and Godman.) Mink.
Mephitis.

Americana, Desmarest. Skunk.
Lutra.

_ Canadensis, Sabine. (Brasiliensis, Harlan and Godman.) Land Otter.
Cams.

(Lupus) occidentalis, Richardson. Wolf.

wI'tin^'i"."iH°®^ ^'^'^i,^'^ '^ "1!.°^' *^°"^"''"" on Hoosic mountain, Imt the s!iorMeg?ed variety has
been killed there according to Dr. Emmons.

ton Hoosic mountain rare— Dr. Emmons,
hu'ntens^^^'^^"'^*^™"^^ ^^'"'^ '" "^^ ^"'"^'"'''^e the ermine, from which it i.<; not ttistinguished by

li The ermine in its summer dress, gre.iily resemliles the weasel.

Mammalia. 52T

Cams.

(V«lpes)lulvus, D. Red-Pox.

Virgii.'ianus, Gmelin. (cinereo-argentatU!>, Say and Godman.) Gray-Fox.
Felis.

1 concolor, L. Cougar, Panther, Pauder or Calaniount.

Canadensis, Geoffrey. Jjynx, or Wild-Cat. *

Phoca.

vitulina, L. Common, or hair-Seal.

cristata, L. Hooded Seal.

ORDER II.— RODENTIA.

Castor.

1 fiber, L. Beaver.
Fiber.

zibethecus, L. Musquash. '
Arvicola.

1 Pennsylvanica, Ord. Meadow-Mouse.
Mus.

decumanus, Pallas. Common Brown, or Norway-Rat, Wharf-Rat,
Water-Rat.

rattus, L. Black-Rat.

musculus, L. Mouse.

1 leucopus, Rafinesque. (agrarius, Godman.) Field Mouse.
Gerbillus.

(Meriones) Canadensis, D. Jwmping Mouse. Deer Mouse.
Arctomys.

monax, Gmelin. Woodchuck.
Sciurus.

_ cinereus, L. Cat Squirrel.
lH - Carolinensis, Gmelin. Gray Squirrel.

niger, L. Black Sqtiirrel.
• - Hudsonius, Gmelin. Chickaree or Red Squirrel.

(Tamias)striatus, Klein (Lysteri, Ray, and Richardson) Striped or '

Ground Squirrel.

Pteromys.

volucella, L. Flying Squirrel.
Hystrix.

pilosus, Catesby. (dorsata L.) Porcupine.
Lepus.
"^ Americanus, Gmelin. Rabbit, or Hare. *
~^- Virginianus, Harlan, (variabilis, Godman) Varying Uaie.

— ORDER III.— RUMINANTIA.

Cervus.

Virginianus, Gmelin. Common or Fallow Deer.

ORDER IV — CETACEA.

Delphinus.

Delphis, L. Graytipus or Porp^is. t

(Phocaena) gladiator, Lacepede. Kilter, Sabre-Jlnned Dolphi,n, or Su-ord
Fish.
Balsena.

mysticetus, L. Common Whale.

\ote.—U is doubtful whether the animals, to the names of which this Character (?) is prcfi.xed, do
now exist within the limits of Massachusetts •■ all of them, however, except Mustela martes, Arvicola
Pennsylvanica, and Mus leucopus, undoubtedly once had here a ' local habitation.'

• This animal is almost universally called a Rabbit, though it is, strickly speaking, a Hare, and nev-
er burrows like a Rabbit.

• Not unfrequently but improperly called Porpus. It is the true Dolphin of the ancients but not the
Dolphin ol Seamen, which is the Curphicna purpurea.

i

528 Animals in Massachusetts, j

II.— BIRDS.

BY EBENEZER EMMONS, M. D.

Professor of Natural, History in Williams College.
Explanations and Abbreviations.
II placed before a species denotes that it is a summer and winter resident.
TT marks the rare species.

§ shews that it is a regular visitant, and breeds in this climate,
t shews that it is an occasional visitant.
L. — Linnaeus. Briss. Brisson. Gm. Gmelin.
Lath. — Latham. 111. — Illiger. Cuv. — Cuvier. Vieill. — Vieillot.
Temm. Temminck. Ranz. — Ranzani. Latr. — Latreille.
Wils. — Wilson. Bon. — Bonaparte.

SUB CLASS I.

Hind toe articulated on the same plane with the foretoes, and bearing on the
ground the whole length, formed for grasping.

ORDER I.— ACCIPITRES.

Accipitres. L. Gm. Lath. Cuv. Vieill. Raptatores, 111. Rapaces, Temm.

Latr. Ranz.
Falco.

im fulvus. Ring-tailed Eagle.
+ 1T Washingtonianus, Aud. Winter.
II IT leuco cephalus, L. Bald Eagle.

t haliailus, L. Fish HoAvk. Makes its visits up the Hoosic in the .'spring.

§ sparverius, L. Sparrmo Hawk.

§ colnmbarius, L. Pigeon Hawk.

IT palumbarius, L. Goshawk.

f) velox, Wils. Slate-colored Hawk. Common. Arrives March 20tli.

II lagopus, L. Rough-legged Falcon.
II borealis, Gm. Red-tailed Hawk. Common. Prepares its nest early in

March.
II hiemnlis, Gm. Wils. Winter- Falcon.

t Islandicus,

t peregrinus,

t atricapillus, Wils. ■' ■ •■

+ fuscus, Gm.

t sancti — Johannis, Gm. Winler. ■

luteoides, Nutt.

Harlani 1

cyaneus, Lin.
Strix.

tTf funerea, Gm. Hawk Old. Autumn.

llir Virginiana, Gm. CIreat-horned Owl. Inhabits the mountains.
§ otus, L. Long-eared Owl.

4 brachyotus, Gm. Short-eared Otvl. Common.

ITII Acadica, Gm. lAUlc Owl.
t nyctea, Lin. Snmmj Owl.

II asio, L. Little Screech Owl.

tlT cinerea, Gm. Great Gray Owl.
II nebulosa. Barred Owl.

II tlammea, Lin. Ba,rn Owl.

ORDER II.— PASSERES.

TRIBE I SCANSORES.

Family Amphiboli.
Coccyzus, Vieill Temm. Ranz. Cuv.
Cuculus, L. Briss. Gm. Lath. 111.
§ Americanus, Bon. Yellow-billed Cuckoo.

Birds. 5-29

Cuculus.

^ erythrophtlialmus. Black-billed Cuckoo.

Faviily Sagittilingues,

Picus, L. Briss. Gm. Lath. &c.

fj auratus.L. Goldcn-ioingcd Woodpecker. Common.— Arrives about April

10. and migrates south in Oct.
II pileatus, L. Plleated Woodpecker.

§ erythrocephalus, L. Red-headed Woodpecker.

t Carolinus, L. Red-bellied Woodpecker * Common near Rochester N. Y.

§ varius. L. Yelloio-bellied Woodpecker.

II villosus, L. Hairy Woodpecker.

II pubescens, L. Downy Woodpecker.

TRIBE II. AMBULATOIIES.

Faviily AnguUrostcs, 111.

Alcedo, L. Gm. Lath.

() alcyon, L. Belled King Fisher.

Faviily Gregarii.

Sturnus, L. Briss. Gm.

§ Ludovicianus, L. Meadow Lark. Arrives abut March 13th.

Icterus, Briss. Temm. Ranz.
§ Baltimore, Dand. Baltimore Oriole.

§ spurius, Bon. Orchard Oriole.

§ Phoeniceus, Dand. Red Winged Starling. March 20lli.

§ pecoris, L. Cow Banting.

§ agripennis, Bon. Rice Banting.

Quiscalus, Vieill.

§ versicolor, Vieill. Purple Grakle.

ferrugineus, Bon. Rusty Grakle.
t baritus, Bon. Black Oriole. ^

Corvus. L. Gm. Lath. Cuv.
II corone, L. Cro2i\

Coras'? Raven.
II cristatus, L. Blue Jay.

Family Sericati.
Bombyeilla, Briss. 111.
§ Carolinensis, Briss. Cedar Bird.

Family Chclidoncs.
Caprimulgus, L. Briss. Gm. Lath.
§ vociferus, Wils. Whip-poor-will.

§ Virginianus, Briss. Night-Hawk. Arrives March 20th.

Cypselus, Temm.

§ pelasgius, Temm. Chirmicy SvmUow.

Hirundo, L. Briss. Gm. Lath.
§ purpurea, L. Purple Martin.

% rufa, Gm. Barn Sioallow. Arrives April 20th.

§ fulva, Vieill. Rocky Mountain Swallow. Common.

§ riparia, L. Ba7ik Swalloto.

bicolor, Vieill.

Family Canori, 111.
Muscicapa, Briss. 111. L. Gm.

§ tyrannus, Briss. Tyrant Flrj-Catchcr. Arrives between 1st and 12lh May.

§ crinila, L. Great crested Ply-catcher.

§ fusca, Gm. Pewit Fly-adchcr. Arrives March 20th.

§ virens, L. Wood-Pewee Fly-catcher.

§ ruticilla, L. American Fly-calcher. Common.

II Cooperi, Nutt. Olive Sided Fly-catcher.

' Takes the place oi the P. aiudtui in Uie wc&tcrn pan of the State of Mew York.

530 Atumals in Maasachusvtis.

Icteria, Bon.

+ viridis, Bon. Ycllow-brcasted Chat. First of September.

Vireo, Vieill.

§ gilvus, Bon. Warbling Vireo.

§ flavifrons, Yellow-throaied FLij-catcher .

IT noveboracensis, Bon. White-eyed Fly-catcher.

§ olivaceus, Red-eyed Fly-catcher. Common.

Lanius, L. Briss. Gm. Lath.

t septentrionalis, Gm. Butcher Bird. Late in Autumn.

t excubitoroides, Swainson. American Gray Strike. Winter.

Turdus, L. Briss. Gm.

t polyglotto.s, L. Mocking Bird. Very rare in the Spring.

§ felivox, Vieill. Cat Bird. Arrives between May 1st and l'2tli.

§ migratorius, L. Rubin. Arrives March 10th.

§ rufus, L. Ferruginous Thrush..

§ mustelinus, Gm. " Wood-thrush.. Arrives May 1st to l'2th.

§ minor, Gm. Hermit Thrush. Arrives May 1st to 12th.

WiLsonii, Bon. Tawncy Thrush. Do. Do.

+ noveboracensis, Nutt. Autumn.

Sylvia. Lath. Temm. Ranz.
§ ' aurocapilla, Bon. Golden Crowned Thrush. May 1st to 12th.

noveboracensis, Lath. Water Thrush.
t coronata, Lath. Yellow-rump Warbler. Passes north in the Spring,

returns in Sep.

virens, Lath. Black-throated Green Warbler.
ir§ Blackburniae, Lath. Blackburnian Warbler. Mountain.

IT icterocephala. Lath. Chesnut-sidcd Warbler.' Do.

§11 castanea, Wils. Bay-breasted Warbler.

striata, Lath. Black-poll Warbler.
§ir varia. Lath. Black and White Creeper. Mountain.

§ir tigrina, Lath. Bhte Mountain Warbler.
§ cestiva, Lath. Bl'ii£-eyed Yellow Warbler.

§ Americana, Lath. Bhu Yellcnv-back Warbler.

tTT Canadensis, Lath. Black-throated Blue Warbler.

11 agilis. Connecticut Warbler.

t autumnaliSj Autumnal Warbler. Returns from the North ni Oct.

t petechia, Lath. Yellow red-poll Warbler.

§ maculosa, Lath. Spotted Warbler.

t pardalina, Bon. Canada Warbler.

t auricollis'? Orange-throated Warbler.

§ pinus. Lath. Pine Warbler.

§ trichas. Lath. Maryland, Yelloio Throat.

t trochilus, Lath. Yelloio Titmouse.

§ sphagnosa Bon.

solitarial Blm-ivinged Yellow Warbler.
Certhia.

§ familiaris, Lin. Brown Creeper.

Saxicola, Temm. Ranz.

§ sialis, Bon. Blue Bird. Ar. about Mar. 10.

Regulus, Vieill.

§ cristatus, Vieill. Golden crested Wren.

Troglodytes.

§ aedon, Vieill. House Wren.

§ brevirostris, Nutt. Short billed Marsh Wren.

Family Temdroslrcs.
Sitta, L. Briss. Gm. Lath.

§ Carolinensis, Briss. White-breasted Black-capped Nutach.

§ Canadensis, L. Red-bellied N'lUach.

Anthus.

spinolelta, Bon. Brown or Red Lark.
Alauda ■

alpe.'itri:^, Lin. Wik-. Shore La) L

Binh. 531

Family Avthomyni. — Ravz.
Trochilijs, L. Cim. Lath.
(j colubris, L. Hmnmni^ Bird,

Parus, L.
II articapillus, L. Blacl--cappcd Tihnovsc.

F'l mily Passer ini. — ///.
Emberiza, L. Briss. Gm.
t nivalis, L. Snom Bunting. Winter,

t Americana, Wils. Black-throated biinting.

Tanagra, L. Gm. Lath. Cuv.
rubra, L. Scarlet Tanager.
Fringilla, L. Temm. Ranz. Wils.
§ cyanea, Wils. Indigo Bird. Common.

IT S Pennsylvanica, L. White-throated Sparroir.
§ graminea, Gm. Bay Winged Bunting. Common.

(j melodia. Wils. Song Sparrow.

II hiemalis. Snov; Bird. Breeds in ihe mountains : common

in the hedges in Spring and Autumn.
IT passerina, Wils. Yellow Winged Sparrow.

t Canadensis, Lath. Tree Sparrow. Winter.

t socialis, Wils. Chipping Sparrow.

§ pusilla, Wils. Field Sparrow. Common.

^ tristis, L. Yellow Bird, or Goldfinch.

§ pinus, Wils. Finch.

+1T linaria, Lesser red-poll. Winter.
t illiaca, Merrem. Fow-colorcd Sparrow. Winter.

leucophrys, Temon. White-crown Bunting.

ambigua, Nutt. Ambii^nfius^ Sparrow.
§ savanna, Wils. Savanmih Sparroio.

t savannarum, Gm. Savannah Finch.

§ palustris, Wils. Swamp Sparrow.

§ maritima, Wils. Sea-side Finch.

§ juncorum, Nutt. Bush Sparrow.

§ erythrophthalma, L. Towhe Bunting.

IT cardinalis, Bon. Cardinal Grosbeak.

§1T rosea, Bon. Rose-breasted Grosbeak.

enucleator, Wils. Pine Grosbeak.

leucoptera, Gm. Whitc-vringed Cross-bill.
IT purpurea, Gm. Purple Finch.

Loxia. Briss. L. Gm. Lath.

curvirostra, L. American Cross-bill.

Family Columblni.
Columba.

§ migratoria, L. Passenger Pigeon.

IT Carolinensis'? L. Turtle Dove.

SUB CLASS, IL
Hind toe articulated higher on the tarsus than the fore foes; incapal)le of
grasping, or wanting.

ORDER IIL— GALLING.

Family Gallinacci.
Meleagris.

ITII gallopavo, L. Wild Turkey. Now become scarce and nearly extinct.*
Perdix, Bris. Lath. 111.
§ Virginiana, Lath. Quail.

Tetrao, L. Gm. Lath. 111. Cuv.
II umbellus, L. Ruffled Grous. Common.

§ cupido, Lin. Wils. Pinnated Grovs.

' Frequently met witli on Mt. Holyr.ke. E. H.

532 Animals in Massochusetis.

ORDER IV— GRALLiE.
Family P ressiroslres.
Charadrius, L. Gm. Lath. 111.
+ .semipalmatus. Bon. Rhig Plover. A single specimen on the tianks

of the Hoosic.
§ melodus, Ord. Ringed Plover.

§ vociferus, L. KUdeer Plover. Appears about April 10th.

§ pluvialis, L. Golden Plover.

^ helveticiis,

Calidris.

+ arenaria, 111. Sandcrling Plover.

Strepsilas, 111. Temm. Ranz.
§ interpres, 111. 'Pitm-stone.

Haematopus.
lit oslraligus, Lin. Wils. Red Oyster Catcher.

Family Herodii. III.
Grus, Pallas. 111. Cuv. Temm.
ir^ Americana, Temm. Hooping Crane.
IT Canadensis, Brown Crane.

Ardea.

§ herodias, L. Great Heron.

\ alba, L. Great white Heron.

\ nycticorax, L. Night Heron. More common late in the Summer.

coerulea, L. Blive Heron.

minor, Wils. American Bittern.
§ virescens. Green Heron.

IT exilis, Least Bittern.

Recurvirostra.

Americana 1 American Avoset.
Ibis.

falcinellus, Vieill. Glossy Ibis.

Family Limicold.
Numenius. Eriss. Lath. III. Cuv.

§ longirostris, Wils. Lo7ig-billcd Curlcii). Rarclj' on the Hoosic.

t Hudsonicus, Lath. Esquimaux Curlew.

borealis. Lath.
Tringa. L. Lath. Gm.
§ semi-palmata, Wils. Semi-palmated Sandpiper.

alpina, L. Red-backed Sandpiper.

pectoralis, Bon. Pectoral Sandpiper.
§ pusilla, Wils. Little Sandpiper.

§ Schinzii, Bon. Schinzii's Sandpiper.

rufescens, Vieill. Buff-breasted Sandpiper.

minutal Pis'iny Sandpiper.

Wilsjnii, Nutt. Wilson's Sandpiper. __ ._

cinerea, Lin. Wils. Ash-colored Sandpiper.
Himantopus. Briss. 111. Cuv. Temm.

nigricollis, Vieill. Long-legged Avocet.
Totanus. Cuv Temm. Vieill. Ranz.

melanoleucns, Vieill. Tell-tale Godu-it.
IT macularius, Temm.

§ semipalmatus, Temm. Willct.

§ flavipes, Ycllow-sliank Taller.

t chloropygius, Vieill. Greerirrump Taller.

Limosa.

t I'edoa, Vieill. Great Warbler Godwit.

t Hudsonice, Swainson. Hudsonian Godvit.

Scolopax. L. Briss. Gm. Lath.

Wilsonii, Temm. Snipe.
t grisea, Gm. Lnih. Red-breasted Snipe.

^ minor, Gm Bon. Lesser Woodcucl,.

Birds. 533

Rallus, L. Cuv. Vieill.

IT Virginianus, L. Virginia Rail.

t Carolinus, Bon. Rail.

If Noveboracensis, Bon. Yellovj Breasted Rail.

Fulica.

Americana, Gm. Common Coot.
Phalaropus.
TT fulicarius 1 Bon. Red Phalarope.

ORDER V — ANSERES.

Family Longipetmes.

Rhincops, L. Gm. Lath.

§ nigra, L. Black skimmer or Shear-water. Visits the coast

during Summer.
Sterna.

§ hirundo, L. Great Tern.

§ minuta, Lesser Tern.

§ angelica, Montagu. Marsh Tern.

IT Dougalli, Montagu. Roseate Tern.

Larus.

II capistratus, Temm. Brown marked Gull.

§ atricilla, L. Black headed Gidl.

§ canus, L. Common Gull.

^ fuscus, L. Silvery Gidl.

argentatoides, Brehm. Common near N. Y.
t Bonapartii, Swamson and Richardson. Bonapartean Gull.

cataractus. Lath. Skua Gidl.

Family Lemallosodentati. — ///.
Anser.

Canadensis, Vieill.

hyperboreas, Pallas. Snow Goose.

bernicla, Bon. The Brant.
Anas, L. Gm. Briss.
t cl)'peata, L. Shoveller.

t boschas, L. The Mallard.

§ acuta. Pintailed Duck.

Americana. Widgeon.
t sponsa. Wood Duck.

discors. Blue Winged Teal.
t streptera, Lin.

t crecca, Bon. American Teal.

Fuligula, Bon.

perspicillata, Bon. Black or Surf Duck.

vallisneria, Stephens. Canvass-baxk Duck.

clangula, Bon. Golden Eye. Rare on the Hudson.

albeola, Bon. Buffet-headed Duck.
H spectabilis, Bon. King Duck.

Americana, Swain, and Richard. American Scoter Duck.
t nigra, Bon. Scoter Duck.

t marila, Stephens. Scoup Duck or Blue Bill.

T glacialis, Bon. Long-tailed Duck.

Mergus, L.

Merganser. Goosander.

serrator, Lin. Red-breasted Merganser.
Sula.

bassana, Lacep. Gannet.
Podiceps, Temm. Vieill.

T cristatus, Lath. Crested Grebe. Rare on the Hu dson.

t Carolinensis. Lath. Pied-bill Dob-ckick

534 Animals in Mastsachuseits.

Podiceps.

t coinutus'? Lath. Horned Grebe.

jniuor, Lath. Little Grebe.
Colymbus.

§ glacialis, L. Great Northern Diver or Loon,

\ septentrionalis, L. Red-throated Diver.

Uria.

t alle, Temni. Little Auk.

Mormon, 111.
t arcticus, 111. Pvffin.

Al(ca, L, Gm. Briss.

torda, L. Razor-bill.
Phalacrocorax. i

t graculus, Dumont. The Shag.

III.— REPTILIA, OR REPTILES.

BY DAVID S. C. H. SMITH, M. D.
ORDER I.— CHELONTA.— BRONGNIART

Testudo, L.

scabra, Shaw. Common Turtle. - . v>

Pennsylvanica. Box Turtle.
' serpentina. Snapping Turtle.

picta, Schcepf. Painted, Turtle.

punctata, Schcepf. Speckled Turtle.

clausa, > On the authority

insculpta, Leconte. \ of Dr. Emmons.

ORDER III.— OPHIDIA.—BRONG.— SERPENTS

Coluber.

constrictor, L. Black Snake.

ordinatus, L. Striped Snake.

sipedon, L. Water Snake.

saurita, L. Ribbon Snake.

sirtalis, L, Garter Snake.

striatulus, L.

punctatus, L.

eximus, Dekay. House Snake.

vernalis, Dekay. Green Snake.
Crolalus.

durissus, L. Banded Rattle-Snake.

ORDER IV.— BATRACHIA.— BRONG

Rana, L.

pipiens, L. Bull Frog.
clamata, Dand. Bawling Prog.
flavi-viridis, Harlan. Spring Prog.
sylvatica, Le Conte. Wood Frog.
palustris, Le Contp. Leopard Frog
Hyla, Laur.

squirellal Dand. Peeping Frog of !\'ev^ Engtnnd.

versicolor, Le Conte. Common Tree Toad.
Bufo.

musicus.

and out not descrihed.

S?iells. 535

Salamandra, Brong. Sahnatiders or Slows.
subviolacea, Barton.
I'aciata, Green,
erithronota, Raf.
cinerea, Green,
symetrica, Harlan.

tigrina, Green. i On the authority
longicauda, Green. ) of Dr. Emmons,
picta, Harlan.

IV.— FISHES.

-4. Catalogue of the Marine and Fresh-water Fishes of Massachusetts.
BY JEROME V. C. SMITH, M. D.

CLASS I.— CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.

ORDER I.— CYCLOSTOMI.

Petromyzon.

marinus. Sea Lamprey-cel.
fluviatilis. Fresh-water Lamprey-ecl.

ORDER II.— SELACHTI

Scyllium.

canicula. Sea-dog, or Dog Shark.

catulus. Very similar in character and appearance.
Squalus.

canis. Dog, — by some called the Mad Sea Dog.
Carcharias.

vulgaris. WA<7c Shark.

glaucus. Bhie Shark.

vulpes. Fox-Shark, or Thrasher.
Zygsena.

vulgaris. Hammer-Headed Shark.

tiburo. Warty Shark.
Selache.

maximus. Basking Shark.
Torpedo.

vulgaris. Torpedo, or Benumbing Fish.
fiaia.

clavata. Thornback.

batis. Skate.
Trygon.

pastinaca. Sting Ray.

ORDER III.— STURIONES

Accipenser.

St uric. Sturgeon.

CLASS II.— OSSEOUS FISHES.

ORDER IV.— PLECTOGNATHI.

Aluteres.

monoceros. File Fish.
Ostracion.

triqueter. Trunk Fish.

bicaudalis. '

Tetraodon.

tiirsfidu^. .SwcIL Fish.

536 Animals in Massachusetts.

ORDER v.— LOPHOBRANCHII.

Syngnathus.

typhle. Little Pipe Fish.
ORDER VI.— MALACOPTERYGII— ABDOMINALIS.
Family I. — Salmonides.

Salmo.

salar. Salmon.

trutta. Salmon Trout.

fario. Common Trout.

hucho. Hunchen Tront.
Osinerus.

eperlanus. Svicll.

Faviily II. — Clujiea.
Clupea.

harengus. Common Herring.

menhaden. Menhaden. »

alosa. Shad.

vernalis. Aleivife.

minima. Brit.

Family III. — Esoccs.

Esox.

lucius. Pickerel.

belone. Sea Pike.
Exocetus.

mesogaster. Flying Fish.

Family IV. — Cyprinidee.
Cyprinus.

auratus. Golden Carp.

crysolencas. Shiner.

atronasus. Minow.

oblongus. Chub.

teres. Sucker.
Abramis.

chrysoptera. Bream.
Leuciscus.

rutilus. Roach.

vulgaris. Dace. ,

alburnus. Bleak.

cephalus. Short Chub. •

Family V. — Silurida.
Silurus.

Horn Pout.

ORDER VII.— MALACOPTERYGII— SUBRACHl ATI.
Family I. — Gadites.
Gadus.

morrhua. Common Cod.

rupestris. Rock Cod.

arenosus. Shoal Cod.

merluccius. Hake.

taucaud. Tom Cod.

fuscus. Frost-fish.
Brosmus. ^'

vulgaris. Cusk.
Morrhua.

aeglefinus. Haddock.
Merlangus.

vulgaris. Whiting. . .,

pollachius. Pollock. ■

Fishes. 53 /

Blennius.

viviparus. Blenny.
Raniceps.

blenoides. Garter-fish.

Family II- — Plcuroncclts.
Platessa.

vulgaris. Flounder.

Plaise.

Hypoglossus.

vulgaris. Holibut.
Solea. ' '

vulgaris. Sole.
Rhombus.

raaximus. Twrbot.

Family III. — Discoboli,
Cyclopteras. J

lumpus. L/umpfish.

minutus. StuoII Lump Sucker.
Echeneis

remora. Sucking Fish.

naucratus. Indian Remora.

ORDER VIII.— MALACOPTERYGII— APODES. |

Anguilla.

vulgaris. Common Eel.
Conger.

mura^na. Conger Eel.

ORDER IX.— ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Family II. — Goboides. J

Anarchicas. i

lupus. Wolf Fish.

Family III. — Labroides.
Labrus.

lautoga. Tautog.

tautoga fusca.

tautoga alia.

coricus. Bhbe Perch.

squeteague. Squetee.

maculatus. Spotted Squetee.
Crenilabrus.

merula. Blue Back. i

Family IV. — Percoides.
Scorpaena.

porcus. Yellow Sculpin.

scrofa. I

gibbosa. " '

Mugil-

albula. llliite Mullet.
Mullus.

barbatus. Red Mullet.
Perca.

fluviatilis. River Perch. \

labrax. Striped Basse.
Bodianus.

leucos. Silver Perch.

538 Animals m Massachusetts.

Bodicinus-

rufus. Red Perch.

pallid us. White Perch.

flavescens. Yellow Perch.
Perca.
Uranascopus.

scaber.
Trigla.

palmipes. Web-Jingc red Gurnnrd. \
Cottus. ,,

gobio. River Bullhead.

quadricornns. Sea Bull.

scorpius. Sculfin.

cataphractus. Armed Bullhead.
Batrachus.

grunniens. Grunting Bullhead.
Lophius.

piscatorius. Angler.

Family V. — Scombe) aides.
Scomber.

grex. Chuibcd Mackerel.

vernalis. Spring Mackerel.

crysos. Yellow Mackerel.

plumbeus. Horse Mackerel.

maculatus. Spanish Mackerel.

scomber. Common Mackerel.

thynnus. Tunny.
Centronotus.

duclor. Pilot F%sh.
Zeus.

laber. Common Dory.
Chrysotosus.

luna. Moon Fish.
Xiphius.

gladius. Sword Pish.

Family VI. — Squamipennes.
Seserinus.

alepidotus.

Fiiviily Vil. — Fislularidrp.
Fistularia.

labacaria. Tobacco pipe Pish.

v.— TESTACEA OR SHELLS.

List of the Marine Shells of Massachusetts, arranged according to
the System of Lamarck.
BY THOMAS A. GREENE, ESa. OF NEW BEDFORD.

CLASS IX.— ANNELIDES.
ORDER III.— SEDENTARIA.*

Pet'.tinaria.

belgica, Sabclla bclgica L.
' It will be seen iliat no attempt lia.s ber>n made to ^ive in this Report, a catalogue of the two other
oriiers of Anneltdes in M.T.ssichusetts. Bat few oi" these animals have attracted the allenlion of our
naturalists, and thev are for the most part so out of the reach of common ob.servatlon as to excite the
interest of no one hut the zoologist. Dr. Gould has mentioned to me that he has noticed the followin;
species of these animals among us.

Halithea aculeata. Lamk.

Lumbricus lerrcstrls, Lin. Earth Worm.

Hinido— six species. LetcJi.

Gordius aqualicus, L. Hair Wotm.

K- , - EH.

Shells. 539

Terebella,

conchilega, L.
This has been subdivided into several species, two of which have
been seen on our shore.
Spirorbis.

nautiloides. Serp^da Spirorbis, .L. On Sea weed
Serpula.

vermicularis.
contortuplicata.

CLASS X.— CIRRHIPEDA.

ORDER I.— SESSILIA.

Balanus.

tintinnabulum. On the bottoms of Ships.

ovularis. Lepasbalanoides, Wood — on plank, timber, drc.

miser. Very abundant on our rocks.

punctatus, Montague. Lepas punctata, Wood

and Dilivyn — also on our rocks,
fistulosus.

ORDER II.— PEDUNCULATA.

Anatifa.

laevis. Lepas anatifera L. On the bottoms of ships.

vitrea. Lepas vascicularis. Found at Nantucket.
Cineras.

vittatus. Lepas vittata.. On the bottoms of Ships

CLASS XL— CONCHIFERA.

ORDER L— BIMUSCULOSA.

Teredo.

navalis. On the bottoms of Ships.
Pholas.

crispata.
Solen.

ensis.

viridis. Not common in the N. England States.
Solecurtus.

Caribseus. Rare, found at New Bedford.

costatus, Say. Common at Nahant Beach.

fragilis. centralis, Say. Found at New Bedford.
iMya.

mercenaria, Say. Common Clam.

Anatina.

convexa, Turton. Thracia of Blainville.
Leana, Conx?i<S..pra:tenuis 7 Turton. At Nantucket,
Mactra.

solida.

gigantea, Lam. SolidissivM Dithnyn.

subtruncata.

lateralis, Say.

subtriangulata. arctata, Conrad. Figured in the supplement ta

Wood's ' Index Testaceologicus.'

540 Animals in Massachusetts.

Mactra.

tellinoides, Conrad.

Solemya.

velum, Say. Not uncommon at N. Bedford.

Amphidesma.

corbuloides. Mya Norwegica, Wood and Dillwyn.
M. hyalina, Conrad.

Corbula.

ferruginosa. Mi/aferruginosa, Wood. Not described by La-
marck.

Pandora.

trilineata, Say. Found in Nantucket Harbor.

Petricola.

pholadiformis, L,a.m.for7iicata, Saij. Very common.

Sanguinolaria.

fusca, Conrad. At Nantucket.
Tellina.

poliia, Say. Found at N. Bedford.

Lucina.

divaricata. A single valve found at Chatham. Astartc ca$tanea. Say.

Ocean shore at Nantucket.
Astarte — a distinct species, with margins entire.
Cyprina.

Islandica. Venus Islandica, L. Common in Essex

[County.

Venus.

mercenaria. Common Qiuihog or Round Clam.

prasparca, Say.

notata, Say.
Cardium.

Mortoni, Conrad. Very common at New Bedford.

pinnulatum, Conrad.
Cardita.

This species appears to be undescribed.
Area.

ponderosa, Say. > These were found at Smith's

pexata, Say. J point, on the ocean shore of Nantucket.

transversa, Say.Not imcommon in Buzzard's Bay.
Nucula.

margaritacea. Nucula proxima, Say. Area nucleus L.

rostrata, Montague. lima.tula, Say. '

ORDER II.— UNIMUSCULOSA.

Modiola.

papuana. Mytilus modiolus,, L.
Mytilus.

edulis.

ungulatus.

pellucidus.

incur vatus.

demissus. Very abundant at New Bedford.

Shells. 541

Pecten.

Magellanicus. Rare in Ms. Common at Eastporl Me.

Islandicus. Pealeii, Cojirad, Rare.

concentricus, Say. Common Scallop.
Ostrea.

Virginica. Common Oyster.
Anomia.

ephippium.Abimdant in N.Bedford.

undulata. Is it a distinct species from the preceding!

CLASS XII.— MOLLUSCA.

ORDER IL— GASTEROPODA.

Chiton.

Found at Nantucket. Not described to my knowledge.

Patella.

alveus, Conrad.

araoena, Say.
Crepidula.

fornicata, Say. Very common on our coast.

glauca, Say.

plana, Say. Found in Nantucket Harbor.

ORDER III.— TRACHELIPODA

Velutina.

rupicola, Conrad.
Bulla.

solitaria, Say. Is it a variety of B. hydatis '! Found at

Holme's Hole.

Natica.

duplicata, Say.

heros, Say.

triseriata, Say. Nerita intricafa of Wood's Supplement.
Melampus.

videntatus, Say. Common in salt marshes. At New Bedford.
Lacuna.

pertusa, Conrad.

Turbo.

obligatus, Say.
irroratus, Say.
palliatus, Say.

Turritella.

bisuturalis, Say.
alternata, Say.

Fusus

ls\3indicus. Murex cortieus, Wood and Dilliryn. Fusus

conieus, Say.
cinereus, Say.

67

542 Animals in Massachusetts.

Fusus.

decemcostatus, Say. Murex carinatus, Pennant.

Ranella.

caudata. At Nantucket.

Pyrula,

canaliculata. Murcz canaliculala.
carica.

Nassa.

obsoleta, Say. Buccinum noveboracense. Woods Supplement.
trivittata, Say,
lonata, Say.

Purpura.

lapillus. Buccinum lapillus, L.
imbricata, Lam.

Buccinum.

undatum, L.

Columbeila.

terpsichore. Buccimim terpsichore, Wood's Supplement.

ORDER VI.— CEPHALOPODA.

Splrula.

Peronii. Nautilus spirula, L. Found on the ocean shore of Nantucket-

List of Land and Fresh Water Shells in Massachusetts, so far as
they have been ascertained.

BY MR. JOHN MIIiTON EARLE, OF WORCESTER.

I.— BIVALVES.

Unio.

complanatus, Lam. purpurcus, Say.
nasutus, Say. Ponds in Essex and Plymouth Counties,
ochraceus, Say. Ponds in Plymouth County,
radiatus, Say. Do. and Essex Counties.

Alasmodonta.

margaritifera, L. arcuata, Barnes.

marginata, Say. Blackstone River.

unduiata, Say. Do. and streams in Plym. Count}'.

Anadonta.

cataracta, Say. Common Green Muscle,
marginata, Say. Blackstone and French Rivers,
lugubris, Say. " Ponds in Essex County.

Cyclas.

siniilis, Say.

Shells. 543

Cyclas.

dubia,* Say.

And two species not described.

II.— UNIVALVES.

Paludina.

decisa, Say.
limosal Say.
Planorbis.

trivolvis, Say.
bicarinatus, Say.
armigerus, Say.
campanulatus.
parvus, Say.

Lymnsea.

catascopium, Say.
heterostropha, Say.
columella, Say.
And one species not ascertained.
Valvata.

arenifera 1 Lea.

LAND SHELLS.

Helix.

albolabris. Common, Wood Snail.
arboreus. Say.
tridentata. Say.
alternata, Say.
glaphyra, Say.
thyroidus, Say.
minuta. Say.
hirsuta, Say.
labyrinthica. Say,
perspectiva, Say.

Iraterna, Say. and two oilier species.
AMPHIBIOUS.

Succinea

ovalis. Say.

campestrisi Say.

and one species not ascertained.
Pupa.

corticaria? Say.
Caracolla.

one species not ascertained.

• This does not asree exactly with my specimens of the rtubia found in Pennsylvania, but I think
it not Eufficientlydistinct to be separated from that species.

In the first edition of this Report, there followed in this place a List of shells
observed on and 'near the coast of New England, by Col. Joseph G. Totten, contain-
ing about 125 species. But the Boston Society of Natural History have recently
prepared with much care a catalogue of all the shells ascertained to exist within
the limits of Massachusetts up to the present time (Oct. 1834,) and embracing
nearly all the species in Col. Totten's Catalogue. I could not doubt, therefore.

544 Animals in Massachusetts.

but the intention of the Government would be more perfectly answered
by substituting the list prepared by the Society for that of Col. Totten,
since both could not be inserted. I do not mean thereby to intimate the
inferiority of his Catalogue ; but merely that it is not so well adapted to the partic-
ular object of the Government because it is not limited to Massachusetts. The
new species ascertained by the Society might have been added to Mr. Greene's
Catalogue, had there been time after their receipt to have consulted that gentleman
and the Society as to certain supposed synonymes, concerning which I did not feel
competent to decide. Amos Binney Esq. chairman of the Society's Committee,
who forwarded the following list, observes that ' it is far from being complete,
particularly in those species destitute of shells, many of which exist in our wa-
ters undescribed, or if described, not known to us.' He observes also, that ' in
sending this list we do not intend to be understood as guaranteeing the correctness
of the species, but simply that the species so named by the authors whose names
are attached, are found in the waters of our State.'

A CATALOGUE OF SPECIES,

Beginning with the third Order of Lamarck's Class Amielidcs, and
continuing through the \Qth, Wth, and 12th Classes. '

CLASS IX.— ANNELIDES. LAM.

ORDER III.— SEDENTARIA.

Pectinaria.

Belgica, Lam.
Terebella.

conchilega, Lam.
Spirorbis.

nautiloides, Lam.
Serpula.

vermictilaris, Lin.

contortuplicata, Lin.

echinata, Gmel.

CLASS X.— CIRRHIPEDA. J.AM.
ORDER I.— SESSILIA.

Balanus.

tintinabulum,Lam. (

punctatus, Brug.

raiser, Lam.

ovularis, Lam.

iistulosus, Brug.

geniculatuSj'Conrad.

one or more other species.

ORDER II.— PEDUNCULATA.

Anatifa.

lEevis, Lam.

vitrea. Lam.

dentata, Brug.

sulcata, Montague.
Cineras.

vittata, Leach.
Otion.

Cuvieri, Leach.
Teredo.

navalis, Lin.
Pholas.

crispata, Lin.

Shells. 545

CLASS XI.— CONCHIFERA. LAM.

ORDER I.— BLMUSCULO SA ,
Solen.

ensis, Liu.
viridis, Say.
Solecurtus.

Caribaeus, Blain.
inaximus,
costalus, Say.
fragilis, Pulteney.
Glycimeris.

siliqua, Lam.
Mya.

mercenaria, Lin.
Anatina.

Leana, Conrad,
convexa,
Mactra.

gigantea. Lam.
lateralis, Say.
arctata, Conrad,
tellinoide.s, Conrad.
Solemya.

velum. Say.
borealis, Totten.
Amphidesma.

corbuloides, Lam.
Corbula.

ferruginosa. Wood,
contracta, Say.
Pandora.

trilineata, Say.
Saxicava.

distorta, Say.
Petricola.

pholadiformis, Lam.
dactylus. Say.
Sanguinolaria.

fusca, Conrad.
Tellina.

polita, Say.
Lucina.

divaricata. Lam.
Astarte.

castanea, Say.
Cyclas..

similis. Say.
dubia, Say.
Cyprina.

Islandica, Lam.
Cytherea.

convexa, Say.
Venus.

mercenaria, Lm.
praeparca. Say.
Venus.

not at a, Say.
gemma, Totten,

546 Animals in Massaehuactts.

Cardium-

Mortoni, Conrad.

pinnulatum, Con.
Cardita.

borealis, Conrad.
Area.

ponderosa. Sa}-.

pexata, Say.

transversa, Say.
Nucula.

margaritacea, Lam.

roslrata, Montague.
Unio.

complanatus, Solaud.

nasutus, Say.

ochraceus, Say.

radialus, Lea.
Alasmodonta.

arcnata, Barnes.

marginata. Say.

undulata, Say.
Anodonta. ■ -

cataracta, Say.

marginata, Say.

lugubris. Say.

ORDER 11— UNIMUSCULOSA.

Modiola.

papuana, Lam.

plicatula, Lam.

glandula, Totten.
My til us.

edulis, Lin.

ungulatus, Humboldt.

incurvatus, Maton.

pellucidus,
Pecten.

Magellanicus, Lam.

Islandicus, Lam.

concentricus, Say.
Ostrea.

Canadensis, Lam.

Virginica, Lam.

edulis, Lin. Var.
Anomia.

ephippium, Lin.
Terebratula.

an undescribed recent species.

CLASS XII.— MOLLUSCA.
ORDER II.— GASTEROPODA.

Chiton.

one species.
Patella.

alveus, Conrad.

amoena, Say.
Crepidula.

fornicata. Say.

glauca, Say.

Shells. 547

Crepidula.

plana, Say.

convexa, Soy.
Ancylus.

rivularis, Say.
Velutina

rupicola, Conrad.
Bulla.

sulitaria, Say.
Limax.

one or more species.
Testacella.

one or more species.

ORDER III.— TRACHELIPODA.

Helix.

albolabris, Say.
thyroidus, Say.
alternata, Say.
perspectiva, Say.
glaphyra, Say.
arborea, Say.
tridentata, Say.
hirsuta, Say.
fraterna, Say.
labyrinthica, Sa)^
minuta, Say.

subglobosa,(manusciipt.)
Pupa.

fallax, Say.
corticaria, Say.
Succinea.

ovalis, Say.
campestfis, Say.
Auricula.

myosotis, Drap.
Planorbis.

trivolvis, Say.
bicarinatus, Say.
armigerus, Say.
campanulatus, Say.
parvus, Say.

two or more other species.
Physa.

heterostropha. Say.
Lymnoea.

catascopium. Say.
columella, .say.
ovata, Lam.

two or more other species.
Valvata.

arenifera, Lea.
Paludina.

decisa, Say.
limosa. Say.
Japidaria, Say.
one other species.
Natica.

duplicata. Say.
heros, Say.
iriseriata,' Say.

548 Animah in Massachusetts.

Melampus.

bidentalis, Say.
Vermetus.

lumbricalis, Lam.
Lacuna.

pertusa, Conrad.

fiisca, (manuscript.)
Turbo.

obligatus, Say.

palliatus, Say.

vestita, Say.

irroratus, Say.

in flatus, Totten,

minutus, Totten.
Turritella.

alternata, Say.

bisuturalis, Say.
Fusus.

corneus, Say.

cinereus, Say.

decemcostatus, Say.
Pyrula.

caniculata, Lam.

carica, Lam.
Ranella.

caudata, Say.
Purpura.

lapillus, Lam.

imbricata, Lam.
Buccinum.

undatum, Lin.
Nassa.

obsoleta, Say.

trivittata, Say.

lunata, Say.

vibex, Say.
Columbella.

avara, Say.

ORDER IV.— CEPHALOPODA.
Spirula.

Peronii, Lam.
Loligo.

illecebrosa, Lesueur.

pavo, Lesueur.

one or more other species.

VI.— CRUSTACEA.

BY AUGUSTUS A. GOULD, M. D. OF BOSTON.

ORDER I.— DECAPODA.

Faviily I. — Brachyura.

Portunus.

pictus, Say. P. lividus, Leach. Cancer dcpiirator, Oliv. Sand Crab.
Lupa.

hastata, Fab. Edible Crab.

Cniatarea 549

Cancer.

^ranulaiiis, S. C. JMrnns, h.

irroratus, S.

undecimdentatus '! F.

Panope, S.
Ocypode.

pugilator, S. Fiddler Crah.
Pinnotheres.

ostreum, S. In Oysters.
Pilumnus.

one species. Marshes, Cambridge.
Grapsus.

pelagicus, S. On sea weed, Gulf stream.
Libinia.

canalictilata, S. Spider Crab.

Fa m ill/ II. — Ma c rou ra .
Astacus.

marinus, F. Common Loh-^ter.

Bartonii, Bosc. Craw-Fish. Fresh Water Lobster.

Crangon.

septemspinosus, S. Shrimp.
Palaemon.

vulgaris, S. Pravn or Shrimp.
Pag-urus.

Benihardns, Lin. in Buccinum undatiimandNatica. )
poUicaris, S. in Naticaand Pyrnla &c. \ Herimt Crabs.

longicarpiis, S. in Nassa, Columbella, &c. )

Hippa.

emerita ? F. talpoida? S. Sand Bug.

ORDER II.— STOMA PO DA.

Squilla.

empusa, S.

ORDER III.— AMPHIPODA. •

Gammarus.

fasciatus, S. G. Marinus? Leach.} „ . „»

minus, S! \ ^""'^ ^^'"'■

Talitrus;

longicornis, S. ) „ i r.> .

gryTlus,Bosc. \^^^'^^F^^^^-

ORDER IV.— LiEMODIPODA.

Cyamus.

ceti, L. Whale Louse.

ORDER v.— ISOPODA.

Cymothoa.

ovalis, S. ^ga ema.rginata. Leach.

impressa, S. ^'Ega bicarinata, Li'ach.
Idotaea.

caeca, S.

tricuspidata 1 Leach :

and one other.
Stenosoma.

irrorata, S.
Asellus.

communis, S.

and one more.
Ligia.

ocean ica. Desm. Onisctts oceaidciis^ L.

68

550 Animals in Massachusetts.

Oniscus.

asellus, L. O. affinis, S. Wood Louse.
Armadillo.

vulgaris, Latr. A.pihdaris, S.

ORDER VI.— BRANCHIOPODA.

Branchipus.

one or more species.

ORDER VII.— PCECILOPODA.

Limulus.

polyphemus, L. Horse-shoe. Kmg-crab.

The preceding Catalogue of the Crustacea differs materially from that in the
first edition. Besides being somewhat enlarged, more extended observations and
investigations have enabled us to make several corrections, and to offer, with
more confidence of its accuracy, the whole list. It still remains far from com-
plete, especially as regards the smaller individuals. We have been obliged to rely
chiefly on Mr. Say's papers in the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences
for descriptions; and although we have adopted his names, we are not satisfied
that he has always referred his species to the right genera, whether of Leach
or Desmarest, the two greatest authorities in Crustacealogy. The objects we
have examined difler in general from his descriptions by being of a much larger
size. We have also added synonyms in a few instances, believing that
those Crustacea, described by Mr. Say as new, are either identical with, or very
closely allied to European species already described.

