OT fp

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.

UNITED STATEHS GHRHOLOGICAL SURVEY.
F. V. HAYDEN, U. S. GEOLOGIST-IN-CHARGE.

ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST

AND OTHER INSECTS _

NOW INJURING OR LIKELY TO INJURE

FIELD AND GARDEN CROPS

IN THE

WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES.
A. 8. PACKARD, Jr., M.D.

{(EXYRACTED FROM THE NINTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL
\ AND GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE TERRITORIES FOR 1875.]}

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Nore.—Owing to the author’s absence in the West, proof was not read by him; hence a
number of typographical errors occur, which are here corrected.

Page 601, line 20, for not read most.

Page 608, line 15, for Pever read Peace.

Page 608, line 19, for lower read locust.

Page 609, line 37, for Ball read Boll.

Page 636, line 25, dele head.

Page 636, line 27, for are read tt is.

Page 659, line 45, for II read LXIIT.

Page 664, line 15 from bottom, for 7, a read 6, A.

Page 664, line 13 from bottom, for 7, b read 6, B.

Page 664, line 10 from bottom, for 7, c read 6, C.

Page 604, line 9 from bottom, for 7, d read 6, D.

Page 664, line 6 from bottom, for 7, e read 6, E.

Page 665, line 1 from top, for 7 f read 6, F.

Page 665, line 5, for Tremotodes read T'rematodes.

Page 665, line 14, for Chironomas read Chironomus.
Page 665, line 38, for 6, g read 6, G.

Page 665, line 5 from bottom, for Smerton read Emerton.
Page 666, line 21, for 7 a,f,i,and k read 6 A, F,I, K.
Page 667, line 13, for h read H.

Page 668, line 21, for p. — read p. 622.

Page 673, line 5, for Hucaliptus read Eucalyptus.

Page 684, line 2, for white read whler.

Page 684, line 10 from bottom, for chorian read chorion.
Page 689, line 18, for (p. —) read (p. 639).

Page 694, line 25, for botanist read entomologist.

Page 696, line 6, for 2 a read 1 a.

Page 696, line 10, for 1V read LXV.

Page 696, line 19, for larva remains read larve remain.
Page 707, line 38, after p. insert 696. -

Page 712, line 37, after Army-worm insert Leucania.
Page 713, line 26, for cenaliwm read cerealiwm.

Page 713, line 38, for Anguilluta read Anguillula.
Page 715, line 18, for 6 read 7.

Page 718, line 25, for 8, b, read 9 b.

Page 719, line 7 from bottom, for nitella read nitela.
Page 720, line 2 from bottom, for ches read elus.

Page 725, line 29, for Le Bauer read Le Baron.

Page 726, line 4 from bottom, after Fig. insert 1, c, Pl. LX VI.
Page 727, line 2 from bottom, for craspiena read crassispina. 2
Page 727, line 5 from bottom, for sejeanii read dejeanii.
Page 729, line 40, for heed read breed.

Page 730, line 7 from bottom, for Fay read Say.

Page 730, line 9 from bottom, for muria read murina.
Page 730, line 18 from bottom, for cinerea Foster read fabricii Le Conte.
Page 733, line 14, for clarata read clavata.

Page 755, line 5 from bottom, after page insert 732.
Page 767, line 8 from bottom, for 32 read 34.

Page 772, line 12, for cucwmen’s read cucumeris.

Page 773, line 16, for grunt read snout.

Page 774, line 9, for apiifolia read apiifolia.

Page 774, line 10, for Pylygonia read Polygonia.

Page 774, line 14, for Behmeria read Behmeria.

Page 782, line 2, for pampinating read pampinatria.
Page 785, line 20, for 55 read 51.

Page 786, line 1, for fanda read flavida.

Page 786, line 17, for Drythionenis read Hrythroneuris.
Page 790, line 32, for Pristophora read Pristiphora.

; % ; ;
ERRAT A-Continued. ae

Page 794, lines 14, 15, dele which may in time leave the oak on which it feeds and atta
Page 794, line 4 from bottom, for Le Barm read Le Baron. a.
Page 795, line 11, for Le Barm read Le Baron.

Page 802, lines 16, 37, for Tornicus read Tomicus.

Page 807, line 29, for Lapper read Lappet.

; INDEX.

For Anisopterye read Anisopteryx.

For Anomys read Anomis.

For Behmeria read Behmeria.

For Californian Lapper-Moth read Californian Lappet-Moth.
For Ohocaltis read Chloéaltis.

For Clisiocampa constrictu read Clisiocampa constricta.

For Cheenocampa pampinating read Oherocampa pampinatrix.
For Dicerea prologata read Dicerca prolongata.
For Doryphora sejeanti read Doryphora dejeanit.
For Epicautaue read Epicauta.

For Erythionenis read Hrythroneuris.

For Eujitchea read Eujitchia.

For Excorista read Exorista.

For Lyrytoma read Burytoma.

For Haltica cucwmenis read Haltica cucumeris.
For Lugus read Lygus.

For Meromyga read Meromyza.

For Pristophora read Pristiphora,

For Tornicus read Tomicus.

EPORT ON THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST

AND OTHER INSECTS NOW INJURING OR LIKELY TO INJURE FIELD AND
GARDEN CROPS IN THE WESTERN STATES AND ieee

y
\hP Sc
BY 2 ' SfPacwarn, J.,M. D. -

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

PEABODY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE,
| Salem, Mass., April 29, 1877.

DEAR Str: I herewith present a report on the Rocky Mountain lo-
cust and other insects injurious to the field and garden crops of the
Western Territories, including a few injurious species found on the Pa-
cific coast, which section of our Union is happily remarkably exempt from
noxious insects. I have included in the report a few forms found injur-
ing the timber-trees of Colorado, and described others, which, from the
habits of their allies in the Hastern States, will undoubtedly in future
years be more or less destructive. I have also introduced accounts
of certain eastern species which will probably from time to time be
transported to the Western States and Territories east of the great plains.
Accounts of the cotton army-worm, the northern army-worm, as well
as the tobacco-worm, ete., are introduced to give completeness to the
subject.

My report is partly based on the results obtained in Colorado, Wyoming,
and Utah, while attached for seven weeks to your survey, late in June,
the whole of July, and early in August, 1875. I have also received assist-'
ance from Mr. P. RK, Uhler, who, as a member of your Survey, visited
Colorado the same summer. My thanks are due to him as well as to
Mr. William N. Byers, of Denver, Colo., editor of the Rocky Mount-
ain News, for valuable information regarding the locust, and also
to Mr. John L. Barfoot, curator of the Salt Lake Museum, for notes
on destructive insects in Utah. Acknowledgments and thanks are due
to other gentlemen whose names are mentioned in the following pages.

Some of the matter relating especially to eastern insects is taken
from my own notes made for a number of years past in Maine and
Massachusetts. I should also acknowledge the important information
and illustrations derived from the nine annual reports of Prof. C. V.
Riley, State entomologist of Missouri; from the fourteen annual reports
of Dr. Asa Fitch, State entomologist of New York; as well as Harris’s
‘‘Treatise on the Injurious Insects of Massachusetts.” Some of the
facts and a large proportion of the illustrations are taken from my
‘‘Guide to the Study of Insects,” published by Henry Holt & Co., New
York, and from the ‘‘American Naturalist.”

In preparing the accounts of the Hessian fly, wheat-midge, the wheat
joint-worm, and chinch-bug, as well as the cotton army-worm, I became
painfully aware of the unreliable and fragmentary nature of our knowl-
edge of the distribution and habits of these insects, and of the great need
of a systematic and thorough inquiry into their natural history.

: 589

590 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

The facts here presented may often seem disconnected and desultory,
but few except experts in natural history are perhaps aware how diffi-
cult a task it is to follow out the transformations of any particular in-
sect, and study thoroughly its habits in its different stages of growth.
Unlike fishes, birds, and quadrupeds, which have similar habits at all
stages of growth, an insect, with its three separate stages of larva, pupa,
and adult, leads, as it were, three lives, with different surroundings, and
in each of these stages may be regarded as a different animal. Then it
is often extremely difficult to ascertain of what beetle or moth or bee
such or such a grub or caterpillar is the young. Our entomologists are
not numerous enough, and often, from their time being taken up with the
pursuit of their profession, usually not that of science, are unable to be
long enough in the field to observe for themselves the habits of insects.
Unfortunately, also, so backward is the science of entomology in this
country, that its students are at present fully engrossed with the labor
of classifying and describing the adult insects. When it is to be borne
in mind that there are within the limits of the United States, probably
at a low estimate, 10,000 species of Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, ichneu-
mon-flies, saw-flies, ete.), nearly as many butterflies and moths, about
10,000 species of two-winged flies (Diptera), as many beetles (Coleoptera)
and bugs (Hemiptera), and several thousand species of grasshoppers,
ete. (Orthoptera), aud neuropterous insects, such as dragon-flies, cad-
dis-flies, etc., etc., the whole amounting to upward of 50,000 species of
jusects, not to speak of the spiders, mites, and ticks, centipedes and
millipedes, it is evident that in the mere preliminary work of identify-
- ing and properly describing these myriad forms—an intellectual work
requiring quite as much good sense, discretion, and knowledge as is
shown in the pursuit of medicine, the law, or teaching—it is evident
that all this work, which is simply preliminary in its nature, is a vast
one, and that the combined exertions of many minds over several gen-
erations will not exhaust the subject. As it is, there are in this country
only about thirty entomologists who publish anything relating to in-
sects. Necessary as it is, this work of classification is by no means the
highest and most useful branch of natural science. He who studies
carefully the habits and structure of one insect, and, if it is injurious to
agriculture, lays before the farmer or gardener a true story of its life, is
a true benefactor to agriculture, and at the same time benefits science
more than he who describes hundreds of new species.

We have little idea how many kinds of insects are preying upon our
field and garden crops, our shade, ornamental, and forest trees. There
are, probably, within the limits of our country 5,000 different kinds,
which are either at present engaged in the work of devastation, or are
destined to be, with the growth of civilization, which means in this in-
stance the destruction of the natural food of these insects and the sub-
stitution of a similar diet, our choicest grains and fruits, in its stead.

In the densely-popniated countries of Europe the losses occasioned
by injurious insects are most severely felt, though from many causes, such -
as the greater abundance of their insect-parasites and the far greater
care taken by the people to exterminate their insect-enemies, they have
not proved so destructive as in our own land. MM. Pasteur and Qua-
trefages, whose names are illustrious as original investigators, were com-
missioned by the French government to study the causes of the silk- |
worm disease, pebrine, and, as the result of their studies, silk-culture, an
interest involving millions of dollars, will probably again be restored to
France and Italy. Itshould beremembered that thisremarkable result is
due, primarily, to the most abstruse researches upon a microscopic plant

Eiakies] ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST. 591

by specialists, for the pure love of science. Their cloister studies, put to
practical account, saves the destruction of one of the largest agricul-
tural interests in Southern Europe. In like manner, had the United
States encouraged the entomologist and botanist in their studics, and
caused them to be turned to practical account, we should not have had
to give up the cultivation of wheat in the Northeastern States; our cot-
ton-crop could perhaps have been doubled, and our garden and field
crops would have regularly yielded a steady return to the producer.

Let us look for a moment at the losses sustained in the United States
from the attacks of insects. The annual agricultural products of this
country by the last census amounted in value to. $2,500,000,000. Of this -
amount we in all probability annually lose over $200,000,000 from the
attacks of injurious insects alone. The losses from the ravages of the
locust in the border States in 1874 were estimated at $45,000,000. The
estimated money loss occasioned by the chinch-bug in Iilinois in 1864
was over $73,000,000; in Missouri, in 1874, it was estimated at not less
than $19,000,000. The average annual loss from the attacks of the cot-
ton-worm is probably between $25,000,000 and $50,000,000. Add to
these the losses sustained by the attacks of over a thousand other spe-
cies of insects which affect our cereals, forage and field crops, fruit-trees
and shrubs, garden-vegetables, shade and ornamental trees, as well as
our hard and pine forests and stored fruits, and it will not be thought
an exaggeration to put our annual losses from the ravages of insects at
$200,000,000. If the people of this country would only look at this an-
nual depletion, this absolute waste, which drags her backward in the
race with the countries of the Old World, they might see the necessity
of taking effectual preventive measures in restraining the ravages of
insects with care and forethought, based on the observations of scien-
tific men. I believe that from $50,000,000 to $100,000,000, or from one-
quarter to one-half of this annual waste, could be saved to the country.
It is tobe hoped now that the National Government has caused the
locust evil to be investigated, such other insects as the chinch-bug,
cotton-worm, Hessian fly, &c., may hereafter be examined and reported
upon.

With thanks for the liberal spirit you have shown in causing the in-
jurious insects of the Territories surveyed by you to be studied, and for
the generous way in which this report has been illustrated, thereby
greatly increasing its practical usefulness to the people of the Territo-
ries visited,

I remain, very truly, yours,
A. S. PACKARD, JR.

Dr. F. V. HAYDEN,

United States Geologist-in-Charge.

INSECTS INJURING CEREALS, GRASSES, ETC.

Tne WESTERN MiGratory Locust, Caloptenus spretus of Thomas, appearing period-
ically in vast swarms in Utah, Montana, Idaho, Dakota, British America, and Colorado,
and Texas and Indian Territory, and periodically migrating eastward to Minnesota,
Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, and Western Missouri; a medium-sized grasshopper, with red
hind legs, consuming entire fields of grain, corn, grass, etc., eating both stalk and
leaves.

As a study of the habits, distribution, and ravages of the western
migratory locust is of special importance, and the desire for fresh in-
formation regarding the habits of the insect in its home on the elevated

992 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

plateau of the Rocky Mountains led Professor Hayden to urge me to
give special attention to these points, I shall devote a good deal of
space to a description of the habits of this insect, whose ravages have
been and are still destined to be so calamitous.

I will first give an account of my own observations in the Western
Territories, and then give a general account based on the facts observed
by different entomologists, and close with suggestions as to the remedies
to be employed and measures that should be taken by Government and
State and Territorial authorities to anticipate future invasions. I have
not attempted to give a full historical sketch of locust invasions in the
line of States lying directly west of the Mississippi River, beginning
with Minnesota and ending with Texas, forming the eastern limits of
the locust regicn, since this has already been done by Professor Riley
in his seventh and eighth annual reports on the injurious insects of Mis-
souri, and the facts given by him and others are epitomized in the tab-
ular view of the locust migrations inserted near the end of the present
report. Mr. Allen Whitman, in his valuable ‘ Report on the Rocky
Mountain Locust, for 1876,” has given an account of the locust invasions
in that State, with valuable notes on the habits of the insect. From the
data he has there published I have been able to correct the tabular view
of locust invasions I had extracted from my report and published in ad-
vance in the American Naturalist for January, 1877. In addition to
what is stated in his report for 1876, Mr. Whitman writes me, under
date of February 18, 1877: “I cannot find that there was any appear-
ance of locusts in Minnesota in 1855. The only authority that 1 know
for it is the article by A. S. Taylor, in the Smithsonian Report for 1855,
which mentions them as appearing on the reservations, or, at least,
among the Indians.”

THE LOCUST IN COLORADO.

I first saw the effects of the ravages of this locust along the railroad
leading from Cameron, Mo., to Kansas City, June 24, 1875. It was
stated to me that the devastations of the grasshopper extended over an
area of 300 square miles, beginning at a point about 50 miles east of
Kearney and extending about 70 miles west of Kansas City. At this
date the locusts had left the country two weeks previous, but a
few feeble stragglers being left, with red mite under the wings. The
corn and wheat fields were bare; now and then scattered, half-eaten
corn-stalks indicated the former presence of a flourishing field; rarely
had a field been left untouched. It was evident that the swarms were
local in their attacks. As regards the devastations of the locust in
Missouri in 1875, the reader is referred to Prof. C. V. Riley’s “ Eighth

teport on the Noxious, Beneficial, and other Insects of the State of
. Missouri,” 1876, where ample details are given.

At Lawrence, Kans., the town and surrounding country had been
swept by vast swarms, leaving scarcely a green thing, except in one
portion of the town which had been left untouched. Until June 25 the
air had been filled with locusts flying at a great height, but after that
date they were not seen, and but a few stragglers were observed, hop-
ping feebly about the roadside. The marks of their jaws were apparent
on the fences and on the bark of apple and peach trees, in which rings
had been gnawed. The grounds about one house had been protected
by tarred boards nailed to the fence, and by ditches within the inelo-
sure which were emptied as fast as they were filled, at least 70 bushels
having been taken out. An attempt was made to save valuable fir-trees:
by covering them with blankets, the edges of which were kept down by

PACKARD.] THE LOCUST IN COLORADO AND KANSAS. 593

soil, but still the locusts crept under. Peach-trees were defoliated, the
fruit devoured, and the stones left attached to the stems, while the
branches were girdled. As the habits of the grasshopper were studied
at Lawrence by Prof. F. H. Snow, of the University of Kansas, and
published in the Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science for
1875, I condense his statements as the results of the observations of an
accomplished entomologist living farther west than any other trained
observer. Professor Snow first observed the recently-hatched locust on
the 6th of April. “They were very diminutive in size, and when dis-
turbed by my walking among them, would hop only two or three inches
high, looking very much like the grains of sand in rapid motion upon a
vibrating acoustic plate.” About the 10th of May the young locusts
began to desert their hatching-grounds, which, it should be borne in
mind, is where the locusts which had arrived from the Rocky Mountain
plateau during the previous summer laid their eggs, the latter being
the parents of the brood observed by Professor Snow. As these locusts
increased in size they spread around, and it was at this time, namely,
before the wings are formed, that they were most injurious. In fifty-
five days after hatching, the locust acquires its wings and takes flight.
They were first seen to rise and take flight, for their final departure, on
June 3. By the 12th of June, just two weeks from the time of their
last molt, very few remained in the pupa (or partially-winged) condi-
tion. The destruction in 1875 was confined to a narrow strip on the
eastern border of Kansas, along both sides of the Kansas Pacific Rail-
road.

Between Lawrence and Topeka the damage was much less tian about
Lawrence, and west of Topeka I could not see that the crops had been
atfected. At Fort Riley very few locusts were seen along the railroad.
track. Reaching Denver June 26, a few locusts, the remains of the spring
swarms, were seen hopping over the ground. At Denver, 5,211 feet
elevation, the young hatch from March 15 until May 15; there is an early
and a late brood. A farmer told us that he saw the young on the snow
March 20, and again after another fall of snow Mareh 28. A month
later, about the middle of April, a second brood, and about the middle of
May athird brood appears.

At Boulder the injury from grasshoppers had been light; the grass-
hoppers appeared in greatest numbers about the Ist of May, stripping
some corntields, and destroying about half the crop, and then went up -
the Boulder Caton, May 15. They were still not infrequently seen on
the plains.

June 30, at Nederland up the Boulder Cation, I first saw the locusts
flying in the air, toward the west, the wind blowing from the east.
Their pupe were very abundant on grass, logs, ete. I was told that
they had become fledged on the 25th-27th, and immediately began to fly
westward up the canon. At Caribou (9,167 feet elevation), the grass-
hoppers had destroyed the first crop. Around the base of Arapahoe
Peak, between 11,000 and 12,000 feet elevation, adult winged locusts
were seen, but no young.

July 2, in riding from Nederland to Blackhawk, the air was filled with
grasshoppers at an altitude of several hundred feet, sailing on the wind
and driven eastward. The stage-driver told me that they had been
flying five days. Tbe potato-plants were at this point 5 inches high.
At Blackhawk, (7,543 feet elevation), the pups of the locust was abun-
dant, as well as winged individuals.

At Golden, at base of the Foot Hills (5,729 feet elevation), July 3, the
locust bad been fledged for five days, and the pupe weie still abundant

3368

594 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

mingling with the pale-green pups of Caloptenus bivittatus and the larve
and adult of Gdipoda carolina.

At Idaho Springs (7,330 feet elevation), July 5, the young larva of the
locust were smaller than I had yet seen, being about a quarter of an inch
long, and in all stages, from the lately-hatched to the pupa and winged
individuals. I was told, however, that the first brood of locusts hatehed
about the end of April and early in May, but that winged individuals
did not appear until June 20. On Gray’s Peak, July 7, owing to the
coolness of the day, a little snow falling on the summit and rain below,
no grasshoppers, wingless or winged, were seen. In Kelso Gulch,
near Georgetown, no young were seen, and but afew winged ones. At
Georgetown (8,412 feet elevation), on the flats near the town the young
were a quarter to one-half an inch long. Mr. R. 8. Morrison informed
me that the locust at Georgetown begins to hatch about the Ist of June,
a month or more later than at Denver, and continues to hatch out until
the Ist of July, as the localities differ in height. About June 23, he said,
the locusts begin to get their wings, but they do not migrate until
August, when they assemble in great swarms on the mountains, and
falling on the snow in immense numbers, are eaten by the bears.

July 9, at Floyd’s Hill the grasshoppers were seen by thousands fly-
ing westward up the cafion. I did not go into South Park, but was
told by an intelligent young man that at a point about a thousand feet
below the level of the park he saw the locusts flying about June 25.

July 12, in the Garden of the Gods (about 6,200 feet elevation), while
there were few to be seen on the ground, the air was filled with them,
flying at all distances from 100 to more than 1,000 feet, for their altitude
could be approximately measured by the highest sandstone column of
the Cathedral Rocks. When a locust takes wing, it rises more readily
on a light breeze and flies off in a zigzag course, gradually lising
in height until it sails about, if the wind is light, in an uncertain course.
In the Garden of the Gods, where the breeze was northeast, they were
driven southwest; but farther up the valley, toward Manitou Springs
(6,297 feet elevation), when the wind was westerly, they were borne in
an easterly direction. Their rapidity of flight seemed to depend on the
strength of the wind, and when the latter was light, individuals could
be seen flying about in all directions, crossing each other in their flight,
but the swarm as a whole were moving with the wind. A few pup
were seen on the ground.

At Manitou, the locusts are said to have hatched out in April, and to
have taken two months to get their wings. A few pup were still to be
seen in the oats, and in the spring they did a good deal of damage,
thinning the oats and devouring the beets and other garden-vegetables,
There were few grasshoppers to be seen in the air at half past 8 in the
morning, but by 11 o’clock there were many more. There is probably
good ground for the popular opinion that they descend to the ground
at night and fly up toward midday, flying by day and resting and feed-
ing at night.

At this date I was informed by a man who had just arrived from Fair
Play (elevation 9,964 feet) that there were few locusts (C. spretus) in
South Park (8,000 to 10,000 feet elevation) and Arkansas Valley this
summer.

Mr. W. H. Holmes, assistant on the Survey, writes from Southern Col-
orado that the grasshoppers had “ eaten up everything” on the La Plata.

On July 14, I ascended Pike’s Peak, and at an elevation of about
8,000 to 9,000 feet found larve in the second stage and pupe of C. spre-
tus. Some not more than one-fifth of an inch long were seen clustering

PACKARD.] THE LOCUST IN COLORADO. 595

on the fallen trees by the side of a brook, while the adults were flying
perhaps 1,000 feet overhead. On the extreme summit (elevation 14,147,
Parry’s estimate 14,216, feet), the locusts were flying, though not in great
abundance, at least 500 feet above the top; some fell with a thud on the
rocks and seemed paralyzed or were found benumbed on the snow. I
did not notice that they were flying in any determinate direction, but
as vast numbers of a green Haltica covered the low alpine vegetation,
J judge tbat as these had evidently been borne up by currents of wind
from the plains below, the locusts had been earried up in a similar
manner, especially as they were more abundant on that day at an eleva-
tion of 8,000 to 9,000 feet.. That, however, even at this latter elevation,
the winged locusts had probably come from the plains east of the mount-
ains seems evident, as the young born at this altitude had not yet ac-
quired their wings. Indeed, it seems to me exceedingly doubtfal whether
those born above an altitude of 8,000 or 9,000 feet arrive at maturity if
they do acquire wings; their flight is only local, from one canon to
another. It seems evident that the vast swarms which. appear occa-
sionally must have been hatched on the plains to the west and northwest,
at an altitude of 5,000 to 7,000 feet.

As regards the inferences to be drawn from my own observations in
Colorado, which were made between June 27 and July 19, namely, after
the spring brood had taken flight and before the late summer swarins
had arrived on the plains, I would state:

1. That in the canons and mountains above an elevation of about
8,000 feet the young were too few in number and too late in their devel-

‘opment to supply the material for the swarms that visited the plains
about Denver in August.

2. The grasshoppers seen by me sailing in the air between about 6,000
and 9,000 feet elevation were probably derived from the April and May
broods of the plains about Denver, east of the foot-hills of the Rocky
Mountain Range.

3. The August swarms which spread over the plains about Denver
and the country north and south, within a hundred miles or so, origi-
nated in Colorado, but probably not the adjacent Territories, and were
derived from those bred on the plains about Denver directly east of the
mountains, which were borne aloft in June, and then collected in large
Swarms and migrated back, borne by westerly winds, later in the sea-
son, to find suitable places for laying their eggs. It is not improbable
that the earliest local swarms, such as devastated the plains of Colorado,
bred in the plains about Denver, and gathered for about a mouth in the
lower portion of the mountain valleys into the compact and well-organ-
ized swarm which, to some extent, devastated the Colorado Plains.
Undoubtedly the sexual instinct leads large swarms, bred during favor-
able seasons, to migrate in search of broad plains which afford the proper
conditions for the deposition of their eggs and the nourisbment of their
young. Bntit is evident that the parks and caiions of the Rocky Mount-
ains of Colorado, all of which lie above an altitude of 7,000 feet, pre-
sent conditions of elevation, climate, extent of territory, and food too
unfavorable for the production of the immense swarms which at long
intervals devastate the Colorado Plateau and portions of Kansas and
adjoining States. It is most probable, however, that the late August
and early September broods of locusts noticed by Mr. Byers about
Denver may have been born and bred during exceptionally dry seasons
in the plains of Wyoming and Montana, and thus appeared in Colorado
a month later than those bred east of the mountains. It is doubtful if
the young individuals (larve) which I saw at different elevations up to

596 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

about 9,000 feet ever arrived at maturity; they may winter over and
acquire wings in the spring, but this is improbable.

In Northern Colorado the grasshoppers may have in part taken wing
from the Laramie Plains of Wyoming and the plateau east of the Black
Hills, while the swarms devastating Southern Colorado may have been
in part indigenous and in part derived from the plains of New Mexico
on the south and Utah on the west.

As I was not able to observe the locust in spring or late in the sum-.
mer, I am obliged to rely on the statement of others regarding the hab-
its of the locust at these periods. The following letters from W. N.
Byers, esq., written at my request, give an able summary of the results
of his observations and are of value, as the leading points confirm my
own impressions. It will be seen that I quite agree with Mr. Byers’s
view that comparatively few of the swarms origivate in the mountain
cahon, as originally stated by the late Mr. B. D. Walsh (based on the
statements of Drs. Pairy and Velie), and reiterated by others:

DENVER, COLO., August 22, 1875.

Drak Sir: Your letter of 16th instant is before me, and fearing that it may be mis-
laid or overlooked if not answered until “ the close of ithe season,” I will endeavor to
reply, so far as able to do so, now.

Some years ago I answered a similar inquiry from Prof. Cyrus Thomas, aiss of Dr.
Hayden’s Survey, and I think it found place in some one of the reports. My op -uion
respecting the hatching-fields, &c., of the grasshopper was then seriously questic ned,
but Professor Thomas, after another year’s observation and study, freely admitted that
I was right. I presume you have seen what I wrote at that time, or if you bave not,
that you can readily do se. My opinions have not changed since. I-may here say that
I first made the acquaintance of the destructive grasshopper in 1852, about the Ist of
August, upon the plains of Northern Utah and Sonthern Idaho, at which time they
were flying east-northeast in swarms that obscured the sun.

Their breeding-places may be in any part of this arid portion (the western balf) ef
the United States. The great swarms that attain maturity end migrate are hatched,
doubtless, within altitudes ranging from 4,000 to 7,000 feet above sea-level. At 7,000
to 8,000 feet they may so far mature as to make short flights and remove to new local-
ities not far distant. Above 8,000 feet they seldom, 1f ever, become able to fly, though
I have seen myriads of them hatched at 10,000, 11,000, and even up to 12,000 feet above
the sea. Probably they did not attain more than one-third of their growth before
being destroyed by autumn frosts and snows.

The most favorable hatching-grounds are the plains like this east of the mountains,
upon which are situate Denver, Pueblo, Greeley, Cheyenne, Fort Laramie, &c., from
4,000 to 6,060 feet above the sea. Where they settle down to propagate their species
they must have subsistence ; hence there must be fertility and vegetation. As to the
latter, they are not very particular, but are sure to take the best there is. Sexual
uvion begins in August and the deposit of eggs soon after, and both continue then
until stopped by severe frosty weather, say in October. They choose, first, plowed
ground ; second, comparatively loose sandy or gravelly land, partially but not thickly
covered with grass or other vegetation ; third, the most favorable spots where they
may happen to be and from which they are not able to get away. The female, with
her nether extremity, perforates a hole in the ground about as deep as the length of
her body, and deposits a cluster of eggs that resemble in size and form the eggs of the
caterpillar-moth attached to the twig of an apple or cherry tree, except that in the
place of the twig there is a hollow space. They are cemented together by a glutinous
substance, which is avubtless impervious to water. The eggs deposited, the hole above
them is soon filled and leveled by wind or rain. In a warm winter young grasshop-
pers are frequently found hatching out at various periods. They have been noted here
in November, in February, March, and April, but of course only in limited areas and
small numbers; and such do no harm, being svon destroyed by cold. The main hateh-
ing begins about the second week in May, and lasts, say,a month. At higher alti-
tudes, from 7,000 to 12,000 feet (if eggs happen to have been deposited there, which is
rarely the case), the hatching continues from the above dates until the last of August
or even into September, owing to the altitude. But from all these latter no harm need
ever be feared.

The flight of moving swarms is governed mainly by the preva‘ling winds, although
they seem to be controlled somewhat by choice or laws of theirown. A change of
wind, or particularly a sudden chill, even slight, brings a flight of them quickly to
the ground; but if the next day is fair and warm, and the wind favorable, they again

PACKARD. ] THE LOCUST IN COLORADO. 597

circle into the upper air and resume their flight. They may tarry for sevcral days,
oo, wench depending upon the weather and the sun’s warmth—the warmer the better
or them.

The ‘‘cafions of the mountains” (a very prevalent idea in the East) produce but
very few grasshoppers—probably not 5 per cent.; the higher canons none that eer
leave them.

I suppose that the swarms that devastated Nebraska and Kansas in 1874 were na-
tives of the plains of the Upper Missouri branches, the Yellowstone, Powder River,
and the North Platte—tbat great plateau-land lying between the Black Hills and
Rocky Mountain chains in Montana and Northern Wyoming.

The same flights overspread Eastern Colorado in 1874, destroyed the late crops and
deposited their eggs. The latter hatched out in May and June (very irregularly), and
the young ate up the early crops, and one, two, aud in some cases three subsequent
plantings. In July most of them took flight, but frequent swarms have appeared
since in various parts of the Territory, aud they are now doing considerable damage in.
several counties. Their movements this year have been very erratic and entirely un-
certain. These various flights—none of them very numerous—have been in various
directions, and there seems as yet little disposition to deposit eggs. I am told that
most of them are afilicted with parasites, and if so they will soon disappear. They
perished from that cause in 1865. It would be easy to learn exactly the nature and
habits of this plague, provided observers can be secured all over this arid region.
They afflict some portion of it every year. The scourge only moves from place to
place. If Government can secure report, for instance, from every district in which they
hatch next spring, then trace the flight of the moving swarms during the summer aud
fall, their habits can be accurately determined. It is a far more simple task than the
operations of the Signal Service Bureau.

lf at any time I can serve yon further, or if you desire more definite report this fall
ef the seasou’s results, please let me know.

Meantime, believe me, very truly, your obedient servant,

A. S. Packarb, Jr., M. D., Salem, Mass.

Hor SuLpuHur SrrineGs, CoLo., October 1, 1875.

DEAR Sire: In response to your postal card of August 30, I have but little more to
report respecting the grasshopper. Ihave studied them with some care here this fall,
aud will givein brief the result. The first flights came to this neighborhood in the first
week of August—not numerous—and most of them disappeared in three or four days.
In the second week of August others came and in great numbers, and they have remained
ever since. Iwas absent the latter half of August. In the first week of September
I was again here and found them pairing. Many of the females were boriug holes and
appeared to be depositing eggs, but on examination it was found that very few actu-
ally were deposited. The bottom of the hole generally contained a small quautity of
frothy, gelatinous matter, such as accompanies the eggs; but I think in only two in-
stances during that week did I find eggs, and then only six to ten. The next week,
however, brought on the height of the season. Myriads were boring in the ground
everywhere, and from one-half to two-thirds of the perforations were found to contain
from 15 to 30 eggs each, from one inch to two inches below the surface. In many
places the earth was perfectly honeycombed by their nests. At this time (the second
week in September) they had begun dying quite rapidly, and the living were feeding
largely upon the dead. As the season advances they subsist more and more upon the
dead and eat less vegetation. Now (October 1) they are eating the dead and dying
when not too torpid to care about eating at all.

I was again absent the last half of September, and have returned but two days ago.
There are still plenty of grasshoppers here, but most are dead. Occasionally a couple
are seen paired, but I have found none depositing eggs.

I Jearn that last year eggs were deposited in North Park and that they hatched
there in countless swarms the present season. I presume our flights came from there.
At any rate we are certain of the young ones here next year. The altitude here is
7,725 feet above the sea. The west balf of the park escaped them. They extended hut
five or six miles west of this point; that is, the swarms that deposited eggs. The first
swarms (1st to 5th of August) were more general, but did not stay.

Abont Denver, and over a large portion of the agricultural country in that neighbor-
hood, the flying swarms were bad in the latter part of August, but most of them
moved on. Only in a few and comparatively limited neighborhoods were many eggs
deposited.

Of those that died here a few were killed by a parasite, developing a maggot which
eats out the body of the grasshopper; but the great majority perished from exhaustion
and cold—old age, perhaps.

Very truly, yours,

WM. N. BYERS.

WM. N. BYERS.
A. 8. PackarpD, Jr, M. D., Salem, Mass.

598 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

P“S.—Since writing the above I have made another grasshopper survey, and find
numbers of them yet depositing eggs.

By the same mail with this I send you a small box of the eggs. I find in some
places the ground at the proper depth is fully one-fourth filled with their eggs. From
this you may form some idea of their incredible numbers. I find also that numerous
burrowing insects, worms, &c., are living off them.

Wi Nove:

The earliest swarm of which I can find authentic information isoneseen
at Boulder, Colo., by Professor Robinson, and whose history he has
kindly given in the following account. It seems impossible that this
swarm which began its migrations so early as July 20 could have been
raised among the parks or canons of the mountains. We are forced to
the conclusion that they were bred on the plains, and collecting and
massing east of the mountains were borne by westerly currents beyond
the usual breeding-grounds of the species across the plains to Eastern
Kansas. 4

UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS,
Lawrence, Kan., October 11, 1875.

DeEaR Sir: I will very gladly give you my observations upon the swarming of the
locusts from the Rocky Mountains eastward in the summer of 1874.

I afrived at Denver on my westward trip about the 23d of June. During a stay of
six or seven days in the city, 1 made frequent excursions to the neighboring country,
visiting “ranches,” rambling through fields of grain and over the prairie, with eyes
wide open for locusts, potato-bugs, &c., of whores ravages I bad previously read many
reports. At this time I found very few locusts anywhere, not enough to do any percep-
tible damage to vegetation. About the 1st of July I went over the Snowy Range down
into Middle Park. Here I eagerly renewed my search for locusts, urged on by the
desire to use them as trout-bait ; and you may be sure J hunted them vigorously, for
with nearly every locust I could catch a fine trout. But the trout were far plentier
than. the locusts. Coming out of the mountains about the 20th of July, by way of
Golden City, just at the base of the foot-hills, I encountered the advance of an immense
swarm of locusts sweeping from the north, filling the air from the ground upwards for
hundreds of feet. Two or three miles frum the hills their flight appeared to swerve
somewhat more toward the east. I passed through the swarm about five miles from
where they were first encountered. The next day they settled down to business in
the wheat-fields near Denver.

The 28th of July, leaving Denver for Lawrence, I overtook them at Salina. The13th
of August they first appeared in Lawrence. They staid about ten days, long enough
to eat everything green, and then passed on to the southeast. Where food was abun-
dant they traveled slowly. They were ten days in going from this place to Olathe, 27
miles farther east, and five or six weeks in reaching Sedalia, Mo.

Yours, respectiully, ROBINSON
D. H. v.

In addition to the facets regarding the locust in Colorado in 1875, I
may cite the following facts from Professor Riley’s eighth report. Mr.
N. C. Meeker, of Greeley, writes that ** on the plains, they appeared late
in April and the first of May; along the foot-hills in May ; in the timber-
region and along the Snowy Rangeirom June to July. * * About the
Ist of July, the first hatched in the plains-region departed toward the
south. A week ago (August 20) those hatched in the Blue Mountains
came down upon us and then departed in a southeasterly direction; but
now we are having them from the Snowy Range in what may seem in-
credible numbers. Their numbers, however, are almost nothing in com-
parison with the myriads that keep southward every day about noon.
I estimate that they cover in the sky east and west a space twenty or
thirty miles wide, while they move in a body half a mile deep. ‘hey
consume about two hours in passing, aud we can estimate from this
statement how much ground they would cover if they should all alight.”
It seems from this extract that so far north as Greeley the locusts
came late in August from over the mountains to the westward, and not

PACKARD. ] THE LOCUST IN COLORADO. 599

from the north, ¢. e., Wyoming ; while those hatched earlier in the season
on the plains, went southward. ‘ Signal-service observations made at
Denver show that from the 20th of July to the end of August swarms
repeatedly passed, and invariably from the north and northwest, not-
withstanding that the prevailing direction of the wind was from the
south.” (Riley’s report.)

1 also add a letter from Mr. Meeker, published in the New York
Tribune :

GREELEY, CoLo., May 25.

We are trying every way we can think of to drive away the grasshoppers, and we
are now in the midst of the battle, but the wounds of the conflict are mainly intlicted
by the insects. Ordinarily, the grasshoppers are not hatched out of their eggs until
the 1st of June. Before this period the ground is so wet and cold in consequence of
the spring rains that the insects are not hatched out. This year we had no spring
rains to speak of, hence the ground was warm and dry, and the insects appeared about
the 25th of April. At this time the wheat was just starting, and the insects ate it as
fast as it grew. Oar wheat is sown in February and March, and it is of a superior
quality, better than the winter-wheat of tle Eastern States. If there had been the
usual spring rains it would have been at least a foot high by the time the grasshop-
pers appeared.

Wheat that is starting is greatly injured by being irrigated, and usually it does not
need irrigation. If the soil is light the water quickly cuts gulches which constantly
deepen, and flooding the ground all over is impossible, especially if the land inclines
any way. But atter the grain has grown to some height its roots fill the surface-earth
and the water cannot cut through them, and it forces its way hither and thither among
the blades of grain, much as one is obliged to do in a crowd of men. So it spreads
over the field and evenly with a little aid. When wheat isin this condition, and the
young grusshoppers are hatched in sandy places open to the sun, they cannot eat the
wheat us fast as it grows, and besides it is an easy matter, by irrigating the fields, to
drown them, or at least to keep their numbers small. But even when they are eating
the wheat in a half a dozen fields, or in a dozen ficlds in one neighborhood, as fast as
it grows, there will be many other fields where the wheat is not molested, and by the
time the pests are grown and have wings to fly a large breadth of wheat will be strong
and vigorous, and consequently will mature. Usually, therefore, the young grasshop-
pers—which came to our fields only once before, two years ago—do but little damage,
and the average yield of wheat during the year meutioned was as great as that of the
Eastern States; while in ordinary years it is more than double. In this place and all
through Colorado the gardeus are as bare as in January, for no attempt has been made
to plant vegetables. The grasshoppers do not touch pease, however, and these are
growivg fast.

But most of the monrning is abont the condition of the wheat-fields. We have on
the northwest about 4,000 acres sowed with wheat, and owned by thirty or forty farm-
ers. The wheat is all gone, and that region looks like a desert. It is true that there
are a few fields in the midst left, but we expect to hear every day of their destruction
northeast and east of the railroad and along what is called Free Church. The owners
are constantly on guard. When an advance detachment of grasshoppers appears it is
attacked with fire aud water, and thus for the present the enemy is kept at bay. On
this side of the river, all the five-acre, ten-acre, and twenty-acre lots are without vege-
tation. To the south there are several hundred acres of wheat where the wheat is
over knee-high and growing as if in arace forits life. We may save 500 acres of wheat
ont of 5,000, which will give us bread, but we expected to have obtained $150,000
from this year’s crop. Meanwhile we are waiting. Corn will be planted in hundreds
of fields within ten days. All kinds of garden-vegetables are now growing in boxes in
the houses, waiting their chance to appear with safety in the outer air. I expect to sow
half an acre of beets and get a large return. There is no seed-wheat in the country ;
if there were a crop could be grown; and there is scarcely corn enough for seed.
There is no barley, nor have the farmers money to buy any.

All this is a fair description. As a people we are certainly better off than those fur-
ther east, because we have water at our command, because our stock-rarge is preserved,
giving to those keeping cattle their usual returns, while our mines of silver and gold
are unfailing. But these resources do not help our farmers at all. There are some
families now utterly destitute. Every dollar they had or coulda borrow was put into
the ground, and it will never return. Friends of such in the East should help them if
possible. Probably county commissioners can give some relief; the legislature may ;
Colorado is entirely out of debt. The grangers can do nothing for each other, for all
are involved.

The total destruction of crops between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains is
appalling, and I estimate that the number of people afilicted is nearly three mil-

6090 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

lions. We, here, do not believe a word in the statements made from time to time that
the grasshoppers are dying, or that a parasite is eating them. We have seen them
come out of water, mud, and snow as strong as ever. They are “iron-clad.” I wish
I were as sure of one proposition as lam that a machine will be invented that will
take them up from the ground and ‘“ leave not a wretch behind.”

Additional facts regarding the occurrence of the locust (C. spretus)
in Colorado and other Territories will be found in the following extracts
from an article in the Daily Inter-Ovean, Chicago, October 9, 1875, from
the pen of Prof. Cyrus Thomas, State entomologist of Llinois:

Their hatching-ground is known to extend over the vast area roughly designated by
the following boundary-lines : On the east, the one hundred and third meridian; on
the south, the south line of Colorado and Utah; on the west, the west line of Utah
extended north to British America; the northern line being sowewhere in British
America—even this area in the northern part being expanded indefinitely east and
west. Now for the proof. While connected with the United States Geological Sur-
vey, under Dr. Hayden, for four years, I traveled over a large portion of this area,
traversing it on various lines east und west and north and south, studying somewhat
carefully the habits of these destructive locusts. During this time I noticed them in
the larva and pupa state, or depositing their eggs at the following places: At various
points along the east base of and in the bordering valley of the mountains in Wyoming
and Colorado, from North Platte near Fort Laramie to the Arkansas River; in Laramie
plains, and around Fort Bridger; from Utah Lake, in Utah, to Fort Hall in Snake
River Valley, Idaho; in Northwestern Dakota vear the Red River of the North; and
on both sides of the range in Montana along the valleys of Deer Lodge River, and the
branches of the Upper Missouri. I also obtained satisfactory proof of the same thing
occurring in British America, north of Dakota; in Middle Park, Colorado; and in the
regions west of that point; in Wind River Valley, in Wyoming; in Central Montana
along the Yellowstone, and in the Greeu River country west of South Pass. These faets,
which are but a small portion of what might now be gathered, will give some idea of the
work necessary to be done if we undertake to exterminate these insects by destroying
their eggs in their native baunts. If it can be shown, which is doubtful, that the
progenitors of the swarms which visit Kansasand Nebraska, after sweeping down from
the mountain regions, deposit their eggs within the limited area heretofore mentioned
as the point of departure east, then, and then only, is it possible to devise a prevent-
ive measure applicable to their native haunts, as this, with the exception of a com-
paratively small region around the headquarters of the Missouri, is the only portion of
the broad plains lying along the east flank of the mountains susceptible of an exten-
sive system of irrigation. Before alluding to their operations in Kansas, Nebraska,
and other bordering States, I will present some facts in regard to their migrations in
and from the mountains and northern regions which will assist the reader in forming
a more correct idea of their habits and tbe extent of their operations; and here be it
remembered I confine myself to the single species Caloptenus spretus. I have traced
a swarm from the area west of South Pass to their stopping-place and batebing-ground
north of Fort Fetterman, from Northeastern Dakota nearly to Lake Winnipeg, and
have ascertained that some swarms have even extended their migrations, from some
supposed southwest point, as far as the north side of this lake. It is also known that
in one instance, at least, those which left Colorado moved in the direction of Texas;
those visiting Salt Lake Valley have repeatedly come from the northeast, sometimes,
doubtless, from Cache and Bear River Valleys, and at others from the Snake River
region, while those hatched in Salt Lake regions moved soutb, in some instances re-
turning with the change of wind. In 1864 those hatched east of the mountains in
Northern Wyoming and along the Yellowstone in Montana swept down the east flank
of the range upon the fields of Colorado, while a part moved east to Manitoba and
Minnesota, In 1867 a swarm from the west side of the range poured into Middle
Park and there deposited their eggs, but those hatched from these failed to scale their
rocky bounds; yet, while these were vainly striving to Ivave their mountain prison,
another horde from the barren regions beyond sweeping above them over the snowy
crest, poured down upon the valleys east; and in another instance a swarm was seen
passing for two days over Fort Hall from the southwest. On the other hand we find
them extending their flight far into Texas in destructive hordes, yet New Mexico and
Arizona appear to be comparatively free from them ; at least the very extensive collec-
tions made by Lieutenant Wheele1’s expeditions in these Territories during the last
four years, which have been submitted to me, contain but very few specimens of the
C. spretus, and during my visit to New Mexico in 1869 I found searcely any specimens
south of Raton Mountains, although comparatively abundant in Colorado, and even
in San Luis Valley. Iam therefore inclined to doubt the correctness of the statement
made in reference to the grasshopper in these Territories in 1255, if intended to apply
to this species.

PACKARD. ] THE LOCUST IN WYOMING. 601

These facts, if added to the expericnce of the last three years in Kansas, Nebraska,
Dakota, Minnesota, and Manitoba, will suffice to show, not only how extensive their
range is, but also how varied their flight is, and that there are no particular spo‘s
which cap be said to form their permanent hatching-grounds. That they prefer the
elevated sandy plateaus and terraces in the mountain districts is certain, but that any
particular localities form the permanent hives from which the swarm issue cannot be
maintained. Yet that those which visit Kansas and Nebraska, and even Dakota and
Minnesota, originate usually within a certain portion of the mountain region appears
highly probable. While there are some exceptions to the rule, yet it is evident that the
general course of their flight east of the mountains is southeast. The distance tray-
eled by any particular swarm, so far as I am aware, has never been positively ascer-
tained, yet enough is known to indicate that this may extend for at least two or three
hundred miles. The hordes which visited Colorado in 1864 are supposed by Colonel
Byers to have originated in Montana, along the Yellowstone ; and the swarm which I
traced through Sweetwater Valley probably traveled over 200 miles; yet the evidence
is not positive in either case, though strongly presumptive.

Maj. J. W. Powell informs me that in August, 1867, he encountered
vast numbers of locusts in the region northwest of Pike’s Peak, as he
drove his wagons for five days through them, traveling at the rate of 20
miles a day. It is not probable that this was C. spretus.

In August, 1875, Mr. P. R. Uhler visited Colorado, and sends me the
following notes on C. spretus :

When I first reached Golden, on August 6, smal! flocks of the C. spretus were flying
from the direction of northwest (over the peaks evidently) and alighting on the hills
and upon the crops in the irrigated tields; but these were nothing to the hordes which
poured into the country near Manitou about August 13-16.

Ajl the flocks that I saw consisted of C. spretus. I met with this species everywhere,
from north of Denver to south of Cation City, in the mountains and ou the plains. But
I did not see them as far east as Bijou. Perbaps they don’t love that locality. And
I noticed that the flocks alighted in particular spots, and did not appear all,over the
plains and hills west of Colorado Springs. Evidently they preferred some spots to
others of the same kind of surface-soil.

In the Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Sciences, Mr. J.D.
Putnam writes as follows regarding his experience with the locust in
Colorado:

I have collected this species in various parts of Colorado. It was quite plentiful on
the plains between Denver and Boulder City in June, 1872, and later in the season I
found it abundant in the mountains at Empire City. On August 1 they were very
abundant high up above the timber-line on Parry’s Peak. Vast numbers were chilled
by the snow and lay at the base of the snow-drifts in heaps. They could be seen, filling
the air like snow-flakes, to a great height above the extreme summit of the peak,
13,133 feet. The wind was from a westerly direction. In September, this year (1872), I
found them in great abunaance in Middle Park. In 1874 I first noticed this species on
Gold Hill, Boulder County, July 8, ard on July 11 they appeared at Valmont and other
places on tbe plains in great abundauce, and did great damage. They received several
large re-enforcements during the following week. After remaining several days, these
seemed to disappeur, but only to make room for another swarm; and thus they kept
coming and going during the rest of the summer until nothing eatable was left. At
Empire City they were very abundant during the whole of my stay, from August to
October, but they seemed to eat but very little, if anything. At Canon City, in Octo-
ber, I found them very abundant. They were very sluggish, and the sidewalks were
covered with the dead and dying. Large numbers were seen paired. The young grass-
hoppers hatched out abundantly early in April, 1875. In 1873 I found them in different
parts of Western Wyoming, between Fort Bridger and the Yellowstone Lake; but on
the plains bordering the Stinking Water River, in July, they were more abundant than
I had ever seen them elsewhere before. In Juue, 1875, I collected a few near the trans-
fer depot at Council Bluffs, lowa. This is the most eastern locality I have yet seen it.
In Utah last summer I failed to see a single specimen, although I looked specially for
it. (Page 265.)