All the species enumerated are in the Cabinet of the Boston Society of Natural
History.

VII.— ARANEIDES. Latr.

THE SPIDERS.
BY PROFESSOR N. M HENTZ.
The following catalogue embraces a wider, field than Massachusetts.
The species, indeed, have been obtained from various parts of the United States.
This arose from a misapprehension on the part of Professor Hentz of the precise
object I had in view. Yet I did not think it important enough to request him to
alter the list. The interesting notes which accompanied this catalogue, being too
extended for this place, were forwarded to the editor of the American Journal of
Science, and published in the 21st volume of that work. The whole paper forms,
indeed, a valuable monagraph of the Spiders of the United States.

Oletera.

Carolinensis.

nigra.
Filistata?

hibernalis.
Dysdera.

teterriraa.
Scgestria?

pumila.
Merpyllus.

ecclesiasticus.

ater.

cruciger.

ornatus.

bilineatus.

bicolor.

descriptus.

variegatus.

Spidi

551

Clubiona.

tranquilla.

gracilis.

pallens.

celer.

obesa.

inclusa.
Tegeneria.

punctata.

medicinalis, Hentz. (Jonrn.
Acad. Nat. Sciences. II, 53.)
Agelena.

nsevia '? Bosc.

plumbea.
Theridium.

verecundura.

lineatum.
Theridium.

vulgare.

boreale.

and another species.
Pholcus.

Atlanticus.
Lyniphia.

communis.

pumila.

autumnalis.

coccinea.

and one doubtful species.
Tetragnatha.

laboriosa.

ferox.
Epeira, L.

riparia.

Latreillana.

obesa.

Pennsylvanica.

vulgaris.

trefoil um.

infumata.

septima.

prompta.

hortorum.

pratensis.

cancer.

caudata.

militaris 1

verrucosa.

alba.

rugosa

spinea.

labyrinthea.

and seven species not named.
Mimetus.

syllepsicus.
Thomisus.

fartus.
piger.

celer.

vulgaris.

parvulus.

Carolinensis.

ferox.

and another species,

^^'^ Animals in Massachusetts.

Sphasus.

nitidans.

salticus.

scalaris.
Dolomedes.

tenebrosus.

tenax.

f^expunctatus.

lanceolatus.

and twomjie specie.^.
Lycosa.*

taraniula Carolinensii 1
Lyco&a.

lenta.

parva.

ocreata.

littoralis.

punctulata.

fatifera.

raarifima.

and three other species.
Attus.

I'amiliaris.

supercilio^^^s.

insolens.

rarus.

viridis.

parvus.

niger.

castaneus.

coccineu.s.

elegans.

.«;expunctatus.

tripanctatus.

niilitaris.

vittatus.
grandi.s.
cyaneus.

audax.

rufus.

Nuttallii.

sylvan us.

auratus.

and eight more spet-'ie>.

Epiblemum.

faustum.

palmarum.
Synemosyiia.

formica.

and two more species.
The number of 125 species will appear very large, but I could have swelled
the list to 150. Spiders ditier from true insects, or at least winged insects, in their
groicing. They come out from their eggs very minute, and continue to increase
in size, probably for several years in many species ; whereas, with few exceptions,
insects come out of their pupa state, at once, with the size, which is peculiar to
rhera. The Ar.weides, in their different ages, present differences of color and
marking. The sc«5o?is also produce a change in the colors of some spiders;
and, I am nearly convinced that the first frosts produce a total change in the
dress of several described EpeirjE, which may be refered to one name. These are
the considerations which have induced me to be very cautious in adopting new
species, and comparing many specimens in different seasons, when possible, be.
fore I described them.

' The famous Tarantula of the Suith of Europe, the bite of which, for many years, was supposed to
produce a disease that music alone could cure, belongs to this genus : and I found on Round Hill (Mass)
a species {Lycosa fatifera, of my catalogue) which is probably very closely related to the European
species, and which dwells in holes, nearly a foot deep.

Insects 553

VIII.— INSECTS.

BY THADDEUS WILLIAM HARRIS, M. D.

I.— COLEOPTERA.

CICINDELIAD^.

Cicindela.

generosa, Dejean.

vulgaris, Say.

patruela, D.

purpurea, Olivier, marginalis, Fabricius.

sexguttata, F.

riigifroiis, D. C. unicolor, D. is merely a variety.

marginata, F. variegata, D.

dorsalis, S.

hirticoUis, S. albohirta, D.

repanda, D. hirticoUis, var. S.

duodeciinguttata, D. hirticoUis, var. S.

hsemorrhoidalis, Hentz.

punctulata, O.

CARABID.t.

Casnonia, Latreille.

Peiinsylvanica, L.
Galerita, F.

Americana, L,
Brachinus, Weber.

libratorl D.

I'umans, L.

Ibrmosus.

perplexus ? D.

cordicoUis, D.

cyanipennis, S.

medius, Harris.

minutus, H.
flelluo, Bonelli.

prasustus, D.
Plochionus, 1).

Bonfilsiil D.
Cymindis, Latr.

piiosus, S.

platicollis, S.

comma.

glabratiis.

biplagiatus.
Dromius ? Bon.

subsulcalus 1 D.
Calleida, D-

smaragdina, D.
Labia, Latr.

grandis, Hentz.

tricolor, S.

borea, Hentz.

atriventris, S.

pulcheUa, D.

vittata, F.

.solea, Hentz.

ornata, S.

decora, S.

viridis, S.
Scarites, F.

subterraneus, F.

554 Animals in Massachusetts.

Clivina, Latr.

lineolata. S.

globulosa, S.
Cychrus, F.

viduus, D.
Cychrus (Sphseroderus, D.)

stenostomus, Weber.
Cychrus (Scaphinotus, D.)

elevatus, F.
Carabus, L.

vinctus, Weber, interruptus, S.

sylvosus, S.

limbatus, S.

serratus, S.
Calosoma, Weber.

scrutator, F.

calidum, F.

obsoletum, S..
Nebria, Latr.

pallipes, S.
Omophron, Latr.

labiatum, F.
Elaphrus, F.

fuliginosus, S.

ruscarius, S. formerly riparuis, S.
Nothiophilus, Dumeril.

semistriatus, S.

porrectus, S.
Oodes, Bon.

Americanus, D.

amaroides, D.
Chlaenius, Bon.

prasinus, D.

rufipes, D.

sericeus, Forster.

tomentosus, S.

nemoralis, S.

pubescetis, H.

lithophilus, S.

distans. niger.

purpuricoUis.

emarginatus, S.
Rembus, Latr.

impressicoUis ? D.
Dicaelus, Bon.

dilatatus, S.

elongatus, Bon. furvus, D.

politus, D. Leonardii, H.
Panagaeus, Latr.

fasciatus, S.
Patrobus, Megerle.

longicornis, S. Americanus, D.
Calathus, Bon-

gregarius, S. piceus, H.
Pristodactyla, D.

Americana, D.
Platynus, Bon.

pusillus.

Insects. 55o

Anchomenus, Bon.

extensicoUis, S.

decorus, S.

placidiis. elongatus.

maculifrons, S.
Agonum. Bon.

octopnctatum, F.

cupripenne, S.

morosum, D.

scutellare, S.

nitidulum 1 D. quadrinotatum.

melanarium, D. collare 1 S.

lenum, D.

obsoletum, S. luctuosum, D.

bimarginatum.

foveolatum.
Feronia, Latr. (Pcecilus, Bon.)

chalcites, S.

lucublanda, S.

fraterna 1 S.
Feronia, (Argutor, Megerle.)

erythropus, D.

diligens. nitidas.
Feronia (Omaseus, Ziegler.)

stygica, S. bisigillata, H.

subpunctata, H. corvina, D.

polita, H. morosa 1 D. muta 1 S.

caudicalis, S.

hamata, H. luctuosa? D.
Feronia (Pterostichus, Bon.)

adoxa, S.

humida, S.
Myas, Ziegler.

cyanescens, D. coracinus? S.
Amara, Bon. (Leirus, Megerle.)

exarata, D.

confinis, D.
Amara (proper.)

obesa, S.

impunctata, S.

impuncticollis, S.

angustatal S.

basillaris ? S.

planicosta.

pusilla.

undulata.
Daptus, Fischer.

incrassatus, D.
Agonoderus, D.

lineola, F.

pallipes, F.
Harpalus, Latr. (Pangus, Ziegler.)

caliginosus, F.
Harpalus (Anisodactylus, D.)

agricolus, S.

discoideus, D.

Baltimoriensis, S.

rusticus, S.

merula, D.
Harpalus (Ophonus, Ziegler)

sericeus, H. lemoratus, D.

556 Anhnah in Mnssnrlnisftts.

ITarpaliis (proper )

erraticus, S.

viridis, S.

bicolor. F.

faunus, S.

herbivagus, S.

spadiceus, D.

vulpeciilus, S. nigripennis, D.

lerniinatus, S.

merula.

pallidas.

interslitialis, S. ohscuripennis, D.

hylacis, S.
Stenolophus, Megerle.

ochropezus, S.

fuliginosus, D.
Aciipalpus, Latr.

cinctus, S. elongatulus, D.

parliarius, S. pauperculus ? D.

conjunctus, S. mi^ellus, D.
Bembidium, Latr.

telracoluni, S.

oppositum, S.

contractum, S.

cognatura, D.

variegatum, S.

flavicaudum, S.

delum.

inornatum, S.

DYTICID,K.

Dyticus, Geoffrey.

verticalis, S.

Carolinus.

fasciventris, S.
Dyticus (Acilius, Leach.)

fraternus, H.

medial lis, S.

basillaris, H. •
Dyticus (Hydaticus, Leach.)

fasciaticollis, H.

liberas S.

apicialis.
("olymbetes, Clairville.

sculptilis, H.

fimbriolatus.

binotatus, H.

.suturellus, H.

fenestrali.s, S.

bicarinatus, S.

erytropterus, S. discolor. H.

seriatus, S.

obtusatus? S.

taeniolatus, H.

venustus, S.

acuductus, H.
Laccophihis, Leach.

maculosus, S.
H\M]roporus, Clairville.

niger, S.

ratasoopium. S.

In$ects. 551

Hydroporus, Clairville.

fasciatus, H. oppositus 1 S.

rectus.

affinis, S.
Hyphydrus, Latr.

punctatus, H.

notatus.
Haliplus, Latr.

duodecimpunctatus, S:

immaculaticollis, H.

GYRlNlADiT;.

Gyrinus, L.

emarginatus, S.
Americanus, L.
labratus.
limbatus, S.
analis, S.
arctus.

STAPHYLlNlADiE.

Oxyporus, F.

emarginatus.

femoralis, Gravenhorst.
Staphylinus, L.

villosus, G.

immaculatus.

maculosus, G.

cingulatus, G.

fossator, G.

praBlongus. ater 1 G.

cinnamopterus, G.

cyanipennis, P.

nigripes.

pallipennis.

violaceus, G.

anthrax, G.

bratilis.

interpunctatus.

tepidus.
Xantholinus, Dahl.

cephalus, S.
Lathrobium, G,

cinctum ? S.

rotundicolle.
Paederus, F.

littorarius, G.

discopunctatus, S.
Rugilus, Leach.

dentatus, S.

confluentus, S.
Stenus, Latr.

geniculatus, S.

femoratus ? S.
Omalium, G.

rotundicolle, S.
Aleochara, G.

lata, G.

verna, fcJ.
Tachinus, G.

fimbriatus, G.

memnonius, G.

69

558 Animals in Massachusetts,

Tachinus, G.

cincticollis, S.
obsoletus, S,
Tachyporus, G.
discoidalis.
fumipennis, S.
unicolor.
jocosus, S.

PSELAPHlDiE,

Pselaphus, Herbst.
carinalus, S.
corrugatus.

BUPREST1AD;F.

Buprestis L.

Geranii, H. tubulus ? P.
Virginica, Drury.
striata, F.

maculiventris, S.

longipes, S.

divaricata, S.
^ tuberculata.

sylvatica. nubila.

obscura? F.

lurida ? F.

fasciata, O.

coronata.

lineata, F.

plagiata.

fulvoguttata, H.

characteristica, H. dentipes ? Germar.

femorata, F.

fastigiata.

strangulata.

sexguttata, S.

Harrisii, Hentz.

cogitans, Weber, ignara? F. innuba? F,

viridicornis, S.
Bupestris (Agrilus, Megerle.)

ignara? F. paganica.

polita, S.

ruficoUis ? F. geminata ? S.

otiosa, S.
Trachys, F.

lessellata, F.

ovata, Weber.
Trachys (Metonius, Say.)

la;vigata, S. ovatus, S.
Aphanisticus, Latr.

gracilis, S.
Melasis, Olivier.

semivittatus.

ELATERIAD^.

Eucnemis, Ahrens.

longulus. amcenicornis.
clypeatus. Elater clypeatus? S.
Elater, L. (Tapheicerus.)
obtectus.

foveolatus. operculatus,
auroratus.
pennatus, F.

Insects. 559

Elater (proper.)

oculatus, L.

myops, F.

discalceatus.

longicornis.

brevicornis, S.

abruptus, S.

attenuatus, S.

carbonarius.

auriculatus.

elongatus ? Palisot de Beauvois. pyrros ? Herbst.

bilobatus.

cucuUatus, S.

canaliculatus.

silaceus, S.

vespertinus, F.

viridanus, S.

inquinatus.

spiraculatus.

cylindriformis, S.

plebejus, S.

agonus.

mancus, S.

appressifrons, L.

decoloratus,

xanthopus.

scapularis.

apicatus.

quercinus, S,

cruciatus, L.

hieroglyphicus.

lugubris 1 Pal. de Beauvois.

discoideus, F.

hamatus.

oblessus, S.

contemptus. erytropus.

metallicus.

glaber.

collaris, S.

vernalis, Hentz.

inflatus, S.

convexulus.

pumilus. obesus? Tar. S.

plagicollis.

sanguinipennis, S.

dorsalis, S.

dilectus, S.

stigma, Herbst.

cardisce.

bigeminatus.

pectoralis.

silaceipes. abbreviatus ? var, S.

atriventris.
Elater (Campylus, Fischer.)

septentrionalis.

exiguus.
Elater (Nothora.)

cinereus, Weber.

corticinus, S. dispar ? Herbst.

communis, S. chonherr. S.

bicolor.

pertinax.

tenaz.

56d Animals in Massachusetts.

Elater (Lissomus.JDalman.Drapetes, Megerle.)
Americanus. rufinotatus.

CEBRIONIAD^.

Anelastes? Kirby.

sericea.
Physodactylus ? Fischer.

cisteloides.
Sandalus? Knoch.

lineatopunctatus.
Ptylodactyla, Illiger.

discoida, S. (Cyphon.)
Dascillus, Latr.

two species.
Elodes, Latr.

ovalis, S.

bicolor.
Scirtes, Latr.

tibialis.

orbiculatus, F.

LAMPYRIDIDJE.

Lycus, F.

Smithii.
reticulatus, F.
terminalis, S.

perfacetus, S. marglnellus 1 F.
Omalisus, Geoffroy.
coccinatus.

humeralis? F. scapularis.
crenatusl Germar.
quadricollis.
marginellus.
Phengodes, Hoffmanscgg.

pluraosa, O.
Lampyris, L.

versicolor, F.
cenlrata, S.
angulata, S,
scintillans, S,
corrusca, L.
laticornis, F.

decipiens. nigricans ? S.
Telephorus, Schaefler.
rotundicollis, S.
Carolina, F.
basillaris, S.
diadema, F.
bilineatus, S.
rufipes, S.
scitvila, S,
tricostatus.
constrictus.
laticornis, S.
lacrymosus.
percomis.
Telephorus (Chauliognathus, Hentz.)
marginatus, F.

Insects.

MELYRIDID^.

Malachius, F.

vittatus, S.

quadrimaculatuSj F,

tricolor, S.

circumscriptus? S.
Dasytes, Paykull.

terminalis. Malachius terniinalis'? S.
PTINIDiE.

Ptinus, L.
fur, L,
Ptilinus, GeoffVoy.

ruficornis, S.
Dorcatoma, Herbst.

oculata, S.
Xyletinus, Latr.
Ihoracicns.
sericeus, S.
punctipennis.
Anobium, F.

gibbosum, S.
tessellatum"? F.
carinatum, S.
mollel F.
pertinax 7 F.
notatum, S.
tenuestriatum, S.
bistriatum, S.
paniceum, F.

lymexylida:.
Cupes, F,

variegata.
capitata, F.

tilliada;.
Enoplium, Latr.

pilosum, Forster.
onustum, S.

cleriada:.
Thanasimus, Latr-
dubius, F.
undulatus.
nigrifrons, S.
unifasciatus t S, analis.
thoracicus, O.

coccineus. Not strictly a Thanasimus.
oculatus.
dislocatus? S. (Enoplium.) Not strictly Thanasimus

CSM-< Allied species, not strictly
verralS'^^elonginl to this genus.

Clerus. Geoffroy.

Nuttalii, Kirby.
Necrobia, Latr.

violacea, L.

ruficoUis, F.

rufipes, F.

561

562 Animals in Massachusetts.

HISTERIAD^.

Hister, L.

arcuatus, S. » „ . , t^ •

cadaverinus, Paykull. interruptus 1 Pal. de Beauvois.

merdarius, F.

unicolor 1 L. anhelus.

abbreviaius, F.

demislrialus.

sedecimstriatus, S.

fraternus, S.

diniidiatus 1 P.

liimidiatipennis.

postjuntcus.

Pennsylvanicus, P.

pygmseus, Pal. de Beauvois.

repletus.

duodeciuiluiealus. pulicarius.

indistiiictns 1 S.

assimilis, P. mancus'? S.

punctulatus, S.

elongatus, O.
Hister (Platysoma, Leach.)

deplanata, Gyllenhd. sordida 1 S.
Hister (Hololepta, Paykull.)

tridentata.

SILPHIADJE.

Necrophorus, F.

Americanus, O. grandis, F.

orbicollis, S.

marginatus, F.

mediatus, F.

tomentosus, Weber, veluliiius, F.

mortuorum, F.
Necrodes, Leach.

Surinamensis, F.
Silpha, L.

Americana, L.

marginalis, F.

inequalis, F.

caudata, S.

N1T1DULAD.E.

Peltis? F.

sulcata.
Thymalus, Latr.

marginatus.
Nitidula, F.

grossa, F.'

bipustulata, L.

undulata, S.

variegata, O. colon ] L.

sexmaculata, S.

mera.

adusta.

geminata, S.

octomaculata, S.
Cercus, Latr.

imicolor, S.

viridans.

opacvis.

Inserts. 563

Ips F.

obtusa.

fasciata, O.

dilecta.

immaculata.

sanguinolenta, O.

transversa.

pallitarsa.

octomaculata.

auripilis. Not strictly an Ips.
Dacne, Latr.

fasciata, F.
Byturus, Latr.

unicolor, S.
Cryptophagus, Herbst.

celiaris, O.
Scaphidium, O.

quadripustulatum, S.

unicolor.

DERMESTIADiE.

Dermestes, L.

viilpinus, F.

lardarius, L.

marmoratus, S.

variegatus, S.
Megatoma, Herbst.

pellio, L.

macellarius, F. and (Dermestes) megatoma, F.

ornata, S.

BYRRHIAD^.

Anthrenus, Geoffroy;

museorum^ L. variusl F. trifasciatus

niger.
Byrrhus, L.

Americanus.

alternatus, S.

obscurus.

PARNIADJE.

Heterocerus, F.

maculatus.
Dryops, O.

fastigiatus, S.
Elmis, Latr.

Peckii.
Machoiiychus, Miiller.

glabratus, S.

HYDROPHILIDJE.

Hydrophilus, L.

triangularis, S.

obtusatus, S.

glaber, Herbst.

nimbatus, S.

globosus, S,

ovalis.

rotundus, S.

cinctus, S.

striatus, S. undatus ] F peregrinu .]TIerl>st.

nebulosus, S.

subcupreus, S.

fuse us.

5(54 Animals in Massachusetts.

Elophorus, F.

lineatus, S.

alternatus.
Hydrochus, Germar.

one species.
Hydrobius ? Leach.

obsoletus.
Spercheus? F.

one species.

SPH^ERIDHD^

Sphseridium, F.

occallatum, S.
rufum.
nigricoUe, S.
indistinctum.

SCARABiElAD*.

Atauchus, Weber.

laevis, Drury. volvens, F.
nigricornis, S.

Onitis, F.

sulcatus, Drury. Nicanor, b.

Onthophagus, Latr.

Hecate, Panzer, latebrosus, t.

albicornis'? Pal. de Beauv. stnaiulus'? Pal. de Beauv.
subajneus, Pal. de Beauvois. ovatus J U
bidentatus.
Phanseus, Macleay.

carnifex, L.
Copris, Geoffroy.
anaglypticus, S.
minutus, Drury. Ammon, k.
Aphodius, Illiger.
oblongus, S.
obliquaius.

femoralis'] S. limosus.
vittatus, S.
bicolor, S.
strigatus, S.
terminalis, S.
rubeolus, Pal. de Beauvois.
Geotrupes, Latr.

exaratus. splendidusl b.
diiatatus. Blackburnil F.
excrementi, S.

splSdusl F. Blackburni? Pal. de Beauvois.
Odontaeus, Ziegler.

Lazarus, F.

filicornis, S.
Trox, F.

SSisfs: canaliculatus?S. echinatus

serrulatus? Pal. de Beauv. hispidus. vanolatus,

terrestris, S.
Scarabseus, L. Latr.

Jamaicensis, Drury. Satyrus, F.

Maimon, F. Antaeus? Drury.

Insects. 56S

Scarabaeus, L. Latr.

relictus, S.

geminatus? F. lugfubris ? Schonherr. novator.
iridentatus, S.
gibbosus, De Geer.
vespertinus.
Rutela, Latr. (Pelidnota, Macleay)

fmnctata, L.
anigera, L.
Melolontha F. (Anomala, Megerle.)
arboricola, F.

luciola, F. coelebs. The atrata, F. is a variety.
Melolontha (proper.)

occidentalis, L. variolosa, Hentz.
Melolontha (Rhisotrogus, Latr.)

duercina, Knoch. fervens ? Gylleahal
porcina, Hentz.

Georgicana, Gj^lenhal.

hirticula, Knoch.

hirsuta, Knoch.

balia, S.

fraterna.

pilosicoUis, Knoi-h.

longitarsa, S. i

moesla, S. > not strictly Rhisotrogus.

sordida, S. )
Melolontha (Serica, Macleay )

vespertina, Gyllenhal.

sericea. S. seiicea? lUiger.

iricolor, S.

nigricornis.
Melolontha(Dichelony.x.)

hexagona, Gerraar.

linearis, Gyllenhal. elongatula ? F.
Melolontha(Macrodactyla, Latr.)

subspinosa. F.
Hoplia, Illiger.

trifasciata, S.

oblonga. maura.
Amphicoma, Latr.

vulpina, Hentz.
Trichius, F.

eremicola. Knoch.

.scaber, Pal.de Beauv.

dispar.

maculosus, Knoch.

piger, F.

lunulatus, F.
Cremastocheilus, Knoch.

Hentzii, H. thecanaliculatus, Kirby is a v'aiiety.

Hanisii, Kirbv. Castaneae ? H.

Sayii, H.
Cetonia, F.

f'ulgida, F.

Inda, L. barhata. S:
Cetonia (Uymnetis, Macleay.)

nitida, L.

70

566 Animals in Massachusetts.

LUCANIAD.E.

Lucanus, L.

Capreolus, L. Dama, F.

latifrons.

parallelus, S. Voeti? Schonherr.
Platycerus, Latr.

piceus, Weber.

securidens, S.
Passalus, F.

cornutus, F

BLAPTIADJE.

Scotinus? Kirby. (Bolitobius.)

inequalis. montanus.
Dendarus, Megerle(Heliophilus '? D.)

rorulentus. Pedinus suturalis ? S.

interruptus. S. Opatrum interruptum, S.

TENEBRIONIAD-E-

Upis, F.

variolosus ? Pal. de Beauv. rugosus.

clavipes.

Pensylvanicus, De Geer. laevis, O.

reticulatus, S.

saperdoides, O. (Helops spinipes, F. Tenebrio
anthracinus, Knock.)

rufipes, S.

femorata, F, fulvipes, Herbst.
Tenebrio, L:

granarius. molitor? L. var.

punctulat.us.

badius, S.

reflexus, S.

DIAPERIAD.S:.'

Uloma, D.

fodiens. ochracea.
Hypophlaeus, F.

pusillus.
Phaleria, Latr.

testacea, S.

mimus. Not strictly a Phaleria.
Diaperis, GeofTroy.

maculata, O. Hydni, F.

orbiculata. nigra.

erythrocera.

flavipes? F. labrosa.

bicomis? F. viridipennis 7 P.
Eledona, Latr.

cornuta, F.

HELOPIDJE.

Helops, F.

vittatus, O. micans, F.

tenuicollis, S.

politus.

eonvexus.

obliquatus, F.

antennatus.
Strongylium ? Kirby.

corticinum.

Insects. 5^7

Pytho, Latr.
nitidus.

CISTELIAD^.

Cistela, F.

fuliginosa.

marginata.

manicata.

collaris.

obscura, S.

atra, S.

debilipes.

sericea, S. (Long's Expedition.)

sulphurea? L. sericea, S. (Jour. Acad. Nat. Sc.)

SERROPALPIAD^.

Orchesia, Latr.

fusca.
Eustrophus, lUiger.

bicolor, F.

quadrimaculatus.

tomentosus, S.
Dircaea, F.

unicolor.

variegata.

orbicoUis.
Melandria, F.

striata, S.

maculata.
Hypulus, Paykull.

quadiinotatus.
Serropalpus, Hellwig.

linearis.

quadrimaculatus, S.

(EDEMERIAD.E.

CEdemera, O. (Dytilus, Fischer.)

melanura, F.

ruficollis.
Mycterus, Clairville.

benecomis.

LAGRIADS.

Lagria, F,

aenea, S.

PYROCHROAD.E.

Dendroides, Latr.

Canadensis, Latr.
Pyrochroa, GeofTroy.

flabellata, F.

puncticollis, S.

marginata.

infumata, Hentz.

elegans, Hentz.

MORDELLIADJ}.

Ripiphorus, Bosc. (Pelecotoma, Fischer.)

pallipes.
Mordella, L.

bidentata, S.
nigra.

pruinosa. serval.
fecutellaris, F. brevis.
guttulata.

568 Animals in Massachusetts.

Anaspis, Geoffroy.
rufa, S.

anthicida;.

Scraptia, Latr.

two species.
Notoxus, Geoffroy.

anchora, Hentz.

monodon, F.
Anthicus, Paykull.

cinclus, S.

amaenus,

bigeminus.

HORlADiE.

Horia. F.

sanguinipennis, S.

CANTHARIDIDJE.

Meloe, L.

Americanus, Leach.

quadricoUis.

angusticoUis, S.
Cantharis, Geoffroy.

marginata, F.

seneA, S.

vitiata, F.

cinerea, F.

atrata, F. Pensylvanica, Degeer.
BRUCHIAD.E.

Bruchus, L.
Pisi, L.
punctifer.
scutellaris. Possibly not a Bruchus.

Anthribus, Geoffroy-

marmoreus, O. lunatus, F.

quadrinotatus, S.
Anthribus (Rhinomacer? Latr.)

calvus.

CURCULIONIAD*-

Attelabus, L.

analis, Weber.

Eubescens, S.
ipustulatus, F.
Rhynchites, Herbst.

bicolor, F.

hirtusl F. brevipeimis.

porosus. 1 u \

Rhynchites (Sapindus, Schonherr.)

coUaris, O. rubricoilis, S.

unicolor.
Rhynchites (Pterocolus, Sch.)

ovatas, F.
Apion, Herbst.

rostrum, S. nigrum 1 Herbst.
Thamnophilus, Sch.

olyra, Herbst.

pandura, S,

marginatus.

Ithycerus, Sch. . ijprh<;t

• Noveboracensis, Forster. curculionoides, Herbst.

Insects. 569

Brentus. F. (An*»'onodes, Sch.)

septcntrionis, Herbst. peregrinus, Ilerbst. MaxiUosus 1 O-
Curculio, L. (Thylacites, Germar.)

crinitus. globulus.
Curculio (Aphrastus, Sch.)

tseniatus, S.
Curculio (Sitona, C4ermar.)

mustelinus.

caninHsl F.
Curculio (Hadromerus, Sch.)

hilaris, Herbst.
Curculio (Listroderes. Sch.)

lineatulus, S.

tricarinatus. Lineatulus 1 S. var.

reticulatus.
Curculio (Hylobrius, Germ.)

pales'? Herbst. Abielis 1 L. macellu^, G.

Abietis 1 L. multigullatus 1 O. confusus.

atropos.
Curculio (Otiorhynchus, Germ.)

apiculatus.
Lixus, F.

rubellus.

marginatus, S.

lineaticoUis. rostellatus.
Rhynchsenus, F. (Pissodes, Germ)

Strobi, Peck, nemorensis, G.
Rhynchaenus (Erodiscus, Sch)

myrmex, Herbst. myrmecodes, S.
Rhynchaenus (Balaninus, Germ.)

nasicus, S.

rectus, S.

rotundicoUis.
Rhynchaenus (Orchestes, Illiger.)

calceatus.
Rhynchaenus (Madarus, Sch.)

undulatus, S.
Rhynchaenus (Baridius, Sch.)

modestus. picipennis.

obtusus.
Rhynchaenus (Cryptorhynchus, Illiger.)

argula, F. nenuphar. Herbst. Cerasi, Peck.

elegans, S.

terminalis. elegans "! S. var.

anaglypticus, S.

parochus, Herbst.

palraacoUis, S.
Rhynchaenus (Ceutorhynchus, Germ)

pruinosus.

tubularis.

acephalus, S.
Rhynchcenus (Mononychus, Schiippel.)

vvilpeculus, F.
Calandra, Clairville.(Rhynchophorus,Herb3t )

pertinax, O.

cariosa, O.

immunis, S.

ckairicosa, S.

510 Animals in Massachusetts.

Calandra (proper.) "•

Oryzae, L.
Cossonus, Clairv. (Rhyncholus, Creulzer.)

corlicolus, S. corticalis 1 F.

punctulatus.

striatus. i

BOSTRICHID^.

Hylurgus, Latr.

terebrans, O.

insidiosus.

apiculatus.
Hylesinus, F.

aculeatus, S.
Phloiotribus, Latr.

reflexus.
Scolytus ? Geoffrey.

pyri, Peck. (Probably Bostrichus F. Tomicusl Latr.)
Tomicus, Latr.

pini, S.

.'septentrionis.

(Icntatu-s, S.

politus, S. '

hminaris.

profundus.

xylographus, S.
Bostrichus, Geoffroy- (Apate, F.)

basillaris, S.

CISID£.

Cis, Latr.

pubescens.
Rhyzophagus, Herbst.

obsoletus.
Monotoma, Herbst.

one species.

MYCETOPHAGID-t.

Lyctus, F.

canaliculatus 1 S. Striatus.
Bitoma, Herbst.

quadriguttata, S. Synchita quadriguttata, S.
Mycetophagus, F.

flexuosus, S.

nubilus.
Latridius, Herbst.

pubescens, S.

inermis.

impressicollis.

denticollis.

urceolus.

punctulatus.

dentatus, S. Silvanus dentatus, S.
Silvanus, Latr.

Surinamensis, L. frumentarius, F.

subdentatus.
Trogosita, F.

mutica, Pal. de Beauv.

cinnamomea, S.

depressior 1 Pal. de Beauv.

Insects. 5TI

CUCUJIAD^.

Cucujus, F-

clavipes, O.

rufus, O.

biguttatus, S.
Dendrophagus, Gyllenhal.

irapressus. Cucujus oblongus ? F.
Uleiola, Latr.

dubia, F.
Parandra, Latr.

brunnea, F.

CERAMBYCID^.

Prionus, Geoffroy.

laticoUis, Drury. brevicornis, F.

lasvigatus.

unicolor, Drury. cylindricus, F.
Cerambyx, L. (Stenocorus, F.)

atomarius, Drury. Marilandicus, F.

cinctus, Drury. garganicus, F.

undatus, F.

quadrigerainatus, S.

rigidus, S.

putator, Peck, villosus 7 F.

circumflexus, F.
Cerambyx (Clytus, F.)

speciosus, S.

nobilis.

pictus, Drury. Robinise, Forster. flexuosus, F.

fulminans, F.

undulatus, S.

villicus, .O.

Ammon

hamatus, S.

caprea, S.

palliatus.

verrucosus, O. gibbosus, F.

erythocephalus, F.

supernotatus, S.

testaceus. (Not strictly a Clytus.)
Cerambyx (Callidium, F)

foveicoUe. atropos.

substriatus.

iuvencus.

brevilineatus, S.

bajulus, L.

violaceus, L.

janthinus. iconicus.

cucujiformis.

varius, O. versicolor, Turton. undatus 1 L.
ligneus. F.

variabilis, L. fennicus, F.
Necydalis L. (Stenopterus, Illiger.)

rufa, L.
Necydalis (Molorchus, F.)

bimaculata, S.
Lamia, F.

confusa, S. Clytus confusus, S.
I^amia (Acanlhocinus, Megerle.)

acanthura. undata. .subfasciata.

572 Animnhin Massachusetts.

Lamia (Acanthorimis, Megerle.) . r. »,

obsoleta, O. DeGeerl lasciata? DeGeer. antennaior ? F^M nigrum
' [and obhqua, Melsheiiner.

conlusa.

vittaiicolhs.
Lamia (Tetraopes, Sch.)

tetropthalma, Forster. tornator, F.

arator, Germar.
Lamia (Monochamus, U.)

titillator, F.

dentator? F. Caroliniensis? O.

sutor, L.

Cruinosa.
i lasciata.
Lamia (Mesosa, Mergele )
macula, S.
raaculata.
alpha, S.
faceta, S.
aspersa, S.
Lamia (Saperda, F.)
calcarata, S.
obliqua, S.

vestita, S. Appenciix to Long,
biviltata, S.
iridentata, O.
triuncata.
lateralis, F.
inornata, S.

plumbea, O. tripuuctata, F.
tetramera.
Lepluia, L. (Desmocerus. D.)
palliata, Forster. cyanea, F.
Leplura (Rhagium, F.)

lineata, O.
Leplura (Rhamnusium, Megerle )

decolorata.
Leplura (Pachyta, IMegerle.)

Leonardii.

cyanipennis, S.

dehiscens.

caualiculata.

praeusta. proxiina ? S.

annulicornis.
Leplura (proper.)

atrata. aethiops.

aanulata.

Canadensis, O.

velutina, O.

cordifera, O.

nitens, Forster. zebrata, F,

rubrica, S.

proximal S. opaca.

vittata, O.

rubricollis.

ruficollis, S.

pubera, S.

nubila.

lineola, S

Tmectt. 57S

/
Leptura, (proper )

scalaris, S.

luteicornis, F.

calceola.
Leptura (Toxotus, Megerle.)

caerulea, S.

CRIOCERIDjE.

Donacia, F.

palmata, O. subtilis, Ahrens.

sequalis, S.

sulcicollis.

metallica, Ahrens. S.

chalybata.

pusilla, S.
Orsodachna, Latr.

vittata, S. the hepatica, S. is a variety.
Crioceris, Geoffroy.

trivittata, S. trilineata? S.

collaris, S.
Auchenia, Thunberg-.

tripla, S. Orsodachna tripla, S.

tuberculata,

HISPIADJS.

Hispa, L.

vittata, F.

suturalis, F.

quadrata, F. rosea, Weber, marginata, S.

corbula.

pallida, S.

obsoleta, S.

CASSIDAD.E.'

Cassida, L.

Argus, Herbst.
clavata, F.
aurichalcea, F.
quadrisignata.
vicina. signifer.
convolvuli.

CHRVSOMELIADJK.

Clythra.F.

dominieana, F.

quadriguttata, S.
Chlamys, Knoch.

gibbosa, F. plicata, F. tuberosa, lijuoch.
Cryptocephalus, Geoffroy.

ornatus, S.

quadriguttatus, S.

quinquelinealus.

luridus, F.

promiscuus.

normatus. sexnotatus, Melsh.

prasinatus.
Eumolphus, Kliig.

auratus, F.

pini, S.

barbatus, S.

varians.

cochlearius.

71

574 Animals in Massachusetts,

Colaspis, F.

quercus, S.

deceniDotata, S.

puncticollis, S.

usiulata.

quadrinolata, S.

imperita.

norraalis.

striata, S.

ovata, S.
Chrysomela, L.

trimaculata, F.

scalaris, Leconte.

(lecipiens. Weber.

Philadelphica, P.

hybrida, S.

piilchra F.

elegans, O.

c^ruleipennis, S.

teres.

vicina.
Chrysomela (Prasocuris, I^atr.)

scripta, F.

arquata.

triv'ittata, S.
Chrysomela (Megalamera.)

rhois, Forster. meticulosa, O.
Galeruca, GeofFroy.

tomentosa, L. "^ baccharidis, F,

puncticollis, S.

vittata, F.

gelatinariae, F.

sordida.

rufosanguinea. S.

notulata.

notata, F.

duodecimpunctata, F.

meraca, S.
Galeruca (Adimonia, Schranck.)

circumdata,

unicolor.
Haltica, Geoffrey. (iEdionychis, Latr.)

thoracica, F.

abdominalis, O.

vians, S.

iimbriata, Forster. Suturella, S.

rugosa.

subvittata.

circumdata.

palliata.
Haltica (proper.)

Caroliniana, F. alternata? Illiger.

uniguttata, S. glabrata '{ F.

taeniata. horticola,

triangularis, S.

collaris. F.

collata, F.

«nea '? O.

chalybea, Illiger. ametli3fstina ? O. vitivora, Thomas.

ignita, Illiger.

nana. S.

Insects. 575

Haltica (proper.)

segetum.

pallidicauda.

striolata, F. var. bipusliilaia, F.

pubescens, Illiger.
Haltica (Dibolia, Latr.)

aerea.

EROTYLIDJE.

Ropalocerus.

lasciatiis.
'J'ritoma, F.

humerale, F.

biguttata, S.
Triplax, F.

thoracica, S.
Languria, Latr.

linearis.

Mozardi.

brevicollis.

ENDOMYCHlDJi.

Endomychus, Weber.

lineatus, F. Eiimorphus, distinctus, S.

angulatiis, S. Eumorphus angulatus, S.

vestitus, S. Lycoperdina vestita, S.

ferrugineus, Leconte. Lycoperdina feruginea, Leconte.

biguttatus, S.

geminatus.

COCCINELLIAU*.

Coccinella, L.

borealis, F.

mali, S.

novemnolala, F.

transversa.

rransversogutlata.

bioculata, S.

geminata. clepsydra.

munda.

ursina. F.

vigintimaculata, S.

picta.

media.

proba. S.

abbreviata, F.

decemmaculata, F.

tibialis, S.

parenthesis, S.

ternaria. mulliguttata.
Coccinella (Chilochorus.)

cacti, L.

normata, S.
Scymnus.

parvulus. brevis.

qiierci.

cissi.
Clypeaster, Andersch

fa^ciatus, S.

676 Animals in Massachusetts,

II.— ORTHOPTERA.

FORFICULAD.E.

Forficula, L.

Two species.

BLATTIADJ!.

Blatta, L.

Americana, L.

Domingensis, Pal. de Beauvois.

orientalis, L.

Pensylvanica,DeGeer. rufescens, P. de Beauv.

bicoior 1 Pal. de Beauvois.

parallela.

MANTIAD.*;.

Spectrum, Stoll.
femoratum, S.

ACHETAD.E

Gryllotalpa, Latr-

Americana.
Acheta, F.

tripunctata.

servilis.
Acheta, (iEcanthus, Serville.)

nivea, DeGeer.

bipunctatal DeGeer. cylindrica.

GRYLLIAD5:.

Gryllus, L. (Ephippiger, Latr.)

maculatus,
Gryllus (Pterophylla, Kirby.)

concavus, H.

oblongifolius, DeGeer. laurifolius, L.

curvicaudus, DeGeer.

agilis, DeGeer.

fasciatusi Degeer.
Gryllus (Conocephalus, Thunberg.)

tuberculatus 1 DeGeer. ensiger.
LOCUSTIADiE.

Acrydium, Latr. ,

obscurum'? F.

flavofasciatum 1 DeGeer. torvum.

sanguinipes 1 F.

femur-rubrum, DeGeer. erythropum, Gmelia.
femorale, O.
Locusta, L.

apiculata. luberculata, P. de Beauv. F "?

Carolina, L.

equalis, S.

sulphurea"? F. periscelidis, , ^ ,. , ^

. ^.^ _ _. 4 Virginiana, F. chrysomela, Gmelm. hem-

vindifasciata, DeGeer. J .p^^^j.^^ p_ ^^ Beauv. marginata, O.

sulphurea. Pal. de Beauv.

radiata.

eucerata.

cerineipenni.s.

curtipennis.

Imeeis. 577

Tetrix, Latr-
laterale, S.
ornatum, S.
sordidum.
parvipenne.

III.— HEMIPTERA.

PENTATOMAD^.

Scutellera, Lamarck. (Tetyra, F.)

alternata, S.

cinctipes, S. dubial Pal. de Beauv.
Scutellera (Thyreocorus, Schranck.)

histeroides. unicolor 1 P. de Beauv.
Pentatoma, O-

arborea, S.

Pensylvanica 1 DeGeer. hilaris. Tiliae.

obesa. delia.

punctipes, S. coaspersa. eerva.

punctipes, Pal. de Beauv.

senilis.

saucia.

inserta.

nervosa.

dimidiata.

undata.

clauda, S.

exapta, S.

icterica, L.

maculiventris.

serieventris.

carnifex, F.
Pentatoma (Cydnus, F.)

spinifrons, S.

hgatus, cinctus 1 Pal. de Beauv.

bilineatus, S.

COREID^

Coreus, F-

galeator, F.

tristis, DeGeer. ordinatus S.

lateralis, S.

catenarius.

striatipennis.
Lygaeus, F. (Alydus, F.)

eurinus, S.

vittinasus.
Lygaeus (Anisoscelis, Latr)

prominulus.
Lygaeus (Berytus, F.)

spinosus*? S. muticus.
Lygaeus (proper.)

turcicus, F.

numenius.

geminatus .
Lygaeus (Pachymera, Lepeletier and Serville.)

constricta.

bilobata.

mavortia, (Astemnia ])

578 Animals in Massachunetti.

Salda, F.

pedunculaia.

bullata.
Myodocha, Latr-

peliolata.
Astemnia, Latr.

coracina. (Mxrisl)
Miris, F.

flagellatus,

ilorsalis.

vagans 1 F.

brevidapex.

bivittalus.
Capsus, F.

rapidus.

inops.

quadriviUatus.

invitus.

oblinitus.

cardinalis.

lesludineus.

lugubris.

dislocatus.

sanguinariu?.

trifidus.

insilivus.

virensi F
"famelicus..

bracteatus.

alticn^. (Perhaps not ol this, genus .)
cimicida;
Syrtis, F.

erosa, F.
Tingis, F,

marmoratus .
Aradus, F.

sanguineus.

penuhimu:<.

muticollis.
Cimex, L-

lectularius, L.
Reduvius, F-

personatus 1 L. miinicub.

pectoralis.

cinctus, F.

diadema, F.

multispinosus, DeGeer. raptorius, S.
Reduvius (Nabis ? Latr.)

pectoralis.
Reduvius (Zelus, F.)

acanthogonius.
Reduvius (Pioiaria, Scopoli.)

simplicipes.

brevipennis, S. longipes ? DeGeer.

errabundus.
Leptopus, Latr.

alternatus.

Inserts. 579

Acamhia, Latr.
coriacea.

HYDROMETRADJE

Gerris, F.

remigis.
marginatus.
hiunilis.
Velia, Latr.
coUaris.

NEPADJE.

Eelostoma, Latr.

Americana'? F. grisea.

sordida.

fluminea.
Nepa, L.

apiculata.
Ranatra, F.

fusca, Pal. de Beauv.

notonectiau>t;.
Notonecta, L.

Americana, F.

maculata, O. lineata? Forster.

undulata.
Notonecta (Corixa, Geoffroy.)

interrupta, S.

alternata, S.

IV.— OMOPTERA.

CICADTAD JE.

Cicada, O.

tibicen 1 L.
pruinosa, S.
septemdecem, L.

FULGORIAD.'E.

Otiocerus, Kirby

Coquebertii, Kirby.
DeGeerii, Kirby.

CERCOPI AD«.

Flata, F.

bivitlata, S.
stigmata, S.
pruinosa,
opaca.
Membracis, F-

bimaculatns, F.

monticolal F. Clssi.

urticse.

bubalus, F.

taurinus.

festivus.

arquatus.

latipes, S.

binotatus, S.

sinuatus, F.

concavus, S.

marmoratus.

univittatus.

vau.

680 AnimaU in Massnchuietts

Cercopis, F. (Aphrophora, Gerznar.)

oblusa, S.

quadrangularis, S.

parallela, S.

ignipecta.
Jassus, F-

semindus.

clitellaria.

novellus.

subfasciatus.

fare t us.

areatus.

iramistus.

irroratus.
Tettigonia, O.

octolineata, S.

unilineata.

mellipes. ■*

quadrivittata.

coccinea, Forster.

hieroglyphica.

vitis, H. basilaris ? S.

squalisimila.

APHIDID^.

Thrips. L.

one species.
Aphis, L

caryae.

and many other species.
Aphis (Eriosoma, Leach.)

lanigera, L.

COCCI AD.F..

Coccus, L

arborum linearis, Geoffroy.
ciyptogamus, Dalman.
Hesperidum, L.
Adonidum, L.
and others undetermined.

V — NEUROPTERA,

LTBELLULADjE.

Libellula, L.

pulchella, Drury. bifasciata, F. versicolor 7 F.

Lydia, Drury. trimaculata, DeQeer. F ?

quadrupla.

pruinosa. trimaculata ? F.

exusta.

semicincta.

tenera.

ternaria.

rubicunda.

cynosura.

Berenice, Drury.

Julia.

rubicundula.

simplicoUis.
vEshna, F.

heros, F.
^shna (Gomphus, Leach )

Junius, Drury.

clepsydra.

Insects. 581

.Eshna (Gomphus,) L

obsoleta.

furcillata.

Janata.

fraterna.

vinosa.

obliqua.

transversa .
Agrion, F.

materna. virgo gamma, Drury.

fugitiva.
Agrion, (Calepterj-x, Leach )

opaca.

aRquabilis.
Agrion (Lestes, Leach )

eurina.

basalis.

rectangularis.

hastata.

yerticalis.

insipiens.

EPHEMERAD^.

Ephemera, L. (Baetis, Lear.h )

eurina.

f'uscicostata.

confusa.

amoenicauda.

luteipennis.
Ephemera (Cloeou? Leach.)

leuconeura.

scripticostata.
Ephemera (proper.)

bispinosa.

PANORPl ADM

Panorpa, L.

fasciata, L.

MYRMELEON'T«D«

Ascalaphus, F.

maciilatus? O.

HEMEROBl 1 U.E.

Hemerobius, L.

irroratus, S.
mononeurus.
perla ? L.

SEMBLl AD«.

Corydalis, Latr.

cornutus, L.
Chauliodes, Latr.

pectinjcornis, L.

denticornLs.

serricornis. S.
Sialis. Latr.

maurus.

PERM AD.C

Perla, Geoffrey.

immarginata, S. (Sialis.)

isogona.

semifasciata.

7-2

582 Animals in Massachusetts.

Perla, (Nemoura, Latr.)
convoluta.
debilipennis.

MANTJSPfADiE.

Mantispa, Illiger.

pagana, S. '

TEMlTtDiE.

Termes, L.

agrarius.

domesticus.
Psocus, F.

gregarius.
Atropos, Leach.

pulsatorius, L.

PHRVGANEAD-y..

Phryganea, L-

semifasciata, S
subfasciata, S.
radiata.
argenteornata.
intatninata.
coagulata.
elongatula.
sericca.
stygipes.
plurifaria.
dislocata.
obsoleta.
debilipes.
undulata.
quadrula.
Phryganea (Leptocerus, Leach.)
variegala. hieroglyphica.
maculicornis.
larsata.
nubila.
alternicornis.

VI.— HYMENOPTERA.

TENTHRED1N1D.SE.

Cimbex, O.

Americana, Leach.

ulmi.
Tenthredo, L- (Schyzocera, Latr.)

calceola.
Tenthredo (Lophyrus, Latr.)

compar 1 Leach. Americana 1 Leach.

flavida.
Tenthredo (Hylotoma, F.)

Macleayi 1 Leach.

pectoralis, Leach.

clavicornis, F.

erythrosomal Leach, scutellata.
Tenthredo (Allantus, Jurine.)

sambuci.

vertical is 7 S.

basilarisl S

Insects. 588

Tenthredo (Allantus, Jurine.)

media.

tacita.

melisoma.

trosula.

rufipes, S.

trisyllabus.

atroviolacea.

obesa.

marginicollis.

coronata.

tarda.
Tenthredo (Selandria, Leach.)

vitis, H.

barda.

pygmsea.

cerasi, Peck.

halcyon.
Tenthredo (Dosytheus, Leach.)

sericea, S.

unicolor? P. de Beauv.

arvensis, S.

collaris, S.

bicolor, P. de Beauv.

aprica.
Tenthredo (Emphytus, Leach.)

inornata, S.

tarsata.

mellipes.

aperta.
Tenthredo (Craesus, Leach.)

septentrionalis, F.
Tenthredo (Nematus, Jurine.)

Integra.

melanocephala.

ventralis.

pallicornis.

fulvipes.

labrata.

stigmata.

monochroma.
Tenthredo (Cladius, Klug.)

isomera.

dorsalis. (Acordulecera.)
Tenthredo (Lyda, F.)

maculiventris.

circumcincta, Klug.

ochrocera.

scripta, S. Tarpa scripta, S.

rufofasciata.

calceata.

XlPHYDRlADiE.

Xyela, Dalman.

ferruginea, S,

infuscata.
Cephus, Latr.

abbreviatus.

integer.

584 Animals in Massachusetts,

Cephus, Latr.

heteropteriis.

filicornis.
Xiphydria, Latr.

albicornis.

mellipes.

UROCERID*.

Oryssus.

haemorrhoidalis.

maurus.

affinis.
Sirex, L.

albicornis, F.

abdominalis.
Sirex (Tremex, Jurine.)

columba, L.

EVANlAD.i;.

Fsenus, F.

irritator.
Evania, F.

appendigaster ? Latr.
Pelecinus, Latr.

polycerator, F.

ciavator, Latr.

ICHNEVMONIDJE.

Pimpla, F.
atrata, F.
lunator, F.
irritator, F.
Cryptus, F.

annulipes,

mellipes, '

faciiis.

inquisitor, S. .

ectypus.

hispae.

pleuriticus.

versicolor.

polyspeirus.

leucotelus.

facetus.

calceatus.

laxus.

velox.

tenellulus.

cardinalis.

crescentus.

bucephalus.

clyti.

subclavatus.

palmapectus.

subspinosus.

isochromus.

attractus.

recurvulus.
spinulosus.
Ophion, F.

bilineatus, S.

Insects. 585

Ophion, F.

geminatus, S.

vitticollis.

dentulatus.

cecropiae.

glabratus.

mundus.

flavicornis, S. Anomalon flavicornis, S.

morio, F.

analis, S.

relictus, F.
Ichneumon, L- (Trogus Panzer.)

fulvus 1 F. pennator / F. ischiadicus.

atratus.
Ichneumon (proper.)

concitator S.

devinctor, S.

multor, S.

basiator, S.

alternalor, S.

centrator, S.

cingor. S.

unifasciatorius, S.

lusorius, S.

dimelapsus.

stolophorus.

extaricus.

calitergus.

ferrugator, Swederus.

residuus, S.

brevinctor, S.

emarginatus.

orbitarius.

mellipectorius.

melisomus.

spatiosus.

emarginatulus.

platicerus.

leucopterus.

plantaris.

eiirostus.

biarquatus.

ligatus.
vau.

surcularis.

trichocerus.

suturalis.

metathoracicus.

otiosiis, S.
impiger.

miJvus.

Earatus.
ospes.
morulub.
petiolatus.
exulans.
faraelicus.
baculu.s.
mellilabrus.
anxifer.
aleatorius.
ales.

586 Animals in Massachusetts.

Acsenitus, Latr.

amcenus.
Bracon, F.

populator .■' S. maturor.

rugulosus.

operculatus.

palpatorius.
Mierogaster, Latv.

carpata.
Sigalphus, Latr.

puppius.

patulus.

socius.
Chelonus, Jurine.

corrugatus.

scric6us.

dislocatus. (Not strictly a Chelonus.)
DIPLOLEPIDID.E.

Ibalia, Latr.

maculipennis.
Figites, Latr.

pini.

melisoma.
Diplolepis, GeolTroy.

nubilipennis.

flagellatus.

impolita.

devius.

potentillEe.

dichocerus,

semipicea.

oneratus.

confluentus.

CHALCIIKDiE.

Leucospis, F.

affinis, S.
Chalcis, F.

octonotata.
Torj'mus, Dalman.

semiauratus.

azalese.

amethystinus.
Perilampus, Latr.

hyalinus.
Pteromalus, Latr.

arcliae.

vanessae.

clisiocampae.

lepturus.

obesus.
Eurytoma, lUiger.

hordei, H.

studiosa.
Eulophus, Geoffroy.

one species.

PROCTOTRrPlAD>E.

Proctotrupes, Latr

cordatus, S.

bisects. 587

Psilus, Jurine.

terminatus.
Ceraphron, Juriiie.

plalycephalus.

CHRYS1D1D.E.

Chrysis, L.

pacifica, S.

casrulans, F.
Chrysis (Hedychrum, Latr.)

speculum.

FORMlClADjE

Formica, L.

Pensylvanica, DeGeer. herculeana? F.

melineura.

incisuralis.

quadrata.

subsericea.

bilobata.

petulca.
Formica (Myrmica, Latr)

inflecta.

MUTILLIAD^.

Mutilla, L.

ferrugata 7 F.

pervaga.

undulata.

dislocata. (Not strictly a Mutilia.)
Mutilla (Myrmosa, Latr.)

unicolor, S.
Mutilla (Methoca, Latr.)

pacalis.

SCOLlADiE.

Tiphia, F-

tarda.

inornata, S.
Plesia, Jurine.

costata.
Scolia, F.

plumipes, Drury.

SAPVGIAD.K.

Sapyga, Latr.
peptica.
centrata.

P0MP1L1A0.E.

Cerophales, Latr.

bipunctata, S.

denticulata.

piciventris.
Pompilus, F.

tropicus? F. margiuutus ? S.

atroviolaceus.

tarsatus.

solicitus.

vafer.

biguttatus, F.

architectus.

.•^peirapterus.

588 Animals in Massachusetti.

Pompilus, F.

debilis.
Miscus, Jurine.

stj'gicus.

petiolatus.

SPH EGIAD^..

Sphex, L. (Ammophila, Kirby )

conditor. fiilvicaulis

lugubris,

gryphus.
Sphex (proper.)

ichneumonea, L.

Pennsylvanica, Pal. de Beauv.

labrosa.

apicalis. (Probably not a true Sphex )
Sphex (Pelopaeus, F.)

flavipes, F.

caerulea. L. cyanea, F.

affinis, F.

BEMBICIDJE.

Bembex, F.

lasciata, F.
Monedula, Latr.

ventralLs? S. vigilans.

LAURIADX.

Lyrops, Illiger.

aurulenta.
Larra, F.

argenlata, Pal. de Beauv.

Pennsylvaiiiea, Pal. de Beauv,

subita.
Astata, Latr.

unicolor, S.
Nysson, Latr.

late rale.
Tripoxylon, Latr.

clavatum.

atrilarse.
Oxybelus, Latr

quadrinotatus, S.

emarginatus.

CRABROVIADJE.

Crabro, F.

decemmaculatus. S
glauconotaius.
sexinaculatus, S.
confertus.
I'amelicus.
complanatus, S,
gryphus.
argus.
pegasus.
pusillus.
scutellatus, S.
tibialis, S.
remonus, Jurine. (Pemphredon F.)
concolor, S. Pemphredon concolor, S.

Insects. &89

Cemonus.

inornatus, S.

annulatus. (Stigmus ?)
Mellinus, F.

bjmaculatus.
Cerceris, Latr.

deseita, S.

baridius.
Pbilanthus, F.

veriilabris, S.

obsoletus.

viatus.

impunctatus.

erratus.

VESP1AD.E.

Vespa, L. (Odynerus, Latr.)

quadricornis, L. cincta, DeGeer. uncinata, F.

pluricincta.

incinclal F.

Daedalus.

oculata.

parietina ? L.

debilis.

fli^|f"f •„• I allied species not strictly

Vespa (Eumenes, Latr.)

fraterna, S.
Vespa (Polistes, F.)

fuscata, F.

promethea.
Vespa (proper.)

maculata, L.

fraterna. arenaria ? L.

maculifrons.

cuneata, F.

insequalis.

ANDRENIAD^.

Andrena, F.

sericea. Forster. viriduia, F.

nigricoinis, F.

sniaragdina.

amoena.

furva.

caiceata.

ludibunda.

paganica.

fulviana.

ligata.

agilis.

opposita.

dubia.

mera.

inornata.

flavinasus.

leucopus.

frugalis.

noticauda.

73

590 Animals in Massachusetts.

Andrena (Sphecodes. Latr.)
dichroa.

APlDiE.

Xylocopa, F.

victima.
Ceratina, Latr.

dupla.
Megachile, Latr.

latimana, S.

subsinuosum.

integrum.

dimidiatum.
Osmia, Panzer.

lignaria.

pacilica.
Stelis, Panzer.

iaterrupta.
Ceelioxys, Latr.

octodentata, S.
Epeolus, F.

mercatus, F.

donatus.
Nomada, F.

decora.

vincta.

interrupta.

bisignata, S.
Melecta, Latr.

inermis.
Eucera, Latr. (Melissodes, Latr.)

tibialis.

pruinosa,

erratica.

rustica.

sexdentata.
Bombus, F.

Americanorum, L.

elatus. F.

dimidiatus.

Virginicus, F.

fervidus, F. nidulans ? F

culior.

impatiens.

ternarius.
Apis, L.

mellifica, L.

VII.—LEPIDOPTERA.

PAPILIONIADjK.

Papilio, L.

Turnus, L.

Asterius, Cramer.

Troilus, L.
Pontia, F.

oleracea, H.
Colias. F.

Philodice, Godait

Insects. 595

VIII— STREPSIPTERA.

Xenos, Rossi.

Peckii, Kirby.

IX.— DIPTERA.

CULICID.E.

Culex. L.

cingulatus, F. molestis, Wiedeman.

damnosus, S.

colon.

ciliatus, F.

pungens ? W.
Anopheles, Meigen.

guttulatus. quadrimaculatus ? S. var.
TIPULAD^.

Chironomus, Meig.

albitarsis.

claracollis.

lateralis.
Tanypus, Meig.

biplagiatus.
Ceratopogon, Meig.

debilipes.
Ctenophora, Meig.

abdominalis, S.
Pedicia, Latr.

goniphora. rivosa ? L.
Tipula, L.

alternata, S.

nubilis.

triviltata, S.

flavicans, F.

alternata.

ferruginea, F.

tricolor, F.

vittipennis. tricolor? F.
Ptychoptera, Meig.

clavipes, L.
Limnobia, Meig.

monochroma.

rostrata, S.
Trichocera, Meig.

scutellata.? S. Campylomyzascutellata? S.
Chionea, Dalman.

valga.
Rhyphus, Latr.

alternatus, S.
Mycetophila, Meig.

discoida, S.
Leia, Meig.

triplagiata.

ziczac.
Sciara, Meig.

obscura.
Simulium, Latr.

calceatum.

596 Animals in Massachusetts.

Scatopse, Geoffroy.

nitida.
Penthetria, Meig.

lugubris.
Dilophus, Meig.

fraternus.
Bibio, GeofTroy.

femorata, Wied.

brunnipes, F.

albipennis, S.

articulosa.

AS1L7 AD^.

Asilus, L. (Laphria, Meig.)

ihoracicus, F.

atribarbi.s, S.

flavicollis, S.

posticatus, S.

fulvicauda, S'

sericeus, S.

tergissus 1 S.

glabratus ? S.

flavicollis, S.

saffranus, F.

glabratus, S.
Asilus (Dioctria, Meig.)

octopunctatus, S.
Asilus (proper.)

sericeus, S.

heros ? W.

gestuans, L.

vorax.

apicalis, W.

glauconotatus.

ansatus.
Hybos, Meig.

elevatus.
Empis, L. (Ramphomyia, Meig.)

atritarsata.
Cyrtus, Latr. (Acrocera, Meig.)

obesus.
Cyrtus (Henops, lUiger.)

fasciatus.

ANTHRAClPa;.

Bombylius, L-

sequalis, F.

fulvus, W.
Anthrax, Scopoli.

morioides, S.

scapularis.

analis 1 S.

lateralis, S.

RHAalONlAD^.

Thereva, Latr.
plagiata.
nigra, S.
notata, W.
aurata.
frontalis, S.

Insects. 597

Leptis, F.

ornata, S.
humeralis.
trifasciata.
auricincta.
plumbea ? S.

DOLICHOPID.?;.

Dolichopus, Latr.

atricornis.
Porphyrops, Meig.

quadriplagiatus.
Psilopus, Meig.

sipho, S. Dolichopus sipho, S.

scutellatus.
Platypeza, Meig.

appendiculata.
Scenopinus, Latr.

pallipes, S.

TABANIAD^.

Tabanus, L-

atratus, F.
cinctus, F.
lineola, F.
divisus.
lieneatus, F.
raolestis 1 S.
Chrj^sops, Meig.

ferrugatus 1 F. vau.
confusus.
vittatus, W.
ischiacus.

XVLOPHAGID^.

Mydas, F.

filata, L. clavala ? Drury, F.
Xylophagus, F.

heros.

fascipennis.

politus.

incisuralis.
Coenomyia, Latr.

pallida, S.
Boris ? Latr.

I'uscitarsis.

STRATYOMYADjE.

Stratyomys, Geoffroy.

viridicincta.

abdoininalis.

intermedia, W.

ischiaca.

amoenifrons.

quadripunctala.
Sargus, F.

scutellatus.

decorus, S.

74

598 Animals in Massachusetts.

SYRPHIAD^.

Volucella, Geoffroy.

basalis,
Sericomyia, Meig.

tuberculata.
Eristalis, Meig,
pterelas.
fascicollis.
posticatus 1 F.
sincerus.
pervagus.
saxorum.
Helophilus, Meig-

appensus.
Syrphus, Latr. (Scaeva, F. and Say)
concavus, S.
quadratus, S.
lachrymosus, S.
vittatifrons.
teretus,
simulalus.
angulalus.
encaustus.
cylindricus, S.
obliquus.
geminatus'? S.
marginatus t S.
Chrysogaster, Meig.

ruficornis.
Baccha, Meig.
aurinota.
Sphecomyia, Latr. (Pyrgota? W.)
undata.
valida.
Psarus, Latr.

quadrifasciatus, S. Paragus quadrifasciatus, S,
Merodon, Meig.

bardus, S. Milesia barda, S,
tudicornis.
curvipes. W.
Xylota, Meig.

ejuncida, S.
proxima, S.
hsematodes, S.
Milesia, Latr.
ornata, F.
obliqua.
excentrica.
analis.
ischiaca.
verbosa.
gnava.
Rhingia, Scopoli.
nasica, S.

Insects. 599

(ESTRIADJE.

CEstrus, L.

buccatus,'F. cuniculil Clarke,
equi, L.
ovis, L.
bovis, L.

CONOPIAD^.

Conops, L. (Systropus ? W

sagittaria, S.

interrupta.
Myopa, F.

vesiculosa.
Stomoxys, Geoflroy.

calcitrans 1 L.

pallida.

MUSCIADJE.

Echinomyia, Dumeril.

obesa. bombylatis 1 F.
_ tessellata ? F.
Gonia, Meig.

vertebrata.

basalis.

tarda,
Gymnosoma, Meig.

rotundata, L.
Trichopoda, Latr.

jugatoria, S. Phasia jugatoria, S.
Ocyptera, Meig.

lateralis.

galerucas. (Perhaps not a true Ocyptera.)
Melanophora, Meig.

stygia.
Tachina, F.

plagiata.

algens, W.

vivida. hirta? Drury.

futilis. vanessae.

noctuae.

conica.

incauta.

rubidapex.

errabunda.
Dexia, Meig.

lateralis.
Musca, L.

vomitoria, L.

domestica 1 L.

harpyia.

regina? Meig;

amcena. -

hirticoUis.
Sarcophaga, Meig.

carnaria, L.

Georgina, W.
Anthomyia, Meig.

lunatifrons.

^^^ Animals in Massachusctis.

Anthomyia.

timida.

notatifrons.

calceola.

ischiaca.

reces. raphani.

goniphora.

lenis.
Borborus, Meig. (Sphcxrocera ? Lair.)

planipes.
Cordylura, Fallen.

placida.
Scatophaga, Latr.

postilena.
Loxocera, Latr.

atricornis.
Lissa, Meig. (Lissomyia.Sav, Mss )

polita. •' '

Tetanura, Meig.

pallida.
Sapromyza, Fallen.

siibfasciata.
Tetanocera, Dumeril.

cauta.

cribraria.
Calobata, Meig.

antennajpes, S.

agilis.
Diopsis, L. (Sphyracephela, Say.)

brevicornis, S.
Sepsis, Fallen.

cylindrica, F;

pulris, L.
Ortalis, Fallen.

cerasi, L.

colon.

niiphera.
Trypeta, Meig.

sepentaria. "»

tribulis.

quadrifa-sciata.

trifasciata.

cinctipes.

albiscutellata.

picta, F.
Lauxania, Latr.

lapsans.
Loncha-a, Fallen.

polita.
Phora, Latr.

velox. '

HIPPOBOSCIAD^.

Olfersia, Leach,

Americana, Leach.

X.— APTERA.
Pulex, L.

irntans, L.

Insects. 601

The first edition of the preceding list of insects was chiefly prepared daring the
year 1830 ; but, before its publication in 1833, all the species, whether named or
Dot, which were included in the several orders, were enumerated as below.

I. Coleoptera 994

II. Orthoptera 44

III. Hemiptera 102

IV. Omoptera 54
V. Neuroptera 91

VI. Hymenopelera . 388

VII. Lepidoptera 428

VIII. Slrepsiptera 1

IX. Diptera 247

X. Aptera 1

2350

I believe this to be the first instance in which the public has been presented
with any thing like a complete list of the insects of any part of our country ; *
and, in making this and the subsequent attempt, I have had before me not one of
the numerous catalogues of insects which have been published in Europe. Many
of the most valuable, important, and standard works on Entomology are known
to me only by name! they are beyond the means of an individual to procure, and
are not to be found in our public libraries, which are lamentably deficient in the
most approved works on this subject. In the present state of the science, ento-
mology cannot advantageously be pursued without books, and collections from
other countries for study and comparison : for the want of these the'secondj'edition
of this catalogue, though much enlarged, is very far from being coniiplete ; a great
number of our insects have necessarily been left without names, it being found im-
possible, without consulting authorities inaccessible to me, to refer them even to
their proper genera. This is more particularly the case with the Lepidoptera,
the list of which is now reprinted without alteration from the first copy.

To the names of insects, which have been ascertained by means of published
descriptions, are annexed the names or initials of the Jlrst describers, together
with some of the most common Synonyms which have been imposed by subse-
quent entomologists. Those without such authorities are, so far as I can ascer-
tain with my limited means of information, new species, which remain to be de-
scribed hereafter. In those cases where two or three difl^erent names have
been proposed for an undescribed insect I have thought proper to retain them, on
account of the uncertainty as to which will be finally adopted and sanctioned
when the insect is described.

Mr. Say, the author of the ' American Entomology,' has done me the honor
to name a large number of my new species, and has rendered me important
iissistance in determining many of the genera, particularly in the orders Omop-
tera and Diptera.

It is not improbable that some species, which'are to be found in collections inthis
vicinity, are omitted in the catalogue; for in drawing it up, (with the exception
of a few remarkable insects, which a single examination sufficed to determine
and fix in the recollection,) I have deemed it expedient, on account of the impor-
tance of having them always accessible for the purpose of examination and com-
parison, to confine myself to the insects in my own collection. I have included in
the catalogue some insects which, though found beyond the boundaries of the
State, may eventually be detected in Massachusetts, For these, and an immense
number of duplicates, I am indebted to my friend the Rev. L. W.Leonard of
Dublin, N. H., who has still more increased my obligations to him by his disin-
terested liberality in sendmg me even the rare and undescribed insects of which
he possessed no duplicates. Dr. D. S. C. H. Smith has kindly supplied me with a
suit of insects from Sutton, Mass., among which were nearly a hundred species
new to my collection. My acknowledgments are due also to Wm. Oakes, Esq.,

* The Catalogue of the Rev. F. v, Melsheimer, the only one which has ever been published, Is con-
fined to the Coleoptera, and was printed at Hanover, Pennsylvania, in 1806.

602 Animals in Massachusetts.

of Ipswich, particularly for the water-beetles; and to Prof. N. M. Hentz, formerly
of Northampton, to Drs. Pickering, Gould, and J. S. C. Greene, IMr. John Ran-
dall, Mr. T. Nuttall, Mr. John Bethune, and Miss D. Dix, for several interesting
insects. Even with these valuable accessions the present list must fall very far
short of the actual number of species or kinds existing in this Commonwealth.
The proportion of insects to plants has been stated to be six species of the former
to one of the latter. The flowering plants of Massachusetts amoimt to above
1200 species; hence our insects cannot be much less in number than 7000 species.

T. WILLIAM HARRIS,

Librarian of Harvard University.
Cambridge, (Ma.ss.) Oct. 16, 1831.

IX.— RADIATA.

This extensive class of animals has yet received but little attention in Massa-
chusetts ; comprehending, as it does, creatures of not much use to man, and for
the most part inhabiting places out of the reach of common observation. In re-
spect to some of them, also, it seems not yet to be agreed, whether they ought to
be regarded as animals or plants. Through the assistance of Dr. Gould, I am
able to mention a few genera and species. But I hope the deficiency of the list
will lead those naturalists, who are favorably situated for examining these ani-
mals, to enlarge and perfect it.

I.— ECHINODERMATA.

Asterias.

spinosus, Say. Sea-Star. Whole coast.
Echinus.

granulatus, Say. Sea-urchin. do.
Scutella.

pentaphora. Beaches on the whole coast.

CLASS II.— ENTOZOA.

Filaria.

many species.
Tricocephalus.

dispar, Rudolphi. Inhabiting man.
Ascaris.

lumbricoides, Lin. do.

vermicularis, Lin. do.

mystax, Rud. Inhabiting the cat.
Strongylus.

gigas, Rud. Kidneys of the Mmk, &c.
Planaria.

several species.
Taenia.

taJi!™' \ "^^J^^ ^°""' "' ""'^•
Ta;nia,

inhabiting the cat.
Oyster us.

cellulosse, Gmel. On hogs, producing measles.
Csenurus.

cerebialis, Gmel. Brain of Sheep, producing the staggers.

Badinta. 603

CLASS 111.— ACALEPHA.

Cyanea.

aurita, L. Sun fish — common,
one other Medusa.

CLASS IV.— CARNOSL

Actinia.

marginata, Say. Nahant. Seaaneinone.
Lucernaria.

one species. Northern coast.

CLASS v.— POLYPI.

Flustra.

one species, on sea weed, &c.
Corallina.

officinalis, attached to rocks shells, &,c.
Spongia.

racemosa. Chelsea Beach.
fluviatilis,L.inponds.Leverett,&Chesterfield.
one more, Boston Harbor.

CLASS VL— IxNFUSORIA.

Vibrio.

glutinis, paste,
aceti, vinegar,
and numerous other species.

X.— CATALOGUE OF PLANTS,
GROWING WITHOUT CULTIVATION.

In the arrangement of the tbllowing Catalogue, I have followed, — as the latest
and most accurate, — the Natural System of Prof. Lindley, as adapted to North
American Plants by Prof. Torrey. The sources from which I have derived'ma-
terials for constructing this list, are mainly the following ; First, Professor Bige-
low's ' Collection of Plants of Boston and its vicinity.' (1824.) Secondly, ' A
Catalogue of Plants Growing without cultivation in the vicinity of Amherst
College;' (1829,) with such additions and corrections as I have been able to
make since the time of its publication. Thirdly, Professor Dewey's Catalogue
of Plants found in the County of Berkshire, (1829,) inserted in the History of
Berkshire. Fourthly, the manuscript communications of Thomas A. Greene
Esq. containing a notice of such plants as he has discovered in the vicinity of
New Bedford and on the Island of Nantucket, not mentioned in the last edition
of Bigelow's ' Florula Bostoniensis.'

To the Latin or scientific names of the plants, I have attached their common
names, whenever I could ascertain that they have excited attention enough to re-
ceive a common name. But it will be seen that comparatively few of our plants
have received common names.

When a capital A. is attached to a species, it implies that the plant grows in
the vicinity of Amherst : B. implies that it occurs in the vicinity of Boston: N.
B. that it is found in the region around New Bedford : and B — e that Berkshire
County is its place of growth. In other cases, especially where the species is
very rare, the name of the town where it occurs is mentioned. When no local
designation is annexed, I have reason to suppose that the plant may be found in
any part of the State of considerable extent. In some of the flowerless plants,
however, there is an exception to this remark ; as will be mentioned under Mus-
coideae.

In reducing our plants to the Natural Orders I have received the assistance of
Dr. John Blodget of Amherst.

ABBREVIATIONS.

? Indicates a doubt as to the species.

§ Prefixed to those plants that have been introduced or naturalized.

Names of Botanical Writers.

Ait. for Alton.

Brid. — Bridel.

Big. — Bigelow,

R. Br. — R. Brown.

Bull. — Bullard.
De. Cand. — Decandolle.

Des. — Desfuntaines.

Dicks. — Dickson.

Dill. — Dillenius.

Ehrh. — Ehrhart.

Ell. — Elliott.

Fr. — Fries.

Hall. — Haller.

Hedw. — Hedwig-.

I'Herit. — I'Heritier.

Hook. — Hooker.

Hoffm. — Hoflman .

Jacq. — Jacquin.

Lamb. — Lambert.

L. — Linnseus.

Lind. — Lindley.

Lmk. — Lamarck.

Mx. — Michaux.

Mx. f. — Michaux liliu.s.

Muhl. — Muhlenberg.

Nutt. — Nuttall.

P. de B. — Palisot de Beauvois;

Pers. — Persoon.

Ph. — Pursh.

Raf. — Rafinesque.

Rich. — Richard.

Salis. — Salisbury.

Schaell — Schaeffer.

Schk. — Schkuhr.

Schrad. — Schrader.

Schreb. — Schreber.

Schw. — Schweinilz.

Sibth. — Sibthorp.

Sm. — Smith.

Sprang. — Sprengel.

Sw. — Swartz.

Tor. — Torrey.

Tourn. — Totirnefort.

Vent. — Ventenat.

Walt. — Walter.

Wang. — Wangenheim,
Web. & M, — Weber & Mohr.

W. _ Willdenmv.
75

CLASS I.— VASCULARES,

OR

FLOWERING PLANTS.

SUB CLASS I— EXOGENiE OR DICOTYLEDONS.
TRIBE I.— ANGIOSPERMiE.
1 Polypetalous, Apetalous, and Achlami/deotis Planti.

ARALIACE^.

Aralia, L.

hispida, Mx. Brlitly Stem Sarmparilla.
nudicaulis, L. Wild Sarsaparilla.
racemosa, L. Spikenard,
Panax, L-

quinquefolium, L. Ginseng. A.

trilolium, L. Dn-arf Ground Nut.

UMBELLIFER5:.

^thusa, L.

§ cynapiuni, L. Fool's Parsley. Boston.
Angelica, L.

atropurpurea, L. triquinata, Big. Angelica.
Cicuta, L.

bulbifera, L. Bulbiferous Cicuta.

maculata, L. American Hemlock.
Coniuin, L-

maculatum, L. Poison Hemlock

crantzia, Nutt.
Crantzia, Nutt.

lineata, Nutt. Near Boston: found by Mr. Nuttall. B. D. Greene Esq.
Cryptotaenia, De Cand.

Canadensis, De Cand. Sison, L. Chaerophyllum, Pers. Hone Wort. Mock

[Sanicle.
Daucus, L.

§ carota, L. Carrot. B — e.
Discopleura, De Cand.

capillacea, De. Cand. Ammi capillaceuvi, Spreng. Bishop- Weed. N. B.
Heracleum, L.

lanatnm, Mx. Cov Parsnip.
Hydrocotyle, L.

Americana, L.

umbel la t a, L. B.

vulgaris, Mx. N. B.
Ligusticum, L.

scoticum, L. B. Sea Lavage.
Osmorhiza, Raf Uraspermum, Nutt. Scandh; Muhl.

longisiylis, De Cand.

brevistylis. DeCaiid. Sweet Cicely.

Flowering Plants, 607

Pastinaca, L. Parsnip.

§ sativa, L.
Sanicula, L.

Marilandica, L. Sanicle.
Slum, L.

latifoliutn, L. Water Parsnip.

lineare, Mx.
Smyrnium, L.

aureum, L. Sison aureus, Spreng. Thaspinm anrcum, Nutt. Meadow

[Parsnip. A.
RANUNCULACE^.

Actoea, L-

alba, Big.

racemosa, L. Cimicifuga serpentaria, Ph. Black Snake Root. B — e

rubra, Willd. Bane-berry. [Mr. M. A. Curtis.

Anemone, L.

nemorosa, De Cand. Low Anemone.

thalictroides, L. Rue Anemone. Thalictrum anemonoidcs. Mx.

Virgiiiiana, L. Wind-Flower.
Aquilegia, L.

Canadensis, L. Columbine.
Atragene, L.

Americana, Sims. Atragene. Clematis verticillaris, Dc Cand.
Caltha, L.

palustris, L. Cowslip.
Clematis, L,

Virginiana, L. Virgin^ s Boicer.
Coptis, Salisbury.

trifolia, Salis. Gold Thread.
Hepatica, W.

triloba, W. Liverwort.
Ranunculus, L.

abortivus, L.

acris, L. Buttercup.

bulbosus, L,

cymbalaria, Ph.

fascicularis, Muhl.

filiformis, Mx. reptans, L.

Hammula, L. Spear Wort.

fluvitalis, W. River Croicfoot.

hirsutus, Curtis, B — e.

multifidus, Ph. B.

Pennsylvanicus, L. B.

recurvatus. Ph.

repens, L.

sceleratus, L. Celery Crowfoot.
Thalictrum, L.

dioicum, L. Meadoio Rue.

cornuii, Hooker, p^ibescens Ph. revolulU7/i, De. Cand.
PAPAVERACEyE.

Chelidonum, L.

majus, W. Celandine.
Sanguinaria, L.

Canadensis, L. Blood Root.
NYMPH^EACE-E.

Nymphaea, L-

odorala. Ait. White Pond Lily.

608 Plants in Massachusetts.

Nuphar, Sm.

ad vena, Ait. Ydloic Water Lily.
kalmiana, Ait.

HYDROPELTIDEJS.

Hydropeltis, Mx-

purpurea, Mx. Water Shield.

PODOPHYLLE.'E.

Podophyllum, L.

peltatum, L. May Apple.

CRUCIFER.*;.

Arabis, L.

falcata, Mx. Canadensis, L.

hastata, L. Hairy Tower Mustard.

hirsuta, Smith. Turritis hirsuta, Jacq.

rhomboidea, Ph. B. Cardamine rhomboidea, De Cand.

thaliana, L, Spring Cress. B — e.
Barbarea, R. Brown.

vulgaris, R.Br. Erysimum barbarea, L. Water lia dish.
Brassica, L.

§ napus, L. Kale.
Cakile, L.

Americana, Null. Bunias maridma, Ph. B. Am. Sea Rocket.
Cardamine, L.

Pennsylvanica, W. Water Cress.

Virginica, W. B — e.

teres "? Mx. A. Dr. G. White.
Cochlearia, L.

§ armoracea, L. Horse Radish.
Dentaria, L.

diphylla, Mx. Tooth Root. A.

laciniata, A. Muhl.
Draba, L.

arabizans, Mx. B — e.
Erophila, De Cand.

vulo'aris, De Cand. Draba verna. Ph. Whitlow Grass.
Lepidium, L.

Virginicum, L. Wild Peppergrass.
Nasturtium, Brown.

amphibium, Brown. Sisymhrimn amphibium, L. Water Radish.

officinale, Brown. Sisymbrium 7iasturtium, L. English Water Cress.
Raphanus, L.

§ raphanislrum, L. Cadlock, Wild Radish.
Sinapis, L.

§ nigra. Mustard, L.
Sisymbrium, Allioni.

officinale, De Cand. Erysimum officinale, L. Hedge Mustard,.
Thalspi, L.

bursa-pastoris, L. Shepherd's Purse.

campestris, L. Yellowseed.

FUMAR IACE«.

Corydalis Vent.

fungosa, Pers. Adlmnia cirrhosa, Raf. Climhing Colic Weed.

glauca, Ph.
Diclyira, De Cand.

cucuUaria, De Cand. Corydalis cuciillaria,Pers. Colic Weed.

formosa, De Cand. A. Corydalis formosa , Ph.

^'lowering Plants. G09

Fumaria, L.

§ officinalis, L. Fumitory.

MAGNOLIACK*.

Liriodendron, L.

tnlipifera, L. Tulip Tree. A. and N. B.
Magnolia, L.

glauca, L. Bearer Tree. Sicamp Laurd. (Ihucester.
LAUR1NE.«.

Laurus, L.

benzoin, L. Spice Bush. Fever Bush.
sassafras, L. Sassafras.

EERBERIDE.'E.

Berberis, L.

vulgaris. L. Barberry. L.
Leontice, L.

thalictroides, L. Caidoph yllum tkalictrouics, Mc. Pappose
Root. Cohosh.

MEN1SPERME7E.

Menispermum, L.

Canadense, L. Moonseed. A.

MALVACEAE.

Althaea, L.

officinalis, L. Marsh Mallows. B. and N. B.
Hibiscus, L.

palustris, L. B. Marsh Hibiscus.
Malva, L.

rotundilblia. L. Low Mallou-s.

§ sylvestris. L. High Malloies.
Sida, L.

abutilon,L, Indian Mallows. A.
TlLlACE^.
Tilia, L.

glabra. Vent. Bass Wood.

pubescens. Ait. Americana, Wall, Bass Wood.
HYPERICINE a:.

Hypericum, L.

angulosum, Mx.

ascyroides, W. Saint John's Wort.
Canadense, L.
cor3'^mbosum, W.
cystifoliiim, Lmk. A.
parviflorum, W.

perforatum, L. Saint John's Wort.
sarothra, Mx. Sarothra gentirmoides, W.
Virginicum, L. Elodea campanuloda, Ph.
SAXlTRAGEiE.

Chrysosplenium, L.

Americanum, Hooker, oppositifolium, L. Golden Saxifrage.
Mitella, L.

cordifolia, L. B — e.

diphylla, L. Currant Berry. A.
Painassia, L.

Caroliniana, Mx. Parnassus Grass.
Saxifraga, L.

Pennsylvanica, L. Water Saxifrage.

Virginiensis, Mx. Rock Saxifrage.

^>10 Plants in Masnachusctfs.

Tiarella, L.

cordifolia, L. MUrc VVort.

HAMAMELIDE.E.

Hamamelis, L-

Virginica, L. Mitch- Hazel.

GROSSULACEiE.

Ribes, L.

cynobasti, Jaccj. B — e. Wild Gooscbci ry.

gracile, Mx. A.

floridum, I'Herit. Black Currant.

lacustre, Ph. A. & B — e. Gooseberry.

prostratum, L Herit. A.

rigens, Mx. B. & A.

triflorum, W. Wild Gooseberry,

trilidum, Mx. B — e.

CACTE.-E.

Cactus, L.

opuntia, L. Nantucket T. A. Greene. Opvntia vulgaris, De Cand.

[Prickly Pear.
onaoraria:.
Epilobium, L.

coloratum, Muhl.

lineare, Muhl. rosmarinifolium, Ph.

molle, Torrey. A.

palustre, L. B — e.

spicatum, Lara. Willow Herb.
Isnardia, L.

palustris, L. Water Purslane.

alternilblia, De Cand. Ludwigiaallcrnifolia, L. Seed Bo.z.
(Enothera, L.

biennis, L. Scabish. Tree Primrose.

chrysantha, Mx. B — e. var.of Q^. puviila?

fruticosa, L. Plymouth. T. A. Greene.

pumila, L.

halorage^.
Myriophyllum, L.

ambiguum, Nultall. N. B.

procumbens, Big. Danvers.

spicatum, L. B.
Myriophyllum.

tenellum. Big. Tewksbury and Plainfield.

verticillatum, L. Water Milfoil.
Proserpinaca, L.

palustris, L. Mermaid Weed.

pectinacea, Lam. N. B.

ClRCJEACEiE.

Circaea, L.

alpina, L. Encluinter's Night Shade.

lutetiana, L. Canadensis, Muhl.
LOASE^.
Centaurella, Mx.

paniculata, Mx. Barlonia pamculala, Muhl. Screw Stem.

SALlCARl^.

Ammannia, L.

humilis, Mx. B.
Cuphea, Jacq.

vicosisima. Jacfj. Pittsfield. Dr. G. White.

Floiocriiiir Fldutx. Gil

Lytln-urn, L.

hyssupilbliuin, L. B.

salicaria, Ph. N. B.

verticillatum, L. /?ecy(/(>« rcrtidlhitimi, FJl.>Ji'-omp inlloir Herb.

MELASTOMACEvE.

Rhexia, Brown.

Virgiuica, L. Meadow Beauty. Deer Grass.
aristolochia;.
Asarum, L.

Canadense, L. Wild Ginger.
santalace>e.
Nyssa, L.

biflora, Walt. Sour G:tm. A. and PlymoiUh. T. A Greeue.
villosa, Mx. Sour or Black Gum.
Thesium, L.

umbellatum, L. False Toad Flax.
THYMELEiE.

Dirca, L.

palu-stris, L. Moose Wood. Leather Wood.
SANGUISORBEJE.

Sanguisorba, L.

Canadensis, L. Burnet Saxifrage. A. & B.
ROSACEjE.

Agrimonia, L.

eupatoria, L. Agrimony.
Amelanchier, De Cand.

botryapium,De Cand. Aroniabotryapium, L.

ovalis, De Cand. Aro. ovalis, Pers.

sanguinea, De Cand. Pyrus. sang. Ph. Western part of the State ? Big.

Comaropsis, Rich.

fragrarioides, De Cand. B— e and A. Daliharda fragrarioides, Mx.
Dalibarda, L.

repens, Lmk. Greenfield and Princeton.
Fragraria, Tourn.

Virginian a, L. Strawberry.
Geum, L.

rivale, L. Purple Avens.

strictum, Ait. Upright Avens.

Virginianum, L. Avens.
Potentilla, L.

anserina, L. B.

argentea, L. Silver Five Finger.

Canadensis, L. Five Finger.

confertiflora, Torrey. Bootia sylvestris, Big. Geum argrimonoides,

fruticosa, L. rpi

norwegica, L. Cinqv£foil.

pailaslTiSjScoii. Comar'umpalustrc.L. B-e& B.

simplex, Mx. B.

tridentata,Ait. Hoosic Mountain «S:Waclui.vett.

(]\2 Vhiiits ill Massachusetts,

l«osa. L.

corymbosa, EIuIl Ciunli/ii/.L. Siranip Roue.

lucida, Ehrh. B — e.

micranlha, Sm. B.

parviflora, Ehrh. CaruUninnn. Mx.

I rubigiiiosa, L. Sweet Briar.
Rubus, Tj.

Canadensi:^, L.

frondosus. Big. B.

obovalis, L.

occidental is, L. Black Raspberry.

odoratus. L. Flowering Raspberry.

setosus, Big. B.

strigosus, Mx. Red Raspberry.

saxatilis, Mx. Stone Raspbernj. B.

trivalis, Mx. scnipervirens,Big ? Dewberry.

villasus, Ait. Bladcberry.
Spiraea, L.

salicifolia, Mx. Hard Hack.

toinentosa, L. Steeple Bush.
POMACES.

Cratcegu.s, L.

cocciuea, L. Thorn Bush.

crusgalli. Ait. B. Thorn Bush.

punctata, Jacq. Thorn Bush.
Pyrus, L. Aronia, Pers.

Americana, De Cand. Sorbjis Americnnn. Ph. Mountain ,4.s/<.

arbutilblia, Var. melanocarpa. Tor.
AMYGDALEJE.

Cerassus, .Tuss. Prunus, L-

bo real is, Mx. P. bo r calls, Ph. Choke Cherry.

Canadensis, De Cand. P. Canadensis, W.

depressa, De Cand. P.depressa,Ph.Sand Cherry.

pubescens, De Cand. P. littoralis, Big.

pumiia, Mx. P.p^tniila, Lam.

serotina, De Cand. P.serotina,Ph.non W. oborata.Big. Choke Cherry.

Virginiana, Mx. P. Virg. L. Wild Cherry.
Primus, L.

Americana, Marshall Wild Plum. A.

mollis, Tor. B— e.

leguminosea:.
Amphicarpa, De Cand.

monoica, Ell. GlycinePea Vine, monoica, L.
Apios, Ph.

tuberosa,Moench. Ground Nut, Glycine apios, f-"
Baptisia, Vent.

tinctoria, R. Brown. Wild Indigo.
Cassia, L.

chamaecrista, L. Partridge Pea.

Marilandica, L. Wild Senna.

nictitans, L. Hadley, Springfield, and N.B.
Crotolaria, L.

sagittalis, L. Ral/lc Bor.
Genista, Lam.

tiactoiia, L. Di/er's Weed. B.

Flowering Plants . 613

Hedysarum, L. Desmodlum, T)e Cand-

acuminatum. Mx.

brac.teosum, Mx.

Canadense, L. Eu^h Trefoil

ciliare, Nutt. B — e.

cuspidatuml W. B.

humifusum, Mulil.

nudiflornm, L.

obtusum, Muhl. A. and N. B.

paiiiculatum, L.

rotundifolium. Mx,

viridiflorum, L.
Lalhyrus, L.

palustris, L. B.
Lespedeza, Mx.

angustifolia.Ell. Plymouili, T. A, Greene.

capitata, Mx.

polystachia. Mx.

procumbens, Mx.

prostrata, Ph. B.

reticulata, Pars.

sessiliflora, Nntt.

violacea, Pens.
L<ipinus, L.

perennis, L. Wild Lupine.
Medicago, L.

lupulina, L. B.
Phaseolus, L.

trilobus, Mx. B. Bean Vine.
Pisum, L.

maritium, L. Sea Pea. B. lAilhyms maridmiis, Big.

Robinia, L.

pseudacacia, L. Locust Tree.
Tephrosia, L.

Virginiana, Pers. Galega virginiana, L. Pers. Goafs Rue.

Trifolium, L.

agiarium. L. Cummington.

arven.se, L. Field Clover.

ofi[cina\e,L.. Melilot us nffir.inah.'^, U'. Mehlot.

pratense, L. Red Claver.

procumbens, L.

repens, L. White Clover.
Vicia, L.

cracca, L. Vetch.

pusilla, Muhl. B.Ervinn letraspennnni, L.

sativa, L. To?"e.

URTICE.E.

Boehmeria, W.

cylindrica, W. False Nettle.
Humulus, L

lupulus, L. Hop.
Parietaria, L.

Pennsylvanica,Muhl.Sugar loaCDeerfielil.
Urtica, L.

Canadensis, L. Yellow Nettle. A .

dioica. L. Corurnou Nettle.

76

614 Plants in Massachmtits.

Urtica, L.

procera, Muhl. B — e.
pumila, L. Stingless NeUle.
urens, L. Dwarf Stinger.
ULMACEjE.

Celtis, L.

occidentalis, L. NelUe Tree. Deerfield and Waltham
Ulmus, L.

Americana, L. Elm.

fulva, Mx. Slippery Elm.
ARTOCARPE^.

Moras, L.

§ alba, L. While Mulberry.
rubra, L. Red Mulberry. ' Deeriield ?
CUPULIFER^.

Castanea, Tourn.

Americana, Mx. Chesnut.
Corylus, L.

Americana, -Walt. Hazel Nut.

rostrata, Ait. Beaked Hazel Nut.
Fagus, L.

ferruginea. Ait. Beech Tree,
Quercus, L.

alba, L. White Oak.

bicolor, W:

ambigua ? Mx. et fil.

banisteri, Mx. Shriib Oak.

coccinea, Wang. Scarlet Oak.

montana, W. Chesuut Oak.

palustris, W. Pi7i Oak. A.

prinos-chinchapin, Mx. A. Chinquapin. 2 to 6 feet high.

prinos-discolor, Mx. Swamp }Vk^t^; Oak.

rubra, L. Fed Oak.

tinctoria, Mx. Black Oak.
BETULINE.E.

Alnus, W.

glutinosa, L. A

serrulata, Willd. Alder.
Betula, L.

excelsa. Ait. Yelloio Birch.

glandulosa, Mx. B — e. Shrub Birch.

lenta, L. Black Birch.

papyracea. Ait. Canoe Birch.

populifolia. Ait. White Birch.

pumila, L.

rubra, Mx. & fil. nigra, L. Red Birch. B — e.
Carpinus, L.