THE LOCUST IN WYOMING.
In going from Cheyenne to Salt Lake City, July 19 and 20, over the

Union Pacifie Railroad, no locust was seen, and the absence of insect-
life within the limits of Wyoming was remarkable. As soon as the

602 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

borders of Utah were approached, insects (but not the locust) became
abundant. The locust, however, breeds as abundantly in Wyoming as in
adjacent Territories, and is evidently one of the sources of supply for
the swarms which invade Colorado. ta proof of this I will first quote
Professor Thomas, who makes the following statement in Hayden’s An-
nual Report for 1876 on the Geology of Wyoming:

During the expedition of the present year, while traveling up the North Platte,
between Fort Fetterman and Red Buttes (August 20-23), we observed vast numbers
of this species. ‘bey were not on the wing, having to all appearances ended their
flight, and were now pairing, doubtless intending to deposit their eggs there. Frémont
encountered a similar swarm in passing over this part of the North Platte Valley. He
remarks: “This insect has been so numerous since leaving Fort Laramie that the
ground seemed alive with them; and in walking a little moving cloud preceded our
footsteps. They had probably ceased their flight, and were preparing to deposit their
egos. By reference to my present report ou the agriculture of this section it will be
seen that bore there appears to be an almost constant current of air sweeping down
the Platte Valley from the west. When we reached South Pass City, I learned from
Major Baldwin that about the first of the month (August) a large swarm had crossed
over the pass from the west, moving eastward, and that they bad not gone to Wind
River Valley. Jam satisfied that they did not go upon the Laramie Plains, 2s I visited
that section twice during the season. Nor did we meet with avy swarms during our
passage up the Sweetwater; we may, therefore, reasonably infer that those we saw
on the North Platte were the same that crossed the wountaius at South Pass. From
whence did they come? As we heard noth:ng of them during our passage down Big
Sandy along the stage-road, I infer that they must have come from the northwest; but
what distance I have no means of ascertaining.”

Capt. W. J. Jones states in his ** Report upon the Reconnaissance of
Northwestern Wyoming,” made iu the summer of 1873, that in the Green

tiver Basin ‘ the region is infested with great swarms of grasshoppers.”
We have seen that Mr. Byers surmises that some of the swarms which
devastate Colorado cross the Snowy Ravge from the Green River Val-
ley.

THE LOCUST IN UTAH.

This Territory is much freer from the invasions of locusts than
Colorado. In 1875 they were scarce, and had not been abundant for
three years, all that were seer being evidently indigenous. In gardens
in Salt Lake City, and in fields at Lake Point, in Salt Lake, in July,
1875, they were less frequent than the yellow-striped grasshopper (Cal-
optenus flavovittatus). 1 found them vot unfrequently in Utah, though
Mr. J. D. Putnam remarks: ‘“‘In Utah last summer (1875) I failed to see
a single specimen, although I looked specially for it.” (Proe. Daven-
port Academy of Sciences, 266.) The invasions, as several persons told
me, are from the north and northwest, the latter being the direction of
the prevailing winds in summer. The swarms coming down from the
north are sometimes turned back by the south winds, and when the
wind changes over Salt Lake multitudes are drowned. The gulls, so
common on the lake, were seen feeding on grasshoppers along the beaches.
Caloptenus spretus is undoubtedly distributed over the entire Territory.
Mr. J. L. Barfoot, of Salt Lake City, in charge of the museum, told me
that he had received specimens (which I saw in the museum) from Ka-
nab, in Southeastern Utah, and also from Dirty Devil Mountain. Pro-
fessor Thomas also reports it as breeding in the southern and western
line of Utah. In his letter to me Mr. Byers states that he first saw the
locust in 1852, about the Ist of August, upon the plains of Northern
Utah and Southern Idaho. Professor Thomas also gives the following
data regarding its occurrence in Utah, in Hayden’s Report on the Geol-
ogy of Wyoming, 1870, p. 283:

As heretofore stated, they have been very destructive in Utah for the past three
years, not only injuring very materially the growing crops, but eating the leaves from

PACKARD.) THE LOCUST IN UTAH. 603

the fruit-trees to such an extent as to injure the fruit. From Dr. A. T. McDonald, of
Provo City, [jearned the following particalars in regard to the incursions of this in-
sect into the Territory : That the prevailing cold and winter storms are from the north-
west, but that the grasshoppefs seldom come from that direetion. On the contrary,
they generaily come from the northeast, through the canons, being brought in by the
local currents which sweep through these mountain openings, and that they generally
pass off in a southwest direction, though the swarms that come in often remain and
deposit their eggs, from which another brood arises in the spring. Sometimes, after a
swarm hos departed to the southwest, the wind changes, and they are driven back to
be swallowed up in the lake or perish in the valley. The time of coming varies from
the middle of May to the middle of August. The eggs that are deposited bere usually
hatch out in Apriland May. The growing crops receive their greatest injury from the
young which are hatched in the valley. The usual meihod of fighting these young
gormunds is to drive them into the irrigating ditches, where they are drowned in the
water. When they are a little older they are often checked by scattering straw along
the edge of the ditches, and driving them into it early in the morning, and then firing
it; those which are not destroyed by the fire being caught in the water of the ditch
and drowned. But these methods of combating them are practicable only when they
are in the larve and pupa states.

Dr. MeDonald says that in Utah, at least, the females deposit their eggs in the ground
in sacks—a fact heretofore noticed and published—on the gravelly elevated plateaus,
or foot-bills. And from my observations this season [ am inclined to agree with him
in the opinion that these elevated table-lauds, which are composed of coarse sand and
gravel, and but slightly covered with vegetation, are the principal batching-grounds
of the migratory swarms. The local brocds are to be found all over the Rocky Mount-
ain region, from Raton Mountains as far north as I have been, and as far west, at least,
as Salt Lake Valley. These are found batching out in the grassy valleys and broad
plains of the lower lands aud up the mountain canons almost to the snow limits. And
these broods appear to have little or no connection with the migrating broods; but
the solution of these questions will require more extended observations by those who
can distinguish the species. \

I also extract from Mr. Thomas's remarks on the same subject in Hay- °

den’s Report on the Geology of Montana, 1871, p. 451:
— Caloptenus spretus.—Found the past season [1871] in great abundance in the north
part of Salt Lake Basin. When we reached Ogden, June 1, I saw but very few speci-
mens; but when we reached Box Elder Cation, two weeks later, the larvae were seen
spreading out from points where they had evidently been batched. When we passed
through the hills to Cache Valley, a few miles farther, and but a few days later, I
found them just entering their perfect state. By the time we reached the north end
of the valley, about the 20th of June, they were taking wing and proceeding south-
ward. Here the farmers, who have observed them closely for a number of years, say
that they never lay their eggs in the lower level of the valley, but universally on the
gravelly elevated terraces. So positive are they on this point that one farmer, to test
the matter, last year offered $5 for every bunch of eggs that could be found on the
lower valley level which had been deposited there by the insect itself, but none were
brought to bim. I think, therefore, we may conciude that it is pretty well settled that
the usual hatching-grounds of the destructive swarms are on the gravelly terraces or
uplands. Yet that considerable numbers are hatched in the narrow canons of the mod-
erately-elevated mountains I think is also certain, as I observed this year a large num-
ber of larvze in Box Elder Cation; but the elevation of this canon is little, if any, more
than that of Cache Valley. When Ireturned to Salt Lake Basin, early in August, I
found the country swarming with myriads of these grasshoppers. And even aiter we
had passed eastward on the railroad, to the heights near Aspen Station, I noticed the
air filled with their snowy wings, but could not tell exactly the course they were tak-
ing, but thought they were moving southwest.

The following statements, which are quoted nearly word for word, are
made by W. Woodrutf and A. M. Musser ina Mormon paper. The locust
appeared in Utah in the year 1855, and again from 1866 to 1872, inclu-
sive. In 1855 they came from the west, in 1866 trom the north. ‘The
subsequent years’ products were produced from eggs, while relays came
from all directions. They hatched out from April to June, and in 1855
and 1872 leftin August and September, flying north and east, in dense
clouds obstructing the sunlight. In 1855 foreign swarms came about
July, in 1866 about September, and deposited eggs.

In 1855 about 75 per cent. of the cereals, vegetables, and fruits were destroyed by
them. The following spring the people subsisted largely on thistle, milkweed, and
other roots.

604 = REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

When eggs are not disturbed by the plow frost does not destroy them. During the
years named they visited all parts of the Territory. Thousands of bushels were de-
stroyed by the organized labors of the people, by drivi ing them and burying them in
trenches, by setting traps in irrigating ditches,, by covering the ground with straw,
uuder which they would ‘shelter for the bight, and in the worning burning the straw
and insects. Men,-women, and children, with the village poultry, in some’ places,
moved to the fields in wagons and fought tbe common enemy from hatching to flying
time. In some parts, it was estimated there were one hundred bushels of hoppers to
the acre.

A notable local mathematician estimated that in one season, one and a half million
bushels were destroyed by lighting in Great Salt Lake and drifting on the shores, form-
ing an immense belt.

THE LOCUST IN NEW MEXICO.

Professor Thomas also states that it breeds in Snake Valley, Idaho.°
That itis common and destructive at times in New Mexico is shown
from the statement published in the Monthly Report of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, at Washington, D. C., for July, 1876, where it is
stated that the corn and oats were injured and the wheat-crop half
destroyed by the “ grasshopper,” which must be C. spretus, as Taos is
near the Colorado line. Professor Thomas reports a few specimens of
C. spretus trom New Mexico and Arizona in collections made by Lien-
tenant Wheeler’s Expeditions during the last four years, and he himseif
found a few specimens south cf Raton Mountains in 1869. In 1875,
however, Lieutenant Carpenter, as be writes me, did not see any swarms
in the region extending from Fort Garland to Santa Fé. “I could not
learn,” he adds, “that they had ever been troublesome in northern
New Mexico.”

THE LOCUST IN NEVADA.

t
Prof. Cyrus Thomas has kindly afforded me the following facts regard-
ing the oce MEMenGe of Caloptenus spretus in Nevada, in a letter dated
March Ea eh a

I saw C. spretus in 1871 in abundance along the Humboldt River in Nevada, most of
the way from where the Central Pacific Railroad strikes it (going west) to the sink
or place where it disappears. At one point they were quite abundant, and evidently
preparing to migrate, flying up in the air, their wings presenting that peculiar glassy,
snowy appearance w ith which you are no doubt fausiliar. This, if I recollect rightly,
was west of Humboldt Station ; they were quite abundant at that station (Humboldt),
where we dined, (going west), ‘but were not migrating there or then; those referred
to as seen west of Humboldt being seen as we returned east. You probably remember
that saline or alkaline belt at thé northwest extremity of Great Salt Lake ; just beyond
that I began to observe them, and from thence—not continuously, but at certain
points—from there to, and a short distance westi.of, Humboldt Sink. The collections
made by Wheeler’s party in Southeast Nevada had no specimens which I could posi-
tively say came from that section. That year (1871), as we went out (June), we saw
but few specimens in Salt Lake Valley, but they were quite numerous when we re-
turned from California in August. They were also numerous in Cache Valley and
Southern Idaho; in moderate numbers west of the range in Montana as well as east.

From the facts thus afforded by Professor Thomas, it is not improb-
able that this species in its normal form will be found to commonly occur
in the treeless regions of the entire State of Nevada, and also of the east-
ern half of Oregon, and also, perhaps, of Washington Territory, west
ot the Sierra Nevada, to the south, and the Cascade Mountains to the
north. Among these ranges, and to the westward, when the rain-fall
is very considerable, and the land clothed with forests, we are to look
for the non-migratory variety, Atlanis, which may there exist under
conditions resembling those in which it lives in the Mississippi Valley,
aud the forest-clad Atlantic States and Canada.

PACKARD.] NORTHERN RANGE OF THE LOCUST. 605

It will be exceedingly desirable to trace the distribution of €. spretus
southward of the present known limits, for it is not at all unlikely
that it inhabits the Mexican Plateau, since Major Powell informs me
that he found a locust, as he thought this species, numerous within
twenty miles of the Mexican boundary on the Colorado River.

In Northern New Mexico Lieutenant Carpenter found this species
(identified by Mr. Scudder) on Taos Peak, Sangre de Cristo Mountains,
at a height of 13,000 feet (above timber-line), in July, 1875. (Seudder
in Wheeler’s Annual Report for 1876.)

NORTHERN RANGE OF THE LOCUST.

While the locust (C. spretus) breeds in Wyoming, Montana, and Da-
kota, in some cases swarming northward and eastward into the region
about Manitoba, its northernmost limits in British America are said by
Mr. G. M. Dawson* to be *‘ the margin of the coniferous forest which oppor-
tuuely follows the line of the North Saskatchewan River.” As regards
the northeastern limits, Mr. Dawson says: *‘ The locusts are recorded,
on one occasion at least (1867, by Professor Hind), to have reached the
shores of the Lake of the Woods, but I have not heard that they did
so in 1874. Their limit in this direction is pretty definitely fixed by the
western margin of the great woods, about longitude 96°. They did rot
appear at Fairford Port, on the northern part of Manitoba Lake, nor
at Lake Swan House (longitude 100° 30’, latitude 52° 40’), Cumberland
House (longitude 102° 30’, latitude 54°), Prince Albert (longitude 105°
30’, latitude 53° 10’), or Fort Pitt (longitude 109° 20/, latitude 53° 30’).

They are very seldom seen at the second, and never at the third and
fourth of these localities. The exemption of Prince Albert is note-
worthy and instructive, as, on the testimony of several gentlemen ae-
guainted with the locality, it is due to a belt of coniferous timber, which
stretches between the North and South Saskatchewan Rivers bere; and
though grasshoppers in great abundance have visited the country south
of the line thus formed, they have never been known to cross it, as will be
seen farther on; that in 1875 great numbers flew westward to the Lake
of the Woods.

Regarding its appearance at Manitoba in 1575 I quote as follows from
Professor Dawson: tf

From the reports now received from Manitoba and various portions of the North-
west Territory and published in abstract with these notes it would appear that dur-
ing the summer of 1875 two distinct elements were concerned in the locust manifesta-
tion. First, the insects hatching in the province of Manitoba and surrounding regious
from eggs lett by the western and northwestern invading swarms of the previous au-
tnmn; second, a distinct foreign host, moving, for the most part, from south to north.
The locusts are known to have hatched in great numbers over almost the entire area
of Manitoba and westward at least as far as Fort Ellice on the Assineboine River (lon-
gitude 101° 20’), and may probabiy have been produced, at least sporadically, in other
portions of the central regions of the plains, though in the summer of 1874 this district
was nearly emptied to recruit the swarms devastating Manitoba and the Western
States, and there appears to have been little, if any, influx to supply their place. Still
farther west, on the plains along the base of the Rocky Mountains, from the forty-ninth
parallel to the Red Deer River, locusts are known to have hatched in considerable num-
bers; but of these more anon.

Hatching began in Manitoba and adjacent regions in favorable localities as early as
May 7, bt does not seem to have become general till 2bout the 15th of the month, and

* Notes on the Locust Invasion of 1874, in Manitoba and the Northwest Territories.
Montreal, 1576, 8vo, p. 16.

t Notes on the Appearance and Migrations of the Locust in Manitoba and the North-
west Territories, summer of 1875, by George M. Dawson, Assoc. R.S.M.,F.G.S. (From
advanced sheets of the Canadian Naturalist.)

606 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

to have continued during the latter part of May and till the 15th of June, while, ac-
cordivg to Mr. Gunn and others, in cold, clayey land. aud where pools of water from
tne melting of the snow lay long, isolated colonies came out at still later dates. Mr.
Gunn states that grasshoppers were even noticed to hatch in August and September
in spots which had been covered with water all summer, a fact showing the very per-
sistent vitality of the eggs, and apparently negativing opinions which have been ex-
pressed as to their destiuction by damp. The most northern locality at which locusts
ure reported to have been produced trom the egg is at Manitoba, House, Manitoba Lake
(latitude 51°). }

The destruction of crops by the growing insects in all the settled regions was very
great, and in many districts well-nigh complete. The exodus of these broods began
in the early part of July, but appears to have been most general during the middle
and latter part of that month and first of August. The direction taken on departure
was, with very little exception, southeast or south. It is to be remarked that as there
does not seem to have been durivg this period any remarkable persistency of northwest
or northerly winds the insects must have selected those favoring their intended direc-
tion of migration, an instinct which has very generally been observed elsewhere.’
Though most of the parents, in 1874, came from the west and northwest, and Manitoba
must have represented to those ending their flight there the southeastern Jimit of their
range, the young insects of 1875 thus took a southeastward direction, just as though
starting from their usual breeding-grounds in the far North west, and showed no dispo-
sition to return to the region whence their parents came. ‘This direction of flight car-
ried many of the insects at once into a country of thick \oods, swamps, and lakes,
and caused the repetition of the phenomenon of the appearance of grasshoppers in
great numbers about the Lake of the Woods, a circumstance only once before noted,
in the summer of 1857.* This previous occasion, however, differed from that of last.
year in being an extension of an invasion of Manitoba from the west or northwest and
not resulting from insects hatching in that province.

It is probable that most of the grasshopper swarms of Manitoba thus entering the
wooded country were there harmlessly spent, for though some northern swarms reached
the State of Minnesota, the invasion appears to have been comparatively unimportant.
Northern swarts are noted to have passed over Crookston (Polk County, Minnesota)
aud Fort Totten (Dakota), the greatest number appearing at tbe latter place July 19.
The locust swarms described by Mr. Rileyt in the following paragraph, from intorma-
tion furnished to the Chicago Tribune, dated July 13, probably also came from Mani-
toba: “ The first foreign hoppers appeared on the Sivux City Road, alighting between
Lake Crystal and Saint James on Wednesday last. A few days later they were ob-
served at New Ulm flying sontbeast, and at noon of thé same dav struck the line of
the road at Madelina, Saint James, kountain Lake, Windom, and Heron Lake, cover-
ing the track for about 50 miles of its length.” It will be observed on referring to the
summary on another page that the insects produced in Minnesota itself flew southwest
in the early part of July.

I have not been able to trace further the movements of these Manitoba broods, un-
less indeed it be supposed that some at least of the swarms which passed over Central
Illinois early in September came from that quarter. These, however, Mr. Riley be-
lieves not to have been the true migratory locust, C. spretus.

Foreign swarms from the south crossed the forty-ninth parallel with a wide front
stretching from the ninety-eigbth to the one hundred and eighth meridian, and are
quite distinguishable from those produced in the country from the fact that many of
them arrived before the latter were mature. These flights constituted the extreme
northern part of the army returning northward and northwestward from the States
ravaged in the autumn of 1674. They appeared at Fort Ellice on the 13th of June and
at Qu’Appelle Fort on the 17th of the same month, favored much, no doubt, by the
steady south and southeast winds, which, according to the meteorological register at
Winnipeg, prevailed on the 12th of June and for about a week thereafter. After their
first appearance, however, their subsequent progress seems to have been comparatively
slow and their advancing border vcry irregular in outline. They are said to have
reachcd Swan Lake House, the most northern point to which they are known to have
attained, about July 10, while Fort Pelly, farther west,and nearly a degree farther
south, was reached July 20, and about seven days were occupied in the journey thence
to Swan River Barracks, a distance of only 10 miles. It is more than probable that
the first southern swarms were followed by others, which mingled with them, or even,
in parts of Manitoba and the country immediately west of it, with the indigenous
brood. From a few localities only in Manitoba, and those in its western portion, is
the evidence pretty conclusive as to the arrival of foreign swarms from the south.
Burnside, Westbourne, Portage la Prairie, Rockwood, and Pigeon Lake may be men-
tioned as affording instances.

‘

* Not 1867, as erroneously printed in Notes for 1874. :
tl’rom Mr. Charles V. Riley’s very interesting Eighth Annual Report on the Noxious
Beucticial and other Insects of the State of Missouri.

PACKaRD.] NORTHERN RANGE OF THE LOCUST. 607

Many of the grasshoppers. observed, according to reports received by Mr. Riley, in
Dakota, at Fort Thompson, Yankton, Fort Sully, Springfield, Fort Randall, and Bis-
marek flying northward and northwestward at various dates in June and July, no
doubt eventually found their way north of the forty-ninth parallel. Those seen at
Bismarck about June 6 and 7 probably belonged to the earliest sontbern bauds above
referred to, and, judging from the dates given by Mr. Riley, may have been produced
in Nebraska, or more probably even still farther south. A portion of the sonthern and
eastern army’ probably reached Montana,and may even have penetrated in dimin-
isbed numbers into the districts in the vicinity of Bow River.

A considerable number of locusts appear to have hatched at about the same date as
in Manitoba near the extreme western margin of the plains, especially in the country
near Bow River. Foreign swarms arrived at Fort McLeod from the southwest, depos-
iting eggs; and most of those hatching near Bow River, and farther north, seem to
have gone southeastward early in August. No very definite ur wide-spread movement
of swarms appears, however, to have occurred during the summer of 1875 in this
region, nor, if we may judge from the very meager accounts received, in the corre-
sponding portion of Montana.

Duritg the summer of 1875, the conditions described in the Notes for 1274 as occur-
ring in the region west of the one bundred and third meridian were reproduced in
Manitoba, and over a great area of the Western and Southwestern States, with results
even more disastrous to the crops than those of the winged invasion of the previous
year. We do not hear of any access of fresh swarms to Manitoba from the west or
northwest, nor is it probable that any such occurred, notwithstanding the fact that in
various parts of the province flights are reported to have passed over from northwest
to southeast. From the dates and descriptions given, it seems certain that these were
only those from the more remote parts of the province itself, and in many cases the
broods hatched in any locality mingled with those coming from a little distance, and
departed at the same time.

The most remarkable and exceptional feature in connection with the appearance of
the locusts in 1875 is the extensive invasion of the wooded region east of Manitoba by
the swarms produced in the province. This is the more noticeable when contrasted
with the immunity enjoyed by Prince Albert on the Saskatchewan, alluded to in
last year’s Notes, which is owing to its separation from the general area of the
plains by a belt of timber. On writing to Mr. Clarke, of Carleton House, on the
subject, he informs me that this protecting belt of fir-timber is only four miles
in width, and extends completely ‘across between the north and south branches of the
Saskatchewan. Judging from the above remarkable fact, and the known habits of the
locust, I do not think that the incursion made into the forest-country can be looked
upon as anything but exceptional, and perhaps showing that the locusts bad lost their
reckoning. Nor do I believe that it should discourage the cultivation of belts ofwood-
land, which promises to effect in time a general and permanent amelioration of the
grasshopper plague.

Broadly sketched, the movements of the locusts in 1875 conform to a general plan.
All these hatching in Minnesota, Manitoba, Northern Dakota, and in the high western
region of the plains, at least as far south as Colorado, on obtaining their wings, went
southward, and this in some instances regardless of the direction from which their
parents bad arrived in the previous year. Swarms produced in Nebraska, Missouri,
Kansas, Texas, and Indian Territory flew northward and northwestward, returning on
the course of their parents, which had flown southeastward from that quarter. This
movement can be traced over an immense area, from the northern borders of Texas
almost to the Saskatchewan River.

Evidence appears to be fast accumulating to show that the general and normal direc-
tion of flight for any brood is to return toward the bhatching-grouuds from which their
parents came, and it would seem that to complete the migration-cycle of the locust two
years are required. The tendency which the swarms show to migrate on reaching
maturity cannot be wondered at, as it is so commonly met with in other animals, and
may be assisted by the mere lack of food in the district which has for a long time sup-
ported the young locusts. The fact, however—let us call it instinct or knowledge—tbat
the young, while amenable to the migratory tendency, show a determination to exercise
jt in a direction exactly the opposite of the preceding generation is most remaikable

Professor Dawson writes me that, ‘‘during the summer of 1876, the
grasshopper was scarcely seen in Manitoba, and a fine crop was har-
vested all over the province. Manitoba is safe for next summer, unless
invaded. I have reason to believe, however, that during last summer
the locust was very abundant in the far West, on the plains east of the
liocky Mountains, and north of the forty-niuth parallel. With regard
to this region, however, I have only general information.”

Through the kind suggestion of Prof. G. M. Dawson, of the Canadian

G08 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Geological Survey, I have received from Mr. Sanford Fleming, engineer-
in-cbief of the Canadian Pacific Railway, a copy of a “ Map of the
country to be traversed by the Canadian Pacific Railway to accompany
progress-report on the exploratory surveys, 1876; Sanford Fleming,
engineer-in-chief.” On this map the “southern limits of the true forests”
are laid down* on a line running in a general northwest direction from
a little to the eastward of Fort Ellice, in about latitude 54° 30’, longi-
tude 116° 10’.. This line is indicated on the map showing the distribu-
tion of the red-legged locust (0. femur-rubrum). ‘The northern limit of
true prairie-land” is also copied on the same map from Mr. Fleming’s
map. it runsfrom Turtle Mountain on the forty-niuth parallel, a little
east of south of Fort Ellice, and runs in a general parallel course to the
limit of forests, and ends at the Bear Hills, just south of the filty-second
perallel of latitude and in longitude 108°. Professor Dawson writes me
that “no map yet shows even approximately the area of the Pever
liiver Prairies, but these are separated by forests from those to the suuth,
and are never invaded by C. spretus.” This is most important and sat-
isfactory information, and confirms Professor Dawson’s statement as
to the northeastern limits of the lowest area, which are herein already
quoted. It would seem doubtful whether the Rocky Mountain locust
breeds abundantly north of the Little Slave Lake. The data atforded by
this map also confirm me in my indications of the western limits of the
prairie region and temporary and periodical breeding-places of the Rocky
Mountain locust, which probably follows approximazely the meridian of
102°, pursuing a sinuous course indicated by a range of hills put down
on the United States maps, trom which Mr. Bechler has compiled the
maps accompanying this report. The barren plains extend just north
of the forty-ninth parallel as far east as longitude 104°, and this may be
the southeastern limits of the permanent breeding-places of the locust
north of the forty-ninth parailel. :

That the return swarms from Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska may
reach British America is suggested by Mr. Allen Whitman in his report
for 1876:

Whether or not it is a general rule that the locusts on acquiring wings seek the di-
rection from which their parents bad come in the preceding year (a rule which tbe
experience of Minnesota fails to substantiate), it is certain at least that in 1875 ‘the
main direction taken by the insects that rose from the Lower Missouri Valley country
was northwesterly.” (Riley’s Eighth Annual Report, p. 105.) These swarms were
traced by Professor Riley, moving northerly from the end of May through June and
into July, and passing various points in Dakota, Wyoming, and Montana.t

They passed northward over Bismarck at various times between June 6 and July 15.
(Same report, p. 86.) But a still more definite statement as to the final destination of
these northward-moving swarms is found in an editorial of the Winnipeg Stand, of
August 19, 1876, entitled Locust flights.” It is there stated that in 1875, ‘‘ the lo-
custs which hatched in Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska, in an area of 250 miles from
east to west, and 300 miles from north to south, took flight in June, and invariably
went northwest, and fell in innumerable swarms upon the regions of British America,
adjoining Forts Pelly, Carlton, and Ellice, covering an area as large as that they va-
cated on the Missouri River. They were re-enforced by the retiring column from Man-
itoba, and it seemed to be hoping against hope that the new swarms of 1876 would not
again descend upon the settlements in the Red River Valley. Intelligence was received

* Professor Dawson informs me that this is taken from Palliser’s Map, published as
a blue-book by the British government, forming a part of the report on explorations in
British North America.

t He adds (page 108) : ‘Nor can I learn of any instance where these swarms that
left our Territory deposited eggs.” The different case of our own breed of locusts, lay-
ing eggs within two weeks atter flying commences, is remarkable. But I am informed
by Capt. J. S. Poland, commandivg at Standing Rock, that a swarm from the south
alighted near that post July 4, 1875, and deposited considerable quantities of eggs be-
tween the 4:h and the 18th of July.

PACKARD. | THE INVASIONS OF THB LOCUST IN 1876. 609

here that the insects took flight from the vicinity of Fort Pelly on the 10th of July,
and then followed a fortnight of intense suspense.”

There is, of course, in all this a failure to connect by any direct chain
of continued observations the swarms that left the Mississippi Valley in
1875 and those which finally disappeared in the region of the mountains
and in British America ; still less is it shown that those swarms were
the parents of those which are known to have hatched in the same re-
gions in 1876, or even that those which are known to have hatched
there were those which descended upon the lower country in July and
August. But there is, at least, a strong series of probabilities.

THE INVASIONS OF THE LOCUST IN 1876.

Beginning with the southeasternmost point of the locust region—

Texas: I learn from G. W. Belfrage, of Clifton, Bosque County, in a
letter dated December 14, 1876, that the locusts have for ‘two years
made their visits, the first without serious results, the second this fall,
so we cannot yet know what the offspring will do.”

The following extracts from the Monthly Weather Reports give some
idea of their movements: ‘ Flying, at Fort Richardson, Texas, from 14th
to 18th September; Corsicana, Texas, flying south 21st and 22d, west 23d.
On 30th were destroying everything, and depositing millions of eggs.”

In Texas, at Belmont farm, the grasshoppers remained alive all winter,
and were found on wheat February 10 and March 25.

October 3 to 5, numerous at Corsicana; disappeesring about 9th ; abun-
dant at Belmont farm 1st to 9th. ‘In Texas a dense cloud of grass-
hoppers appeared during the last ten days of November.”

** Palo Pinto: The grasshoppers appeared on the 17th of September,
and are as thick as they ever were here, destroying everything as they
go. Uvalde: Appeared September 22, in quantities, arriving from the
north, and causing some alarm. MeZennan; Reached here on the 20th
of September, and have materially damaged the cotton-crop by cutting
otf unripe bolls. Bell: Made their appearance in great numbers about
@ week since, and are destroying all gardens and every sward of grain.
They have cut off the late corn and the young bolls on the late cotton.
Dallas : Have cut short the cotton-crop. Gillespie: The first grasshop-
pers arrived on the 18th of September. Three days later they left, going
west, being driven by an east wind.”—(Agricultural Report, October.)

On applying to Mr. J. Ball, a well-known entomologist residing in
Dallas, Tex., for information regarding the appearance of the ]ocust in that
State, he kindly sent me the Neue Ziircher Zeitung for November 1 and
2, 1876, containing two letters written by him, which I have condensed
as follows: In October, 1874, the locusts appeared in Texas, but were
not one-tenth as abundant as in 1876. At Dallas, at noon September
20, 1876, the air was filled with the first swarm of locusts; by 5 o’clock
in the afternoon none were in the air. Previous to this date up to the
night of the 19th the wind had been south; it changed on the 20th to
the northwest, and this wind brought the locusts in a swarm which must
have been many miles long and broad, and from 1,000 to 2,000 feet high,
as far as the eye could see. At 10 o’clock, September 21, the air was
_ again filled as at noon of the preceding day, the northwest wind still
blowing, and the grasshoppers passed on as the day before, until 4 p. m.
On the 22d the wind veered to the south, and the locusts flew during the
day in large numbers irregularly about, like a swarm of bees. This con-
tinued until noon of the 23d, when a southwest wind bore a large number
to the northwest. Until the 27th they remained engaged in egg-laying,

3948

610 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

They laid their eggs in an unbroken, somewhat sandy soil, in little pock-
ets buried several lines deep. Mr. Ball counted several hundred holes
in a square foot of soil. They did not lay in cultivated, plowed land,
and should they do so, plowing would be suflicient to destroy almost
all the eggs. From the observations he made, Mr. Ball concludes that
this great plague will diminish as the cultivation of the soil increases,
and will finally be abated, as in Germany the locust invasions are much
less numerous than formerly. ‘

At Fort Gibson, Indian Territory, they appeared September 16 to 28.
North of Texas, in Arkansas, Kansas, Missouri, according to the
Monthly Weather Review, August 6, grasshoppers appeared at La-
mar’s, Nodaway County ; Oregon, Mo., flying north 1st; northwest 2d,
4th, 6th; south 11th and 19th; northwest 22d ; southwest 23d and 25th;
and south 26th. For other details the reader is referred to Riley’s
Ninth Report, as State entomologist of Missouri), and Minnesota, as well
as lowa, according to the Monthly Weather Review, the locust ap-
peared late in summer and laid their eggs, which will hatch out in
greater or less numbers in the spring of 1877.

THE LOCUST IN NEBRASKA IN 1876.

How they swarmed in Nebraska last autumn may be seen from the
following extract from a correspondent of the New York Tribune:

The grasshoppers are here. They have come to stay, and are busy perpetuating
their species. Early in August they reached the western portions of this State, but
were partial in their depredations, devouring everything in some localities, doing little
damage in others. On the 12th of the month they made a forward movement, and
appeared in the valleys of the Elkhorn, Platte,and Republican. Our local papers, act-
ing on the “ ostrich” policy, suppressed the facts or misrepresented them, and all were
wishing for a favorable wind to carry the pests beyond our borders. Buta soft, south-
erly wind, varied by an occasional thunder-storm from the northwest, prevailed till
the 23d, when, aided by a stiff northwester, the grasshoppers rose and came from their
exhausted feeding-grounds upon the east and south portions of the State. They came
literally in clouds, looking like the frost-clouds that drift along the horizon on a win-
ter morning. They are devouring “every green thing,” including shade-trees and
even weeds, such as the “ Jamestown weed” and wild hemp. The great body of thein
seemed to pass south, moving in dense masses during the 23d, 24th, and 25th, and will
probably be beard from in Kansas and Missouri. I have suffered a total destruction of
60 acres of corn, as fine as I ever raised. The amount of damage in Nebraska is hard
to determine. The small grain was harvested; corn and vegetables alone suffer.
Taking into consideration the fact that we always overestimate a standing crop of
corn, and are disposed to underestimate our losses, I think we shall be fortunate if
the corn realizes one-third the anticipated yield. A few words upon the “ parasite ”
delusion. The grasshoppers last year were to a great extent infested with the coral-
like insects, but my conviction is that they are no more fatal to them than fleas are to
a dog. This season I have failed to find any “parasites.” At present no natural en-
emy appears to interfere with the festive progress of the locust through this fertile
region. Many have concluded, and I am one of them, that for the present the locust
is an “incident” to this locality, the solitary ‘ drawback” to our enviable lot, which
can be obviated in part by new methods of farming, but which can be altogether re-
moved only by one of these unexplained and beneficent interpositions of Nature by
which certain species are occasionally overwhelmed with destruction, and appear
again only after a lapse of years. Warned by Mr. Riley’s example, I will venture no
prediction as to next year, but present indications are that our small grain will suffer
early next summer, when the eggs now being deposited are hatched, but that the late
corn will be unmolested, in consequence of the flight of the new brood to their natural
home in the Northwest.

Another correspondent, Mrs. C. L. Nettleton, of Red Willow County,
Nebraska, writes as follows to the New York Tribune:

Locust prospects is a subject of much anxious thought with us, and Iam tempted
to write of our experiences in this valley of the Republican River. I trust that efforts
to secure a thorough investigation and abatement of the pest may be successful. It

PACKARD. ] THE LOCUST IN NEBRASKA IN 1876. 611

seems to me a matter of national importance, as settlements must retrograde unless
the locusts are checked. They came down upon us July 26-27, doing much damage,
but left without consuming everything. August 5 they re-appeared in great numbers,
looking in the distance like great clouds of smoke. Nearer and over our heads the
air appeared t» be filled with snow-flakes. Locusts were around, on us, and on every-
thing, literally “covered the face of the earth.” They began to come about 4 p. m.,
and the next day they had our fine field of corn stripped. It was like resisting fate
to fight them. We tried smoking them, covered vines and portions of our garden
with hay and blankets, giving the insignificant creatures a sort of hand-to-hand fight,
in which they won by sheer force of numbers, and made us glad to retreat into the
house. They brought with them an omnivorous appetite, eating things which they
passed by in 1874—vines of melon, cucumber, squash, pumpkin, é&c.

They took our tomatoes, potato-tops, indeed all our garden. They ate our straw-
berry-plants and young fruit-trees; also, our few flowers. Not content with such a
yaried bill of fare, they forced their way into the house and ate the house-plants.
They staid with us five days, until they had ended their large meal by finishing up
everything. Then while we were planning to catch them and barrel them up to fat-
ten our poultry and swine, a friendly (?) northwest wind carried them off. Owing to
the drought the small grain was a failure; the locust harvested the remaining crops,
leaving the farmer no reward for his toil. They have visited the country every year
since the settlers have come in, but only in 1874 and 1876 doing serious injury. They
have been by far the most numerous this year. It has been an extremely hot, dry
season, the prevailing wind south, often hot as from a furnace, and undoubtedly the
unusual season has had much to do with the unusual numbers of the locust. Farmers —
with their crops harvested are like Othello with his occupation gone. Many have lost
faith in the country and are leaving in “‘ prairie schooners.” We are about 70 miles
from the Union Pacific Railroad. Some turn toward the setting sun, others south-
ward, and others still go, they scarcely know where, in search of employment. It
seems like a “‘sorry” going off to seek one’s fortune—a journey in which a supply of
hope and enthusiasm is needed.

According to the Monthly Weather Review, grasshoppers were seen
at Richmond, Nebr., flying north on July 2 and 3, and flying with the
wind 26th, 27th, 29th, 30th and 31st. August 5, at North Platte, Lincoln
County, entire corn-crop destroyed, and in Dawson County one-fourth
of crop destroyed ; came from Dawson County to Buffalo County. 10th,
Clear Creek, flying southwest; 11th, northwest; arrived in immense
numbers 18th, and remained rest of month. 11th, alighted in immense
numbers at Fremont, Dodge County, and commencedinthe corn; country
near Elm Creek, Buffalo County, cleaned out; column moving in a north-
west, direction, not many miles wide. 12th, very thick at Columbus,
Platte County; came down the valley from North Platte, doing but
littledamage. At Grand Island, Hall County, losssmall. 13th to 26th,
at Omaha, numerous at times, flying in all directions. 18th to 31st, at
De Soto. 23d, at Lincoln, Lancaster County, in vast numbers, but not
sO humerous aS in 1874; passing south and southeast in clouds; corn
considerably damaged. 24th to 31st, at Plattsmouth. 25th, in York
County; have left nothing but harvested grain. Plattsmouth, flying
about, September 1 to 15. Richmond, flying north 4th and 6th, north-
east 20th, northwest 21st. York: The grasshoppers have called on us
again. They came down August 10, from the northeast, and staid two
weeks toa day. August 24 they left, going southeast. They have eaten
almost everything green, destroying all garden-vegetables and taking
the leaves off the trees. The fruit-trees, such as apple, cherry, and
plum, are leafing and blossoming again. The plum-trees have ripe
fruit and blossoms, which is something I never heard of before. Jurnas:
Came down in dense clouds from the northeast, so thick as to darken
the sun, having the appearance of vast clouds of smoke. Nothing of
the kind has equaled this raid since the earliest history of the country.
Some have laid eggs. We are compelled, as in 1874, to note an almost
total destruction of corn and all late vegetables. nox: Entirely de-
stroyed the corn and garden products and the oats so badly that many
fields were not reaped. Osage: Came August 24, and are still here.

612 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Have taken potatoes, buckwheat, and beans clean; have injured corn
about 15 per cent. and are still at work on it. Have deposited eggs in
great quantities. They incline to travel southeast, but the wind is
against them. Owming: Came from Dakota August 4, staid about ten
days, injured late corn and potatoes, beans, gardens, &c.; deposited many
eggs, and have nearly all gone southward. Insects will destroy their
eggs, and birds, quails, and prairie-chickens will eat their young when
quite small in untold millions. In their matured state nothing can
successfully cope with them save quails, prairie-chickens, and other
insectivorous birds. Dodge: Swept down upon us from the great north-
west August 10, bringing terror to the hearts of our people. They re-
mained about two weeks and deposited eggs in immense numbers.
Hops were entirely destroyed; fruit-trees are stripped of their leaves,
and in some sections of the new growth of bark. But half the corn is
left. Webster: Injured corn slightly. Franklin: Damaged corn 50 per
cent. Have now all gone southwest. Adams: Have taken about half
the corn and injured young trees 50 per cent. Saunders: have re-ap-
peared since the last report. Corn, potatoes, and sorghum have been
largely damaged ; tobacco, buckwheat, and beans have been wholly and
gardens mainly destroyed, and the earth is filled with eggs. Seward:
Came from the north in immense quantities. They fed upon the corn
and cultivated grapes, and destroyed 80 per cent. of the buckwheat. A
few linger still in the south part of the county, traveling southwest.
Thayer: Alighted about a week ago. Have injured corn very badly,
and taken all the garden products. Boone: Came in large numbers
August 3. Have destroyed all buckwheat, beans, and late corn; stripped
the foliage from all young trees, and killed young fruit-trees. They
staid about three weeks; have all gone south. Lancaster: Are eating
everything. Platte: In their flight south visited our county on the 10th
of August, and in consequence of adverse winds remained two weeks.
They entirely ruined late corn, made general havoc of vegetables, and
filled our land with eggs. Wayne: Alighted and commenced work
August 6 and 10. Injured late corn 25 per cent., potatoes slightly ;
deposited their eggs, and left August 13. Antelope: Came from the
north, August 5, in countless numbers, and swept late corn, buck-
wheat, potatoes and beans clean. Richardson; First appeared yesterday,
August 30, in small numbers from the northwest. Merrick: Crops
promising up to 10th of August, when the grasshoppers came with the
wind from the north. The next day the wind changed, and continued
rather strong from the south for a week. The hoppers had to stay on
the ground and could not do much damage. On the 18th, the wind |
being from the northeast, they left, but toward evening a lot more came.
On the 24th, dll left for the south. Buckwheat, late beans, garden-vege-
tables, late potatoes, &c., are all a total loss. On the 17th some deposited
eggs where the ground was bare. Hall: Large swarms appeared from
the northwest August 10 at noon. Commenced depositing eggs on the
13th and 14th; on the 14th some left; still larger masses came in their
stead, mostly from the northeast. Farmers generally tried to smoke
them out, but most abandoned the effort after the third day. I protected
my garden for ten days, but from the 11th to the 13th they piled in on
me so fearfully that I could not keep them from stripping nearly every
tree of its foliage. They have eaten about one-third of the apples and
half the early with all the late corn. Ou the 23d and 24th they left in
a southern direction, the wind being from the northwest.—(Monthly
Agricultural Report, August and September, 1876.)

I have also the following notes on its appearance in Nebraska from

,

"pack arp.) . THE LOCUST IN NEBRASKA IN 18%, 613

Mr. G. F. Dodge, of Glencoe, Nebr. . As Mr. Dodge is an entomologist,
his testimony is of increased value:

GLENCOE, NEBR., February 4, 1877.
Dear SIR:
* f s * s * *

Since I have been here I have given more attention to the Caloptenus epreius than
to all other insects together. The result of my observations has been that I have
formed a theory of the cause ofimmigration of this insect, which differs radically from
any yet put forth. My record of the insect’s visitations runs like this:

In 1873, C. spretus came from the south in May; remained a week or ten days; deposited
eggs in large quantity at this place. Icame here August 7; the insects had then about
all attained their wings. During their growth they had done much damage to crops,
destroying all the oats and corn where they were abundant. The insects did not move
until August 16, when the wind, which had been from the south continuously during
the month, veered round into the northwest. They arose about noon, and all left.
Others flew over, going south from that time until cold weather. Some eggs were de-
posited in the fall.

In 1874, a few came from the southwest May 30, but only a few. May 10 the eggs
laid the fall before were hatching. They pupated about June 1, became imagines
about June 20, and went south with northerly winds June 30. July 23 immense swarm
alighted, coming from the northeast July 23; staid three days, and went south. I saw
no eggsdeposited. Others went south in August, September, and October as usual.

In 1875, they arrived in small quantity from southwest May 12; could be seen flying
north.whenever we had a south wind, but especially on and after June16. On that
date myriads came from the southeast, staid one night, and, the wind continuing fa-
_ yorable, went on in a northwesterly course. June 29 I first saw hoppers flying south.
After that they could be seen flying either north er south, as the wind might be, until
the 10th of July, after which date they only appeared in the air when the wind came
from the north.

In 1876, a very few came from the southwest May 14; saw some depositing eggs
about May 30. August 10 an immense swarm came from the northwest and staid a
week. The day they departed the wind began to blow from the northwest, changed
to north, and finally to northeast. The air was full of the hoppers all day. They
always changed their course to go with the wind. They left the ground full of
eggs. In these the embryo was formed at least a month before the ground froze. By
bringing eggs to the house and putting them ina warm place I have hatched them in
seven days. Some of the same that were not kept so warm, but merely kept from frost
and in the sun, have lain three weeks and do not hatch.

I think the above notes substantiate my position, which is that spretus is double
brooded, rearing the first brood in the south, the second in the north; and that it wi-
grates for this purpose, and not from hunger, as Riley asserts. I believe also that they
are natives of the plains, and will always overrun this part of the country when a north
or southwest wind drives them a little off their true north and south course during their
period of migration. I do not believe that they are more liable to attacks of parasites
here than elsewhere, and, indeed, think it not improbable that their present rate of in-
crease is due to their having found more nutritious food in the cereals upon which they
have fed for a few years past than they have known in the prairie-grass. A parallel
case is that of the Doryphora 10-lineata, which increased with such rapidity upon the
cultivated crops of the East.

In the Rocky Mountains this grasshopper follows the same plan of migration with the
first favorable wind after they get wings, as I have observed here. They were abun-
dant in Montana this year, and at my request an intelligent miner took notes of their
habits, which he has transmitted to me. My observations show that as a rule all ob-
taining wings prior to June 20 will fly north; those becoming imagines after that date
will fly south. This date might vary as the spring was late or early.

* * * * *
Hoping to make myself useful next season, I remain, yours, truly,
G. M. DODGE.

The following statement regarding the appearance of the locust, in
Buffalo County, Nebraska, and the theory of its northwest origin, are
worthy of preservation in this Report:

BUFFALO County, NEBRASKA, August 8, 1876.
Epitors CouNTRY GENTLEMAN: The all-prevailing theme, the all-absorbing topic
on all oceasions, is the grasshoppers. Their devastation in almost the entire portion
of Western Nebraska is not only general but terrible. Their numbers are almost as
countless as the sands on the sea-shore; their powers of destruction seem to exceed

614 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

that of the race that visited us in 1874 by fourfold. Now they are eating every green
thing—the leaves from the trees, the grass in the ravines, the forest-trees along the
Loup and Wood Rivers, corn, potatoes, tomatoes, everything. Our corn-fields to-day
present the appearance of so many acres of naked bean-poles. They have covered the
city of Kearney all over; in the houses; on the sidewalks ; they even inspect the fine
store-rooms of our dry-goods and grocery men; in fact I do not believe there isa
square inch of territory in Buffalo County that has not been searched by these marand-
ers. The first indication of their approach was on Friday, July 28. Almost from the
first we saw they were an entirely new generation. They had huge appetites, and at
once proceeded to find the sweetest and tenderest ears of corn in our fields. They
poked their hoses head downward, tail upward, into the very heart of our small cab-
bages. They almost dug up our onions by the roots. They ate up our melon-vines
and then partook greedily of the unripe fruit. The wind remained in the south from
July 28 till August 5, when about noon it suddenly changed to north-northeast. In less
than twenty minutes, every hopper of this advanced guard wended their way south-
ward. How happy we were! Vaindelusion. At4 p.m. the east, the north, the west,
presented the appearance of dense clouds of smoke, like that of burning prairies. We
saw it full 20 miles away. We gazed in wonder. The clouds approached, the air
swarmed with hoppers. We could hear the sound of their wings. They were so close
together, so dense, that they darkened the sun similar to an eclipse at midday. The
first cloud passed. At 5 p. m. another, more dense, more terrible, more numerous
passed over head, leaving a few stragglers to search for something to stay their stom-
achs. We thought by this time, surely the army had passed, but about 6 p. m. another
writhing, moving mass was seen approaching. On its arrival just over our heads,
down they came, like huge flakes of snow, so thick that the ground was in many
places invisible. Here they remained till the next morning, scattered over the prairies.
About 9 a. m. they began gathering in endless swarms into our corn-fields, and by 1 p.
m. every leaf, ear, and in many places the stalks, were eaten, digested, and part of the -
army on their way southwest to hunt for and despoil new fields. About this time the
wind changed to southeast, then veered to the south, and from that time until this
writing (Tuesday evening, August 8) the hoppers are with us supping, as a last resort,
on purslane, tumble-weeds, and even thistles. They will undoubtedly remain in this
section until the wind changes again into the north. So much for the appearance of
and destruction caused by these foes of the agriculturist. We see our entire season’s
work, except one-third of the crop of wheat, melt away almost in a moment, and we
are helpless. ‘
The query in my mind, as well as in the minds of many of my suffering neighbors,
is where these hoppers come from. In carefully watching their progress two years
ago, as well as this season, I am satisfied in my own mind that there is a slope of coun-
try to the north or northwest of Minnesota, in the British possessions, where these in-
sects are indigenous; that in extremely dry seasons, like the present, the eggs depos-
ited last fall hatch in such endless quantities that the locusts are forced to migrate ;
while in extremely wet springs, with heavy falls of snow or late frosts, in the terri-
tory where they originate, many of the infant progeny are destroyed. In July, 1874
vast numbers, it will be remembered, descended and spread over almost the entire ter-
ritory west of the Missouri River. They deposited eggs in Kansas and Missouri, and
in the spring of 1875, caused wide destruction in the southeast part of this State, the
northeast part of Kansas and the northwest part of Missouri. This progeny seems to
have been annihilated—various influences during the summer of 1875 causing them
to be without the power of propagating their species. Now this season (1876), if I
am not mistaken, an entire new generation can be traced from the Red River coun-
try of the north, through Western Minnesota, Southwestern Dakota, thus far into
Western Nebraska. If I am.correct in these observations, then, whenever our springs
are dry, with but little snow or rain during the winter, followed by dry weather in June
and July, we-may expect grasshoppers in just such endless quantities as we have
seen twice during the past four years. Whenever the winter, spring, and summer are
just the opposite of the foregoing, then we will be comparatively free from these pests
and our crops plenteous. I am satisfied in my own mind on the above points; and I
believe further that the territory wherein these insects are indigenous, is not so large
as to be beyond the control of a power, with a purse long enough to procure the neces-
sary labor, to work the destruction of young locusts and eggs before they can make
such descents upon us. Only the strong arm of Government, however, can wield this
power; and sooner or later it must intervene, or this entire western territory, with its
riches lying beneath the grassy sod, must be abandoned for all agricultural purposes.
Our corn, potatoes, and all our vegetable crops have already disappeared. ste | of
our wheat-fields were not cut at all; others yield all the way from two to twenty bushels
per acre, according to location. There is asa general thing south of the Platte River
a very large crop of small grain, which has been harvested, while the corn, potatoes,
and vegetables are fine as they were last season. North of the Platte, throughout a
portion of Hall County, all of Buffalo and Dawson Counties, the drought has been

PACKARD. | THE LOCUST IN KANSAS IN 1876, 615

severe and continuous since the last of March. We have had a few showers; but,
except immediately along Platte River, these showers have rarely been of length
enough to wet the ground more than to the depth of one inch. I may say, I think,
with perfect safety, that for two years past we have not bad rain enough to saturate
the ground to the depth of 3 feet, while the fall of snow in the winter season has been
very light. In this connection it should be remembered that in digging wells we find
the soil dry as an ash-heap, almost from the top of the ground to the water-line on a
level with low water in our rivers, or on the divides to a depth of sometimes 140 to 60
feet. It will be easy to understand the effect of continual dry weather upon our crops
and pockets.