Americana, W. Horn Beam.
Ostrya, Mx.

Virginica, W. Iron Wood. Hop Hornbeam.
SAL1C1NE.E.

Popiilus, L.

balsamifera, L. Balsam Poplar.
candicans, Ait. Balm of Gilead.
' § dilatata, L. Lombard ij Po-plar.

Fhwering Plants. 615

Populus, L,

grandidentata, Mx. Poplar.

tremuloides, Mx. White Poplar.
Salix, L. Willow.

§ Babylonica, L.

conifera, Wang.

cordata, Muhl.

discolor, Willd. B. Bog Willow.

eriocephala, Mx. Sivamp Willow. B.

falcata, Ph.

grisea, W.

lucida, Muhl.

Muhlenbergiana, W.

myricoidcs, Muhl.

nigra, Marsh.

pedicellaris, Ph.

prinoides, Ph. B — c.

rigida, Muhl.

tristis, Muhl. B— e.

vitellina, L. Yellmo Willuv:.

viminalis, L. Osier Basket Willow. B.
PLATANE.S:.

Platanus, L.

occidentalis, L. Syaimore. Button-Wood.
MVR1CE.E.

Comptonia, Gaert-

asplenifolia, Ait. Sioecl Fern.
Myrica, L.

cerifera, L. Bay Berry.

gale, L. Sv-eet Gale.

JUGLANDEiE.

Carya, Nutt.

alba, Nutt. Juglans sqtuimosa, Mx. Common HicJiory.

amara, Nutt. J. amara, Mx. Bitter Nut. Deerfield and Sheffield.

porcina, Null. J. porcina, Mx. Pig Nvt.

Juglans, L.

cinerea, L. Butternut.
§ nigra, L. Black Walnut.
EUPHORBIACEJE.

Acalypha, L.

Virginica, L. Three seeded Mercury.
Euphorbia, L.

raaculata, L. Spotted Spurge.

helioscopia, L. B.

hypericifolia, L.

polygonifolia, L. B.

CELASTRlNEiE.

Celastrus, L-

scandens, L. False Bitter Siceet.
RHAMNEJE.

Ceanothus, L.

Americanus, L. New Jersey Tea.
Rhamnus, L.

alnifolius, VHexii. Dwarf Alder. Deerfield,

6catharticus, L. Bv.ckihorji.

616 Plants in J\Iossachusct(s,

STAPHYLEACEvE.

Staphylea, L.

thfolia, L. Baldder Nut. Mt. Holyoke, Deerfield, and Weston,
ACERrNEjt.

Acer, L.

dasycarpum, W. criocarpum, Mx. Sitver Maple.
Pennsylvanicun^, L. sir latum, Mo.. Striped Maj I:. Moose- Wood.
rubrum, L. Red Maple.
saccharinum, L. Sugar Maple.

spicatum, L. montarium, Ait. Mountain Maple Bush.
VJTES.

Ampelopsis, Mx.

quinquefolia, Mx. Cissus hcdcracca Pers. False Grape. Five finger.
Vitis, L.

aestivalis, Mx. intermedia, Muhl Summer Grape.

cordifolia, Mx. vulpirm L. Fiost Grape.

labrusca, L. Plum Grape. Fox Grape.
ANACARDIACE.E.

Khus, L.

aromatica, Ait. Fetid Sumach. B — e.
copallina, L. Sumach.
glabra, L. Swmach.
radicans, L. Poison Icy.
toxicodendron, L. Poison Jrij.
typhina, L. Sumach.

venenata, De Cand. remix h. Poison Sumach. P"'' M'-'i.
XANTUOXYLE.t.

Xanthoxylum, L.

fraxineum, W. Prickly Ash.

GERAN) ACEA:.

Geranium, L.

dissectum, Willd. B.

maculatum, L. Crow-Foot Geranium.

robertianum, L. Herb Robert.

OXALIDE^.

Oxalis, L.

acelosella, L. Wood Sorrel.
stricta, L. Yellow Wood Sorrel.
violacea, L. Violet Wood Sorrel.

BALSAMlNEiE.

Impatiens, L.

fulva, Nutt. biflora, Ph. Jewel Weed.
pallida, Nutt. noli tangere, Ph. Touch-jne-not.
POLYGALEA'.

Polygala, L.

cruciata. L. B.

paucifolia, W. Flowering Winter green.
polygaina, Walt, rubella, Muhl.
sanguinea, L.

verticillata, L. Dwarf Snake Root,
VIOLACEiE.

Viola, L.

acuta. Big. B and A.

blanda, W. Smooth Violet.

Canadensis, L. Woods Violet.

cucuUata, Ait. Common Violet.

Muhlenbergii, Tor. dcbilis, Ph. Spear Violet. B.

Flowering Plants. . 617

Viola, L.

lanceolata, L.

obliqua ? Schwein. M'cak Stem Violet.

striata, Ait. ochrokuca, Scfiwcm. Amherst.

ovata, Nutt.

palraata, L. Hand Violet.

pedata, L. Bird foot Violet.

pubescens, Ait. Yellow Violet.

roslrata, Muhl. Beaked Violet.

rotundifolia, Mx. Ground Violet.

sagittata, Ait. Arrow Violet.

§ tricolor, L. Garden Violet.

villosa, Walt.

cistinea:.

Helianthemum, Tourn. Cistus, L.

Canadense, Mx. Rock Rose.

ramuliflorum, Mx. N. B.
Hudsonia, L.

ericoides, L. False Heath. Cape Cod and Nantucket.

tomentosa, Nutt. B. Poverty Grass. Cape Cod and Nantucket.
Lechea, L.

major, L. Pin Weed.

minor, L. Do.

raccmulosa, Mx. Clustered Pin Weed.
SARRACENl^.

Sarracenia, L.

purpurea, L. Sidesaddle Floicer.
droseracea:.
Drosera, L.

longifolia, L.

rotundifolia, L. San Dew.
lenuifolia, Muhl. B.

LINE^.

Linum, L.

Virginianum, L. Wild Flax.
CARYOPHYLLE.E.

Agrosteinma, L:

githago. L. Cockle.
Arenaria, L,

lateriflora, L. Sand Wort. Springfield.

marina, Sm. Canadensis, Pcrs. B.

peploides, L. B.

rubra, L. B. & A.

§ serpyllifoliaj L.
Cerasiiuin, L.

§ arvense, L.

hirsutum, Muhl. A 7 connatunt, Beck.

oblongifolium, Torrey.

§ semidecandrum, L.

tenuifolium. Ph.

§ viscosum, L.

vulgatum, L. C/iickweed:
Cucubalus, L.

behen, L.

btellalus, L. B. Star Campion.

618 Plants in Massachusetts.

Dianthus, L.

armeria, L. PM, B. and Banks of Ct. River near Mt. Tom
Mollugo, L.

verticillata, L. Carpet Weed.
Sagina, L.

procumbens, L. Pearl Wort.
Saponaria, L.

§ officinalis, L. Bouncing Bet. Soap Wort.

vaccaria, L. Field Soap Wort. Williamstown.
Silene, L.

anlirrhina, L. Sleepy catch Fly. Snap Dragon.

Pennsylvanica, Mx. Pink Catch Fly.
Spergula, L.

arvensis, L. Spurry.
Stellaria, L.

lanceolata, Torrey.

longifolia, Muhl. Longleafed Starworl.

mediaj Smith. Alsine media, L. Chickweed.
PORTULACEiE.

Claytonia, L.

Virginica, L. Spring Beauty.
Portulacca, L.

oleracea, L. Purslane.

CRASSULACE.E.

Pcnlhorum, L.

sedoides, L. Virginian Orpiiw.
llLECEBRE.t.

Queria, L.

Canadensis, L. Amjchia dichotoma , Mx. Fork Chickweed
AMARANTHACE^.

Amaranth US, L.

§bli»um. Willd. B.

hybridus, L.

§ oleraceus, L"? Pot AviaraMh.

pumilus, Nutt. Nashawn Island. T. A. Greene.

retroflexus, L. B. B— e. Mr. M. A. Curtis.

SCLERANTHEiE.

Scleranthus, L.

annuus, L. Gravel Chichceed.
CHENOPODEiE.

Acnida, L.

cannabina, L. Water Hemp, B.
Atriplex, L.

arenaria, Null. N. B.

patula, L. B.
Blitum, L.

capitatum, L. Strawberry Elite.
Ghenopodium, L-

§ album, L. Pigioeed. Hogvjeed.

§ botrys, L.' Oak of Jerusalem.

§ hybridum, L. Tall Goosefoot.

rhombifolium, Muhl. B. Mr. M. A. Curtis.

rubrum, L. Rusty Pigweed, Red Goosefoot.^
Salicornia, L.

herbacea, L; Samphire. Glass Wort. B.

Flowering- FLmts. 619

Salicornia, L-

miicronata, Big. B.

anibigua, Mx. N. B.
Salsola, L.

Carolinia. Mx, E.

salsa, Mx. B.

PHYTOLACCEiE.

Phytolacca, L.

decandra, L. PoLe nxcd.
POLYGONEJE.

Polygonum, L,

amphibium, L.

arif'olium, L. Knotieeed.

articulatum, L.

aviculare, L. Joint Weed.

cilinode, Mx.

coccineum, W. B.

convolvulus, L. Bi7id Knolvced.

§ fagopyrum, L. Buck Wheat.

lapathifolium, L. A.

mite, Pers. Tasteless Knotweed.

§ orientale, L. Princes Feathers.

persicaria, L. Hearth Ease.

Pennsylvanicum, N. B.

punctatum. Ell. Biting K'notweed.

sagittatum, L. Prickly Knoticeed.

scandens, L. Climbing Buck wheat.

tenue, Mx. Sleiider Knot Grans.

Virginianum, L.
Rumex, L.

acetosella, L. Field Sorrel.

acutus "? L.

Brittanicus, L. B.

crispus, L. Dock.

obtusifolius, L. Broad Leaved Dock.

pallidus, Big. B.

PODOSTOMEiE.

Podostemum, Mx.

ceratophyllum, Mx. Thread Foot. A.
CALLITRICHINE.E.

Callitricho, L.

linearis, Pli. A. & N. B.
verna, Muhl.

CERATOPHVLLE.E

Ceratophyllum, L.

demeisum, L. Nantucket. Homwort.
II. — Monopeialous PlatUs.

ILICINEjE.

Ilex, L.

Canadensis, Mx. Neviopanthes Canadensis^ De Cand. Mountain Holhj.

opaca, Ait. Evergreen Holly. B.
Prinos, L.

ambiguus, Mx. B.

glaber, L. B.

verticillatu.s, L. Winter Berry. Black Alder.

6'20 Plants in Massarhiisftti

KRICE.K.

Andromeda, L.

calvculala, L. Leather Leaf.
ligiistrina, Mulil. n'k'ite Hush.
paniculaia. Mx. B.
polifolia, L. A.
racemosa, iVlx. B.
Arbutus, L

uva ursi, L. Bear Hern/.

Azalea, L.

nudiflora, L. Rkododendronnudijioriim. Tor. Iloiiey >i uckU.
viscosa, S. /?. visrosa, Turrcy. While Huney Suchle.

Clethra, L.

alnifulia. L. S!]»ked Alder. B and Worcester.
E[)igapa, L.

repens, L. Trailing Arljutiis.
Gaullheria, L.

procumbens, L. Partridge Berry.
Kalniia, L,

angastifolia, L. Sheep Laurel.

;^laiica, Ait. Swamp Laurel.

latifolia. L. Lavrel.
Lasiropa, Torrey, MS.

hispidula. Tor. GnulUuria hispulula, Muhl.
Ledum, L.

latifolium, Ait. Labrador Tea. Anihcnt.
Rhododendron, L.

maxiimnn, L. American Rose Bay. MedJiehU^- Dedham.
Rhodora, L.

Canadensis, L. False Honey suckle. A.nndB.
VACCINEyT..

Oxj'coccus, Pers.

macrocarpus, Ph. Cranberry.

vulgaris? Ph. Crattherry.
Vaccinium, L-

corymbosum, L. Giant or Svamp WhivUeherry.

frondosnm, L. Blue Whortleberry.

hirtellum, Ait. B.

Pennsj'lvanicuin, Lam. Black-blue Whortleberry.

resinosum, Ait. Black Whortleberry.

stamineuni, L. Sqvoir or Green Whortleberry. Deer Berry.

tenellum, Ait. B.

virgatum, Muhl. B.

vitis-idea, L. Lynn.

pvrolacea:.
Monotropa, L.

languinosa, Mx. Hypopithy.'^ lanuginosa, S'utt. Pine Sap.

uniflora, L. Bird^s Nest. Tobacco Pipe.
P\Tola, L •

asarifolia, Mx. Winter Green.

elliptica, Nutt.

maculata, L. Chimaphila,, Ph. Spotted, Winter Green.

rotund ifolia, L. Shin-leaf Winter green.

secunda, L. One-sided Wintergrcen.

uuibellata, L. Chimaphila. Ph.Pispi^saira. Prince's Pine. Wintergreen.

uniflora. L. Lvnn. Mr. Oakes.

Flowerins: Plants. 621

CAMPANULACEiE.

Campanula, L.

aparinoides, Ph. Prickly Bell Flower.

perfoliala, L. AmplexicauUs, Mx. Clasping Bell Flower.

rotundifolia, L. Hair Bell, A.

LOBELIACE.E.

Lobelia, L.

cardinalis, L. Cardinal Flo%ver.

dortmanna, L. A. and B.

inflata L. Wild Tobacco.

kalinii, L. A. and B.

Nuttallii? R. and S. Ludlow and Springfield.

pallida, Muhl.

syphilitica, L. B — e.

CUCURBITACE;E.

Mormordica, L.

echinata, Muhl. Hadley and Deerfield.
Sicyos, L.

angulata, L. Single Seed Cucumber. A .
PLANTAGINE.*:.

Plantago, P.

lanceolata, L. Rib Wort.
major, L. Plantain.
maritima, L. B. Sea Plantain.

PLUMBAGINE./E.

Statice, L.

limonium, L. Marsh Rosemary. B.
DIPSACE*.

Dipsacus, L.

§ sylvestris, L. Wild Teasel. Sheffield.
COMPOSlTiK.

Achillea, L-

millefolium, L. Yarrow.
Agathyrnus, Don.

leucophasus, Don, Sonchusleucophctus, W. Sow Thistle.
Ambrosia, L.

elatior, L. Hog Weed. Anakim.

heterophylla, Muhl. B.

trifida, L. Wild Wormwood.
AiUhemis, L.

cotula, L. May Weed.
Apargia, W.

autumnalis W. Oporiniaautwmnale.Don. False Hav-kweed.B.
Arctium, L.

lappa, L. Burdock.
Artemesia, L.

Canadensis, Mx. Wild Wormwood. A. and B.

§ vulgaris, L. Garden Wormwood, Naturalized on the hilly

[parts of the State.
Aster, L.

acuminatus, Mx.

amplexicaulis, Mx. B.

amygdalinus, Mx. vmbeUatus, Ait.

conyzoides, W.

cordifolius, L.

cornifolius, Muhl. B.

corymbosus, Ait.

77

522 Plants in Massachusetts.

Aster, L.

cyaneus, Hoff.

diversifolius, Mx.

dumosus, L.

ericoides, N. B.

leevis, Willd. B.

linariifolius, W.

macrophyllus, Ait.

miser, L. a divergens ; b diffusus.

mulliilorus, W.

mutabilis, W. B.

Novi-AnglisR, L.

Novse-Belgii, L.

paniculatus, Ait. B — e.

phlogifolius, W. B— e.

prenanthoides, W. B — e.

puniceus, L.

rigidus,°W. A.

saiicifolius, W.

solidaginoides, W.

sparsiflorus, Mx. N. B.

spectabilis, Ait. N. B.

tradescauti, W.

subulatus, Mx. Marshfield and B,

umbellatus, Ait. B.
Bidens, L.

cernua, L. N. B.

chrysantheinoideSjW.Paisy Beggar Ticks.

connata, W. A.

frondosa, L. Burr Marygold.

tripartita, L. B.
Carduus, L. Cnicus, W-

altissimus, L.

arvensis, L. Canada Thistle,

discolor, Nutt. Common Thistle.

lanceolatus, L. Common Thistle.

glutinosus, Beck. B. Cnicus glutinosiis, Big,

spinosisimus, Wa,h.lCnicushorridulus, Ph.

pumilus, Nutt. B.
Centaurea, L.

§ nigra, L. B. Har dwJck& Bristol, R. I.
Chrysanthemum, L-

leucanthemum, L. Ox-eyed Daisy.
Cichorium, L.

intibus, L. Succory.
Conyza, L-

camphorata, Ph. C. Marilandica, M.c. Marsh Flea Bane

Coreopsis, L.

trichosperma, Mx. B.

rosea, Nutt. Plymouth. T. A. Greene.
Erigeron, L.

bellidifolium, L.

Canadense, L.

heterophyllum, L.

integrifolium, Big. B.

Philadelphicuni, L.

purpureum, L.

stiigosunij L

Floivering Plants. . 623

Eupatorium, L.

ageratoides, W.

aroniaticum, W. B.

hyssopifolium, L. N. B.

maculatum, L. B— e.

ovatum, Big. B.

perfoliatum, L. Thorough Wort.

pubescens, Willd. B.

purpureum, L. Joe Pije.

sessilifolium, L.

teucrifolium, L. verbenafolium, Mr.

verticillatum, "W. Joe Pye Weed.
Gnaphalium L.

decurrens, Ives.

Germanicum, Sm. N. B.

margaritaceum, L. Life Everlasting.

plantagineum, L. Do.

polycephalum, Mx. Sweet scented do.

purpureum, A. L.

uliginosum, L.
Helianthus, L.

altissimus, L.

decapetalus, L. A. and N. B.

divaricatus, L. B.

truncatus, Schw.

trachelifolius, W. B— e. M.A.Curtis.

§ tuberosus, L. Artichoke.
Helenium, L.

autumnale, L. B — e.
Hieracium, L.

Gronovii, L. A.

kalmii, L.i/. virgatuvi, and H. fasciculatuni, Ph.

marianum, W.

paniculatum, W.

venosum, L. Hatdweed.
Inula, L.

helenium, L. Elecampane. r , . n i

falcata, Ph. N. B. and Nantucket, Chrysopsis falcata, BceK.

Iva, L.

frutescens, L. High Water Shriib. B— e.

"^ ainplexicaulis, Nutt. A. Hyoseris amplexicaulis, Mx. Cynthia amplcxuai^
Yirgiaic^W. Dwarf Da7idelion. C. Virginica, Beck. \_te, tiecK.

Lactuca, L.

elongata, Muhl. Wild Lettuce.

integrifolia, Big. B. and A.

sanguinea, Big. B.

villosa, Jacq. Massachusetts. Beck.
Leontodon, L.

taraxicum, L. Dandelion.
Liatris, L.

scariosa, W. Gay Feather.

spicata, W. B— e. M. A. Curtis.
Mikania, W.

scandens, W. Climbing Thorough Worl.k &B.

624 Plants in Massachusetts.

Onopordon, L.

§ acanthium, L. Cotton Thistle.
Prenanthes, L.

alba, L. Harpalyce alba, Don. White Lettiice.

altissima, L. H. altissima, Don.

cordata, Ph. H. cordata, Don.

virgata, Mx. H. virgata, Don.
Rudbeckia, L.

laciniata, L. Cone Flower.
Senecio, L.

aureus, L. Rag Wort.

balsamitse, W. Balsam Groundsel.

hieracifolius, L. jFire Weed.

obovatus, W.

vulgaris, L. Groundsel.
Solidago, L. Golden Rod.

altissima, W.

arguta, W.

asperal Ait.

bicolor, L.

ceesia, W.

Canadensis, L. B — e.

ciliaris? W.

gigantea. Ait.

lanceolata. Ait.

laevigata. Ait. B.

latifolia, Muhl.

livida, W.

nemoralis Ait.

odora. Ait. Sweet scented golden rod.

rigida, Ait. South Hadley Canal.

serotina, W.

speciosa, Nutt. A.

squarrosa, Nutt. Mt. Holyoke.

stricta, W.

tenuifolia, Ph. Nantucket. T. A. Greene.

ulmifolia, W.
Sonchus, L.

acuminatus, W.

oleraceus, L. Son^ Thistle.

spinulosus, Big. B.
Tussilago, L.

farfara, W. Colt's Foot.

palmata, Ait. Sunderland.
Tanacetum, L.

§ vulgare, L. Tansey.
Vernonia, L.

noveboracensis, W. Flat Top.
Xanthium, L.

spinosum, L. Plainfield. Dr. Porter.

strumarium, L. Clott Burr.
stellata:.
Galium, L

aparine. L.

asprellum, Mx. Rough Bed Straw.

boreale. Ph. Scptentrionale, R. and S.

circaezans, Mx. Liquorice.

lanceolatum, Torrey. Torreyi, Big.

Flo u-c ring 1*1 ants. 625

obtusnin, Big. B.

pilosum, Ait.

linctorium, L. Dyers Cleavers.

trifidiiin, L. Bed Straw. Small Cleavers.

triflorum, Mx.

verum, L. B.

ClNCHONEvE.

Cephalanthus, L.

occidentalis, L. Button, Bush.
Mitchella, L,

repens, L. Checker Berry. Eye Bright.
caprifoliacea;.
Caprifolium, Goldie.

pubescens, Goldie. LonicerahirsiUa, Eaton. Rovgh Woodbine.
Cornus, L.

alba, I'Her. B.
alternifolia, L. B.
Canadensis, L. Dog Wood.
circinata, I'Her.
florida, L. Dog Wood.
paniculata, I'Her.
sanguinea, I'Herit. B — e.
sericea, I'Her.
Diervilla, Tourn.

htimilis, Pers. Loniccra diervilla, L. Bufh Honeysuckle.
Linnsea, Gron.

_ borealis, Gron. Twiti Flower.
Lonicera, L-

parviflora, Lmk.
Sambucus L.

Canadensis, L. Elder.
pubens, Mx. Red Berried Elder.
Triosteum, L.

perfoliatum, L. Fever Root. Deerfield and Cambridge.
Viburnum, L.

acerifolium, L. Maple Guelder Rose.
dentatum, L. Arrovj Wood.
lantanoides, Mx. Hobble Bush. Tangle Legs.
lentago L. Sheep Berry.
nudum, L.

oxycoccus, Ph. High Cra/nherry.
pyrifolium, Lam. Williamstown.
Xylosteum, Tourn.

ciliatum, Ph. Lonicera ciliata,Muhl. Fly Honeysuckle.
villosum, Mx. Deerfield and William.stown.
ASCLEPIADEJE.

Asclepias L. Milk Weed.
incarnata, L.
obtusifolia, Mx.

phytolaccoides, Ph. exaltata et acuminata, Muhl.
quadrifolia, Jacq.

pulchra, W. B. Maiden, M. A. Curtis,
purpurascens, L. B.
syriaca, L; Common Milk Weed.
tuberosa, L. Pleurisy Root. Butterjly Weed.
variegata, L.
verticiliata, L.
viridiflora, Ph. B. and Leicester,

626 Plants in Massachusttts.

APOCYNEJE.

Apocynum, L-

androsremilolimn, L. Dog Bane.
cannabinum, Mx. pubcscais, Brow>i.
hypercifolimn, Ait. John'' s Dog Bane.
GENTIANEjE

Gentiana, L.

crinita, W.

quinqueflora, W. Charlemont and Hoo.-iic Mt.

pneumonanthe. L. B.

saponaria, L. " Soap Gentian.
Houstonia, L.

coerulea, L. Fe/wx' Pride.

longifolia, Willd. B.
Menyanthes, L.

trilbliata, L. Btcclc Bean. B. and A.
Sabbatia, Adanson.

chloroides, Ph. B.

stellaris, Ph. N. B.
Villarsia, Vent.

lacuno.sa, Ph. B. MenyanlhestrachysperMa^Mx. Spwr Stem. Floating

[Heart.
CONVOLVULACEJE.

Convolvolus, L.

arvensis, L. B.

sepium, L. Field, Bind Weed.

slans, Mx. spithamccus, L. Dimrf Moniiwg Glunj.
Cu scuta L.

Americana, L. Dodder.

OLEACE£.

Fraxinus, L. ^-

Americana, W. White Ash.

juglandifoiia, Lam. Sicamp Ash. A.

sambucifolia, W. Black Ash. A-
Ligustrum, L-

vulgare, L. Privet or Prim. A. and B.
PR1MULACE.E.

Anagallis, L.

arvensis, L. Scojict Pimpernel.
Hottonia, L.

iuflata, L. B. and N. B.
Glaux, L.

maratima, L. Barnstable and Yarmouth, Dr. K. Underwood. Black salt

[ Wort.
Lysimachia, L.

capitata, Ph. A. and B.

ciliata, L.

hybrida, Mx. B. and N. B.

quadrifolia, L.

racemosa,Ph. stricta, Ait. Loose Strife.
Samolus, L.

valerandi, L. Brook Weed. B.
Trientalis, L.

Americana, Ph. Chick Wintergrceni^

Floiiiering Plants. 627

LENTl BU LARl.'E.

Utricularia, L.

cornuta, Mx. Leafless Bladder Wort. A. and B.
gibba, Gron. B — e.
inflata, Walt. B.
pupurea, Walt. B.

resupinata, Green. MS. Tewksbury.
striata, LeConte. A.
vulgaris, L. Bladder Wort.
OROBANCHEiE.

Epiphagus, Nutt.

Americanus, Nutt. Orobanchc Virginiana, L. Cancer Root.
Orobanche, L.

Americana, L. Mount Holyoke.

uniflora, L. Cancer Root.

SCROPHULARINEjE.

Antirrhinum, L.

Canadense, W. Flax Snap Dragon.

elatine, L. Hadley. Dr. George "White.

(j linaria, L. Snap Dragon.
Chelone, L.

glabra, L. Snake Head.
Gerardia, L.

flava, L.

glauca, Eddy. Fox Glove.

maritiraa, Raf. B.

pedicularia, L.

purpurea, L.

tenuifolia, L. B.
Gratiola, L.

aurea, Muhl. Hedge Hyssop.

Virginica, L. neglccta, Torrcy. A.
Leptandra, Nutt.

Virginica, Nutt. CalUstachya Virginica. Raf. Culver's Physic.
Limosella, L.

subulata, Ives. Mudicoit. Nantucket.
Lindernia, L.

attenuala, Muhl. False Hedge Hyssop.

dilatata, Muhl. B. and A.
Mimulus, L-

alatus, L. A.

ringens, L. Monkey Floicer.
Penstemon, L.

pubescens, L. B — e.
Scrophularia, L.

Marilandica, L. Fig Wort.
Veronica, L.

agrestri.s, L.

anagallis, L. Brook Pimernel.

arvensis, L. Wall Speedwell.

beccabunga, L.

officinalis, L. Speedvcll

peregrina, L. N. B.

scutellata, L.

serpyllifolia, L.

6"'23 Phints in ^fos.1nt'/tu^etrs.

RHINAXTHACE.K.

Bartsia, L-

cocoinea. L. Kuchroma CMcincii , yutt. Puint,-,! Cup.
Melampyrum. L.

Amerioaiium. Mx. Coir Uleot.
Pedioularis, L.

Caiiadensi!!, L. I^ntu IVort.

pallida, Ph. A.
Rhinanthus, L.

crista galli, L. YclUw i?rt///(-.Plynunith Ris^elow.
SOLANK-C.

Dat ura, L.

stramonivim, L. Thont Apple.
Hyoscyamus. L,

§ niger, L. Ihn Banc.
Nicandra, Adaiis.

^ phvsaloides, Pers. N. B.
Physalis," L.

obsoura, Mx. Hrn Bidic. A.

Peimsylvanica .' L. A,
Solanum, L.

§ dulcamara, L. Bithr Street.

nigrum, L, DcoiUu XighWuulf.
A'erbascum, L.

blattaria, L. Skck MuUcin. B. and A

ihapsus, L. Midlein.

VERBEXACE.K.

Phryma, L-

leptostachia, L. Lop Seed.
Verbena, L-

aiigusiifolia, Mx. A.

haMaia, L. Venain.

urticifoiia. L. Xcttie Leaf Verroiu.
LABIATES.

Ballota, L.

^ nigra, L. Black H»rehound. B.
Clinipodium, L.

vulgare, L. Field Thijmc. A.
CoUinsonia. L.

Canadensis, L. Horse Balm.
Galeopsis. L.

§ ladaiiuni, L. B. Hemp Nettk.

§ tetrahit. L. Floicerins ycttle.
Glechoma, L.

hederacea, L. GiU-groir-by-thc-ground
Hedeoma. Pers-

pulegioides, Pel's. Pcntiyr»yal.
Isanthus, jMx.

coeruleus, Mx. False Pennynyi/al.
Lophanihiis. Benth.

nepetoides, Benth. Hyssopus 7icjH'toides, H' Giant HV^^P-
Lamium, L-

^ amplexicaule, L. Hen Bit. Dead Xettie.
Leonoras. L.

cardiaca, L, Mothencort.

Flowering Plants 628

Lycopus, L

Europaus, L tValer Ilcyre/iound

Virginicus, L. Bugle Weed.
Marrubium, L.

<J vulgare, L. Horekcnmd
Mentha, L.

borealis, Mx. Hor^emvnl.

^ piperita, L. Peppermint.

viridis, Walter. Spearmint.
Monarda, L.

clinopodia, L. B — e.

ditlyrna, L. B — e.

hirsuta, Ph. Soapstone duarry, Windsor. Dr Porter.

oblongata, Ait. B- e. and B. allophyllus, Mx.
Nepeta, L.

cataria, L. Catmint:
Prunella, L.

Penn.sylvanica, W. Heal All.
Pycnanthemum, M.x.

ari.statum, Mx.

incanum, Mx. Mountain MiiU.

lanceulatum ? Ph.

linifolium,Ph. Virginian Thyme.

verticillatum, Pers. B — e.
Scutellaria, L.

galericulata, L. Scull Cap.

laterifolia, L. Mad-dug Scull Cap.
Stachys, L.

aspera, Mx. Hedge Nettle.

sylvatica, L. A.

hyssopifolia, Mx. N. B.
Teucrium, L.

Canaden.se, L. Wild Germxinder.
Trichostema, L.

dichotoma, L. Bl-u^ Curls.
Thymus, L.

9 viilgaris, L. Thyme. Longmeadow
BORAG1NE.E

Cynoglossum, L,

^ officinale, L. Hound Tongue.

Virginifian. L. B — e.
Echium, L

vuigare, L Viper's Bugloss. B
Litho.sperir)Utn,L.

arven.->e, L. B. Ccmvmon Gromwell.

officinale, L. B — e.
Lycopsis, L.

0 arvensis, L. A. and B Wild Buglo.%s
Myosotis, L.

9 arvensis, Sibth. Forget-rm-not.

palustri.s, Roslk. B.

Virginiana, L. Echinospermum, Virginicum, Lihm. Mjuie Ear
Onosmodium, M.k.

hispidum, Mx. Monson and Nantuclcet. Pa'u Gromicell.
HYDEOPlIYLLE.f;.

Hydrophyllum, L.

Canadenve, L. Windsor. Dr Porter
Virginiruni, L.'A Wat: r Leaf.

78

630 Plants in Massachusetts..

TRIBE II.— GYMNOSPERMiE

CONIFER^:,

Cupressus, L.

thuyoides, L. White Cedar. A. B. and especially N. B.
Juniperus, L.

communis, L. Juniper. Mount Tom and B.

Virginiana, L. Red Cedar.
Pinus, L.

alba, Ait. Spruce.

balsamea, W. Fir Tree. Balsam Tree.

Canadensis, L. HcvilocJc Tree.

fraseri, Ph. Saddle Mountain. Dewey.

nigra, Ail. Black Spruce.

pendula, Ait. Hackmatack. Tamarack.

resinosa. Ait. Norway Pine. A and Worcester Co.

rigida, L. Pitch Pine.

strobus, L. White Pine.
Taxus, L.

Canadensis, W. Dwarf Yew. A. Very common

Sub-class II.— ENDOGYNtE OR MONOCOTYLEDONOUS

PLANTS,

TRIBE I.— PETALOIDEiE.
ALISMACEJE.

Alisma. L.

plantago, L. Watiir Plantain.
Sagittaria, L.

acutifolia. Ph. Arrow Head.

heterophylla. Ph.

obtusa, W. N. B. Var. of S. sagittifolia.

sagittifolia, L. Arroto Head, a latifolia. (} gracilis.
HYDROCHARIDEjE.

Udora, Nutt.

Canadensis, Nutt. Serpicula verlicillata, Muhl.
Valisneria, L.

spiralis, Mx. Tape Grass. Cambridge and Connecticut rirer.
XYRIDE^E.

Xyris, L.

Caroliniana, Walt. Yfllow-eycd Grass.
HYPOXl DE.E.

Hypoxis, L

erecta, L. Star Grass.
IRIDEJE.

Iris, L.

versicolor, L. Wild Iris. Blue Flag.
yirginica, Torrey. gracilis, Big. Boston Iris.
Sisyrinchium, 1j.

anceps, L. Bine-eyed Grass.
ORCHIDE^.

Aplc'ctriim, Nutt.

hyemale, Nutt. CymJddium hyemnle, W Putty Root. Adam and

[Rve. Conway.

4

Flowering Plants. 631

Arethusa, L.

bulbosa, L. B. and Belchertown.
Calopogon, Brown.

pulchellus, Br. Cymbidium puchellum,W. Grass Pink.
Coral lorhiza, Brown.

odontorrhiza, Null. Cijynbidium odontorizon, W. Coral Teeth.
Cypripedium, L. [Dragon Claw.

humile, Sw. acaule. Ait. Ladies^ Slipper.

pubescens, Sw. Yellow do.

spectabile, Sw. Canadense, M.c. Deerfield.
Goodyera, Brown.

pubescen.s, Br. Neottia pubescens, W. Rattle Snake Leaf.

repens, Br. B.
Habenaria, W.

blephariglottis, Hooker. A. and B. Orchis blephariglottis, W.

bracteata, R. Brown. Satyrium bracteatum,Ph. 0.bracteata,W.

cristata, R. Brown. O. cristala, Mx. Fair Haven, T. A.Greene.

ciliaris, R. Brown. A. and B.

grandiflora, Tor. B. and A. O. grandifiora, Big.

herbiola, R. Brown. A. and N. B.

incisa'? Spreng.

fimbriata, R. Brown.

macrophylla, Goldie. Ml. Holyoke.

psycodes, Spreng. B — e and A.

tridentata, Hook.
Listera, R. Brown.

cordata, Brown. Plainfield.
Malaxis, Sw.

liliifolia, Sw. Liparis liliifolia, Rich. Tway blade.

loDselii, Sw.
Mycrostylis, Nutt.

ophioglossoides, Nutt. Adder Mouth.
Neottia, Sw.

tor tills, Sw. /? gracilis, Torrey. Spiranthes tortilis. Rich. La-
dies' Tresses.

cernua, W. ^. cernua, Rich. B — eA. and l^.B.Nodding Ladies'

[ Tresses,
Orchis, L.

spectabilis, L. Orchis.
Platanthera, Rich.

dilatata, Lindley. Orchis dilatata, Ph.
orbiculata, Lindley. O. orbicuiata, Ph.
Pogonia Brown.

ophioglossoides, Brown. Snake Mouth Arethusa.

verticillata, Nutt. A.
Triphora, Nutt.

pendula, Nutt. Arethusa pendula, IV. Deerfield.
JUNCEiE.

Juncus, L.

acuminatus, Mx. A.
bufonius, L.
bulbosus, L.
effusus, L. Bulrush.
militaris. Big. Tewksbury
marginatus, Rostk. N. B
nodosus, L.
polycephalus, Mx.
setaceus, Rostk.
tenuis, W.

632 Plants in Massachusetts.

Lunula, De Cand.

campestris, De Cand.
raelanocarpa, Desv.
pilosa, W. A.

MELANTHACEiE.

Helonias, L.

dioica, Ph. B — e. Blazing Star.
Veratriim, L.

viride, Ait. Indian Poke. White Hellebore.
PONTEDERE^.

Pontederia, L.

angustifolia, Ph. Leverett. P. cordata, |9 angustifolia, Torrey.

cordata, L. Pickerel Weed.
Schollera, Schreb.

graminea, Vahl. Leptanthus gramineus, Mx. Heteranthea

[graminea, Pk.

ASPHODELE.^:.

Aletris, L. A. alba, Mx.

farinosa, L. False Aloe. A.
Allium, L.

Canadense, L. Meadow Garlic.

tricoccum, Ait.
Asparagus, L.

§ officinalis, L.

SMILACEjE.

Convallaria, L.

bifolia, L. Styrandra bifolia, Raf. Smilacina Canadensis, Ph.

canaliculata, W. B. B — e.

multiflora, L. Polygonatmn multiflorum, Des. Solomon Seal.

pubescens, W. A. Polygonatum pubescens, Ph.

racemosa, L. Smilacina racemosa, Des. Clustered Solomon Seal.

stellata, L. 5'. stellata, Des.

trifolia, L. Pelham, Cumington, andTewksbury. Mr. Curtis.

[S. trifolia, Des.

umbellulata, Mx. Draccena borealis, L. Lily of the Valley. A.
Gyromia, Nutt.

Virginica, Nutt. Medeola Virginica, L. Indian Cucumber.
Smilux, L.

herbacea, L: B — e.

pcduncularis, Muhl. Jacobs' Ladder.

rotundifolia, L. Green Briar.
Streptopus, Mx.

distortu.s, Mx. A. & B — e. Uvularia amplexifolia, L.

roseus, Mx. U. roscus, Muhl. Rose Bell Wort. A. & B— e.
Trillium, L.

cernuum, L. Nodding Wake Robin.

erectum, L. False Wake Robin.

grandiflorum, Salisb. Pelham. Dr. G. White.

pictum, Ph. T. undulatum. W. Smiling Wake Robin.
Uvularia, L.

perfoliata, Mx. U. grandiflora, Smith. Bell Wort.

sessifolia, L.

D10SC0RE.E.

Dioscorea, L-

villosa, L. B.

L1L1ACE.E,

Erythronium, L.

dens-caais, Mx. E. Americanum^ Smith. Dog Tooth Violet.
Lilium, L.

Canadense, L. Nodding Lily.

Philadelphicum, L. Red Lily

superbum, L. B.

Flowering Plants. 633

RESTIACK.K.

Eriocaulon, L.

gnaphalioidcs, Mx. B — e.

pellucidum, Mx. Pipe Wort.
tvphacea;.
Sparganium, L.

Americanum, Nutt. N. B.

angustifolium, Mx "? B.

ramosuin, Smith. Burr Rccd.
Typha, L.

angustifolia, L. B.

latifolia, L. Cat Tail.
AROlDEiE.

Acorus, L.

calamus, L. Swcel Flag.
Arum, L.

dracontium, L. Green Dragon. Deerfield.

triphyllum, L. Indian Turnip.
Calla, L.

palustris, L. Water Arum.
Lecontia, Cooper. ' A true Celadium.' Torrey.

Virginica, Coop. Arum Virginiaim, L. RensselcBria Virginica,
Orontium, L. [Beck. Belchertown.

aquaticum, L. Golden Club. Southwick. Dr. Porter.
Pothos, Mx.

fcEtida, Mx. Symplocarpus fatidus, Nuit. Jctodes fatidus, Big
FLUVIALES. {SkunVs Cabbage.

Najas, L.

Caaaden.sis, Mx. Caulinia Jlcxilis, W. A.
Potamogeton, L.

compressum, W. A. and N. B.

fluitans, L.

gramineum, Mx. A. and B. paucifiorum, Ph.

heterophyllum, Schreb. A.

lucens, Mx. B.

natans, L.

pectinatum, L. B — e. and N. B.

perfoliatum, L.

setaceum, Ph. diversifolimn, Barton. A.andB.

Ruppia, L,

maritima, L. Sea Teazel Grass. B.
Zostera, L-

marina, L. Grass Wrack.

JtJNCAGlNE.ff:.

Scheuchzeria, L.

palustris, L. Belchertown.
Triglochin, L.

maritimum, L. Arrow Grass. B.
PlSTlACEiE.

Lemna, L.

minor, L. Duak-meat.
polyrrhiza, L. Waterjlax Seed. A.
trisulca, L. A.

TRIBE II.— GLUMACE^.

GRAMINE.B.

Agrostis, L.

canina, W. B.
cland^stina. Sprang:. B.
lateriflora, Mx. A & N. B.

634 Plants in Massachusetts

AgTostis, L.

longifolia. Torrey. A.

polymorpha, Trinnius. alba, L. A. White Top Gr ass.

sobolifera, Muhl. A.

sylvaiica, Torrey. B — e.

tenniflora, Willd. A.

Virginica, L.

vulgaris. Smith.
Aira, L.

flexaosa, L. Hair Grass.
Alopecurus, L.

geniculatus, L. Moating Fox Tail.

pratensis, L. Meadoio Grass.
Andropogon, L.

furcatum, Muhl. Forked Spike.

macrourum, Mx. N. B.

nutans. L. Beard Grass.

purpurascens, Muhl. N. B.

Virginicum ? L. N. B.
Anlhoxanthura, L.

odoralum, L. Sweet Vcriial Grass.
Aristida, L.

dichotoma, Mx. Beard Grass.

gracilis, Ell. N. B.

purpurascens, Poir. A. racemosa, Muhl. N. B. & A.
Arrhenatherum, P. de B.

avenaceum, P. de B. Avena elatior. L.

Pennsylvanicum, Torrey. B — e.
Arundo, L.

Canadensis, Mx. Calamagrostis Mexicana, Null. B. & A.

coarctata, Torrey. Canadensis, Nutt. B. & A.
Briza, L.

media, L. B.
Bromus, L.

ciliatus, L. B — e.

purgans, L. B.

pubescens, Muhl. Broom Grass.

^ secalinus, L. Chess. Cheat.

mollis, L.
Cenchrus, L.

echinatus, L. Near Boston. Mr. M. A. Curtis.
Cinna, L.

arundinacea, W. Indian Reed.
Danthonia, De Cand.

spicata, P. de B. Avena spicata, L. Wild Oats.
Dactylis, L.

glomerata, L. Orchard Grass.
Digitaria, Haller.

filiformis. Ell. A. & N. B.

sanguinalis, Scop. Finger grass. A. ^ B — e.
Elusine, Gaertner.

indica, Lamb. CynosuriLS indica, L. Wire Grass. A.
Elymus, L.

Canadensis, L. p. glaucifolius, Torrey.

hystrix, L.

villosus, Muhl. Wild Rye. Lime Grass.

Virginicus, L.
Festuca, L.

duriuscula, L. N. B.

elatior, L. Fescue Grasx.
pratensis, Huds. B — c,

Flowtrimr Plants

Festuca, L

nutans, W.

tenella, W. A. & B— e.
Glyceria, R. Brown.

fluitans, R. Brown. Festuco flv.itans, L. Water Fescive.
acutiflora, Torrey.
Hierochloa, Gmelin.

borealis, R & S. Hulcus odoratus. L. Seneca Grass. B
Holcus, L.

lanatus, L. Velvet grass, B.
Hordeum, L-

jubatum, L. B.
Koeleria, Pers.

Pennsylvanica, De Cand. Aira vwllis, Muhl. A.
truncata, Torrey. A.truncata, Muhl.
Leersia, Swartz.
oryzoides, Sw.
Virginica, W. Cut Grass.
Lolium, L.

perenne, L. Darnel Grass.
Muhlenbergia, Schreb-

erecta, S. Drop Seed-grass.
Oryzopsis, Mx..

asperifolia, Mx. Mountain Nice.
Panicum, L.

agrostoides, Muhl. A. & N. B.
anceps, Mx. Cambridge. Mr. M. A. Curtis
capillare, L.
clandestinum, L. A.
crus-galli, L. Barn-Grass.
dichotomum, L.

depauperatum, Muhl. A. and B — e.
discolor, Muhl. B.

geniculatum, Muhl. proliferwm.. Lam. A
hispidu'n, Muhl. A. and N. B.
involutuin, Torrey. A.
lalifoliuni, L.

macrocarpon, Torrey. A.
nervosum, Muhl. A. and B.
nitidum, Lmk.
virgatum, L. A. and B.
Paspalum, L-

cilialilblium, Mx. N. B.

setaceum, Mx. Paspalon Grass. A. Woburn. Mr. Curtis.
Phalaris, L.

Americana, Ell. Calanu/grostis cnlorala, Nutt. Ribbon Grass.
Phleum, L-

pratense, L. Timothy Grass.
Piplatherum, Beauv.

nigrum, Torrey. Oryzopsis Melanocarpa, Muhl. Milium
[racemosum, Smith. Clustered Millet- Grass.
Poa, L.

annua, L.

aquatica, ,9 Americana, Torrey.

Canadensis, Torrey.

capillaris, L. A. and B.

compressa, L.

dentata, Torrey. A. N. B. and B— e.

elongata, Torrey Torreyi, Sprcng.

eragrostis, L. A. and B.

hirsuta, Mx. A. and B.

maiitima, [luds. B.

636 Flu/id in Miisnachuittd.

Poa. L

nemoralis, L. A.audB — e.

nervata, W.

obtusa, Muhl. B.

palusiris, Muhl. A.

pectiaacea, Mx. A

pratensis, L.

reptans, Mx. A.

idv'ialis, L. A. N B. and B — e.
Polypogon, Des.

glomeratu*;, W. Agrostis racemosa, Mx. '■acemos'us, Nutt. A.
Phragmites, Trinnius.

communis, Trill. Arundo phragmites, W.
Psamma, P. de Beauv.

arenaria, P. de Beauv. Arundo arenaria, L. B.
Setaria, P. de Beauv

viridis, P. de B. Panicum viride, L.

glauca, P. de Beauv, Panicnm glmvcum, L. Pox-tail Gra.rs.

italica, P. de Beauv. B — e. P. italicum, L.

verticiilata, P. de Beauv. Bostun. P. verticiUatum, L.
Spartina, Schreb.

cynosuroidcs, W. B. Limnetis cynosuroidcs and polystachia, Pk,

glabra, Muhl. B. [Rough Giass.

juncea, W. B. L. junc.ca, Ph..
Stipa, L.

avenacea, L. B.

Canadensis, Lmk. A. and B Milium pnngens, Torrey Ory-

[zopsisparviflora, Nutt.
Trichochloa, De Cand.

capillai is, De Cand. Agrostis sericea, Muhl. Sugar Loaf, Deer-

[field. Dr. Cooley.
Trichodium, Mx.

laxiflorum, Mx. Tickle Grass.

scabrum, Muhl. A. and B — e.
Tricuspis, Pe de Beauv.

sesleroides, Torrey. Poa quinqueftda, Ph A and B — e.
Trisetum, Pers.

palustre, Torrey. Aira pallens, Muhl.

purpurascens, Torrey. B — e.
Triticum, L.

repens, L. Wheat Grass. Quake Grass. B.