I do not think that any of my near neighbors will complain or take me to task if I
again say that a poor man with a family, and but little means, should think twice be-
Jore attempting to make a home especially in Western Nebraska, for by the time this
is in print no less than eight out of twelve families living near to the north and west
of me will be on the way to Iowa and Missouri—some having already departed for
the Pacific slope. Some are selling their claims and all their stock for less than half
their value, while others are leaving their claims to hoppers, and to settlers desiring
to try their luck. Many of my readers may think over in their minds the old adage
that a “rolling stone gathers no moss,” but permit me to ask a question: How much
moss can a stone gather when visited continuously by drought, bugs, and hoppers?

Generally speaking, you can rarely find a more energetic race of men, both English
and German, than those who are leaving us now. Some of them came here with money.
They have sunk it all in their farms, in efforts to live and make a living, only to see
it allswept away in a day. There seems at present to be no remedy except stock-
raising, and this cannot be done in this country without capital. To commence with
a cow or two, and live, clothe a family and school them, is almost an impossibility.
One of my neighbors declares that he ‘‘ will not live in a country where he has got to
die in debt to his stomach.” | te

THE LOCUST IN KANSAS IN 1876.

In Kansas the locust visitation was less formidable and did not ex-
tend so far east as in 1875, as may be seen by the following letter of
Professor Snow, dated University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans., October
4, 1876:

Your postal card reached me upon my return from Colorado, and I have delayed
replying to your inquiries because I wanted to know what the locust was going to
do for us before writing about him. I came through Kansas from Colorado (Denver)
on the 5th and 6th September. Caloptenus spretus at that time extended about 100 miles
east of the mountains, last of which point no trace of it was to be seen during daylight
on the 5th. Next morning we struck locusts in small numbers at Brookville (Saline
County), 180 miles west of Kansas City; in full force at Salina, 12 miles farther east;
and found the east front of this line 4 miles west of Abilene, in Dickinson County, and
about 150 miles west of Kansas City. Observing and inquiring at the stations in this
30-mile belt, I invariably learned that the flight of the locust was from the north and
not from the west as two years ago (in 1874),

Four weeks have now passed and the locust has not yet reached Lawrence, its eastern
line being about 20 miles west of Lawrence, only about 100 miles farther east than it
was four weeks ago. This eastern line extends across the State from north to south,
the entire State west of this line having been visited. ‘In many places the pest has
come in immense numbers, while in many other places there has been but a light
sprinkling. Little damage has been done thus far, almost none at all in comparison
with two years ago, it being so late in the season that the crops of this year were
secure. The fall-wheat, however, has been very generally eaten down, but has come
up again when drilled after the departure of the hordes which remain but a few days .
ina place. Wheat sown broadcast has been generally killed, having been eaten down
to the kernel. The great danger to be feared now is the spring-hatching of the eggs
which have been deposited in varying abundance in the eastern part of the region
visited. It is agreed on all hands that the present visitation is far less numerous than
two years ago. The locusts are everywhere reported to be heavily parasitized by the
red mite and the Tachina fly. Can it be that these hordes are the “spring-hatch”
from Iowa, Minnesota, and Wyoming? While in the South Park in July, [found great
numbers of young spretus along the streams from the mountain-sides. When on the
summit of Pike’s Peak July 28 and 29, the winged results were flying due east as high

up in the air as the eye could reach. They did not descend upon us at Manitou until
the 12th of August.

616 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

We quote also from the Monthly Weather Review :

Near Dodge City, April 30, the ground was thickly covered with the young, August
22 to 31, Dodge City, numerous and very destructive, causing entire loss of crops in
many sections; 24th, Ellenwood, came from north and northeast; 29th, southwest;
31st, northeast and west. Fort Wallace, flying southwest 19th, north 23d, settling
24th ; 31st, Atlanta, came in large numbers, injured fall-wheat, late corn, and gardens;
also flying southeast. In September, Dodge City, abundant, flying north 2d and 4th,
east 8th and 9th; less abundant 6th and 7th. In October they were reported “ nu-
merous and destructive at times during the month at Le Roy and Baxter Springs;
reported nearly all gone at Creswell, 19th, and Council Grove 31st. In November

asshoppers were killed on the 14th by the snow-fall. Brown: The grasshoppers

ave destroyed about all the wheat, rye, and timothy that have come up, and will
doubtless destroy all that has been sowed. The farmers have stopped sowing, owing
to their presence. Sedgwick: The grasshoppers alighted on the 1st of September, not
in such numbers as two years ago, but enough to eat all the young wheat and rye as
fast as it appears. Many of the farmers-are still sowing wheat. Bourbon: The grass-
hoppers appeared on the 28th of September, and are eating the wheat clean as they go.
Cowley: The grasshoppers have taken all the early-sown wheat and rye, and they are
still with us. They keep us from sowing wheat. Douglas: Owing to the prospect of
another grasshopper raid but little wheat was sown until within two weeks. The
early-sown looks fine, Woodson: Grasshoppers came on the 9th of September by the
million, and have destroyed all the early-sown grain. Chase: The grasshoppers came
September 9, and the wheat that had been sown is all destroyed. Lyon: The fall sow-
ing of wheat and rye has all been devoured by the grasshoppers. Osage: On the 9th,
10th, and 11th of September the wind from the northwest brought billions of grass-
hoppers, and consequently all the small grain is a total loss. Meno: The farmers are
still busy in sowing wheat; some ground is being planted for the third time; only
about half the area will be sown that would have been if the grasshoppers had not
come; all the early-sown was entirely killed. Shawnee: The grasshoppers have eaten
about half of the wheat and rye sown ; the farmers are sowing their grains over again.
Washington: The farmers are now busy in sowing fall-grain ; we do not fear the grass-
hoppers in the spring, for the farmers will plow all they can this fall and winter, with
the expectation of killing the grasshoppers in the egg. Saline: All wheat sown before
the grasshoppers came has been destroyed by them. Some farmers have lost 200 acres,
and one has lost 1,200. Mitchell: Came from the north, the wind being from that
direction, August 23. Began to come down at 9 in the morning, and by night the
ground was literally covered with them. They commence to go into the crops as soon
as the sun goes down, on the south and west sides of the field. They are eating the
blades off the corn, which is loaded with them, and the leaves off the trees. Early
corn is now quite hard and will not be seriously injured. Pawnee: Made their appear-
ance August 24, coming from the northwest. Most of them passed over, but a few
alighted, owing to the changing of the wind to the south. Corn is too far advanced
to be injured, and they are not doing much harm except to gardens. Washington :
Visited us August 24, at 11 o’clock in the morning, coming from the northwest. So
far they have alighted on about half of the county. They are stripping the blades
from the corn, but appear to pay more attention to the process of incubation than to
feeding. The prevalence of a south wind has kept them here until to-day (August 31).
The north wind is now blowing, and they are filling the air by the million, passing
rapidly to the northwest. They have deposited no eggs, and done little damage.
£llis: A visitation from grasshoppers last week ruined the late corn, and injured all
somewhat. eno: Commenced to alight August 31, at 11 in the morning, and are
eating everything green. At 2 p. m. to-day, September 1, many of them flew away.
They have almost ruined the late crops, especially corn. Norton: Have ruined the
corn-crops. Barton: Appeared August 24 from the north in vast swarms, and have
destroyed all late corn and potatoes, beans, turnips, &c., and the wheat that was up.
To-day, August 31, with a strong north wind, they are going south. They have made
no deposit of eggs. Graham: Descended in clouds and remained five days, destroying
our corn, buckwheat, turnips, and gardens. Rice: Have returned for the last week
in as great numbers as two years ago. The corn, except the late-sod corn, which
they have riddled, was out of their way. They have mostly left. Republic: Filled
the air August 24, when corn-fields were ravaged and gardens disappeared in an after-
noon. We have the assurance that we shall raise our own grasshoppers next year, for
initiatory steps are being taken to give us a large supply. Butler: On the last day of
August I was in Wichita, Sedgwick County. About 4 o’clock p. m., a very large col-
umn of grasshoppers passed over. In their flight they made a noise like the rattling
of a train of cars. I do not know how far the column extended west, but it extended
more than twelve miles east of Wichita. Their flight was toward the south. Although
the main part passed over, enough stragglers were left in the valley of the Arkansas
to eat every vestige of green wheat as fast as it came out of the ground. Some few
appeared as far east as El Dorado, but no damage worthy of mention has yet been
done in Butler County.—(Monthly Agricultural Report.)

PACKARD.) THE LOCUST IN IOWA. AND- MINNESOTA IN 1876. 617

THE LOCUST IN IOWA IN 1876.

In Iowa, Governor Kirkwood states that “ the eggs have been laid in
large quantities this season in a wide areaof the western portion of the
State, and the fear was expressed that they might come another season
in swarms. In Northwestern Iowa the people are very careful to pre-
serve the prairies from burning this fall, so that they may destroy the
young in the spring.” (Proceedings conference of governors, etc.)
Concerning the grasshopper invasion of 1876, I extract the following
data from the Monthly Weather Review, August 6: “Appeared at Storm
Lake, Cherokee, and Sioux City, column extending to Lower Dakota and
_ Lamar’s, Mo.; at Fonda, Pocahontas County, damage slight; 25th
at Unionville, Appanoose Oounty, tlyips in large clouds at a high eleva-
tion, and Des Moines, Polk County, flying toward the Missouri in im-
mense numbers. None have yet alighted in Central lowa.” Crawford:
Injured corn 33 per cent. Clay: Have nearly ruined our crops. Har-
rison; Made their appearance on the 17th of August; reduced an extra
corn-crop to an average; destroyed buckwheat and gardens ; are injur-
ing fruit and depositing their eggs over the whole country. Humboldt:
Have injured corn and nearly ruined buckwheat and beans. Calhoun:
Have trimmed around corn-fields and so injured buckwheat that it will
not be cut. Cherokee: Came witha north wind, on the 6th of August ;
staid two weeks, and have deposited eggs to some extent; they damaged
wheat slightly and a very heavy corn-crop at least 25 per cent. Sioux:
Reduced corn to 40, wheat and barley to 70, oats to 80, and potatoes to
10. Greene; Swarm of grasshoppers are destroying the country. ont-
gomery: Came August 25; have done no injury as yet, except ina few
gardens. They seem uneasy, as if they desired toleave. The wind has
only been favorable for them one day since their arrival. Audubon:
Came in clouds on the 24th of August; are doing some damage on the
corn and filling the ground with eggs. Guthrie: Coming on us during
the last week by millions; looks as if they intended to stay with us, and
if they do, our crops will suffer greatly. Pottawattamie: Made their ap-
pearance in strong force on the 23d of August; have done considerable
damage, and are laying eggs in large quantities. Pocahontas: Have
come and gone again without doing much damage, except to gardens.
Sac: Thered-legged grasshoppers came about the 15th of Augustin such
numbers as to materially injure our growing crops.—(Monthly Agricul-
tural Report, August and September, 1876.)

‘““The Hamilton (Iowa) Freeman states that a gentleman, on examin-
ing the ground on which the insects had deposited their eggs, found 52
deposits in 4 square inches, or 13 perinch. The eggs in each deposit
varied between 17 and 34, averaging about 25 to the cocoon. . If these
all hatched there would be 325 grasshoppers on each squareinch. But
most of the eggs were addled by the warm weather subsequent to their
deposit. It is proposed to destroy them by burning over the prairies.
In Woodbury, Iowa, the insects greatly injured the potato crop.”—
(Monthly Agricultural Report, November and December.)

THE LOCUST IN MINNESOTA IN 1876.

In Minnesota the eggs hatched out at Breckenridge May 23. In
June the grasshoppers were infested by a “red-fly parasite,” mite. In
July, numerous at Breckenridge, 10th, 11th, and 12th; left, going
southeast, 13th; appeared again 19th and 23d. In August, Brecken-
ridge, swarms seen on Ist; very destructive 3d; flying and depositing

618 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

eggs 6th to 12th; in the western counties, wheat, corn, oats, and bar-
ley have suffered severely. In September, Breckenridge, Minn., fly-
ing south, 26th. Jackson: Are here yet; it isa hard matter to estimate
the damages done by them. Meeker; Will injure the wheat in a few
places. Nicollet: Are destroying the crops and depositing their eggs.
Nobles: Came upon us just as the earliest grains were ready to harvest;
wheat, corn, and timothy are very badly damaged, and other crops
totally destroyed. They have laid eggs for a crop next year. Pope:
The prospect of uncommonly good crops was very fine until about two
weeks ago, when the grasshopperscame. Though they did incaleulablein-
jury, yet they did not stay long enough to effecta total destruction of crops.
The air was filled with the pest, clouding the sun. They didnotseem to
design utter destruction of vegetation, but rather to leave their progeny.
Eggs were laid all over the region. This work done, they rose on favor-
ing winds and went southeast. Their stay on an average was about one
week—in some places only fourdays; inothersten. Kedwood: Damaged
all the crops; the vines of beans and potatoes have been almost wholly
eaten up and the foliage of fruit and certain forest-trees almost wholly
stripped off. Sibley: In eight townships the crops have suffered se-
verely from grasshoppers. Stearns: The advance-guard came on the
22d of July; the main army appeared the next day about 11 a. m., and
by 4p. m. every bush, flower, tree, shrub, fence, and field was literally
covered with them. They are still with us and are depositing their
eggs. Stevens: There would have been a full average of all crops, and
perhaps more, had not the grasshoppers visited this county. Todd: The
grasshoppers struck us the 19th of July, and have destroyed at least 67
per cent. of the crops of this county. As near as I can find out, the
column is about 17 miles wide. They came in from. the west by north.
One of the finest crops we have had for ten or twelve years is destroyed.
There is barely enough left to pay for reaping. Yesterday I cut barley
that should have yielded 58 bushels per acre, and I will seareely get 5.
The heads are cut off and lying on the ground. Watonwan: Have de-
stroyed the wheat-crops of the county. Yellow Medicine: In the coun-
ties Renville, Chippewa, and Swift, and parts of Kandiyohi and Yellow
Medicine oats and barley are a complete failure on account of the grass-
hoppers. Blue Harth: The western towns are alive with grasshoppers,
but they have come rather late to seriously injure wheat or oats. JMe-
Leod: Came from the northeast about the middle of July, and spread
nearly over the whole county; have injured oats, barley, and late corn
considerably and wheat to some extent, and have deposited many eggs.
Some are reported as hatching and others as being destroyed by a worm
or insect, but millions apparently will be left to hatch next spring.
Yellow Medicine: Grasshoppers and dry weather have nearly ruined the
corn crop and taken nearly all the oats. Half of the State is covered
with grasshoppers. Redwood: Grasshoppers and drought have de-
stroyed the crops this year more than ever before. Swift: Have done
a great deal of damage ; they commenced depredations about the dth of
July; there have been three or four swarms; they are now mostly gone,
but have left their eggs in great numbers. Faribault: Injured corn 10
per cent., potatoes 50 per cent., and nearly destroyed beans. About the
15th of August they lit down on us from the northwest in countless
numbers. They were about eight days in passing over the county and
seeding it with eggs to such an extent as to destroy all hopes of crops
for the coming year. Meeker; Destroyed nearly all the beans. Nicollet:
Came with the wind from the north and west, and went south and west.
Of cereals they cut the oats most; destroyed much of the corn and po-

PACKARD.] THE LOCUST IN MINNESOTA IN 1876, 619

tatoes and garden stuff. They have been depositing their eggs for the
last two months. Brown: Reduced corn, wheat, and rye to 25; oats,
barley, and buckwheat to 10. Blue Earth: Injured the corn somewhat
and ruined beans. The countysis literally filled with their eggs.. Some
of the eggs are being eaten by a small worm or maggot and some by a
smallred bug. Nobles: A small amount of corn and wheat escaped the
grasshoppers; other crops are almost a total loss. Stevens: Have cut
down our crops fearfully within the past month. Todd: Areall over the
county; there is scarcely a foot of prairie or timber land on which eggs
cannot be found. Stearns: Overrun the county and deposited millions
of eggs. Rock: Everything was favorable for excessive crops when the
grasshoppers came. They reduced wheat 30 per cent.; corn and oats
67; potatoes 75, and ruined beans.—(Monthly Agricultural Report,
August and September, 1876.)

Further particulars regarding the locust invasions of Minnesota I
extract and condense from a valuable “ Report on the Rocky Mountain
locust for 1876,” by Allen Whitman:

Contrary to what was stated by Mr. A.S. Taylor, there was no locust invasion of
Minnesota in 1855, tut “late in July, 1856, invading swarms came from the northwest
into the Upper Mississ ppi Valley, anu gradually spread along the river during theseason,
much the same as they have done in the past summer [1876], and reaching nearly
the same limits.” * * * Again, in 1864, swarms appeared early in July, along the
Upper Minnesota River, and spread eastward gradually during the season, and reached
about as far east as in 1874, 7. e., to the third tier of towns in Le Sueur County. Scat-
tering swarms also visited Manitoba in the same year, and probably some portions of
these reached Northwest Minnesota, for we hear of slight appearances of them in the
Red River and the Sauk Valleys in 1864 and 1865. But the greater portion of the in-
jury was done in the Minnesota Valley, and was followed by a general departure to
the sonthwest in 1865. * * * * Itseems very likely that theswarms which entered
Minnesota in 1864 were hatched at no great distance, and were the offspring of swarms
that had alighted in Eastern Dakota in the preceding year. This may, perhaps, be in-
ferred from the following letter of the Rev. 8. R. Riggs, missionary at the Sisseton
Tnuian agency, dated September 9, 1875:

“In 1868, it will be remembered that on General Sibley’s expedition to the Missouri
we met with the ravages of the grasshoppers in various parts of Dakota, partciular!y,
as I remember, near Skunk Lake (in Minnehaha County), where the large grass had
been eaten to the bare stalks,and our animals fared badly. In 1865 I visited a camp
of Dakota scouts, near the ‘ Hole in the Mountain,’ at the head of the Redwood. That
was in the month of August. The valley of the Minnesota, clear out to the coteau,
was so full of grasshoppers as to make it unpleasant traveling. For the next four
years, I traveled every summer on the Missouri River, coming over to and from Min-
nesota. Every season I met with grasshoppers at some point on the east side of the
Missouri. In 1967, and also in 1868, we found them near Fort Randall. In 1869, in
August, we met them above Fort Sully, near Grand River. In all the cases they were
only in small battalions, and appeared to have come there from other parts.

“ Again, in 1871, slight and scattering swarms of locusts appeared in Stearns, Todd,
Douglas, Pope, Otter Tail, Becker, and Polk Counties, and perhaps in others. * * *
The invasion of 1873 wassomething unusual inits character from the earliness of its ar-
rival, the direction from which it came, and from the fact that it was the beginning of a
visitation which has been prolonged to the present time by what, judging from former
years, would appear to be unusual circumstances. Each summer since 1873, instead
of being the scene of a general departure of the hatching-swarms, as in former years,
has seen portions of those swarms alighting but a few miles from where they were
hatched (generally in the next range of counties, and sometimes in other parts of the
same county), and depositing eggs for another brood. In addition to these, new
swarms coming in from the northwest in 1874 and again in 1876 have added greatly to
bes sah ys devastations in both these years, and in the latter year to the area of egg-

eposit.

The map appended to Mr. Whitman’s report clearly shows the suc-
cessive encroachments of the locusts in the State. The parents of those
that have bred within the State since 1873 ‘‘ reached the southwestern
corner of the State about the 1st of June, 1873, brought by a wind that
had been blowing freshly from the southwest for several days.” The

620 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

progeny of these spread northward in 1874, but while fresh swarms
entered the State in 1874 from the northwest, they did not, probably,
add much to the stock of eggs deposited by the Minnesota brood, and
Mr. Whitman thinks it ‘‘ probable that the locusts which hatched in
Minnesota last spring were, to a considerable extent, the descendants
of the swarms which entered the State in 1873.”

Mr. Whitman believes that in Minnesota there is not a return-flight
of freshly-fledged locusts toward the Rocky Mountains, as shown by Mr.
Riley and others to take place in Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri. On
the contrary, ‘the wind which sweep clear away the hatching-swarms
of the more southern States carry our own but a few miles from their
birthplace.” He seems to incline to the belief that “some cause for
the fact that portions of our swarms remain here to breed can be found
in an early stage of egg-laying. While those observed late in summer
to fly northwestward did not lay eggs, “on the other hand our own
(Minnesota) stock were seen in 1875 to be laying within eight days
after their flight commenced, and in the places where they first alighted,
and during the past season the laying had already begun on the 3d of
July, and by the 10th had become general in the western part of Nicollet
County, within a few miles from their hatching-ground, and within two
weeks from the time when the flying began. This early period of laying
may be of itself a sufficient cause for portions of our swarms remaining
here, while the less mature pass on.”

From one year to another Mr. Whitman has noticed a natural de-
crease in the number of locusts breeding in Minnesota:

Numbers of locusts have hatched out and have died without reproducing them-
selves. In this connection, the State of Minnesota has an advantage over more
southerly regions, in the fact that we are situated nearer to the breeding-grounds of
invading swarms. Of these, the earlier comers are more likely to pass over ug before
reaching the full period of their development, while the later comers are cut off by
our earlier frosts; and of the eggs which are left with us, being deposited earlier in
the season, more are likely to hatch in the fall and become harmless. On the other
hand, the invaders are more likely to mass their forces in more southerly States, reach
them in full maturity, and remain later in the season, while the eggs, being deposited
later than ours, remain mostly unhatched until spring. These considerations enable
us to understand why certain counties in Missouri, where the locust hatched in 1875,

presented in May such a picture of devastation and desolation as Minnesota has never
seen in all its locust experience.

The locust has also become shorter lived, and many were killed by
the Tachina maggot, while of the invading swarms of the present year
‘‘large numbers of the bodies of the dead could be found in the fields
early in September,” and “large numbers remained alive until they
were killed by frost, and even then died with eggs unlaid.” Another
effect of naturalization during the last four years, says Mr. Whitman, is
that ‘¢ while it has lost some portion of its inclination or its ability to
migrate, it has also Jost somewhat of its gregarious character.” Indeed,
had it not been for the new-comers in 1876, ‘‘ next year would have seen
the insects so few and so scattered as to be incapable of great damage,
and they might become in a year or two as flitting and as unnoticeable
as the red-legged locust that breeds with us every year.” Mr. Whitman
adds that, “‘in regard to changes in color and appearance, while the
locusts which hatched in Minnesota last spring had when fully devel-
oped something of the darkness and dullness of old age, the brightness
and fierceness of the fresh invaders was apparent to every one.” Mr.
Whitman concludes, and we think the facts reported by him bear out
his statement: ‘“ Nothing is more certain than that we might, by gen-
eral and continued effort, practically eradicate the offspring of almost
any one year’s invasion; nothing is more probable than that in almost

PACKARD. ] THE LOCUST IN DAKOTA IN. 1876. 621

any season the whole body of our batching-swarms might be utterly
swept away from our midst by favorable winds ; and, finally, if we may
judge from the last four years, our breeding-swarms would decrease
gradually from one year to another, and if not re-enforced from abroad
would finally become so few and so scattered as to be harmless.”

Mr. Whitman says that the facts observed in Minnesota do not sub-
stantiate the rule observed by Riley and others in Missouri, Kansas,
Nebraska, &c., of a return migration in a northwest direction for the
purpose of egg-laying, since they remain in part in the State and lay
early in the season.

The origin of the swarms which entered Minnesota in 1874 and 1876
is not definitely known, but Mr. Whitman states that “it is probable
that both in 1874 and 1876 the swarms that came into this State, at
least in the earlier part of the season, were hatched in or near British
America, This is to be inferred from the direction of their coming, the
fact that we know of extensive hatching-grounds in British America in
both these years, and that we know of no nearer hatching-ground.”

The losses sustained by the State of Minnesota during the last four
summers, ending with that of 1876, amounts to at least $8,000,000.

THE LOCUST IN DAKOTA IN 1876.

In Dakota, according to the Weather Signal Review, grasshoppers
were active at Bismarck March 4; they were reported to have appeared
on the prairies near Pembina in May, but few appeared at. Pembina in
June; in July they ‘first appeared at Pembina, flying northeast 8th and
9th, southeast 11th, 12th, 17th, 20th, and south 13th ;” swarms of grass-
hoppers at Yankton 27th, 28th, 29th, 30th, and 31st; at Fort Sully, flying
northwest and alighting 15th; northwest, 26th; numerous 16th, 27th,
28th, 29th, 30th.” August 6 they ‘appeared in the extremesouth-
eastern part of the State; 10th to 29th at Fort Sully, numerous; de-
creased during 30th and 31st. At Yankton during early part of month,
destroying all the corn; about 10th began to depart and all gone in a
few days. 26th, Bismarck, swarms flying southwest.” They disappeared
September 1 at Fort Sully.

Buffalo: The entire corn-crop has been eaten by the grasshoppers ;
wheat and oats, owing to the drought, ripened early, and were harvested
in time to escape them. Clay: Have destroyed nearly all the corn and
about half the wheat and oats. They are now depositing eggs. It is
the worst grasshopper raidever known. Hanson: Weare again visited
by the everlasting grasshopper. They have been with us for the last
four days, and have left nothing of corn or buckwheat but the naked
stalks. Oats are badly damaged; wheat and barley were nearly har-
vested before they came, and potatoes and sorghum were slighted by
them, but they went through the gardens Jikea whirlwind. Minnehaha:
Have made their appearance slightly, and have damaged some fields.
Richland: Are now upon us. They came yesterday, August 1, a few
days late. Gardens are all swept clean ; not very much damage done to
grain. Stutsman: Did but little damage except to oats, which they
nearly destroyed. There are none here at present.—(Monthly Report of
the Department of Agriculture, August and September, 1876.)

Governor Pennington states that he has never seen-the young in
Southern Dakota, and that the locusts fly over the southern portion of
the Territory from the breeding-places in the northern. This view needs
confirmation, we think.

622 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.
THE LOCUST IN COLORADO IN 1876.

In Colorado the movements of the locust were closely observed by my
friend, Mr. W. N. Byers, who has kindly sent me the following interest-
ing account :

DENVER, COLO., August 26, 1876.
I think I reported to you the time and character of the grasshopper invasion and of

their depositing eggs in this part of the country last year. In consequence of the
latter the young ones hatched out in great numbers during the month of May. The
farmers fought them actively and in most cases successfully. Those that hatched in
plowed ground were destroyed by turning them under deeply at the proper time, or
if the crop was already growing they were destroyed by the judicious use of fire, coal-
tar, or kerosene. For this purpose they have a number of ingenions devices, and each
agency is very effective in destroying the infantile grasshopper. Where they attempted
to invade growing fields they were stopped by streams of water in or from the irrigat-
ing ditches. In these streams traps and screens were placed by which the insects were
caught by the bushel, or a scum of kerosene was placed on the water, if standing or
moving slowly, and this was equally fatal to them. The battle lasted but a short time,
and almost every farmer who tried saved his crops. Early in the summer they disap-
peared, no one could tell how or where. The small-grain erop mainly matured with
excellent yield, but the breadth of ground planted was reduced through fear of the
insects.

Right in the midst of harvest, on the 3d of August, flying swarms began coming
from the north and north-northeast. They alighted from day to day, but generally
moved on the next day and continued their march across the State toward the south.
After about a week their course changed to southwest, and they moved into the mount-
ains, covered South Park, and at last accounts were reaching the headwaters of the
South Arkansas and Rio Grande Rivers. On the first day of this new direction the
flight was the most remarkable ever seen here by civilized people. During the whole
day the air was literally thick with them as far as the eye could reach, But few came
down. Thus they came and went for about three weeks. Toward the last nearly all
had disappeared. They damaged corn and growing vegetables in Northern Colorado
perhaps one-third, though the damage was very unequal—some places nearly total,
and in others very slight, and some localities escaped altogether. In Southern Colo-
rsa the damage to similar crops was much greater; probably an average of two-
thirds.

Two days ago a new swarm came and settled down in this neighborhood. I have no
knowledge as to the extent of the country covered by them. They are pairing,” and
as the weather is getting quite cool I do not think they will move much more. We
are probably fated to another generation of them next year, but our farmers have sue-
ceeded so well in fighting them, and found it so much easier than they expected,
that they snap their fingers at the thought of being eaten out by the young ones. But
when they fly there is no power to resist them. This is the third year of the plague,
and we are pretty sure of the fourth.

We think here that the first swarms came from the high plains of Wyoming, and
the later ones from Western Dakota, Eastern Montana, and, perhaps, from British
America. This judgment is based upon reports of their hatching in Wyoming, Da-
kota, and Montana. It would be a very simple matter to determine their movements
exactly and predict their march with almost exact certainty.

Beside the information given in Mr. Byers’s letter of August 1, I find
it stated in the Colorado Farmer that in Larimer County they eat up
the grain in the last of August, having been very destructive. In the
same paper for September 7, M. W. D. Arnett gives the following account
of their visitations:

To the Editor of the Farmer:

Perhaps a history of the visitation of the locust or grasshopper may be interesting
in forming some conclusions as to what may be reasonably expected in coming seasons.
In 1864, they came to my place August 26. Wheat and other similar grain was har-
vested; corn was full and getting ripe, but they eat it up almost entirely. They also
deposited their eggs in vast numbers, which hatched out in 1865 and destroyed nearly
all the crops. I saved my own by ditches, which was mostly oats. In this year, the
young fry left as soon as fledged, going southwest. On August 5, 1865, an army of grass-
hoppers came and harvested the oats almost entire, leaving but a small amount of wheat
and nothing else. In 1866 they came, I think, on the 9th of September, when small

* Farmers report that they are depositing eggs in some portions of the country.

PACKARD.| THE LOCUST IN MONTANA IN 1876. 623

grain and corn were out of the way, the latter being too dry for them to eat. They
deposited a large amount of eggs in 1866, which done much damage in the spring of
1867. Now, the only difference in their visitations in ’64, ’65, and ’66, between that of
74, 75, and ’76, is this: In ’74 they came thirty-five days sooner than in ’64; in ’75 they
came ten or twelve days later than in 65; in ’76 they came forty-two days earlier than
in ’66. From ’67 to ’74 we had but little losses from them. A light band occasionally
done a little harm.

Their movements in all respects in 64, ’65, and ’66 have been precisely duplicated in
74, 75, and ’76, and from this I conclude we will have six or seven years’ rest now.
Could we be informed definitely of where their eggs are deposited north of us, we
would know just. what to do to escape losses. Those south and west we need have
no fears of. This dreadful plague must be stopped. Already it has prevented many
from immigrating to the great and fertile West, and those here are looking and wonder-
ing where they can go to escape this plague, and if it was not for that adhesive power
that holds people to their adopted homes, Colorado would socn be left to the grass-
hopper and red man.

The following notes are taken from the Monthly Weather Review
of the Weather Signal Bureau, 1876: February 19, locusts hatched
out at Golden; Estes Park, March 3. At Golden, eggs laid August 24,
1875, hatched out April 21, 1876. In June, in Colorado, were frequently
attacked by the red mite. July 11, “a storm of grasshoppers at Pike’s
Peak.” August 2, at Denver, ‘‘ came from north in great numbers; very
destructive 3d; continued numerous until 11th; had all left by 13th;
from 22d to 28th flying in the air, but few alighting; diminished in num-
ber 29th to 31st; 3d, passed over Pueblo, going north; nodamage. Oth,
Golden, flying southeast about 6th to 13th, leaving 13th to 26th, return-
ing from northwest 25d, and flying northwest 24th and 25th; 12th, near
Denver, made a clean sweep of the mountain-ranches; came in dense,
thick clouds, but have mostly moved away. 31st, Fort Garland, air
filled, flying with the wind. September 8, at Fort Garland, they were
seen flying northeast. At Golden, flying east-southeast 2d and 4th; fly-
ing northwest 6th; flying west and northwest 15th; flying east-south-
east 23d ; flying northwest 25th. Denver, more or less abundant, Ist to
24th. Flying northeast at Golden 2d. Summit of mountains near Denver
covered with many thousand bushels of dead grasshoppers.

THE LOCUST IN WYOMING, UTAH, AND NEW MEXICO IN 1876.

In Wyoming, at Cheyenne, grasshoppers were reported alive May 14;
abundant from the 7th to the 31st August; “ flying southeast 1st, 10th,
24th; south, 6th; northwest, Sth. October 3d, a few grasshoppers were
seen flying.”

In Utah, September 28, at Salt Lake City, migrating; at Coalville,
Utah, flying south 26th, 27th, 28th.

In New Mexico “ they appeared June 19” (Monthly Weather Report) ;
Taos, wheat half destroyed by grasshopper (Agricultural Report, July).

THE LOCUST IN MONTANA IN 1876.

Lieut. W. L. Carpenter, U. S. A., in a letter dated Camp Robinson,
Nebraska, December 10, 1876, gives me the following notes and com-
ments on the locust:

Upon the high plateau separating the valley of the Platte from the waters-shed of
the Lower Yellowstone, swarms of newly-hatched grasshoppers were observed during
the last of May, 1876. They appeared to exist in small colonies of a few square rods in
extent. Several such were seen during the day, and the aggregate number of individ-
uals must have been very large. They were just able to hop, and were consequently
hatched on the ground where they were observed. About July 12, immense swarms
appeared in Western Nebraska and devastated that region. These insects I believe to
be the same observed in May, which upon reaching maturity moved eastward, instead

624 REPORT UNITED- STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

of going northward, as is usual with the spring broods hatched in the Missouri River
Valley. No northward or return flight was noticed over the Big Horn region during
the season of 1876.

About the last of July, 1876, the great flights from the northwest swarmed over the
country along the eastern base of the Big Horn Mountains. They came in such num-
bers as to create a hazy atmosphere which was at first supposed to be due to prairie
fires. During severals days they covered the earth and obscured the sun. Their line
of flight was from the west of north, and in general appeared to conform to the contour
of the mountain-range, following it to the southward and eastward. For some time
after reaching the ground they seemed bewildered and inactive, but gradually recovered
and commenced eating voraciously and pairing off. I did not, however, observe them
lay eggs here. After remaining about a week they nearly all left one afternoon just as
a stiff breeze was springing up from the northwest, their Hight being still to the south-
east. Of those which remained behind, about one-fourth appeared disabled for vigor-
ous flight from the presence of the eggs of the parasitic mites which destroy so many;
the little red oblong mites which were firmly attached to the under side of the wings,
impeding them greatly and causing their ultimate destruction. Many other individuals
had a sickly appearance, though I could discover nothing unusual affecting then except-
ing a general paleness of the body and wings and extreme weakness. These swarms
appeared in Western Nebraska about the middle of Augnst.

Upon leaving the Big Horn Mountain I passed in a northeasterly direction over the
region drained by the Rose Bud, Tongue, Powder, and Yellowstone Rivers, and every-
where found evidence, in the condition of vegetation and the large quantity of “ frass”
on the ground, that a flight had also been here. I believe this to have been part of
the great flight observed at the base of the Big Horn Mountains, and it consequently
must have covered, at the same time, about 12,000 square miles of territory.

It would appear as though the great swarms, which are so destructive to eastern
vegetation, follow in their eastward flight the general trend of our western mountains.
Starting, as we suppose, from the Great Plains at the head of the Saskatchewan River,
they would follow it down to the spurs of the Rocky Mountain chain, which curve to
the southeastward and offer a continuous area of vegetation to sustain them in their
journey. The Big Horn Mountains next come in view, and by their contour tend to
place them well to the south by the time they reach the southern end.

The next objective point in their flight would be the Black Hills, which are densely
timbered, and would naturally attract them from a distance. After leaving this latter
region there are no prominent elevations to guide them in their flight, and they con-
sequently follow the drainage of the Missouri Valley, stopping when the bright green
tields of our farming communities are reached and suitable food obtained. The short
prairie grasses at the season of their migratory flight have lost their freshness and
begun to turn yellow. The prairies are consequently not attractive to them, and they
only halt briefly for rest, But when the tall, luxuriant vegetation of the east is
reached, they instinctively realize that they have arrived in a land of plenty, and
accordingly leave their eggs where their young will find abundance of food upon
hatching out.

In the southward flight of these great swarms, I believe that they never extend as
far as Laramie Plains. The valley of the Upper North Platte appears to be the southern
limit of their migration, although they cross the Platte farther to the eastward and
overrun Eastern Colorado and Kansas. The Upper North Platte Valley is a region of
very high winds and perhaps unsuited for this reason as a highway of travel; while
the line of flight chosen by them is through a country unusually free from atmospheric
disturbances.

The grasshoppers which visit that part of Colorado extending for some distance east-
ward of the mountains, I believe, take their flight from Utah, and travel nearly due
east over the vast intervening mountain-ranges. The members of Professor Hayden’s
Geological Survey of Colorado observed them in 1873, on the summits of all the high-
est peaks, in vast numbers. I have never heard of a flight crossing the Union Pacific
Railroad near Cheyenne, Wyo., and moving due south into Colorado along the mount-
ain-range which here runs north and south. And this would have been observed
if they entered Northern Colorado from the north instead of from the west. The main
range of Colorado, from its great altitude, offers a formidable barrier to their eastward
progress, causing myriads to perish from the cold which pervades these elevated re-

ions.

‘ If the country between the Big Horn Mountains and the Black Hills and the Upper Mis-
souri and North Platte Rivers were a thickly-settled farming region, the great swarms
on their eastward journey would stop here, and never reach the Lower Missouri Valley.
The westward progress of civilization must ever decrease the amount of damage done
to eastern agriculture ; and finally when the entire West shall be settled, the cultivated
fields will be extended over such a wide area that the swarms will be proportionately
pehians and scattered, and the destruction of crops in any particular State be incon-
siderable.

PACKARD. | HABITS OF THE LOCUST. 625

Under date of March 4, 1877, Lieutenant Carpenter writes me from
Camp Robinson, Nebraska: ‘ ‘fhe warm weather has hatched out the
eggs in Western Nebraska and a snow-storm has since destroyed the
young.”

’ In Montana the Monthly Weather Review reports locust as hatch-
ing out by millions in valleys about Virginia City. May 28 they were
numerous throaghout the Territory; 27th, began to fly. In July they
were seen flying southwest 11th to 20th, and southeast 27th to 31st; much
damage done in some localities. In August millions flying southeast
1st to 5th at Virginia City; decreased in numbers until 29th; no eggs
deposited. According to the Monthly Agricultural Report for July,
grasshoppers were abundant in July at Jefferson, and threatened to
greatly reduce the wheat-crop. It should be noticed that the summer of
1876 was a hot and dry one throughout the West.

I quote further information regarding the locust in Montana from Mr.
Whitman’s report for 1876. Besides the region named in the article
above quoted from the Winnipeg Standard, various parts of Montana
are known to have been considerable hatching-grounds during the past
spring. In the Bismarck Tribuné of June 14 is found the following,
which is quoted because it gives an idea not only of the place but of the
nature of a breeding-ground :

IN THE FIELD, NEAR ROSEBUD ButTTEs, May 29, 1876.

As we move westward the grazing improves, and here in the Little Missouri Valley
the season is at least a month in advance of the season on the Missouri. This would
be a splendid grazing region were the water good. The grass is heavy and nutri-
tious, but the water is strongly impregnated with alkali. Millions of locusts are just
now making their appearance in this region. Too young to fly or do much harm, in a
few days, should the winds favor them, they will sweep down upon the defenseless
agriculturists on the border, doing untold damage.

Ofticers who passed over the country between the Little Missouri and the Yellow-
stone Rivers during the spring state at varioas points in that region young locusts
were found in immense numbers. Shortly before the 23d of July migrating swarms
of locusts appeared in the vicinity of General Crook’s camp; ‘‘ myriads of grasshoppers
filled the air, appearing like an immense drifting snow-storm, tending toward the
southeast, and apparently taking advantage of a northwest wind to favor their flight
to the same fields that they have effectually devastated for two consecutive seasons.”—
(Extract from a letter of July 23, quoted in the Pioneer Press and Tribune.)

HABITS OF THE LOCUST.

The following account of the habits of the locust, its mode and time
of egg-laying, and its time of hatching, is compiled
from the statements of others, as 1 have only been in
PASTS the West during midsummer after the young had
/ hatched and before the eggs were laid. Having,
J} ) however, obtained the eggs of C. spretus from Iowa
U vanes ¥% and Minnesota, and studied the habits of Caloptenus
. Semar-rubrum of the East, so closely allied to C.
Fie. 1.—Rocky spretus, and having observed the movements of Gidip-
Mountain Locust. oda sordida and carolina during the process of egg-
Egg-laying ap- laying, I can more intelligently describe the process
pendages of fe- . ? aie : :
male. a, end of in spretus. Indeed, all the different species of grass-
abdomen; b, up- hoppers are very similar in their habits, nearly all
per; ¢, under Jlaying their eggs in the ground, others (as in Chloé:
a atis) inserting them in rotten wood. When about to
lay her ripe eggs, the female selects a dry field, either in upland pas-
ture or plowed lands, or even hard roadsides and paths. In the latter
place they are more frequently observed; but from being interrupted
when beginning their holes, they often leave smooth round holes, a little
smaller than a lead pencil, and without any egg-sac. Immediately after

40GS8

626 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

sexual union, the female (the males being distinguished from the other sex
by theirsmaller size and bluntrounded hind bodies) proceeds to deposit her
eggs. Selecting a suitable piace, she forces her hind body or abdomen
nearly or quite vertically downward into the earth for aboutan inch. Dur-
ing the process she opens and shuts the solid horny appendage (Fig. 1),
forming four stout hooks, by means of which the soil is displaced, while a
small boreis formed by the movements of the abdomen, which now elon-
gates nearly double its original length, until the hole is an inch or more in
depth. ‘ Now, with hind legs hoisted straight above the back, and the
shanks hugging more or less closely the thighs, she commences ovipositing,
the eggs being voided ina pale glistening and glutinous fluid, which holds
them together, and binds them into a long cylindrical pod, covered with
particles of earth, which adhere to it. When fresh, the whole mass is soft
and moist, but it soon acquires a firm consistency. It is often as long
as the abdomen, and usually lies in a curved or slanting position.” The
figure from Dr. Riley’s report, (Plate LXII, Fig. 1,) from whose account
we have quoted, will give a good idea of the act of egg-laying or oviposi-
tion. Riley says that “‘ the eggs which compose this mass are laid side
by side to the number of from 30 to 100, according to size of mass.”

Mr. Whitman, under date of February 18, 1877, further writes me re-
garding the breeding-habits of the locust in Minnesota:

In regard to this year, in addition to what I have written in my report, I found,
September 7, a large number of females with from one to fifteen eggs in the abdomen,
evidently ready to be deposited. Almost every female contained eggs. A few were
found evidently totally exhausted of ova (or ovaries). All these had flown in from
somewhere to the west late in August. So far as I have seen heretofore, the female, in
July, before laying, has the abdomen largely distended with eggs. The female locust
that I experimented upon was in such condition; then her abdomen decreased in size
after laying; then increased again. But the females that I found in September, al-
though having eggs in them, were not distended at all; in fact, there were some notice- —
able differences in appearance between those that flew away from us Jast July and
' those that flew in later in the season; and one difference was in the size of the body
(or abdomen), and -possibly this was what made the farmers say that tho incomers
were “smaller and not sully grown.” I might go on to write considerably more in
regard to the ovarian differences in appearance, but I don’t know that it is worth
while. I think I can sum it all up by saying that the locust which hatched in this
State last spring could be very easily mistaken for the red-iegged locust (as it appears
about Saint Paul), while the new-comers were strikingly different in shape and some-
what in color. By the way, I have never been able to find any such thing as a red-
legged locust down in the country where spretus was abundant. I have found a speci-
men or two of spretus in Saint Paul.

As for copulation, I think it takes place several times before laying. I judge so from
what I have seen myself and what others have told me. I have been also told that the
same female may receive two or more males. I had some two-striped locusts caged,
and thought I could observe selection between males and females. I found in a large
two-striped locust (in August) sixty-five eggs.

Regarding the breeding-habits of the locust while in confinement, I
quote as follows from Mr. Whitman’s report for 1876:

On the 25th of June I shut up in wire-gauze cages nine pupe of the Rocky Mountain
locust. The bottoms of the cages were filled with earth packed hard, and the insects
appeared to thrive in confinement. By the 2d of July they had all become perfect in-
sects, By the 8th of July they commenced coupling, and were seen repeating the act
for several days. On the 15th and 16th, two of the females went through the form of
depositing eggs, and I marked the place of deposit on the edge of the cage. The coup- -
ling was repeated again as before, until the 3d of August. At that date the coupling
ended, and the locusts became almost inactive, and were seen to eat very rarely after-
ward.

* The early part of this coupling-season was one of the greatest activity on the part
of these insects. They dashed themselves against the wire of their cages as though
all space would be too small to contain them. There would be a flash of the wings,
extended and closed again in an instant, or that movenient of the hind-legs known as
“fiddling,” which seemed to be a well-known signal between the male and female. In
cages where several pairs were confined together, the male, while in the act of coup-
ling, would repeat this movement if brushed agains’ by another.

PACKARD.] HABITS OF THE LOCUST. 627

On the 14th of August one of the males died. The female died on the 9th of Septem-
ber, and was found to contain fourteen full-sized eggs; but I found, on examining the
cage, that there was also a full-sized egg-cone wkere she had already appeared to de-
posit on the 15th of July. Of the rest of the Rocky Mountain locusts, the males were
caged with some female red-legged locusts caught in my garden, and although the
two species did not seem inclined to have much commerce with each other, I saw one
pair coupling. These observations are very slight and imperfect, but are given for
whatever they might be worth. That the male dies first may be inferred, not only by
the above experiment, but from the fact that in September it was common to find many
pairs coupled, of which the female was alive, but the male had died without releasing
himself.

The tims required from hatching till the wings are obtained averages about two
months. The high and long flights characteristic to the species after the wings are
acquired are seldom indulged, except when there is a fair wind.

Just as the mature insects fly, as a.rule, in a southeasterly direction, so the young,
soon after they hatch, manifest the same desire to move toward the southeast. They
are most active in the heat of the day, but are perhaps more ravenous at night. They
migrate short distances every clear day, but do not like to cross a stream unless they
can jump it. If driven into water, however, they kick about, making considerable
progress, ahd donot easily drown. Such, at least, are the habits of the young hatched
in the Mississippi Valley, though it is very probable that in their native table-lands of
the mountain region the migrating habit is not developed till they have acquired wings,
and are forced from hunger to seek new quarters.

I copy the following letter from Mr..J. L. Cabot, dated Currie, Minn.,
July 20, 1875, which gives a good idea of the fecundity of the insect:

This is the third season that we have had hoppers. ‘The first year they came on the
12th of June and deposited their eggs, and went away in four days, leaving the coun-
try almost totally cropless.. The next season, 1874, they hatched in the last part of May,
and staid here until about the 4th of July. They left the county totally stripped of
all domestic vegetation, with the exception of about a tenth part of a crop of potatoes.
The State furnished the county with seed-wheat this spring, and our land was all sown
and planted again. Until the 4th of July crops bid fair for one of the largest yields
ever known in the State. But on that day about noon the grasshoppers began to
come dowu in such numbers that in some places they destroyed the crops in two days.
They were very large ones, and left in two or three days, but had no sooner gone than
other hordes of smaller ones came, and in double the number, and began to lay their
eggs and leave. More came and took their places, and laid more eggs, and passed on
southwest, rolling over the prairie likeheavy clouds of mist on a foggy day. And still
they come and go.

Another man and myself selected an average spot in a field and dug from a foot square
300 cones, each cone containing an average of 30 eggs, which would make 392,040,000
eggs to the acre.

We then caught about a pint of the grown hoppers and found it to contain 320 insects,
which would make 20,480 to the bushel. And calculating each egg a hopper, we found
that next spring when they hatch out we will have 19,000 bushels to the acre, and
3,200,000 to the quarter-section, or 14 quarts to the square foot. And still they are
laying their eggs. But if they will go away to-day or to-morrow they will leave us
enough to live on. I can’t describe the feelings of the people. We think that if the
State and General Government would help us to protect the grass on the prairies until
next June, the hoppers might be exterminated by fire.

A few of the eggs hatch in the autumn. This has been noticed in
Colorado by Mr. Byers,* and in Missouri by Professor Riley, who states
that in this State ‘‘in most counties, even in the northern ones, some
of the earlier eggs hatched, especially those laid on hill-sides and other
high ground exposed to the rays of the sun. The young hoppers at-
tained a size of one-fourth to one-half of an inch, and were active during
the middle of the day, even into December. These young hoppers dis-
appear and seek winter shelter; but it is doubtful whether many, if any,
survive the winter.” (Seventh report.) In his eighth report he says
that in Kansas certain experiments made the following spring demon-

* In November a correspondent of the Colorado Farmer wrote that ‘‘ the young locusts
were hatching out in great numbers, and that the eggs deposited during the present
season were so far advanced toward hatching that large numbers would be destroyed
by frost during the winter and spring.”—(Riley’s Eighth Report.)

628 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

strated tne fact that a temperature of 2° degrees below zero was fatal
to them.

The embryos evidently get their growth in the antumn and lie dor-
mant until the spring before hatching. Mr. Whitman writes me under
date of February 3, 1877, from Saint Paul, Minn., ‘‘ We are inter-
ested here to know how near the eggs can reach hatching and still
remain uninjured by feezing, and [have some eggs that were just taken
from ground frozen solid, and were hatched after being kept moist and
warm three days. I beard yesterday of a gentleman who started for
Chicago with some eggs in his pocket and found them hatched on reach-
ing that place.”

In Missouri, the eggs mostly hatch in the middle of April and early in
May, while some continue to hatch until June 1. The young acquire
their wings in about seven weeks.—(Riley.)

In Kansas, the eggs hatched the first week in April, and the young
first became winged May 28 and 29, and began to fly away then, until
June 22.

The locusts leave Kansas, Nebraska, and Missouri about the middle
of June, and are said to fly in a general northwestward course, while the
fresh broods from the Rocky Mountains enter these States from about
July 20 until the middle or last of September.

In Nebraska, they were fledged in 1874, about the 7th of June, and
then began to fly away, and by the 6th of July they had about left the
State. These dates will approximately apply to Minnesota and Lowa for
the swarms from the Rocky Mountain region. In Iowa the grass-
hoppers in 1874 entered the State from the south and west about the
10th of June; these were the swarms from Kansas, or “‘ probably deflected
from their usual course by adverse winds.” In Minnesota the young
hatch in April and May, and get their wings and begin to depart about
July 1, the departure becoming general about the 10th, and total by the
end of August.

In Colorado, on the plains at the elevation of Denver, the eggs begin
sometimes to hatch in March and continue doing so until early in May.
The locusts acquire their wings and fly off about the first or middle of
June. Theswarms from the north and westward appear about the 20th
of July, and continue to arrive until early in September. Among the
foot-hills the eggs hatch in May, and at an elevation of 8,000 or 9,000
feet in June and even July the young in the subalpine elevations among
the mountains in may cases perishing from the cold before acquiring
wings. In Dakota, in 1874, they became winged during the first week
in June and disappeared by the middle of July.

It is not generally known that the great powers of flight in the grass-
hopper as well as most other winged insects is due in part to the pres-
ence of large air-saes. These sacs are expansions of the air-tubes
which ramify throughout the interior of the body. They are found in
the head and thorax, but are largest (especially in the honey-bee) in the
base of the hind body. They do not oceur in insects which simply
crawl or walk. In the grasshoppers (Acrydii), most of the transverse —
anastomosing trachez in the abdomen have large air-reservoirs, greatly
assisting in lightening the bodyand sustaining it in their long flights.
It is from their development, probably, in the western locust (I have
found them well developed in several eastern allied forms) that this in-
sect is enabled to sail so lightly and easily for hours at a time in the air
hundreds or even thousands of feet above the ground, as well as to
spend days, perhaps, in its long flights during the migratory season.

The following valuable notes on the natural history of the grasshop-

‘\

PACKARD. HABITS OF THE LOCUST. 629

per (Caloptenus spretus) have been kindly sent me by Prof. Samuel
Aughey, of the University of Nebraska:

1. It is a mistake to suppose that the grasshoppers never fly at night. In August,
1866, I was camped on the Bew River, on an open prairie, in Cedar County, Nebraska.
I was lying on a robe outside of the tent, the moon shining brightly. In the evening
not a grasshopper could be seen or found. At 1 o’clock at night the wind shifted from
the west to the north, and soon the atmosphere became perceptibly cooler. Suddenly
grasshoppers commenced to drop, and continued to fall for nearly half an hour. In the
morning the prairie was covered with them. I had a similar experience on two other
occasions. On the Verdigris, a tributary of the Niobrara, and on the Upper Elkhorn in
August, 1867. These experiences are a demonstration to me that they do sometimes,
at least, fly on warm moonlight nights.

2. It appears doubtful to me whether these migrating grasshoppers ever move faster
than the wind carries them. In August, 1867, when they were moving over Northern
Nebraska, I climbed tall cottonwood trees, and let loose among the flying grasshop-
pers bits of cotton. These bunches of cotton moved or were carried forward as fast by
the wind as the grasshoppers flew, and in the same direction. In June, 1875, I did the
same thing from the cupola of the State University on four different days. When they
were flying thickest the bits of cotton would keep even with them as far as they could
be seen with a field-glass. And while these few experiments are not conclusive, it ap-
pears to me that, until some one sees them move faster than the wind, we havea right to
presume that they donot. The only physical exertion, then, that the grasshoppers need
to make in order to migrate is to raise themselves into the air and to keep suspended.
The winds waft them into (to them) unknown regions. The height to which they
often rise is very great. On the 18th of June, 1875, the column that passed over Lin-
coln, Nebr., was within 50 feet of being one mile in height. This I ascertained by trig-
onometrical determination.

3. It is probable that their constitutional vigor decays or declines in regions moister
than their native habitats. [have attempted to ascertain this by various methods. One
experiment was to attach the limbs of mature grasshoppers that were hatched in Ne-
braska to a delicate spring-balance, and ascertain in this way the degree of their physi-
cal strength. As they varied a great deal in strength, I averaged the strength of ten
atatime. The following is an example of such an attempt, the first being taken from
Nebraska, and the second from Northern Utah and Wyoming:

Nebraska. Utah.
Be arSh CTASsNOPPer ATOW .-... . 22622. 2 eee case sen cns 1.50 ounces. 1.75 ounces.
mnie second erasshopper drew... ---. 1... --. 226 weecce one 1.50 ounces. 2.00 ounces.
feno ebro prasshopper drew ~.-. -<<----------2 case sone 1.25 ounces. 2.00 ounces.
miewourun prasshopper drew..-.....- s.<.-. ...2.. 3.--- - 1.75 ounces. 1.75 ounces.
iemainhsorasshopper drew... .--. 2... <2 -cce een se nes 1.50 ounces. 1.75 ounces.
Seeeieixth erasshopper drew ..--.. .--....--- -----. ---<+6 1.75 ounces. 1.75 ounces.
The seventh grasshopper drew ..........-.....-...---.- 1.75 ounces. 2.10 ounces.
eew@encn Srasshopper drew... 2... we cee. pen ees see ee 1.50 ounces. 2, U0 ounces.
Mie minuk crasshopper, Grew... ..- 2-260 -.60 sees ce ccns 2.00 ounces. 2.25 ounces.
ihesropuanorasshopper (LOW «<5 .<5...)eccc. wos cec aon 1.50 ounces. 1.75 ounces.

15. 80 ounces. 18.80 ounces.

I have ten more tables of the same general character and results. Only in one did
the two approach each other. The highest of the Nebraska columns came within half
an ounce of the strength of the lowest of one set of ten from Wyoming. These tests
were mostly made during July, 1875. I cannot think that the difference in strength
between the Nebraska and Utah grasshoppers could have been accidental. I reached
the same results by the experiment of ascertaining the length of time that the grass-
hoppers from the two localities could live without food. Omitting the columns of fig-
ures, the average result reached was that the Utah and Wyoming grasshoppers could live
three and one-fourth days longer without food than those from Nebraska. Vivisection
produced the same results. These and similar experiments satisfied me that away
from their natural habirats the constitutional vigor of the grasshoppers becomes im-
paired, and that in afew generations they must tend to run out.

4. Confirmatory of the preceding conclusion is the following observation: As early
as the spring of 1865 I noticed that probably not more than about 50 per cent. of the
grasshopper-eggs that were laid the autumn previous hatched out. Almost daily from
April till far into June I dug over some small portion of the ground where the eggs
were thickest. Only an occasional entire nest of eggs hatched out. Some nests would
hatch out in part and some not at all. Late in the season many entire nests of eggs
could be found changed into an apparently gelatinous mass. In the spring of 1867 a
still larger proportion of eggs seemed to be injured. Segmentation in many eggs had
commenced in the fall and during the warm weather of February, and in many nests

630 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

the entire grasshopper had formed in the egg. The oscillations between thawing and
freezing, wet and dry weather, seemed to have destroyed great numbers. The damage
done to the eggs was greatest in low grounds. In both these years, also the spring of
1875 and the present spring (1876), there were an exceptionally large number of eggs
in the ground. In digging over the spots where the most eggs seemed to be laid, the
number ranged between 100 and 15,000 to the square foot. Isolated spots could always
be found where the number was much greater. If, indeed, all would hatch out, no
green thing could ever escape. ;

5. Among the curious things about their natural history is the following: Rainy days
in some way are connected with the rapid development, or at least appearance, of the
little red parasite, Astoma gryllaria. On June 1, 1875, the university grounds in Lin-
coln, Nebr., were covered with grasshoppers, and about two in a hundred contained
these parasites, located mostly under or near the wings. On that day and night it
rained, though it remained warm: Immediately after it cleared up the next day three
out of every four grasshoppers were ful] of these parasites. Twice I have known this
to occur. The cause or connection between the rain and the development of these
parasites I have not ascertained.

The power of adaptation to varying circumstances which this migratory grasshopper
seems to have is simply wonderful. Perhaps naturalists, in studying them, have been
overhasty in drawing conclusions from a narrow range of facts. As to myself, after
watching and experimenting for so long a time, I am not so surs that I understand
them as I was ten years ago.

As an example of how high the grasshoppers may fly and the enor-
mous number comprising a swarm, I quote the following statement from
the signal-service observer station at Fort Sully:

June 15. [Direction of wind, as ascertained by the records: 6 a. m. to 7 a. m., north-
east; then east till10a.m.; then south till3 p.m.; southeast remainder of day.] Sev-
eral days previous to this date had been hearing of the approach of locusts along the
line of telegraph from Omaha, upward, to northwest; and at 4 p. m. of the 14th the
operator at Fort Thompson (85 miles south, 25° east from Fort Sully) reported their
advance flying northwest and northwardly. At noon a large cloud of the insects passed
over until night, when they were no longer visible. Roughly estimated, the swarm
may have been about 50 miles long, 25 wide, and one-quarter to one-half mile in height.
A hail-storm the following day may have dispersed them.

June 23. [Direction of wind: 6 a. m., southeast; 7 a. m., southeast; 10 a. m., south-
east; 2. and 3 p.m., east; rest of the day calm.] Large flights of locusts passing over
during the morning, going north and northwest, at an estimated elevation of about 50
feet to as high as they were visible with field-glasses, possibly a mile; none alighting.
This swarm, as near as could be ascertained by telegraph at the time, came from the
Minnesta infested region, along the line of the Sioux City and Saint Paul Railroad,
in a continuous cloud, probably 1,000 miles long from east to west, and 500 miles from
north to south. How much farther north of this post unascertained, and not conjec-
tured.—(Riley’s Eighth Report.)

At Virginia City, in Southwestern Montana, the weather-signal ob-
server states that “ the locusts were thickest on July 20 and 21, giving
the sun a hazy appearance. These ‘emigrant’ locusts came from the
plains of Dakota, and were here, the largest bodies on the above-
mentioned days, at least half a mile in thickness, and, as I learn from
reliable authority, they presented an unbroken width of 20 miles, being
even more numerous on the wings than here near the center.”

In Indian Territory and Northern Texas they become winged, and
migrate during the second and third weeks of May.

Habits of the young—The Rocky Mountain locust casts its skin, or
molts, five times after hatching. The figure (Fig. 4, Plate LXI1) from
Mr. Riley’s eighth report graphically illustrates the process of molting.
It should be borne in mind that the locust, like all grasshoppers, is born
without wings, and during this period is called the larva. Soon the
wings begin to grow, appearing as little pads (Fig. 4,a.) When these ap-
pear it is called a pupa, while the winged adult is the imago. When the
larva is about to molt, the skin, which had become too small for it,
splits open on the back of the head and thorax, and the larva with-
draws itself through the rent, the body at first soft and flabby. With

PACKARD. } HABITS OF THE YOUNG LOCUST. 631

each molt the wings, at first very small, increase in size. Mr. Riley de-
scribes minutely the molt of the pupa into the fully-winged state.

When about to acquire wings the pupacrawls up some post, weed,
grass-stalk, or other object, and clutches such object securely by the
hind feet, which are drawn up under the body. In doing so the fav-
orite position is with the head downward, though this is by no means
essential. Remaining motionless for several hours in this position,
with antennz drawn down over the face, and the whole aspect betoken-
ing helplessness, the thorax, especially between the wing-pads, is
noticed to swell. Presently the skin along this swollen portion splits
right along the middle of the head and thorax, starting by a transverse-
curved suture between the eyes and ending at the base of the abdomen.
Let us now imagine that we are watching one from the moment of this
splitting, and when it presents the appearance of Fig. 4, a, Plate LXII.
As soon as the skin is split the soft and white fore-body and head swell
and gradually extrude more and more by a series of muscular contor-
tions; the new head slowly emerges from the old skin which, with its
empty eyes, is worked back beneath; the new feelers and legs are being
drawn from their casings, and the future wings from their sheaths. At
the end of six or seven minutes our locust—no longer pupa and not yet
imago—looks as in Fig. 4, b, the four front pupa-legs being generally de-
tached, and the insect hanging by the hooks of the hind feet, which
were anchored while yet it had that command over them which
it has now lost. The receding skin is transparent and loosened, espe-
cially from the extremities. In six or seven minutes more of arduous
labor, of swelling and contracting, with an occasional brief respite, the
antenne and the four front legs are freed, and the fulled and crimped
wings extricated. The soft front legs rapidly stiffen and, holding to its
support as well as may be with these, the nascent locust employs what-
ever muscular force if, is capable of to draw out the end of the abdomen
and its long hind legs (Fig. 4, ¢). This in a few more minutes it
finally does, and, with gait as unsteady as that of a new-dropped colt,
it tarns round and clambers up by the side of the shrunken cast-off skin
and there rests, while the wings expand and every part of the body
hardens and gains strength, the crooked limbs straightening and the
wings unfolding and expanding like the petals of some pale flower.
The front wings are at first rolled longitudinally to a point, and as
they expand and unroll, the hind wings, which are tucked and gathered
along the veins at first, curl over them. In ten or fifteen minutes from
the time of extrication these wings are fully expanded and hang down
like dampened rags (lig. 4, d).. From this point on, the broad hind wings
begin to fold up like fans beneath the narrower front ones, and in another
ten minutes they have assumed the normal attitude of rest. Meanwhile
the pale colors which always belong to the insect while molting have
been gradually giving way to the natural tints, and at this stage our
new-fledged locust presents an aspect fresh and bright. (Fig. 4,e.) If
now we examine the cast-off skin, we shall find every part entire, with
the exception of the rupture which originally took place on the back,
and it would puzzle one who had not witnessed the operation to divine
how the now stiff hind shanks of the mature insect had been extricated
from the bent skeleton left behind. ‘They are in fact drawn over the
bent knee-joint, so that during the process they have been bent double
throughout their length. They were as supple at the time as an oil-
soaked string, and for some time after extrication they show the etfects
of this severe bending by their curved appearence.

The molting, from the bursting of the pupa-skin to the full adjustment

632 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

of the wings and straightening of the legs of the perfect insect, occupies
less than three quarters of an hour and sometimes but half an hour. It.
takes place most frequently during the warmer hours of the morning,
and within an hour after the wings are once in position the parts have
become sufticiently dry and stiffened to enable the insect to move about
with ease, and im another hour, with appetite sharpened by long fast, it
joins its voracious comrades and tries its new jaws. The molting period,
especially the last, isa very critical one, and during the helplessness
that belongs to it the unfortunate locust falls a prey to many enemies
which otherwise would not molest it, and not unfrequently to the
voracity of the more active individuals of its own species.—(Riley’s
Eighth Report.)

The egg (Plate LXII, Fig. 1, c) is curved, cylindrical, .21 inch (54 milli-
meters) in length, more pointed at the posterior than the anterior end.
The posterior end is contracted just before the extreme tip, which is
smooth, the more or less regular pits which cover the chorion, or egg-
shell, being here obsolete. I have been unable to discover any micropyle, -
or passage for the spermatozoa. The posterior end points downward in
the egg-moss, so that the exit of the young locust from the anterior end
is thus rendered easier. Although I have not seen the larva actually
burst its way out of the egg, yet on the examination of between fifteen
and twenty deserted egg-shells, I have, without an exception, noticed in
them one, more usually two, slits extending from the head-end to the
middle of the egg. The egg-shell is without doubt burst open by the
puffing out or expansion of the membrane connecting the head and pro-
thorax, just as the common house-fly or flesh-fly bursts off the end of
its pupa-case by the puffing out of the front of the head. I have seen
the embryo make its exit in two or three instances. In one case I saw
a large piece of the egg-shell (chorion) fly off from in front of the face
while the face of the embryo puffed slightly out, and in another instance
the whole anterior end of the shell came off. In the locust I have ob-
served, as will be seen farther on, that the amnion is ruptured by the
forcible expansion of the membrane behind the head, the larve before
walking lying on their backs or sides and forcing this membrane out-
ward. This action probably begins before the shell is burst and seems
amply sufficient to burst the brittle chorion, which is easily broken and
peeled off by rubbing the egg between the fingers, leaving the serous
membrane beneath. The pressure thus exerted must be a lateral one,
and sufficient to rupture the chorion.

In his ninth report on the injurious insects of Missouri, Professor Riley
maintains that besides *“‘ a continuation of undulating contractions and
expansions of the body,” the tips of the jaws and “sharp tips of the
hind tibial spines,” the shell is ruptured, and then “splits up to the
eyes or beyond, by the swelling of the head.” I think the swelling of
the space between the head and thorax is sufficient to accomplish the
rupture of the shell. It may be objected to Mr. Riley’s account of the
supposed action of the jaws and spines that, as may be seen by my Fig. 2,
the position of the legs is such that the tibial spines do not point out-
ward, the tibiz being placed between the femora, and the legs are not
displaced until after the amnion is shed. Moreover the spines are soft
and flabby, as well as the legs; besides this the legs and the entire body
are covered by the amnion, the tibiz being smooth. Did the spines saw
through both the chorion and serous membrane, the amnion would, of
course, be ruptured. I also do not think that the jaws would be available
until after the amnion has been cast. That the jaws are not moved out of
their place until after the embryo leaves its egg-shell and throws off its

PACKARD.] THE EMBRYO LOCUST. 633

amnion, I was able to plainly see in a specimen, which the moment after
the amnion was forced back from the head opened the jaws and thrust
out the palpi and antennze. The amnion is sometimes nearly shed be-
fore the embryo has entirely extricated itself from the egg-shell. The
outer embryonal layer, or “serous membrane” of Kowalevsky, may be de-
tected by rubbing off the chorion.

I have found six stages in the life-history of the Rocky Mountain
locust, with consequently five molts, with the following characters as
seen in the female sex of each stage:

1. First larval. Head very large, and abdomen short and small;
antenne 12-jointed. Length, 14-15™™,

2. Second larval. Head smaller ; antenne 16-jointed; lower edges
of tergum of meso-thoracic ring and especially meta-thoracic full and
rounded. No difference from the first stage seen in a dorsal view; colors
deeper, markings more distinct. Length, 7-837".

3. Third larval. Head about the same size proportionally as in the
second stage; lower sides of meso- and meta-thoracic rings subacutely
produced, evidently the rudiments of the wing-pods of the pupa. The
proportion of the prothorax to the two posterior segments is the same
as before. Length, 9-11™™.

4, First pupal. Antenne 20-jointed; prothorax much produced back-
- ward, wing-pods well developed, covering the tergum of the meso- and
meta-thoracic segments, so far as they are not concealed by the over-
lapping of the prothorax; outer pair twice as large as the inner pair;
the hinder pair 24™™ in length, or two-thirds as long as the prothorax.
Length, 15™".

5. Second pupal. Antenne 22-jointed; prothorax still larger; hind
wing-pods as long as the prothorax. Length 20™™ (1 inch).

6. Imago, or adult, with wings fully developed. Antenne 23-24-
jointed; eyes more rounded than in the pupa; hind femora slenderer.
Length ‘of body, 25™™,

It will thus be seen that there are three larval and two pupal stages
besides the adult stage.

The embryo locust.—On removing the living embryo from the egg-shell
under (Plate LXII, Fig. 2), it is found that it lies with the legs folded on
the side of the body. the tore and middle pair folded directly across the
thorax, while the hind pair are laid along each side of the abdomen.
The antennez lie on the face each side of the clypeus and labrum, or
upper lip. The eyes are dark reddish, and the head, limbs, and cross-
lines on the back of the body are reddish mixed with yellow. Beneath,
the body and legs are white. By putting the eggs in alcohol the shell
becomes more transparent, so that the head, eyes, limbs, and reddish
portions of the body become visible. Length of embryo at time of
hatching 0.21 inch. Described from living specimens received from Mr
S. D. Payne, Kasota, Lesueur County, Minnesota, March 1, 1877.*
Hither during the night ofthe 13th or early in the morning of the 14th
of March nearly all the larve (the eggs having been kept in a warm
room) batched at the same time. The egg-shell bursts open at the head-
end, when the larva immediately after extricating itself from the egg
casts off a thin pellicle (the amnion or faltenblatt), as I have seen in
the larve of the flea, currant saw-fly, and other insects. Before the
skin is cast it is almost motionless, and by slight movements of the
body in about five minutes draws itself out of the amnion. The pro-

* This shows that the embryo locust develops in the autumn immediately after the

eggs are laid, and that it lies dormant (a few occasionally hatching in the autumn)
during the winter, ready to burst its egg-shell in the spring.

634 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

cess of extrication is as follows: While it lies nearly motionless it puffs
out the thin, loose skin connecting the back of the head with the front
edge of the prothorax. The distension of this part probably ruptures
the skin, which slips over the head, the body meanwhile curved over
until the skin is drawn back from the head; when the latter is thrown
back it withdraws its antennz and legs, and the skin is in a second
pushed back to near the end of the abdomen; finally it draws its hind
tarsi out of the skin, and in a moment or two more the young locust
frees itself and walks actively off, sometimes, however, with the cast
skin adhering to the end of the abdomen.

Before the molting of theamnion the body and legs are soft and flabby;
immediately after, it walks firmly onitslegs. At 11 a.m. most all, one
or more hundred, had hatched. They are pale-reddish, however, as in
the embryo; by 3 p. m. they had begun to turn dark, and by 9 of the
next day all were dark colored, as in the following description:

Description of the larva. (Plate LXII, Fig. 3).—The following description is taken from
living young as they had just hatched in Salem, Mass., January 22, 1877 from eggs re-
ceived from Mr. A. Whitman, of Saint Paul, Minn. The larva has a larger head
and smaller abdomen than the pupa and has no rudiments of wings. They were
blackish, marbled with flesh-color, with a dorsal white line behind the head. Legs
flesh-colored, spotted irregularly with black. Hind thighs (femora) spotted with
black, much as in the adult; toe-joints (tarsi) black. Head very large in proportion
to the rest of the body; abdomen small, tapering rapidly toward the tip. Length,
0.17 inch. In another specimen (three living ones only examined) the back of the .
body had a reddish tint, as in older specimens observed living in Colorado.

Pupa (Plate LXII, Figs. 3, 4).—Ground-color, a deep reddish salmon-color on the head,
body, and legs. Front of head below the antennw black, marbled with white lines.
Prothorax with a curved, broad, black longitudinal band on each side of the median
line, and below a squarish black spot separated from the black band above by a con-
spicuous white stripe, and with two white spots on the lower edge. Rudimentary
wings black, with fine pale lines and reddish flesh-colored along the costal edge. Hind
legs blackish on the outside of the thighs (femora), interrupted by fine, salmon-colored
lines. Abdomen whitish above and on the sides, spotted and marbled with black,
forming broken lines; ventral side flesh-colored, not spotted. Hind shanks (tibia)
black beneath, above flesh-colored, with the spines black. Length, 0.65 inch. De-
scribed from several living specimens taken at Manitou, Colo., July 16; hundreds of
others seen ip different parts of Colorado not apparently differing on caswal examina-
tion. '

In addition I may quote Mr. Riley’s description based on living speci-
mens observed in Missouri:

The pupa is characterized by its paler, more yellow color, bringing more strongly
into relief the black on the upper part of the thorax and behind the eyes; by the
spotted nature of the face, especially along the ridges; by the isolation of the black
subdorsal mark on the two anterior lobes of prothorax, and by the large size of the
wing-pads, which, visible from the first molt, and increasing with each subsequent
molt, are now dark, with a distinct pale discal spot, and pale veins and borders, The
hind shanks incline to bluish rather than red, as in the mature insect.

ADULT (Plate LXII, Figs. 1, 4, e,5, 6).—After repeated examination of the variations of
this species as compared with those of OC. femur-rubrum, the only reliable characters I
have been able to find are the following: The male and female C. spretus (normal Rocky
Mountain form) differs from C. femur-rubrum in its much larger size, its proportion-
ately longer and larger wings and usually lighter tints, and the larger, more dis-
tinct spots on the wings. I can see no difference in the ovipositor of the female.
The most constant difference is in the form of the end of the male abdomen, which
is narrow, elevated, and more or less deeply notched (see Plate I, Fig. 6), while in
the male of C. femur-rubrum it is well-rounded, full, swollen, and the edge entire,
with very rarely a slight tendency to a notch. The largest male from Colorado in my
collection measured 1.30 inches. The small variety Atlanis I regard as a variety of
this species, and not femur-rubrum, because it has the well-defined notch in the narrow,
high abdominal tip. My Iowa specimens are darker than those from Colorado, Mis-
souri, and Kansas, but a fine male from Arapahoe Peak, Colorado, is full as dark as
those from Iowa.

PACKARD.] THE LOCUST EAST OF THE PLAINS. 635

The young do not leave the place of their birth until after the first
month, but huddle together, not scattering, as most young insects do, they
being gregarious at the outset. The small bands then unite into larger
ones, and these mass into enormous armies. They are exceedingly
ravenous, feeding upon each other when other food is exhausted.
Riley says that “ the young insects move, as a rule, during the warmer
hours of the day only, feeding, if hungry, by the way, but generally
marching in a given direction until toward evening. They travel in
schools or armies, in no particular direction, but purely in search of
food, the same school often pursuing a different course one day to that
pursued the day previous.” In Missouri, the young moved in a general
northerly direction. They seldom move, when half-grown, “at a greater
rate than three yards a minute, even when at their greatest speed, over
a tolerably smooth and level road, and not halting to feed. They walk
three-fourths of this distance and hop the rest.” It is in the young
wingless condition that the locust is most to be feared, and, on the
other hand, most easily subdued.

THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST NOT PERMANENTLY ABUNDANT AND
INJURIOUS EAST OF THE PLAINS.

It has been abundantly proved by Professor Riley and others that the
locust will not be destructive east of longitude 93° or 94°, namely, the
western edge of the Mississippi Valley. We have seen that the progeny
of the swarms from the plains lying on the flanks of the Rocky
Mountains which at intervals infest the western border of the Mis-
sissippi basin generally return northwestward. The cause of their north-
westward migration is in all probability due to the prevailing southerly
and easterly winds of June and early July; but those that are left are
said to be enfeebled and degenerated. Mr. Riley attributes this to the
low altitude and moisture of the Mississippi Valley, the locust flourish-
ing and most prolific in the dry elevated plateaus of the Rocky Mount-
ains. Professor Riley thinks that the length of the summers of the
western Mississippi States as compared with the short hot sammers of
the plains another cause of its inability to live permanently east of the
plains in large numbers. To use Riley’s own words:

Assuming that I have correctly placed the native home of the species in the higher,
treeless, and uninhabitable plains of the Rocky Mountain region of the northwest,
and that it is subalpine, we may perhaps find, in addition to the comparatively sudden
change from an attenuated and dry to a more dense and humid atmosphere, another
tangible barrier to its permanent multiplication in the more fertile country to the
southeast in the lengthened summer season. As with annual plants, so with insects
(like this locust), which produce but one generation annually, and whose active exist-
ence is bounded by the spring and autumn frosts, the duration of active life is pro-
portioned to the length of the growing season. Hatching late and developing quickly
in its native haunts, our Rocky Mountain locust, when born within our borders (and
the same will apply in degree to all the country where it is not autochthonous), is in
the condition of an annual northern plant sown in more southern climes; and just as
this attains precocious maturity and deteriorates for want of autumn’s ripening in-
fluences, so our locust must deteriorate under such circumstances. If those which
acquired wings in Missouri early last June had staid with us long enough to lay eggs,
even supposing them capable of doing so, these eggs would have inevitably hatched
prematurely, and the progeny must in consequence have perished.

The fact that some changes are undergone. by the eastern progeny of
the Rocky Mountain locust is substantiated by two good observers,
quoted by Mr. Riley, as follows:

Mr. Riley is of the opinion that the grasshoppers run out in a few generations after
they leave their native sandy and gravelly coil. My experiments, so far as they go-
verify that opinion. For several years I have caught grasshoppers during early sum,

636 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

mer that: came fresh from the direction of the mountains, and by attaching their legs
by fine silk threads to a small spring balance, found that their physical strength was
from 25 to 50 per cent. greater than that of grasshoppers treated the same way that
were hatched in Nebraska or in States farther eastward or northward. The same re-
sult was reached by caging them, aud ascertaining how long they would live without
food, and also by vivisection. In some places, also, the eggs that were laid in different
years since 1864 did not hatch out. The changes from extreme wet to dry, and from
cold to hot weather, or some other unknown causes, seem to sap their constitutional
vigor. Were it not for this, long ere now these grasshoppers would, from their enor-
mous numbers, have desolated the whole country as far east as the Atlantie.—Prof.
Samuel Aughey, of the University of Nebraska, in the Lincoln (Nebr.) Jocrnal.

I have observed hundreds of winged locusts fall to the ground during flight, either
already dead or soon dying. These, upon examination, have generally proved to con-
tain no parasites, and I judge that their death was in consequence of impaired strength ;-
this second generation, raised in an unnatural climate, not equaling in vitality the
first generations, and succumbing to the fatigue consequent upon extended flight.—
Prof. F. H. Snow, of Kansas State University, in Observer of Nature.

This view is also held by Mr. Whitman, of Minnesota.

Mr. Riley states that in Missouri ‘‘the specimens which hatched in
and left our western counties last spring were, on an average, Somewhat
darker and smaller than their parents.” It thus appears that the Rocky
Mountain locust is affected like most other animals or plants when re-
moved from their proper geographical limits; but a few insects, such as
the Colorado potato-beetle, &c., being able to withstand a change of
climate. As will be seen below, a variety of spretus head is found in
Northern New England, Illinois, and the Pacific coast. Though born and
bred outside of the dry and elevated Rocky Mountain plains, are dwarfed
and prevented by moisture and various natural causes, such as the
presence of forests, &c., from increasing in large numbers and migrat-
ing. These dwarfed individuals are a climatic variety of C. spretus, which
has been named atlanis by Mr. Riley, who, however, believes that it is
a truly distinct species from C. spretus. But from a careful study of
the geographical variations of a number of moths common to the Atlantic
and Pacific States as well as the Rocky Mountain region, I have found
that Rocky Mountain and usually Pacific coast specimens are larger and
with longer wings than eastern examples.

(See my monograph of Phalenide, Hayden’s United States Geologi-
cal Survey, p. 584, 589.)

It appears that the var. atlanis collected in Illinois was first exam-
ined by Mr. Ubler and named C. spretus, but as Mr. Thomas’s specimens
of spretus came from the locust-area of the plains, and his description
applies to the genuine spretus, his name should be regarded as the
authority rather than Mr. Uhler, whose name was not accompanied by
a description, so far as I am aware.

“It is somewhat strange,” says Prof. C. Thomas, in the zoology of
Lieutenant Wheeler’s Survey, p. 892, “that the first specimen ever
examined and named should have been found in Southern Illinois by
the writer and sent to Professor Uhler, of Baltimore, about the year
1860, though previous to that time various scientific expeditions had
penetrated the western plains; yet it is but seldom seen in the section
where that specimen was obtained.” It is not impossible that the few
specimens of CO. spretus said to have been seen east of the Mississippi
have flown over from the eastern limits of the locust-area in Minnesota,
Towa, or Nebraska, and that it is not a permanent resident, just as the
Asiatic migratory locust occurs temporarily in England and Sweden.
The variety called by Mr. Riley C. atlanis is, however, common in Illi-
nois, and extends west to central Missouri. ‘This is a smaller form, with
shorter wings, and markings more like the eastern locust, but differing
decidedly in the notched end of the hind body of the male. There is

PACKARD.] THE LOCUST EAST OF THE PLAINS. 637

great difference of opinion in regard to this form. Mr. Riley was the first
to describe it fully, and I quote his description:

. Caloptenus atlanis, n. sp.—Length to tip of abdomen, 0.70-0.85 inch; to tip of closed
wings, 0.92-1.05 inches. At once distinguished from femur-rubrum by the notched char-
acter of the anal-abdominal joint in the male, and by the shorter, less tapering cerci;
also by the greater relative length of wings, which extend, en an average, nearly one-
third their length beyond the tip of the abdomen in the dried specimens; also by the
larger and more distinct spots on the wings—in all which characters it much more
closely resembles spretus than femur-rubrum. From spretus, again, it is at once distin-
guished by the smaller size, the more distinct separation of the dark mark running
from the eyes on the prothorax and of the pale line from base of wings to hind thigh;
also by the anal joint in the ¢ tapering more suddenly ; and by the two lobes forming
the notch being less marked. From both species it is distinguished not only by its
smaller size, but by the deeper, more livid color of the dark parts, and the paler yellow
of the light parts—the colors thus more strongly contrasting.

6 ¢’s,7 9’sfrom NewHampshire. Just as the typical femur-rubrum is at once distin-
guished from the typical spretus by the characters indicated, so atlanis, though structur-
ally nearer to spretus, is distinguished from it at a glance by its much smaller size and
darker, more marbled coloring. The contrast is all the greater in the living specimens,
and I have seen no specimens of -spretus that at all approach it in these respects.

Whether this is the femur-rubrum, as defined by De Geer or by Harris, it is almost
impossible to decide, though Harris’s figure of femur-rubrum Letter represents it than
the true femur-rubrum as subsequently defined by Thomas, and as found in Illinois and
Missouri.

I have collected this grasshopper in Central Maine, and at Amherst,
Mass., where it is not uncommon, and could be easily confounded with
the eastern red-legged locust, (C. femur-rebrum). It is also common in
Essex County, Massachusetts, and has been since 1864, as seen by speci-
mens in the museum of the Peabody Academy of Science at Salem.
Mr. 8S. H. Seudder has also specimens from New Hampshire, and it is
not improbable that it is a widely-distributed form, with a range ap-
proximating to that given onthe map. Iam inelined to regard it as by
no means a distinct species, but as an eastern variety of C. spretus, re-
placing that species on the Atlantic coast and in the Mississippi Valley.
In this region it will probably never become injurious. Mr. Thomas
regards it as a variety of C. femur-rubrum rather than C. spretus. In
speaking of Caloptenus femur-rubrum, he remarks as follows :* “A few
specimens taken in Iowa. These belong to the typical form, but they
and all others obtained within the last two or three years appear to me
to be slenderer and more like Riley’s atlanis than in former years. That
this species has been undergoing some modification in the Mississippi
Valley within the last three or four years [ think must be admitted. A1-
though Riley’s atlanis is certainly but a variety of femur-rubrum, yet it
can be separated from the latter at a glance, and when the specimens
are fresh without opening the wings or examining the posterior ab-
dominal segments.”

It should be borne in mind that the western spretus differs from the
Jemur-rubrum in the much longer wings and its larger size. The legs
are the same in both, while spretus is paler, with shades of dull yellow
and red. The legs are of the same length in both, and the spines (ovi-
positor) in the end of the body are the same in the two species. These
differences I find constant after careful examination of twelve speci-
mens of each species, and of many others more superficially studied.
The male of spretus differs decidedly from that of femur-rubrum in the
characters already pointed out, namely, in the narrow, prominent, deeply-
notched tip of the abdomen, as well as the short fork in the complete
tergal piece of the abdomen. On the other hand the end of the body of
the male of femur-rubrum is rounded, full, and entire, and not thickened,
yet I have observed in one or two of the specimens of the male femur-

‘ * Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences, 1876, p. 260.

638 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

rubrum from Essex County, Massachusetts, a slight tendency of the ab-
domen to become notched, and I should not be surprised to find inter-
mediate links connecting the variety atlanis with femur-rubrum, but
with the evidence now before me, especially the occurrence in California
ot diminutive short-winged male spretus, scarcely distinguishable from the
eastern atlanis, the two specimens agreeing well in the form of the ab-
dominal tip. I am inclined to the belief that atlanis is simply a variety
of spretus. Speculating on the origin of the two species, I should econ-
sider, that femur-rubrum being on the whole the more widespread species,
that spretus originated from it after it (femur-rubrum) had attained its
present distribution, and that spretus assumed its larger size and great
length of wing on the hot and dry central plateau of the Rocky Moun-
tains.

Practically considered the two injurious forms are the genuine spretus
and the genuine femur-rubrum. Itis the latter which is so abundant
and destructive at times in the New England States and Canada.
Having known the insect so well for twenty years in Maine and New
Hampshire, I am surprised to find in Mr. Riley’s seventh report the
suggestion that the femur-rubrum “had been confounded” with his
atlanis, and *“*had played the part of a migratory locust in the White
Mountain region of Maine and New Hampshire.” The form atlanis is
a comparatively rare one in New England. During the summer of 1874,
’75, and 776, in Massachusetts at least, it has been very rarely met with,
compared with the ordinary red-legged locust, and must have been so
in 1864, judging by the labels on the specimens in the museum of the
Peabody Academy of Science, and I have little doubt but that it has
always been a comparatively scarce insect, while the genuine femur-
rubrum abounds in countless numbers each summer and autumn from
Maine to Massachusetts, and I suppose all over its destructive limits as
laid down on Map II.

I have received a male and female of C. spretus, var. atlanis, from Mr.
Henry Gillman, of Detroit, who collected them “near Laughing Fish
River, Michigan,* on the south shore of Lake Superior. This river falls
into Traine Bay, an indentation of the coast to the eastward of Mar-
quette. These specimens measured thus, from head to tip of wings when
folded, male 1.08, female 1.10 inches; atlanis from Massachusetts, male
1.02, female 1.12 inches; atlanis from Illinois, male 0.92, female 0.95 inch;
atlanis from California, male 0.99 inch. On the other hand a male C.
spretus, normal form, from Towa, measured 1.30, while an average male
from Colorado was 1.34 inches in length. Ten specimens of lowa spretus,
the offspring of emigrants from the Rocky Mountains, were slightly
smaller and considerably darker than specimens from Missouri, Kansas,
and Colorado, approaching slightly but perceptibly var. atlanis and
Semur-rubrum. I have the idea that if the normal form of spretus were
permanently acclimated in the Mississippi Valley, it would change to’
var. atlanis. .

I should add that the conclusions regarding the varietal nature I
have above stated are written out from notes made two years since
after careful examinations, and in 1874, and again in 1875, while I have
at the present time of writing re-examined the subject and come to the
same conclusion as I held in 1874,

DOES THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST INHABIT THE PACIFIC COAST ?

Prof. C. Thomas remarks as follows in the Zoology of Lieutenant
Wheeler’s Survey, p. 892, 1876, concerning the westward distribution

* Riviere aux Poissons qui rit, of the French Voyageurs.

PACKARD. | THE LOCUST ON THE PACIFC CoAsT? 639

of this species: “So far as I can learn, it has not yet been found in
California; but as it is found immediately east of the Sierra Nevada, it
is quite probable that it reaches to the Pacific, though it may not be
migratory on the west side of the range.” Previous to this, in his Acri-
dide of North America, (Hayden’s Survey, 1873, p. 165), he remarked,
“‘T have traced this species from Texas northward to the north shore of
Lake Winnipeg, in British America, and from the Mississippi River
westward to the Sierra Nevada range. It does not appear to be found
in California, and but a short distance southward in Arizona. I am
half-way inclined to the opinion that future investigations will show
that this is really the destructive species in California, and not Gdipoda
atrox, for it would seem impossible for the latter to sustain itself during
a lengthened flight with its short wings.”

Mr. Scudder thus writes me regarding the occurrence of C. spretus in
California: ‘On looking over my cabinet I find two or three speci-
mens, probably received from Mr. Edwards, with printed label ‘Califor-
nia and Nevada,’ which I should be -very unwilling to separate from
spretus.”

In the autumn of 1875 1 received from Mr. Edwards two specimens,
labeled C. spretus, from California; one was a male, the other a female.
The male I compared with a living male spretus, var. atlanis, caught at
Amherst, and found no differences in size or length of wing, except that
the wings were more clearly spotted and the body lighter colored. I
then considered it as C. spretus, and published a note to that effect in the
American Naturalist for October, 1875, vol. ix, p. 573.

On sending the two specimens to Mr. Seudder for identification, he
writes me that the female “is apparently femur-rubrum and the other
probably bilituwralis Walker, though it is pretty hard to be sure of Walk-
er’s species. I have both of these from Vancouver’s Island (Crotch).”

On a fresh comparison of Mr. Edwards’s male, which he and I refer to
spretus, I found it to be of the same size and length of wing as Mas-
sachusetts atlanis, but on comparing it with C. spretus from Northern
Missouri, it does not seem to me to differ, except in being considerably
smaller and in having shorter wings; in coloration and style of mark-
ings, particularly the general pale-reddish and dull-yellowish tints, and
especially the distinct spots on the wings, it is a true spretus. Some
observers may call it variety atlanis. I should prefer to regard it as a
small subvariety of spretus, and regard atlanis as confined to the Hast-
ern States. However, as far as our present knowledge goes, I should
conclude that spretus occurs west of the Sierra Nevada as well as east,
but have not extended its range on the map beyond Utah and Idaho,
except conjecturally. It is to be hoped that collectors in California will
settle all doubts as to the range of this species in the Pacific States,
and collect it in such numbers that satisfactory comparisons may be in-
stituted between the Pacific coast form and the genuine spretus and the
form atlanis. Meanwhile, Mr. Henry Edwards, so well known for his
extensive entomological researches in Oregon, California, and Nevada,
sends me the following notes under date of September 10, 1876: “* Now
as to Caloptenus spretus, I first found this species in large numbers
about 20 miles north of San Francisco, in Marion County, in May, 1875.
Previous to that time, though known to me by a few scattered individ-
uals, it had never appeared in great abundance, but at the above date it
was in immense quantities in the locality indicated, though it appeared
to prefer the dried-up grass to the green and growing corn and other
cereals which were close athand. I have heard of no serious complaints
whatever of the destructive qualities of this insect, and am inclined to

640 REPORT UNITED. STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

think that it is not yet much to be dreaded in California. We have no
other species that | am aware of in large numbers. Spretus has been
taken by me near Portland and at the Dalles, Oregon, and still more
abundantly at Victoria, Vancouver’s Island, but I have never seen it in
the Sierras; my idea being that it is always (here at least) confined to
the valleys and plains. In proof of this, the locality in Marin County
to which I have alluded is at the base of Mount , and on the sides
of the mountain itself the grasshoppers were not found at all. I donot
think it goes far south of San Francisco. I have seen one or two from
Santa Barbara, but none from below that point. Perhaps it may be re-
placed by another species. We have no literature that I know of on
the subject, save a few newspaper notices, which I will try to find and
send to you. At present, we are strangely exempt from all destructive
insects.”

California in former years has had its locust invasions, although we
are entirely uncertain as to the species forming the swarms. In differ-
ent parts of California they have appeared in the following years, ac-
cording to Mr. A. S. Taylor (Smithsonian Report for 1858): 1722, 1746-
1749, 1753 and 1754, 1765-1767. In the present century they have been
abundayt and destructive about 1827 or 182 28, about 1834 or 1835, and
in 1838, 1846, and especially in 1855.

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST.

A glance at the accompanying map, showing the distribution of the
Rocky Mountain locust (Caloptenus spretus), will show the probable limits
within which it will be found. At least there is no probability that
the locust will ever afflict farmers east of the limits assigned.

The eastern limits have been defined by Professor Riley for Texas, Indian
Territory, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, and Minnesota, while the north-
ern and northeastern limits have been indicated by Prof. G. M. Dawson.
The southestern limits are somewhat conjectural, but have been indi-
cated to me by Maj. J. W. Poweil. The western limits in Nevada
and Idaho have been pointed out to me by Prof. Cyrus Thomas.

The range of the small variety (atlanis ?) in California and British
America (Vancouver Island) has been indicated by Messrs. H. Edwards,
S. H. Scudder, and myself; while the eastern range of the eastern
variety atlanis has been indicated by Messrs. Riley, Thomas, Scudder,
and myself.

The locust area is divided into two regions, one the permanent
breeding-places, on the elevated plains among the Rocky Mountains
and the great plateau lying east and extending approximately to longi-
tude 102°. Beyond the edge of the great plains are found the tem-
porary breeding-places of the locust, which comprise the prairie-lands
of the border States as far east as longitude 93° or 94°. The arrows
with simple shafts indicate the course of the migrations from the origi-
nal, usually permanent, breeding-places, and the arrows with a feathered
shaft the return migrations from the temporary breeding- en periodi-
cally visited.

“THE MIGRATIONS OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST OF THE WEST.

In dealing with this fearfully-destructive insect, whigh has attracted
so much notice from tbe public, and in seeking for remedies against its
devastations, it is of prime importance to havea thorough knowledge of
its breeding-places, the frequency and extent of its migrations, and to
seek for the connection between the direction of the winds and other
meteorological phenomena and the flights of the locust.

PACKARD | THE MIGRATIONS OF THE LOCUST. 641

The locust is quite or nearly as destructive in Africa, Asia, and
Soutbern Europe as in this country, but the laws of their migrations
and their connection with meteorological phenomena have never been
studied in those regions, aud it remains for the United States, with its
Weather Signal Bureau, to institute, in connection with the scientific
surveys of the West, investigations regarding the nature of the evil and
the best means to overcome it.

In endeavoring to trace the connection between the migrations of the
locust and the course of the winds at different months, the writer has
been led into some theoretical considerations which seem to be supported
by the facts presented in the unpublished report, and which may be
confirmed or disproved by future investigations.

History of the migrations of the locust—The following table, compiled
from the reports of A. S. Taylor, the late Mr. B. D. Walsh, Prof. C. V.
Riley, Prof. C. Thomas, Mr. G. M. Dawson, and the observations of Mr.
W. N. Byers, together with the reports in the Monthly Weather Review,
will show the years when the locust was excessively abundant and de-
structive in the different Territories and States, and also serve to
roughly indicate the frequency and extent of the migrations of the de-
structive locust of the West. The dates which are starred are years
when the progeny of the locusts of the preceding year abounded, and
when in most cases there were no fresh incursions from the westward.
The species referred to under the head of California, Washington, and
Oregon may be some other than Caloptenus spretus.

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wae a 1876 1876 12876 1876 META ee Senos wrace axe leaned

This table and the data on which it is based are necessarily very im-
perfect, oWing to the vast extent of the territory over which the locust
swarmed, and the fact that the greater portion is uninhabited, while the
inhabited portions have been settled only within comparatively few
years. It will be seen, however, that since 1873 tLe evil bas been greater
and more wide-spread than ever before.

The theory of the migrations.—(1) The immediate cause of the migra-
tions of the locust from its original breeding places is the unusual abundance
of the species during certain years. It has been found in some cases that

41G@s

642 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

the exceptional years when the locust migrates are periods of unusual
heat and dryness, conditions unusually favorable to the excessive in-
crease of insect life. As may be seen in the accounts of the eastern
locust, the grass army-worm, the grain-aphis, the chinch-bug, and other
less destructive insects, when the early part of the season, the spring
and early weeks of summer, are warm and dry, without sudden changes
of temperature, insects abound and enormously exceed their ordinary
numbers. When two such seasons occur, one after the other, the con-
ditions become still more favorable for the undue development of in-
sect life. Now it is well known that in the Hastern States the sammers
of 1860 and 1874, preceding the appearance of the army-worm and
grain-aphbis, were unusualiy warm aud dry, and favorable not only for
the hatching of the eggs laid the year previous, but for the growth and
development of the larve or young. Look now at the conditions for
the development of locust life on the hot and dry plains, chiefly of Da-
kota, Montana, Wyowing, and Idaho. We have no extended wmeteoro-
logical records from these regions at hand, but it is more than probable
that the years preceding the migrations of the locusts were exception-
ally warm and dry, when the soil was parched with long-sustained
droughts, as we know that the corresponding species east of the Missis-
sippi River abounds during dry summers following dry and warm springs.

Given, then, the exceptional years of drought and heat and the great
extent of territory, and we have as the result vast numbers of young
hatched out. The year previous having perhaps been warm and dry,
tbe lecusts would abound, and more eggs thau usual would be laid.
Tiese would with remarkably few exceptions hatch, and the young soon
consume the buffalo grass and other herbage, and move abont from oue
region to avother, following often a determinate course in search of
tood. In this way large broods may migrate a long distance, from per-
haps twenty to fifty miles. In about six or seven weeks they acquire
wings. Experience shows that the western locust as soon as it is fledged
rises up high in the air, sometimes a thousand feet or much higher.
They have been seen to settle at night on the ground, eat during this
time, and toward noon of the next day fill the air again with their
glistening wings. As more and more become fledged, the vast swarm
exhausts the supply of food, and when the hosts are finally marshaled,
new swarms joining perhaps the original one, the whole swarm, possibly
hundreds of miles in extent, begius to fly off, borne by the prevailing
westerly and northwesterly winds, in a generally easterly and south-
easterly course.

(2.) The secondary cause of the migration is the desire for food, and
possibly the reproductive instinct. ‘The fact that in their migrations the
locusts often seem to select cultivated tracts, rapidly cross the treeless,
barren plains, and linger and die on the prairies and western edge of
the fertile valleys of the Missouri and Mississippi, indicates that the im-
pelling force is due primarily to the want of food, and that the guiding
force is the direction of the prevailing winds, for they have no leaders,
and we do not believe in the existence of a “ migratory instinct” in the
locust any more than in the grass army-worm, or the cotton army-worm,
which it is sufticiently evident migrate from field to field, simply in
search of more abundant food.* Meanwhile the reproductive system of

*The simple fact that the more extensive migrations of the locust both in the New
and Old World are periodical, long intervals existing between them, suggests that the
development of a migratory instinct would be impossible. If once partially implanted,
the long succession of non-migratory years would effectually break up the germs of
such an instinct. It may be quite different with birds, which perform their annual
migrations for years and perhaps centuries without fail.

PACKARD.] TUE MIGRATIONS OF THE LOCUST. 643

the locusts is maturing, the eggs ripening, and the uneasiness of the
locusts during the course of their travels may be unconsciously stima-
lated by the sexual instinets and the desire to discover suitable places
for egg-laying, a long and tedious operation.

It has been sufficiently shown that a swarm of locusts observed by Pro-
fessor Robinson near the entrance to Boulder Caiion, Colorado, traveled
‘a distance of about six hundred miles to Hastern Kansas and Misseuri.
Though the swarm was first observed at some distance north of Denver,
Colo., it was then on its way from the north, and may have come from
some part of Wyoming two or three hundred miles northwestward or
northward. Tuough the winds may vary and counter-currents exist,
and storm-gusts from due novth, such as often sweep over the plains,
and local southerly breezes may retard their flight, the course is either
eastward or southeasterly. We know enough of the winds in the West-
ern States and Territories to lay down the the law that the general direc-
tion of the winds in Jaly and August, along the eastern slope of the
Rovky Mountains and on the plains, is from the west and northwest,
and accords with the eastward course of the locust swarms. The rela-
tions between the average direction of the-winds and the migrations of
tue locust have, however, never been sufficiently studied, either, so far
as we are aware, in Europe or in this country. And yet, if we would
intelligently study the causes of the excessive increase and migratious
of the locust, we must examine the meteorological features of the country,
ascertain the periods of drought and undue rain-fall, the average direc-
tion of the wind for the different mouths, in order to learn how far they
correspond with the phenomena of insect-life. That there are meteor-
ological cycles, dry and hot seasons recurring at irregular intervals,
while the general average may remain nearly the same century after
century, is supported, though it may be vaguely, by observed meteor-
ological facts.

The question then arises, Can meteorologists predict the coming of sea-
sons of undue heat and drought, and consequently can we predict insect-
years? That is, the migrations of locusts and the undue inerease of the
chinch-bug and army and cotton worm? I believe that we shall, after the
lapse of years, be able to foretell with a good degzee of certainty locust
invasions, and be able to provide against the losses thus incurrred.