Uniola, L-

spicata, L. Spike Gra.^. B.
Uralepsis, Nutt.

aristulata, Nutt. N. B.
Zizania, L-

clavulosa, Mx. Water Oats. Wild Pice. B. and Northampton.

CYPERACE.E.

Carex, L. Sedge Grass.
acuta, L. A. and B — p.
alba, Haenke, B — e.
alpestris. All.

ampullacea, W. Deerfield.
anceps, MuliL A. B — e Dnd B
aquatilis, Wahl. B — e.
aurea, Nutt. B — e.
hlanda, Dewey. AandB — e.
bromoides, Schk. A. and B — e.
bullata, Schk. A. and B— e.
Buxbanmii, Wahl. A.
(.•a;spitosa, L. A. and B— e. and B.

Floiverincr Plants. 63T

Carex, L.

ceplialophoia, Muhl. A.B.andB e.
collecta, Dewe)'. Worthingtoii.
conoidea, Schk. A. and B — e.
crinata, Laink. A. B — e. and B.
cristata, Schw. A. and B — e.
curta, Good. B. A.andB— c.
Davisii, Dewey. A.andB — e.
Deweyana, Schw. A. and B — e.
disperma, Dewey. A. and B — e.
festucacea, Schk. A. and B — e.
filiformis, L. A. and B — e.
flava, L.

flexuosa, Mulil. A. and B.
folliculata, L. A. B— e. and B.
formosa, Dewey. A. and B — e.
giacillima, Dewey. A. and B — e.
granularis, Muhl. A.andB — e.
Halseyana, Dewey. Westfield.
hirsuta, W. A. and B — e.
Hitclicockiana, Dewey. WilliamMown.
hystericina, W. A. and B.
lacustris, W. A. B — e. and B.
lagopodioides, Schk. A. and B — e.
laxiflora, Lam. A. and B — e.
limosa, L. A.shfield.
longirostri.*^, Torrey. A. and B — e.
lupulina, Muhl. A. B — e. and B.
marginata, Muhl. A. B — e. and B.
miliacea, Muhl. A. and B — e.
Muhlenbergii, Schk. B— e.
raultiflora, Muhl. B— e.
muricata. B — e.

Novte-AngliaB, Schw. A. and B— e.
oligocarpa, Schk. A. and B — e.
pallescens, L. A. and B — e.
paniculata, L. A. and B.
pauciflora. Light. Ashfield.
pedunculala, Muh], A.andB — e.
pellita, Muhl. A.

plantaginea. Lam. A. B — e. and E.
polyti icoides, Muhl. A. and B — e.
pseudo-cyperus, L. A. B — e. and B.
pubescen.s, Muhl. A. and B — e.
retroflexa, Muhl. A. and B — e.
retrorsa, Schw. B — e. and Plainlk-ld.
ro?ea, Schk. A. and B — e.
scabrata, Schw. A.andB — e.
scirpoides, Schk. A. and B — e.
scoparia, Schk. A. B — e. and B.
Schweintzii, Dewey. B — e.
setacea, Dewey. B — e.
siccata, Dewey. We:>lficld.
sparganoides, Muhl. A. B— e. and B.
squarrcsa, L. Hadley.
.siellulata, Good. A. B — e. and B.
stenlis, W. A. andB — e.
vti))ata, Muhl. A. B— e. and B.
stiaminea, W. A. B — e. and N. B.
stricia, Good. A. and B — e.
sylvalica, Hud.s. A. and B - e.
tenera, Dewev. A. and B — e.
teniae ulata, Mulil. A. B— e. and N. E.
teretiuscula, Good. A. and B— e.
tetanica, Schk. A. and B — e.
Toneyana. Dewey. A. and B — e.
triocaipa, Muhl. A., and B — e.
irispcnua, Dewev. A. and B — e.

633 Plants in Massachusetts.

Carex, L.

umbellata, Schk. A. and B— e
varia, Muhl. A. and B— e.
vesicaria, L. A.
vestita, W. A.

virescens, Muhl. A. B— e. and N. B.
xanthophysa, Wahl. A. B— e. and N. B.
Cyperus, L.

Nuttallii, Torre}'. A.

dentatus, Torrey. A. and B.

diandrus, Torrey. A. and B.

flavescens, L. N. B. and B — e.

mariscoides, Ell. Scirpus cypcriformis, MM. A. and B.

strigosus, L. A. and B — e.

uncinatus, Ph. inficxus, Muhl. A. and B.
Dulichium, Richard.

spathaceum, Pers. Galingale.
Eriophorum, L.

alpinum, L. {See Torreifs Mora.)

augustifolium, Roth. A. and B.

cespitosum, Ph. A. and B — e.

polystachium, L. A. B. and B — e.

Virginicum, L. Cotton Grass. A. B. and B— e .
Fuirena, L.

squarrosa, of authors, not of Mx. Tewksbury. Mr. A Curtis.

Rhyncospora, L.

alba, Vahl. A. B. and B — e.

glomerata, Vahl. A.

raacrosiachya, Torrey. MS. Belchertown and Leverett.
Scirpus, L. Rush.

acicularis, L. S.trichodes. Muhl. A. B. & B — e.

acutus Muhl. B. and B — e.

atrovirens, Muhl. A. and B — e.

autumnalis, Muhl. A. and B.

brunneus, Muhl. A.

capillaris, L. A. and B.

capitatus, L. A. B. and B — e.

debilis, Muhl. A. and B.

eriophorum, Mx. A. and B. Tricophorum cyperinum, Pers.

intermedius, Muhl. A.

lacustris, L. A.

lineatus, Mx. Plainfield. Tri. lineatum, Pers.

maritimus, L. B.

palustris, L. A. and B.

planifolius, Muhl. A. B. and B — e.

subsquarrosus, Muhl. A.

subterminalis, Torrey. Leverett.

tenuis, W. A. B. andB— e.

triqueter, Mx. A. and B — e. S'. Americawiis, Pers.

tuberculosus, Mx. A.
Scleria, L.

triglomerata, Mx. Whip Grass.
Pchoenus, L.

mariscoides, Muhl. Bos Rush. Belchertowni and Leverett.

CLASS II.— CELLULARES,

OR

FLOWERLESS PLANTS.

TRIBE I.— FILICOID PLANTS.

EQUISETACE.E.

Equisetum, L.

arvense, L. Horse Tail. A." B. and B — e.

hyemale, L. Rough Horse Tail. Scouring Rush. A. B. and B — e.
sylvaticum, L. A. B. and B — e.
palustre, L. A.

scirpcides, Mx. E. variegatwn, SmUh. A. B. and B — e.
uliginosum, W. E. litnoium, L. Pipes. A. B . and B — e.
FILICES.

Adianthum, L.

pedatum, L. Maiden Hair. MoioHair.
Aspidium, Swartz. Brake. Fern.

acrostichoides, W. A. B. and B — e.

angustum, W. B — e.

asplenoides, W. A. and B.

bulbifenim, W. B — e.

cristatum, W. A.

dilatatuin, W. inter medium, L. A. N. B. and B — e.

tenue, Ph. A.

Goldianum, Hooker. Felix-Mas. Ph. A and B — e.

intermediura, Muhl. Dr. Porter.

lancaslriense, Muhl. B.

marginale, W. Nepkrodiummarginale, Mx. N. B. and B — e.

noveboracense, W. A. B. and B — e.

spinulosum, W. B — e.

ihelypteris, Willd. B. and Plainfield.
Asplenium, L. Brake. Fern.

angustifolium, Mx. Spleen Wort. B — e. B. and A.

ebenurn, W. B — e. B. and A.

melanocaulon, W. B — e. B. and A.

rhizophyllum, W. Walking Leaf. B — e. B. and A.

ruta-muraria, L. B — e. B. and A.

thelypteroides, Mx. acrostichoides, Sw. B — e. B. and A.]
Botrychium, Swartz.

fumaroide.s, W. Grape Fern. A. B. and B — e.

simplex, Hitchcock. A.

Virginicum, Swartz. A. B. and B — e.
Dicksonia, I'Herit.

pilosiuscula, W. Aspidmm punctilohcDi, W.
Hypopeltis, Torrey.

obtusa, Torrey. Aspidium obtusum,'W. Woodsia periniana, A. Hgo!:.

[ and Grev.
Lygodium, Sw.

palmatum, Swartz. Cliwiing Fern. Amherst and Becket.
Onocfea, L.

sensibilis, L. Sensitive Fern. A. B. and B— e.
Ophioglossum, L.

vulgatum, L. Adder Tongue Fern. A.
Osmunda, L.

cinnamonea, L. B — e. and A.

640 Plants in Massachusetts.

Osmunda, L.

interrupta, Mx. B. B — e. and A.

spectabilis, O, regalis, Mr. W. B. B — e, andA.
Polypodium, L.

calcareum, Sm. A. and B — e.

connectile, W. P. pkegoptcris, L. B. A. and B — e,

hexagonopternm, Mx. A. and B — e.

vulgare, L. Polypod. B. A. and B — c.
Pteris, L.

aquilina, L. Common Brake. B. B — e. and A.

atropurpurea, L. Rock Brake. A.
Struthiopteris, W.

Pennsylvanica, W. A. and B.
Woodsia, R. Brown.

ilvensis, Ph. W. rvfidula, Beck. A. and B.
Woodwardia, Smith.

angustifolia, Sm. W. onocleoides, W. N. B

Virginica, W. Tewksbury, Big. Maiden, Curtis.
LYCOPODIACEyE.

Lycopodium, L. Ground Pine.
annotinum, L. A.
apodum, L. A.

clavatum, L. Club Moss. B. B — e. and A.
Carolinianum, L. B.

complanatum, L. Ground Pine. B. B — e. and A.
dendroideum, Mx. do. B. B— e. and A.

inundatum, W. N. B.

lucidiilum, Mx. Moon Fruit Pine. B. and A.
nipestre, L. B. B— c. and A.

TRIBE II.— MUSCOIDEiE.

No Catalogues of the remaining orders of plants have been published in
Massachusetts, except for Berkshire County and the vicinity of Amherst Col-
lege, or the valley of the Connecticut. B — e, as usual, is added to those species
that are found in Berkshire : and B — e * to the few that are peculiar to Berk-
shire. All, that have not the star annexed, occur in the Connecticut Valley,
and doubtless this list falls far short of the actual number.

MUSCl.

Anictangium, Hedw.

filiforme, Hedw. Hcdwigidjlliformis, P. dc Bcauv. B — e.
Anomodon, Hooker and Taylor.

viticulosum, H. and T. Neckcra viticulosa, Hedv:.
Arrhenopterum, Hedw.

heterostichum, Hedw. Bijrnm arrhenopterum, D-ill.
Bartramia, Hedw.

crispal Sw. B — e.

fontana, Hooker.

gracilis, Sm. Oederi. Scktcacgrichcn.

pomiformis, Hedw.
Bryum, L.

androgynum, Hedw.

aureum.

argenteum, L. B — e.

Ccespiticium, L. B — e.

cnspidatum, Schreb. B— e.

nutans, Schreb. M'ebcra mitans, Hedw. B — e.

punctatum, Schreb.

Flower less Plants. 64 1

Pryum, L.

roseum, Schreb. B — e.

triquetriim, Turner. Mccsia longiscta, Ilcdic.
turbinatum, Sw.
Buxbaurnia, L.
aph_vlla, L.
Calharinea, Ehrh.

nndulata, Web. and Alohr. Polijtilchum uiidiilaluiii, llcdiu.
Climacium, Web. and Mohr.

Anicricanum. Brid. Hypymmdcndroidcs, L. B — e.
Dicranum, Hedw.

cerviculatum, Hedw.
glaucum, Hedw. B — c.
heteromallum, Hedw. B — e.
orthocarpon, Hedw. B — e.
polycarpum, Ehrh.
scoparium, Hook, and Tay. B — c.
strictum, Brid.
undulatum, Ehrh.
Diphyscium, Web. and Mohr.

foliosum, Web. & Mohr. Hymcnopogonhdciophyllum, P. dc B.
Didymodon, Hedw.

purpureum, Hooker and Tay. Dlcraman purpurcum, Hedw.
Diplocomium, Web. and Mohr.

longisetiim, Web. and Mohr. B — e. Mcesia longiseta.
Encalypta, Schreb.

ciliata, Hedw. Dcerfield. »

Fissidens, Hedw.

adianthoide,'<, Hedw.
taxitblius 1 Hedw.
Fontinalis, L.

antipyretica, L. B — e.
squaiiio.sa. Dr. J. Porter. Massachu.selts.
Funaria, Hedw.

flavicans, Muhl. B — e.
hygrometrica, Hedw. B — e.
Grimmia, Hedw.

leucophoea, Hook, and Tay.
ovata 1
pilifera, Mx.
pulvinata, Smith.
Gymnostomum, Hedw.
Drummondi, Hook,
prorepens, Hook,
pyriforme, Hedw.
Hypnuni, Hedw.
abietinnm, L.
acuminatum, B — e. *
confertum, Dicks.
Cooleyanum, Spreng. B — e.
cri.stacastrensis, L. B — e.
cuprcssiforme, Hook. B — e.
cuspidatum, L.
dcnticulatum, L. B — e.
dimorphum, Brid.
filicinura, L.
fragile, Brid.
hians, Muhl.
imponens, Hedw. B — e.
lutescens, Schreb.
minutulum, B — e.*
proliterum.
riparium, Hook,
rutabulum, B — e. *

642 Plants in Massachusetts.

Hypnum, Hedw

salebrosum, B — e. ♦

serpens, L. B — e.

striatum, Schreb.

tenax '. Hedw.

Torreyanum, Spren^.

triquetrum, L, B— e.
Leskea, Spreng.

acuminata, Hedw. B — e.

curvata, Voit. Deerfield.

obscura, Hedw.
Leucodon, Schwaeg.

sciuroides, Schwaeg.
Neckera, Pledw.

minor, P. de Bean v.

pennata, Hedw. B — e.
Orthoirichum, Hedw.

affine. Hook, and Tay.

anomalum, Hedw.

clarellalum.

crispum, Hook, and Greville.

cupulatum, Hoffm .?

Drummondi, Hook. & Grev.

Hutchinsiae, Hook. & Grer.

pumilum, Swartz.

speciosum.

strangulatum, P. de Beauv

reticulosum.
Polytrichum, L.

aloides, Hedw. B — e.

alpestre, Funck. Dr. J.Porter.

commune, L. Dr. J. Porter.

formosum, Hedw.

juniperinum, W. B — e.

pallidisetum, Hook.«&Taylor.Dr. J. Porter,

perigoniale. B — e. *
Pteiogonium, S\v. Pterigynandrum, Hedw

apiculatum, Brid.

hirtellum, Hedw.

intricatum, B — e. *

julaceum, Hedw.

subcapillatum, Hedw.

trichomifrion, Swartz. B — e.
Sphagnum, L.

acutifolium, Hook, and Tay.

latifolium. B — e. *

obtusifoliuni, Hook, cijmbifolmm, Sm.

squarrosum, Web. and Mohr.
Tetraphis, Hedw.

pellucida, Hedw.
Timmia, Hedw.

cucullata, Mx. B — e.
Trematodon, Rich.

longicollis, Rich. Deerfield,
Trichostomum, Hedw.

pallidum, Hedw. B — e.
Weissia, Hedw.

controversa.
microdonta, Hedw. B — e.

viridula, Hedw. B — e.

HEPATIC^-

Anthoceros, L.
levis, L.

Floiverltss Planti. 643

Blasia, L.

pusilla, L. Jungfrmannia blasi,£. Hook.
Jungermannia, L.

tridentata, Schw. Dr. Porter.

complanata, L. Plaited Moss.

ciliaris, L. J. scrtularioides, Mx.

dilatata, Web. Dr. Porter.

multifida, L. Do.

pinguis, L.

platyphylla, L.

porella,Dickson."Ware. Mr. Emerson Davis.

scalaris, Schwein.

^'()hdign\,G\ck.crenulata,Houk<^- Tay Dr. Porter-

tamarisci, Martens.

tomentella, Ehrh.

trilobata, Web.

tridentieulata, Mx.
Marchantia, L. Liverwort

conica, L. B — e.

crinita, Mx.

cruciata 1 L. Staurophora pulcheUa, W.

polymorpha, L. Brook Liverwort. B — e.

triceps, Schw. MS.
Riccia, L.

fluitans, L. Forkstcms. B — e. •

natans, L. Floating Liverwort. B — e.

lutea.

CHARACE.E.

Chara, L-

flexilis, W.
foliosa, W.
vulgaris, L. Feather Beds.

TRIBE III.— APHYLLiE, OR LEAFLESS FLOWERLESS

PLANTS

LICHENES.

According to Acharius, except where other authorities are mentioned.
Alectoria.

jubata. Negro Hair.
Arthonia.

punctiformis.

radiata.
BsBomyces, Pers.

roseus, Pers.
Borrera.

chrysophthalma. c n the coast.
Calicium.

quercinam. Plainfield

tigillare. Cummington. Dr. Porter.
Cenomyce.

allotropa.

baccillaris.

botrytes.

capitata.

coccifera.

cndiva^folia.

fTEspititia.

ponorega.

pyxidata.

rangiferina.
Vars. 1 sylvatica

2 alpestris.

3 minor,
verticillata.

644 Plants in Massar/msett^

Cetraria.

ciliaris.
glauca.
lacunosa.

viridis, Schw. Abini^ton. Dr. Porter.
( 'ollema.

furviiin.

juglandii, Sehw.
laceiuin.
tunae forme.
C'ornicularia, Schreb.

fibrillosa.
Endocarpon, Hedw.

Iledwigii, Ach. Dr. Purler.

minialum, B — e.

sraaragdulum. PJainfield. Dr. Porter.

Weberi, do. du.

Evcrnia.

prunaiblri. Bvrrrro jivrjnoacea, Sprevg.
Graph is, Adanson.

script a.
Gyrophora.

deusta.

Muhlenbergii, B — e.

papulosa, B — e.

vellea.
Hysterium, Tode.

rufescens, Schw.
Lecanora.

albella.

alra. rar. liquatili.s.

brunnea.

ccEsio-rubella.

candellaria.

I'ulva, Sclnv.

granulosa.

parella.

salicina. Plainfield. Dr. Porter.

Smithii, Ach. Abingion. Dr. Poller.

sopliodes 1

suplusca.

tartarea.

tuberculosa.

varia.

vitelliua.
Lee idea.

albella, Schw. MS.

albo-c3erulescens.

eameola.

contiuens. Chesterfield Dr. PiUier.

demissa.

Ehrharliana.

immersa.

(£deri '\

parasema.

subfusca.

umbrina.
Lepra ria.

sulphurea.
Nephroma-

resupinata, Spreiig.
Opegrapha.

rnacularis. Plainfield. Dr. Porter.

Flowerless Plants. 645

Parmelia. Shield Lichen.

aipolia.

aleuriles.

csesia.

caperata.

ciliaris /

colpodes.

corrugata.

crinita ?

cristulata.

cycloselis.

herbacea.

olivacea.

parietina.

perforata.

physodes.

physodoides, Schw. MS.

placorodia, Muhl.

plumbea.

rutilans. Plainfield. Dr. Porter.

saxatilis.

scortea:

stellaris.

tiliacea.

ulothrix.

venusta.
Pelt idea.

apthosa.

canina.

horizontalis.

scutala. Target Lichen:

venosa.
Porina.

fallax.

papillata.

periusa.
Pyrenula, Spreng.

enteroleuca, Spreng. Plainfield. Dr Porter.
Ramalina.

fastigiata.

fraxinea.

polymorpha.
Stereocaulon, Schreb.

paschale.
Sticta, Schreb.

aurata, Smith in Rees' Cyc. Western. Dr. Porter.

crocata. Ashfield. Dr. Porter.

palmonacea.

scrobiculata.
sylvatica.
Usnea, Schreb.

florida, Hoffm.

plicata, Hoffm.

strigosa. Plainfield. Dr. Porter.
Variolaria, Pers.

corallina. Plainfield. Dr. Porter,
velata.
Verrucaria.

gemraata.

stigmatilla. Plainfield. Dr. Porter.

FUNGI.

^cidiiim, Pers.

helianthi mollis ? Schw.
5olidaginis, Schw. and many others,

SO

646 Planti in Motsachu^ttts,

Agaricus, L.
alneus, L

campesiris, L. B — e.
eoccineus. B — e.*
coriaceus, Bull,
disseminatus, Pers,
papyraceus. B — e.*
salignus, Pers.
trabeus 1 Pers.

velutipes, Curtis. And several decades more undetermined,
Amanita, Pers.

cesareus, Schaeff.
livida ? Pers.
Arcyria, Pers.

panicea, Pers.
Boletus, L.

adustus, W. Polyporus adustus, Fries.

alneus, Pers. P. cidicularis, Fr.

badius, Pers. P. varius, Fr.

betulinus, Bull. P. betidinus, Fr.

bovinus, L.

brnmalis, Pers. P. hrumalis, Fr.

carbonarius, Schvv. MS.

cinnabarinus, Jacq. P. cinnabarinus, Fr.

citrinus, Planer. P. sulphureus, Fr.

communis. B — e.*

conchifer, Schw.

delicatulus, Schw. MS.

ferrugineus.'^Schaeff.

igniarius, L'. B — e.

isabellinus, Schw. P. uabeUinus, Fr.

leptocephalus, Jacq. P. lepfocepkalus, Fr.

lucidus, Curtis. P. lucidus, Fr.

lutans. B — e.*

mucidus, Pers. P. vmcidns, Fr.

nigro-marginatas, Schw.

nitidus, Pers. P. nitidus, Fr.

perennis, L. P. perennis, Fr.

polycephalus, Pers. P. umbellatus, Fr.

ramosus, Bull. P. imbricatus, Fr.

reticulatus, Pers. P. reticulatus, Fr.

salicinus, Pers. P. salicinus, Fr.

sqamosus, Hudson. P. squamosus, Fr.

tulipiferse, Schw,

varius, Pers. P. varius, Fr.

velutinus, Pers. P. vetulinus, Fr.

versicolor, L. P. versicolor, Fr.
Bovista, Dillenius.

nigrescens ? Pers. Pjiff Bali.
Cantharellus, Adanson.

pusillus. Fries.

undulatus ? Fries.
Clavaria, Vaillant.

aurantiaca, Pers.

coralloides, L.

helveloides? Withering.

pistillaris, L.

rufa ? Muhl.

tenuis, Sowerby.
Dasdalea, Pers,

albida, Schw. Sistotrema violaceum. Pers.

cinerea. Fries.

Cit)nfragosa. Bolton.

Ftowerhss Plants. 647

Dyeclalea, Pers.

latissima, Fries.

quercina.

sepiaria, Wulten.
Fistulina, Bull.

hepatica, Fries. Boletus hepaticti^, Pers. Plainfield, Dr. Porler.
Fugligo, Pers.

rufa ? Pers.
Geastrum, Pers.

hygrometricum, Pers,

rul'esceus, Schaeff.
Geoglossum, Pers.

hirsutum, Pers.
Glonium, Muhl.

stellatum, Muhl.
Gyropodium, Schw.

cocciaeum, Schw. MS. MUremyces luteseens^ Schio. in Sy-

{nopsi Fungorum Carolina.
Helotium, Pers.

aciculare ■? Pers. Peziza Helot, acic. Fries.
Helvella, L.

albida, Bull.

esculenta, Pers,

mitra ? L.
Himantia, Pers.

Candida, Pers.

domestica, Pers.
Hydnuin, L.

coralloides, Scop. Conway and Abhfield.

coriaceum, Torrey. MS,

cyathiforme, Bull.

gelatinosum, Scop.

imbricatum, L.

occarium, Batsch.

repandum, L.

tomentosum? L.
Hysterium, Tode-

puJicare, Pers.

rufescens, Schw.*
Leotia, Hill.

chlorocephala, Schw.
Licea, Schrader.

variabilis, Schrad.
Lycogola, Pers.

miniata, Pers.
Lycoperdon, L. Puff Ball. Smoke Ball.

bovista, Pers. non Bull. B — e.

excipuliforme, Scop.

moUe ? Pers.

pratense, Per?.

pyriforme, W. B — e.
Merisma, Pers.

cristalum, Pers. The.lephora. Meris. crist. Fries
Merulius, Haller.

agaricoides, Schw. MS.

cantharellus, Pers. Cantharellus cibarins, Fries.

cornucopiodes, With. Cantharellus Corn. Fries.
elegans, Pers.
trernellosus, Schrad.
Morchella, Dill.

esculenta, Pers.
♦ Inserted by mistake among the Lichens

648 Plants in 3Iassachusetts.

Morchella, Dill.

patula 1 Fries.
Mucor, L.

herbariorum, Wigg.

mucedo, Pers.
Nsemaspora, Spreng.

crocea, Pers.
Nidularia, Bull.

campanulata, Siblh. Cyathus olla, Pers.

striata, Bull. Cyathris striatns, Hoffm.
Peziza, L.

acetabulum, L.

auriformis, Schw,

brunnea, Fries.

citrina, Batsch.

clypeatal Schw.

hemispherica, Wigg.

inquinans, Pers.

lenticularis. Bull.

mitrula, Schw.

nigrella, Pers.

scutellata, L.

umbrina, Pers.
Phallus, Mx.

impudicus, L. B — e.
Physarum, Pers.

cinereum, 1 Pers.
Pol3'porus, Micheli.

abietinus, Fries. Sislotrcma violaceum, Pers.

croceus, Fries.
Racodium, Pers.

xylostroma, Pers. Xylostroma giganteum, Tode, Oak Leather.
Rhizomorpha, Pers. [Punk.

subcorticalis, Micheli.
Scleroderma, Pers.

cervinum, Pers,
Sclerotium, Tode.

radiciforme, Schw. MS. A remarkable subterranean species.
Sistotrema, Pers. [Conway

cinereum, Pers.
Spermoedia, Fries-

clavus, Fries. Sclerotium Clavus, De Cand. Ergot. B — e.
Sphaeria, Hall.

bulbosa, Pers.

concentrica, Tode.

curviroslTis,Schw .MS.non curviroslra,Sowerby.

decolorans, Pers.

fragiformis? Pers.

gyrosa, Schw.

hypoxylon, Pers. Dr. Porter.

lata, Pers.

militaris, L.

nivea, Hoffm.

polymorpha, Pers;

rubiginosa, Pers.

scoparia, Schw.
Stemonitis, Gleditsch.

fasciculata, Pers.
Thelephora, Ehrh.

aurantia, Ehrh.

caryophylla, Schaeff.

Flowcrless Planis. 649

Thelephora, Ehrh.

crispa, Pers.

fasciata,Sch\v.

ferruginea, Pers. No. 0.

flabellaris, Pries.

frustulata, Pers.

gigantea, Fries.

hirsuta, W.

hydnoidea, Pers.

incarnata, Pers.

IcEvis, Pers.

multipartita, Schw. MS.

palrnata. Fries.

polygonia, Pers.

purpurea, Pers.

quercina, Pers.

rubiginosa, Schrad.

rugosa, Pers.

spadicea 1 Pers.

terrestris, Ehrh.

verrucosa, Schw. MS .
Tremella, Dill.

mesenterica, Relz.
Trichia, Haller.
varia, Pers.
Tubercularia, Tode.

castanea, Pers.

pezizoidea, Schw. MS.

rosea, Pers.

vulgaris, Tode.
Tubulina, Pers.

fallax ? Pers.

fragiformis, Pers.
Uredo, Pers,

caricis, Pers. On Carex varia.

flava, B— e.*

linearis, Lamb. 07i the leaves of Oals, Rye, Wheat, <J'£.

zeEe, Schw. Smut on Indian Corn.
Xyloma, Pers.

acerinum, Pers.

andromedoe, Pers.

ALGiE-

So far as I know, scarcely any attention has been given to this order of plants in

Massachusetts.

Conferva, L. Frog's Spittle.

fontinalis, L. etplures aliae.
Fucus, L.

nodosum, L. ) On the coast with

vesiculosus, L. J other species.
Laminaria.

saccharina, Agardh. Kelp. Devil's Apron.
Lemania, Agardh.

fluviatilis, Agardh. Turners Falls.
Solenia, Agardh.

compressa, Agardh. On the Coast.
Spongia, L.

fluviatilis, L. Leverett and Chesterfield. Enumerated among the radi-
ated animals. But most probably it is a plant.
Sphaerococus, Agardh.

confervoides, Agardh. On the coast.
Ulva, L.

lactuca, Agardh.

latissima, L. On the coast, with .several other species.

050

General Sunt mar ij.

>Siim?/iart/ of the Genera and Species uj Plants in the preceding

Catalugue.

FLOWERING PLANTS.

Orders. Ao.

Gen. No.

fSpccies.

1 Acerineae,

1

5

'2 Alismaceae,

2

5

3 Amaranthaceae,

1

5

4 Aiiacardiaceae,

1

7

5 Amygdaleae.

2

9

6 Apocyneae,

1

3

7 Araliaceae,

2

5

8 Aristolochiac,

1

1

9 Aroideae,

6

7

10 Artocarpeae,

1

2

11 Asclepiadeae,

1

11

12 Asphodeleae,

3

4

13 Balsamineae,

1

2

14 Berberideae,

2

2

15 Betulineae,

4

11

16 Boragineae,

6

10

17 Cacleae,

1

1

18 Callitrichineac,

1

2

19 Campanulaceae,

1

3

20 Caprifoliaceac,

9

24

21 Caryophylleae,

11

26

22 Cclastrineae,

1

1

23 Ceratophylleae,

1

1

24 Chenopodeae,

6

14

25 Cinchonaceae,

2

2

26 Circeeaceae,

1

2

27 Cistineae,

3

7

28 Compositae.

38

150

29 Coniferae,

4

13

30 Convolvulaceae,

2

4

31 Crassulaceae,

1

1

32 Cruciferae,

15

23

33 Cucurbitaceac,

2

2

34 Cupuliferae,

4

15

35 Cyperaceae,

9

12^1

36 Dioscoreae,

1

1

37 Dipsaceae,

1

1

38 Droseraceac,

1

3

39 Ericeae,

11

18

40 Euphorbiaceae,

2

5

41 Fluviales,

4

12

42 Fumariaceae,

2

5

43 Gentianeae,

5

10

44 Geraniaceae,

1

3

45 Gramineae,

47

121

46 Grossulaceae,

1

8

47 Halorageae,

2

7

48 Hamamelideae,

1

1

49 Hydrocharideae,

2

2

Orders. Xo.

(Jen:

50 Hydropeltideae,

1

51 Hydrophylleae,

1

52 HypericineaC)

1

53 Hypoxideae,

1

54 Ilicineae,

2

55 Illecebreae,

1

56 Irideae,

2

57 Juglandeae,

2

58 Juncagineaej

2

59 Junceae,

2

60 Labiatae,

22

61 Laurineae,

1

62 Leguminoseae,

17

63 Lentibulariac,

1

64 Liliaceae,

2

65 Lineae,

1

66 Lobeliaceac,

1

67 Loaseae,

1

68 Magnoliaceae,

2

69 Malvaceae,

4

70 Melastomaceae,

1

71 Melanthacee,

2

72 Menispermaceac,

'1

73 Myriceae,

2

74 Nymphaeaceae,

2

75 Oleaceae

2

76 Onagrariae,

3

77 Orchideae,'

15

78 Orobancheae,

2

79 Oxalideae,

1

80 Papaveiaceae,

2

81 Phytolacceae,

1

82 Pistiaceae,

1

83 Plantagineae.

1

84 Plataneae,

I

85 PUimbagineae,

1

86 Podophylleae,

1

87 Podostomeae,

1

98 Polygaleae,

1

99 Polygoneae,

2

90 Pomaceae,

2

91 Pontederiae,

2

92 Portulaceae,

2

93 Primulacea,

6

94 Pyrolaceaee,

2

95 Ranunculaceae,

10

96 Restiaceae,

1

97 Rhamneae,

2

98 Rhinanthaceae,

4

No. Spc

1
2
9
1
5
1
3
5
2

13

36
2

43
7
4
1
7
I
2
h
1
2
1
3
3
4

11

32
3
3
2
1
3
3
1
I
1
1
5

24
5
3
2

10
9

28
2
3
5

General Sionmnri/.

051

Orders. \o.
99 Rosaceae,

100 Salicariae,

101 Salicineae,

102 Sanguisorbeae,

103 Santalaceae,

104 Sarraceniae,

105 Saxifrageae,

106 Sclerantheae,

107 Scrophularineae,

108 Smilaceae,

109 Solaneae,

110 Staphylaceac,
HI Stellatae.

Gen

So. Spc.

Orders.

10'

3(5

11-2 Thvmeleae.

3

5

113 Tilkceae,

2

2-2

114 Typhaceae,

1

1

115 Ulmaceae,

o

',)

1 10 Umbelliferae.

1

1

117 Urticeae,

5

7

118 Vaccineae,

1

I

119 Verbenaceae.

n

•28

r20 Violaceae,

6

•20

121 Vites,

6

9

122 Xanthoxyleae.

1

I

1-23 Xyrideae.

1

11

No.

Whole No.

Gen.
1
1
2

2
16
4
2
2
1
2

1
1

454

Xo.

Spe.
1

3

21

8

11

4

17

4

1

1

1-24G

FLOWER LESS PLANTS.

Orders. No.

of

Genera.

No. of Species

1 Algae,

8

10

2 Characeae,

1

3

3 Equisetaceae,

1

6

4 Filices,

16

42

5 Fungi,

49

176

6 Hepaticae,

5

24

7 Lichenes,

28

110

8 Lycopodiaceae.

1

9

9 Musci,

31

110

Whole No.

140

491

ADDEiNDA.

Slnc« the preceding Catalogues were printpti, nii atUiition to the list of Birds has been received. It
formed a pan of a Report to the Bi.ston Natural History Society, liy C. C. tmerson Esq.

LAND BIRDS.

Muscicnpa acadica, Gmel. Small Peroee. One of the most common .summerbirds, arrlvine from the
South about the last wtek in April, and leaving us about the beginning of Septemberr

Sylvia discolor, Vieill. Prairie Warbler. Rare in the Atlantic States . conies in May, and returns
to the West Indies about the middle of September,

Sylvia Philadelphia, Wils. Mourning Warbltr. Seen in Botanic Garden, Cambridge, by Mr Nut-
tall, May 20th, 1831.

Regulus calendulus, Stephens. Bon. Rnli/crowncd H>««. Never observed in Massachusetts in
the Spring; but in October and November frequents gardens and orchards on its way to the
South.

Fringilla Georgiana. Lath, .^jvamp Sparroio. Arrives in New England froi.i the Southern States
about the middle of April. ''

WATER BIRDS.

Totanus Bartramius, Temm. Bartram's Tarlfi. Breeds
Julv to August. Goes South in September,

Lestris Richardsonii, Swain. Richardson's Jager. Seen In the winter in the inland bavs in Boston
Harbor.

Anas obscura, Gmel. DiisTiy Dtick. Met with from Labrador to Florida.

Fuligula fusca, Bon. Velvet Duck. Arrives in this vicinity from the North about the close of Sep-
tember.

Fuligula rubida, Bun. Ruddy Duck. Visits Massachusetts in October, and In the winter goes far-
ther Soulli.

Fuligula ferina, Stephens. ■ Red-headed Dvck. Appears within tl.e limits of the United States to-
wards the close of October; is oft-;n seen after northeast storms on the feeding bars in Massa.
chu.selts Bay.

Fuligula rufitorques, Bon. Ring-necked Duck. Frequent in our lakes, estuaries and rivers, at the
eommoncement of winter.

Pha1acrocir:L\ carbo, Dumont. Cormorant. Found on bare rocky island- In the vicinity of Boston.

Massachusetts. Very common froir.

65-2 Genfral Sinnmary.

GENERAL SUMMARY

Of the Number of Animals a?i(l Plants-

No. of

Genera.

No. of Species.

I. Mammalia,

26

45

II. Birds,

70

157

III. Reptiles,

7

34

IV. Fishes,

57

108

V. Shells,

76

169

IV. Crustacea,

26

38

VII. Spiders,

21

125

V\\\. Insects,

501

2350

IX. Radiata,

18

27

Total of Animals.

802

3153

X. Plants, (Flowering.)

454

1246

(Flowerless

•)

140

491

Total of Plants. 594 1737

APPENDIX.

A CATALOGUE

OF SPECIMENS OF ROCKS AND MINERALS,

ILLUSTRATING THE REPORT OF A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
OF MASSACHUSETTS;

Made by Order of the Government of the State.

This collection, which I have made by direction of the State, and which I now
present to its constituted authorities, can be regarded as by no means perfect.
Several of the rarer and less important minerals in the State will not be found in
it : nor can I flatter myself that I have obtained every variety of rock that exists
in our limits. Yet have I done all in my power, during the three years that have
been devoted to the geological survey, to procure a fair and full representation of
our rocks and minerals. Not improbably, however, the proprietors of some of
the quarries of stone in the Commonwealth, will conceive that their own are not
fairly represented : for in many instances I could only procure such samples of the
rock as presented themselves to my view at the quarries. But it will be easy for
any who are disposed to do it, to substitute for the specimens in this collection
others of a better character. And I would respectfully invite all, who feel an in-
terest in having this collection exhibit a fair and full collection of the mineral re-
sources of the State, to supply its deliciencies as they have opportunity. In gen-
eral I have reduced the specimens to rather a small size ; always intending, how-
ever, that they should fairly exhibit the characters of the rock or mineral from
which they were broken. The great number of specimens which I was obliged to
collect, (one suit for the Government, and one for each of the colleges in the
State,) compelled me to consult utility almost entirely ; and hence the collection
contains little display of large and splendid specimens.

The specimens in this Catalogue are arranged in the same order as the rocks
are described in the preceding Report. The specimens of the rocks are first
given, and then those of the simple minerals which they contain.

About 130 of the specimens have been smoothed or polished ; and this is men-
tioned under each number, where such is the case. Those specimens that have
been only smoothed, have been varnished : and this process will need to be re-
newed occasionally. I found that in this way the true character of the rock
could be brought to light quite as distinctly as by polishing: and thus the expense
was considerablv reduced.

81

654

Appendix.

STRATIFIED ROCKS.

Alluvium.
No.

1 Alluvial sand,

2 Alluvial loam, (polishing powder.)

3 and 4 Peat,

5 do

6 do

7 and 8 do
9 do

10 do

11 do

12 Marl,

13 Planorbis par\ais and bicarinatus in marl,

14 do trivolvis do

15 Lymnaa heterostropha and catascopium, do
10 Cyclas (nofidescripl, J. M. Earl,) in marl,

17 Bog Ore,

18 do

19 do with petrified carex,

20 Black Wad, (earthy oxide of manganese,)

21 do

22 du

Diluvium.

23 Diluvium,

24 do ferruginous,
25, 26, 27, and 28 do consolidated,

29 Pyrula Carica, (47 feet below the surface,)

30 do do worn,

31 Natica heros,

32 Crepidula fornicata,

33 Venus castanea,

34 Mactra,

From
Lock's Pond, Shutesbury.

do
Pittsfield.
Leverett.
Hadley.
Weston.
Norlhborough.
Shrewsbury.
Wilbraham.
Pittsfield.
Pittsfield.

do

do

do
Brookfield.
New Braintree.

do
Conway.
Leverett.
Whately.

Leominster.

do
Pownal, Vt.
Nantucket.

do

do

do

do

do

35

36

37 and 38

39

40

41

42, 43, and 44

45

46

47

49

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

'reriiary Formations
Clay,
Sand,
Clay,

do loamv.
Sand,
Argillo-Calcareous Concretions in Clay

and 48
and 50

do
do
do

Organic Remains in Clay and Loam

do

do

do
Brown Hematite,

do

do

do

do

do

do

do
Gibbsite,

do

do

do
stalactical,

do
pavonine,
compact,
mamillary,
Avith yellow ochre,
with red oxide of Iron
with radiated manganc

Ncuitst Tertiary.

Amherst.

do
Leominster.

do

do
South Hadley.
Amherst.
Hadley.
South Hadley.
Deerfield.
South Hadley Canal.
Deerfield.
Charlestown.
Richmond.
West Stockbridge.

do

Richmond.
Lenox.
West Stockbridj

do

do
Pvichmond.

Plastic Clay Formation.
62 to 63 Clay of various colors, Gay Head, Martha's Vineyard.

69 and 70 Sand agglutinated, yellow, do

71 do white, do

72 do green, do

Catalogue of Sjyccimcns. 655

73 Sand ag-glutinated, with clay, Gay Head, Martha's Vineyard.

74, 75, and 76 Lignite, do

77 Gluartzose conglomerate cemented by iron, Gay Head

78 and 79 do cement, argillo — bituminous, do

80 Specimen of oolitic aspectj do

81 Indurated Clay, do
82, 83, and 84 Impressions of Leaves on argillaceous iron ore, do

85 Impression of a seed vessel, do

86 Vegetable Remains, do

87 Cast of a Venus I do

88 Cast of a Tellina. do

89 Cast of a Turbo 7 Ao
91, 92, 93 and 94 Alcyonia 1 do

95 Unknown animal relic in ferruginous sand, Nantucket.

dQ> Fossil Zoophyta in conglomerate, Gay Head, Martha's Vineyard.

97, 98, and 99 Fossil Crabs in green sand, do

100, 101, and 102 Sharks' teeth in green sand and conglomerate. Gay H^;ad.

103 Crocodiles' tooth changed into flint, do

104 to 108 Vertebras (104 and 107 mineralized,) do

109 Fragment of a rib, do

110 and 111 Fragments of bone, do
112 do with lignite in quartzosc conglomerate, do
113,114,115 do in do Gay Head.

116 do perforated do

117 and 118 Radiated and Fibrous Pyrites, do

119 Hydrate of Iron, pisiform, do

120 do mamillary, do

121 do nodular, perforated by lignite. do

122 and 123 do do do
124, 125, and 126 do columnar, do
127 to 130 do compact and slaty, do

131 Selenite in clay with lignite, do

Neic Red iSaiulstoiic.

132 Conglomerate, coarse, Greenfield.

133 and 134 do variegated, Deerfield.

135 do of comminuted granite. Bernardston.

136 do do Westfleld.

137 do from the ruins of argillo-micaceous slate, Greenfield.

138 and 139 do do Bernardston.

140 do from mica slate, talcose slate, granite, &c. Mount Toby.

141 do do do Mouth of Miller's river.
r42 do do do epidotic do

143 Nodule from the same conglomerate, do do

144 Conglomerate from the ruins of granite, South Hadley Canal.

145 do do Mt. Holyoke.

146 do do Belchertown.

147 do do Amherst.

148 do with a ferruginous concretion, South Hadley Canal'

149 do chiefly a nodule of granite, Amherst.

150 do grav, Turner's Falls.
151, 152, 153 Trap Conglomerate, Mount Tom, Northampton.
285 do do

154 Coarse Red Sandstone, (Hoyt's auarry.) Deerfield.

155 do . Westfield.

156 do Whately.

157 do water worn. Greenfield.

158 do "^"^ . , ,
159, 160 Reddish Sandstone. West Sprmgfield.

161 Grav do (Hoyl'.s auarry,) Deerfield.

162 Reddish do Westfield.

J 63 do do Longmeadow.

101 do with pieces of fine red micaceous sandstone partial-

ly imbedded. Turner's Falls.

656

Aj)pe?idix

165
166
167
168
169
170

171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178,
180
181
182
286
183
184

Fine red Sandstone,

do
Coarse gray-
Light gray
Darker
Variegated

Gray fine

do
Coarser
Brecciated
Micaceous, gray do

do
do
do
do
do

do
do
do
do

179

do

do

do

do
Amygdaloidal

do

do
Micaceous
do

do
do
do
do
do
do

do
do

185, 186 Nodules of concretionary carbonate of )

(smoothed,) Longmeadow.

do
from the Adit, Southampton Lead Mine.

Mount Holyoke.
Turner's Falls,
and sub-crystalline in contact with trap, Titan's
\ Pier, SouthHadley.

West Springfield.
Amherst.
Turner's Falls,
near do
South Hadley,
under the trap, Mt. Holyoke.

do Mt. Tom Northampton.

Turner's Falls,
under the trap, Mount Tom.

near the trap, do

do Granby.

Northampton,
passing into shale. South Hadley.

Sunderland Cave.

lime from micaceous sandstone

187 Micaceous Sandstone with carbonate of Copper,

188 Variegated do Agawam river,

189 do do

190 do do

do

191,192 Red shale, slightly micaceous.

Turner's Falls.
West Springfield.
Turner's Falls.
South Hadley Falls,
divided by cross seams, near Turner's
[Falls.
Titan's Pier.
Turner's Falls.
South Hadley Canal
Turner's Falls;

do
Amherst.
South Hadley Canal-
West Springfield.

do

do

Sunderland.
West Springfield.

do

do

do

do

193 Reddish fine micaceous sandstone, under the trap,
194,195 do on shale,

196, 197, 198 do do

199 Shale-breaking into wedrre form masses,

200 do gray, hard, micaceous,

201 do yellow decomposing, (a bowlder,)
203,203do black
204 do do
205, 206, 207 Bituminous Marliie,

208 do

209 do variegated,

210 do glazed,
211, 212 Bituminous (fetid ?) Limestone, Paine's Cluarry,

213 Fetid Limestone, very hard and brittle, do

214 do with a singular fracture re- i

sembling an organic relic, )

215 do Meachams' Gluarry, do "

216 Argillo-ferruginous Limestone, Agawam River, do
217, 218, 219 Tripoli, Paine's Quarry, do
220, 221 do South Hadley Falls, on the W. Springfield shore.
222 to 225 Septaria or Ludus Helmontii, West Springfield.
226, 227 Concreted Carbonate of Lime, Moimt Toby, Leverett.

228 do Sunderland Cave.

229 do Paine's Cluarry, W. Springfield.

230 do stalactical, Sunderland Cave.

231 Calcareous Spar in Veins in black shale. West Springfield.
232, 233, 234 Satin Spar in red and black shale, do

235 Sulphate of Barvta, below Turner's Falls, Greenfield

^^ ate'of Lime ^''''"''^' °'' ^^'"^ ''^'^°''' } Meachams' Quar. W . Springfield.'

237 Bituminous Coal in bituminous marlite. West Springfield.

238 do do with blende, do

239 Blende and Galena in fetid limestone, do

240 Carbonate of Iron in lenticular crystals. Turner's Falls.

241 do ] S. Hadley Canal.
^42 Iron Sand, Turner's Falls.

Catalogue of Specimens.

657

iJ43
244
'245
246
247
248
249

Red Oxide of Copper in Sau'!sione, Simsbuiy Min s, Granby, Ct.

Pyritous Copper in Sandstone, Turner's Fails.

Green Carbonate of Copper, (poor specimen) Greenfield.

Bituminous Coal in Sandstone

do do

Anasphaltic Coal, do
Incrustation of purple iluate of lime on
fetid Limestone,
250 to 254 Vegetable Remains on bituminous
shale, (calamites ?)
do
do
Fucoides Shepardi in new red sandstone,
do do

do do

Encrinite (1) in shale,
Gorgonia Jacksoni on shale,

do without reticulations,

267 Zoophyta (?) converted into flint in shale,

268 to 277 Unknown Organic Remains in fetid Limestone,
278, 279 Ichthyolites (PalaeothrLssum) in bituminous shale,

280 do two fish in contact,

281 do only scattered fragments of the fish,

282 Concretion (?) or Organic Relic (!) in shale,
Moulds of Organic Relics (7)
Organic Relics (1) in shale : or veins of Clay

255
256

257, 258
259

260, 261
262, 263
264, 265
266

283

284

South Hadley, north part.
South Hadley Canal.
Turner's Falls.

I Paine's duarry W. Springfield.

> Sunderland, north part.

West Springfield.
Sunderland.
Deerfield.
Greenfield:
Deerfield.
"West Springfield,
do
do
do
W. Springfield.
Sunderland,
do
do
Turner's Falls.
South Hadley Canal,
do

285, 286 (See the numbers following 153 and 182.)

287
288
289
290
291
307
292
293
294

295
296

297
298
299

300

301
302

Grayivacke.

Cons^lomerate, the variety most common,
do

Dorchester.
do do Swansey.

do do with a vein of quartz, Brookline.

do do Attleborough.

do do reddish, Roxbury.

do red, Attleborough.

do gray, Natick.

do nodules chiefly mica slate, Bradford,

do nodules fine mica slate or quartz rock, containing

mag. ox. iron,
do quartzose brecciatcd.
Breccia, fragments of slate reunited,
do do

do fine, do

do fragments compact feldspar, cement
indurated wacke.
Breccia, angular fragments of compact feldspar reunited
Beach.

do somewhat rounded, do slaty, Dorchester,

do do do Canton.

303 Gluartz rock, dark purple quartz and mica or talc, Middletown, R. I

304 do do chiefly, do
305,306 do do with mica or talc j Fall River, Troy.

and argillaceous matter. S

307 see No. following 291.

308 Gray wacke slate passing into mica slate, \ ^^

Middletown R. I.

Attleborough.
Natick.
Randolph.
Natick.

> Saugus.

Nantasket

associated with Nos. 305 and 306.

309
311
312
313
314
315
316
317

duartz rock, red, with red oxide of iron,

do

do

do

chocolate color,

do

' do

do

do

do

do

do

do slaty.

do

do very slaty,

Attleborough.

Wrentham,

Rehoboth.

Walpole.

Abington.

Canton.

Wrentham.

Randolph.

658

Appendix.

3iy

319

320

321

322

323

324

325

32G

327

328

329

330

331

332

333

331

335

336

337

338

339

340

341

342

343

344, 345

346

347

318

349

350

351

352 '

353

354

355, 356

357

358

Q.uartz rock with veins; uf white quartz,

do red
Talcose Aggregate (Steachisl ?) conglomerated,

do slat}',

do do

do do

Classical gray wacke, gray,

do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do

Gray wacke slate, gra_v
do do

do do

do light gray,

reddish,
red,

do (bowlder,)
gray,
with veins of qnartz,
with do

with do

do
with anthracite,
ray,

359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383

do do glazed,

do do

do do

do do epidotic.

do do

do deep red from oxide of iron,

do gray,

do reddish,

do do with qnartz veins.

do do divided by cross seams.

do do do

do do variegated,

do do

do red (argillaceous slate .')

do reddish variegated,

do gray,
Novaculite,
.Argillaceous slate — coal mine.

do variegated,

do rhomboidal,

do do

do laminje curved.

do light gray,
Argillaceous slate with veins of calcareous spar,

do
do
do
do
do
do

variegated,

(Novaculite 1)
(do?)
(do?)
(do?)
Amphibolic Aggregate,
Varioloid Wacke,
do
do
do
do

do nodules quartz and epidote,
do approaching to porphyry,
Wacke from a vein in granite — lead mine,
Aymgdaloid passing into siliceous slate,
CJiliceous slate, porphyritic,
do

do with vein of granite.
384, 385 do

386 Passing into Chert.

Wrentham.
Greenbush, Y. N.
Canton.
Cambridge.
Walpole.
Newbury.
Rehoboth.

do
Attleborough.
Hull.
Newton.
Pawtucket.
Slephentown, N. Y.
Attleborough.
Rehoboth.
Troy, N Y.
Stephentown, N. Y.
Newton.
Watertown.
Pawtucket.
Newbury.
Newport, R. 1.
Watertown.
Natick.
Newton.
Taunton.
Attleborough.

do
Newbur3\
Pawtucket.
Wrentham.
Pawtucket.
Newbury.
Milton. "

Newburv, Kent's I.
Hull.

Nassau, N. Y.
Charlestown,
Portsmouth, R. 1.
Charlestown.
Rainsford Island.
South Boston.
Rainsford Island.
Halifax.
Watertown.
Q.uinc3^
Hull.
Boston Light House.
Hingham.
Spring Street, Roxbury.
Watertown.
iMiddletown R. I.
Saugus.
Brighton.
Hingham.
Nantasket Beach.
Hingham.
Brighton.
Needham.
Easton.
Newport, R. I.
do
do
do
Nahant.
do

Catii!of(ue of S])frimnis.

659

387 Jasper,
3871-'2 Heliotrope,

388 Clouded Jasper (Compact Feldspar?) (polished)
389,390 Jasper, (do'!)

3<)1 Prase and asbestiis,

392 Zoisite from the amphibolic aggregate,

393 Cubical Pyrites in anthracitous slate,

394 Asbestus in slate,

395 Impressions of ferns, &c, on slate,
39G Equisetum ? on anthracitous slate,

397 Unknown impressions on do

398 Calamities,

399 Nevropteris 1 &c, on slate,

400 Fucoides 1 in liard schistose rock,

401 Anthracite from graywacke.
403 do ' do ■
403 See the No. following No. 803.

Newport, R. I.

do
Sangus.

do
Brighton.
IVIiddletown, R. I.
VVrentham. coal mine.
Somerset.
Newport, R. I.
do
do
Wrenlham coal mint,
do
Attleborough.
Wrentham.
Portsmouth, R. I.

Worcester.
Guilford, Vl.
Lancaster.
Shirley.
Harvard.
Pepperell.
Bernardslon.
Guilford, Vt.
Glen, Leyden.
Guilford.
Glen, Leyden.
Guilford, Vt.

do

do
Sand Lalce, N. Y.
Chatham, N. Y.
Hancock'.
Guilford, Vt.
Guilford, Vl.
Lancaster,
do

Ai'gillaccons SI a !<'.

404 Made in argillaceous slate, (bowlder,)

405 Common argillaceous slate,

406 do

407 do

408 do

409 do

410 do passing into mica slate,
411,412 do with quartz veins,
413 do wav)^ surface,
414,415 do contorted,

416 Micaceo-argillaceous Slate, in cchcUoii,

417 Argillaceous Slate much bent,

418 do do

419 do exhibiting a double flexure,

420 do red,

421 do gray, beneath limestone,

422 do epidotic,

423 Chloritic Slate,
424, 425 Passing into Novaculite,

426 Chiastolite in argillaceous Slate,

427 A card of macles,

Limc,<itonc.

428, 429 White Marble, (polished) Adams.

430, 431 do (do) West Stockbridge.

432 do (do) LanesboroMgh.

433,434 do (do) New Asliford.

435 White Saccharine Limestone (bowlder) Peru.

436 Granular white dolomite, Sheffield.

437 Gray Marble (polished) . Lanesboroufh.

438 do (do) West Stockbridge.
439, 410 Gray Marble clouded (polished) New Ashfurd.

441 do do (do) West Stockbridge.

442 Dove colored Marble clouded (polished) Great Barrington.

443 Gray Limestone, Sheffield.

444 do Lee.

445 do nearly cojnpact, Lanesborough.

446 do do West Stockbridge.

447 do light, Pittsfield.

4-18 Dark gray Limestone nearly compact, AVilliamstown.

449,450 do do Stephentown, N. Y,

451 do Canaan, N. Y.

452 do compact with veins of calc. spar, Chatham, N. Y.

453 do with numerous veins of quartz, do

454 Yellowish coarse Limestone with a foreign mineral, Stockbridge.

455 Micaceotts Limestone, mica and quartz, do

660

Appendix

45(5
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
406
467
468
470.
47-2
473.
476
477
479
480
481
482
484
485
486
487
489
490
491
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
523
525
526
527
528
529
530

Mifa^eous Limeston
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do

and quarl
do
do
do
do
do
do
do

Canaan, Ct.
Lane.shorougl
South Lee.
Whately.
Colrain.
Conwav.
Heath.'
Southampton.

do with veins of quartz and calc. spar, Con-
do with veins of ^raniie. Colrain.* [waj'.

do \vi;h veins of argentine, Weslhamplon.

do decomposed at the surlace,' Guilford, Vt.

169 Gra)' Limestone in Mica slate (bowlder.) Williamsburg.

471 Encrinal Limestone, Eernardston.

do bieciated (polished.) do

474, and 475 Disintegrating Encrini in do do

Coarse white limestone with graphite (Bowlder,) Blanford.

and 478 do do

do Whitingham, Vl.
do micaceous, do

do with chlorite (a bowlder, Conway,) originally from do

and 483 Dolomitic C?) Limestone,

Fine granulur Dolomite,

White crystalline fetid Limestone,

Petalite, '
and 488 White cr3^stalline limestone,
do with serpentine,
do
and 492 Coarse granular and whitish limestone,

do
Gray do do

Compact light rrray do

Compact white translucent marble (polished.)
Granular clouded limestone.
While do Harris Rock,

do do Dexter Rock,

Flesh colored do

Flexible Marble Slab,
Laminated Calcareous Spar.
Crystalline do

Hydrate of Iron,
Magnetic Oxide of Iron,
Nephrite,
AUochroite?

Specks of Serpentine in limestone.
Crystalline Augite in calcareous spar.
Calcareous Spar, wine yellow, in limestone,
Actyuolite, in do

do radiated in do

Compact purple scapolite »&c.
Lilac do

Crystallized do in gray quartz.

Dark gray do (Nuttallite)

Sahlite,

do Avith compact scapolite,
Diopside,
Act3Tiolite,

and 522 Bisilicate of Magnesia, (Boltonite,)
and 524 White Amianthus,
Limestone and white talc,

Crystalline augite, scapolite and cinnamon stone.
Cinnamon Stone and Pargasite,

do
Crystalized Scapolite,
Actynolile,

Someiset, Vt.
do

Bolton,
do
Boxburough.
Littleton.

do
Chelmsford.
Acton.
Walpole.

Newport, R. I.sland.
Stoneham.
Smithfield, R.Island

do

do

do
New Ash ford.
Bernardston.

do

do

do
Stoneham.

do
Poxborough.

do

do

do

do

do
Bolton.

do

do

do
Acton.

Whitingham, Vt.
Chelmsford.
Bolton.
Chelmsford.
Smithfield, R.Island.
Carlisle.

do

do
Littleton.

Catalogue of Specimens.

mi

Littleton.
Bolton.
Littleton.
Carlisle.
Canaan, Ct.
Lee.
do.
Canaan, Cl.
Sheffield.
Acton.

Canaan, Ct,
do
do
do
dt)

531 Phosphate of Lime in scapolite,

532 Sphene with scapolite and petalite,

533 do do

534 do Avith aiigite and scapolite,

535 White crystalized Augite in dolomite,
53G Carbonate of Lime and Augite,

537 Tremolite in Dolomite,

538 do do

539 do

539 1-2 Spinelle Pleonaste in micaceous limestone,

Scapolite Rock.

540 Scapolite Rock somewhat crystalline,

541 do compact (the common variety)

542 do with dolomite,

543 do with mica passing into mica slate,

544 Cluartz, scapolite and augite,

Quartz Rock.

bib White hyaline Cluartz from mica slate, Heath.

'546 do do Plainfield.

547 Whitish Cluartz nearly opaque do Saddle Mountain.

548 do do from a vein in ^pii
hornblende slate, .^^^"•

549 do containing argillaceous slate, Guilford, Vt.

550 Fine white granular Gluaitz, Cumberland, R. I.

551 Reddish granular do Berkshire County.

552 do do Cheshire.

553 and 554 Gray do Pittsfield.
555 Dark gray do 'Windsor.
556, 557 and 558 Arenaceous disintegrating Cluartz, Cheshire,
559 Granular Cluartz, striped, Conway,
5G0 Hyaline dark smoky Cluartz, Amherst.
561 do do in argillaceous slate. Guilford, Vt.
■562 do light smoky do Sterling.

563 Reddish compact Cluartz, Leverett.

564 do do Prescott.

565 Bluish compact Cluartz, Amherst.

566 Greenish do Cumberland, R. T.

567 Porcms-Cluartz (Buhrstone) Washington.

568 Arenaceous Cluartz with actynolite ; associated with gneiss, Pelham.

569 Gray fine granular Cluartz, Cumberland. R. I.

570 do do Framingham.

571 Gray hyaline or coarsely granula.r quartz with feldspar, Pelham.

572 Light gray granular Cluartz with small scales of mica, Lee.

573 do do stratified (Buhrstone locality) Pittsfield.

574 The same with more mica and contorted folia,

575 Gray hyaline quartz with mica ; associated with gnei

576 Brecciated particolored quartz with mica,

577 Rhomboidal quartz with mica,

578, 579 and 580 Compact gray quartz with mica,

581 Cluartz and talc,

582 and 583 do

584 Cluartz with Actynolite connected with gneiss,

585 do "With crystals of hornblende,

586 Argillaceous slate with quartz veins,

587 Granular Cluartz and mica, connected with gneiss,

588 do
associated with gneiss.

589

do

590

do

591

do

592

do

under the Buhrstone,

593 Cluartz, mica and feldspar passint

594 Cluartz and mica,

595 do

into gneiss,

82

Lee

New Salem,

Amherst.

Northfield.

Bernardston.

Webster.

Hawley.

Pelham.

Hawley.

S. Hadley Canal

Windsor.

Webster.

Mendon.

Webster.

Pittsfield.

Dalton.

Bernardston,

Framingham.

Cumberland, R.

662

Appendix.

596 Quartz and mica passing into mica slate,

597 Arenaceous quartz and mica,

598 Cluartz and mica vescicular,

599 do

600 Cluartz mica and feldspar, passing into gneiss,

601 Cluartz with argillaceous slate near the lime bed,

602 Brecciated Q,uartz,

603 do

604 605 and 606 do cement hematitic iron,

607 do cement iron 1

608 do quartz and micaceous slate,

609 Q,uartzose Conglomerate (bowlder) cement mica
do (do) do

Cluartz with disseminated iron pyrites,
do ferruginous, (bowlder)
do passing into yellow jasper,

610
611
612
613

Zoar, at the Bridge,
Plainfield.
Chesterfield.
Conway.
Mendon.
Bernardston.
Leverett.
Amherst.
Dalton.
Amherst.
Williamsburgh.
slate, Windsor.

Adams.

Windsor.

Worthington.

Chesterfield.

Mica Slate.

614 Mica Slate, common, quartz laminar, mica scaly, shining, Colrain

615 " " - _
616
617
618
619
620
621

622,623
624

do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do

do
do
do
do
do
do
do

do
do
do
do
do
do
do

do
do
do
do
do
do
do

625
626
627
628
628
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662

of a fibrous aspect,

do do

do very even and shining,
do layers tortuous, quartz tuberculous

do

do

Peru.

Blanford.

Smithfield, R. I.

Shelburne.

Florida.

Framing ham.

Cheshire.

Northfield.
West Stockbridge.
Bolton, Ct.
Stockbridge.

do feldspar and quartz tuberculous, passing to gneiss, Pitts

do with feldspar, passing to

do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do

do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do

do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do

jneiss, micashinin
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do

Talco-micaceous Slate,

do

do

do

do
Mica Slate, amphibolic and garnetiferous.

Colrain. [field.

Westfield.

Leverett.

Montague.

Granville,
do

Florida.

Ware.
Wachusett, Princeton.
Enfield.

Saddle Mountain.
Florida.

West Stockbridge.
Saddle Mountain.
Norwich.

do do

do do do

do garnetiferous,
do staurotidiferous,
do spangled,
do do

do do rhomboidal,
do do
Argillo-micaceous Slate,

do with seams transverse to the layers,

do rhomboidal,

do

do

do

do

do glazed, with quartz,

do do contorted,

do

do with undulating surface,

do contorted with layers of quartz,

do with phosphate of lime, Conway.

Colrain.
Chesterfield.

do
Goshen.
Plainfield.

do
Norwich.
Goshen.
Greenfield.

do
Charlemont.
Hawley.
Heath.

Lanesborough.
Glen, Leyden.
Guilford, Vt.
Hancock.
Bradford.
Guilford, Vt

Catalogue of Specimens.

663

663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679,
681
682
683
684
685
686
687

688,

691

692,

694

695,

698

699,

701

702

703

704

705

706

707

708

709

710

711

712

713

714

715

716

717

718,

720

721

722

723

724

725

726,

728

729

730

731

732

733.

735

736

736

Argillo-micaceous slate contorted with layers of quartz, Whately
do " ^ ■- .

do
do
do
Arenaceous Mica Slate,
do passing into gneiss,
do mostly quartz, argentine locality
do

do vesicular (see No. 598)
do
do

do arenaceous mica slate,
do

do with feldspar,
do
680 do whetstone slate,
do do

do

do used for monuments,
do

'do Guilford.

Bernardston.
Williamstown.
Saddle Mountain.
Norwich.
Bolton.

Westhampton.
Norwich.
Chesterfield.
Chester.
Norwich.
Woonsocket Falls, Cumberland, R. I.
Chester.
Enfield.
Chester.
Enfield.
Norwich.
Sherburne.
Halifax, Vt.
Greenfield.

do M'ith seams oblique to the surface of the layers, Deerfield.
do do

Argillo-arenaceous Slate, reddish, at the junction with

the new red sandstone Glen, Leyden.

689, 690, do bent,

Arenaceous Mica slate,
693 do anthracite locality,

do with a talcose aspect,
696, 697 do

do with veins of granite,
700 do mostly quartz,

Talco-arenaceous slate — bowlder.
Arenaceous Mica Slate,

do passing into clay slate,
do talcose,
do

do mostly quartz,
•do

do with veins of quartz,
do
do
do
do
Plumbaginous Mica Slate, contorted,
do
do
Brecciated Mica Slate.
A-nthracitous Mica Slate,
719 do anthracite locality,

plumbaginous Mica Slate,

do
Mica Slate, mica and quartz laminar,
do do

do conglomerated passing intosienite.
Indurated mica slate,

727 Augite Rock associated with mica slate.
Phosphate of Lime in mica slate,
Fluate of Lime,
White milky quartz.
Fetid hyaline quartz.
Fetid <iuartz, crystalized,
734 Rose red quartz,

do
Yellow hyaline qTiartz.
Blood red do

do
"Worcester,
do
do
do
Lunenburg.
Groton.
Worcester.
Dracut.
Worcester.
Lowell.
Methuen.
Worcester.
Andover Bridge.
Worcester.
Southampton, N. Hampshire.
East Sudbury.
Webster.
Oxford.
Worcester.
Ward.
Amesbury

do
Dudley.
Worcester.
Hawley.
Southampton.
Northfield, west of Ct River.
Conway.
Whately.

do
Williamsburg.
Norwich.
Westmoreland, N. H.
Warwick.
Goshen.
Williamsburg.
Blanford.
Chelmsford-
, Colrain,
do

66'!

Appendix.

737,
745
746

747

748

749

750

751,

753

754

755,

757

758

759,,

761

763.

763

764

765

766

767,

769

770

771

773.

773

774

775

1549

1550

776

777

778

1027

779

780

781

782

783 ;

78^1

785

786

787

738,739,740,741,742,743,744 Cluartzose breccia agate, Conway.

do Amherst.

Tabular or foliated quartz, Conway.

do with a pseudo-morphous aspect, do

Yellow quartz, Amherst.

Fibrolite in Mica Slate, Lancaster.

Sappare with phosphate of lime, ' Chesterfield.

752 do do

do Chester.

Slaurotide in mica slate, Chesterfield.

756 Andalusite, crystalized, Westford.

Fibrous Talc ? associated with andalusite, do

Schorl in quartz, Blanibrd.

760 Garnets in mica slate, Chesterfield.

Crystalized Epidote in amphibolic mica slate, Goshen.

do do Williamsburgh.

Zoisite? with specular oxide of iron and carbonate of lime, Goshen.

d<!i

Idocrase, epidote, calcareous spar, &c.
Anthophyllite in mica slate,
768 do
Cununingtonile, quartz, and garnets, ,

do
Black mica,

do
Fibrous talc 1

Anthracite from mica slate (coal mine,)
Plumbago ; or anthracite passing into plumbago,
Amianthus, at the anthracite mine,
Bucholzite ?.

Red oxide of iron from the vein of Manganese,
Oxide of manganese,

do with siliceous sinter,
Ferro-silicate of Manganese,
Micaceous Oxide of iron.
Arsenical Iron,

Crystalized Arsenical Sulphurct of Iron,,
Massive, do .

Carbonate of iron,

do

do with pyritous copper, ,
Galena and blende,
Reddish sulphuret of Zinc,
Red Oxide of Titanium,

Talcose Slate.

789 : Scaly greenish- Talc, serpentine locality,

790 do near the steatite,

791 Foliated light green do

792 do
7^3 • do

794 Green steatite or nearly compact talc,

795 Steatite with rhomb spar,

796 do

797 do with bitter spar,

798 do with brown spar,

799 do

800 do bored for aqueduct pipe, .

801 do very fine,

802 do .

803 do

403 asd J548 do from gneiss,

804 do with asbestus,

805 do passing into serpentine,

806 Between steatite and chlorite, from a bowlder origin-

ally from Whitingham, Vt.

Chesterfield.
Worcester.
Chesterfield.
Blanford.
Warwick.
Cummington.
Westfield.
Norwich.
Blanford., .
Worcester,
do
do
do
Conway.

do
Amherst.
Hinsdale.
Montague.
Worcester,
do
do
do
Sterling,
do
do
do
Conway.

Westfield.
Middlefield.
Rowe.
Middlefield.
Windsor.
Zoar.
do
Windsor, N. W. part.
doN. E. part.
Smithfield, R. I.
Middlefield.
Grafton, Vt;
Blanford.
Somers, Ct. .
Groton.
Worcester.
New Salem,
do

> Conway.

Gatalogue of S2)ccimcn€.

()65

807
808
809
&10
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819,
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830,
832
833
834
835
836
837,
840
841
842
843
844
844
845
S46
847
848
949,

851
852
853

854

855

856

857

858

859

860

861.

862

863

864,

866

867

868

869

870

871
872
873
874
875

Dark green scaly chlorite with feldspar,
Finer grained, do
Slaty Chlorite,

do steatite Bed,
Chlorite Slate,

do with red oxide of titanium and feldspar,
Talco-chloritic Slate,

do

do epidotic,

do do and passing into hornblende slate,
Talcose Slate — talc and quartz,

820

do
do
do
do
do
do
do
Talcose Slate
do
do
do
831 do

do nearly white,

do do

do greenish ; soapstone quarry

do do

do whetstone quarry,

do

talc, quartz, and mica,
do

do ■
do
do
Talc and Limestone,
Talc, quartz, and Carbonate of Iron,
CLuartz and Hydrate of Iron,
Talc, Cluartz, and Hornblende,
do
838, 839 do

Talc, Q,uartz, and Feldspar,

do porphyritic,
Talcose Slate, with octahedral oxide of iron,

do do

Micaceous oxide of iron,
1-2 Magnetic Oxide of Iron,
Mag. Ox. Iron, Native Magnet.

do with ferro-silicate of manganese,
do porphyritic with crystals of feldspar.
Porous quartz with hydrate of iron, gangue of gold
850 do in talcose slate, do

Put in the collection for comparison
Gray oxide of manganese,
Bisilicate of manganese.
White bitter spar,

do with green foliated talc,
Salmon-colored do do

Miasite,

dol
Picrosmene ?
Asbestus,
do
do
Tremolite, probably from the soapstone quarry.
Fibrous hornblende in quartz,
865 Fasciculite in talcose slate,
Crystalized Actynolite, in talc,
do
do
do radiated.

Cummington.
Goshen.

Smithfield, R. 1.
Middlefield.
Peru.
Windsor.
Little Compton, R. I.
Smithfield, R. 1.
Cumberland, R. I.
Smithfield, R. I.
Litttle Compton, II. I. .
Stafford, Ct.
Hawley.
Middlefield.
Plainfield.
Smithfield.
Florida.
Lenox.
Hawley.
Iron Mine, Somerset, Vt.
East side of serpentine, Chester.
Barre.
Rowe.

Whitingham, Vt.
Hawley.
do
do
Charlemont.
Hawley.
Smithfield, R. 1.
Hawley.

do
Blanford.
Hawley.

rio
Somerset, Vt.
Cumberland, R. 1. .

do
Somerset, Vt. .

J

Virginia.

Plainfield.
Cummington.
Middlefield, Soapstone Cluarry, .
do
do
Zoar.
do
do
Pelham.
Blanford.
Shutesbury.
Middlefield.
Plainfield.

do
Blanford.
Windsor,
from Soapstone (Quarry, Blanford.
do do

Serpentine,

Compact noble serpentine, (polished,)

do with massive garnet, [polished,]
do with green amianthus,
Common serpentine, compact,
do do

do do polished,

Lime (Quarry, Newbury
do
do

Newbury.

Chester, west pari,

Middlefield.

6r)6

Apytndlx.

876
877
878
879
880
881
88-2
883
884
885
886,
888,
890
891
892
893
894
895
896,

899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913

914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
923
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936,

939,

941
942

Coiiiuiou Serpentine, slaty,

do with grains of chromate of iron.

do

do in place,

do a bowlder,
Black compact serpentine,
Variegated, do

Dark green compact do a bowlder,
Dark gray compact do

Chester, west part.
Windsor, N. E. part.

do N. W. part.
Blanford.

do
Newport, R. I.

do
Leverett.
Lime CLuarry, Chelmsford.

Dark green do with veins of amianthus and Deweylile 1 Russell

887 Compact do with talcose glazing, Zoar.

889 Serpentine with steatite and brown spar, do

Black do and talc or talc passing into serpentine, New Salem,
do and do (polished) '^ Pelham.

Dark green do with do Blanford.

Black do with do and actynolite, Westfield.

Light green compact do with schiller spar"? (polished,) Russell.

Black compact do with talc, and calcareous spar, (polished) Granville

897, 898 Serpentine and carbonate of lime Ophicalce grenue, Al.

Brongn. (polished.) Westfield

Serpentine and carbonate of lime.

Compact feldspar,

Compact Scapolite ? resembling petalile,

Manallary Chalcedony,

Yellow Jasper.

Chalcedony?

Drusy Quartz,

Satin Spar,

Tremolite,

Mussite,

Massive Garnet 1

Actynolite,

do resembling asbestus,
Chromate of iron, massive,

do in serpentine.

Hornblende Slaie.

Westfield.
Lime Gluarry, Newbury.
Westfield.
Blanford.
Middlefield.
do
do
Lime Gluarry, Newbury.

do

Blanford.
Westfield.

do

do
Blanford.

do

do

with garnets,

Lamellar black Hornblende (hornblende rock,)

do

do

do
Finer do

Fibrous Hornblende,
Somewhat granular do
Fibrous Hornblende,

Granville.
Belchertown.
Norwich.
Belchertown.
South Hadley Canal.
Enfield.
Middlefield.
Leverett.
Florida.
Lincoln.
Smithfield, R. I.
Marlborough.
Shelburne.
Banks of Merrimack R.
Whately.
Sudbury,
(hornblende slate,) Bernardston.

rhomboidal, (primitive greenstone,) Whately.
(hornblende slate,) Ware,

compact, (transition greenstone,) Smithfield, R. I.
not slaty, (primitive greenstone,) Gill.
Cluartz and feldspar, a vein in primitive greenstone, do

937, 938 Hornblende and Feldspar, primitive greenstone ) wjiotpiy

somewhat columnar, S
910 Hornblende and Feldspar, coarsely granular, (horn- ) -tir^-^

blende slate.) ^ ^^'^^•
do chiefly hornbleiule, (hornblende slate.) Mouth of Miller's R.
do the feldspar in distinct layers, do Dana.

do
Compact

do

do
Fibrous

do

do

do
do
do
do
do
do
do

liornblende slate,

do

do

do

do
(greenstone slate.)

do

do
(hornblende slate,)

do

do

Hornblende and Feldspar,
do do

do do

do do

do do

do do

Catalogue of Sjjecimens.

6G1

943
944
945
946
947
948

949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
96-2,
964
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971

Hornblende, Feldspar, and Mica.,

do
do
do
do
do

do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do

porphyrilic, (smoothed,)
do (bowlder,)

do do

and compact feldspar,
and feldspar, the latter compact and with a
crystalline form,
do
do ]
do
and Cluartz with a vein,

Plumbago Mine, Stnrbridge
Heath.
South Hadley Canal
Amherst.
Whately.

Easton.

do
do
do
do
do

with a vein of graphic granite,

Canton.

Plymouth.

Whately.

Becket.

William.sburg.
Shelburne Falls
Warwick.
Hawley

with a vein of qnartz,

hornblende fibrous,

and feldspar, the hornblende fascicular, Conway.

Amherst.

Becket.

963

Feldspar, and Mica,
do with augite,

do

do passing into sienite,

do with granite,

Hornblende and Epidote.
1-2 do in contact with serpentine,

do rhombodial,

Crystalized feldspar in hornblende slate,
Hornblende and Chlorite,
Actynolite Slate — actynolite, quartz, and feldspar,

do
Hornblende Slate, with a layer of epidote,
Crystals of Hornblende in hornblende slate,

Stow.

Dracut.

Leverett.

Granville.

Blanford.

Whately.

do

do
Shute.sbury.
Belchertown.
Pelham.

do

Gneiss.

972
973
974
975
976
977
-978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
1001
1002
1003
1004
1005

Granitic Gneiss,

do

do

do

do

do

do

do

do

do

do
Sienitic Gneiss — Gneiss with Hornblende,
Granitic Gnei.s.s 1 texture somewhat mechanical,

do

granular,

do
do
do
do
do
do
do
Schistose Gneiss,
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do

Pelham.

Templeton.

Brookfield.

New Braintree.

Pelham.

Paxton.

Petersham.

Monson.

Athol.

Princeton.

Blanford.

Mendon.

Bolton.

Worcester,
do
chiefly flesh colored feldspar and quartz, Sudbury,
slightly talcose, North Brookfield.

somewhat schistose, Rochester.

do

(smoothed,)

ranular,

Oxford.
Sudbury.
Billerica.
Dudley.
Purgatory, Sutton.
Wilbraham.
Mouth of Miller's River, Montague.
Buckland.
Shelburne Falls.
Amherst,
mica predominating, New Bedford,

passing into mica slate, Worcester,

do Paxton.

do Hard wick.

Pelham.
feldspar in tuberculous masses, Worcester.

658

Appendix.

1000

Junction o

f grnnitic gneiss and mica slate,

Worcester.

1007

SL-lustose

Gneiss,

Westborough.

lOOS

do

passing

into mica slate, (bowlder,)

Colrain.

looy

do

Windsor.

1010

do

feldspar gray,

Little Compton, R. I

1011

do

Monson.

101-2

do

chiefly

feldspar,

Oxford, East part.

1013

do

Florida.

1014

do

passing

into mica slate with pyrope.

Western,

1015

do

do

Shrewsbury.

1016

do

Western base of Wachusett, Princeton

i017

do

Grafton.

1018

do

Charlton.

1019

do

somew

lat porphyritic,

Harvard.

1020

do

talcose

7

Framingham.

1021

do

do]

Leverett.

1022

do

do

with veins of chlorite,

Bolton.

1023

Laminar

Gneiss,

Windsor.

1024

do

Webster, west part

1025

do

Amherst.

102G

do

Grafton.

1027

See

the No. following

No. 778.

1028,

1029

Laminar Gneiss,

Pelham;

1030

do

^Norfolk, Cm.

1031

do feldspar, hornblende and slate in

terlarainated, Enfield.

1032

do

do

Warwick

1033

do

Savoy.

1034

do

Windsor.

1035

do

Dalton.

1036

do

Becket.

1037

do

with a vein of granite,

^Pelham.

1038,

1039

do

Douglas.

1040

do

becoming porphyritic,

Ward.

1041

Por

jhyritic Gneiss,

Pelham.

1042

do

feldspar, flesh colored,

Amherst.

1043

do

with epidotey (smoothed,)

Pelham.

1044

do

coarse.

New Braintree.

1045,;

W346

do

do

Ware.

1047

do

Methuen.

1048

do

scarcely porphyritic,

Paxton.

1049

do

Montague.

1050

do

passing into schistose,

Tolland.

1051

Amphibol

ic Gneiss,

containing disseminated masses ) nr .„

of hornblende, i Montague.

1052

do

Leverett.

1053

do

Enfield.

1054

do

Pelham.

1055

Epi

lotic Gneiss,

Amherst.

1056

do

Pelham

1057

do

Amherst.

1058

do

Grafton..

1059

do

Amherst.

1060

do

I

Duxbury.

1061

do

' containing comp.ict feldspar,

do

1062

0 1065 A

ngitic Gneisf

Lee.

1066,

1067

Anthophyllitic Gneiss.

Enfield.

1068

Arenaceous Gneiss,

Southbridge.

10G9,

1070

dc

?

Smithfield, R. I

1071

Talcose Gneiss,

do

1072

Gne

iss with a serpentine eranite vein,

Enfield.

1073

Plumbagc

, the common v^ariety,

Sturbridge.

1074

do

apparently

fibrous.

do

1075

do

partially crystalline.

do

1076

Pul

er's earth 1 In the Plumbago mine.

do

1077

Hydrate of Iron, (boe:

ore) in do

do

1078

d

0 do in gneiss.

North Brookfield.

Catalogue of Specimens

6G9

1079 Garnet and Sulphuret of Molybdenum in Gneiss,

1080 Native Alum and Sulphate of Iron on gneiss,

1081 do do
108:2 Pyrope Garnet in gneiss,

1083 " do with adularia,

1084 do in gneiss passing into mica

1085 Crystalized feldspar in gneiss,

1086 Green Adularia, with mica (polished)
1087, 1088 Adularia,

1089, 1090 Schorl in quartz from gneiss,

1091 Crystalized Sphene in augitic gneiss,

1092 Crystalized augite and scapolite 1
1093, 1094 Sulphuret of Iron,

1095 Peliom ? and pyrites,

1096 Magnetic Oxide of Iron in gneiss,

1097. 1098, 1099 Crystalized and Drusy auartz,

HOG Radiated Cluartz,

1101 Amethystine do

1102 Bluish Mamillary Chalcedony in gneiss,

1103 Breccia Agate, (polished.)

1104 Gray Copper, perhaps from gneiss,

1105 Actynolite in feldspar,

North Brookfield.
Leominster.
Barre.

New Braintree.
Brimfield.
slate, Norwich, Con.
Boxborough.
Southbridge.
Brimfield.
Pelham.
Lee.
do
Hubbardston.

do
Grafton.
Pelham.
do
do
do
Rochester.
Brimfield 1
Chelmsford.

1106
1107
1108
1109
1110

nil

1112
1113
1114
1115
1116
1117
1118
1119
1120

1121
1122
1123
1124
1125
1126
1127

1128
1129
1130
1131
1132
1133
1134
1135
1136
1137
1138
1139
1140
1141
1142

UNSTRATIFIKI) ROCKS.

Greenstone.
Common Greenstone, hornblende and feldspar,
do do

do do

do do

do do

do (Primary greenstone,) do
do do epidotic,

do approaching to sienite do
do do

do approaching to sienite do

do do

See the No. following 1205.
Common Greenstone, epidotic

do

do

do

do
do

do from a vein in ar
gilaceous slate
Coarse Greenstone passing into sienite, hornblende and
Greenstone passing into sienite, coarse, (a bowlder)

do do

do do

do - do

do do

do the feldspar in bronze colored folia of con- )
siderable size, J

do do

do the ingredients distinguished with difficulty,

do do

do passing into sienite,

do

do from a vein in gneiss,

do

do from a vein in gneiss,
Columnar Greenstone, 4 sided prism.

do 5 sided prism,

do 3 sided prism,

Curved exfoliation from a column.
Compact Greenstone, the ingredients indistinct,

do a bowlder,

83

Sunderland.

Deerfield.

Mt. Holyoke.

Turner's Falls

Mt. Tom.

Pelham.

Chelsea.

Newbury port.

Lexington.

Holliston.

Concord.

Waltham.
Nahant.

" i Charlestown.

feldspar, do
West Springfield.
Holliston.
Dover.
Stoughton.
Easton.

West Springfield.

Mt. Holyoke.

Hingham.

Newton.

Blue Hills.

CLuincy.

Rutland.

Nahant.

Montague.

Mt. Holyoke.

do

do

do
Nahant.
Blue Hills,
Framiugham.

670

Appendix.

1143 Compact greenstone, from rx vein in granite..

1144 Chietlv greenish r-ompact feldspar ^

1145 ' " tlo
11H5. 1147, ilo

114S, 1149, 1150 Indurated Clay, Titan's Pier,
1151 Common Greenstone with reddish carbonate of lime,
115-3 to 1155 Hornblende, Augite 7 and Feldspar,
115(') Porphyritic Greenstone, (smoothed)
do

do (smoothed)

do imbedded crystals Karinthin, (smoothed)
do reddish,
do base reddish.
Greenstone porphyrliic and epidotic, with iron pyrites,
do do base wacke-iike,

do do do

Slaty Greenstone, micaceous,
Amygdaloidal Greenstone, nodules calcareous,
do nodules siliceous,

do nodules calcareous,

do do

do cavities empty, loadstone,

do do do

do nodules siliceous,
do nodules foliated chlorite,
do nodules earthy chlorite,
do nodules calcareous,
Concretion from Greenstone,

do
Trap Tufa, or tufaceous greenstone,

1157

1158

1159

1160

1161

116-2

1163

1164

1165

1166

1167

1168

1169

1170

1171

1172

1173

1174

1175

1176

1177

1178

1179

1180

1181

1182

1183

1184

1185

1186

1187

1188,

1190

1191

do
do
do
do

do

do

micaceous,

cement calcareous spar,

base reddish,
Junction of Amygdaloid and sandstone.
Trap Tufa,

Nodules of Prehnite in greenstone,
1189 Chalcedony in do
do do

Large Agate, of chalcedony, carnelian and quartz,
1192, 1193 Amethyst in greenstone,

1194 Black Augite, do

1195 Prehnite, Augite and Calcareous Spar,

1196 Pseudomorphous Q,uartz, with prehnite,

1197 Calcareous Spar, prehnite, &c.
1198, 1199 Chlorophoeitein trap,

1'200 Lincolnite and chabasie in greenstone.

1201 do do

1202 do and chabasie do
1-203,1-204 do covering the surface.

1205 Radiated mineral, perhaps Lincolnite, on greenstone,

1117 Cryslalized Smoky quartz, from Greenstone,

1-206 and 1207 Compact feldspar,

1208 do with talc 1

r209 do with dendritic impressions,

1210 do with quartz,

1211 do somewhat foliated, a vein in sienite,

1212 do somewhat brecciated,

1213 do do

1214 do a vein in black serpentine,

1215 do

1216 do slightly porphyritic,

1217 do

Foxborougii.
Salisbury.
Rowley.
Dedhara.
South Hadley.
DeerfieUl.
Nahant.
Cape Ann.
Easton.
Salem.
Ipswich.
Turner's Falls,
Deerfield.
Topsfield.
Turner's Falls.
Deerfield.
Reading.
Deerfield.
S.Hadley Canal.
Deerfield.
Turner's Falls.
Gill.

IMount Holyoke.
Titan's Pier.
Turner's Falls.
West Springfield.
Rowley.
Deerfield.
Mount Holyoke.
S.Hadley Canal.
Deerfield.
Titan's Pier.
Deerfield.
Northampton.
Mount Tom.
Deerfield.
Turner's Falls.
West Springfield,
Greenfield.
Deerfield.
Greenfield.
Deerfield.
do
do
do
do
do
Turner's Falls.
Deerfield.
do
do
do
Deerfield.
West Springfield.
Newbury.
Sharon.
Medford.
Natick.
Whately.
Dorchester.
Blue Hills.
Newbury.
Nahant.
Hingham.
Lynn.

Catalogue of Specimens.

671

1218
1-219
1220
1-221
1222
1223
12*21
1225
1226
1227
12-28

1-329
1231
1232
1233
1234
1235
1236
1237
1238
1239
1-240
1241
1242
1243
1244
1245
1246
1247
1248
1249
1-250
1251
1252
1253
1-254
1255
1256
1257
1258
1259
1260
1261
1262
1263
1-264
1-265
1266
1267
1268
1269
1270

1-271
1272
1273
1274
1275
1276
1277
1-278
127!>
12>()

Compaci I'cldspar, somewhat fuliated, Natick.

do lime quariy, Stoiieham.

do variegated, JMeilfoid.

do passing into siliceous slate, Maiden,
do do with a minute quantity oi' gold ] Blue Hills,

do red, passing into porphyry, do

do do Hinghara.

do do Milton,

do do Rowley.

do do Ipswich,
do do exhibiting traces of a slatv struc- > -m i „

ture, Kent's Island, " \ Newbury,

and 1-230 do variegated, somewhat foliated, Dedham.

Porphyry approaching Sienite (polished) Maiden,

do with traces of a slaty structure, Nantasket Beach,

do base purple, (polished) bowlder, Orleans,

do base black, do Nantasket Beach,

do approaching to amygdaloid, Westborough.

Between greenstone and porphyry, Ipswich,

do porphyry and compact feldspar, Milton.

Porphyry, Blue Hills.

Porphyry dark gray, (polished) Blue Hills,

do do (do) North of Boston.

do containing quartz nodules (polished,) Milton.

do light gray do do

do reddish, Nantasket Beach,

do"? perhaps Varioloid Wacke, Newton,

containing quartz and feldspar crystals, Milton,

red and green, (smoothed) Maiden.

do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do

red with quartz and feldspar crystals, a bowlder, Newport, R. 1,

red,

do

red base,

do
base red

do
greenish,
lively green,

Maiden.

Lynn.

Nantasket Beach.

Blue Hills.

North of Boston.

Nantasket Beach.

Maiden.

Milton.

Needham.

passing into sienite. Maiden,

reddish brown, crystals of feldspar and quartz, polished, B. Hills,
green, passing into sienite, (smoothed) Maiden,
base dark green, crystals feldspar and quartz (do) Blue Hills,
variegated, feldspar and quartz crystals do do

base reddish, imbedded crystals chiefly quartz do Gluincy.

(polished)
do
do
do
do

do

Brecciated Porphyry, reddish, (polished)
do (smothed)

do passing into gray wacke, do
do (polished)

do do

do greenish,

do betraying a former slaiy structure.

do do Milton.

Halfway Rock, Allan. Ocean.
Lvun .
Maiden.

do
Nantasket Beach.
Maiden.
Nantasket Beach.

Sienile.

Feldspar and Hornblende,
do passing into porphj'ry.

do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do

brecciated,

(smoothed)
do
do
do

(smoothed)
do
do

NeM'bury.

Nahant.

Stoneham.

Foxborough.

Concord.

Dover.

Reading.

Nahant.

Norfolk Count}-.

Rowlcv.

1283

do

1284

do

1285

do

1286

do

672 Appendix.

1281 Feldspar and Hornblende, Hangman's Island, Boston Harbor.

1282 do hornblende in distinct crystals, (smoothed) Dedham.

do Randolph.

Reading.

Cumberland, R. I.
epidotic, Dedham.

1287 Feldspar, quartz and Hornblende, Salisbury,

1288 do Manchester.

1289 do Gluincy Granite, Cluincy.

1290 do do (smoothed) Q,uincy.

1291 do (bowlder) Mansfield.

1292 do Franklin.

1293 do (smoothed) Danvers.

1294, 1295 do do Squam.Gloucester.

1296, 1297 do do Sandy Bay, do

1298 do do Squam, do

1299 do do North Bridgwater.

1300 Q,uarlz and E'eldspar, do Manchester.

1301 do do Foxborough.

1302 do do Easton.

1303 do feldspar mostly compact, do West Cambridge.
J^ »;o do Hingham.

1305 do do Sherburne.

1306 do feldspar blood red, do a bowlder, Marshfield.

1307 do and perliaps hornblende, do Scituate.

1308 do do Weston.

1309 do Middleborough.

1310 do Weston.

1311 do Foxborough.

1312 do Danvers

1313 Feldspar and quartz, the former compact, Newbury.

1314 do and chlorite, the feldspar red and greenish, Saugus.

1315 do the feldspar compact, close to the jasper, do
131G Passing into porphyry, Newbury.
i317 do Manchester.

1318 do Maiden,

1319 Feldspar, Hornblende, Cluartz and Mica, Belchertown.

1320 do (smoothed) do

1321 do do Northampton.

1322 do Williamsburgh.

1323 do Whately.

1324 do the hornblende predominating, Northampton.

1325 do with veins of epidote, Whately.

1326 do do

1327 do chiefly feld.spar, do

1328 do Gloucester.

1329 Chiefly feldspar and talc or chlorite, with veins of epidote, Salisbury.

1330 Feldspar, hornblende ? and mica, (smoothed) Medford.

1331 do coarse, a bowlder, Charlestown.

1332 Feldspar, quartz, mica, and perhaps hornblende, Fall River, Troy.

1333 Chiefly feldspar and mica, Bradford.

1334 do with a little quartz and hornblende, Lincoln.

1335 Feldspar, hornblende and mica, Salem.
l.'?36 Feldsjiar, hornblende, and talc, Newbury.
1337 Feldspar, quartz, and mica, or talc, Franklin.

1338, 1339, 1340 Granite, sienile and greenstone fi-om the same ledge, Sloughton.

1341 Porphyritic sienite, (smoothed) Lexington.

1342 do feldspar and quartz with epidote (smoothed) Marblehead.

1343 do feldspar bronze colored, do Gloucester.

1344 do base green compact feldspar ; crystals flesh red

foliated feldspar ; also quartz and hornblende. West Bridgewater.

1345, 1346 do like the last. Abingion.

1347 do Plymouth Covuitr.

1348 do feldspar, quartz, mica, and hornblende, Essex.

1349 Porphyritic Sienite passing to porphyritic greenstone,

the crystals nearly compact, " Waltham,

Catalogue of Sj^fcciincns.

673

1350
1351
1352
1353
1354
1355
1356
1357
1358
1359
1360
1361
1362
1363
1364
1365
1366,
1369
1370
1371

1372
1373
1374
1375
1376,
1378
1379
1380
1381
1382

1383
1384
1385

1386
1387
1388
1389
1390
1391
1392
1393
1394
1395
1396
1397
1398
1399
1400
1401
1402
1403
1404
1405
1406
1407
1408
1409
1410,

1413
1414

Conglomeraled Sienile, Whately.
do do

do do

do do

Junction of two varieties of sienite. West Bridgewater.