On the frontier of the Western States, in Colorado, or in the Territo-
ries of Wyoming, Montana, and Utah, where the losses from the ray-
ages of the locust cannot easily be made up by importatious from con-
tiguous Territories, it seems the most practicable mode to provide in
years of plenty against years of want. We should imitate on a grand
scale the usage of the ancient Egyptians under Pharaoh, who laid up in
times of unusual harvest stores of grain for times of famine. It is said
that this has been done on a small seale by the Mormons. If this were
dove in the far West, in seasons immediately preceding insect-years,
which had been predicted by entomologists in conjunction with the
meteorologists, we should be saved the distress, destitution, and even
loss of life from starvation, which have resulted from ignorance of the
laws regulating the appearance of destructive insects, especially the
western locust.

The return migration.—By simultaneous observations for a number of
years over the region liable to be visited by migratory hordes of locusts,
added to the knowledge we already possess, it will not only be possible
to predict the course of certain swarms from their breeding-places, and
their probable destination, so that wheu a swarm starts from Montana
or Wyoming, its arrival in Colorado a week or a fortnight later may

644 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

with some certainty be predicted, and, again, its arrival in Kansas and
adjoining States be announced with a certain amount of precision, as
has already been done by Dr. Riley, but we shall be able to foretell the
course taken in the return flight of their progeny in the succeeding
year. I will confess that previous to my visit to Kansas and Colorado,
in 1875, I was skeptical as to Dr. Riley’s opinion that there was a gen-
eral movement in a northwest course of the young of the previous year,
broods from Missouri and adjoining regions northwestward. The facts
and resulting theory have already been stated in full by Dr. Riley and
others. It remains to determine the causes of this return migration, this
completion of the “‘ migration-cycle,” as Professor Dawson terms it.
It is evident that in this case the desire for food is not the cause, for food
is many times more abundant in the Mississippi Valley than on the
plains whither they return. The solution of the problem, I think, must
be sought in the direction of the prevailing winds during the middle of
June, the time when they become winged. It may be found, after a
series of careful meteorological observations, that the prevailing winds
at this early season are southerly and southeasterly. It has been shown
by meteorologists, as I learn from Prof. C. Abbe, that during May and
June the winds blow inwerd toward the heart of the continent from the
Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. On application to General A. J.
Myer, Chief of the Signal-Service of the United States Army, for the
meteorological data necessary to confirm this hypothesis, L promptly
received a full summary of data observed by the officers of the Weather
Signal Bureau, for periods of from two to tive (usually the latter) years
between 1871 and 1876, which show that the prevailing winds in Jane,
in Daveuport, Dodge City, and Keokuk, Iowa; Saint Paul and Breck-
enridge, Minn.; Yankton and Fort Sully, Dak.; Omaha, Leavenworth,
and Fort Gibson, Ind. T.—all within the locust area—are from the south-
east and south. This fact may be sufficient to account for the prevail-
ing course of the return migrations of the locust from the eastern limits
of the locust area.

The accompanying table is taken from a synopsis of the meteorological
phenomena of the Western States and Territories within the eastern
limits of the locust area, which is appended to this chapter. It has
been furnished me by Brig. Gen. A. J. Myer, U. 8S. A., Chief Signal-
Officer, Washington, D. C., and my hearty thanks are due him tor the
labor and trouble involved in its preparation,

645

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE LOCUST.

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646 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Let us therefore grant this setting-in of southerly and easterly winds,
which may last until the locusts are winged. When they rise on the
wing into the air they are known to move in a general northwest direc-
tion. It is highly probable that they are borne along by these gener-
ally southeasterly winds, and pass over on to the plains. The cause is
seen, then, to be entirely independent of subsistence ; possibly the re-
productive instinct causes them to become uneasy, restless, to assemble
high in the air and seek the dry, hot, elevated plateau of the northwest.
Should this be so, the cause of their migrations is probably purely me-
chanical. Abundant testimony is at hand to show that they are wholly
at the mercy of the prevailing winds, and that as a rule the course of their
migrations is quite dependent on the direction of the winds, while the
course of the winds depends more or less on the season of the year. We
may expect that future research over sufficient territory will show that
the June migrations, from the eastern limits of the locust area, will be
toward the northwest, and the July, August, and early September mi-
grations, from the Rocky Mountain plateau, wiil be in a general easterly
and southeasterly direction.

It is not only of great scientific interest, but of high practical impor-
tance, to collect all facts bearing on the return migrations, in order to
know where the locusts go in their return migrations the second year,
as we only know that they do fly acertain distance northwestward. We
want to ascertain the extreme western limits of this return migration.
We also want to learn whether they return to their original breeding-
places on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, or whether the
westerly winds, if they are westerly, drive them back and scatter them,
so that they do not breed extensively.

It will be seen by the reader that all grounds for a reliable working
theory of locust migrations are based on the work of our Signal Bureau
and local observers, and that the observations of the meteorologists
and entomologists must go hand in hand. The Government has pro-
vided a well-organized corps of meteorological observers, and we sub-
mit that a number of competent entomologists should take the field, un-
der Government auspices. Not only should the border States, especially
Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, Minnesota, and Iowa, employ competent en-
tomologists, following the liberal policy of Missouri, which for eight
years has had a State entomologist, whose reports have proved of in-
calculable practical value, as well as of great scientific interest, but the
habits of the locust need first of all to be thoroughly studied in the Ter-
ritories, particularly those of Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Dakota, Utah,
* New Mexico, Arizona, and in the State of Colorado. A commission of
entomologists should be appointed to make a thorough detailed study
for several successive seasons of the habits of the locusts in the Terri-
tories mentioned. It would seem that the recommendations made at the
recent meeting of western governors at Omaha, that an appropriation
-be made by Congress, and a commission be attached to the existing

United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories,
is the most feasible and economical method of securing the speediest
and best results.

Let us for a moment look at the losses sustained in the United States
from the attacks of insects. The anvual agricultural products of this
country by the last census amounted in value to $2,500,000,000. Of
this amount we in all probability annually lose over $200,000,000 from
the attacks of injurious insects alone. Dr. Riley avers that the losses
during 1874 in Missouri from locusts, and it will be remembered that
only the western third was invaded, exceeded $15,000,000. This

PACKARD. | LOCUSTS OF CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. 647

would make the losses in other parts of the West at least twice as
much more, or $45,000,000 in all. The estimated money-loss ocea-
sioned by the chinch-bug in Illinois in 1864 was over $73,000,000;
in Missouri, in 1874, it is estimated by Dr. Riley to have been
$19,000,000. The annual losses from the chinch-bug are greater, Mr.
Riley says, than from any other insect. The average annual loss to the
cotton crop from the attacks of the cotton army-worm alone is estimated
at $50,000,000. Adding to these the losses sustained by the attacks of
about a thousand other species of insects which affect our cereals, forage
and field-crops, fruit-trees and sbrabs, garden vegetables, shade and
ornamental trees, as well as our hard and pine forests and stored fruits,
and it will not be thought an exaggeration to put our annual losses at

200,000,090. If the people of this country would ouly look at this
annual depletion, this absolute waste, which drags her backward in the
race with the countries of the Old World, they might see the necessity
of taking effective preventive measures in restraining the ravages of
insects. With care and forethought, based on the observance of facts
by scientific men, we believe that from $50,000,000 to $100,000,000, or
from one-quarter to one-half of this annual waste, could be saved to the
country. And the practical, most efficient way is for the States to co-
operate with the General Government in the appointment of salaried °
entomologists, and of a United States commission of entomologists, who
should combine the results of the State offivials, and issue weekly, or, if
necessary, daily bulletins, perhaps in combination with the Weather-
Signal Bureau, as to the conditions of the insect world, forewarning
farmers and gardeners from week to week as to what enemies should
be guarded against and what preventive and remedial measures should
‘be used.

The Weather Signal Bureau, first suggested and urged by the late I.
A. Lapham, was not instituted without ridicule and opposition, but it
has saved millions to our commerce and agriculture. The maintenance
of an entomological commission and the appointment of State entomol-
ogists would involve comparatively little expense. Already, owing to
the full information regarding the invasion of Missouri by the locust in
1874, contained in the reports of Prof. C. V. Riley, the people of that
State will be well prepared, from the direful experience cf the past, to
deal more intelligently and efficiently with the locust in the future.

THE MIGRATORY LOCUSTS OF CENTRAL AND SOU'IH AMERICA.

We have already referred to the fact that swarms of locusts of unknown
Species have occurred at different dates in Guatemala and other parts
of Central America. The following notices are taken from an article by
A. 5S. Taylor, of Monterey, Cal., published in the Smithsonian Report
for 1858: “Throughout Califorvia, with its ante-1849 boundaries,
throughout Lower California, New Mexico, and all the dry and the
elevated mesas or plateaus of the republic of Mexico, their ravages have
been noted by the old Spanish chroniclers from the first conquest and
settlement of the countries.” In 1632 the parishes of Mexico and Pinola,
and other parts of the uplands of Guatemala, were overrun with locusts.
Clavigero witnessed locust invasions in 1738 or 1739 upon the coasts of
Xicayan, in Oaxaca. Afterward a famine occurred in Yucatan.

Regarding the injuries of a Guatemalan locust, we quote the following
account from Squier’s Honduras; descriptive, historical, and statistical,
1870:

The insect, however, which is most dreaded in Honduras, as indeed in all Central
America, is the langosta or chapulin, a species of grasshopper or locust, which at inter-

648 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

vals afflicts the entire country, passing from one end to the other in vast columns of
many millions, literally darkening the air and destroying every green thing in their
course. I once rode through one of these columns which was fully ten miles in width.
Not only did the insects cover the ground, rising in clouds on each side of the mule-
path as I advanced, but the open pine-forest was brown with their myriad bodies, as
if the trees had been seared with fire, while the air was filled with them, as it is with
falling flakes in a snow-storm. Their course is always from south to north. They
make their first appearance as saltones, of diminutive size, red bodies, and wingless,
when they swarm over the ground like ants. At this time vast numbers of them are
killed by the natives. who dig long trenches two or three feet deep, and drive the sal-
tones into them. Unable to leap ont, the trench soon becomes half filled with the young
insects, when the earth is shoveled back, and they are thus buried and destroyed.
They are often driven in this way into the rivers and drowned. Various expedients
are resorted to by the owners of plantations to prevent the passing columns from alight-
ing. Sulphur is burned in the fields, guns are fired, drums beaten, and every mode of

making a noise put in requisition for the purpose. In this mode detached plantations
are often saved. But, when the columns once alight, no device can avail to rescue
them from speedy desolation. In a single hour, the largest maize-fields are stripped of
their leaves, and only the stems are left to indicate that they once existed.

It is said that the chapulin makes its appearance at the ends of periods of about fifty
vears, and that it then prevails for from five to seven years, when it entirely disappears.
But its habits have never been studied with care, and I am unprepared to affirm any-
thing in these respects. Its ordinary size is from two and a half to four inches in
length, but it sometimes grows to the length of five inches.

Mr. Taylor remarks that “this statement is consonant with the
accounts received from Honduras and Guatemala of the famine and
pestilence of fever in those countries in 1855 and 1856, caused by clouds
of locusts devastating the country, and confirms Gage’s history of the
same iands in 1632.” In 1855 the valley of Colima, in Southwestern
Mexico, was visited by locusts.

In 1856 their ravages extended along the first central mesas or steppes
bordering eastward the Rocky Mountains, covering the dry soils of
Texas, and down into the south of Mexico. In the vicinity of Cordova,
in the State of Vera Cruz, the people made a regular campaign against
them, and succeeded in destroying one hundred and ninety-two arrobas,
computed as numbering four hundred million grasshoppers. In the
State of Guerrero they also did great injury, particularly within the dis-
tricts around Acapulco.

The treeless portions of South America are also not exempt from
swarms of locusts, though we have no information as to the different
Species composing them. Taylor says that at the time of the visit of
Darwin to Chile and the adjacent countries of South America he relates
of the grasshoppers as follows, at the date of March 25, 1835, when he
was crossing the dry country which lies between the city of Mendoza, in
Buenos Ayres, and the opposite side of Chile. This country assimi-
lates in every essential physical characteristic to that of the territories
within the boundaries of Upper and Lower California prior to the
American occupation :

“Shortly belore arriving at the village and river of Luxan, we ob-
served to the south a ragged cloud of a dark reddish-brown color. At
first we thought it was caused by some great fire on the neighboring
plains, but we soon found that it was a swarm of locusts. They were
flying northward, and with the aid of a light breeze they overtook us at
the rate of ten or fifteen miles an hour. The main body filled the air
from a height of twenty feet to that, as it appeared, of two or three
thousand feet, above the ground. The sound of their wings was as the
sound of chariots of many horses running to battle; or rather, as I
should say, like a strong breeze passing through a ship’s rigging. The
Sky, seen through the advanced guard, appeared like a mezzotinto
eugraving; but the main body was impervious to sight. They were not,

PACKARD.] THE LOCUSTS OF THE OLD WORLD. 649

however, so thick togetber but that they could escape a stick waved
backward and forward. When they alighted, they were more numerous
than the leaves in the field, and the surface became reddis'a instead of
green. The swarm having once alighted, the individuals flew from side
to side in all directions. Locusts are not an uncommon pest in this
country. Already duriug this season several smaller swarms had come
up from the south, where, apparently, as in all other parts of the world,
they are bred in the deserts. The poor cottagers in vain attempted, by
lighting fires, by shouts, and by waving branches, to arrest the attack.
This species of locust closely resembles, and perhaps is identical with,
the Gryllus migratorius of Syria and Palestine.”

THE LOCUSTS OF THE OLD WORLD.

That the calamities which have befallen the farmers of the West are
less grievous than those resulting from locust invasions in the Old
World; that there is a general similarity in the habits of locusts the
world over, and that the causes of their migrations are of the same
general nature, may be seen by a perusal of the following statements,
which I have taken from sources as a rule inaccessible to wost readers.
For brief popular accounts of the Old World locusts the works of Kirby
and Spence, Westwood, and of subsequent compilers may be consulted.
The following historical sketch of locust invasions in the Old World is
condensed from an article by Rudolf Gottschatf in “ Unserezeit,” (Febru-
ary, 1876, Leipzig). The first account after that of Joel, in the Bible,
whose remarks apply to Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and Asia Minor, is the
statement of Ororius, that in tbe year of the world 3800 certain regions
of North Africa were visited by monstrous swarms; the wind blew them
into the sea, and the bodies washed ashore “stank more than the corpses
of a hundred thousand men.” Another locust plague, resulting in
a famine and contagious disorders, according to St. Augustine, oc-
curred in the kingdom of Masinissa, and caused the death of about
800,000 men. Pliny states that the locusts visited Italy, flying from
Africa. In Europe locust invasions have been recorded since 1353,
when they appeared in Germany. Mouffit states that in 1478 the country
about Venice was invaded, and 30,000 people died of famine. In 1725
the region about Rome was overrun by locusts.

In France, swarms appeared at the close of the middle ages. In 1747
there was a great invasion of Southern and Middle Europe, especially
the shores of the Danube, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania. Be-
fore and after this date vast swarms were observed in Africa and Asia.
Adansin in 1750 observed them in the Senegal. In 1799, Jackson, in
his “Journey through Morocco,” states that the whole country between
Mogador and Tanger, on the borders of the Sahara, was covered with
them, and they were in many cases borne into the ocean westward.

In Russia, whose southern steppes form the home of the locust, vast
swarms in the time of Charles XII, who was then in Bessarabia, came
there from the region of the Black Sea. Russia, Poland, and Hun-
gary were often visited by them. In 1828 and 1829 enormous swarms
invaded the coast of the Black Sea. In 1859, in the South Russian
provinces of Cherson, and in Bessarabia, a tract 60 versts long and
about one-third as wide was overrun by them. Taschenberg gives the
locust: years in Russia in the present century as follows: 1800, 1801,
1803, 181216, 182022, 1824 aud 1825, 1828-31, 185436, «1844, 1847,
1850, and 1851, 1859 and 1861.

650 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

In August, 1384, according to Mr. J. Boll, they invaded portions of
Switzerland.

In Germany tbe records go back to 1333. In this year, and until
1336, they abounded. Entering Hungary, they overflowed into Poland
and Austria. They then divided into two great swarms, one of which
flew southerly into Italy, the other into France, Suabia, Bavaria, Thu-
ringia, and Saxony. In Germany they again occurred in 1543. In 1693
they invaded Thuringia, going from Hungary by way of Austria,
Schlesia, and Bohemia, and invading the region about Jena, Gotha,
Erfurt, and Weimar.

In Germany the locust years were as follows: 1333~86, 1475, 1527
and 1543, 1636, 1686, 1693 and 1696, 1712, 1714, 1715, 1719, 1727-31, 1734,
1746-50, 1752-754, 1759, 1761, and for the present century, 1805, 1825-30,
1856, 1859. In 187374 small numbers appeared in swarms about
Genshagen, near Berlin; they laid their eggs, and in the middle of
June of 1875 the larve appeared in millions, becoming fledged in July.

K6ppen has published (Hore Soc. Ent. Ross. ili, pp. 89-246) an elab-
orate memoir on the migratory locust of Southern Russia. He gives,
in the first place, a biography of his subject, which includes several
memoirs published in Russian journals. With regard to the species
K6ppen remarks on the various opinions of entomologists as to the rela-
tion between Pachytylus migratorius (Linn.) and P. cinerascens (Tab.), and
comes to the conclusion that the two supposed species are to be regarded
as varieties of one and the same, and that Hdipoda tatraica (Motsch.) is
identical with P. cinerascens. The form which he met with most abun-
dantly in South Russia is the true P. migratorius.

The development of the insect is described by Képpen in detail. The
eggs are deposited by the females, to the number of 60 to 100 together,
in little nests surrounded by a membranous envelope. The eggs are
laid in autumn and the young batched in the following spring. The
envelope is burst a little while before the exclusion of the young. The
eggs display a great power of resistance to the influence of cold; they
have been found to retain their vitality when the temperature reached
26° Fahrenheit when placed with earth in a large glass vessel.

The larve are said by Képpen to moult four times, and the fourth
moult produces the winged insect. The diiterent stages are described
by Képpen. At the end of May (1861), eggs taken from the ground
showed the eyes, antenne, segments, and legs of the larve distinctly ;
and a little while before hatching, the larve could move within the egg.
On its emergence the larva is yellowish-white, with a rosy tinge; in
three to four hours its color is grayish-black. Before and during each
moult the larve are sluggish. At the final moult, which always takes
place in the hottest sunshine, the animals hang head downward, by the
hind feet, upon the stalks of grasses, &e. This enables the insects to
twist about in all directions, in order to free themselves from the skin.
The expansion of the wings occupies about twenty minutes after the
completion of the moult (twenty-two minutes according to Késte, who
says that the moult itself occupies sixteen minutes); during this period
Koppen observed that a dark yellow fluid was distributed over the
wings in microscopic drops. The period which elapsed between the
arrival of the insect at the winged state and the deposition of the eggs
is uncertain; the statements of different authors vary between four
weeks and two months.

Koppen describes the nearly indiscriminate voracity of these insects,
but remarks that certain plants appear to be avoided by them, namely,
flax and hemp, the Cucurbitacew, and, according to Petzholdt, dwarf

PACKARD.) THE LOCUSTS OF THE OLD WORLD. 61

garden-beans. The Gramihee seem to furnish their favorite food. They
preter the leaves and other soft parts of plants and trees, but also some-
times gnaw the bark and even the wood of the latter. In time of
scarcity they will attack straw-thatch and woolen clothes, and even
devour each other. K6éppen notices the statement made by various
authors that the larvee for the first ten days live upon dew, and treats
it as an absurdity.

The perfect insects copulate almost immedialely after the last change
of skin. The union of the sexes continues apparently for a consider-
able time, from twelve to eighteen or even twenty-four hours, but some-
times only for an hour or two. The female carries the male abont with
her, and feeds as if alone; she is, however, unabie to fly. The male
sits quite motionless, only giving a sign of life by stridulation if another
male should approach.

The eggs are deposited about seven days after copulation.,according
to Kiste. The female digs a hole in the earth of about 14 inches, by
means of the hook-like horny organs of the apex of the abdomen, and
the eggs are then laid in cylindrical masses, usually placed at an angde
of about 45° to the surface. The eggs are united by a spongy mass
(cement), which also envelopes the whole outside of the mass; here, by
the adhesion of grains of sand, small stones, &c., it forms a sort of wall
which protects the eggs from injurious external influences. The mass
is sometimes formed wholly or partially of the frothy cement without
eggs. Yersin ascribes this to a morbid condition of the female, and
doubts whether the few eggs contained in such masses are capable of
development. K6ppen has found, on removing the female insect, that
the pit which it had dug was filled with the frothy mass without any
eggs. This seems to the recorder to indicate rather that the cement
mass is first produced by the insect, and the eggs afterward laid in it.
The nests found containing the spongy mass without eggs would then
be easily accounted for, on the supposition that the females were dis-
turbed or destroyed when just about commencing the actual business
of oviposition. The number of eggs laid in each nest seems to vary
from 50 to 90 or 100, and the ovary of the female contains from 100 to
150 eggs, according to Kriinitz. The question whether the females cop-
ulate more than once bas been much discussed in Russia, and from the
author’s statements it would appear that the popular opinion is that the
act of copulation only takes place once. From Kdste’s observations,
however, it is certain that the females copulate and deposit their eggs
several times. He observed a female in confinement which copulated
with six different males before laying her first batch of eggs; and after-
ward the same phenomena were repeated four times, the insect dying
when engaged in oviposition for the sixth time. From his own observa-
tions, and those of other authors, Képpen regards it as most probable
that copulation and oviposition are repeated usually at least three times
by each female, perhaps at intervals of about a month, as stated by
Yersin, the total number of eggs being from 160 to 170.*

Upon the rapidity of movement of locusts in the larval condition the

*In an article by V. Graber ‘‘ on polygamy and other sexual relationships in the Or-
thoptera” (Verbandlungen der zool.-botanischer Gesellsch. in Wien, xxi, pp. 1091-
1096, Zoological Record for 1871), the author details experiments regarding polygamy
and repeated copulations in some orthopterous insects. A male and female were ob-
served in coitu eight distinct times between May 21 and June 1; after the sixth con-
nection the female began to deposit eggs. A second male, which had already fecun-
dated several females, was then placed with her, and she paired at least five times with
him. Analogous results followed experiments upon Pezotettix pedestris, and he believes
that polygamy and polyandry exist in many species.

652 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

statements of authors are at variance. The observations of Sydon and
Doénzingk give about a quarter of a German mile (7. e., about 0.975 mile
English) in the hour. Téchemewsky asserts that they only advance
about 359 feet in the day upon grass land.

Of the senses of the locust, K6ppen seems to regard hearing as the
sharpest. The senses of smell and taste are exerted in the selection of
food ; and that of touch is displayed in the sensibility of the insects to
changes of weather, especially temperature. Sociability is regarded by
the author as characteristic of the locusts. The larve proceeding from
one nest seem to keep together for a time; they afterward associate in
larger masses which move together in search of nourishment. These
migrations in mass commence in the second stage of larval life, but be-
come more general after the second moult. The migration usually takes
place in the morning and evening. The author remarks upon the diree-
tion of the migrations of these insects, which he regards as influenced
to a certain extent by an instinctive perception of the direction in which
abundant food or a suitable breeding-place is to be found, but modified
or even sometimes caused by external agents, especially the winds.
The author also discusses the primary causes of the great migrations
of these insects and the phenomena observed Guring their flight.

In the south of Russia the hatching of the eggs takes place, according.
to the weather, at the end of April or beginning of May. A few larvee
are sometimes produced on warm days in October, but these soon die.
The hatching occupies from two to three weeks, according to circum-
stances. The winged insects appear in the beginning and middle of
July ; copulation takes place early in August; and the oviposition ex-
tends from the middle of August to October. The dry steppes con-
stitute the chief haunt of the locusts; damp places they seem to avoid.
The females prefer for the reception of their ova the solid virgin soil,
and rarely visit ploughed land for this purpose. Damp and cold are
unfavorable for the development of the eggs. The author discusses in
great detail the external conditions which act favorably or unfavorably
upon these insects. The greater part of this section is devoted to the
consideration of their enemies, of which Képpen gives a formidable
list (pp. 151-166).

Leimé and other authors have given Tartary as the true home of the
migrating locusts; but in Tartary no large swarms occur. In the
author’s opinion, the countries in which the swarms are seen are also
the countries of their birth. He cites many facts in support of this
opinion, and in illustration of the geographical distribution of the in-
sect, the northern limit of their migratory or nomadic life being a line
passing from Spain through the south of France, Switzerland, Pomera-
nia, South Russia, and South Siberia, to the north of China. To the
north of this line the insects generally oceur only singly. Many inter-
esting details as to their occurrence in vast numbers are given by the
author (pp. 190-205).

K6ppen also describes the injury done by the locusts when they oceur
ip great numbers, and indicates the means adopted for their suppres-
sion (pp. 205-246).

Képpen also notices Caloptenus italicus, a congener of our C. spretus,
which likewise occurs in South Russia, and at such times, as in other
regions of Southern Europe, sometimes in injurious numbers. Other
species which are also occasional devastators, especially when asso-
ciated with the migratory species, are Pachytylus stridulus, Cidipoda
vastator, Stauronotus vastator, S. cruciatus, and Pezotettiv alpina.

PACKARD.] THE LOCUSTS OF THE OLD WORLD. 653

Kiintsler reports this insect .as injurious to corn-crops in Austria in
1866 and 1867.

The ravages of the locust in Bavaria have been discussed by Jaeckel,*
who cites various records of the visits of this species in swarms during
the fourteenth century, oue toward the close of the fifteenth, and one
at the end of the seventeenth century, and gives along account of a
similar visitation in 1749. Since that year no swarms of locusts have
occurred in Bavaria.

Gerstaecker in a recent workt on the European locust, which seems to
be mainly, however, a compilation, writes as follows regarding the
European locust:

That copulation can be accomplished very soon after emerging from the Jast larva-
skin (he does not name a cupa stage), is shown by the fact that one occasionally finds
individuals engaged in the act while the wings are still tender and have not attained
their full color. But the act is as a rule performed in the course of several days (after
becoming winged), or even after a still longer period.

The male lets the female free in the course of twelve to twenty minutes, after which
the female, before proceeding to lay, employs herself in feeding again for several days.
As soon as her eggs are ripe, which, according to Késten, requires seven days on the
average, she seeks a satisfactory spot to deposit them. (He then describes the act of
laying much like Professor Riley.) The eggs are generally found at a depth of 4 centi-
metres, or more, below the surface. In this act, requiring considerable time, she ly no
means rids herself of her whole stock of eggs at once, but may pass several weeks
even in perfecting them. Possibly for a second or third deposit of the egg-mass a re-
newal of copulation is necessary. At least such a repetition has been noticed in the
case of females that had already been found laying, and has always been followed by
a new deposit of eggs. In all cases, whether after a single or repeated coupling, which
latter may depend upon the relative number of males, and the temperature of the
season, a division is made of the egg-stock into several deposits as is shown by the fact
that the larger egg-pods seldom contain more than one-half, and the smaller very gen-
erally a much smaller fraction of the whole mass of eggs produced by one female,
which mass may amount.to one hundred and fifty or more. With the last deposit the
female has accomplished her destiny, so that she not seldom remains dead on the spot
where the laying occurred. On the other hand the males even after repeated coupling,
and with several females, appear to be able to prolong their life, and may be found
alive as late as October.

From the comparatively long time during which the winged locusts may be found,
extending very commonly from the end of July to the end of September, it must not
be at once concluded that the life of an individual is correspondingly long.

In selecting a spot for the perfection of this egg (packet) dryne-s is of the first im-
portance to the female, and besides this a certain degree of hardness. They prefer
loamy and clayey ground to pure sand. Besides this, a spot is naturally selected which
offers suitable and plentiful food to the hatching brood.

Fallow fields lying alongside cultivated fields and meadows appear to present an
unusual attraction to the female when ready to lay. That the eggs, us such, winter
over under the surface can be set down asa matter of common observation. The
young brood generally do not hatch before the end of April.

The geograpbical distribution of the migratory locust of Europe and
Asia (Pachytylus migratorius) has been discussed by Herr F. T. K6ppen in
Petermann’s “ Mittheilungen aus Justus Perthe’s Geographischer An-
stalt,” (1871, p. 361,) his paper being accompanied by « map showing
the range of the insect. I translate an abstract of it by M. Preadbomme

*Correspondenz-Blatt der Zool. Mineralogisch Verein, Regensburg. xxi, pp. 83-93.
See Zoological Record tor 1867, Verhaudlungen Zool. Bot. Gesellschatt, in Wien, xvii,
pp. 930-932, Zool. Record for 1867.

t* Die Wanderheuschrecke. (Oedipoda Migratoria Lin.) Gemeinverstaendliche
Darstellung ibren Naturgeschichte, Lebensweise, Schidlichkeit, und der Mittel zu ihrer
Vertilgung. Im Auftrage des Konig]. Preuss. Ministeriums fiir die landwirtbsehaft-
lichen Angelegenheiten verfasst von Dr. A. Gerstaecker, Prof. an der Universitiit in
Berlin. Mit 9 Abbildungen auf 2 Tafeln in Farbendruck, Berlin, 1876. 67 pp.”

For the above translation I am indebted to Mr. Whitman, who has kindly called my
attention to the work.

654 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

de Borre, in the Comptr. Rendus of the Entomological Society of Bel-
gium, 187172, p. xviii:

The migratory locust is an Orthopter peculiar to the torrid zone and a large part of
the north temperate zone of the Old World ; but, in this last region, its northern limits
is subject to some variations, the explanation of which is one of the principal objects
of the work of M. Képpen.

In countries such as those of Arabia and Persia, where the mean temperature of the
year, as that of the different seasons, is almost invariable, the abundance of the species
in question does not vary ; it is normally limited, both by the quantity of its nourish-
ment and the uatural enemies of the insect. But this is not the case in those countries
which, like Southern Russia, may present, sometimes favorable seasons, sometinies
years, or even simply seasons, unfavorable to the multiplication of Pachytylus. Thus,
according to M. Képpen, the persistent prolongation of dry heat during a part of the:
autumn will exert an influence on the quantity of eggs laid in favorable places ; and,
on the other hand, a temperature less than 14° Réaumer, [634° Fabr.,} prolonged for
several duys toward the end of May, will be indispensable fo the hatching of the larva.
There would result from the more or less perfect realization of these conditions, and
their succession or thcir interruption duripg several years, those differences observed
in the northern limit of the species, which alternately increase or diminish the area ot
distribution.

M. Képpen has distinguished and traced quite completely on the map for Europe
and Siberia three different limits of the geographical area of Pachytylus migratorius: 1.
The limits of its permanent distribution. 2. The limit of its temporary existence in all
stages of development, a little wore to the north. Finally, 3. The limits of its presence
in the condition of bands of winged insects of a stated age, out of the rezions where
the species may live and propagate. It willbe necessary still to establish the limits of
accidental individual appearances, but that would be of questionable importance. The
northern Jimit of the permavent geographical distribution of Pachylylus migratorius
begins in Western Europe, from the coast of Portugal, near 40° latitude north, and ex-
tends from there toward the northeast as far as the mouth of the Bidassoa, thus leaving
out all the northwest portion of Spain; it continues to rise obliquely in France up as
far north as the lake of Geneva, and extends east, following more or less the forty-
eighth degree of Jatitude, and embracing Valois, all of the north of Italy, Carinthia,
and Hungary, it passes into Southern Russia, where it attains nearly the fiftieth de-
gree, passes likewise across the middle of Siberia, whence it passes over the north of
China, to end in Japan, ata latitude a little inferior to that of its point of departure
in Portugal, leaving out the island of Niphon. M. Képpen remarks that all this limit
does not deviate much from the isotherma of 16° R. [68° Fahr.] for the month of June.
To farther circumscribe the area, so extensive, of this species, the line goes from Japan
to the islands of Fidochi, to New Zealand and Australia, of which it only embraces
the northern parts, passes from there to the island of Mauritius, then rises to the
north, crosses Africa up to Madeira. But in this last part of the passage the limits are
more hypottetical, from want of an exact knowledge of the existence of the species in
the interior of Africa.

When, in a country comprised in this area, as has been frequently observed in
Southern Russia, the locusts develop in a certain abundance, the want of food obliges
them to migrate in part in different directions, and to break over their limits. If cir-
cumstances permit these emigrants to multiply for a certain period beyond their nor-
mal area, there resnlts a temporary extension of this area, and occasionally new mi-
grations to tbe north, until only a single spring, colder or more humid, comes to put an
end to their invasion and to oblige.tbem to go back to their natural limits. 'Tempo-
rary extensions Jike this of the area of distribution of Pachytylus migratorius took
place in 1746 to 1749, and in 1822 to 1828; at these periods they appeared in Germany,
aud bave multiplied themselves during several successive years. The noriberm limit
of these temporary extensions may be also marked on the chart by a line which, tak-
ing its point of departure in the southwestern portion of Bavaria (where the Pachyly-
lus migralorius bas been observed from 1333 to 1339, and from 1748 to 1749), rises to
the northeast by Jena and Halle toward Jfiterbogk and Berlin, when it takes a nearly
eastern course, following more or less the parallel of 523° of latitude, near Miincheberg,
Kiistrin, Birnbaum, and Posen (regions which the species was known to have visited in
1730, 1752, and from 1827 to 1828); tben the line passes across Southern Poland, at the
fifty-second parallel, through the southern part of the government of the Mohilew, inclin-
iny gradually toward the south, and extending so as to reach the Wolga and the Ural.
It is apparently to the humidity of the climate, injurious to the locust, likewise to the
state of the eggs during the winter, that we should attribute the less extension of
this limit toward the north in Western Europe.

To the north of the limits which have just been indicated, the Pachytylus migratorius
has not the power of undergoing its whole cycle of metamorphoses, neither, conse-
quently, to reproduce itself. This does not prevent its occasional appearance in swarms

PACKARD. ] THE LOCUSTS OF THE OLD WORLD. 655

even in countries very northern ; thus, it was observed in England (1693 and 1748),
aud even at the Jatter date, near Edinburgh; in Sweden (as far as Ostrogoth),
at latitude 57° +0 58° north, in 1748 and 1844, and finally on the Duna, near Dunabourg
and at Polozk, in 1545. But these troops of voyagers did not hatch out in the same
places where they were observed, nor did they leave any progeny in subsequent years.
‘The only known example of an exception to this rule is the discovery made once by
Boheman, in September, in the middle of Sweden, of a Pachytylus migratorius in the
proper state. Evidently this is an exception wholly accidental, which does not prove
anything against the rnle. The more we advance toward the north, the less are large
swarms of locusts observed, and we end by meeting only isolated individuals, as have
been seen several times at St. Petersburg, and even near Wasa in Finland (latitude
63° north).

The want of facts prevents our extending these studies to the southern boundary of
the area of distribution of Pachytylus migratorius. However, we can remark that in
New Zeaiand, the extreme southern point of this distribution, the mean temperature
of the warmer months is, according to Schmid (Lehrbuch der Meteorologie, p. 363), at
15°.5 R. (about 66° Fahrenheit), which does not differ much from the corresponding
temperature of the northern limit of the area in Europe.

The localities out of Europe where the Pachytylus migratorius has been observed are
as follows: Madeira, Algeria, Tunis, Egypt, Chartoum, Asia Minor, Syria, Arabia, Per-
sia, India, Siam, China, Japan, Java, Lugon, Fidschi, New Caledonia, New Zealand,
Northern Australia, and finally Mauritius island; but this last locality indicated by
Serville needs confirmation. In Central Asia the species has been observed near Lake
Aral, on the borders of Syr-Darja, on the upper side of Ischim and of Irtisch, and
tinally toward the lakes Kurgaldschin, Nor-Saisan, and Balchaaseh.

According to M. Képpen, the great chains of mountains are a powerful obstacle to
the diffusion of Pachylylus migratorius. The Alps especially play a large part in its dis-
tribution in Europe, and it is without doubt to them that we should attribute its rela-
tive rarity in the countries of the southwest of Europe and northwest of Africa, where
it is almost completely replaced by other species of the same group, i. e¢., the Caloptenus
italica in Spain, Italy, and in the middle of France; the Acrydiwm peregrinum in Algeria.

It should be observed that this species, and in geueral all the Acrydiide, shun mount-
ainous and wooded countries. They are most fond of the plains, of regions quite dry,
and it is also a circumstance which influences necessarily their geographical distribu-
tion.

“The development of the organs of flight of the migratory locust,” continues M. Kip-
pen, “‘ determines the facility and the amplitude of its flight, and consequently favors
its migrations. They are evidently the cause of this colossal geographical distribution
of the species. They remind us ef the remark of Darwin, that species rich in individ-
uals and with a wide habitat, which, owing to their organization, have had in their
country the pre-eminence over many surrounding species, are those which, in the case
of emigrations cut of their area, should have the greater chances of overrunning new
territories.”

Képpen examines successively the causes which may determine the migrations of
this orthopter in armies more or less numerous, and then the observed direction of these
movements. It is said that they fly more often from east to west, but M. Képpen
thinks that it is not necessary to attribute this circumstance, as has been done, to the
predominance of the east winds at times when the sterility of the country that they
inhabit, increased still by the prevalence of these same winds, forces them to seek
places which can furnish them a more abundant pasturage. Numerous facts appear,
he says, to contradict this explanation. In reality, the movements of these hordes is
rather centrifugal, as M. Képpen establishes from observations made especially in the
plains of Eastern Europe; that is to say, that all the migrations appear to radiate
from countries where the species breeds most. In Europe they would consequently be
directed to the west, while in China they should have a direction ordinarily toward
the southeast,

M. Képpen thinks that the same centrifugal radiation has presided over the scatter-
ing of this species beyond its original limits, and that this radiation, propagating in
waves, such as we still see produced at the limits of its geographical area, has carried
the species from its center of creation or its original couutry to points where it is
poweriess to overcome the climatic conditions or that concurrence of vital furces which
are opposed to it. The center of creation or the point of departure of the species will
be found, then, in Central Asia. The complete absence of this species on the American
continent shows that it only began to exist as a species after the epoch of the separa-
tion of America from the Old World.

M. Prudhomme de Borre adds, “In this study, so interesting, there is one point on
which we should insist. It is this, that the observations of M. Kippen tend to confirm
the principle of zoological geography, that the area of a species cannot be limited on
the map by a simple curve, but between places where the species exist in a constant or
normal manner and those where its absence is constant there is always a zone, often

656 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

very broad, of temporary visitations, which is to the area properly so called what
the penumbra is to the light, within the zone, of which the exterior limit is much more
easy to trace than the inner; this last is subject to continual oscillations, with some
undulatory movements, dependent on the centrifugal or expansive tendency of the
species, and trom the resistance which opposes it, and external circumstances, and evi-
dently also the tendency of other species to spread out, with which it carries on a
struggle for existence in endeavoring to maintain itself on an earth where the chances
are divided, and even vary from year to year. M. Képpen has thus been enabled to
figure on his chart three lines, as I may for the present call them, and the intermediate
line represents the exterior actual limit of these oscillations of the true frontier line
of Pachytylus migrvatorius ; their amplitade may vary from two to four degrees.”

The last thesis of M. Képpen that I shall draw attention to at this time, namely,
that the absence of Pachytylus migratorius in America should prove that the species
exists only as a species, since the separation of the two continents toward the north
pole, seems to me scarcely necessary. A mere glance at the map which represents the
area of distribution of this locust allows us to affirm without hesitation that that view
is impossible. It is evidently not one of those species which we may call circumboreal
anteglacial, because their presence in two forms (races, varieties, or species) on each
continent indicates that they have had a common origin, a single area at that epoch,
anterior to the glacial period, when the two continents were reunited in the Arctic
zone by a bridge, so to speak, that is, a continuity of land, in conditions of climate
which should allow the existence at that latitude of a fauna which only at present
exists much farther south. The source of those species dispersed by the glacial period
does not now probably exist in its integrity ; but the two races confined, one in America,
the other in the Old World, having undergone slow modifications each on its part, are
to-day very analogous species, but as distinct by their external characters as by their
separate geographical area.

Nothing like this applies to Pachytylus migratorius ; it is one of those species which
may be called equatorial postglacial ; its expansion toward the north has been posterior
to the glacial period, which would then have opposed it; and it can have no atfinities
in the New Werld, but degrees of consanguinity much farther removed than those
unite the circumboreal species of the temperate zone. Thus, if, as some think, the
northern hemisphere tends actually to retrograde toward a new period of cold, the
Pachytylus migratorius is destined to see its area also retrograde toward the equator,
and perhaps some day the western and eastern parts of this area may be completely
disjointed, and, following this separation, its posterity may be so modified by isolation
as to form two distinct species, as has occurred to circumpolar species.

In the discussion which followed, M.de Selys Longechamps speaks of
the difficulty of separating Pachytylus migratorius (Linn.) and cinerascens
(Fabr.), which he had at first regarded as varieties, but now considers as
a distinct species, the latter being more sedentary and reproducing in
Belgium year after year: ‘‘ M. F. H. Képpen not speaking of cinerascens,
it would be interesting to know whether he admits this species, and if
in the affirmative, whether all his remarks apply alone to the true
migratorius type, notably that which he says wvormally sojourns at
Bayoune, where I bave taken only cinerascens, variety virescens, whose
characters are the same as in Belgium and Frankfort-on-the-Main. It
is also cinerascens that M. von Heyden has taken.”

Some notes on the Algerian locusts (Acrydium peregrinum, migrato-
rium, &e.) by Coure, have been communicated to the Entomological
Society of France by Giraud. In them, mention is made of a special
work on the same subject, which the recorder has not yet seen. (Bull.
Soc. Ent. Fr., 1867, pp. x, xiii.) The locusts visiting Algeria come from
the south, and arrive in May. They lay their eggs soon after their
arrival, and the young animals produced from these eggs usually become
adult in July. In August all usually disappear. Coure also notices the
arrival in Algeria in the early part of January, 1867, of a flight of
locusts. ‘The color of these was stated to be reddish. It appears that
ou first attaining their adult form, these insects are of a rosy tint, and
afterward change; and Coure thinks that it is not until after their
change of color that they are fitted for reproduction. Lallemant states
(1. ¢., p. xiii) that the locusts, which live for a long time in the adult

PACKARD.] ENEMI£S AND PARASITES OF THE LOCUST. 657

state, are at first rosy, then emigrate southward, and return in winter
of their mature color.

In Spain, during the summers of 1875 and 1876, Decticus albifrons
(Fabr.) was abundant and injarious, but less so in 1876 than the year pre-
vious, as the soldiers assisted the inhabitants of the district infested in
destroying them.

In China records exist of the appearance of locusts iv devastating
numbers one hundred and seventy-three times during a period of nine-
teen hundred and twenty-four years, as stated by Andreozzi,* who has
translated, from a Chinese work on agriculture, notes respecting the
ravages of locusts in China, and the superstitions existing among the
Chinese with regard to their origin. The three great causes of famine
in China are placed as flood, drought, and locusts.

In Southern Australia locusts of an unknown species committed rav-
ages in 1872. (See Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Lon-
don, 1872, pp. xii-xvii).

EXTERNAL ENEMIES AND PARASITES OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST.

When any insect abounds to an unusual extent, it has been tound that
not only its peculiar parasites abound in a corresponding ratio, but par-
asitic insects which prey usually on various other insects leave their
ordinary hosts and attack the new-comers. Among the most impor-
tant agencies which diminish the numbers of locusts, especially in the
Mississippi and Missouri Valleys, are the insect-parasites. The birds
destroy many, but tbe natural insect-enemies still more. The black-
birds, quail, prairie-chickens, and grouse were said to destroy many of
the eggs in Minnesota. As samples of the accounts given by different
writers, I give the following by Uriah Bruner, contributed to the “ Inter-
Ocean :”

Quails, parivie-chickens, and gronse, if sufficiently numerous, alone are sufficient to
pick up every embryo grasshopper long before he can have wings. This I know from .
actual observation.

Seven years ago large areas of eggs were deposited on my farm near Omaha. Ithen
was fortunate enough to have about fifty quails on my place. As soon as the hoppers
were hatched, and while yet almost microscopic in size, I venture to say that each one
of the quails picked up, every day, enough of them to fill a bushel-measure if grown
to full size. They devoured all my grasshoppers long before their wings had devel-
oped; but the grasshoppers devoured no one’s crops that year, and very few escaped
to migrate. It seems, however, that that spring the young grasshoppers were de-
stroyed everywhere where their eggs were deposited among us, aud most persons will
tell you that the cold spring rains killed them off. This is possible, where the rains
were heavy enough to carry them off and drown them. But at that time quails, prai-
rie-chickens, and grouse were plenty everywhere, and I suspect that rain-storms got
credit for what the birds did.

Within the last‘six years we have had sporting-clubs in all our cities, towns, and vil-
lages, and very few birds survive the skill of the sportsman. Should any be fortunate
enough to escape the sportsman, farmers’ boys will trap and snare what are left during
the winter and send them off to market. Was it not last winter that the report came
back from Chicago, Saint Louis, New York, and other large cities that the market
was glutted with quails, prairie-chickens, and grouse ?

If my position is correct, is there any wonder that the grasshoppers that hatched in
Missouri, Kansas, and Minnesota last spring have done so much damage before and
after their migration? The wonder is that they did not more damage. If God in
his mercy had not sent deluging rains throughout Missouri and Kansas, that swept
most of them down the waters of the Missouri, and if in Minnesota hercalean efforts
had not been put forth to destroy them in their pupa state, the great Northwest might
not to-day rejoice in the great harvest that is now ready to take in.

There can be no excuse for us to be eaten out by the grasshoppers, when hatched
out among the settled parts of our country; and if we don’t destroy them in their

* An extract from this translation is given by Stefanelli in the Bulletino Entomologia
Societa Italiano, 1870, pp. 70-82.—(Zo6l. Record for 1870).

4268

i

658 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

embryo state we must Jay the blame to ourselves if our farms are ravaged by them.
Those hatched beyond the borders of civilization are not likely to visit us often nor
d9 us much injury. We must protect quails and prairie-chickens. All of the North-
western States must have statutory provisions against killing them for ten years, at
least, and railroad companies must refuse, and by law must be prohibited, from carry-
ing them over their roads for the same period. We must act and put in operation
the knowledge we possess, or permit ourselves to be overcome by our insect ensinies.
It is for us to choose.

In * The Chicago Field” for March 17, 1877, Dr. Elliott Coues, United
States Army, is inclined to place the sharp-tailed grouse (Pediwcetes
columbianus) “if not at the head, at least in the very front rank of all
the natural grasshopper-staying agencies. These birds yearly destroy
millions of grasshoppers, and at certain seasons eat very little else.” As his
article is a brief one and much to the point I insert it nearly entire:

I observe, in a late issue of the Chicago Field, that the question of the grasshopper-
preying disposition of the prairie-hen is re-opened, though it is only through igno-
rance that any doubt on the subject can arise. Some three or four years ago I prepared
and caused to be somewhat extensively circulated in the Northwestern States a brief
reply to a question I found asked in one of the papers, “ What will destroy grasshop-
pers ?” stating in brief, “ Prairie-hens will,” and giving some facts bearing on the case.
I never meant that these birds were a complete cure for the plague, but I endeay-
ored to show what incalculable numbers of the pests the chickens destroyed, and to set
their grasshopper-eating habits in the proper strong light. Probably few persons,
outside the ranks of practical ornithologists are aware how extensively the so-called
granivorous or seed-eating birds, such as sparrows, buntings, and finches, feed upon
insects at certain seasons; and the same is true of the graminivorous birds, like grouse
and partridges of all kinds. As for the peculiar insects now in question, namely, the
grasshoppers, they furnish food to an immense array of quadrupeds and birds which
inhabit the western prairies. The wolves, foxes, badgers, skunks, and various species
of spermophiles or “ gophers,” all eat them. Among birds, the cranes, ducks, hawks,
owls, grouse, and a great variety of small sparrow-like birds eat them. To just what
extent these furred and feathered natural enemies make an impression upon the devas-
tating hosts, cannot, of course, be known, for they have always been at work; but
we may logically infer, from known facts, that the destruction is incessant, decided,
and important to the last degree. Since, also, we do not know how delicately the con-
tending forces of nature may sometimes be balanced in the perpetual ‘struggle for
existence,” it would be unsafe to assert that the diminution of the numbers of prairie-
grouse by the incessant persecution to which pleasure or profit subjects them, is one
of the principal causes of the late perilous swarming of the grasshoppers, but that
there does exist to some degree a causative connection between the two circumstances,
there can be, I think, no doubt.

With the prairie-chicken proper, or pinnated grouse, Cupidonia cupido of the books,
I have had very little experience. There is, however, in its general habits, tastes, and
proclivities, nothing materially different from what is the case with the sharp-tailed
grouse, Pediccetes columbianus, and this is a bird which I have had ample opportuni-
ties of studying for several years. I am inclined to place it, if not at the head, at least
in the very front rank of all the natural grasshopper-staying agencies. These birds
yearly destroy millions of grasshoppers, and at certain seasons eat very little else. Such a
seemingly extravagant statement is supported, nevertheless, by actual observation and
personal experience. I lived in Dakota in 1874, during the grasshopper invasion of
that year, and was among the sharp-tails continuously from June until October, kill-
ing a great many of them “out of season” for scientific purposes, and in season for
sport and food. In the latter part of summer, and in September, I invariably found
grasshoppers in the crops of those I examined; and almost invariably I found the craws
crammea with the insects, almost to the exclusion of other articles of diet. As I took
occasion to say in the “ Birds of the Northwest,” ‘At this season their food appears to
be chiefly grasshoppers. I have opened numbers to find their crops crammed with
these insects, only varied with a few flowers, weed-tops, succulent leaves, and an
occasional beetle or spider,’

I don’t pretend to say that the business of staying the ravages of the grasshoppers
may be safely and confidently left to the grouse, or to any other natural agency—the
hoppers have waxed too many for that; but I do assert, without fear of reasonable
contradiction, that these birds are the natural means by which, in certain sections of
the country, the greatest numbers of the insects are destroyed.

Among the many experiments which might be made with the hope of staying the
ravages of this plague, the absolute, unqualified, and long-continued protection of the
grouse might be tried. The denial of the sportmen’s pleasures, and the stoppage of

PACKARD. | ENEMIES AND PARASITES OF THE LOCUST. 659

one particular source of food-supply, which such course would entail, would go for
nothing in comparison with the advantages that might result. I do not make the
suggestion hastily, nor without due consideration, backed by personal observation, and
fortified by logical induction.