Vein of graphic granite in sienite, Belcheriown.

Vein of nearly compact feldspar in sienite. Southborougli.

Irregular vein of granite in sienite, Noithampton /

Vein of compact greenstone in sienite, Nahant.

Veins of feldspar in sienite, Marblehead.

Vein of compact epidote in sienite, Abington.

Vein of red feldspar in sienite, Whately.

Augite, hornblende and feldspar, Belchertown.

Augite and feldspar; the latter almost compact, Amherst.

Sulphate of bar3na, Hatfield.

Purple fluate of Lime in sienite, Cumberland, R. I.

1367, 1368 Drusy crystalized duartz, Whately.
do with singular cavities, do

Arsenical Iron in quartz from sienite, Newbury.

Galena and Blende in sulphate of baryta, Hatfield!^

Gra7iitc.
Feldspar, Cluartz and mica, common granite, coarse, Russell.

1377

do

do

do

do

do

do

do

do

do

do

do quartz blue,

do

do
do
do
do
do
do

Westhainpton.

S. Hampton Adit.

Leverett.

Amherst.

Granville.

Amherst.

Westford.

do chiefly quartz and mica, do

Feldspar, Cluartz and Mica, chiefly quartz and mica, Amherst.

do ' do Mouth of Miller's

[River.

do do Framingham.

do feldspar flesh colored, do Blaiiford.

Feldspar, Quartz and Mica, common Granite, coarse, feldspar red,

[Granville.

do do do do Amherst.

do do do do New Salem.

do do do do Concord.

do quartz yellow do do Williamsbnrgh.

do mica yellow, do do Chesterfield.

do do do Norwich.

do in bowlders do easily decomposing, Florida.

do do quartz dark gray, inclining to purple, Adams.

do do feldspar greenish and quartz purplish, Florida.

do mica green, coarse,

do quartz smoke gra}^, do

do feldspar bluish, do

do feldspar blue, do

do feldspar nearly compact, do

do do do

do (gneiss 1) do

do of a mechanical aspect, do

do ingredients dark gray, do

do (gneiss ?) do

do do

do passing into sienite, rather fine,

do junction of coarse and fine grained,

do (gneiss ?)
Clnartz and mica, coarse,

1411, 1112 Q,uartz, mica and feldspar, red granite, fine grained, tc^-viripr,
^ . , , [South Hadiey

do leldsr?ar red, (smoothed) Falmouth,

do do do Rochester.

Cummington.
Leverett.

do

do
Heath.
Amherst.
Ashburnham.
Granville.
Fall River.
Leominster.
Smithfield, R. I.
Bristol, R. I.
Williamsburgh.
Top of Wachusetl Mt.
Westfield.

674

Appendix

1115
1116
1117,
1119
1120
1101
1102

1 123
1124
1125
1 12G
1127
1128
1129

lino

1131
1132
1133

M31
1135
1136
1437
1438
1439
1410

1411
1442
1443
1444
1445
1446
1447
1148

1149
1450
1451
1452

1453
1154
1455
1456
1457
1458
1459
1460
1461
1162
1463
1164
1465
1166

1467
1469
1471
1473
1174
1475
1476
H

Ciiiarlz, miL-a and Icldspar, feldspar red, (sinuolhed) Wareham.

do reddish gray, do Fratuinghain.

1418 do mica black, finegrained, Cumberland, R. I. N E.parl.

do perhaps sienile, do (smoothed) Med field.

do rather fine grained

Feldspar, Gluartz and mica, or Talc, do

do do

Carver.
Weston.
Eastern part

[State.
Adams,
^Belchertown.
Westfield.
Ashburnham.
Acton.
Whately.
Conway,
Holliston.
Dedhara.
Chester.

of the

Feklspar, Glnartz and Mica, bowlder, fine grained,

do feldspar purplish,

do evidently recomposed. from a vein.
Feldspar, duartz and Mica, fine grained, quarried,

do with small garnets,

do fine grained,

do do

do do

do chielly quartz and feldspar,

do do

do feldspar mostly foliated, gray, but some of it compact
and greenish, quartz gra^f^, approaching to granular,
mica black, (smoothed) Pilgrim R,ock, Plymouth.

do similar to the last, do

Feldspar, Uuartz and Mica, fine grained, Acton.

do chiefly quartz, Sudbury.

do passing into porphyry, Halifax.

Feldspar, Cluartz, and Talc ? Duxbury.

Feldspar and quartz, perhaps sienite, Newbury.

Feldspar, duartz and Mica, approaching tosienite,

apparently stratified, Worcester.

do passing into mica slate, Norwich.

do do Colrain.

do mica black, resembling sienite, (smoothed) Dover.

do fine grained, Southampton Adit.

do quarried, do Tyngsborough.

do do Norwich,

do wrought, do Dover.

do mica nearly wanting, very fine grained, quarried,
(smoothed) Dover.

do fine grained, bowlder, Amherst.

do quarried, (smoothed) Concord.

do feldspar reddish, mica scarcely present, (smoothed)

do very fine grained, decomposing at the [Wallham.

surface, (smoothed) Sharon.

do quarried, (smoothed) (Chelmsford granite) Westford.

do
do
do
do
do

do
do
do
do
do

do
do
do
do
do

porphyritic,

Feldspar, Gluartz and Talc,

Feldspar, Cluaitz and mica, resembling sienite.

Feldspar, Gluartz, Mica and Talc, coarse, bowlder,

Pseudomorphous Granite,

Porphyritic Granite,

do bowlder,

do very coarse,

Fitzwilliam, N. H.

Pelham, N. H.

Fitchburg.

Ashby.

Williamsburgh.

Dedham.

Cumberland, R. I.

Amherst.

Williamsburgh.

Chester.

Shutesbury.

Harvard.

do tine grained, feldspar nearly compact, bowlder, (smoothed)

[Turner's Falls
1468 do feldspar chiefly compact, in argillaceous slate, Guilford, Vt.
1470 Chiefly compact feldspar and quartz, do do

1472 Graphic Granite, Williamsburgh.

do Leominster.

do fiomaveinin quartz rock. Washington,

do Goshen,

do reddish, bowlder, Amherst.

77 M7'-^ do flesh red, from red sandstone. l>crfield.

Catalogue of Sprrimnis.

G75

1 179 Graphir Granite.

1480 do with gafnet-^.

14Si Junction of Granite and Mica slate,

148-2 Vein of Granite in Mica Slate,

1483 do do

1484 do in the Worcester County Mica slate,

1485 Granite at its junction with micaceous limestone,
148G Granite with a nodule of mica slate, bowlder,
1487 1488 Laminated and Tabular Sulphate of baryta,

1489 Crystalized calcareous spar, Lead Mine,

1490 Argentine,

1491 do showins: itsjunction with granite,

149-2 do " Lead Min

1493 1494 1495 1496 Crystalized auartz of various colors, do
1497 Radiated crystalized quartz,
1 198 Purple Q,uartz in granite,

1499 Crystalized smoky duartz,

1500 Massive do

1501 Pseudemorphus Q.uartz, form of hogtooth spar,
150-2 do form of fluate of Lime,

1503 Hornstone, Lead Mine,

1504, 1505 Gray and greenish Spodumene,

1506 do light rose color.

1507 do green and translucent,

1508 do white and pearly,

1509 Straw colored Mica, Tourmaline locality,

1510 do in distinct crystals,

1511 Rose colored Mica, do
151-2 Prismatic M;ca,

1513 Variegated prismatic mica,

1514 Black mica,

1515 Plumose Mica,

1547 Schorl with terminations, in granite,
1516, 1517 Indicolite,

1518 do light blue,

1519 do or green tourmaline,
15-20 Yellowish Green Tourmaline,

15-21 Indicolite embraced in green tourmaline,

15-22 Green, red, and blue tourmaline,

15-23 Green tourmaline in quartz,

15-24 do enclosing rubellite,

15-25 Limpid Beryl in granite,

15-26 do rose red,

1527 Massive Beryl with Spodumene.

1528 do

15-29 Radiated mineral on granite, of the Zeolite familv :

1530 Fibrous Talc ?

1531 dol

1532 Common feldspar.

1533 Blue do

1534 Greenish do

1535 Siliceous do

1536 do

1537 Foliated siliceous Feldspar,

1538 Siliceous Feldspar, coarsely

1539 do finely granular,

1540 Galena in Gluartz.

1541 do with Blende,

1542 do with Carbonate of Lead,

1543 Blende in Quartz,

1544 Pyritous Copper in Quartz,

1545 Blende, Galena, and Pyritous Copper

1546 Blende decomposing in quartz,

1547 See the No. following No 1515.

1548 See the No. following No. 803.
1.549 See the No. following No. 774.
1550 See the No. preceding No. 775.

Cleavlandite, foliated,
do

rranular,

Warwick.

Go.shen.

Conwav.

do
Williamsburgl).
Leominster.
Conway.
Deerfieid.
Leverett.
Southampton.
Westhampton.
do
?, Southampton,
do
do
Florida.
Goshen.

William-sburgh.
Westhampton.

do
Southampton
Goshen,
do
do
Sterling.
Chesterfield,
Goshen.

do
Russell,
do
do
Williamsburgh.
Chelmsford.
Goshen,
do
do
do
Chesterfield,
do
do
do
Goshen.

do
do
do
probably stilbile, do
Norwich.
Blanford.
Williamsburgh.
Leverett.
Goshen.
Chesterfield.
New Salem.
Goshen.
Chesterfield.
Goshen.
Southampton.
Whately.
Southampton.
Northampton.
Southampton.

do
Williamsburgh.

G E N E R A E INDEX.

A

Page.
Aboriginals, their geological speculations. . - . . 208
Adit at Southampton, - - - ' - - - - 112

Adularia, 61, 398, 283

Actynolite, 392, 360, 368

Slate, 372

Agaric Mineral, - ^ 304

Agates, 60, 309, 428

brecciated, 321, 341

AUanite, 310

Alum Hill, 86

native, 58, 340, 391

Allochroite, - - 313

Alluvium, 17, 122

its agricultural character, .... 17

of Connecticut, Deerfield, Westfieki, and Housatonic

Rivers, - - - 123

of rivers, 122

of the coast, 124

of disintegration, 127

of degradation, 129

Amber, 196, 61, 195

Amethyst, 489, 427

Amianthus, 368,309,312,371,313,342

Amphibolic mica slate, 326

Amygdaloid, 404

Analcime, 344,428

Andalusite, 291, 343

Animals in Massachusetts, Catalogue of - - - - 543
Amimal Fossil in new red sandstone, ... - 237

Anthophyllite, 344,393

Anthracite, its geological position, 333

in Rhode Island, Worcester, and Pennsylvania, 54, 344
in graywacke, .--.-.- 276

in new red sandstone, 231

in Portsmouth, R. I. 277

in Wrentham, Middleborough, &c. - - - 278

in mica slate, 344

passing into plumbago, 280

its origin, - 281

Anthracitous Mica Slate, 328

Arcade in Providence, its granite pillars, - - - - 27

Argentine, 488

how produced in Williamsburgh, - - - 306

Arenaceous Mica Slate, 327

Argillaceous Slate, its economical uses, .... 44

of Worcester County, 45,288

of Franklin and Berkshire, ... 45^ 289

its place among the rocks, .... 286

its mineralogical characters, .... 287
dip and direction of its strata, .... 289

its mineral contents, 290

associated with graywacke, .... 261

its agricultural character, 21

disturbances among its strata, . . . . 291
its theory, 294

84

678 Genera] Index.

Page.
Argillo-micaceous Slate, .... 327

Argillaceous Oxide of Iron, ... 65, 18G

Arsenical Cobalt, its gangue, .... 377

Arsenical Pyrites, ..... 393, 345

Asbestus, ----- 426,360,312

Asterophyllites in graywacke, - - _ . 284

Augite Rock, .-.-.. 329

crystalized, - - - 427,300,303,311

actynolite, &.c. .... 393, 309

Autumnal Scenery. - - - - - 115

B.
Bald Mountain. ------ 85

Baldwin, C. C. letter from - - . - 208

Beach Grass used for fixing sands, - - - 19

Beartown Mountain, ----- 86

Beaudant Prof on geological theory, - - - 501

Beaumont Elie de on graphite and anthracite, - - 281

on the elevation of mountains, 507, 512, 520, 521

Beartown Mountain, ..... 86

Belchertown Granite, . - - - - 29

Bennington iron mine, . . . . . 66

Bernardsion iron mine, - - - - - 64

Beryl, - -60,492

Binney Amos ETsq. his Catalogue of Shells, - - 544

Birds in Massachusetts, Catalogue of - - - 528

Bisilicate of Magnesia, ..... 309

Bitter Spar, .-...- 359

Bituminous Limestone and Marlite, - - - 214

Bituminous Coal, ...... 53

Black Lead or Graphite, ----- 57

Blende, - . . . 452,493,494,232,345

Blue Hills, 94

Bog Ore, its localities, - - . - - 66

petrefactions m - - - - - 130

theory of its origin. . _ - - 129

Baston Harbor, its scenery, . 101

hypothesis of formation. 132

Boltonite, or Bisiilicate of Magnesia, . 309

Bowdoin Street Church, its granite, 29

Bowlders, .152

Brongniart, Prof Alex, on geological theory, 501

Brown Spar, . . " . 312,488

Buhrstone in Washington, 51,317

its origin, .... 324

Bucholzite, . . . 291,342

C.

Calamites in new redsandstonf. 234

in graywackfr, • 2s5

Calcareous Spar, 4^,290,^10,312,428,451

Cape Ann Sienite, .... 26

scenery of , 104

Canaan Mountain, ■ .87

Cape Cod, scenery of . . . - 105

clay cliffs upon - ■ 134

Carbonate of Magnesia and Iron, . - • 360

of Copper, . - .228, 360

Carnelian and Cacholong, . . - 428

Catalogue of Mammalia, ... - 526

of Birds, - ... - 528

of Reptiles, ----- 534

of Fishes, ----- 535

of Shells, - - - - - 538, 544

of Crustacea. - - - - - 548

Gentral Index. 619

Catalogue of Araneides or Spiders, - - - 550

of Insects, . . - - - 553

of Radiata, ----- 602

of Plants, ----- 604

Caverns and Fissures, - - - - - 112

in Berkshire, - - - - - 113

Cascade in Leverett, ... - 111

and Natural Bridge in Adams, - - 111

Central heat, Theory of ... 501

Chabasie, -' - - 451,314,429,451

Chalcedony, - - 427,393,368,60,323,341,344

Chapin, A. B. his account of steatite in Connecticut, - 353

do of Greenstone in Connecticut, - 410

Chatham Beach its gain upon the sea, - - 135

Chelmsford Granite, . . : . 27

Chert, ..... 267

Chiastolite, . . . . .291

Chlorite, ..... 426

Slate, . . . .350

its agricultural character, . 22

Chlorophceite, ..... 426

Chromate of Iron, - - - - 62,360,365

Chrysoberyl, ..---- 489

Chrysoprase, ------ 368

Cinnamon Stone, - - - - - - 60, 309

Classification of Rocks, ----- 120

Clays Variegated, 190

Clays irsed for Fuller's Earth, - - - - - 48

for making alum, - - - - 48

as a manure, - - - - - 49

Cliffs at Gav Head, 134

Cleavelandite, - ----- 492

Climate formerly tropical in New England, - - 246

Cobalt, Arsenical, --..-. 377

Coal in new red sandstone, . . - . 229

its varieties, - - - - - - 52

Coccolite, ------- 343

Collectiuus of Specimens, - - - - - 15

Columns of Greenstone on Holyoke, - - - 90, 400

at Titan's Pier. - - 90, 402

in Deerfield - - - 400

Columbite, - - - - - - - 495

Column-ar Argillaceous Iron Ore, - - - 153

Commission Geological, its nature, - - - - 13

Comp:i..i Feldspar, - - . . . 435

Concliidiug Remarks, ... - - 523

Concord Granite, - - - - - - 28

Concretionary Carbonate of Lime, - - - 1S6

Conglomerated Mica Slate, .... 328

Contortions in Rocks, how produced, - - - 348

Conybeare Prof on the origin of Rocks, - - - 500

Copper, veins of in Greenfield and GraubVjCt., - 71,228

gray, ..---- 393

carbonate of and pyritous, - - 426, 425, 493

muriate of, ----- 426, 494

carbonate of and pyritous, - - - 425

red oxide of, ----- 229,425

veins of in new red sandstone, - - - 228

native 229, 425

ores of with lead and zinc. - - - - 342

Crabs, Fossil at Gay Head, - - - - 199

Cranston, R. I., Iron Ore in - - - - - 66

Crocodile's Tooth, Fossil at Gay Head, - - - 198

Crustacea in Massachusetts, Catalogue of, - - - 548

Cumberland. R. I., Iron Mino in, - - - - 64

680 (jfenerul Indtx,

Cuinuiiiigtonite, --.-.. 344

Cyclopteris in Graywacke. - - - . 285

D.

Danas Messrs. assisted by, - - . . - 14

Danbury, his theory of the earth, - - . 503

Davy, Sir Humphrey, his chemical theory of the earth. - 502

Dedham Granite, - - . . . 37

Deerfield Mountain, - .... 92

Deluge of Noah, how probably produced, • - 174

the most recent in Massachusetts, . - 158

Deluges Ancient, ---... 520

Dewey, Prof, assistance from. - • - • 14

Deweylite, - - - . . . - 368

Diabase, ----... 402

Diluvial current in Massachusetts, its direction, - - 148

proofs that it was southerly, 158, 166

elevations and depressions, - - . 150

erratic blocks, - - - . . 152

bowlders or rocking stones, - - . 153

grooves in the rocks, - ... igg

Diluvium, how produced, - - - . 148 no

of Plymouth and Barnstable, - - '149

of Cape Ann, - . . . . 154

of Worcester County, .... 155

of the Connecticut Valley, - - - 156

of Hoosic Mountain and "Berkshire, - 156 162
on Mount Tom, - - -' . -161

on Mount Toby, - . . . jgS

in Europe and Asia, - - . . 173

its mineral contents, - - . . 177

consolidated in Pownall, - - - . 157

do in Europe, - - - . 157

in Lancaster, - - - . . igQ

in New York - - . . . igg

in Yorkshire, England, - - - - 173

its organic remains, - - - - 177

its stratification, ..... J7g

its agricultural character, - - - 18

Diorite, ....... 4^2

Dip and Direction of the strata of Plastic Clay, . 201, 203

of new red sandstone, - . ' 222

of graywacke, .... 272

of argillaceous slate, - - . 289

of quartz rock, - . . 322

of mica slate, - - . . 335

of talcose slate, - . . 355

of hornblende slate, . . . 375

of gneiss .... 335

Direction of the strata. Map of, - - - . 507

Divine benevolence, proofs of from geologj', - - 249

Dolerite, --..... 403

Dolomite in Somerset, Vt. .... 307

in Smithfield, R. I. - . . . 312

in Berkshire and Canaan, .... 300

Dunes or Downs, - . - - - - 19

how formed, . - - . 137

Dyottville Glass Manufactory, curious specimen from, - 347

E.

Earle, John M., his catalogue of shells in Massachusetts, 542

East and west System of Strata, .... 517

Economical Geology of Massachusetts, - . 13, 15

Elevation of Mountains and Systems of Strati, - - " 50?

Emery, a substitute for, ----- 58

Emmons, E Prof his Catalogue of Birds, - - - 528

his sketch of strata, in Chester, - 3129

(iaitraJ Indtx. 681

Epidote, - - - 4f)L 42ti, :r/tK 343, 39-<i. 3b3, 313

Equisetum in gray wacke, . . . - . 284

Eternity of the globe cunrsideied, - - - 39r>

F.

FallRivef Giauite. - - - - - '37

Falls, Turner's, - - - - - - 108

South Hadlev and Shelburne, - - - - 110

Spicket, - 110

in Fall River, 110

Pawtucket, - - - - - - 110

Canaan, Ct., . . - . . U3

Fasciculite, ..--.. 360

Feldspar crystalized, 277, 392

Feldspar, green, .... - 392,451

blue and siliceous, , . . - 492

Fetid Limestone at West Springfield, - - - 219

Fibrolite, ------- 342

Fishes in Massachusetts, Catalogue of - - - 535

Fitchburg Granite, - - - - - - 28

Fitton, Dr., on geological theory, - - - - 500

Flexures in Rocks accounted for, - - - 348

Flinty Slate, - - 264

Fluorspar, . . . . 439,284,340,341,451

Fluvial Theory, 1 18, 170, 503

Fowlerite, or ferro-silicate of manganese, - - 342

Fucoides in new red sandstone, - . - . 235

in gray wacke, - . . - 284

Fullers Earth, a substitute for, - - - - 48

G.

Gadolinite, - - - - - - - 309

Galena, ,..'..- 493, 494

Galena argentiferous, ... - - 346
Garnet, - - - 493,376.60,309,513,392,311,313

Garnetiferous Mica Siate, - - - - 326

Gay Head, its scenery, - - - - 107

Geology Economical, of Massachusetts, - - - 13

Topograpical, do - - - - 83

Scientific, do - - - - 119

Girardin on central heat, .... 502

Gneiss, its agricultural character, - - - - 23

its use in architecture, ... 29

quarries of in Massachusetts, - - - 30

how it differs from granite, ... 373

its mineralogial characters, .... 379

granitic, ----- 379,

the Hoosic Mountain , Range of - - - 383

of Worcester County, - . . 383

of New Bedford, - - - - 385

of Ceylon, its imbedded minerals, - - 382

schistose, laminar, porphyritic, - - - 379

amphibolic, epidotic, augitic, anthophylli tic, - 380

arenaceous and talcose, - - - - 381

its topography, . . . . . 331

dip, direction, &c. of its strata, - - - 385

curvatures in its laminae, .... 387

its mineral contents, - - - - 389

its theory, - - - , - - - 394
Gold, native, - - - - - 74, 459, 357, 440

in Brazil, ------ 358

and silver, idle search after, ... 77

Gorge or Glen, Leyden, - . . . . no

Gor°;onia Jacksoni, fossil, . . . - . 241

Gould, Dr. A. A. his Catalogue of Crustacea, - - 5'18

Graniie, its agricultural character, • - - 21

6S3 Genneral Index.

Granite, its use in architecture, - - - - 25

how split, - - - - - - 25

its price when wrought, - - - - 28

defined, . . . . . 455

its mineralogical characters, - - - 455

pseudo-morphous and porphyritic, - - 456

common, - - ' - - - 455

graphic, ------ 457

its topography, .... 459

its pseudo-stratification, - . - - 462

its veins and protruding masses, - - 462

sketches of its veins, &c.,in Conway and Blanlbrd, 464

iu Westminster and Norwich, 465

in Norwich, 466

in do 467

in Russell and Conwaj', 468

in Ackworth, N. H. 469

in Chester, 470
in Chesterfield and Williamsbnrg,471

in Granville and Chesterfield, 472

in Ct. Shutesbury and Conway, 473

in Chester and AVilliarnsburg, 474
in Whately, Newport & G. Head, 475
in Wcsthampton &, Southampton, 476
in New Bedford and Shutesbury, 477

in New Bedford and Fairhaven, 478

do du 479

in Williamsburg and Tolland, 480

in Whately, - - 181

in Conway, - - 482

in do - - - 483

in do - - 484

iu do and Goshen, - 485

in do do - 486

in Colrain and Norwich, - 487

its mineral contents, . . . . 488

its theory, - . - . . 495

Graphic Slate, ------- 46

Graphite, - . . . 391,390,57,344,377

Gray Copper, --.-.. 399

Gray lock, (Saddle Mountain) . - - - 85

Gray wacke, its agricultural character, - - - 21

its economical uses, - - - - 44

defined, - - - - - - 252

its peculiaritiess in Massachusetts, - - 253

its mineralogical characters, - - - 254

conglomerated, . . - . 254

brecciated, - . - - . 257

quartzose, - . - - . 259

talcose, ------ 260

classical, ----- 260

slaty, - - - - - - 260

amphibolic, ----- 261

limestone, ----- 269

its topography, - - - . 269

dip, direction, &c., of its strata, - - 272

section, in at Newport, - - - - 275

its mineral contents. - - - 276

its organic remains, - - - " - 284

its theory, ----- 285

Greene, Thomas A. Esq., his Catalogue of Shells, - 538

Green River, a change in its bed, . - . . 144

Green Sand, ------ 190

Greenstone, its agricultural character, - - - 23

Its uses in architecture, - - - - 31

porphyritic, used for ornament, - - 32

General Tnc/e x. 683

Greenstone defined, _ . . . . 39;^

its mineralogical characters. - - 399

columnar, ..... 399

porphyritic, ..... 403

amygdaloidal, .... 404

its mixture with granite. ... 406

concreted and tuf'accous. - - - 405

its topograph V. _ - . . . 405

Its position with respect to other rocks. - 411

its veins or dykes, - . . . 412

its chemical ell'ects upon other rocks, - - 421

iis mineral contents, . . . . 425

its theory, - - - - - 431

in new red sandstone, when protruded, - 245

primitive, . - . . . 371

H.

Harris, Dr. T. W., assistance from, - - ' - 526

his catalogue of Insects, - - 553

Hawley Iron Mine, . - . - . 63

Height of Hills around Boston, - - - - 95

Hentz, Professor, his Catalogue of Spiders, - - 550

Hematite, iron ore, .... ^55^ 134

Heulandite, 429,344

Holland, Dr, H., his account of chromate of iron, - 366

Holyoke, mount, .-.-.. gg

Hopper, - - . - - - - - 85

Hornblende crystalized, fibrous and radiated, - 309, 3G0

Hornblende Slate, its agricultural character, - - 23

used for flagging stones, - - - 31

Dr. Macculloch's view of, - - 370

its mineralogical characters, - - 371

pori^)hyritic, - - - . 371

lis topography, ... 373

dip and direction of its strata, 376

its mineral contents, . 376

its theory, . 377

Rock, . " . .371

Hornstone, . - . .344, 342, 489

Hubbardston, copperas manufactured in, . 63

Huttonian Theory, . .500

Hydrate of Iron, - . .390, 193, 184, 296

Hydrate of Alumina, .... 185

Hypersthene, ..... 451

I
Ichlh3'olites in new red sandstone, . . . 238

Ice, hoAv it removes bowlders, . . 131

floods, their excavating power, . . 145

Idocrase in Worcester, . . . 344

Indicolite, ... . . 491

Inscription on duartz rock, .... 128

Insects, Catalogue of in Massachusetts, . . 553

lolite, , .493

Iron, native, ..... 345

carbonate of, . 351,340,61,345,232

hydrate of, ... 65, 184, 390

brown oxide of, : .65

argillaceous oxide of, . . . 66

specular oxide of, . . 440, 494

micaceous oxide of, - - - 426, 64, 346| 356

sulphate of, ----- - 346

red' Oxide of, . - . . . 346,341

vitreous, black oxide of - - - - 493

sand, -.---. 233

ore, its agricultural character, - - - 21

tid i Litiitrul l/ulex.

Lou. ehiDinate of. . . . . ^60.62,305

pliosphaie ol'. - - -

62

sulphuret of. - - 393.346,345,291,63

283,290

magnetic oxide of. - - - 42G, 393. 63, 29 356

arsenical, - - -

60, 345

it.s manufacture 111 Ma.-^bachusett.-.

1. 67

Iron Ore in Hawley, ... - -

63,' 356

in BernartUton, . . . .

64

in Somerset, Vt. . . . .

64, 356

in Winchesier, N. H.

64

in Cumberland, R. I. -

64, 357

in Montague, ....

65

in Leno.K and Richmond,

65

in "West Stockbridge, Salisbury, Ct. Banning

ton, Vt.

and Cranston, R. I.

- 66

nodular and argillaceous, near Boston,
J.
Jack-son, Dr. C. T. his account of minerals, - 310

186

421, 451

Ja.sper used for ornamental purposes,

60

at Saugus and Newport,

- 267

in Conway and Amherst,

341

in Q-uartz Rock, . . - -

- 323

K.

Karinfhin, ....--

403

Kidd's money, foolish notions respecting

L.

Land, its gain upon the sea, . . - -

79

135

Landscapes accompanying the Report,

- 116

Lathrop Solomon, his account of fossils,

240

Laumonite, ....--

429, 451

Lead, ore of, in Southampton, - - -49'.

, 68, 342

in Northampton,

69, 494

in Westhampton,

69, 494

in Williamsburgh,

69

in Worcester, . . . .

3^15

in Goshen, ....

70

in Whately, - - - -

70, 494

in Hatfield, ....

70, 452

in Leverett, ....

70, 493

in Sterling, ....

62, 345

in new red sandstone,

232

sulphuret, carbonate, sulphate, molybdate, murio-

carbonate and phosphate of, - 493

Zinc and iron in new red sandstone, - - 232

Leno.\, iron mine in, - - - - - 65

Lenox Mountain, .... - 86

Lepidolite, - 490

Lignite, ------ 53, 191

Limestone, its agricultural character, - - - 22

in the eastern pari of the State, - - 35

micaceous, its analysis, - - 36, 305
fetid - - . . 308,37,301,218
fibrous, - - - - 283,233,313

encrinal of Bernardston, - - 38, 295

bituminous, - . - - 37, 218

magnesian, ----- 300

flexible, -^00

of Berkshire, - - - - 39, 296

in Blanford, ... - 39, 304

in Whitingham, Vt. ... - 307
in Bolton, Boxborough, Littleton, Acton, Carlisle and

Chelmsford, - - - - 35, 307

in Smithfield, R. I. - - - 35,311

inWalpole, . . - - 35,269

in Stoneham and Newbury, - - 35, 312

in W. Springfield, - - - - 37

in Belchertown, . - - - 304

its origin or Theorv, ... - 313

Genercd Index.

685

393, 426, 283, 296, 345,

Lincolnite,

Liihia in Bolton and Goshen,

Ludus Helmontii in shale,

Lycopodjtes, fossil,

Lyell Charles, his theory of the earth,

M.
Macculloch's Views of Geology,
System of Geologs',
oh Central Heat,
Made,

Magnetic Oxide of, iron,

Magnesite, .....

Maiden, vein of iron ore in.
Mamillary argillaceous iron ore,
Mammalia, Catalogue of, in Mass.
Manganese, Oxide of . . . .

phosphate of, . .

bisilicate*of,
in Plainfield,
In Cummington,
in Conway,
in Hinsdale, N. H.
in Winchester, N. H.
earthy oxide of, how produced,
oxide of, in mica slate.
Map Geological of Mass. how constructed,
farther explained,
Marble of Berkshire. . . . .

Marl, .....

how produced, . . . :

Marlborough, Vt. Steatite in . . .

Market House, Boston, its granite,
Martha's Vineyard, iron ore in, . ,

scenery of,
Mather Cotton on fossil bones,
Maushop, an Indian Giant,
Meridional System of Strata, the Oldest,
the Latest,
Mesotype .....

Metals and their Ores in Massachusetts,
Metallic Veins and beds, their origin,
Miasite, . . .

Mica Slate, its agricultural character,
its economical uses,
its mineralogical characters,
staurotidiferous, amphibolic, g-arnetiferous

spangled,
argillo-micaceous and arenaceous,
anthracitous, plumbaginous, and conglomerate
indurated,
its topography,
of Worcester Valley,
dip, direction, &c. of its strata,
contortions in, . . .

veins of segregation in,
its mineral contents,

its tlieor}', . . . .

Mica, crystalized, prismatic and plumose.
Micaceous Oxide of Iron,
Middlefield, Steatite in
Millstones niay be made from greenstone.
Minerals in Massachusetts, Catalogue of
Mineral Rods,

Waters,

85

393, 429

63

217

235

.503

370

370

502

291

356, 360

310

65

. 194

526

85, 494

495

359

73, 358

359

73

73

73

130

341

13, 121

121

39

49

127

352

27

66

107

210

209

. 510

514

393

61

505

360

22

34

325

and

356, 28i

326
327
328
328
329
332
335
336
339
340
347
490
42<i
352
52
120
77
59

iJS6 General Indei

Mirage on Cape Cod, ....

Miscellaneous items, . . , .

Mollusca in new red sandstone,

Molybdenum, Sulphuret of, . . .

Monomoy Beach, its gain upon the sea.

Monument Mountain,

Hill, duincy, ....

Mosaic Chronology, how reconciled with geology,

Moshop, Indian Giant, ....

Mounds in the Western States, not artificial,

Mount Hope Bay, . - . .

Mountain Slides, .....

Mount Washington, ....

N.

Nacrite, ......

Nahant, ..:..,

Nantasket Beach, . . . . ;

Nantucket, its scenery, ....

Narraganset Bay, its scenery, . . .

Native alum, .....

arsenic, .....

gold, ....:,
copper, .1 ■ ,

Nauset Beach, iis gain upon the sea,

Nephrite, . . . . :

Nevropteris in graywacke,

New Bedford seen from its harbor,

New rew sandstone, its agricultural character,
in England,
its uses and quarries,
its general character,
in the Connecticut Valley,
proofs of its occurrence there,
its raineralogical characters,
its topography,

of New York and Nova Scotia,
of New Jersey,

its dip, direction, and thicknes.«,
its mineral contents,
its theory,
its organic remains,

Noachian Deluge, . . .

Nodular argillaceous iron ore.

Nomenclature of rocks, . . . .

Northeast and Southwest System of Strata,

Northwest and Southeast do

Novaculite^ . . . .

O

Ochres, their localities and uses

Ochrey Brown Oxide of Iron,

Old Red Sandstone, whether it exists in Massachusetts,

Ophicalce Grenue,

Organic Remains, in plastic clay,

in new red sandstone,
in graywacke,
Orthocera in new red sandstone.
Osseous Conglomerate,
Oxide of Manganese,

of tin,

of molybdenum,

P
Parallel Roads in Scotland,
Pargasite,

106

520

239

452, 340,

391

140

86

94

172

208,209

175

103

86

86

312, 360

,

103

105

107

103

. 340

,391

195

' 358,441

228, 229,

,425

136

312,

313

284

103

20

20

46

211

2-24,211

212

213

220

220

513

222

228

221

,243

224

148

1,172

188

120

515

519

45

67

195

s, 211

,241

312

195

234

284

239

191

a41, 133,340

494

340

142

309.

,311

tieneral Index. 687

Part IV. . ,

525

Peat, its localities and uses.

49

its extent in Nantucket,

126

theory of its production,

127

Pecopteris in graywacke,

284

Pelham, (N. H.) granite in,

28

Peliom, . . . ,

393, 493

Petalite, lithia in,

60

in limestone,

' . 309

,311,368

Petrosilex, rose, ot Sahlberg,

436

Phosphate of lime,

' , 488, 390;

, 3 10, 309

of manganese,

495

Picrosmine, . . . .

360

Pimelite, . . . . .

368

Pinite, ....

343, 489

Pisiform argillaceous iron ore,

195

Plants in Massachusetts, Catalogue of

. 604

Plastic Clay, its history,

189

its min^ralogical characters,

190

its organic remains,

195

its mineral contents,

193

dip, direction, thickness, of its :

strata, &c.

201.203

its theory,

206

on the Vineyard,

189

on Nantucket,

202

in Truro, ^

203

in Duxbuiy,

204

its extent in the U. States,

206

Plumbaginous mica slate,

328

Plumbago, . ...

.57

, 377, 390

generally associated with gems.

391

Porcelain Clay, " .

47

its agricultural character.

24

Porphyry, its use for ornaments.

31

sienitic,

32,444

black and green,

33

defined.

434

its mineral ogical characters,

435

compact feldspar.

435

antique,

437

brecciated,

438

its topography,

438

its geological position,

439

its mineral contents.

4-10

its iheory.

441

Potters' Clay, . ...

48

Potstone, ...

310

Prase, . ....

. 284

Prehnite, ....

451, 427

Price of wrought and uuwrought granite.

28

Primitive Greenstone,

371

Prismatic Iron Ore, ....

. 184

Provincelown, its unique scenery,

. 106

Pseudo-stratification of sieuite.

446

of granite.

462

Purgatory in Sutton,

114

in Newport, R. I. .

114

Pyrallolite,

311

Pyrit.ous Copper,

'l9i 34(5, 283,

229, 452

Pyrope, . ...

392

Pyroxene, . ...
•■Gluariz,cryslali^ed, yellow, rose, red, &c. 189,

344, 392

4.51, 1-27, 341,

290, 393

and pseudo-morphou<;,

452, 189

yelloAv,

489,

342. 393

68S Gtncral Index.

Q,uailz, drusy, . . 368

ciystalised in geodes. . . . 427

tabular, smoky, and amelhyhtine, : . . 427

fetid, : " . . . , . 489

radiated, . . , . . 494

crystals, their use . ... 61

Rock, its agricultural character, . . 32

its economical uses, ... 22

granular, used as buhrstone, . . 33

used in making glass, . . 51

its place among the rocks, . . 316

its mineralogical characters, . . 317

its topography, . , . 320

dip, direction, &c. of its strata, . . 322

iis mineral contents, . . . 323

associated with graywacke, . . . 259

veins in, . . . . 323

its theory, . ; . .323

duartzose Breccia, ' . . . . . 318

Conglomerate, ... • . 319

Uuincy Granite or Sienite, .... 26

R
Radiaria Fossil at W. Spiinglie Id, . , 242

Radiated Pyrites, . . . . .195

Radiata in Massachusetts, Catalogue of . . . 602

Rattle Snake Hill, . . . . ; 86

Ravine of Westfield or Agawam River, . . . 98

and Gorge of Dcej field River, . . 98

Red Oxide of Copper, . . . . .229

Red Oxide of Iron, . . . . . .341

Report Geological, how divided, ... . 15

Reptiles in Massachusetts, Catalogue of . . . 534

Rhode Island Granite, . . ... 27

Rhoetizite, .... . . 34£

Rhomb Spar, ..... 309, 312, 360

Richmond, Iron Ore in . . . . . 65

Rocks, their nomenclature, . . . . 120

their supposed changes in the line of their direction, 330

Roof Slate in Worcester County, - . . 288, 45

in the Connecticut Valley, - - - 288,45

in Berkshire County, - - - 289, 45

Rose mica, . . ' . . . . 490

quartz. - - ... 341^ 439

Rotten Stone in West Springfield. - - - - 58,233

Rubellite, ... .... 491

Ruby at Bolton, ..... 310

S.
Saddle Mountain, - - - - - . gj

Sahlite, - - - - - - 311, 343

Salisbury, Ct. Iron Ore in, - - - - 66

Sand, Avhite, siliceous, - - . - 190

used for making glass, - - - - 51

micaceous, .... 199

green, ...... 199

Sandstone, gray micaceous, .... 216

variegated, ..... 2I6

brecciated, ..... 216

columnar, at Titan's- Pier, . . . 424

Sandy Neck, its gain upon the sea, . . . 136

Sappare, .... 342

Sardonyx, .... 428

Satan, his supposed agency in mines, . , .79

Satin Spar, . ... . 233, 313

Saurian (supposed) fossil in East Windsor. . 237

General Index. fiS^

Scapohte, . . : . 313, 30H, 310,343

Rode, its a3:ricullnial cliaracter. . . . S'J

its mineralogital character:?, . . 315

Schorl, 313, 31)2, 190

Scienliiic Geulogv delined. . . . . 15

Part III, . . . . 119

Sea, its action upon the coast, . ... 131

Section at Turner's Fall.s, . . . . 41G

in granite and chalk jii Saxonj', . . . 419

and sandstone at Heidelberg, . . 419

Section in granite and claj- slate in Scotland, . . 419

in diorite atut trfmsition schist in the Hartz, . 420

in basaltic breccia, lias, &c. in the Stiabian Alps. 420

in greenstone and sandstone, Mt. Tom, . . 421

in Plastic Clay, . . . . 201

in gra\'\vacke, . . ... 275

Sections accomjianying the Repoit. . . . 507

Selcnite, . " " . . . . II'J, 428

Septaria, ..... 218

Serpentine, its economical uses, . . . 40

its agricultural character, . . . 22

jts beds in Massachusetts, . . . 40,364

crystalized, .... . 310

m sienile, ..... 451

its definition, .... 3G1

its mineralogical characters, . . 363

its topography and associations, . . 363

its Flora, " . . . . 364

its mineral contents, . . . 368

its theory, . . ... 368

Shales, . " . . . . . .216

Shark's bones and teeth at Gay Head, . . . 198

Shells in Massachusetts, Catalogues of, . . 538 544

Sienite, its agricultural character, . . .2-4

its use in architecture,, ... .25

defined, . . . .- . . 442

its mineralogical characters, . . . 442

porphyrytic, . . ... 4'44

conglomerated, . . . . 444

augitic; ... . . : 445

its topography, . . : . 445

its pseudo-stratification, . . . 446

veins in, . . . . . 447

its geological position, ... . 450

of Sienna in Egypt, . . . "442

of Mount Sinai,' . . . . 442

its mineral contents, . . . . . 451

its theory, . . ... 452

Sigillaria in graywacke, . . ... 285

Siliceous Slate, . . .... 264

Silliman Prof, his opinion of the Connecticut Valley, . 241

his account of greenstone near Hartford, . 422

Silver in galena at Southampton, . . .74

Sketches of Scenery, . . . . 116

Smith's Point, its gain upon the sea, . . . 136

Smith, Dr. David, S. C. H. hi.s Catalogue of Reptiles, . 534

Dr. Jerome V. C. do of Fishes, . 535

Soils their origin, , . . . . 16

Somerset Vt. iron mine with native gold in. . . 74

^Spangled Mica Slate, . . - . ' . . .326

Specimens of Rocks and Minerals for the Government 15, 540

Specular oxide of Iron, . . 440,494

Sphene, .... 311,398,376,392

Spiders in the United States, Catalogue of, . . 550

Spinclle, . . . . . . 311

690 titneral Index.

Spodumetve, .... 60,489

State House, view from, ... 101

Staurotide, ...... 3>26,342

Staurotidiferoiis Mica vSlate, .... 326

Steatite, its agiiciiUural character, ... 22

its economical uses, . . . . 42

crystaiized or pseudomorphous, . 368

its beds iir Massachusetts, . . 42, 352

other facts concernins^ it. . . 352, 3.50, 371

Stjlbite, . . " . . . 344,393,429

Stockbridge Alountain, . . . 86

Stratified Rocks, • . . . 122

Submarine Forests, ..... 124

Sugar Loaf Mountain, . . . .91

Sulphate of Iron, . . . . 284

Sulphuret of Copper, . . ; . . 361,283

of Tin, .... . 361

Sulphvn- in mica slate, . . . , 344

Sulphuret of iron, : . 361,360,393

Sulphate of Baryta, . . 493, 468, 452, 283, 59, 233

of Strontia, . . . . 234

of lime, .... 234,283

of alumina and potassa, . . . 340

Sulphuret of Molybdenum, . 391, 360, 340, 452, 495

Sunderland Cave and fissure, . . 112

Systems of Strata in Massachusetts, . . 509

oldest Meridional, . . 510

the Trap System, . . . 513

latest Mericlional, . . : 514

N. E. and S. W. System, . 515

E. and W. System, . 517

N. W. and S. E. System, . . 519

T.

Taenite, . . . . . 451

Talc, ..... 312,310,350,359

and Serpentine their relation, . . 363

Talco-chloritic Slate, . . . . 354

Talcose Slate, its agricultural character, . . . 22

its economical uses, . . .34

its definition, . . . . 349

its mineralogical characters, . . 350

,^ its topography, . . . 352

dip, direction, &c. of its strata, . . 355

its mineral contents, . . . 356

the repository of Gold, . . 357

its theory, ... . 361

TelUna, fossil at Gay Head, ... 200

Tertiary Formations, their agricultujal character, . 19

their history, . . 178

around London, . . 19

their economical uses, . . 47

Tertiary Formations, the most recent in Ma.ss. . . 178

position & thickness of its strata, 181

remarkable disturbances in, 180, 181

minerals in, .... 184

organic remains in, . . . 187

theory of, ... 188

Theory of Central Heat, ..... 501

of causes now in action, . . 503

of the Elevation of Mountains, . . . 521-

Thomsonite . . . ' • • 427, 429

Tin, oxide of, .... 73, 494

Titan's Pier, ...... 90,401,42-1

Titanium, red oxide of, ' . . 452, 316, 360. 377, 39-7

General InJex.

691

Titanium, ferruginous oxide of,.

silico-calcareous oxide of,
Toby, Mount,
Tom, Mount,
Topaz, . ,

Tourmaline, green and red,
Topographical Geology defined,
Totten, Col. Joseph G. assistance from, .
Trap Conglomerate,
Trap System of Strata, .
Tree, fossil in new red sandstone,
Tremolite.

Tremont House, its granite,
Tripoli in West Springfield,
Trunk of a tree, fossil.
Turbo fossil at Gay Head,
Turner's Falls,
Tvnsborough Granite. '

United States Bank, Boston, its granite,
Unstratified Rocks defined,

their origin,
how represented on tlie
Useful Rocks and Minerals in the State.

V.
Valley of the Connecticut,

how far a valle
of Worcester,
of the Merrimack,
Vallies of Berkshire.

terraced, how formed,
of denudation.
Varioloid Wacke,
Vegetable remains in Plastic Clay.
Vegetation early, on the Globe,
Veins in new red sandstone,
in graywacke,
in quartz rock, .
in mica slate,
in sienite,

in granite, . :

metallic, their origin, &.C. .

their direction and dip,
Venus fossil in plastic clay,
Verd antique,

Vermiculite, : . .

Vertibrae, fossil, Virginia,
Vertebrae of animals fos.sil at Gay Head,
View in Amherst,
in Hadlcy

between Holyoke and Tom.
from Holyoke,

of South Hadley Falls and Village,
of Sugar Loaf Mountain,
at the mouth of Deerfield R.iver,
of Turner's Falls,
of the Gorge or Glen, Leyden,
Volcanic Agency supposed at Gay Head,
Van Dechen and" Van Oevnhausen on the

Geological Map,

346

309, 392

92

91

489

491

. 83

. 13,264

215. 409

513

236

303, 309, 312, 313

28

58, 233

236

200

108

27

29
396
397
397

W

Wachusett Mountain,
Wacke varioloid,
Wacke.
Washington Mount,

Mountain,

97, 139
V of excavation, 221
100, 147
100, 147
96. 141
141, 147
146
261
196
247
418
257
323
339
447
462
505
506
200
41
393
210
197
116
116
116
116
117
117
117
117
117
208
killas of Cornwall 355

93
261
404

86

692 Genera! Index.

Water Falls, ...... 107

Webster, Prof, assistance from, . . . . 14

his account of trap in Charlestowu . . 421

Wernerian Hypothesis, ..... 500

Westford Granite, ...... 27

West Stockbrid^e, iron ore in, .... 60

Whetstones in R. Island, ..... 351

Williamsburgh Gianile. ..... 29

Winchester, (N. H.) iron ore in, . . ... 64

Worcester, iron mine in, . . . . .61

World, its supposed eternity, .... 395

Y.
Yenite, ....... 361

Yttro-cerite, ....... 310

Z.
Zeolitic Minerals, .... 393, 428, 493

Zinc, siilphuret of, in Sterling, . . . . Q-i

its localities, 452, 232, 72, 344, 342,;493

Zircon, ...... "451

Zoisite, ....... 283,343

Zoophyta, fossil at Gay Head, .... 200

at West Springfield, . . 239

INDEX

CLASSES, ORDERS AND

GENERA OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS IN THE CATALOGUES.