We are always slow to acquire exact and full information respecting the food of the
animals which surround us, notwithstanding that many or most of our quadrupeds,
birds, and insects hold toward us relations of the utmost economic importance, and in
spite of the unquestionable fact that all agricultural interests hinge upon the solution
of the problems involved. A few years ago the cock-of-the-plains (Centrocercus wro-
phasianus) was supposed to feed chiefly, if not exclusively, upon wormwood. I have
killed them to find nothing but insects in their crops. Hawks, particularly of the
genus Buteo, presumed to feed mainly upon small quadrupeds and birds, are immense
consumers of grasshoppers in the West, at certain seasons.

One thing is certain, that if we are to use birds in our war against the invading
hosts, we must employ our own, and no imported ones. The expensive, uncertain, and
difficult experiment of introducing any alleged “ acridophagous” species of the Old
World will never, I suppose, amount to much. Moreover, it is not to the technically
considered “ insectivorous” birds that we may turn our attention hopefully. Though
many of these small species feed habitually upon grasshoppers in season, their col-
lective efficiency in the work of destruction appeared to be, and I have no doubt is,
comparatively insignificant. At present I know of no birds capable of rendering more
efficient service than the grouse.

Young locusts have been found by Professor Green, of Lawrence,
Kans., in the stomachs of various birds, such as the red-eyed wood-
pecker, yellow-billed cuckoo, cat-bird, red-eyed vireo, great crested fly-
catcher, and crow-blackbird. The hair-worm (Gordius) is a common
parasite of the locust as of other species of grasshoppers. Mr. Riley
States that many predaceous beetles attacked them, but few, if any,
ichneumon-flies have been found in them, these beneficial insects con-
fining their attention chiefly to caterpillars, such as the northern army-
worm, &c. But the mite and Tachina flies are universally prevalent,
and all writers agree are useful in reducing the number of locusts in
the eastern border of the locust district.

June 2, before reaching Kansas City, I found on stepping off from
the cars at different stations that the weak, feeble locusts were infested
by large red mites attached to the base of the abdomen and to the un-
der side of the wings.

The little red mite, which has proved to be such a benefactor to the
people of the West, does not apparently differ from those found on the
red-legged locust of the Kastern States in size or form. It is the six-
legged young of some four-legged garden-mite, and has not yet been
reared to adult life, and may be called Trombidium gryllaria.*

The scarlet silky mite-—Another mite, which is possibly the parent
of the minute red six-legged parasitic mite, is the scarlet silky mite
(Trombidium sericeum Say, Plate II, Fig.4). It is about 2 lines in length,
and has been abundant for two years in Minnesota, eating the eggs of
the locust. As proof of its beneficial nature, I insert the following
extract from a western paper:

Governor Miller, in a letter from Windom, says:

“Last evening, when we reached Worthington from Lake Shetek, there was quite
an excitement in Worthington, owing to the fact that the citizens were generally con-
vinced that a red parasite was destroying the grasshopper-eggs. I examined the mat-
ter carefully myself, and became convinced that the destruction of the eggs in that
immediate vicinity was well assured; but I determined not to write you and excite
any hopes until a further and more complete examination could be had. We there-
fore furnished our Bohemian friends with a bottle of the eggs, and their pests, and the
commission left in high spirits. We postponed further investigation until this morn-
ing, when I left and prosecuted the examination with vigor. The farmers in the
_ Vicinity knew nothing of these signs of deliverance until the visitors from Worthington

*Astoma locustarum of Walsh (no descr.); Astoma gryllaria of Le Baur; Astoma gryl-
laria of Riley.

660 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

reached them, and I feel safe in saying to you that in a circle of ten miles from Worth-
ington there will scarcely be an egg left by to-morrow night. I send you a bottle
herewith containing the cones and the parasites. We could scarcely find % cone, or
sack, except as they were indicated by the parasite on the surface; and each cone
which was not entirely destroyed had from five to fifty of the red laborers at work
upon the eggs. We found scores of cells with no eggs left except the shells. As fast
as the bug finishes one cone, it starts upon an expedition for new worlds to conquer,
and it instinctively finds and conquers the new world. I, of course, informed our
station-agents and others at Hersey and Heron Lake of this discovery, and they also
promised to make a thorough investigation, as I will do here, and the results will be
reported forthwith. Ifthe matter is general, deliverance is nigh. * * * Istopped
for fifteen minutes one and a half miles west of Wilder, where Section-Foreman Smith
took me to that portion of his farm where eggs were deposited. We could find none
by general digging; but wherever we found, as we frequently did, the red parasite on
the surface, we found the cone beneath, with the parasite at work consuming the eggs.
* * * Iam aware that two years ago this parasite was found working upon the
eggs at Madeira and other places, but here we have the remedy almost as soon as the
eggs are laid, while in the former instances the parasite was only discovered in the
spring.”

It is bright red and oblong oval, as seen in the engraving. The Tachina
fly (Lachina anonyma Riley) attacks the locust, depositing one or more
eggs in the back, at the insertion of the wings. The young of the fly is
alarge white maggot. (See Plate LXITII, Fig. 3a, for the maggot of a
siwilar fly.)

Description of the Tachina maggot.—The following description is based on three speci-
mens received from Mr. A. Whitman, of Saint Paul, Minn., and said by him to have
been taken from the body of a grasshopper (C. spretus). The body is flattened, eylin-
drical, tapering suddenly toward each end, the head-end being more pointed than the
opposite extremity. The segments ure quite distinct, with raised ridges. The head is
minute, one-third as wide as the segment behind, with two black hooks, 7. e., the man-
dibles. The larve of the genus lack the little slender tubercles forming the rudi-
mentary antenne and mouth parts seen in Anthomyia and Murca. Length, .35 inch.
The egg is said by Riley to be “oval, white, and opaque, and quite tough.”

It is this fly probably which attacks the locust in the Western Terri-
tories, and I may add to the accounts of its habits given by Professor
Riley (Seventh Report, p. 178), the following statement in a letter from
Lieutenant Carpenter, dated Camp Robinson, Nebraska, December 27,
1876:

I have often observed a fly, about the size of the blow-fly, of a greenish mottled color
with the abdomen tipped with red, annoying Caloptenus spretus. It would light on
the ground just behind the grasshopper, and the instant it took wing would pounce
upon it, and the two roll over and over on the ground struggling for several moments,
when the fly would release the grasshopper. I have caught them both in this act, and
upon examination of the grasshopper, always found the little red eggs on the body.

This fly is said by Riley to be common and destructive to the grass-
hoppers. Mr. Whitman writes me regarding its occurrence in Minne-
sota as follows: ‘I have opened six hundred and twenty-four grass-

hoppers (spretus); nine of these contained grubs (of the Tachina fly prob-.

ably) and ten had hair-worms.”

The locust-egg-eating maggot.—Another fly which is very useful from
its habit of devouring the eggs of the locust is the Anthomyia radicum
var. caloptent of Riley. It is quite similar to the onion-maggot and

radish-fly, both in its maggot and winged states. I have received sev-—

eral of the maggots from Mr. Whitman said to have been found among
the eggs of the locust. I give the following description of them:

Larva of Anthomyia radicum caloptent (Plate LXIIT, Fig. 2).—Body long and slender, eyl-
indrical, soft, elongate-conical, tapering gradually toward the minute head; the seg-
ments are not very convex; beneath they are thickened to take the place of feet. The
antenns and maxille form slender pointed tubercles much as in Musca domestica. The
prothoracie spiracles are situated on the hinder edge of the segment, and are remark-
ably long and slender. The endof the body is full and rounded, flattened conical; the

PACKARD. ] PARASITES OF THE LOCUST. 661

end is divided into two portions, of which the upper forms a slope, on the lower edge
of which are situated six acute tubercles, of which the three lower are the larger. In
the center of the slope are two small, prominent spiracles, or breathing-holes. Below
this slope is a transverse ridge, from which arise three sharp tubercles situated above
the large anal tubercle’or foot. Length about a third (0.30) of an inch.

I adopt Professor Riley’s identification of this maggot.

Our figure is not drawn from specimens taken in this country, but
copied from Curtis’s Farm Insects. It is sufficiently accurate, however,
to represent our form. ;

Protessor Riley says that this maggot “is quite common, and has
been found in Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, various parts of Kansas,
Missouri, and even Texas. It has destroyed, in many instances, as many
as 10 per cent. of them.” These small maggots are found in the locust-
egg pods, either singly or in varying numbers, there sometimes being a
dozen packed together in the same pod. They exhaust the juices of the
eggs and leave nothing but the dry and discolored shells, and when
they are not numerous enough to destroy all the eggs in the pod, their
work, in breaking open a few, often causes all the others to rot.

“When fed to repletion, this maggot contracts to a little cylindrical
yellowish-brown pupa [-case], about half the length of the outstretched
and full-grown larva, and rounded at both ends. From this pupa [-case]
in the course of a week in warm weather, and longer as the weather is
colder, there issues a small grayish, two-winged fly, about one-fifth of
an inch long, the wings expanding about one-third of an inch, and in
general appearance resembling a diminutive house-fly.

The common firsh-fly (Sarcophaga carnaria, Plate LXIV, Figs. 1-3).—The
maggot (Piate LXIV, Vig. 1) of this fly also feeds on the eggs, but prob-
ably on those which are addled. It is larger than the Anthomyia mag-
got, with no spines around the end of the body; and the pupa-case
(Plate LXIV, Fig. 2, enlarged) is much larger, truncate at the end, and
tapering toward the head-end. I have received two specimens, half-
grown, of the maggots of this species, taken from the abdomen of a locust
(C. spretus) on the Vermejo River, New Mexico, June 29, by Lieut. W.
L. Carpenter, U.S. A.

The two-lined Telephorus grub.—I have also received from Mr. Whit-
man, of Saint Paul, Minn., a specimen of the larva of Telephorus bilinea-
tus, said by him to be destructive to the locust. I add a description
copied from my first report as State entomologist of Massachusetts.

20ND L Th TT} IV
SN \\ ") Ny 1) Hy 4y
: ; y

Fig. 2.— Head of larva of two-lined Telephorus, enlarged. ©

_ 4, top view of head and prothoracic segment; at, antennx; md, mandibles; b, under
side showing mp the maxillary palpi; lp, labial palpi; /, first pair of feet.

The beetles of this and other species which belong to the family of
fire-flies feed on the leaves of forest deciduous trees, especially the birch.

662 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

The larva, however, devour snails and insects, and do no injury to
vegetation. The larva of this species was identified by Mr. P. 8S. Sprague,
who found it near Boston, under stones in spring, where it changes to
a pupa, and early in May becomes a beetle, when’ it eats the newly-
expanded leaves of the birch.

Description.—The body of the larva is rather long and slender, thickest in the mid-
dle, where it is about twice as wide as the head, and tapers slightly toward each end
of the body, the terminal segment being a little less than half as thick as the middle
segment. The segments of the body behind the head are unusualiy convex, the sutures
between them being very deep. The body is covered with fine, dense hairs, giving
it a peculiar velvety appearance. Its general color is horn-brown, the head being
darker. The head is remarkably flattened and square, being scarcely longer than
broad, and densely covered with short hairs above and beneath. The antenn@ are in-
serted on the side of the head, and immediately behind them on tho side are the eyes;
the occipital suture is situated midway between the base and the front edge of the
head, forming a straight line just behind the eyes. The antenns are two-jointed, and
received into a large socket; the first joint is very short; the second joint four times
as long as the first, a little slenderer, and increasing slightly in width toward the end,
which is abrupt, and contains a minute, rudimentary third joint. The maxillw are
broad, subtriangular, projecting a third of their length beyond the labium, with the
ends broad and square. The palpi extend out from the head as far as the antenneg, and
are three-jointed, with the basal joint quite thick, rather Jonger than thick, while the
second joint is very short, and one-half as long as thick ; the third minute, rudimentary.
The anterior edge of the occiput beneath is deeply hollowed out; the chin (mentum)is
oblong, with very square edges, and is one-fourth longer than broad. The labial palpi
are two-jointed, the basal joint very short, one-half as long as broad ; second nearly twice
as long as thick, and ending in a stiff hair. The mandibles are large, stout, two-
toothed, the inner tooth situated a considerable distance from the tip. The labrum is
broad and perfectly square in front, with a median notch dividing the edge into two
slight lobes. The clypeus is an ill-defined oval, convex area.

Along the median line of the body is a slightly-marked row of short, paler streaks,
more continuous on the thoracic than the abdominal segments, forming on each of the
latter segments an elongated spot situated on the anterior edge of each segment except
the last. On each thoracic and the last abdominal segment is a pair of lateral oval
brown spots, paler in the center. Behind these on each abdominal segment (except the
last) is a row of pale short lines, placed in the middle of the segment. Farther down
on each side is a similar row of short lines, which are, however, subdivided into two
spots, which on the thoracic segments form a row of four or five pale dots. Between
these two lines is a row of black dots, one on each segment. The legs are rather short,.
and quite hairy. The terminal segment of the abdomen is about as long as broad, and
well rounded behind. It is three-quarters (.75) of an inch in length. The pupa was
not preserved. The beetle itself is soft-bodied, brownish-black and reddish-yellow.
Its specific name (bilineatus) was given to it from the two short, broad, blackish bands
on the prothorax, which is reddish-yellow. The head is reddish-yellow, with a broad
black band between the eyes, and the antennz are black. The body beneath is pale
reddish, except the under side of the middle of the thorax (meso and meta thorax).
The legs are pale reddish at base, while the end of the femora and the tibiew and tarsi
are entirely black-brown. It is about a third (.30) of an inch long.

Whether this Telephorus larva devours the eggs, or young larva, or
only the sickly and dying locust, is not known.

The ground-beetle grub (Plate LXIIL1, Fig. 1, enlarged).—A nother beetle-
grub, which is supposed to devour the eggs, has been received from Mr.
Whitman. It is the young of a species of Harpalus, and is allied to the
larva of the European H. cneus, as figured by Schiddte, and may pos-
sibly be the young of HT. herbivagus of Say, a very common beetle found
all over the country, having been collected by Lieutenant Carpenter in
Southern Colorado and Northern Mexico, according to Le Conte, so that
it probably destroys the locust wherever the latter occurs.

The hair-worm parasite (Gordius aquaticus Linn. and G. varius Leidy,
Plate LXIII, Fig. 6, see explanation of the plate).—I have received from
Mr. Whitman fragments of a hair-worm found by him in the Rocky Moun-
tain locust, but, unfortunately, comprising neither end of the animal, so
that it is impossible to tell which species it is. It is probable that it
belongs to Gordius aquaticus, as I have received one of that species from

PACKARD.] PARASITES OF THE LOCUST. 663

Mr. Riley, taken from C. spretus in Missouri. Regarding the frequency
of its occurrence in C. spretus, Mr. Whitman writes, under date of Sep-
tember 19,1876: “I have opened six hundred and twenty-four hoppers
(spretus); nine of these contained grubs (of the Tachina fly probably) and
ten had hair-worms. I do not know that the latter has ever been noticed
in hoppers in this State before this year; at any rate, it has been so rarely
mentioned that I never heard of it here. I ought to sayin regard to the
six hundred and twenty-four grasshoppers above mentioned that they
were probably some of a band of outsiders that have come into the State ~
within a few weeks. Almost every female had eggs about ready to be
laid.” The specimen of Gordius received from Mr. Whitman was filled
with eggs.

I will here give a résumé of our entire knowledge of the hair-worm,
both because the worm is well known to the public, being sometimes
thought by the ignorant to be actually a transformed horse-hair, and
because it is prevalent in the bodies of grasshoppers, and has an ex-
tremely interesting history.

The first notice of the hair-worm in this country by a naturalist is, so
far as I am aware, contained in ‘‘ The Natural History of Vermont,” by
Zadock Thompson. The following account is quoted at second-hand
from Charles Girard’s “ Historical Sketch of Gordiacew:” *

The little animal called the hair-snoke also belongs to this order (Annulata), and to
the genus Gordius. These are very common in the still waters and mud in all parts of
the State. They are usually about the size of a large horse-hair, and are from 1 to 6
or 8 inches in length. In color, they vary from pure white to nearly black, and hence
we probably have several species. The vulgar notion that they originate from hairs
which fall from horses and cattle and become animated in the water would seem to
2 absurd for contradiction, and yet, absurd as it is, people are to be found who

elieve it.

Mr. Girard adds:

The same popular opinion is prevailing in Europe. Gordii have been noticed in
the body of insects; also, by an American entomologist, Dr. Th. William Harris, who
says, “I have taken three or four of these animals out of the body of a single locust.”
They have been found by others within the cricket (Acheta abbreviata).

We saw a specimen 6 or 7 inches in length caught in the clear waters of the vicinity
of Richmond, Va. Several others were detected by Dr. Leidy in the neighborhood of
Philadelphia. Finally, we may mention several specimens of Gordii from Oregon,
brought home by the United States Exploring Expedition. Gordii, therefore, are
spread all over the Western Hemisphere.

The mode of development of our common Gordius varius (Plate LXIII,
Fig. 6, h), has been studied by Dr. Leidy.t This is quite a different
species from Gordius aquaticus, the end of the body of the female being
trifurcated, while that of G. aquaticus is blunt. It is from 4 to 12 inches
in length, and appears to be much slenderer than Gordius aquaticus.
“‘ The Gordius varius,” says Leidy, “is prolific ina very remarkable degree.”
A female 9 inches in length placed in a tumbler of water extruded a
string of ova 91 inches in length, in which he estimated there were over
6,000,000 eggs. Dr. Leidy saw the eggs undergo the process of seg-
mentation. On the third day, the germ appeared as an “ oval, finely-
granular body,” and by the tenth day the embryo was conical in form,
with a cleft or fissure which extends two-thirds the length of the mass.
Upon the eleventh day it resembled a cylinder doubled upon itself, and
the tail-end was subacute.

From the nineteenth to the twentieth day the embryo alternately retracted and pro-
traded the tentacular -or filamentary appendages, and the integument of the anterior

* Proc. of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, v. 1850 and 1851, p. 279.
t Proc. of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, v. 98 and 262, 1850 and 1851.

664 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

half of the body appeared to be getting annulated, which was so by the twenty-first day.
* * * On the twenty-second day the annulations of the anterior half of the body were
very distinct, the posterior half was also becoming annulated, and near its extremity I
for the first time observed an anal orifice and one to four small epidermal spines. On
the twenty-fourth day, the tubular clavate organ before mentioned, occupying the an-
terior part of the alimentary canal, was alternately protruded and retracted as a pro-
boscis. The proboscis, when fully protruded, brought into view at its base asecond
circle of tentacular filaments within the first. On the twenty-sixth day the embryo,
when pressed from the egg, progressed forward by moving the posterior half of its
body from side to side, and it alternately protruded and retracted the proboscis and
the two circles of tentacular filaments. When all the organs were retracted the head
presented a truncate or depressed surface, and in their protrusion the extremities of the
outer circle of; tentacule and the end of the proboscis first became visible ; as these
advanced, the second circle of tentacule appeared, and when the proboscis was en-
tirely protruded, the outer tentacule were deeply reflected upon the outside of the
body, and the inner circle projected obliquely outward and upward. (See also Leidy’s
figures and description in the American Entomologist, ii, p. 196.)

It is evidently this species whose habits Dr. Leidy further describes
in his * Flora and Fauna within Living Animals.”* I quote as follows
from this work:

The grasshoppers in the meadows below the city of Philadelphia are very much
infested with a species of Gordius probably the same as the former, but in a different
stage of development. More than half the grasshoppers in the locality mentioned
contain them; but those in drier places, as in the fields west and north of Philadel-
phia, are quite rarely infested, for I have frequently opened large numbers without
finding one worm.

The number of Gordii in each insect varies from one to five, their length from 3 inches
to a foot; they occupy a position in the visceral cavity, where they lie coiled among
the viscera, and often exterd from the end of the abdomen forward through the thorax
even into the head. Their bulk and weight are frequently greater than all the soft
parts, including the muscles, of their living habitation. Nevertheless, with this rela-
tively immense mass of parasites, the insects jump about almost as freely as those not
infested.

The worms are milk-white in color, and undivided at the extremities. The females
are distended with ova, but I have never observed them extended.

When the bodies of grasshoppers, containing these entozoa, are broken and laid upon
moist earth, the worms gradually creep out and pass below its surface. .Some speci-
mens which crawled out of the bodies of grasshoppers and penetrated into earth con-
tained in a bow], last August, have undergone no change, and are alive at the present
time (November, 1852).

In the natural condition, when the grasshoppers die, the worms creep from the body
and enter the earth, for, suspecting the fact, I spent an hour looking over a meadow
for dead grasshoppers, and, having discovered five, beneath two of them, several
inches below the surface, I found the Gordii which had escaped from the corpse.

Some of the worms put in water lived for about four weeks, and then died from the
growth of dddya prolifera. What is their cyclical development ?

The history of the Gordius aquaticus has been mostly cleared up by A.
Villot,t and the following account is condensed from his memoirs:

The eggs(Plate LXIL, Fig.7, a) are laidin long chains; they are white,
and excessively numerous. The yolk undergoes total segmentation.
(Plate LXIII, Fig. 7, b.) At the close of this period, when the yolk is sur-
rounded by a layer of cells, the germ elongates at what is destined to
be the head-end, this layer pushes in, forming a cavity, and in this state
it iscalled a “ gastrula.” (Plate LXIII, Fig.7,¢.) By this timetheembryo
becomes pear-shaped (Fig. 7, d); then it elongates. Subsequently the
internal organs of digestion are formed, together with three sets of stiff,
spine-like appendages to the head, while the body is divided by ecross-lines
into segments. The head lies retracted within the body. (Fig. 7, @.)

In hatching, it pierces the egg membrane by the aid of its cephalic
armature, and escapes into the water, where it passes the early part of

*Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, v. 1853.
+ Monographie des Dragonneaux (Genre Gordius Dujardin), par A. Villot. (Archives
de Zoologie expérimentale et générale, tome 3, No. 1, 2, 1874, Paris.)

PACKARD.] PARASITES OF THE LOCUST. 665

its life. Plate LXIII, Fig. 7, f, represents the embryo of Gordius aqua-
ticus greatly magnified. It will be seen how greatly it differs from the
adult hair-worm, having in this stage some resemblance to the Acantho-
cephalus by its cephalic armature, to the Nematoidea or thread-worms by its
alimentary canal, and to the larve (cercaria) of the Tremotodes or fluke-
worms in the nature of its secretory glands. But the hair-worm differs
from all these worms and even Jermis, a hair-worm much like and
easily confounded with Gordius, in having a complete metamorphosis
after leaving the egg.*

When in this stage, it incessantly protrudes and retracts its armed
head, the spines being directed backward when the head is out.

In the first period of larval life the worm lives encysted in the bodies
of aquatic fly-larve. The vessel in which M. Villot put his Gordius
eggs also contained the larvee of Tanapus, Corethra, and Chironomas,
small gnat-like flies. He found that each of these larve contained num-
erous cysts with larvee of Gordius. He then removed the larve from
the cysts, placed them on the gnat-larva, and saw the larval hair-worm
work its way into the head of the gnat-larva through the softer part
of the integument; during the process the spines on the head, reversing
their usual position, enabled the worm to retain its position and pene-
trate farther in. Then, finding a suitable place, it came to rest and re-
mained immovable. Then the fluids bathing the parts coagulated and
formed a hard, granulated sac. This sac at first closely envelopes the
body, then it becomes looser and longer, the worm living in the anterior
part, the front end of the sac being probably never closed. In this first
larval state the worm is active.

In the second larval period the young hair-worm lives motionless and
encysted in the mucous layer of the intestines of small fish, which prey
on the gnat-larve. A minnow, for example, swallowing one of the
aquatic gnat-larve, the encysted larva becomes set free by the process
of digestion in the stomach of the fish; the cyst dissolving the young
hair-worm itself becomes free in the intestine of its new host. Imme-
diately it begins to bore, aided by the spines around the head, into the
mucous membrane lining the inner wall of the intestine of the fish, and
then become encysted, the worm itself lying motionless in its new home,
with its head retracted and the tail rolledin a spiral. The cyst is either
spherical or oval. (Plate LXIII, Fig. 6, g.)

The return to a free state and an aquatic life occars in the spring, five
or six months after the second encystment. It then bores through its
cyst, and passes into the intestinal cavity of the fish, and from thence
is carried out with the feces into the water. Oncontact with the water
great changes take place. The numerous transverse folds in the body
disappear, and it becomes twice as long as before, its head-armature
disappears, the body becomes swollen, milky, and pulpy. It remains
immovable in the water for a variable period, and then increases in
size, the integument grows harder, and when about two inches long it
turns brown and begins to move. Probably the fost differs according
to chance. Most of those which have occurred in Europe reside in

*It may here be said that in the Mermis hair-worm, which also lives in insects, and is
of the same general appearance as Gordius, the young when hatched is not annulate,
has no cephalic armature, while the body is short and thick, the tail blunt. These re-
marks are based on some drawings of the eggs and embryos of a Mermis made by Mr.

James H. Smerton, in Jena (May, 1876), and kindly given me by him. The female
genital apperture is situated in the middle of the body, while it is placed at the end of
the body in Gordius, leading out of a cloacal chamber in which the intestine and two
different ducts (male or female, as the case may be) terminate, the common external
aperture being ano-genital in its nature.

666 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

carnivorous beetles, such as different species of Carabidae. They live
in or around the fat body, and sometimes twine around the intestines
of their host, and finally pass out of the anus. As the carnivorous in-
sects are liable to devour the larve of other insects living in damp
places, it is not difficult to see how they should become tenanted by
young hair-worms encysted in their victims, but why they should be so
common in grasshoppers is not so easy to determine. Grasshoppers
probably take the minute larve with their food, and fields recently in-
undated are of course more liable to abound with them. They also
live in fish and frogs, and “ Diesing speaks, on the authority of Kirkland,
of a young girl in Ohio who had expelled per ano a Gordius varius. It
is the popular belief in Europe that they live in man, and that they
may be introduced in drinking water from brooks and pools, or in eating
fish not properly cooked. In this country they seem to occur not un-
commonly in the bodies of grasshoppers, and are useful in keeping them
in check.

Description of the species occurring in the United States—The following
descriptions are taken from Villot’s Monograph, and embrace all up to
this time known to inhabit this country, a few notes of my own being
added : ¥

Gordius aquaticus Linn (Plate LXIII, Fig. 7, a, f, i,and k).—Anterior end rounded,
distinctly swollen. Posterior extremity of the male bilobate, recurved beneath; lobes
distinctly hollowed within and abundantly provided with papillze; a crescent-shaped
fold of the epidermis beneath the ano-genital opening. Posterior extremity of the
female truncated perpendicularly to the axis; ano-genital opening central, surrounded
with a reddish-brown circle. General coloration varying from milk-white to brown ;
a horny, transparent cap and a deep-brown ring at the anterior extremity; body be-
sprinkled with numerous circular spots of a yellowish-white. Epidermis smooth, divided
into lozenges by salient lines crossing obliquely. Dimensions very variable; length,
28-39 centimeters; breadth, 4 to 1 millimeter. :

Habitat: Europe and North America (Leidy and Girard). A male of this species
from Grylius neglectus June 5, Pittsburgh, Pa. (B. C. Jillson), and a female from Tops-
field, Mass., are in the museum of the Peabody Academy of Science at Salem. I have
received a female of this species from Prof. C. VY. Riley, said to have been a parasite of
Caloptenus spretus in Missouri. It is probably common all over the country east of
the Rocky Mountains.

Gordius lineatus Leidy.—Posterior extremity of the female obtuse; that of the male
bilobed and furnished with papille. Length, 5 to 7 inches. (Leidy). Essex County,
New York. Diesing cites it among the synonymes of Gordius aquaticus,

Gordius robustus Leidy.—Posterior extremity a little compressed and obtuse. Body
stiff, marked with transverse folds 6 inches long. Pemberton, N. J. From a grass-
hopper (Leidy). Diesing refers it to Gordius aquaticus. A female which agrees with
this species, from the body of Stenopelmata fasciata Thomas (identified by Mr. Thomas),
Wahsatch, Utah (L. E. Ricksecker), is contained in the museum of the Peabody Acad-
emy of Science. ‘The posterior extremity is compressed, except at the extreme end,
which is cylindrical. The ano-genital orifice is sunken. The body appears as if irreg-
ularly segmented, being marked by transverse, impressed lines. Head conical, more
acute than in aquaticus, and paler. This specimen was 10 inches long, of the same
size and proportions as G. aquaticus, and would at first be mistaken for it.

Professor Leidy states in the American Entomologist (ii, 194) that a female of this
species, about 6 inches long, was found parasitic in a grasshopper, Orchelimum gracile,
in New Jersey.

Gordius subspiralis Diesing.—Body of the male brown; that of the female attenu-
ated in front, of a clear brown, brilliant, irised. Head surrounded with a ring of an
obscure brown. Caudal extremity of the male terminated by two diverging lobes,
spiral, recurved beneath, smooth, joined to their base by a membranous fold; that of
the female obtuse, a little compressed. Dimensions of the male: Length, 8 inches-2
* 2 inches; thickness, }-3 of a line; female, 10 inches-2 feet 6 lines; thickness, 4-3 of
a line.

Habitat: Common in a pond 525 miles west of Fort Riley, Kansas, which would
place the habitat in Central Colorado, where it lives in company with Siredon (Ham-
mon). Diesing, who made the species known in 1860, referred to it a Gordius, which
Leidy had mentioned without a specific name in 1857.

Gordius fasciatus Baird.*—Body furrowed with cross-lines, attenuated in front and

* Proceedings Zodlogical Society London, 1853, 21, pl. xxx, f. 6.

PACKARD.] PARASITES OF THE LOCUST. 667

surrounded with circular wrinkles of a bright brown, besprinkled with broad spots of
an obscure brown ; extremities of the body blackish. Length of the female, 114 inches;
thickness, about one-half of a line. North America, British Museum.

Gordius reticulotus Villot.—Anterior extremity ending ina sharp point. Diameter of
the body increasing from the anterior end to the posterior extremity, which terminates
in a truncated point. Ano-genital aperture broad. Maroon-brown. A dorsal and ven-
tral band of a darker brown. Epidermis areolated; areoles forming a net-work, with
irregular and unequal meshes, having a mean diameter of 10 millfémes of a millimeter.
A simple border of small papille around the areoles. Length, about 14 inches; thick-
ness, 1 millimeter. California, Museum of Paris (a single individual).

I have identified a specimen of this species from California, sent by Mr. Henry Ed-
wards to the Museum of the Peabody Academy of Science.

Gordius varius Leidy (Plate LXIII, Fig. 6,h).—Body very long, filiform, attenuated at
each extremity, especially at the anterior; of a dirty-white yellowish-brown, also very
black, shining, areolated, areoles irregularly pentagonal. Head surrounded with an ob-
acure brown or black ring, obliquely truncated and termiyated by a transparent cap.
Mouth situated at the base of thiscap. Posterior extremity of the male reflected, ter-
minated by two conical, recurved, obtuse, and divergent lobes.* Posterior extremity
of the female trilobed, lobes almost elliptical, of which one is straighter than the
other. Length of male, 4-64 inches; thickness, }-} of a line; length of a female, 5-12
inches; thickness, 4-2 of a line.

Habitat: Very common in the rivers of North America ’Rancocas, Augusta, Schuyl-
kill, Delaware). Observed, also, in the Niagara by Agassiz; in the Susquehanna and
Lake Champlain by Baird.

. The American species of Mermis.—Although the genus Mermis is very
similar in external appearance to Gordius, it differs greatly in internal
structure, and in the embryo being unarmed and not undergoing a met-
amorphosis. The species, however, are parasitic in various insects. I
quote the following generic characters from Carus’s Hand-Book of
Zodlogy, giving a free translation for the use of the American student:

Gordius.—Head without papille ; a short «esophagus opening into the cellular con-
tents of the body; male with forked tail; genital opening between the forks; no
spiculum, but with spines; female opening on the end of the tail, entire, two or three
pointed; without any lateral expansions (seiten felder).

Mermis.—Head beset with papille ; a long wsophagal tube sunk in the cellular con-
tents of the body (intestine?) ; male with an undivided tail-end, with several rows of
papillz and two spicule ; female genital opening in the middle of the body, with lat-
eral expansions. é

In both genera the intestine ends in a blind sae, there being no anus.

Mermis eiongata Leidy.t—Yellowish-white, and from 6 to8 inches inlength. New
Jersey.

Mermis crassicaudata Leidy.{— Pure white, with a peculiar tubercular thickening of
the integument upon the caudal extremity, 8 inches in length. Philadelphia.

Mermis acuminata Leidy.j—Female. Body filiform, pale fuscous, narrower anteriorly.
Head conical, truncate, with the mouth simple and unarmed. Caudal extremity
thicker than the head, obtusely rounded, and furnished with a minute spur-like process
Length, 5 inches 8 lines; cephalic end at mouth, 4.™™; a short distance below, }™™.
middle of body, #™™; near caudal end,}™™; mucro, 42A™™ long, ~y™" thick. Parasitic
in the larve of the coddling moth (Carpocapsa pomonella), Philadelphia and Long Island,
N. Y. Professor Riley informs me that he had previously to the publication of Professor
Leidy’s article found a hair-worm in the body of a coddling worm. Professor Leidy has
observed a white hair-worm (Mermis sp.?) proceeding ‘from the Carolina grasshopper,
Oedipoda carolina (Linn.), while the latter was struggling in a ditch into which it had
jumped from being alarmed. Perhaps in this way we may account for the occasional
ae NaN of a Gordius in a drinking-trough or a puddle on the road. (Amer. Ent.,
li, 195.)

*In his article, “‘ The Gordius or hair-worm” (American Entomologist, ii, 193,
1870), Professor Leidy describes, under the name of Gordius longilobatus, a form which
he regards as a distinct species, being slenderer than the true varius, with the forks of
the tail two or three times the length of the thickness of the body, and the forks do
not include at their base a crescentic fold, as in the former. The genital pore is a
little tn advance of the division of the tail.

t Proceedings Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphig, 1852, v, 263.

{The same, p. 263.

§ Froceedings Academy Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 1875, 14.

668 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.
REMEDIES.

The locust may be most effectually dealt with while in the egg-state.
Bounties should be paid by the different States and Territories,
as is dune by European governments. As the eggs are laid very
close together and only an inch beneath the surface, the top soil might
be gathered into heaps and heated through by bonfires, or passed
through crushing mills, or the egg-sacs picked ont by women and chil-
dren and liberal bounties be paid—so much a bushel—by town or county
inspectors, and then burned. Deep plowing and heavy rolling are very
advisable, and, on the other hand, harrowing the field in autumn so that
the egg-sacs may be turned up and exposed to the frost and birds and
hogs and cattle. ;

When the locust is still wingless it does the most harm, and can then
be best kept within due limits. In Colorado and Utah, where irrigation is
practiced almost entirely, fields can be flooded, the ditches can be oiled,
and myriads be destroyed. Oil or any greasy substance is the best remedy
in dealing with any insect, as it should be remembered that insects do
not breathe air through the mouth, but inhale it through small open-
ings (spiracles) in tie side of the body ; if these holes are covered with a
thin film of oil or grease of any kind, they die at once. By taking en-
ergetic measures; the farmers of Colorado, as will be seen by Mr. Byers’s
letter on p. , in the spring of 1876 effectually destroyed the young
brood. Fowls should also be turned among them; the soil should be
rolled so as to crush them, and trenches dug and filled with straw and
set on fire and the locusts driven into them with switches, or prairie-
fires be lighted in acircle around them, and the locusts driven into them.

In Colorado a great deal of ingenuity has been evinced in dealing
wita the locust, as may be seen in reading the two following extracts
from the newspapers, which contain some useful practical remedies :

This is how the embattled farmers of Colorado deal with the grasshoppers: A long
sheet-iron box, open at the top, is swung close to the ground, between two wheels, by
which it is moved over the field. Rising two or three feet above the top of the box,
and bending forward from the rear, is a broad sheet of tin or sheet-iron. When in use
a fire is built in the bottom of the furnace, which is then pushed against the wind, the
overhanging wing or sail taking the hoppers as they rise, and feeding them in the
flames ina hurry. Sometimes a miniature windmillis added to the outfit, and sucks
in all the locusts for yards and yards around, destroying them by millions. Millions
more have been drowned in irrigating ditches by cunningly-devised traps which pre-
vent their escape from the water. While they were young and green, and before their
wings were grown, several tons of them were destroyed by a confidence game which
deserves description. Between the young hoppers and the young wheat long rows of
dry straw were strewn, which soon became literally black and alive with the wrig-
gling little insects. When no more hoppers could be accommodated, the straw was
fired. Another device was to drag over the hopper-infested regions a tarpaulin plenti-
fully coated on the under side with coal-tar, which is instant death to the pests. Still,
with all these disadvantages against them, grasshoppers are apparently as numerous
as ever.:

The farmers of Colorado are busily fighting the grasshoppers, which have appeared
in immense swarms. A letter from Denver says they “sluice them down the ditches
with water, gather them up in heaps and burn them; for the water will only collect,
and not drown, these very vital pests. They set cans of oil, dripping slowly, at the
heads of their ditches, and the slightest touch of the oily film, floating down with the
running water, destroys the young grasshopper. They drag the ground with huge
harrows, covered with blazing brush, and the flame scorches its tiny millions to death.
They draw papers or platforms smeared with tar along the fields, and the insects, try-
ing to hop over, fall on the tar and stick there. With all these devices they only thin
out the unwelcome visitors.

The following pertinent remarks I find in an editorial in the Rocky
Mountain News, November 22, 1876:

The farmers of Colorado have demonstrated the fact that they can successfully com-
bat and conquer the young grasshopper. They undertook the fight with extreme re-

PACKARD. } REMEDIES AGAINST THE LOCUST. 669

lnctance, but won the victory with less than half the trouble they expected. Only
those who feared to plant last spring, or those who planted so late that the flying
swarms in August caught their unripened grain, are now mourning the lack of good
crops. If they now had information that grasshopper-sggs are deposited plentifully
in Laramie Plains, the Sweetwater Country, or Upper Green River Basin, none would
plant late next spring. All crops would be put in early and harvested in July, because
they would know that if swarms of grasshoppers Latch in any of the regions named,
next spring the prevailing winds will he likely to bring their devouring hosts down
upon Colorado about the second week of August. But we do not know whether any
egg-laying swarms invaded those countries in August, September, or October last or
not. So far as that-matter is concerned, we are just as ignorant this year as we were
in the fall of 1863 prior to the first and most astonishing invasion of August, 1864.
Consequently, half the farmers, instead of planting in February and March, wifl put
it off until May, and then trust to luck. If no grasshoppers come, all right; if they
do come and eat up the barley and wheat in the milk and the corn when the tassels
are shooting, they’ll curse the country and their own hard fate—laziness.

Although no one can tell now with present light, or rather darkness, whether or not
flying swarms of grasshoppers are likely to scourge Colorado next fall, we are all pretty
certain that we will have plenty of young ones in the spring, and that some other
country will get them “on the wing” in the fall. It will probably be Southern Kan-
sas, Indian Territory, or Texas. They may reach Southwestern Missouri or Arkansas.
Consequently, the News advises the people in that direction to plant early and mainly
of crops that will be harvested by the 20th of July. The grasshoppers that hatch here
will fly two or three weeks earlier than those from higher latitude and altitude.

The farmers of Colorado in 1876 were quite successful in combating
the locust. The best account of their mode of fighting them appears in
the New York Tribune, from the pen of Mr. J. Max Clark, of Greeley,
Colo.

Indeed, notwithstanding those natural barriers to their progress eastward—climate
and soil—it is hardly safe to assert that they may not yet reach much farther into the
older States than they have heretofore succeeded in penetrating. It is true they thrive
best in a dry climate, but they can exist and perpetuate themselves in a wet one; they
prefer a dry sandy or gravelly soil in which to deposit their eggs, but the conditions not
being so favorable they will lay them in heavy wet soil, with no apparent injury to
their vitality. They have been known to hatch in this vicinity on the margin of a
lake, in soil almost marshy in its texture. I have myself known them to come forth
in an apparently perfectly healthy condition from soil too wet to plow.

While, for the reasons set forth, we can have no great faith in any method of general
destruction, there are means of defense which at times are very effective, and which
are always worth trying.. In this State our main reliance is on water. We surround
our fields with ditches, and into the water we drop kerosene oil, which covers the sur-
face and kills the young grasshoppers at the touch. When they deposit eggs in the
fields, as they frequently do, we watch for their hatching and scatter straw over them
as they come out of the ground, and burn them if possible before they get scattered.
When young grasshoppers attack a crop they generally do so ina compact body, much
in the form of a line of battle, and for a short time at least after striking the vegeta-
tion do not scatter, but eat the border clean as they go. At such times they are easily
destroyed, and any farmer who has straw stacks and teams can, if quick and energetic,
generally save his crop by spreading straw on the advancing line and burning them.
When grasshoppers have invaded a field of young grain, or have hatched in it, and
have become scattered through it before they have been discovered, then another line
of policy must be pursued, and one not so certain of success. We use a fire-machine,
which may be described as being a net-work of heavy wire (telegraph-wire is good)
upon runners of iron about 4 inches high, upon which straw, coal, or wood is burned
as the machine is drawn by horses attached to long rods, meeting, at a point 15 or 20
feet in advance of the machine. The machines vary in width from 8 to 12 feet in their
sweep, and are about 3 feet deep from front to rear, with a sheet-iron cover attached
to the rear and raised from 1 to 2 feet high in front to throw the flames downward
through the net-work of wire as the machine proceeds. This kills the young hoppers
without generally seriously injuring the grain.

We also use a platform of zine or canvas, or even thin boards from 6 to 10 feet long
and 3 feet wide, upon which is spread coal-tar with a broom or whitewash-brush, from
a pailful of liquid ready for the purpose. This is dragged by hand or with a horse.
The runners under the platform are only a couple of inches in length, and the hoppers
jump on to the tarred surface and stick fast as the machine is moved along. This is a
very simple contrivance, and is generally regarded as about as effectual as the fire-
machines, while not costing nearly so much in construction or for running-expenses.

670 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Kerosene oil is a valuable agent whenever it is practicable to use it, both to destroy the
grasshoppers and to prevent their depredations. A spoonful of oil, kept well shaken
up in a watering-pot filled with water, and sprinkled upon melon-vines, squash-vines,
or any other garden vegetables, will effectually prevent their destruction. Itis a cheap
means of defense and easily applied on a small scale. Various methods are in use for
the destruction of the eggs where they are kuown to be deposited. Deep fall or early
spring plowing has a tendency to disturb and destroy them, sometimes wholly and
sometimes only in part, but always seriously affecting their vitality. A flock of sheep
having the run of a stalk-field of mine last season completely destroyed a large deposit
of eggs. The ground was very loose and dry, and the surface becoming completely
pulverized and cut up with their feet, not one of them ever hatched. Birds are an
important aid in their destruction, and in loose soils they scratch out and eat enormous
numbers of them. The much-despised skunk, too, is a most desirable friend to man in
this contingency. A single skunk will often clear an acre of ground, even in sod, of
all grasshopper-eggs. No farmer in the West who has good sense will kill skunks.
They deserve to be propagated, even if it were necessary to nurse them on young
chickens.

To defend a field of grain against flying grasshoppers, altogether different tactics must
be employed. Clouds of dense smoke made from burning old rags wet with kerosene
oil, or by burning coal-tar or sulphur in differint parts of the fields, have proved quite
successful when thoroughly tried. Sometimes also they may be driven from afield by
dragging ropes through the grain, on which are tied newspapers or rags; when, how-
ever, they are tired with a long flight and are hungry from long fasting, this latter
method is generally of little avail. In this State the young grasshopper is our worst
enemy, our principal crop being wheat. The flying hosts seldom get here in time to
injure it. When we came out here the old settlers told us they only had grasshoppers
about once in seven years; that season being free from them seemed to lend weight
to the statement. The next year bringing a pretty fair crop of them, they said they
usually came every other year, but as we have had them every year since, they now
say they generally stay about seven years in a place. Perhaps, after all, the “ fourteen-
year locusts” would be an appropriate designation ; at least we look upon them as being
a permanent investment, and make our plans to fight them always. We have a fair
amount of eggs planted for next year’s crop.

In Iowa the farmers spread bay or straw over the surface. “At night
the young insects would gather under it, and immense numbers were
burned up in this manner. Plowing is resorted to this fall (1876) in
some localities for the purpose of covering the eggs deep, by which it is
said they will rot. Other methods have been used, such as catching
them, and machines have been invented for this purpose. Rolling the
ground in the spring had also been suggested as a means for destroying
the young insects.” (Proc. Conference of Governors.)

Some important suggestions of a practical nature are contained in the
following proclamation of the governor of Minnesota, here reprinted
from the Grasshopper Conference pamphlet :

STaTE OF MINNESOTA, EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT,
Saint Paul, August 30, 1876.

The continued and increasing ravages of the locusts or grasshoppers in many of the
Territories and States of the Union have been deemed sufficiently serious to warrant
4 meeting of the governors of such States and Territories for consultation, with a view
to seek congressional aid, or otherwise secure combined action in resistance of the
growing evil. Such conference has been called to meet in October. Meantime the
widening area of the visitations of these insects in this State induces me without delay
to urge the people whose interests are most directly involved, to assemble in public
meetings in their several localities, for the purpose of collecting information, inter-
changing views, and devising plans of concerted action for the destruction of the insects,
and for a common defense against their ravages. Both the correction of exaggerated
reports, and the promotion of an intelligent apprehension of the actual evil to be en-
countered, it is believed, would result from this course, while the hope of thus attaining
practical means of mutual protection certainly justifies a united and energetic effort
in behalf of an object common to the public welfare.

It is the concurrent belief of all who have given close attention to the subject that
it is practicable to destroy the pests in great measure or to insure a vast mitigation of
the worst results, by the timely, concerted, and persistent efforts of the several com-
munities directly concerned, and the employment of simple agencies readily available.
To this end I have taken pains to collect, from the most reliable sources, information of
the several modes which have been successfully employed, which I here detail for the

PACKARD. ] REMEDIES AGAINST THE LOCUST. 671

consideration of all concerned, and I earnestly invoke the united and resolute action of
the people in a manfu) defense against a common enemy:

First. The crushing of the insects by rollers and other implements, and the catching
of them by bags and traps during the season of copnlation or mating, when by reason
of their stupid and inactive condition they may be destroyed in vast numbers. This
is the first and vital step toward their destruction, and can be resorted to immediately,
the insects being in the condition named from about the middle of August variously
until the approach of cold weather.

Second. The plowing under deeply of the eggs and the thorough harrowing of the
bare, dry knolls and other comparatively small, warm spots where the eggs are depos-
ited, so as to dislodge them from their cells or pods, which destroys their germinating
power. New breaking being a favorite resort for such egg deposits, this mode of de-
struction is readily available in the ordinary course of farm-work, for which purpose
these operations should be delayed till as late a period in the fall as practicable.

Third. Co-operative action for the preservation of the prairie-grass until the proper
season for its burning in the spring, by means of extended fire-guards along township
boundaries or other large areas, to be accomplished by means of plowed strips or by
wide parallel furrows and the careful burning of the intervening space. The burning
of the grass thus preserved, when filled with the young grasshoppers in the spring, has
been found to be a very effectual means for their wholesale destruction.

Fourth. The placing of loose straw on or near the hatching-places, into which the
_ young insects gather for protection from the cold in early spring, where they may be
destroyed by firing the straw at a proper time. To this end straw should be carefully
saved and not needlessly destroyed at thrashing-time.

Fifth. The constraction of deep, narrow ditches, with deeper pits at intervals, as a
defense against the approaching insects in their infant condition. Into these the
young, when comparatively helpless, accumulate in vast numbers and perish.

Sixth. The sowing of grain in “lands” or strips, fifty to one hundred feet wide,
leaving narrow vacant spaces through which to run deep furrows and construct ditches
into which the young grasshoppers may be driven and destroyed.

Seventh. The catching of the insects at various stages, and especially when young
and comparatively inactive, by means heretofore employed, and by such improved in-
struments and processes as our experience may suggest.

Eighth. And, finally, the driving of the winged and matured enemy from the
ripening grain by passing over it stretched ropes continually to and fro, aided by
annoying smoke from burning straw or other smudges, and by loud and discordant
noises made by striking tin vessels, and by shrieking and yelling with the voice, which
are said to aid in disturbing the pests and inducing their flight.

Let the common enemy be thus fought at every stage of his existence and at every
point of his attack. Each one of the modes here prescribed will doubtless aid to
reduce the grand total of the annual destruction, while all of them, faithfully pursued
in succession, together with other methods to be devised, it is confidently believed,
will achieve substantial exemption from loss, or avert its saddest effects. But should
all means fail, there will remain the consciousness of having made such helpful and
assiduous attempts as deserved success.

_The danger of weakening the habit of self-reliance among the people, as well as the
difficulty of reaching the most worthy recipients of public aid, renders the distribu-
tion of seed-grain and other assistance heretofore extended to the sufferers of very
questionable policy ; and I feel it my duty to warn all persons against relying upon
public aid of this character. Whatever action may be taken by the next legislature
or by Congress should wisely contemplate future protection rather than indemnity for
past losses, and, if practicable, should discriminate in favor of such as evince a dispo-
sition to help themselves. At all events, if aid or succor of any kind or from any
quarter may reasonably be expected, it will be both better deserved and better em-
ployed after courageous and determined efforts shall have been made for self-protection.

J. & PILSBURY, Governor.

At the grasshopper conference, Prof. C. D. Wilber made the follow-
ing important suggestions regarding the remedial measures to be taken:

The objects sought to be attained by this meeting are two, viz:

1. The securing of national aid in prosecuting inquiries and research concerning the
locusts in the distant or mountain regions, where they are said to originate, with a
view of ascertaining such facts as may assist in exterminating them at their source or
native haunts.

2. To discuss such plans as may be advisable in defending the localities now threat-
—< by them during the coming year of 1877, or such regions as are now occupied by
their eggs.

There is no doubt as regards the assistance sought for from the Government. The
emergency is so great and applies to so many millions of inhabitants, and nearly one-

672 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

half of our commonwealth, that our representatives and governors and others in
authority will all unite in obtaining the aid needed to prosecute the scientific research
referred to.

The subject which most concerns us is the adoption of any or all the successful
means already known, or such as may be provided, for a general and systematic eru-
sade against locusts next year. » :

It is not certain that we shall have the impending invasion in 1877. They may
wholly disappear, as they did from Iowa in the spring of 1867, without doing any
damage.