The names of the Animals arc printed in Italics; thost of

the Plants in the Roman character. The Classes a?id Orders

are distinguished by the Greek Alpha attached.

Page.

Abramis,

536

Acanitus,

586

Acalepha, a

603

Acalypha,

615

Acanthopterygii ,

a 537

Acanthia,

579

Accipenser,

535

Accipitres, a

528

Acer,

616

Acerineae, a

616

Acheta,

576

Achetada. a

576

Achillaea,

621

Acnida,

618

Acorus, \

633

Acridium,

576

Actaea,

607

Actinia,

603

Acupalpus,

556

Adianthuia,

639

^cidium,

645

./Egeria,

592

Mgeriada, a

592

^shna.

580, 581

--Ethiisa,

606

Agaricus,

646

Agathyrnus,

621

Agelena,

551

Aglaope,

592

Agofium,

555

Agonoderits,

555

Agrimonia,

611

Agrion,

581

Agrostemma,

617

Agrostris,

633, 634

Aira.

634

Alasmadonta,

542

Alauda,

530

Alca,

534

Alcedo,

529

Alectoria,

643

AleocJiara,

557

Aletris,

632

Algae, a

649

Alisraa,

630

AlismacecB, a

630

Allium,

632

Alnus,

614.

Alopecurus,

Alsine,

Althsea.

Aluteres,

Amanita,

Ama ra,

Amaranthaceae, a

Amaranthus,

Ambrosia,

Amelanchier,

Avibulatores, a

Ammannia,

Ammi,

Ampelopsis,

Ampkiboli, a

Amphicarpa,

Amphicoma,

Amphidesma, 510

Amphipoda, a

Amygdaleae, a

Anacardiaceae, a

Anadonta, 542,

Anarchicas,

Anagallis,

Anas,

A7Uispis,

Anatifa, 539,

Anatina, 539,

Anchomenus,

Ancylus,

Andrena, 589,

Andreniada, a

Andromeda,

Andropogon,

Anelastcs,

Anemone,

Angelica,

Angiospermae.o

Angvdlla,

Angnlirostres, a

Anictangium,

Anclides, a

Anobium,

Anomodon,

Anomia, 541,

Anopheles,

Ajiser,

Anseres, a

86

Page.

634 Anthemis,
618 Anthicidce, a

609 Anthicns,
535 Anthoceros,
646 Anthumyzi, a
555 Anthomyia,
618 Aurhoxanthum
618 Anthracida, a
621 Anthrax,

611 AfUhrenus,
529 Antkribus,

610 Anthus,

606 Antirrhinum,
616 Anychia,

528 Apargia,

612 Apha nisticus.
565 Apkididti:, a

545 Aphis,
549 Aphodius,
612 AphyllcB, a
616 ApidcB, a

546 Apion,
537 Apios,
626 Apis,

533 Aplecfrum,
568 ApocynecB, o

544 Apoeynum,

545 Apt era, a
555 Aquilegia,

547 Arabis,
590 Aradus,
589 Aralia,
620 Araneides, a
634 Araliacese, a

560 Arbutus,

607 Area,
606 Arctia,
60() Arcfiadtr, a

537 Arctium,

529 Arcfomys,
640 Arcyria,

538 Ardea,

561 Arenaria,
640 Arethusa,

546 Argynnis,
595 Arislida,

533 Aristolochiae, a
533 Armadillo,

Page.
621
563
568
642
531

599, 600
634
596
596
563
568
530
627
618
621
558
580
5S0
564
643
590
568
612
590
630
626
626
600
607
608
578
606
550
606
620
540, 546
593
593
621
527
646
532
6I7
631
591
f,34
611
550

694

Index to the Catalogues.

AroidccD, a

Aronia,

Arrheaathemm,

Arrhenoptenim,

Artemesia,

Arthonia,

ArtocarpeffijC

Arvicola,

Arum,

Arundo,

Asarum,

Ascalap/ius,

Ascaris,

Asclepiadeee, a

Asclepias,

AsHiada, a

Asellus,

Asilus,

Aspaiagus,

Asphodelese, a

Aspidium,

Aspleniiiin,

Astacus,

Astarte,

Astata,

Astemma.

Aster,

Asteria-s,

AtOMCllUS,

Atragene,

Atriplex,

ALropos,

Attacus,

Attelabns,

Attus,

Auckenia,

Auricula,

Avena,

Azalea,

B.
Baccha,
Baeomyces,
BalcBtia,
Balanus,
Ballota,
Balsamines, a
Baptisia,
Barbarea,
Bartramia,
Bartsia,
Batrachia, a
Bairachus,
Bdodoma,
Bembcciada, a
Bembex,
Bembidium,
Berberideae, a
Barberis,
Beris,
Betula,
Belulinae, «
Bibio,
Bidens,

Blmuscidosa, a
Bitoma,
Bivalves,a

633
611
634
610
621
643
614
5-27
633
634
611
681
602
6-25
6-25
596
549
596
032
032
039
(;39
549

5-10, 515
583
578

621, 6-22
602
564
607
018
582
592
568
552
573
547
634
020

598
043
527

539.544
028
01(5
612
008
640
()2S
534
538
579
588
588
553
009
00.1
597
014
014
593
e22

539, ^15
570
542

Blaptiada, a

Blasia,

Blatta,

BlatLiad(B, a

BLennius,

Blitnin,

Bodiamis,

BcBhmeria,

Boletus,

Bombus,

BombyciadcB, a

Bombi/cilla,

Bombylius,

Bonibyx,

Bootia,

Boragineffi, a

Borbonts,

Borrera,

BostrichiadcB, »

Bostrichus,

Botrychium,

Borista,

Brachinus,

Bracki/ura, a

Branc At/pus,

Bracon,

Braiickipoda, a

Bras.sica,

Brentus,

Briza,

Bromus,

Brosmus,

BruchiadcE, «

Bruchus,

Bryum,

Buccinuvi,

Bufo,

Bulla,

Bunias,

Buprestiadae, «

Buprestris,

Buxbaumia,

Bijrrhiadae, a

Byrrhus,

Byturus,

C.
Cacteae,
Cactus,
Caelioxys,
Cakile,
Calaiidra,
CalatAus,
Calicium,
Calidris,
Calla.
Calleida,
Calimorpka,
Callitriche,
Callilrichineae, a
Callobata,
CalopogoD,
Ca/oxoma,
Caltha,
Campanula,
Campanulaceae,

566
643
576
576
537
618
537, 538
613
646
590
592
529
596
593
611
029
(iOO
643
570
570
639
646
553
548
550
5S6
550
608
569
634
634
536
568
5G8
640, 641
542, 548
534

547, 5-11
608
558
558
641
503
563
560

filO
010
590
608

569, 570
554
013
532
033
553
593
619
619
600
631
534
607
621

a 621

548, 519

Canis,

Canori, a

Canlharellus,

Canth/iris,

G'aprifoliaceae, a

Capritblium,

Caprimulgus,

Capsus,

Carabidae,a

Caracolla,

Carabus,

Cardamine,

Carcharias,

Cardita,

Cardium,

Carduus,

Carex^ CSGj

Carnosi, a

Camassiers, a

Carpinus,

Gary a,

Caryophylleas, a

Casnonia,

Cassia,

Cassida,

Cassidadae,

Castor,

Castanea,

Catharinea,

Calo/aln,

Caulinia,

Caulophylium,

Ceanothus,

Cebrioniadae, a

Celastrineae, a

Celaslrus,

Cellulares,o

Celtis,

Cemonus,

Cenchrus,

Cenomyce,

Centaaiea,

Centaurella,

Centronoius,

Cephalanthus,

Cephalopoda, a

Cepkus,

Cera.mbycidae, a

Cerambyx,

Ceraphron,

Cerasbus,

Cerastium,

Ceratina,

Ceralocampa,

Ceratophyileae, a

Ceratopogon,

Ceratophyllum,

Cerccris,

Ce rcopis,

Ccrcopiadan, a

Cercus,

Ceropkales,

Certkia,

Cerura,

Cervus,

Gelacea, a

526, 527
529
646
568
625
625
529
578
553
543
554
608
535

540, 546

540, 546
623

€37,638
603
526
614
015
617
553
612
573
573
527
614
641
593
633
609
615
560
615
615
639
614

588, 589
634
643
623
610
538
625

542, 548

582, 584
571
571
587
612
617
590
592
619
595
619
589
580
579
562
587
530
593
53r
527

Index to the Catalogues.

695

Cetonia,

Cetraria,

Chalcididae, a

Chaeiophyllum,

Chalcis,

Chara,

Characeae, a

Cham drills,

Chait/ioides,

Chelidonrs, a

Chelidonum,

Chelone,

Ckelonia, a

Chelonus,

Chenopodeae.a

Chenopodium,

Chimaphila,

Chionea,

Chirojwmus,

Chiton,

Chlaenius,

Chlamj/s,

C hrysanthem um,

Chrysididae, a

Chrysis,

Chrysogaster,

Chrysomela,

Chrysops,

Chrysospleniiim,

Chrysotolus,

Cicada,

Cicadiada:, a

Cichorum,

Cicindela,

Cicindeliadce, a

Cicuta,

Cimcx,

Cimbex,

Cimicil'nga,

Chnicida;, a

CinchoneEe, a

Cineras,

Cinna,

Circsea,

Circaeacece, a

Cirrhijjcda, a

Cis,

Cissus,

Cisida, a

Cisteta,

Cisteliadce, a

Cistineae, «

Cistus,

Clavaria,

Claytonia,

Clerun,

Clupea,

Clypeasler,

Cocyzus,

Clematis,

CleriadcE, a.

Clethra,

Climacium,

Clinopodium,

Clisiocampa,

CLivina,

Clostera,

ClubioTia,

565 Clvpca,

644 Clypeasler

586 Clylhra,

603 Ctiicus,

586 Cocciadcr, a

643 Cocclnclla,

613 Coccinelliada:, a

532 Coccus,

581 Coccyzus,

529 Cochlearia,

607 Ccenoviyia,

g27 Cmnurns,

534 Colaspis,

586 Colcoplcra, a

618 Colias,

618 CoUema,

620 Coluber,

5P5 Columba,

590 Cohmbclla,

541, 546 Colvmbini, a

551 Co'.linsonia,

573 Colipnbctcs,

622 Colijmbus,

587 Coraarum,

587 Composite, a

598 Comptonia,

574 Conchifcra, a

597 Coiidyiura,

609 Conferva,

538 Conger,

579 Coniierac, a

579 Conium,

622 Conopiadcc, a

553 Conops,

553 Convallaria,

606 Convolvulaceas,

578 Convolvulus,

582 Conyza,

607 Copris,

578 Coptis,

625 Corallina,

544,539 Corallorhiza,

634 Corbula,

610 Cord y III ra,

610 Coreida, «

539, 544 Coreopsis,

570 Corcus,

gig Cornicularia,

570 Cornus,

567 Corvus,

567 Corydalis,

617 Corydalis,

617 Corylus,

64g Cossonus,

618 Cossus,

561 CoUus,

536 Crabro,

575 Crabroniadcz, a

528 Crambus,

607 Crangon,

561 Crantzia,

620 Crassulacese, a

641 Crataegus,

628 Cremastochilus,

593 Crenilabrus,

554 Crcpidula,

593 CrioceridcE, a

551 Crioceris,

538
575
573
622
580
575
575
580
528
603
597
602
574
553
590
644
534
531
542, 548
531
628
556
534
611
621
615

539, 545
526
649
537
630
606
599
599
632

t 626
626
6£2
564
607
603
631

540, 545
600
577
622
577
644
625
520
609
581
614
570
592
538
588
588
594
549
605
618
612
565
537

541, 546
573
573

Crolalns,

Crotalaria,

Cruciferae,

Crustacea, a

Crypioccphalv.s,

Crysoiueliadae, a

Cryptophugus,

Cryptotaenia,

Cry plus,

Ctenophora,

Cucubalus,

Cucujiada,

Cucujus,

Cncidus,

Cucurbitacese, a

Cv.lex,

Culicidit, a

Cupes,

Ciiphea,

Cupressus,

CupulifercE, a

CurcuUo,

Cucuriionjadm, a

Cuscuta,

Cyamus,

Cyccnea,

Cyathus,

Cyclas,

Cychrus,

Cycloptervs,

Ct/clostomi a

Cymbidium,

Cymindis,

Cymothoa,

Cynoglossum,

Cynthia,

Cyperaceae, a

Cyperus,

Cyprina,

Cyprpijdae, a

Cy primes,

Cypripedium,

Cypselus,

Cyrtus,

Cijthcrea,

Cysticercus,

D
Dacne,
Dactylis,
Dalibarda,
Dana us,
Danthonia,
Dan/ckira,
Daptus,
Dascilliis,
Dasijtes,
Datura,
Daucus,
Dccapoda, a
Dedalea,
Delphiniis,
Dendarvs,
Dendrophagus,
Dentaria,
Dcnuestes-
Dermcstiadae, a
Dexia,
Dianthus,

534
612
608
548
573
573
5(>3

5S4
595
617
571
571
528
621
595
595
561
610
630
614
569
568
626
549
603
648

542, 545
554
537
535
631
553
549
629
591
638
638

540, 545
536
536
631
529
596
545
602

563
634
611
591
634
593
555
5C0
561
628
606
548
647, 646
527
566
571
608
563
563
599
618

696

Index to the Catalogues.

Dicaelus,

Diaperiadae, a

Diaperis,

Dicksonia,

Diclytra,

Dicotyledones, a

Dicranum,

Didymodon,

Diervilla,

Digitaria,

Dilophus,

Diopsis,

Dioscorea,

Dioscoreae, «

Diphyscium,

Diplocomium,

Diplolepis,

Diplolcpididac, a

Dipsaceae, a

Dipsacus,

Diptera, a

Dirca,

Dirca<;a,

Djscoboli.

Discopleura,

Diticidae, a

Doljchopjdac, a

Dolichopus,

Dolo'riiedes,

Dorcatoma,

Donacia,

Draba,

DracEena,

Droviius,

Drosera,

Droseracese, a

Dryocampa,

Dryops.

Dulichium,

Dysdera,

Dyticus,

E.
Eclieneis.
Echinodermata, a
Echinomyio ,
Echinus,
Echium,
Elapkrus,
EledoiM,
Elater, 558,

Elateriadae, a
Eleusine,
Elmis,
Eludes,
Elophonis,
Elymus.
Eniberiza,
Empis,
Encal)^pta,
Endocarpon,
Eiidogynsp, c
Endomi/chidae, a
Endomyc/ius,
Ennplium,
Entozou, a
Epeira,
Ephemera.

554 Ephemeradae, a
566 Epcolus,
566 Eplibiemvm,
639 Epigcea,
608 Epilobiura,
606 Epiphagus,
611 Equisetacese, «
641 Equisetum,
6^5 Erebus,
634 Eiiceae, a

596 Erigeron,
600 Eriocaalon,
632 Eiiopliorurn,
632 Erotylidae, u
641 Erophila,
641 Erysiinuni,
58G Erythruniurn,
5SG Esoc'ss, a

621 Eso.r,
621 E'ucera,
595 Euchncmls,
611 Euchroma,
567 Eulophvs,
537 Evmolphus,
606 EupatoriuDi,
556 Euphorbia,

597 Euphorbiacese, a
597 Eurylomn,

552 E'lislrophus,
561 Evania,

573 Evaniadae, a
608 Everiiia,
632 Exocetus,

553 Exogenee, a
617 r
617

592 Faenus,

563 Fagus,

638 F'olco,

550 ^'•^2-^. .
556 Eeronia,

Festuca,
537 FHber,
602 Eigites,
599 Filar ia,
602 Filices, a

629 Fiiistata,

554 Fissideiis,
566 Fistularia,

559 560 Elstularidae, a
' 558 Fistnlina,

634 l^^cta,

563 Flustra,

560 Fluviales, a

564 FoDtinalis,
634 Fnrjlcula,

53 J Forjiculadce, a.
596 Formica,
641 Fonniciadae, a
644 Fragraria,

630 Fraxinus,
575 Frlngilla,
575 Fuciis,

561 Fulgoriadtie, a
602 Fuii-ena,

551 Fitlica,
581 Fiiligo.

581 Fuligula,
590 Fumaria,
552 Fumariaceas, o
620 Funaria,
610 Fungi, «

627 Fusus,
639 G.
639 Gadites,
593 Gadus,
620 Galega,

622 Galeopsis,
633 Galerita,

638 Galeruca,
bib Galium,
608 Galleria,
608 Gallinae, <%
632 Gallinacei a,
536 Gammarus,
536 Gasteropada, «
590 Gastropacha,
558 Gaultheria,

628 Geastrum,
586 Genista,
573 Gentiana,

623 Gentianeae, a
615 Geoglossum,
615 Geonietra,
586 Geovietradae, a
567 Gcotrupes,

584 Geraniaceae, oe

585 Geranium,
644 Gerardia,
536 Gerbillus,
606 Gerris,

Geum,
Glaucopis,
584 Giaux,
"^^ Glechoma,
528 Glonium,
527 Glumaceae, a
555 Glyceria,
635, 634 Gtyci/ieris,
527 Glycine,

586 Gnaphalium,
C02 Goboidcs, a

639 Gonla,
550 Goodyera,
641 Grallae, a
538 Gramincae, a
538 Graphis,
647 Grapsus,

579 Gratiola,
603 Gregarii, a
633 Grimmia,
641 Grossulaceac, a
576 Grylloialpa,
576 Grylliadae, a

587 G/7/Z/«s,
587 G;-«5,
611 G^Zo,

626 Gymnosoma,
531 Gyrnnospe rmae ,a
649 Gymnostomum,
579 Gyriniadac, u
638 Gyrinus,
533 Gyromia,
647 Gyrophora,

533.
609
605
641
643
541,542,548

636
536
613
628
553
574
624
594
531
531
549
541
592
620
647
612
626
626
647
594
594
564
616
616
627
527
579
611
592

628
647
633
635
545
612
623
537
599
631
532
633
644
549
627
529
641
610
576
576
576
532
526
599
630
641
557
657
632
644

Index to the Catalogues.

697

Gyropodium,
Habenaria,

647

631

Haematojms,

532

HalipUis,

557

Halorageae, «

610

Haltica,

574

Hamamelidece, a

610

Hamamelis,

610

Harpalyce,

m

HarplaiLS,

555, 556

Hedeoma,

628

Hedwigia,

640

Hedysarum,

613

Helenium,

6'23

Helianthemum,

617

Helianthus,

623

Helix,

543, 547

Helopidac, a

566

HeUuo,

553

Helonias,

632

Helops,

566

Helotium,

647

Helvella,

617

Hermeroblldae, a

581

Hemerobius,

581

Hemiptcra, a

577

Hepatica,

607

Hepaticae, a.

642

Hepialus,

593

Heracleum,

606

Herviinia,

594

Herodii, a

532

Herpyllus,

550

Hesperia,

591

Hesperiadae, a

591

Heterocerus,

563

Hibisicus,

609

Hieracium,

623

Hierochola,

635

Himantia,

647

Himantop^is,

532

Hipparchia,

591

Hippa,

549

Hirundo,

529

Hispa, '

573

Hispiadae, a

573

Hister,

562

Histeriadae, a

562

Holcus,

635

Hoplia,

565

Hordeum,

635

Hottonia,

625

Horia,

568

HorloAae, a

568

Houstonia,

6-2^

Hudson ia.

617

Humulus,

613

Hybos,

596

Hydnum,

647

Hydrocharidae, a

630

Hydrobins,

564

Hydrochus^

bU

Hydrocotvle,

606

Hydrometradae, a

579

Hydropeltis,

608

HydropeUideac, a

608

Hyd.rophilidae, a

563 Lacophilus,

556

Hydrophilus,

563 Laeuna.

541,548

Hydrophyllefe, a

629 Laemodipodti, a

549

Hydrophyllum,

629 Lagrin,

567

Hi/droporus,

556, 557 Lagriada, a

567

Hyla,

534 Lamia,

571,572

Hyksinus,

570 Lamium,

649

Hylurgvs,

570 Laminaria,

628

Hym<:tioptcia , a

582 LMVipyridct, a

560

Hj^osciamus,

628 Lampijris,

560

HypericiHeae, a

609 Languria,

575

Hypkydrus,

557 Lanius,

530

Hyoseris,

623 Larra,

588

Hypericum,

606 Larriadce, a

588

Hypnura,

641, 642 La? us.

533

Ifypoglossus,

537 Lasieopa,

6-20

Hj'popeltis,

639 iMthrohiivm,

557

Hypop/ilaeus,

566 Latjiyrvis,

613

Hypopitliys,

620 Latridius,

570

Hypoxideae, a

630 Laurinece, a

609

Hpoxis,

630 Laurus,

609

Hippobosciadeae, a 600 Lauxania,

eoo

Hypulus,

567 Lebia,

553

Hyssopus,

628 Leeanora,

644

Hysterium,

644,647 Lechea,

617

Hi/strix,

527 Lee idea,

644

I.

Lecontia,

€33

Ibalw,

586 Ledum,

620

Ibis,

532 Leersia,

635

Ichneumon,

585 LeguminoscEe, «

595

Ichneuiiionidue, a

584 Leia,

595

Jcteria,

530 Lemallosodeniuli,

a 533

Iderv^",

529 Lemania,

649

Ictodes,

633 Lemna,

633

Idotaea,

549 LentibularisB, a

627

Ilex,

619 Leontice,

609

Ilicineac, «

619 Leontodon,

623

lllecebreae, cc

618 Leonoras,

628

Infusoria, a

603 Leotia,

647

Impatiens,

616 Lcpas,

539

Inula,

623 Lepidium,

608

Ips,

563 Lepidoptera, a

590

Irideae, a

630 Lepraria,

644

Iris,

630 Leptandra,

627

Isanihus,

628 Leptis,

597

Isnardia,

610 Leptopus,

578

Isopoda, tx

549 Leptura,

572, 573

Itkyccnus,

568 Lepus,

527

Iva,

623 Leskea,

642

J.

Lespedeza,

613

Jassns,

580 Lcuciscus,

536

Juglandeae, a

615 Leucodon,

642

Juglans,

615 Leucospis,

586

Juncagineae, a

633 Liatris,

623

Junceae, a

631 Libcllula,

580

Juncus,

631 LibelluladM, a

500

Jungermannia,

643 Libinia,

549

Juniperus,

630 Licea,

647

K.

Lichenes, «

643

Kalmia,

620 Ligia,

549

Koeleria,

635 Ligusticum,

606

Krigia,

623 Ligustrum,

626

L.

Liliacc(E, a

632

Labiatae, a

628 Lilium,

632

Labroidcs, a

537 Limacorlcs,

593

Labrus,

537 Limax,

547

Lactuca,

623 Limenitis,

591

693

Index to the Catalogues.

Limexylida, a

561

Limnetis,

636

Ltiiiwsa,

532

LimicoUc, a

532

Li m nob in,

593

Limosella,

627

lAmuhis,

550

Ljndernia,

627

Liaeae,a

617

Linnaea,

625

Linum,

617

Liparis,

631

Liriodendron,

609

Liissa,

600

Listera,

631

Lithosia,

593

LuhosiailcT-. a

593

Lithospermum,

629

Lixus,

579

Loaseee, a

610

Lobelia,

621

Lobeliaceae, a

621

Locusta,

576

Locu^tiadct, a

576

LuLrio,

548

Lolium,

635

Lonchai,

600

Longipcnnes, a

533

Lonicera,

625

Lophanthus,

628

Lophius,

538

Lopkobranchii. a

536

Loxia,

531

Loxocera,

600

lAixanida, a

566

Lucanus,

566

L/ucei-7iaria,

603

LiLcirm,

540, 545

Ludwigia,

610

LjUpa,

548

Lupus,

526

Lupinus,

613

Lidra,

526

Luzula,

632

Lycaena,

591

Lycogola,

647

Lycoperdon,

647

Lycopodiacea?, a

640

Lycopodium,

640

Lycopsis,

629

Lycopus,

629

Lycosa,

552

Lijctus,

570

Lycus,

560

Lijgaeus,

576

Lygodium,

639

Lymnaea,

543, 547

Lyniphia,

551

Lysimachia,

626

Lythrum,

M.

Machonyckus,

611

563

Macroglossa,

532

Macrotira, a

549

Mactra,

539,545

Magnolia,

609

Magnoliaceae, «

609

Malachius,

561

Malacopteryglv — abdom- Moms,

ciiahs, a 5?bMucor,

Malacopterygt,l,apode?,abSl Miogil,

Malacopterygii — sitb Mulilenburgia,

536 Mullus.

rackiaUi, a
Malaxis,
Malva,
MalvacecB, a
Alaatiadec, a
Manfispa,
Mantispiadce, a
Marchantia,
Margwitia,
Marrubiuin,
Medeola,
Medicago,
Medusa,
Mcgfi'hiLe,
3Iegatoma,
Ml. lam pus,
Melamp3'ium,
MeJandria,
Melaupphora,
Melastomacea?,a
Melanthacese, a
Mdusis,
Melcagris,
Melccta,
Mditaea,
Mdlinus,
Meloe,
Melolontha,
Mdyrididae, a
Msmbracis,
Menisperineae, a
Menispermiim,
Meniha,
Menyanthes,
Mephitis,
Mergus,
Merisma,
Mcrlangus,
Merodon,
Merulius,
Mieroguster,
Mikania,
Milesia,
Milium,
Mimetus,
Mimulus,
Miris,
Miscus,
Mitchella,
Mitella,
Mytremyces,
Modiola,
MoUugo,
Mollusca, a
Momordica,
Monarda,
Monedula,
Monoloma,
Monoiropa,
Morchella,
Morddla,
Mordelliadae, a
Morrhua, a
Morm-an,

631 Mas,

609 Muscicapa,
609 Mmca,
576 Musci, a
582 Muscoideae, a
582 Murcx,
643 Miisciadae, a
594 MusleUa,
629 Mulilla,

632 Muiilliadae, a
613 Mya, 539,
603 Myas,

590 Myrdophagidae, a
563 Mucdophas:us,
5-11, b\% Mucetophda,

628 Myciostilis,
567 Myderiis,
599 My das,
611 Myodocha,
632 Myopa,
558 Myosotis,
531 Myrica,

590 Myricece, a

591 Myriophyllura,
589 Myriiidcontidae,
588 Mytilus.

565 N.

561 Naemaspora,

579 Najas,

609 Nassa,

609 Nasturtium,

629 Natica,

626 Nautilus,
526 Nebria,

533 Neckera,
647 Necrobia,
536 Necrodes,
598 Necrophorus,
647 Necydalis,
586 Nemopanthes,
623 Neottia,

598 \epa,
636 Nepadae, a
551 Nepeta,

627 Nephrodiuoa,
578 Nephroma,
588 NerUa,

625 Neuroptero,, a.
609 Nicandra,

647 Nidularia,
540, 546 Nitidula,

618 Niliduladae, a

541 NoUua,

621 Noduadac, a

629 Noviada,

588 Nothiopkilus,

570 Notodonta,

620 NotodoniuUae, a

648 Notoncda,

567 Notoneduidae, a
567 Notoxus,
536 Nucula,

534 Numenius,

614
648
537
635
537
527
529
599
C40
640
541
599
526
587
587
540, 545
555
570
570
595
631
567
597
578
599
629
615
615
610
581

540, 546

648

633

542, 548

608

541, 547
542
554
642
561
561
561
571
619
631
579
579
629
639
644
541
580
628
648
562
562
594
593
590
554
593
593
579
579
568

540, 546
o32

Index to (he Catalogues.

Cl)9

ISIuphar,
Nymphaea,
Nymphaeaceae, a
Nyssa,
Nysson.

O.
Ooypode,
Ocyptera,
Odoiitaciis,
(Edemera,
QUdctncriadae, a
CEnothera,
(Estriadae, a
(Estrus,
Olfersia,
Oleaceae, a
Oletera,
Omaliu7)i,
(ymalisus,
Omoptera, a
Oviophtuii,
Onagrariae,
Oniscus,
Onitis,
Onoclea,
Onopordon,
Onosmodium,
Onihophagus,
Oodes,
Opegrapha,
Ophldia, a
Ophioglossuni,
Ophion,
Oporina,
Orchesia,
Orchis,
Orgyia,
Orobanche,
Orobancheae, u
Orontium,
Orsodac/me,
Orthoptera,
Ortalis,
Orthotrichum,
Oryssus,
Oryzopsis,
Osmerus,
Osmia,
Osmorhiza,
O.smunda,
Ostraciun,
Ostrea,
Ostrya,
Otiocerus,
Otioii,
Oxalideae,
Oxalis,
Oxybcius,
Oxycoccus,
Oxyporus,

P.
Paederus,
Pagurns,
Palaemon,
Paludina,
PanagcAt^,

608 Panax,

606 Phytolacca,

619

608 PaiidoTa,

510,545 Phytalacceae, a

619

608 Panicum,

635 Picus,

529

611 Panorpa,

581 Pilummts,

549

588 Panorpiadae, a

581 Fimpla,

584

Papav^eraceae,

607 Pinnotheres,

549

519 Papilio,

5i)0 Piiius,

630

5i)9 Papilioniadae,

590 Piptaiherum,

635

5';J Parandra,

571 Pistiaceae, a

633

51)7 Parieiaria,

613 Pismn,

613

5'J7 Pannelia,

645 Planaria,

602

610 Paniassia,

609 Planorbis,

543, 547

598 PariiiadMe, a

563 Plantagineae, a

621

5;)8 Parus,

531 Plantago,

621

600 Paspalum,

635 Plataneae, a

615

626 Passalus,

566 Hlatanthera,

631

S'lO Passcres, a

528 Platanus,

615

557 Passc/i/ii, u

531 Plalessa,

537

[>G0 Pastinaca,

G07 Ptatycerus,

566

579 Patella,

541, 54(3 Platynus,

554

554 Putrobus,

554 Platypcza,

597

610 Peden,

541, 545 PlaUjpteryx,

594

549, 530 Pcdinarid,

544, 538 Plcdognathi, a

535

564 Pedida,

595 Plesia,

587

639 Pedicnlaris,

628 Plcuronedes, a

537

624 Peduiiculota, a

539, 544 Plochionus,

553

629 Pdednus,

584 Plumbaginese, «

621

564 Pelt idea,

645 Poa,

635 636

554 Pdlls,

592 Podiccps,

533,' 534

644 Pentutomadae, a

577 Podosiemum,

619

534 Pentutoma,

577 Podrs;ome8e,a

619

639 Penstemon,

627 Podophyllece, a

608

584. 585 Penthorum,

618 Podophyllum,

608

' 621 Penthdna,

596 Pnccilinpoda, a

550

567 Perca,

537 Pogonia,

631

GM Percoidcs, a

537 Polygaia,

616

533 Perd:x,

531 Polygonatum,

632

627 Perl a,

581 Polygalefe, ct

616

627 Penlampus,

586 Pol3'gone3B, a

619

633 Perliadae, a

581 Polygonum,

619

573 Petaloideae, a

630 Polyo'iumalus,

591

576 Petricola,

5-10, 545 Polypi, a

603

600 Pdroviyzou,

535 Polypodium,

640

642 Peziza,

647, 648 PolypogoD,

636

5S4 Piialaris,

6^5 Polypojus,

648

635 Phalacrocorax,

534 Polytrichum,

642

536 Phalaropus,

533 Pomaceae, «

613

590 Phaleria,

56G Pompiliadae, a

587

606 Phallus,

648 Pompilus,

587

640, 639 Phanaeus,

564 Pontederia,

632

535 Phaseolus,

6l3 Pontederiae, a

632

541. 546 Pkengodcs,

560 Poidia,

5<J0

614 Pkilu.nthus,

589 Populus,

6l4, 615

579 Phleum,

635 Porina,

645

544 PMolotribus,

570 Porphyrops,

597

61(j Pboca,

527 Poriulacca,

618

616 Pholas,

539, 544 Portulaceae,

618

588 Pholcus,

551 Portuims,

548

620 Phora,

600 Potamogeton,

633

557 Phiagmites,

636 Pot h OS,

633

Phrygacna,

582 Potentilla,

611

5'>7 Pkryganeadae,

582 Prenanthes,

6^4

549 Phryma,

628 Pressirostres, a

532

549 PAyso,,

547 Primulaceae.u

626

543, 547 Pyhsalis,

628 Prinos,

6l9

554 Physarura,

648 Prifmus,

571

Phv^da dijlus,

560

(00

Jcidex to the Catuloirues.

Pristodadyhi,

Proctotrupes,

Proctotrupiadae.

Procyan,

Proserpinaca,

Prunella,

Prunus,

Psamma,

Psarus.,

Pselaphidae, a

Pselaphus,

Psilop^ts,

Psilus,

Psyche morpha,

Psocus,

Pterigynandrum,

Pteris,

Pterogonium,

Pterophorus,

Pteromalus,

Ptermnis,

Ptilinus,

PtinidaCj a

Ptinus,

Ptychoptcra,

Ptytodadylus,

ViUex,

Pupa,

Purpura ,

Pycnaulhenuim,

Pygara,

Pyralida, a

Pyralis,

Pyrenula,

Pyrochroa,

Pyrockroadic, u

PjTola,

Pyrolaceae. a

Pyrula,

Pyrus,

Pytho,

a

duercus,

<iueria,

Quifcalu,$,

R.

Racodium,

Jfadiat-a, a

jRaia,

Ralius,

Ramalina,

Rana,

Panatra,

Ranella,

Raniceps,

Ranunculaceae, a

Ranunculus,

Raphanus,

Recurvirostra,

Reduvius,

Reguhis,

Reriilms,

Rensselaeria,

Reptilia, u

Restiacese, «

Rhamnese, a

Rkasioniada, a

554 Rhamnus,
580 Rhexia,
u 58(5 Rhinauthacea?, a

526 Rhinanihus,
010 Rhincops,

029 Ripipko/us,
012 Rhiiigia,

030 Rhizomorpha.
598 Rhododendron,
5-')8 Rhodora,

558 Rhombus,

5.»7 Rhus,

587 Rhynchcenus,

593 Rhynchitcs,
58"J Rhynchospora,
012 Rhyphus,

040 Rhyzophagus,
042 Ribes,

594 Riccia,
586 Robinia,

527 Rodentia, a
501 Ropalocerus,
501 Rosa,

501 Rosacea?, a

595 Rubus,
500 Rudbeckia,
000 Rugilus,

543, 547 Rumex,
542, 548 Ruminuntia, a
029 Ruppia,

593 Rutela,

594 S
594 Sabbatia,
045 Sabella,

507 Sagina,
507 Sagittaria,
620 Sagittili agues, a
620 Salamandra,
5-12, 548 Saldu,

012 Salicaris, a
567 Salicineae, a
Salicornia,

614 Salix,
018 Salmo,

529 Salmonides, a
Salsola,

048 Sainbucus,
002 Samolus,
535 Sandalus,

533 Sanguinaria,
645 Sanguinolaria,

534 Sanguisorba,
579 Sanguisorbeffi, u

542, 518 Sanicula,

5"7 Santalaceae, a
007 Saponaria,

007 Saproniyza,

008 Sapyga,

532 Sapygiadce, a
578 Sarcophaga,

530 Sargus,
554 Sarothi-a,
633 Sarracenia,
534 Sarraceniew, «
033 Saturnia,

615 Satvrium,
596

615 Saxicara,
qW Saxicola,
628 Saxifraga,
628 Saxifrageae, «
533 Scalops,

567 Scandix,
598 Scansorts, «
648 Scaphidium,
620 Scarabaeidoe,
620 Scarabaetis,

537 Scarites,

616 Scenupimis,
509 Scatopse,

568 Scatoph/iga,
638 Scheuchzeria,
595 Schoenus,
570 Schollera,

610 Sciara,
643 Scirpus,
613 Scirles,
527 Scm7-us,

575 Selerantheaee, a

611 Scleiauthus,

611 Scleria,

612 Sclerodeiina,
6'24 Sclerotium,
557 Schiophularia,
619 Scolia,

527 Scoiiadae, a
633 ScoLopax,
565 Scolytus,
Scomber,
626 Scomberoides, »

538 ScorpacTui,
018 Scotimis,
630 Scraptia,

529 Scrophularineae, 1

535 Scutella,
578 Scutellaria,
010 Scutellera,

014 Scyllium,
018 Scymnus,

015 Sedentaria, a

536 Segcsiria,
536 Selachii, a
619 Selachc,

025 Sembliadae , a

020 Senecio,

500 Sericati, a

007 Sepsis,

540 Serpicula,

Gil Serpula,

611 Serropalpiadse, o

607 SerropalpuSy

610 Seserirms,

618 Sesia,

600 Sessilin, a

587 Setaria,

587 SiaZis,

599 Sicyos,

597 Sida,

609 Sigalpkus,

617 Silene.
617 Silurus,
592 Simulium,
031 Sin apis,

545
530
609
609
5S6
606
&28
563
564

504, 565
553
597
596
600
633
638
632
595
6^
560
527
618
616
638
648
648
627
587
587
532
670
538
538
637
566
568
627
602
629
577
635
575
538
550
535
535
581
624
529
600
630

539,544
567
567
538
592

539,544
636
581
«@1
609
686
618
636
S96

Jmlfi to the datalua-uea.

701

SilpkiadcWj a

iHlrnm/s,

Sirex,

Sison,

Sistrolrenia,

Sisymbrium,

Sisyrincliium,

Sitta,

Slum,

SmeriiUkiis,

Smilacete, a

Smilacina,

Smilax,

Smyrnium,

Solaneae, a

Solanum,

Solea,

Solecurtus,

Solemya,

Sole?!;

Solenia,

Solidago,

Sonchus,

Sorb us,

Sorex,

Sparganium,

Spectrum,

Sperc/ieus,

Spergula,

Sperraoedia,

Sphaeria,

Sphaeridiidae. «

Sphacridiiini,

Sphaerococcus,

Sphegiadae. a

Sphagnum,

Sphingiadae, u

Spartina,

Sphasus,

Sphecomyia,

Sphex,

Sphinx,

Spiraea,

Spirorbix,

Spirula,

Spongia,

Spongia,

Sqiialus,

Squamipewnes, a

Squilla,

ytachys,

Staphylaceae, a

Staphylea,

Staphyliniadae, a

Stapki/linvs,

Static'e,

Stelis,

Stellatcp, a

Stellaria,

Stemonitis,

Stenolophus,

Stenostoma,

Stenus,

Stereocaulon,

St em a.

b62 Sticta.

562 Siipa,

570 Stomapoda , a

584 Slomoxys,

HOG Stratyoiiu/adfc,a

648 Stnitit))/n/s,

608 Slrepsllds,

630 Streps ipt era, a

530 Streptopus,

607 Strix,

5;U Stro)igylvs,

632 Strongi/liiim,

632 Slruthiopteris,

632 Sturiones, a
607 Sturnus,
628 Styrandra,
628 Succinea,
537 Sula,

539, 545 Sylvia,

540, 545 Synevwiyna,
539, 545 Symplocarpus,

649 Syn.gimtkiis,
624 Syrphiadn:, a
6-21,62^ SyrpAu!;,
612 S'yrtis,
526 ■ T.

633 Tabaniadce, a
576 Tabanus,
564 Tacliina,
618 Tachiiivs,
648 Tachi/porus,

648 Ttenia,
564 Talitrus,
564 Tanacetum,

649 Tanagra,
588 Tani/pus,
642 Tax us,
591 Tegeneria,
636 Tclephorus,
552 TelLina,
598 Tcnehrio,
588 Tenebrioniadae

o'Jl,592 Tc7itArcdo,

612 Tenthredinidne,
539, 514 TevvArostres, a
542, 548Tephrosia,
603 Tcrcliclhi,
649 Terebralula,
535 Teredo,
538 Termes,
549 Termitidae, a
629 Testacea, a
616 Te^acella,
616 Testudo,
557 Tetanocera,
557 Tetanura,
621 Te^rao,
590 Tetragnalha,
624 Tetraodnn,
618 Tetrapliis,
648 Teiru:,

556 Tettigonia,
549 Teucrium,

557 Thalictrum,
645 ThamnopMlua,
533 Thannnmiis,

Ivl") Tlia.>piurn,

607

636 Theleplioia,

(vl9

549 There la,

596

599 T/iciidiuni,

551

597 Thesium,

till

597 Thlaspi,

608

532 TAec?«,

591

595 Thomisu!^,

551

632 Thracia,

539

528 Thrips,

580

(302 Thymalus,

562

5U6 Thymelea', a

611

540 Thymus,

629

535 Th'yrens,

592

529 TAj/r/.s,

592

632 Tiarella,

609

543, 547 Tilia,

609

533 TiliacesR, o

609

530 TiUiadae, a

561

551 Timmia,

642

633 7'i«c«,

594

536 Tineadae, a

594

598 'Z^iHo-is,

578

598 Tip/iia,

587

578 Tipula.

595

Tipidadac, a

595

597 Tomicvs,

570

597 Torpedo,

535

599 Tortricidae, a

594

557, 558 Toririx,

594

558 Torymus,

586

602 Tola II us,

532

549 Trachelipodii, a

541

624 Trachys,

558

531 Trematodon,

642

595 Tremella,

649

630 Trichia,

649

551 Trichius,

565

560 Trichopoda,

599

540, 545 Tricocephalus,

602

' 506 Trichocern,

595

a 566 Trichochloa,

636

582, 583 Trichodium,

636

:, 5^2 Trichostema,

629

.C?.0 Trichostomum,

642

613 iVicupsis,

63B

539, 544 Tnentalis,

626

54(5 Trit'olium,

613

539, 544 T'/-'^^'?,

538

582 Tnglochin,

633

582 Trillium,

632

538 T/■^7^^a,

532

547 Triosteum,

625

534Triphora,

631

600 Tnplax,

575

600 Tripoxylon,

588

531 Trisetum,

636

551 Triticum,

636

535 Tritoma,

575

642 Trochilus,

531

577 Trogosita,

570

580 Troglodytes,

530

529 Troa-,

564

607 Trygon,

535

568 Tnjpeta,

600

561 Tuhercnlaria,

649

TOi

Index to (he CuCulo^-uts.

Tubuliiia,

C49 \

Tkirbo,

5-tl, 548 Vacciniae, u

Thtrdus,

530 Vaccinium,

Turritella,

541. 548 Vallisneria,

Tussilago,

ti'M Valvata.

Typha,

633 Vanessa.

Typhace^. «

(i33 Variolarid,

U

Vase Li lares, a

Udora,

630 Velia,

Vleiota,

571 Velutina,

Ulmaceae a

f>14 Venus,

Ulmus,

KM Veialruin,

Vlama,

506 Verbascam,

Ulva,

049 Verbena,

Uninmscidosa, a

540 Verbenaceae,

Umbelliferae, a

606 Vermetus,

Unto,

542,546Vernonia,

Uniola,

636 Veronica,

Univalves, a

543 Verrucaria,

Upis,

566 Vcspa,

Uralepsis,

636 Vespertilio,

UranoscojrtiS,

538 Vespiadae, a

Uraspermum,

606 Vibrio,

Uredo,

649 Viburnum,

Uria,

534 Vicia,

Uroceridae, a

584 Viilarsia,

Ursus,

526 Viola,

Urtica,

613 Violaceae, a

Urticeae, a

613 Vireo,

Usnea,

645 Vites, a

Utricularia,

027Vilis,

Uvularia,

632

w

620 Weissia, 642

020 Woodsia, 640

630Woodwardia, 640
543. 547 X

591 Xanthoxvleae, « 616

645 Xanthium, 624

606 Xantholiims, bb"

579 Xenos, 595

Ml, TAl Xiphydriadae. 583

540, 545 Xiphius, 538

632 Xyela, 583

628 Xyletinux, 561

628 Xylocopa, 590

628 Xyloma, 649

548 Xylophagidae, a 597

624 Xylophagns, 597
627 Xylosteum, 625
645 Xylostroma, 648
589 Xylota, 598
526 Xyphydria, 584
589 Xyrideae, a 630
603 Xyris, 630

625 Y

613 Yponomeuta, 594

626 Z

616 6l7Zanthoxylum, 616

616 Zetis, 538

530 Zizania, 636

616 Zostera, 633

616 Zygaena, 535

Zygaeniadae, a 592

ADDITION AND CORRECTION.

In the American J.mrnal of Science for October, 1834, (received too late to be mtlced in the proper
place,) Professor Silliman has described the vertebal bone of a Mastodon in a ' tufaceous lacustrine for-
mation,'in the town of Berlin, Conn, in the Valley of the Connecticut: And he mentions this as 'the
third instance of a iVlastadon bone found east of the Hudson River,' viz. a molar tooth found in Sharon,
Conn, and molar teeth in Cheshire, Conn. These facts in relation to the organic remains of the dilu-
vium of N. England, I liave felt to be too important to be passed unnoticed.

In consequence of a sugsestion from Mr. C U. Shepard of New Haven, after this sheet was in
l^pe, I have been led to re-e.xamine, with as much care as my limited time would permit, the mineral
that form,^ the principal constituent of the Scapolite Rock described on page 315. And although 1 am
not entirely satisfied that it is not scapolite, I am more inclined to refer it to nephrite, or perhaps to
saussurite Its hardness (between feldspar and quartz,) and specific gravity (3,07 by two trials,) cor-
respond to nephrif^. Its behavior before the oxyhydrogen blowpipe is exactly like that of crystalized
scapolite ; both melting with intumescence into a shining enamel. Its bluish gray or white color give
jlthe appearance of scapolite ; and I have never seen any of it which exhibited the 1 ast of that green-
ish tinge so common in nephrite and saussurite. As to the latter mineral, I can hardly persuade my-
self that it is not a variety of nephrite. Beudant considers it a compact variety of albite. Are not all
of these substances /raeroworp/t/c ; and does not this explain the great diversities which we find in their
description among mineralogists?

If the mineral under consideration he nephrite, or saussurite, it ought probably to be regarded as a
variety of the Euphotide of Hauy and Brngniart. It ditlers, however, in its geological position and
lithological characters from that roclc.as described in the books.somuch as to leave one in doubt whether
it should be referred to Euphotide. Yet its association with dolomite in this country, like the euphotide
in Europe, favors the opinion that they were produced under similar circurasianees, although not per-
haps at the same epoch.

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