Within the last thirty days I have examined many thousands of the eggs in South-
eastern Nebraska, and find a large proportion already destroyed. Those in the hard
ground, such as roadsides, are best preserved; while those in soft ground, such as
stubble corn-fields, or gardens, are to a very great extent carried away or consumed by
some predatory insect. But whatever the results may be in the spring, it is wise
meanwhile to disseminate among the people everywhere descriptions of every known
device or remedy, whether mechanical or chemical, by which we may secure partial,
if not good, average crops. The people are generally uninformed on this subject;
they do not know what to do. Arm them with reliable facts, modes of destruction,
and we will have a home army of millions of men, who will fight vigorously for their
farms and gardens.

Those who understand these matters in Nebraska have succeeded in driving off hordes
of these locusts and saving their crops. Governor Furnas, who last year lost heavily
by them, has now no fear either as to his farm or nursery. ‘‘ He has met the enemy and
they are his.” His modes are exceedingly simple, as he has explained them. Another
man in this same county raised one hundred acres of wheat by making a ditch as a
barrier against the creeping, unfledged locusts; the ditch sloping to the coming hosts,
but steep on the other side.

One man, in Saline County, invented a long box and placed it on wheels, so that it
would catch all the locusts as it approached them. By this means he saved his corn-
field.

Another man, in York County, burned brimstone in a large pan with a long handle,
and drew it through his corn-field after the flying locusts had taken the country, and
he was successful in saving his entire crop.

Again, the Mennonites came to Nebraska in 1874, and when they saw the first inva-
sion of locusts in August of that year did not mind them in the least; nor have they
manifested any concern or alarm since. The reason is, the Mennonites were familiar
with them in Russia, and knew how to fight them successfully.

Some of their modes, in addition to cutting ditches, are as follows: In the spring,as |
the locusts begin to appear, they are driven, by pushing them with brush or brooms,
to the grass or prairie, which isset on fire—that is, just that portion of the prairie which
has received the horde from the plowed field. The prairie-fire is then put out; and as
they appear day by day, more locusts are driven to the grass, which is also burned, and
so on until all have been destroyed.

When the locusts are coming in swarms from abroad, the Mennonites build small
smoke-fires, with dry or damp straw or prairie-grass, making fires at intervals of a few
rods over a forty or eighty acre field. These fires or smokes are kept until the locusts
have passed over, and in this manner the crop is wholly or partly saved.

But it is necessary to familiarize the people with these cheap and simple modes of
destruction; and while much can be done through the press, much more can be done
by organizing the counties, towns, and districts or precincts into locust clubs, under
the authority or direction of the governor of each State or Territory, who may send
some competent person or persons over the State to assist in perfecting such organiza-
tions and selecting the most available men as local committees, who can receive and
distribute such printed matter as the governor may, from time to time, forward for
distribution. In this way a whole State may be thoroughly organized for the cam-
paign, and the entire population will become enthusiastic in preparing for and carry-
ing on this warfare.

For other useful hints and suggestions the reader is referred to an
article ‘On the means of destroying the grasshopper,” by V. Mots-
chulsky, translated from the Russian by Prof. W. W. Turner, and pub-
lished in the Smithsonian Report for 1858.

It has also been shown that the most young may be destroyed by good
cultivation and a constant stirring of the soil. Swarms of winged
locusts may be in part driven off by smudges, or in grain-fields by
hitching a long rope to a horse and dragging it over the grain, thus
disturbing the locusts and driving them off. But after all they are only
driven from one field to another, and it is almost impossible to drive

PACKARD. ] REMEDIES AGAINST THE LOCUST. 673

them off on an extensive scale. Among the more general preventive
measures to be adopted on the plains and prairies of the West is the
planting of forests on as extensive a scale as possible. Farms should
be hedged in with growth of coniferous trees, willows, and perhaps the
EHucaliptus can be planted on the plains of Colorado, Montana, and Da-
kota, while hard and pine trees can be planted in the State eastward of
the plains. Mr. G. M. Dawson has clearly brought out the fact that
extensive forests prove an effectual barrier to the flight of locusts, and
in the Eastern States as well as California grasshoppers do not swarm
as they do in the treeless plains and prairies of the West, the main cause,
next to the climate, being undoubtedly the prevalence of extensive for-
ests. As the far West becomes more thickly settled and trees become
planted, the ravages of the locust will be checked and their breeding
places disturbed and diminished. Meanwhile it may be suggested that
the State and General Government should foster the planting of forests
along railways and highways, and bounties should be given to aid in
this direction. Farmers should co-operate through the medium of their
granges and other organizations. Moreover, we believe the time has
come in this country for legislation to promote co-operation among agri-
culturists in dealing with the locust, army and cotton worm, chinch-
bug, canker and tent worms, and other injurious insects. The active
and forehanded do not need the stimulus of legislation, but there are
always enough idle and thriftless members of a farming as well as any
other community who ought to be compelled to labor in common with
their neighbors in resisting the attacks of injurious insects. When in
one season, asin the summer of 1874, the country loses $50,000,000 from
the attacks of the locust alone, the matter is sufficiently grave to attract
the attention of legislatures. If education is compulsory and vagrancy
is a legal offense, surely want of co-operation on the part of the few
should be punishable by law. In my first annual report on the injurious
and beneficial insects of Massachusetts, for 1871, I made the following
suggestion in this direction :

While a few are well informed as to the losses sustained by injurous insects, and use
means to ward off their attacks, their efforts are constantly foiled by the negligence of
their neighbors. As illustrated so well by the history of the incursions of the army-worm
and canker-worm, it is only by a combination between farmers and orchardists that
these and other pests can be kept under. The matter can be best reached by legislation.
We have fish and game laws; why should we not have an insect-law? Why should we
not frame a law providing that farmers, and all owning a garden or orchard, should co-
operate in taking preventive measures against injurious insects, such as the early or
late planting of cereals to avert the attacks of the wheat-midge or Hessian-fly, the burn-
ing of stubble in the autumn and spring to destroy the joint-worm, the combined use of
proper remedies against the canker-worm, the various cut-worms, and other noxious
caterpillars? A law carried out by a proper State entomological constabulary, if it
may be so designated, would compel the idle and shiftless to clear their farms and gar-
dens of noxious animals. :

State legislation has also lately been agitated by the Massachusetts
Horticultural Society.

A large proportion of the breeding-grounds of the locust are situated
on the Indian reservations. Could not the Indians be compelled to
searcb for the eggs and bring them in to the Government posts and be
paid in food and clothing? It would not, perhaps, be a dificult matter
to compel them to collect both eggs and winged locusts, under the direc-
tion of Government officials, and thus habits of industry be fostered,
and additional inducements thus be held out to keep them on their res-
ervations.

Locusts may also be eaten as food. Millions of people in the Old
World find locusts a nutritious and palatable diet; why should not the

43 G8

674 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Indians be induced to eat them? In times of famine could not the set-
tlers be brought to store them up and eat them? From the writer’s own
experience locusts may be roasted and eaten with somewhat of a relish,
and Professor Riley in his entomological reports has discussed this sub-
ject at length.

It is stated in the Bulletin Mensuel de la Société d’Acclimation, (Au-
gust, 1875), that Dr. Morran, a physician at Douarnenez, in Finist#ére, has
thought of utilizing the African locust as bait for the sardine-fishery in
the maritime districts of the coast of Mancha and the Atlantic Ocean.
The doctor hopes to substitute this new bait for that employed until
now under the name of roe (rogne), and the price of which, always
increasing, is injurious to the interests of French fishermen. The
locusts cooked in salt water are dried in the sun and ground. The
powder obtained seems to make as good baitas roe. It has a dark color
like that of the pickled roe of Norway. It preserves all the nutritive
qualities of the locust. It re-absorbs the pickle, and is fatty, unctuous,
and soft to the touch. Besides, it falls to the bottom of the water, re-
sembling the flesh of craw-fish, comminuted and dried fish, of which the -
sardines are very fond. The insect can be put up in different ways, as
made into biscuit, pickled, salted, pressed, or dried in the sun. Differ-
ent methods of preparation have been tried; cooked. and salted, the
insects can be piled up in cakes, so as to be easily packed and trans-
ported. They can also be thrown alive, pell-mell, into brine and pressed.
The first of these methods is employed by the Arabs. The Society of
Agriculture of Algeria recommends smothering the locusts in soes, then
drying in the sun. The bait prepared in these different modes has been
tried at Douarnenez with good results. The sardines bit at them eagerly.
It appears that in the bodies of a great number of sardines there have
been found on examination the remains of locusts which the fish had
swallowed. This last fact, stated officially, has well satisfied the mari-
time population of Douarnenez. :

This, possibly, opens up a new industry for the inhabitants of locust-
ridden districts in the West, who can put up in locust-years large quan-
tities of bait for the market East.

CONCLUSIONS.

In conclusion, we believe that the locust-years may in the future be
predicted by our meteorologists, and Government attention should be
directed to this subject, and special consideration on the part of our
Weather-Signal Bureau and meteorologists should be given during the
future to the study of meteorological cycles. Years of unusual heat
and dryness, which are forerunners of locust invasions, may, we believe,
in the future be predicted, and farmers warned, while State laws provide
that in years of plenty, at least in the frontier States, stores of grain be
amassed for a year of famine. Thus, by the predictions of locust-years,
by the planting of forests, and the free use of the telegraph in herald-
ing their migrations, and the publication in the newspapers of daily
bulletins of their direction and progress, and when they are present the
enforcement of territorial and State laws, as well as bounties for the
eggs and young, we believe that millions of property will be saved to
the country, and the intelligence and wisdom of the American people
be evinced in the truly agricultural as it already has in the mechanical
arts.

PACKARD.] SUMMARY OF PRESENT KNOWLEDGE. 675
SUMMARY OF OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE LOCUST.

1. The eggs are laid an inch below the surface of the ground in July,
August, and September, as the latitude varies; and the young hatch in
April and May, becoming fledged in about seven weeks from early in
June until the last, swarming from the first of July until last of Septem-
ber. Birds and insects eat the eggs and young, and a mite, Tachina fly,
and hair-worms infest the adults.

2. While the Rocky Mountain locust occurs permanently on the east-
ern slope of the Rocky Mountains, on the high, dry plateaus between
4,000 and 7,000 feet elevation, the district liable to its periodical inva-
sions is between latitudes 30° and 52°, and longitudes 102° and 93°. It
occurs, though of smaller size, in California and New Engiand, and prob-
ably in British America from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

3. Its migrations take place at irregular intervals during or after hot
or dry seasons, when immense swarms are borne from the Rocky Mount-
ain plateau by the prevailing westerly and northwesterly winds, some-
times 500 or 1,000 miles, into British America, Minnesota, Nebraska,
Kansas, Missouri, and Texas, where they lay their eggs.

4, The progeny of the emigrant swarms return the following season
in a general northwest direction for. at least hundreds of miles, to near
the original habitat on the plains.

5. The periodical invasions may after a while be predicted with more
or less certainty should Government take measures to appoint suitable
persons to observe them, or delegate the task to the Weather-Signal
Bureau; meanwhile, by the use of the telegraph, the arrival of swarms
may be announced several days in advance.

6. In years of plenty in the border States and Territories, grain should
be stored up for use in locust-years.

7. Preventive measures, such as planting of forests along lines of rail-
roads, around towns and extensive farms; the use of irrigation, oiling
ditches and canals, bonfires and prairie-fires, rolling the soil, and collection
of eggs; bounties to be paid by Government in the Territories, or by the
local authorities in the States infested, for the egg-sacs.

8. Co-operation among farmers and others in resisting the attacks of
insects to be enforced by proper legislation, both in the Territories and
border States.

9. We still need more light on the natural history and migrations of
the locust, and the United States Government should appoint entomol-
ogists, who should study the locust comprehensively for several years in
succession. Local entomologists should be appointed for each Territory,
and the border State legislatures should appoint salaried entomologists
to further study and report on the locust, and serve for a term of years
until the entire subject be studied, and the knowledge thus acquired be
freely diffused among the agricultural community.

FURTHER INFORMATION NEEDED.

It may be found on subsequent examination that some, if not many,
so-called facts and inductions from such facts given in this report are
erroneous. Indeed, regarding the laws regulating the migrations of the
locust, the greater the number of facts observed, and the greater the
area of observation, the less certain seem the opinions already formed
by entomologists. Repeated observations by reliable entomologists and
the careful sifting of facts recorded by unscientific observers are needed

\

676 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

before we can decide what is true and what is erroneous in the published °
accounts of the western locust.

The following points need to be especially studied and cleared up:

1. How early in the summer are the eggs laid in Minnesota?

2. The direction of flight and history of the newly-fledged swarms in
Minnesota particularly, as well as in Texas and Indian Territory.

3. Is the supposed northwesterly return-flight of the locust from
Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri late in June an invariable occurrence,
or do the swarms fly in other directions?

4, What is the fate of those early summer swarms; and (a) do they
lay eggs in the region directly east of the Rocky Mountains, or (b) fly
north into British America, or are they scattered on the plains midway
between the border States and the Rocky Mountain plateau, and lay
eggs for swarms which afflict the border States the following year; or
(c) do they fail to reach favorable breeding-places and lay but few eges z

5. The exceptions to the northwest direction of the migrations from
the border States should be fully stated, and if there be such exceptions,
the causes, loval or meteorological, carefully inquired into.

6. Ascertain in Minnesota the length of time between the acquisition
of wings and oviposition.

7. Make experiments on the vitality of the eggs. The eggs of the
Europeo-Asiatic locust survive a temperature of —26° Fahr.

8. Do cold, wet springs and thawing and freezing late in the winter
destroy the eggs?

9. Do the locusts always copulate immediately after acquiring wings ?

10. Duration of the sexual act—(more than 20 minutes ?)

11. How many times does the same female receive the male?

12. How many males will a single female receive?

13. How many females will a single male impregnate ?

14, How many times does the same female lay eggs?

15. Does a female lay more than one packet of eggs?

16. Does a female lay more than one packet of eggs after a single
impregnation?

17. State the average number of eggs laid in a packet.

18. State the number of days after copulation before the eggs are
laid—(more or less than seven days ?)

19. Does Caloptenus spretus copulate with other, and what, species ;
does it hybridize with other species, particularly femur-rubrum, or var.
atlanis? Are the hybrids (if any are produced) fertile?

20. State observed (not estimated) rapidity of movement of swarms
in the larval state, and whether they migrate in the morning or evening,
or both?

21. After which molt do the young locusts begin to assemble in small
flocks and mass with larger ones—after the first or second molt?

22. Do the young wingless locusts move and feed by night ?

23. Do the swarms of winged locusts descend toward sunset, and at
what time? At what time do they take wing in the morning?

24. Make careful observations as to the influence of the wind on their
migrations. Are they wholly dependent on favorable winds to bear
them on in the course they usually take, and do the locusts wait for
favorable winds?

25. Ascertain western limits of Caleptenus spretus, and the range of
its var. atlanis.

METEOROLOGICAL DATA.

PACKARD.]

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9Lt8 | AS | £09 | 1 "eh
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681

METEOROLOGICAL DATA.

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684 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Trx EASTERN RED-LEGGED Locust, Acrydium femur-rubrum De Geer; Caloptenus
Femur-rubrum White (Plate LXII, Fig. 5b).—A medium-sized grasshopper, the male dif-
fering chiefly from the male spretus in the end of the abdomen not being notched,
but rounded and much blunter; ranging from Labrador and Canada to the Pacific
Coast, including the border States and the Mississippi Valley, not extending south of
latitude 35°, occasionally in dry seasons becoming very destructive and gathering in
local swarms, but not commonly migrating far from its breeding-place.

All that has been published in regard to the breeding-habits of the
eastern red-legged locust is the following passage in Harris’s Treatise
on the Injurious Insects of Massachusetts: ‘It comes to maturity with
us by the latter part of July; some broods, however, a little earlier,
and others later. ltis most plentiful and destructive during the months
of August and September, and does not disappear till some time in
October.” Of the larva and its habits we have nothing on record, but
it is probable that it hatches late in May and early in June, and as the
latitude varies becomes winged in seven or eight weeks or sooner. I
have observed the locusts copulating and laying their eggs at Amherst,
Mass., during the middle and last of September, after the first frosts,
and they continue doing so into October. While they oviposit in the
soil of upland meadows and hay-fields, they are more commonly seen in
hard gravelly paths in company with Gdipoda, Sordida, and Carolina,
and other grasshoppers. Having put a few into a glass jar partly filled
with dirt I was able to observe the process.

I placed several OC. femur-rubrum under glass in a vessel filled with
gravelly soil. The insect in boring into the ground brings the end of
its abdomen forward so as to be nearly perpendicular to the rest of the
body. The end of the abdomen, armed with its stout spines, is then
slowly thrust down, not being retracted during the operation unless the
insect is disturbed. The hole thus made is not over an inch deep and
about one-fifth of an inch in diameter. Plate LXIV, Fig. 4, represents
this species after the hole has been made. The size and form of the
egg-sac and eggs is shown on the right of the figure. It is 15 milli-
meters long and 5 millimeters in diameter, the eggs being shown
through the thin wall of the sac, which in those I have seen is thinner
and lighter than in C. spretus, the amount of the spongy substance se-
creted by the insect being perhaps less. I have ventured to represent
a massof this glutinous matter coming from the body of the female. Itis
possible that the drawing (made by Mr. Emerton, from a sketch made by
myself from life) is incorrect in this particular. The spongy glutinous
substance (probably a modified silky secretion) may be deposited in

-part at first and the eggs arranged in it, passing out of the end of the
oviduct singly.* The cockroach ejects her eggs all at once and con-
tained in a sac. In the egg-sacs which I observed the eggs were not
arranged so regularly as in those of the Rocky Mountain locust. During
the process the abdomen is nearly half longer than usual and greatly
distended. The eggs are curved cylindrical, of the same form as in C,
spretus, but considerably smaller, being 4 millimeters in length. The
chorian is pitted in the same manner, and there is a similar constriction
at the posterior end.

Jn Gidipoda sordida the egg-mass is 14 millimeters long and 5 milli-
meters in diameter. The eggs are of the usual size and 5 millimeters
in length.

From Mr. 8. J. Smith’s description (Proceedings of the Portland
Society of Natural History) of the modeof oviposition in Choéaltis con-

*Mr. W.S. Dallas thinks that the glutinous mass is first produced by the insect, and
the eggs afterward laid in it. (Zodlogical Record for 1867.) Further observations are
necessary to determine this point; they can (p. 4€0) easily be made, however.

.

PACKARD. ] THE EASTERN RED-LEGGED LOCUST. 685

spersa, it would appear that the eggs are probably laid singly, and
that the glutinous substance which afterward becomes spongy and hard
is exuded before and during the extension of the eggs, which are each
arranged with more or less care so as to pack most closely, forming a
cylindrical egg-mass. By means of the anal appendages the female
excavates in soft, rotten wood a smooth round hole about an eighth of
an inch in diameter. The eggs are placed in two rows, one on each
side, and inclined so that, beginning at the end of the hole, each egg
overlies the next in the same row by about half its length. The aper-
ture is closed by a little disk of a hard, gummy substance. While bor-
ing their holes a frothy fluid is emitted from some part of the abdomen;
but whether it serves to soften the wood or to lubricate the appendages
and the sides of the hole, I did not determine.

When the hole is made and while the eggs are being deposited, the
female sits with her body inclined at a low angle, the ends of the folded
wings resting on the ground, and the fore and middle pair pf feet in
their usual position, the body being mainly supported by the hind legs,
which are placed as drawn in the figure, resting firmly on the ground,
not steyated as in Riley’s figure of C. spretus. A female in confinement,
September 24, at Amherst, Mass., was observed at 2 p. m. with its ab-
domen deeply inserted in the soil; at 3.10 p. m. it began to withdraw
with much deliberation its abdomen; it stopped during the process of
extraction, having withdrawn its abdomen about a quarter of an inch
out of the hole; at 3.20 p. m. it entirely withdrewits abdomen. It had
laid twenty eggs, naked, in a mass, not having deposited around them
any appreciable amount of glutinous matter, though the dirt formed
a partial covering for it. This female lived several days after, when I
killed it to examine the ovaries, in which were fifteen ovarian eggs from
one-third to one-half the size of the ripe eggs.

Another C. femur-rubrum was observed in the act of laying for a
hour and a half, but the beginning and end of the process was not ob-
served. It seems probable from these observations that the process re-
quires atleast more than two hours, aud this being the case it is possible
that the eggs are laid singly, otherwise the mass might be deposited at
once, in a few minutes. During the process the females are not easily
disturbed. ,

Several Gdipoda sordida and carolina were observed laying in the
gravelly walk which I frequeuted every day for a week or fortnight.
An 2. sordida in confinement was observed beginning to bore its hole,
pushing the dirt backward and forward with its spines on the abdomen.
The duration of the process of copulation not observed.

Dr. Harris has collected, in passages often quoted, the accounts of
their ravages in Northern New England during the last century. They
appeared most frequently in Maine and were alarmingly abundant in
the sammers of 1743, 1749, 1754,1756; in Vermont, in 1797,1798. They
were not afterward noticed by local historians until 1821 or 1822. I con-
dense the following account, the best we can get here, of their migra-
tions, by Dr. N. T. True, communicated to Mr. S. H. Scudder and pub-
lished in fullin the “Final Report of the United States Geological Survey
of Nebraska,” &c., by F. V. Hayden, 1872. The year 1821 or 1822 was
an unusually dry season during the summer months. They devoured
the clover and herds-grass, and even nibbled the rake and pitchfork
handles made of white ash. ‘As soon as the hay was cut, and they had
eaten every living thing from the ground, they removed to the adjacent
crops of grain, completely stripping the leaves; climbing the naked
Stalks, they would eat off the stems of wheat and rye just below the

686 REPORT UNITED.STATES «GEOLOGICAL. SURVEY.

head, and leave them to drop to the ground. * * * * Their next
attack was upon the Indian corn and potatoes. They stripped the leaves
and ate out the silk from the corn, so that it was rare to harvest a full
ear. Among forty or fifty bushels of corn spread out in the dry-room,
not an ear could be found not mottled with detached kernels. While
these insects were more than usually abundant in the town generally,
it was in the field I have described that they appeared in the greatest
intensity. After they had stripped everything from the field they began
to emigrate in countless numbers. * * * * They crossed the high-
way and attacked the vegetable-garden. I remember the curious ap-
pearance of a large, flourishing bed of red onions, whose tops they first
literally ate up, and, not contented with that, devoured the interior of
the bulbs, leaving the dry external covering in place. * * * * The
leaves were stripped from the apple-trees. They entered the house in
swarms, reminding one of the locusts of Egypt, and as we walked they
would rise in countless numbers and fly away in clouds. As'the nights
grew cooler, they collected on the spruce and hemlock stumps and log
fences, completely covering them, eating the moss and decomposed sur-
face of the wood, and leaving the surface clean and new. They would
perch on the west side of a stump where they could feel the warmth of
the sun, and work around to the east side in the morning as the sun re-
appeared. The foot-paths in the fields were literally covered with their
excrements.

“ During the latter part of August and the first of September, when the
air was still dry, and for several days in succession, a high wind pre-
vailed from the northwest, the locusts frequently rose in the air to an
immense height. By looking up at the sky in the middle of a clear day,
as nearly as possible in the direction of the sun, one may desery a
locust at a great height. These insects could thus be seen in swarms,
appearing like so many thistle-blows as they expanded their wings and
were borne along toward the sea before the wind; myriads of them were
drowned in Casco Bay; and I remember hearing that they frequently
dropped on the decks of coasting-vessels. Cart-loads of dead bodies
remained in the fields, forming in spots a tolerable coating of manure.

“Tt was an object of curiosity to me, then a boy, to catch some of the
largest locusts, and turn up their wings to find the little red parasite
which covered their bodies. This might have done something toward
hastening their destruction, although it did not prevent the ravages on
the crops.

‘¢ During the years necessary to clear up the forests on the sandy lands
in the vicinity, it was no uncommon thing to have the crops seriously
injured by these locusts, but never, to my knowledge, to the extent de-
scribed above.

“In response to my special inquiries concerning the flight of these
insects, my correspondent replied as follows: ‘I do not remember ever
to have witnessed the flight of these grasshoppers to any extent, except _
during the year mentioned and the preceding one. Nor do I ever
recollect a time when the wind blew so steadily for days in succession
from the northwest, generally rising soon after midday and going down
with the sun. Ihave no meteorological record, but speak from memory.’

‘“The town of Pownal was principally settled after the opening of the
present century. As the lands were cleared, the Canada thistle and
other species sprang up in great quantities; when they ripened, the
wind spoken of as occurring at that time carried off immense numbers
of the thistle-blows to the ocean. I was wont to spend hours in my
boyhood lying on the ground and directing my eyes as near as I could

PACKARD.] THE EASTERN RED-LEGGED LOCUST. 687

to the sun, to watch the thistle-blows as they passed across or near its
disk. I think I could have seen them in this situation several hundred
feet high. I injured my eyes permanently by indulging in this amuse-
ment. Whether the grasshoppers ever rose to so great a height I do °
not know,.but I think that they generally flew at a lower level. Alto-
gether they would rise in clouds as one approached them; it was only
an occasional one that would rise higher, and fly off before the wind,
and then only when the wind was blowing freshly. They did not fly
with their heads directly before the wind, but seemed to rise in the air,
set their wings in motion, and suffer themselves to be borne along by
the current. They generally, perhaps always, rose in the afternoon,
when the sun was hot and the wind blowing freshly.”—(From accounts
furnished by Dr. N. T. True, Bethel, Me., February 28 and March 10,
1868.

In Dhio and Pennsylvania, according to Mr. A. 8. Taylor, the grass-
hoppers made their appearance in vast numbers. In 1859 Mr. Schenck,
of Franklin, Warren County, Ohio, wrote to the Ohio Farmer: “ast
year we had millions of them; this year we have hundreds of millions.”
For five years, he says, they have been increasing on his farm, and he
fears that unless some means are discovered for their destruction they
will totally ruin his own and his neighbors’ clover-fields. The speed
of the Central Railroad locomotives is considerably decreased by the
immense swarms of grasshoppers between Lancaster and Philadelphia.
One engineer stated that his train was forty minutes behind owing to
the number of grasshoppers on the track, and that he used twenty
buckets of sand, which was thrown on the rail in front of the driving-
wheels, to enable him to get along at all, Improbable as this story may
appear, its truth is vouched for by the engineer above alluded to. (Hay-
den’s Report on Nebraska, 1872.) In 1868, locusts, principally the red-
legged species, appeared, according to Riley, in countless myriads in
Ohio, invading the vineyards, “destroying entire rows, defoliating the
vines, and sucking out the juices of the berries. In the same year I
saw them in countless millions in many parts of Illinois and Missouri.
They actually stripped many corn-fields in these States, and had not the
crops been unusually abundant, would have caused some suffering.
They were very destructive to flower and vegetable gardens. In 1869
they were, if anything, worse than in 1868. I remember that in the
vicinity of Saint Louis, in addition to their ordinary injuries, they
stripped the tops of Norway spruce, balsam-fir, and European larch ;
took the blossoms off Lima beans, severed grape-stems, and ate numer-
ous holes into apples and peaches, thereby causing them to rot. They
were indeed abundant all over Illinois, Missouri, lowa, and even Ken-
tucky, but attracted no attention east.”—(Riley’s Seventh Report.)

In the year 1871, the summer of which was dry, while I was in Orono,
Me., in July reports came from Aroostook County that the hay-crop
was being devoured by the locusts; and in August the evil became still
worse, and they attacked the other crops, and. became more or less de-
structive all over the State. They also, as quoted by Riley from
the Monthly Report of the Agricultural Department, abounded in Ply-
mouth County, Massachusetts, and in Vermont, as well as in Wayne
County, Pennsylvania. In 1872, they were very abundant in New
Hampshire, and in 1874 they were destructive in Missouri. In 1875 they
were very abundant in the salt-marshes of Essex, Mass., as I was in-
formed by a summer-resident there.

In 1876, in the Monthly Report of the Department of Agriculture for
July, it was noted as injurious “in Sullivan, N. H. In Franklin, Va.,

688 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

it was very destructive on tobacco; as alsoin Person, N.C.; in Cherokee,
Ala.; in Robertson and Montgomery, Tenn.” In the Report for Novem-
ber and December, it is stated that “Owsley, Ky., reports a great
destruction of early-sown wheat by a grasshopper, which is most proba-
bly the Caloptenus femur-rubrum.”

Besides the localities given by Professor Thomas, I have received a male
from California, near San Francisco, through Mr. Henry Edwards. The
specimen was submitted to Mr. Scudder, who identified it. Mr. Walker*
gives the following localities for it: ‘Arctic America; presented by Sir
John Richardson. Arctic America; presented by Dr. Rae. Vancou-
ver’s Island-Nova Scotia; frem Lieutenant Redman’s collection. West
coast of America; presented by Captain Kellett and Lieutenant Wood,”
ete.

On the map showing the distribution of this species, I have represented
it as occurring over the whole of Labrador, for if it is found in Aretie
America, it must be found there. During a residence of six weeks in
the summer of 1860 at the mouth of Esquimaux River, Straits of Belle
Isle, I never met with any Orthoptera. IL heard, however, of grasshop-
pers about 20 miles in the interior, but they were very few in number.
In the summer of 1864, while entomologizing at different points as far
north as Hopedale, I never saw any.

We still need information regarding the southern and southeastern
limits. I have also indicated on the map the approximative limits of
the area where it has been found to be destructive at certain seasons.

Description.—Grizzled with dirty olive and brown; a black spot extending from the
eyes along the sides of the thorax ; an oblique yellow line on each side of the body
beneath the wings; a row of dusky brown spots along the middle of the wing-covers,
and the hindmost shanks and feet blood-red, with black spines. The wings are trans-
parent, witha very pale greenish-yellow tint next tothe body, and are netted with brown
lines. The hindmost thighs have two large spots on the upper side, and the extremity
black; but are red below and yellow on the inside. The appendages at the tip of the
body in the male are of a long triangular form. Length, from 0,75 to1 inch; expan-
sion of wings, 1.25 to 1.75 inches.—( Harris.)

As this species, which is so common, varies considerably, I have concluded to give
Dr. Harris’s description without change, adding the following: Vertex but slightly
depressed, with a minute angular expansion in front of the eyes; frontal costa
usually but slightly suleate; sides parallel; eyes large and rather prominent. Elytra
and wings generally a little longer than the abdomen. The cerci of the male rather
broad and flat; apex of last ventral segment is entire and truncate. The yellow
stripes on the side extend from the base of the wing to the insertion of the posterior
femora. The ground color varies with localities and age, and most of the specimens
from one or two sections appear to have unspotted elytra; sometimes a reddish-brown
tint prevails; at others a dark olive; at others a dark purplish-brown; yet the mark-
ings generally remain the same.—(Thomas, Acrididw N, A.)

Tue Destructive Locust oF Catrrornia, Gidipoda pellucida Scudder. CG. atrox
Seudder. (Plate LXIV, Fig. 5.)

“ A third species of grasshopper, unnamed as yet, belonging to the
genus Gidipoda, appears to be the insect which has ravaged the culti-
vated districts of California and Oregon, and the neighboring States
and Territories. It probably ranges over the whole extent of country
west of the Rocky Mountains and included within the limits of the
United States. Mr. A. S. Taylor, in one of his articles in the Cali-
fornia Farmer, subsequently communicated to the Smithsonian Institu-
tion and published in their Report for 1858, describes the grasshopper
as found near Monterey, and it is doubtless the migratory species which
ravaged the State. It is a species of @dipoda, which, from the devas-

*Catalogue of the Specimens of Dermoptera Saltatoria in the Collection of the
British Museum. Partiy. London, 1870.

PACKARD.] THE DESTRUCTIVE LOCUST OF CALIFORNIA. 689

tating nature of its ravages, may be called dipoda atroa, or the terri-
ble grasshopper. To the best of my knowledge, it is the only species of
the genus which has anywhere proved seriously and persistently injuri-
ous to crops. Several species of the closely-allied genus Pachytylus
have ravaged the fields of Eastern Europe and Asia; and it is interest-
ing, in a zoblogical point of view, to fiud that California, whose insect
fauna bears a much more general resemblance to the peculiar types of
the Old World than to those characteristic of the opposite border of the
New World, should in this case also harbor a devastating grasshopper so
much more nearly allied to the destructive species of the Mediterranean
than to those found upon the same continent with itself.

Whether the Gidipoda pellucida (atrox) or Caloptenus spretus is the spe-
cies which has proved at times so destructive on the Pacific coast has
been a matter of some uncertainty. Mr. Scudder (Hayden’s Report on
the Geology of Nebraska, 1872) believes that it is this species, while Mr.
Thomas (Monograph of Acridide) thinks it must be C. spretus. As seen
in the previous account of C. spretus in California by Mr. Henry Edwards
(p. _), he regards that locust as the destructive species. Concerning
the habits of GZ. pellucida in California, he writes me the following ex-
plicit account: “ Gidipoda (Camnula) atrox. This species is very abun-
dant in the spring and early summer, but at present (1876) appears to be
somewhat limited in its range as far as California is concerned. It is
found only in our foot-hills, and has not, to my knowledge at least, been
regarded as a very destructive insect. I never saw it but once in very
large swarms, and it then appeared to attach itself more to the pasture-
grasses than to any growing crops, although there were plenty of fields
of barley, oats, &c., in the neighborbood. It appears in its larval con-
dition in April, and in the winged state in May, passing entirely out
of existence by the middle of June. I have taken it sparingly in Ne-
vada and in Vancouver’s Island, and have seen some specimens from
Santa Rosa Island, but I am pretty sure that it cannot be called a
common insect in those localities.” ’ Regarding its habits and distribu-
tion in the East I quote as follows from Scudder’s Distribution of Insects
in New Hampshire (Hitchcock’s Geology of New Hampshire, vol. 1):
“ This insect is silent in flight, and is a northern species, swarming in
immense numbers among the White Mountains and on the dry summits
of the country south of it. The top of Mount Prospect, near Plymouth,
was covered with myriads of them in the autumn of 1873. It is found,
however, as far south as Connecticut and Southern Illinois, and west to
the latter region and Lake Superior.” Thomas states that he has found
it in Montana.—-(Acridide of North America, p. 137.)

Concerning this species, Professor Thomas remarks as follows in Hay-
den’s Annual Report on the Geology of Montana for 1871, p. 453:
“Those who live in the East and have not seen a specimen of this spe-
cies, can see it almost, if not exactly, represented in (i. pellucida of
Scudder ; in fact, Mr. Seudder’s description of this species agrees more
exactly, if possible, with specimens from California, submitted to me
this season, than his description of atroz.”. In his “Synopsis of the
Acridid of North America,” Hayden’s Survey, 1873, he again says:
“I give this species as distinct from QW. pellucida on the authority of
Dr. Scudder, but I consider the two as identical, the only difference
that I can see being that the median carina of atrox is severed, while
that of pellucida is continuous. The coloration shows less difference
than is often observed between different specimens of the same species
from the same locality. In fact, my specimens of atrox agree more

44 Gs

690 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

exactly with Dr. Scudder’s description of pellucida than with that of
atrox, With the exception given.”

I am inclined, from the reasons above given, to regard atrow as a
synonym of pellucida, and that its range agrees in the main with that of
@. carolina, which is found on the Pacific coast (Vancouver’s Island),
according to Walker, and probably Thomas.

Mr. Henry Edwards, of San Francisco, kindly furnishes the following
notes :

“This species is very abundant in the spring and early summer, but
at present appears to be somewhat limited in its range as far as Cali-
fornia is concerned. It is found only in our foothills, and has not, to my
knowledge at least, been regarded as a very destructive insect. I never
saw it but once in very large swarms, and it then appeared to attach
itself more to the pasture grasses than to any growing crops, although
there were plenty of fields of barley, oats, &c., in the neighborhood. It —
appears in its larval condition in April, and in the winged state in May,
passing entirely out of existence by the middle of June. 1 have taken
it sparingly in Nevada and in Vancouver Island, and have seen some .
specimeus from Santa Rosa Island, but I am pretty sure that it cannot
be called a common insect in those localities.”

Description of the adult—Head uniform, pale brownish-yellow ; the raised edge of
the vertex dotted with fuscous ; a dark fuscous spot behind the eye, broadening poste-
riorly, but not extending upon the pronotum. Antenne as long as the head and pro-
notum together, dull honey-yellow, growinz dusky toward the tip. Pronotum dark
brownish-yellow, the sides darker anteriorly; median carina extending the whole
length of the pronotum, moderately raised, cut once by a transverse line a little in
advance of the middle ; lateral carinz prominent, extending across the anterior two-
thirds of the pronotum; anterior border of the pronotum smooth, very slightly angu-
lated ; posterior border delicately marginate, bent at a very little more than a right
angle, the apex rounded; tegmina dull-yellowish on the basal half, with distinet
fuscous spots; toward the apex obscurely fuscous, with indistinct fuscous markings;
humeral ridge yellowish, and, when the tegmina are in repose, inclosing a brownish
fuscous triangular stripe; the spots are scattered mostly in the median field, consist-
ing in the basal two-fifths of the tegmina of small roundish spots, and one larger
longitudinal spot inthe middle of the basal half; there is a large irregular spot in the
middle of the tegmina, and beyond a smaller transverse spot, followed by indistinct
markings; wings hyaiine, slightly fuliginous at the extreme tip; the veins, especially
in the apical half, fuscous; legs uniform brownish fuscous; apical half of spines of
hind tibiz black.

Length of body, 0.9 inch; of tegmina, 0.9 inch; of body and tegmina, 1.125 inches;
of pronotum, 0.2 inch; of hind femora, 0.5 inch.

It bears a strong resemblance to @dipoda pellucida, Seudd., common in Northern New
England.—(Scudder in Hayden’s Geological Report on Nebraska, 1872, p. 250.)

THE AMERICAN Locust, Acrydium americanum Drury (Plate LXIV, Fig. 6.)

‘This is one of our largest grasshoppers, being a little over two inches
in length. It is occasionally very destructive to vegetation in the
Southern States. According to Professor Thomas it occurs in North
Carolina, Southern States, Florida, Alabama, Texas (Scudder) ; Illinois,
Tennessee, Mississippi, District of Columbia (Thomas); Virginia, New
York (?Drury). Ihave observed it very abundantly in Virginia, at Dan-
ville, in April and early in May. The figure (after Riley) is so good
that further description is unnecessary.

In the pupa state this species is occasionally destructive. I have re-
ceived from Prof. D. S. Jordan specimens which I regard as the pupz
of. this species, with the following notes on its habits:

‘“‘ While seining in Rome, Ga., in the Etowah River, I noticed, about
July 25, a fence covered completely with large grasshoppers not fully
fledged and extremely brilliant in color. They were very hyaline and of
all shades from a clear pea-green to pale clear yellow and a sort of clear
reddish amber (scarcely any two the same; all become pale yellow in

PACKARD. ] _ AMERICAN ‘LOCUST—WESTERN CRICKET. 691

spirits) color. We found them so thick that we could collect them by the
handful, and in consequence of their abundance and brilliancy (else I
should not have noticed them) [ secured a couple of quarts. All I have
at hand I send by American Express to-day, but will send a hundred
more if you wish.

“A negro who was mowing near told us that he had never seen that
kind of grasshopper before and that they were destroying the cotton.
We found no more in the neighborhood of Rome.

“On a visit to Atlanta a week or so later we heard doleful complaints
about a new sort of ‘hoppergrass’ that was destroying everything,
particularly the corn and cotton. This kind was said by the Atlanta
papers and farmers generally to have been hitherto unknown in Georgia,
and we were shown a lot of live specimens on a cotton-plant in a glass
globe in the rooms of the State Agricultural Department at Atlanta.
The officials asked us if that was not the terribie Kansas hopper. I
knew just enough about those fellows to assure them that it was not.

‘“* Later (August 12), near Lookout Mountain on Chattanooga Creek,
we saw several! splendid fields of corn utterly devastated by these grass-
hoppers. The silk was gone and all the Jeaves and the husks peeled
down as close as if a sheep had been at them, or arat. I suppose the
corn was not worth cutting at all, noteven for fodder. As usual, all the
fences were covered. We collected here four hundred or five hundred
and put them in a large wire cage of lizards and chameleons for the
latter to feed on, but the insects tormented the reptiles so much that
we had to throw them away.”

This species, when winged, sometimes take flight in large swarms. The
- following account of a flight in Columbia, S. C., has been communicated
to me by Professor Baird, assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution :

CoLuMBIA, 8. C., November 18, 1876.
Prof. 8. F. Barrp, Washington, D. C.:

I inclose you specimens of “locust” which made their appearance on Friday, No-
vember 17, at about 9.30 p.m. Quantities Could be gathered. I allowed my window
to be used to exhibit them, and soon had to stop receiving them. I find they are
locusts, from Wood's description, but find also that the same insect has been a denizen
here for a long time, by reference to a dried specimen which I have had for six months.
A week prior to their visit attention was called to the “ specks,” “ meteors,” “ birds,’
&c., flying in front of the moon. I have no doubt they were an advance-guard of
these locusts, as the under-wing is very brilliant in the light. I find they devour each
other, but do not molest linen or cotton or paper in the window. I examined the
feces of the newly-arrived ones with the microscopes to judge of their last food, and
found it to be woody fiber. The locusts were traveling from northwest to southeast.

Respectfully, d&c., E. E. JACKSON

Another swarm is described in the Monthly Report of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture as “literally covering the streets” of Vevay, Ind.,
beginning to drop down at half-past 6 in the evening and continuing till
8p.m. This species has also swarmed in Suffolk County, Virginia,
aceording to Mr. C. R. Dodge.—(Rural Carolinian, quoted by Riley,
Seventh Report.)

THE WESTERN CRICKET, Anabrus simplex Haldeman and A. haldemani Girard.—Very
destructive to crops of wheat and other cereals and to grass; a large, stout, dark, cricket-
like insect.

The “cricket” is especially injurious to crops in Utah, where it is very
annoying and abundant. I have found it (A. Haldemani Girard, named
by Mr. Scudder) common on the shores of the Great Salt Lake, where

692 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

the gulls were seen feeding on this insect as well as winged grasshop-
pers. Mr. Henry Edwards, under date of December 25, 1875, writes me
as follows regarding the cricket: ‘* I send you two specimens of the large
brown cricket from Idaho. I think it is Anabrus simplex of Haldeman.
It is extremely destructive to the crops of wheat and other cereals from
Oregon to Wyoming Territory, and eastward to Montana, Idaho, and
Utah. Ido not think it has ever been found in California. When I
was in Oregon two years ago, I made some few notes about this pest,
and, if I can find them, will willingly place them at your disposal.”
Maj. J. W. Powell tells me that the cricket is annoying in Arizona.

I extract the following remarks on the geographical range and habits
of the species of Anabrus from Professor Thomas’s report in Hayden’s
Report on the Geology of Montana for 1871:

Anabrus purpurascens is found, not abundantly, but at certain elevated points from
Northern New Mexico to Montana, along the east. base of the mountains, but I have
met with no specimen west of the range in the middle district, though Mr. Uhler gives
Washington Territory as a locality on the authority of Dr. Suckley. It is also found
as far south as Texas, and as far north as Red River, in Northern Minnesota. A. simplex
appears to be confined to the middle district, as I have not met either in the eastern or
western districts. Dr. Scudder, who examined the Orthoptera, collected by Professor
Hayden, in Nebraska, does not mention it in his list; nor did Mr. C. R. Dodge have it
among his collections made in Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas, and Indian Territory; nor
is it among the collections in the Agricultural Department, made east of the Rocky
Mountains. Hence I think we may safely conclude that it is confined to the west side of
the range. Bunt whatit lacks in range is made up in numbers, for in the northern part |
of Salt Lake Basin and southern part of Idaho, the only points where I have met with
it, it is to be seen in armies of myriads. (p. 431.) Found in great abundance between
Brigham City, Utah, and Fort Hall, Idaho; also, occasionally met with farther south,
in Utah, and north of Fort Hall, to the boundary-line of Montana, which is here aloug
the range separating the waters of the Atlantic from the Pacific. At some points we
found them so abundant as literally to cover the ground. In two or three instances
they all appeared to be moving in one direction, as if impelled by some common motive.
I recollect one instance, on Port Neuf River, where an army was crossing the road. It
was probably as much as 200 yards in width. I could form no idea as to its length.
I only know that as far as I could distinguish objects of this size (being horseback)
I could see them marching on. I think that in all the cases where I saw them thus
moving, it was toward a stream of water. They appear to be very fond of gathering
along the banks and in the vicinity of streams. In the north part of Cache Valley
I frequently noticed the ditches and little streams covered with these insects, which,
having fallen in, were floating down on the surface of the water, and, though watch-
ing them for hours, they would flow on in an undiminished stream.

While encamped on a litte creek near Franklin, in this valley, it was with difficulty
we could keep them out of our bedding; and when we went to breakfast, we found
the under side and legs of the table and stools covered with them, all the vigilance of
the cook being required to keep them out of the victuals.

But the strangest part of its history is that it will go in pursuit of and catch and
eat the Cicada. This latter insect also made its appearance in this valley the past sea-
son in immense numbers, covering the grass and sage and other bushes, especially
those which formed a fringe along the little streams. Up these the Anabrus would cau-
tiously climb, reach out with its fore leg and plant its claw in its victim’s wing; once
the fatal claw secured a hold, the Cicada was doomed, for without ceremony it was at
once sacrificed to the voracious appetite of its captor. No uniformity appeared to be
preserved in this process ; sometimes they would commence with the thorax, at others
with the head, not even taking the trouble to remove the legs and wings.

I noticed in the road, where one of the armies was crossing, a number of large hawks
feasting themselves upon the helpless victims. As I returned through Malade Valley
(August 20, 1871,) the females were depositing their eggs. They press the ovipositor
perpendicularly into the ground almost its entire length.

The following notes on Anabrus simplex have been obligingly prepared
for this report by Mr. Henry Edwards, of San Francisco:

I know little of this species from my own personal observation. It was extremely
abundant during a visit to Oregon some four vears ago. I extract the following from
my note-book: “The large brown cricket (Anabrus simplex) is a great trouble to the
farmers of this region. (the Dalles,) and this year has been unusually common. It ap-
pears that they march toattack the corn fields in columns, and the only way left to the

PACKARD.] ' THE JOINT-WORM. 693

farmers to protect themselves is to dig trenches around their fields into which the crickets
fall in enormous crowds and are killed by theirown numbers. The upper individuals,
however, nanage to make a bridge of the bodies of their companions, and sometimes
cross the ditches in great quantities. Pigs eat these insects very greedily. They seem
to be periodical in their appearance, the great swarms only occurring once in six years.
I think their depredations are mostly committed in the night, as I saw none during the
heat of the day, but toward twilight they swarmed on the stems of artemisia and other
low plants, and were exceedingly active.”

Description of Anabrus simplex.—Dark shining brown, posterior femora with an ex-
ternal and internal row of small spines beneath upon the posterior extremity; tibia
angular, with a row of spines upon each side above, and two approximate rows beneath,
with the spines alternating. Length, fifteen lines, pronotum six, ovipositor twelve, pos-
terior femora and tibiz, each eleven, and tarsi three and a half. This seems to be one
of the species which is eaten by the aborigines of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake.—
(Haldeman in Stansbury’s Report, 1855, p. 372.

Anabrus haldemant Girard.—Antenonze long and filiform, reaching posteriorly the
base of the ovipositor; pronotum short, broad; femora smooth, yellowish; feet and
ovipositor reddish-purple. Posterior margin of pronotum black, with two parallel
black bands on the posterior third of its length.

Description—The abdomen above exhibits ten segments or articulations, the an-
terior or basal one being, as stated above, covered by the posterior prolongation of the
pronotum. Beneath there are seven subquadrangular plates, sitaated opposite to the
seven middle upper segments. The posterior sezments inclose another piece bearing
two spine-like abdominal appendages—one on each side. The ovipositor is as long as
the abdomen, and entirely smoeth. The base of the antenne is situated above the
eyes, and inserted upon an angular movable piece. The joints composing these organs
are very short, and provided with minute setz. The tibizs are provided with four
rows of spines, two anterior and two posterior; the internal posterior row being the
stoutest. The posterior rows are more densely set with spines, while the latter are
scattered and alternate with each other in the anterior rows. The first and cordate
joint of the tarsi is the longest, the second is the shortest, and, from the middle of the
third, a fourth slender and long joint arises, slightly convex above, and terminating
in two spines or claws curved inward and outward. The ground-color above and be-
low is yellowish; the antenne, limbs, and ovipositor are of a reddish-purple. The
posterior margin of the pronotum is black. Two parallel black vittz, inclosing a nar-
row yellow one, are observed on each side of the dorsal line, upon the posterior third
of the pronotum. The posterior portion of the upper abdominal segments is occasion-
ally of a deep-brown hue. '

This species differs from Anabrus simplex Hald., by a proportionally much shorter
pronotum.—(Girard in Marcy’s Report of Explorations on the Red River of Texas, p.
248.)

So large and conspicuous an insert as the Anabrus is easily kept
under by the means already suggested in treating of the locust.

INSECTS SPECIALLY INJURIOUS TO WHEAT, OATS, BAR-
LEY, ETC.

A.—AFFECTING THE ROOT AND STALK.

THE JOINT. WORM, Isosoma hordei of Walsh, Eurytoma hordei of Harris.

A minute, footless, yellowish-white maggot forming blister-like swellings between
the second and third joints of the stalk, immediately above the lower joint in the
sheathing-base of the leaf; remaining through the winter in the stubble, straw, or
harvested grain, and changing into a small, slender, black, four-winged insect, which
deposits its eggs in the stalks of young wheat late in May and in June.

This insect, belonging to a group of chalcid flies which are, as a rule,
parasitic on other insects, is a vegetarian, and parasitic on the stalks of
wheat and other cereals, living on the sap, and by its presence causing
the formation of blister-like galls or tumors on the lower part of the
stalk. When the wheat or barley is from 8 to 10 inches high its growth
becomes suddenly checked, the lower leaves turn yellow, and the stalks
become bent. If the buts of the straw are now examined they will be
found to be irregularly swollen and discolored between the second and
third joints, and, instead of being hollow, are rendered solid, hard,

694 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

and brittle, so that the straw above the disease is impoverished, and
seldom produces any grain. Suckers, however, shoot out below, and
afterward yield a partial crop, seldom exceeding one-half the usual
quantity of grain” (Gourgas as quoted by Harris). The worms
have been found living in swellings, sometimes from six to ten ina
tumor situated between the second and third joints, or immediately
above tbe lower joint in the sheathing-base of the leaf, or in the joint
itself. In November, in the New England States, the fully-fed larve as
a rule (many do not until the spring) change to a chrysalis or pupa
within the tumor, and in this state spend the winter in the straw or
stubble or even in some cases in the harvested grain. In Virginia, the
larva passes into the pupa state in February and March. From early in
May until early in July, but mostly in New York in June, the four-
winged flies issue from the galls, the males first appearing, and about
the 10th of June, in Canada, the females deposit their eggs in the stalks
of the young, healthy wheat. The larve hatch in a few days, and by
the: first week of July the young are nearly one-half grown. By the
first of September the galls become hard and the worms fully grown.

I have endeavored to represent on the accompanying map the area
of distribution of the joint-worm, but the area is probably too restricted.
No facts are, however, at hand showing that it has occurred west of
longitude 82° or south of latitude 36°, with the exception that a “ joint-
worm” is reported in the Monthly Reports of the Agricultural Depart-
ment as having injured wheat in Kansas, but the species referred to has
not, so far as lam aware, been referred to a competent botanist. I should
be greatly obliged for specimens of this or any ‘“ joint-worm” from any
part of the country.

The joint-worm of late years has been, so far as reports go, much less
abundant than between the years 1825 and 1860, and it is to be hoped
that it will not again be so prevalent. In former years the losses in
Virginia amounted to over a third of the entire wheat-crop, while some
crops in that State were not thought to be worth cutting. It was par-
ticularly abundant on rye, barley, and oats in the New England States
and Canada, while in New York it was known to destroy one-half the
barley-crop. Dr. Fitch has described several so-called species, allied to
Isosoma hordei,and he supposed that they were restricted to different
species of cereals. Mr. Walsh, however, has endeavored to show, with
good reason, we think, that they were simply varieties of J. hordei, and
that this well known species feeds upon all the small grains as well as
wheat.

Hither two or three specimens of ichneumon or chalcis flies, belonging
to the same family (Chalcididew) of hymenopterous insects as the joint-
worm itself, prey upon the larva,.and probably tend to reduce its num-
bers. Harris states that the larve of a species of Toryhus, one of these
chalcid flies, destroy the joint-worm. A species of Torymus (T. harristi
Fitch), perbaps the adult of the larval Torymus described by Harris, and
a species of Pteromalus, also prey upon it.

Larva: The joint-worm is described by Harris, from specimens received from Vir-
ginia, as a round, cylindrical, footless, maggot-like worm, varying from one-tenth to
three-twentieths of an inch in length. It is pale yellowish and without hairs. The
head isround and partly retractile, with a distinet pair of jaws, and can be distin-
guished from the larvee of the diptenous gall-ilies by not having the usual V-shaped
organs on the segment succeeding the head.

Adult: The imago or adult fly is a four-winged, hymenopterous insect, a°member of
the family Chalcididw, most ot which are insect-parasites. It is jet black, and the
thighs, shanks (tibiw), and claw-joints of the feet are blackish, while the knees and
other joints of the feet (tarsi) are pale yellow; sometimes the legs are entirely yellow.
The females are 0.13 inch in length, while the males are smaller, have a club-shaped

abdomen, and the joints of the antenne are surrounded by a verticil of hairs.
> >

PACKARD. ] THE HESSIAN FLY. 695

Remedies.—While the best way to encounter this insect is to breed
and set loose the natural insect-parasites which prey upon it, the most
obvious remedy is to burn the stubble in the autumn or early spring for
several years in succession. If farmers would, co-operate, this means
would be sufficient to so reduce the numbers of this species that its
attacks would be comparatively harmless. Plowing in the soil is of
no use in the case of this insect, as the fly would easily find its way up
to the surface of the ground.

THE HESSIAN FLY, Cecidomyia destructor of Say. (Plate LXV,
Fig. 1.)

Two or three small, reddish-white maggots embedded in the crown of the roots or
just above the lower joint, causing the stalks and leaves to wither and die; the mag-
gots harden, turn brown, then resembling a flaxseed, and change into little black
midges with smoky wings, which appear in spring and autumn, and lay from twenty
to thirty eggs in a crease in the leaf of the young plant.

The Hessian fly was so called because it was first noticed as injurious
to wheat during the revolutionary war, and was thought to have been
imported from Europe in some straw by the Hessian troops. ‘It was
first observed in the year 1776 in the neighborhood of Sir William
Howe’s debarkation on Staten Island, and at Flatbush, on the west
end of Long Island. Having multiplied in these places, the insects
gradually spread over the southern parts of New York and Connecticut,
and continued to proceed inland at the rate of 15 or 20 miles a year,
They reached Saratoga, 200 miles from their original station, in 1789.
Dr. Chapman says that they were found west of the Alleghany Mount-
ains in 1797; from their-progress through the country, having appa-
rently advanced about 30 miles every summer. Wheat, rye, barley,
and even timothy-grass, were attacked by them; and so great were their
ravages in the larva state that the cultivation of wheat was abandoned
in many places where they had established themselves.”—( Harris.) Dr.
Fitch also thinks that this isan European importation, but Curtis in
his “ Farm Insects” doubts whether the European midge be of the
same species. But it is reported by Kollar to have been known in
Europe as early as 1833, and by later observers to be commonly diffused
in Europe, and Kollar pronounces it as indigenous to Europe. Of late
years it has not been reported to be so destructive as formerly, and no
mention is made of it by the different State entomologists in their an-
nual reports.

In the accompanying map showing the probable distribution of the
Hessian fly and wheat-midge, I have been mainly dependent for my
data regarding its distribution south and west of New York upon
the Monthly Reports of the Agricultural Department at Washington.
But the information there given, I regard as quite unreliable and un-
satisfactory. It is quite likely that the Hessian fly may have been in
those reports confounded with the wheat-midge and vice versa, or that
when the “fly” is mentioned as injuring the wheat-crop, some other
fiy or insect has been the culprit. If, therefore, I have been in error, it
will be from causes beyond my control. At the same time it is not un-
likely that the area of distribution of both these insects may be found -
to coincide with that of each of the two, and with that representing the
cultivation of wheat.* This latter has been taken from a map compiled

*Specimens of the Hessian fly, wheat-midge, and joint-worm, and notes on their
habits and ravages, are earnestly desired by the writer for aid in improving and cor-
recting the maps herewith presented. Specimens of this insect and the wheat-midge
from all parts of the country are earnestly desired by the author,

696 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

by General Francis A. Walker, from the Statistics of Agriculture, Ninth
Census, 1870. ae
This insect is double-brooded, as the flies appear both in spring and
autumn. At each of these periods the fly lays twenty or thirty eggs ina
crease in the leaf of the young plant. In about four days, in warm weather,
they hatch, and the pale-red larvee (Fig. 2a) ‘crawl down the leaf, work-
ing their way in between it and the main stalk, passing downward till
they come to a joint, just above which they remain, a little below the
surface of the ground, with the head toward the root of the plant.”
(Plate IV, Fig. 1c.) Here they imbibe the sap by suction alone, and
by the simple pressure of their bodies, they become imbedded in the
side of the stem. Two or three larve thus imbedded serve to weaken
the plant and cause it to wither and die. The larve become full-grown.
in five or six weeks, then measuring about three-twentieths of an inch
in length. About the 1st of December their skin hardens, becoming
brown, ‘and then turns to a bright chestnut color. This is the so-called
flaxseed state, or puparium. In two or three weeks the “larva” (or,
more truly speaking, the semi-pupa) becomes detached from the old
case. In this puparium some of the larva remains through the winter.
Toward the end of April or the beginning of May the pupa (Plate LXV,
Fig. 1b) becomes fully formed, and in the middle of May, in New Eng-
land, the pupa comes forth from the brown puparium, “ wrapped in a
thin white skin,” according to Herrick, ‘which it soon breaks and is
then at liberty.” The flies appear just as the wheat is coming up; they
lay their eggs for a period of three weeks, and then entirely disappear.
The maggots hatched from these eggs take the flaxseed form in June
and July, and are thus found in the harvest time, most of them remain-
ing on the stubble. Most of the flies appear in the autumn, but others
remain in the puparium until the following spring. By burning the
stubble in the fall their attacks may best be prevented. Among the
. parasites on this species are the egg-parasites,
Platygaster and Semiotellus (Ceraphron) des-
tructor Say (Fig. 3), the latter of which pierces
_ the larva through the sheath of the leaf. Two
‘ other [chneumon parasites, according to Her-
rick, destroy the fly while in the flaxseed or
semi-pupa state. The ravages of the Hessian
fly have been greatly checked by these minute
insects, so that it is in many localities not so
destructive as it was formerly. Dr. Fitch has
suggested that the European parasites of this
insect, and the wheat-midge, could be imported
Fic. 3.—Parasite of the and bred in large quantities, so as to stop their
Hessian Fly. ravages. With proper pecuniary aid from the
State this seems feasible, while our native parasites might perhaps also
be bred and multiplied so as to effectually exterminate these pests. As
regards the increase of parasites, B. Wagner, in his “* Researches on the
new Corn [wheat] Gall-fly” (Marburg, 1861), finds that the parasites of
the Hessian fly increase in a ratio corresponding to that of their hosts.
' In the same year, he says, in which the hosts are very generally frequent,
they are so infested by parasites that the next year only a few of the
gall-flles appear. He also found that the parasites only infested the
summer brood of Hessian flies, but not the winter brood ; seventy per
cent. of the former were found to be infested. Thus far the Hessian fly
has not occurred west of the Mississippi Valley.

Egg and larva: The egg is about one-fiftieth of an inch long and four-thousandths
of an inch in diameter, cylindrical, translucent, and of a pale-red color (Herrick).

FAGKARD.] - THE CHINCH-BUG. 697

The larva or maggot when first hatched is pale reddish, afterward becoming white.
It is when mature 0.15 inch in length, oval cylindrical, pointed at one end, and is soft,
shining white. ;

Fly: Black with pale-brown legs and black feet and a tawny abdomen; the egg-
tube of the female rose-colored, wings blackish, tawny at base; fringed with short
hairs and rounded at tip. The body is about a tenth of an inch in length, and the
wings expand one-quarter of aninch or more. The antennz of the male have the
joints roundish oval and verticillate.

Remedies.—Besides the parasites of this insect, its natural enemies,
large numbers probably fall a prey to roving carnivorous insects and
birds, particularly swallows and martins. As, however, the insect re-
mains in the “flaxseed” state in the straw and stubble, the obvious
remedy is to burn over wheat-fields for several years in succession.
The rotation of crops is also a valuable preventive measure.

THE CHINCH-BuG, Blissus leucopterus of Uhler, Lygeus leucopterus
of Say.

A small bug, while young sucking the roots of wheat and corn, afterward infesting
in great numbers the stalk and leaves, puncturing them with their beaks. It appears

early in June, and there is a summer and autumn brood, the adults hybernating in
the stubble.

This is the most formidable enemy of wheat and corn, much more
damage having been done to grain-crops in the Mississippi Valley and
the Southern States than from any other cause, as it is more or less
abundant each year. It is very abundant in Kansas, Nebraska, and
California, according to Uhler. Dr. Shimer states that the female is
“occupied about twenty days in laying her eggs, about 500 in number.
The larva hatches in fifteen days, and there are two broods in a season,
the first brood maturing, in Illinois, from the middle of July to the
middle of August, and the second late in autumn.” According to Har-
ris, the “eggs of the chinch-bug are laid in the ground, in which the
young have been found, in great abundance, at the depth of an inch or
more. They make their appearance on wheat about the middle of June,
and may be seen in their various stages of growth on all kinds of grain,
on corn, and on herds-grass, during the whole summer. Some of them
continue alive through the winter in their places of concealment.” This
species is widely diffused. I have taken it frequently in Maine, and
even on the extreme summit of Mount Washington in August, but it is
more properly a southern and western insect. It has not attracted
notice on the Pacific coast, as M. H. Edwards writes me that it has not
yet appeared in California. But as Mr. Uhler records it from Califor-
nia, it probably occurs there only rarely.

Dr. Shimer in his Notes on the Chinch-Bug says that it “attained the
maximum of its development in the summer of 1864, in the extensive
wheat and corn fields of the valley of the Mississippi, and in that. single
year three-fourths of the wheat and one-half of the corn crop were
destroyed throughout many extensive districts, comprising almost the
entire Northwest, with an estimated loss of more than $100,000,000 in
the currency that then prevailed,” while Mr. Walsh estimates the loss
from the ravages of this insect in Illinois alone, in 1850, to have been
$4,000,000. ghia

In the summer of 1865, the progeny of the broods of the preceding
year were almost entirely swept off by an epidemic disease, so few being
left that on the 22d of August Dr. Shimer found it ‘almost impossible
to find even a few cabinet specimens of chinch-bugs alive” where they
were so abundant the year before. “ During the summer of 1866 the
chinch-bugs were very scarce in all the early spring, and up to near the

698 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

harvest I was not able, with the most diligent search, to find one. At
harvest I did succeed in finding a few in some localities.” This disease
among the chinch-bugs was associated with the long-continued wet,
cloudy, cool weather that prevailed during a greater portion of the
period of their development, and doubtless was in a measure produced
by deficient light, heat, and electricity, combined with an excessive hu-
midity of the atmosphere.” In 1868 it again, according to the editors of
the American Entomologist, “did considerable damage in certain
counties in Southern Illinois, and especially in Southwest Missouri.”
In 1871 Dr. Le Baron estimates the losses to corn and the small grains
in the Northwestern States at $30,000,000, and Riley estimates the loss
in 1874 in the same area as double that sum, the loss in Missouri alone
being $19,000,000. Apparently no injury was sustained in Colorado in
1875 from this insect.

In the accompanying map showing the distribution of the chinch-bug,
I have been mainly dependent on the statements of the State and other
entomologists of the West, and the reports of the Agricultural Depart-
ment. I have found the insect on the summit of Mount Washington,
and argue from this fact that it is widely distributed over the colder as
well as warmer portions of the New England States. It probably in-
habits the entire United States east of longitude 100°, and will proba-

bly occur in the Western Territories, wherever wheat is raised, though

perhaps the altitude and peculiar climatic features of the Rocky Mount-
ain Plateau may prevent its rapid and undue increase.

Egg, young and adult.—The egg is minute, oval, 0.03 inch long, four times as long as
broad, and white. The larva is at first pale yellow, afterward becoming red, changing
with age to brown and black, and marked with a white band across the back. The
adult is armed with a powerful beak, instead of jaws, with which it punctures the stems
of plants and-sucks in the sap; it sometimes abounds to such an extent as to travel in
armies from field to field; it may be known by its white fore wings, contrasting well
with a black spot on the middle of the edge of the wing, and is about three-twentieths
of an inch in length. Certain individuals have very short wings.

Fie. 4.—Adult and immature stages of Chinch-Bug.—a, b, eggs; ¢, newly-hatched
larva; d, its tarsus; e, larva after first molt; f, same after second molt; g, pupa—the
natural sizes indicated at sides; h, enlarged leg of perfect bug; j, tarsus of same still
more enlarged; 7, proboscis or beak, enlarged. (After Riley.)

Remedies.—Burn stubble, old straw, and corn-stalks among weeds in
fence-corners in the early spring. Riley advises the early sowing of
small grain in the spring, and suggests that the harder the ground is
the less chance there is for the chinch-bug to penetrate to the roots of
the grain and lay its eggs thereon. ‘‘ Hence, the importance of fall-
plowing, and using the roller upon land that is loose and friable.”
Heavy rains and cold, damp seasons reduce its numbers materially.
Where irrigation is practiced, fields may be flooded for several days in

PACKARD. | NORTHERN ARMY-WORM. 699

succession, and thus the insects driven off or drowned. The natural
enemies of the chinch-bug are larger species of bugs, the lady-bird
(Hippodamia and Coccinella), the larva of the lace-wing fly (Chrysopa),
and quails, ete.

THE NORTHERN ARMY-WoRM, Heliophila unipuncta of Grote; Noctua
unipuncta of Haworth; Leucania unipuncta Guenée.

The summer of 1861 will be long remembered by agriculturists on
account of the injury their crops received from the sudden and unpre-
cedented appearance of a caterpillar which destroyed the leaves and
heads of every sort of grain; and of a species of Aphis, or plant-louse,
that gathered in immense numbers on the ears of the grain that had
been left untouched by the army-worm, sucking out the sap,of the ear,
and thus lessening very materially its weight; or if in many cases not
doing as much damage as this, causing much apprehension and anxiety
to farmers generally.

The most injurious of these two insects is the larva of the Leucania
unipuncta, one of a family of night-flying moths that embraces an im-
mense number of species. The genus Leucania has a spindle-shaped
body, a robust thorax, with a distinct collar just behind the head, which
above is triangular, carrying near the base the thread-like antenns, or
feelers, which are about two-thirds the length of the wings. Two stout
palpi, with a slender tip, project from the under side of the head, from
each side of the hollow sucking-tube used to suck the sweets of flowers,
but which at rest is rolled up between the palpi and rendered almost
invisible by the thick-set, long hair-like scales that cover the head. A
little behind the front margin of the thorax are placed the wings; the
forward pair narrow and oblong, arched slightly at the apex, and just
below, the outer oblique edge bulges out slightly. The outer edge or
that farthest out from the insertion of the wing is in this genus two or
three times as wide as the base. In the middle of the fore wing is a
vein that rans out very prominent to just where it divides into three
lesser branches; on this point in the species described below is a con-
spicnous white dot which gives it its name, wnipuneta.

The hind wings are short, broad, and tkin, just reaching out to the
outer edge of the fore wing. There isa slight notch near the middle of
the outer edge, and the inner edge, or that most parallel to the abdomen,
is fringed with quite long hairy scales, that run into the pale fringe of the
outer edge, which is always paler and broader than that of the fore
wings. Both wings are much paler beneath, and do not show the mark-
ings of the upper side. When the moth is at rest, the hind wings are
laid upon the abdomen and partially folded, so that the fore wings over-
lap one another above them like a roof. Thus folded, the ends of the
wings are not much wider than the thorax.

The abdomen tapers rather rapidly, ending in a pencil of hairs. The
second and third joints of the legs are much thickened, the last joints
armed with minute spines, four of which are largest on the third joint.

Characters like these show moths of this genus to be strong and swift
on the wing. In meadows and grass-lands, when disturbed they dart
suddenly up from under our very feet and plunge into covert very
quickly again. In the evening they fly in great numbers into open
windows, attracted by the light within.

The eggs are laid near the roots of our wild, especially the perennial,
grasses, such as timothy and red-top. Mr. Riley bas sueceeded in
observing the female laying her eggs early in April at Saint Louis, Mo.

700 | REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL: SURVEY.

‘‘ By carefully watching, I have ascertained that the favorite place to
which the female consigns her eggs in such grass is along the inner
base of the terminal blades where they are yet doubled. The com-
pressed borney ovipositor, which piays with great ease and tentative
motion on the two telescopic subjoints of the abdomen, * * * * is
thrust in between the folded sides of the blade, and the eggs are glued
along the groove in rows of from five to twenty, and covered with a
white, glistening, adhesive fluid, which not only fastens them to each
other, but draws the two sides of the grass-blade close around them, so
that nothing but a narrow, glistening streak is visible * * * *
The female, having once commenced to lay, is extremely active and.
busy, especially during warm nights, and I should judge that but two
or three days are required to empty the ovaries, which have a uniform
development. <A string of fifteen or twenty eggs is placed in position
in two or three minutes, and by the end of ten more I have known the
moth to choose another leaf, and supply it with another string. Many
must be laid very soon after vegetation starts, as some moths taken in
the middle of April had already exhausted their supply ; yet the bulk
of them are not laid till toward the end of April.” The hatching of the
larva in a uniform temperature of 75° F. takes place from the 8th to the
10th day after deposition. The iarve molt five times, and but three
days while in confinement intervened on an average between each.—
(Riley’s Eighth Report.)

In Illinois, the moth lays its eggs in April and May, from four to six
weeks earlier than in the Eastern States; so the larva appears earlier.

In Missouri, from the middle of April till the middle of May, and
about the middle of June probably in Massachusetts, and a week latér
in Maine, the eggs placed in local and confined tracts of grass-land
hatch their young larve, which for four weeks or thereabout feed inces-
santly till full-fed on the grass around the place of their birth, straying
off as their forage is eaten up to fresh pastures.

The caterpillar state lasts for about a month, when it descends into
the earth and changes to a chrysalis, remaining in this state two or
three weeks. In Southern Missouri the moth appears about the fore
part of June.—(Riley.) In New England the moth appears in

It is probable, according to the observations of Mr. Riley and myself,
that while the majority of the moths appear in the late summer or early
autumn, according to the latitude of the place where they live, a few
may hybernate in the pupa state in the Middle States, and still more
in the New England States. Mr. Riley thinks that the moths may -
sometimes lay their eggs upon newly-sown fall-grain.

We first hear of the army-worm when it is about an inch long; but
it has eaten up all the grass around its place of birth, and in myriads is
pushing out its columns after forage. The mature larva is about an
inch and a half long. Its cylindrical body, divided into thirteen rings
becomes more contracted and wrinkled at each end, and is sparsely
covered with short hairs. The head is covered by a net-work of con-
fluent spots, while along the middle of the face run two lines diverging
at each end. A light-colored waved line just above the legs is suc-
ceeded by a dark one, then a light one edged with two thread-like lines 5
while the upper part is dark, with an interrupted white threadru nning
exactly through the middle of the back. The prolegs, ten in number, °
are marked on their outer middle and on their tip with black. Beneath,
the caterpillar is of a livid green.

Its name is suggestive of the regular, trained way in Which myriads
of these caterpillars march together in long, deep columns, side by side,

j a . I
PACKARD.] THE NORTHERN ARMY-WORM. 701

steadily over every obstacle, wherever their instinct leads them. Unlike
the cut-worm, which moves by night singly, from field to field, and
secrete themselves by, day-time amid the roots of the plants they attack,

the army-worm feeds in the forenoon and evening generally, scattered
over fields of grain or grass, either eating the leaves or cutting off the
heads and letting it fallon the ground. They will thus cut across the
field, wantonly mowing off the heads of the grain. In this way, in
Plymouth County, Massachusetts, they destroyed an acre and a half of
wheat in one night, and then attacked a corn-field in the same way.

All young insects, or those in the larval stage, are exceedingly vora-
cious ; they eat surprising quantities of food. When these army-worms
are shut up together without food, they will quickly devour each other.
We give some extracts to illustrate what we have said, from the New’
England Farmer and Boston Cultivator. A writer in Danvers, Mass.,
says: “* They were seen in great numbers through the entire field of
several acres, climbing up the stalks of the barley, eating the blades
and cutting off the heads of the grain. The day after these worms
were discovered, the barley was mowed in order to preserve it, when
they dropped to the ground, throwing themselves into a coil, a habit of
the insect when disturbed. Many of them soon commenced a march
for the neighboring fields and gardens, while others blindiy pushed for-
ward a column across the highways over a stone wall, where they were
crushed by travelers on the road. But the main body marched to the
adjoining gardens and inclosures, where the proprietors were waiting
to receive them in their intrenchments, which had been thrown up a
foot wide and two feet deep. The worms, as they fell in their advance
into the trenches, were assailed in various ways by eager combatants,
some spreading over them lime, tar, or ashes, while others resorted
vigorously to pounding them. In this way, countless numbers of them
were destroyed. The rear guard, composed principally of those of
smaller growth, kept in the field, where they were picked up by a troop
of fifty young red-winged blackbirds. I also noticed the robins feeding
on these vermin.” Again: In adjoining lots they were commencing
their devastation upon the corn, turnips, cabbages, weeds, and grass.
They leave the grass-ground completely clean and white, so that it has the
appearance of having been scorched in the sun. The cabbage and turnips
they destroy by eating the tender parts of the plants, while they attack
the corn by descending the spindle and concealing themselves in large
numbers among the leaves where the corn is to make its appearance.
Corn thus attacked, looks wilted and drooping, In some hills, the
Stalks were stripped of all their leaves. Tbere were no worms upon the
potato-tops, though they have killed all the grass to the borders of the
field.”

The damage done to crops in Western Massachusetts alone was esti-
mated to amount:to half a million dollars. In the Middle and Western
States, the army-worm appears in numbers in certain years, and then
are rare for some years. In Southern L[ilinois, in 1818 or 1820, they
were more numerous than in 1861. They also appeared in 1825, 1826,
1854, 1841. In 1842 they were about as numerous as in 1861. In 1849
they were numerous in Southern Illinois. In 1856 they occurred in
small numbers. In 1855 it appeared in Northern Ohio; in 1854 it
abounded in Boone County, Missouri, and in 1865, 1866, and especially
in 1869, in portions of the State. In 1871 it occurred in Illinois, and in
1872 in Iowa, Wisconsin, Ohio, and Kentucky, Illinois, Missouri, and
Tioga County, New York.—(Riley.) Thus it is well known and estab-
lished in the South and West, so that when it appeared in New York

702 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

.

and New England the past summer there were thought to be two spe-
cies of army-worms. But the moths from different sections of the East
and West have been compared and found to be the same. Dr. Fitch,
also, has shown that *“* worms in armies,” and “ black worms,” referred
to by writers as occurring in New York and New England in 1743,
1770, 1790, and 1817, with habits like those of the army-worm of 1861,
must be the same species. Mr. Sanborn assures me that he took the
moth in 1855 near Boston; and has found the larva under stones in
grass-plots. On Mr. Clark’s farm at Carritunk, near the Forks of the
Kennebec, the army-worm did a great deal of damage to the barley, in
all destroying forty acres of grain. This was about the middle of Au-
gust, and soon after the caterpillars entered the ground to transform.
Their ravages were especially noticed, according to the Maine Farnier,
in North Berwick, Union, Bangor, Ellsworth, and one or two other
towns. Mr. Goodale informs usthat on Mr. Joseph Clark’s farm, in Wal-
doborough, the worm was found both in wheat and barley fields, though
less on the wheat, which was riper. The leaves were consumed, while
the heads were not much eaten. Many of the heads were cut off and
had fallen upon the ground, while others were cut just enough to hang
over. Mr. Goodale collected numbers of the worm on the 14th of Au-
gust, and fed them till on the 20th all but one had gone into the earth.
September 7, these millers appeared, and so several each day until the
16th. I have never taken this species in Maine until I met the worm in
Bangor, August 2, in a yard afew rods from the Bangor House, and
nearly full-fed; August 13, in a field of barley in Mattamiscontis, on the
Penobscot, above Bangor. It was not seen on farms above this point
on that river, or on the Allegash or Saint John, so far as I could ascer-
tain, while the wheat Aphis was abundant on every farm I visited on
those rivers. Whether the army-worm made its appearance for the
first time in Maine in 1861 can be only probable. In Massachusetts it
was first noticed the first of July ; in Maine a month later, where it be-
came generally prevalent.

The year 1875 was another army-worm year, and it abounded all over
the country, especially in Missouri, Illinois, Delaware, Ohio, Kentucky,
and Iowa, New York, and throughout New England, and in Western
New Brunswick.—( Riley.)

While the caterpillar is single-brooded in the Northern States, in
Saint Louis, Mo.. Mr. Riley finds it to be double-brooded, and he thinks
that three broods may sometimes appear in one season.

The following newspaper items will show the time of appearance and
degree of damage done by the army-worm in New York, the New Eng-
land States, and New Brunswick, in 1875:

Another insect-pest has made its appearance in formidable numbers on Long Island.
The army-worm has been doing more damage in Suttolk and Queens Counties, especially
the former, than even the dreaded potato-beetle. Corn and oats prove more attrac-
tive than potatoes to the army-worm, and in some instances the entire crop of oats
has been destroyed. It is to be hoped that the recent heavy rains have put a stop to

the operations of these caterpillars; at worst, their want of the power of flight will
probably confine the damage to the island.—(New York Tribune, August 6, 1875.)

The army-worms have disappeared from Little Compton and Portsmouth as sud-
denly as they came. They did considerable injury.—( Boston Journal, August 13.)

A special trom Rockland says that an immense army of black worms, similiar to
caterpillars, were crossing Pleasant street in that city all day Sunday, heading south-
ward. Large crowds gathered to witness their advance.—(Boston Journal, August 2.)

The Times says that the army-worm has appeared in Bath. This worm has appeared —
in Rockland, and as far east as Machias, and is reported as doing great damage.—
(Brunswick Telegraph, August 10.)

Satnt JOHN, N. B., August 12.—The army-worms appeared on the marsh-road, a mile

PACKARD.] THE NORTHERN ARMY-WORM. 703

from Saint John, yesterday aftefnoon, in considerable strength. Notwithstanding the
efforts to destroy them, they were marching on the city last night with apparently un-
diminished numbers. To-day they are gone. Considerable damage was done to grass,
turnips, and other root-vegetables. The army-worm recently invaded Grassy Island
in Saint John River, from which an annual revenue was derived from the sale of grass.
This year only one-fifth of the usual amount will be realized. There has been no gen-
eral invasion of this province, and the alarm has subsided.—( Boston Journal.) .

I have represented on the map showing the distribution of the north-
ern army-worm, its probable range. Having received the moth from
Texas, I think there is no reasonable doubt but that it also inhabits the
other Gulf States as far as and including Northern and Middle Florida.

The army-worm appears in the wheat-fields when the ** wheat is in the
milk.” Previous to this the young larve are not noticed. ‘When less
than half an inch long, the worms are searcely recognizable as army-
worms,” the general color being green and only feeding by night. Riley
states that “‘in ordinary seasons they are reported along the thirty-third
parallel, as in Texas, early in March, and about a week later with each de-
gree of latitude as we advance northward. Then, in Southern Missouri
they commence to march about the middle of May ; in Central Missouri
the first of June, and in the extreme northern part of the State about
the middle of the month. In the more northern New England States
they seldom do much damage before the middle of July (we should
rather say first of August). There may, therefore, be a difference of
over two months between the appearance of the worms in Southern
Missouri or Kentucky and in Maine.”—(wiley’s Eighth Report.)

The pupa.—The middle of August, the larva, full-fed, descends into
the earth a few inches, and there, by constant wriggling of its body
and the excretion of a sticky fluid, constructs a rough earthen cocoon;
or often it merely constructs a rude cell of dry grass just below the sur-
face, and there in a day or two, probably, as is the case with most
moths, the mahogany-colored pupa, nearly an inch long, with wing-
covers reaching to the last third of the body, with two spines slightly
curved in, situated on the last segment, emerges from the outer larva-
skin or mask, and lying there ten or fifteen days, till the tissues of the
_ future moth shall be formed and hardened, discloses the imago or moth
the last of August.

Dr. Fitch shows that the natural habitat of the army-worm is in grass,
in low lands. Mr. Riley substantiates Dr. Fitch’s opinion, and thus
accounts for the occasional undue increase of the caterpillar: ‘“* During
an excessively dry summer these swampy places dry out, and the insect,
having a wider range where the conditions for its successful develop-
ment are favorable, becomes greatly multiplied. The eggs are conse-
quently deposited over a greater area of territory, and if the succeeding
year proves wet and favorable to the growth of the worms, we shall
have the abnormal conditions of their appearing on our higher and drier
lands, and of their marching from one field to another.” * * * Thus
the fact becomes at once significant and explicable, that almost all
great army-worm years have been unusually wet, with the preceding
year unusually dry, as Dr. Fitch has proved by record.”—(Riley’s Sec-
ond Report.)

In this, as probably in all other insects, the unusual prevalence of the
individuals is due to unusually favorable conditions for the preservation
of the egg and the development of the caterpillar and chrysalis. It
should be borne in mind that in ordinary years, of the one hundred
eggs laid by each moth (if that be the approximate number), but a
small proportion hatch, being eaten by birds and possibly destroyed by
egg-parasites and by cold and damp weather. Should fifty or seventy-

704 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

five worms hatch, probably only three or four perpetuate their kind;
and so on throughout the insect-world. The struggle for existence is
so great, each species suffering from adverse climatic causes and insect-
enemies, that butasmall proportion survive the perils of infancy and child-
hood, so to speak. Were it not so, the world would be overrun with
prepotent animals and plants. The increase and great abundance of
the few species are an indication of the intense struggle for existence
by which the many alone maintain their livelihood.

Remedies.—If lands are burned over in the dead of the year where
these eggs or pupz or moths abound, which is the best remedy we can
apply to keep off or kill off this moth, the fire will certainly kill the
chrysalids just below the roots of the grass, as it surely will the eggs
on the stalks or the moths nestling among them. Tracts of land in
Maine thus burned over in the spring of 1861 escaped the army-worm in
the summer, while farms near by suffered from the incursions of worms
from the unburned grass-lands around.

Ditching, or making a deep trench with steep or undermining sides,
especially efficacious in sandy soils, will do much toward keeping them
out of fields of grain. People have also laid tar in the bottom of
ditches, laid trains of guano, and made bonfires in them. By turning
fowl and hogs into fields just as the caterpillar is going into the earth
to pupate, great numbers can be destroyed, and the hogs and hens will
grow fat on them.

Enemies.—That birds of different kinds feed on these caterpillars has
been noticed. There are also night-birds that catch the moths as they
fly. Both the larva and moth are exposed on every hand to the attacks
of other insects, such as the dragon-flies, which are continually on the
wing, especially over low lands. A large purple beetle with rows of
golden spots on its wing-covers, the Calosoma calidum, which is very
common in grass-lands, either running about after their prey, or lying
on the watch in their holes among the grass, makes great havoc among
the army-worm, and not only the beetle, but its larva, which is more
voracious, if possible.

Ants are known to destroy the army-worm. I am indebted to Mr. H.
I. Hershs, of Richmond, Ind., for the following instance: ‘In June,
1875, the army-worms took possession of a grass-plot near my study-
window, and for a time threatened to strip it of every vestige of green;
but I noticed a few days after they made their appearance that a large
number of small black ants were waging a war of extermination against
them, which, in conjunction with the unusually wet weather, soon put
a stop to their depredations.”

But undoubtedly the grand check that nature has imposed upon the
too great increase of caterpillars are their parasites, or those ichneu-
mon-flies belonging to the great order Hymenoptera, and two species
of Diptera, or true flies, which lay their eggs on the outside of the
caterpillar. The young hatching out feeds on the fatty tissues of the
caterpillar, which lives just along time enough for the parasite
within to come to maturity. The larger ichneumons only live singly in
the body of the caterpillar, while as many as a hundred of the minute
species have been seen to emerge from the dead larva-skin, their cocoons
placed side by side within.

We first notice a large species which Mr. Shurtleff raised from the
army-worm between the first and middle of September.

Ophion purgatus, Say. This genus of ichneumons has a slender
body, with long filiform antennz. The thorax above oval, and as wide
as the head. The legs are long and slender; but the most apparent

PACKARD. ] PARASITES OF NORTHERN ARMY-WORM. 105

character is the long compressed abdomen, which, much arched or sickle-
shaped, is attached to the body by a slender peduncle. The end of the
abdomen is cut off obliquely inwards below. The ovipositor is scarcely
to be seen, which in most ichneumons is very long; and here we see
the adaptation of this organ to the habits of the species. Instead of

piercing the body of the victim and depositing the egg at the bottom of

the wound, the Ophion merely lays its egg on the skin of the caterpillar.
The egg is bean-shaped and attached by a pedicle to the skin. When
the footless grub is hatched it does not entirely leave the egg-case, but
the last joints of its body remain attached to the shell, while it reaches
out over and with its sharp jaw-pieces gnaws into the side of the cater-
pillar. Some Ophions are parasitic in their ichneumons, just as are
the species of Chalcis mentioned below.

This species, common in Maine, is of a pale-reddish horn color. The head is yellow,
pale testaceous at the base of the antenn. The large prominent eyes black. Three
smaller black simple eyes are arranged in a triangle above, between the compound
eyes. The rest of the body, especially the hind part of the thorax, and the joints and
under side of the abdomen and legs beneath are covered by a bloom of minute lighter-
colored hairs which have their origin in microscopic punctures. On the middle of the
thorax above, a little darker; and behind, a yellowish tint. Next the insertion of the
abdomen the thorax is thickly and plainly punctate. Same color beneath, except the
first three joints of the abdomen, which are touched with yellow, and the lower side is
generally darker.

The veins of the wings are dark; the thickened cell on the front margin of the fore
wings and the adjacent veins as well as the horny triangular pieces in the cell below,
the outer of which is much the smallest, are pale horn color.

Body nearly an inch long. Expanse of wings, 12} tenths.

Mr. Walsh, of Illinois, has discovered three other ichneumons, descrip-
tions of which we take from his pamphlet:

Mesochorus vitreus Walsh.—Male, general color light rufous. Eyes and ocelli black,
antenn fuscous except toward the base. Upper surface of thorax in the larger speci-
men fuscous; intermediate and posterior tibize with spurs equal to one-fourth their
length; posterior knees slightly dusky; tips of posterior tibiw distinctly dusky.
Wings hyaline, nervures and stigma dusky. Abdomen viewed in profile, curves con-
siderably, especially at base, and is quite narrow, except toward the tip, where it
expands suddenly. Theabdomen of the male is appendiculated. It is of a translucent
yellowish-white in its central one-third; the remaining two-thirds piceous black, with
a distinct yellowish narrow annulus at the base of the third joint. Appendiculum of
abdomen composed of two extremely fine sete, thickened at their base, whose length
slightly exceeds the extreme width of the abdomen.

The female differs in the head, being from the mouth upward piceous. The thorax
and pectus are piceous black. Ovipositor, which is dusky, slightly exceeds in length
the width of the abdomen. Body, .08-.03 inch long.

Pezomachus minimus Walsh.—This genus is wingless, like the neuters
of ants, except that their antennz are not elbowed like those of ants.

Male, piceous. Eyes black, antenne black, except toward the base, where they are
light rufous. Legs rufous, hinds legs a little dusky. Abdomen narrowed ; second and
sometimes third joint annulate with rufous at tip. The female differs in the thorax,
being almost invariably rufous, and in the first three abdominal joiuts being generally
entirely rufous, with a piceous annulus at the base of the third, though sometimes
absent. The abdomen is also fuller and wider. Ovipositor dusky, equal in length to
the width of the abdomen. Body .07 to .1 inch long.

The cocoons symmetrically arranged side by side, and enveloped in
floss, are found in the dead skins of the army-worm. A minute ichneu-
mon, Chalcis albifrons Walsh, was bred from the cocoons of the Pezo-
machus.

Microgaster militaris Walsh, is another army-worm parasite. Head black; palpi
whitish ; antenne, fuscous above, light brown VDeneath toward the base. Thorax
black, polished with very minute punctures. Nervures and stigma of the wing fus-

_ cous. Legs light rufous, posterior pair with knees and tips of tibiae fuscous. Abdo-

men black, glabrous, highly polished. Ovipositor not exserted. Lengthof body, .07
inch.

4548

706 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Two parasites live in this microgaster, Hockeria perpulchra and Glyphe
viridescens, belonging to the Chalcid family of ichneumons. Walsh says:

We now know that of 145 ichneumon-flies, promiscuously taken, that had depre-
dated on the army-worm, 27, or only 18 per cent., perished by Chalcis flies.

Ichneumon leucavie Fitch.—Dr. Fitch has given an account of another
ichneumon.

This parasite resembles a small wasp, nearly half an inch long, of a bright rust-red
color, its wings smoky, its breast black, and also the middle of its back, where is a
small bright sulphur-yellow spot, which is the scutel. The antenne have a milk-
white band on their middle, below which band they are rush-red, and above it black.
There are two narrow bands also on the back of the abdomen, placed on the fourth or
fifth joint, and the slender peduncle of the abdomen is also black. Mr. Sanborn has
raised this same species, as also another ichneumon, which we describe.

Ichneumon species.—Ichneumons of this genus are rather slender-
bodied ; the abdomen long oval. Wings not much longer than the slen-
der antenne, which in turn are a little more than one-half the length of
the whole body. The legs and joints of the feet are also slender. The
ovipositor of the female is not apparent; her eggs are pedunculated,
having a general likeness to those of the genus Ophion.

The species before us is black and yellow. Head: face square, yellow; a dark line
borders the base of the antenne, which are rusty, the first joint yellow, and the ends
dusky. Head behind the antenne black. Thorax black; above on its first joint, or
prothorax, a yellow transverse elliptical. On the second joint which carries the fore
wings are two yellow stripes forking toward the head. Scutellum yellow; another
transverse elliptical yellow spot behind. Third joint of thorax yellow above, black
beneath. Legs: first and second pairs yellow, reddish above on first joint. Third pair
black at base; second joint yellow; third, or femur, black; fourth, or tibia, black at
tip. Tarsi, or toes, marked with black.

The elbowed abdomen black at base, the elbow yellow. The next three yellow
joints with a narrow black strip on the front edge, the hinder edge of the ring tinged
with reddish. Last three rings black.

Our last parasite is a fly, or species of the Tachina family, that Mr.
Shurtleff and Sanborn have both raised from the army-worm, and I find
it to be identical with the species that attacks the worm in the West.

Hxorista leucanie Kirkpatrick (Senometopia militaris Walsh).—This
genus resembles in form our common house-fly. The thorax is usually
striped longitudinally, and the whole body covered with large hairs. It
flies low in sunny spots in woods, with a loud buzzing noise. We copy
Mr. Walsh’s description, and select some interesting information he gives
us about its habits:

Length, .25 to .40 inch; the females not exceeding .30.inch. Face silvery, with lat-
eral black hairs only on the cheeks, at the top of which is a black bristle. Front
golden olive, with a black central stripe, and lateral black convergent hairs. Occiput
dusky. Labium, brown, with yellowish hair. Maxipalps, rufous. Eyes, cinnamon-
brown, covered with very short dense whitish hair. Antenne, two basal joints, black,
with black hairs; third joint flattened, dusky, and from two and a half to three times
the length of the second joint; seta, black. The entire hinder part of the head ¢oy-
ered with dense whitish hair. Thorax glabrous, bluish-gray and lighter at the sides,
with four irregular black vitte, and black hairs and bristles. Scutel, reddish-brown,
whitish behind, glabrous, with black hairs and bristles, Pectus, black, glabrous, with
hairs and lateral bristles; legs, black, hairy; thighs, dark cinereous beneath; pur-
villi, cinereous. Wings, hyaline; nervures, brownish; alule, opaque greenish-white.
Abdomen, first joint black ; second and third, opalescent in the middle, with black and
gray, and at the sides with rufous and gray; last joint, rufous, slightly opalescent at
base with gray; all with black hairs and lateral bristles.

Beneath, the first joint is black; the others, black marginal with rufous, all with
black hairs. In the male, the space between the eyes at the occiput is one-seventh of
the transverse diameter of the head; in the female, it is one-fourth.

Some pupa-cases of this fly before me are a little more than a quarter
inch long; cylindrical; rounded at each end. The last segment, barely

PACKARD. ] PARASITES OF NORTHERN ARMY-WORM. TOT

distinguishable, has two little flattened plates that were the breathing-
pores in the larva. The two first segments are partially split off, and
ruptured across the end, where the fly burst out. The fly appeared the
20th of September.

“The eggs,” Mr. Walsh says, ‘are much the shape and color of those
of the flesh-fly. The fly fastens its eggs by an insoluble cement on the
upper surface of the two or three first rings of the body. Instinct ap-
pears to teach the mother-fly that if she places her eggs further back,
the little maggots, as they hatch out and begin to penetrate the flesh,
will be felt by the victim and seized by its powerful jaws, as I have seen
wood-feeding caterpillars seize and worry like a dog ants that attacked
them.” .

Mr. Walsh had fifty or sixty worms, of which all but two lad their
eges, from one to six in number, fastened on their upper side. From
these he bred fifty-four Tachinas and two moths. ‘ Now these army-
worms averaged about three eggs apiece, and consequently two-thirds
of the eggs of the Tachina must have perished without arriving at ma-
turity.”

“ My Tachina eggs, so far as I noticed, did not hatch till the larva
had gone under ground ; but from information received from Mr. Emery,
I have reason to believe that, under certain circumstances, this, or an
allied species, hatches out above ground, adhering externally, and ‘ grow-
ing rapidly, while its victim decreases in size. They uniformly devoured
the larva before it transformed into the pupa state. The time for the
entire transformation of such as I experimented upon from egg to fly,
was from fifteen to nineteen days.” * * * ‘Jefferson Russell, an in-
telligent farmer, had repeatedly, on damp, cloudy mornings, watched a
large, bluish-green fly, aboat the size of a blow-fly, attacking the army-
worm, and depositing its eggs on the shoulders of the victim, as he as-
certained by a double lens. As they were attacked, the army-worms
kept dropping to the ground and gathering in clusters, or hiding under
clods, until finally the wheat on which they occurred was entirely free
from them.” Mr. Riley says that in 1875 fully 80 per cent. of the army-
worms which he noticed were attacked by the Tachina flies. ‘‘They
never abound or travel from one field to another, but they are accom-
panied by a number of two-winged flies, which are often so numerous
that their buzzing reminds one of a swarm of bees.”—(Highth Report.)
This fact supports the opinion of Wagner (see p._ ) that insect-para-
sites usually increase in proportion to their hosts.

Egg.—When first laid, spherical, 0.02 inch in diameter, smooth, opaque white: cov-
ered with a glistening, adhesive fluid; shell delicate, becoming faintly irridescent and
more sordid before hatching.—(Itiley.)

Larva.—When first hatched, 1.7
millemeter in length; dull white,
and a large dark head.

In the first and second stages,
the two frout pairs of abdominal
legs are atrophied so as to necessi-
tate a looping gait. In the third
stage the looping habit is lost, but
the front abdominal legs are still

- somewhat the smallest. In the Fic. 6.—Pupa
fourth stage, the color is dull, dark 0" Chrysa-

Fic. 5.—Full-grown Northern Army-worm. green,and thechameleonitic brown “7

lines appear.—(Riley.)

The mature larva is about an inch and a half long. Its cylindrical body, divided
into thirteen rings, becomes more contracted and wrinkled at each end, and is sparsely
covered with short hairs. The head is covered by anet-work of confluent spots, while
along the middle of the face run two lines diverging at each end. A light-colored waved
line, just above the legs, is succeeded by a dark one; then a light one, edged with two

708 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

thread-like lines; while the upper part is dark, with an interrupted white thread
running exactly through the middle of the back. The prolegs, ten in number, are
, marked on their outer middle and
4% on their tip with black. Beneath,
‘ Je the caterpillar is of a livid green.
eg We Most of the Maine species of Leu-
: cania have light-colored wings, with
dark streaks and dots, but the wni-
puncta is larger and darker colored.
Its prevailing hues are rusty gray-
ish-brown, sprinkled or peppered
sparsely with black scales. The
upper part of the head, the front
part of the thorax or collar, and
front margin of the fore wing, are of
Fic. 7.—a, male moth; b, abdomen of female—natural size; a lighter shade. Between the front
e, eye; d, base of male antennex; ¢. base offemaleantenna; margia of the fore wing and the
enlarged.—(After Riley.) vein, or raised line reaching out to
the white spot in the center, is a rusty patch. Just beyond, about half-way between

the white dot and the outer edge, is a row of about ten black dots, situated on the veins, -

running toward the apex of the wing, but the last three are deflected at a right angle
inward and up to the front margin, while a dark line starts from the corner or curve
in the line of dots, and proceeds to the upper angle or apex of the wing. The little
veins of the outer edge are silvery, and between them, in a row next to the fringe, can
just be seen little black dots. ;

“ The hind wings are pearly smoke-colored, darker toward the outer edge, with a
central spot of the same color, which can be seen on the under side.

Beneath, the moth is a light pearly-gray. The fore wings are clouded in the middle,
with a dark spot on the front margin, one-fourth of the way from the tip. The fore
wings are rather more pointed in this species than the other. The body measures
nearly an inch long, and the wings expand a little over an inch and one-half.

Summary.—The army-worm moth appears late in the summer or early
in the autumn, when it hybernates, after laying its eggs near the roots
of perennial grasses; or it hybernates in the chrysalis state and ovi-
posits in April and May southward; later, northward. The eggs hatch
and the young appear eight or ten days after, and the worms are most
destructive in wet summer succeeding a dry one, when the “ wheat is in
the milk.” The caterpillar state took a month; the chrysalis state two
weeks. The species is mostly confined to the Middle and Northern
States. Besides external enemies it has eight internal parasites. The
best way to exterminate the worm is to burn meadows and grass-lands,
where the insect lays its eggs, in the autumn.

EUROPEAN WHEAT-FLIES.—Several very destructive flies are known
in Europe to injure the stalks and leaves of wheat and other cereals,
and as they are liable to be imported into this country, I will refer to
them. The Oscinis granarius in England lives in the stalks of wheat;
Oscinis vastator in Europe damages wheat and barley by eating the base
of the stalk. The larva becomes fully grown late in June, and a month
later the fly appears. It is said to be attacked by numerous Pteroma-
lus parasites, and a minute Prototrupid ichneumon oviposits in its eggs.
Allied species causes the disease called ‘ gout,” producing swellings
twice the size of the stalks of wheat and barley. Oscinis frit affects
the ears of barley, in certain years destroying one-tenth of the entire
crop. Two species of another genus (Chlorops) are especially injurious
in Europe. Chlorops lineata destroys the central leaves and the plant
itself, the female ovipositing on stems when the wheat begins to show
the ear. In two weeks the eggs hatch and the fly appears in September.
Chlorops herpinii attacks the ears of barley, from six to ten larvee being
found in the ears, destroying the flowers and rendering them sterile.
In dealing with these insects plowing in has been found to be of no
use, and the best preventive measure is the rotation of crops.

al

PACKARD. ] THE WHEAT-FLY—THE WHEAT-MIDGE. 709

Tue Common Wuuat-Fiy, Chlorips vulgaris Fitch—Certain small, slender, pale-
green and watery-white shining maggots belonging to the above species with the oth-
ers mentioned below are said by Dr. Fitch to burrow in different parts of the stalks,
dwarfing and often killing them.

It was not until 1855 that it was known that wheat in this country
was affected by these maggots, when they were discovered by Dr.
Fitch, who thinks that it is from the number of these and other insect
depredators that farmers are not now able to raise such large crops as
used formerly to be harvested. The Chlorops vulgaris is abundant the
latter part of June in wheat-fields. It is pale yellow, and 0.15 inch in
length. Another fly is the Meromyga americana of Fitch. It is yel-
lowish-white and a little larger than the preceding. Another minute
fly, found in company with the others, is the Liphonella obera. It is less
than a line in length and is jet-black. Still another form found in the
heads of wheat in New York in June is Oscinis tibialis. It is only 0.08
inch in length, and also jet-black,ayith pale dull-yellow shanks and
feet. The last fly mentioned by Fitch is Hylemyia deceptiva, which
occurs in abundance upon heads of wheat late in June. It is ash-gray,
with black legs and feelers, and a quarter of an inch in length.

INJURING THE HEADS.

THE WUuEAT-MIDGE, Diplosis tritici of recent authors; Ccecidomyia tritici Kirby.—
Several minute orange-red maggots, one-eighth of an inch long, crowding around the
kernels of wheat, causing them to shrivel and dry when ripe. The maggots descend
into the ground and spin minute cocoons, from which in the following June come
bright orange-colored midges.—(Fitch.)

This insect was probably imported into Quebec about the year 1820.
It made its way along the Saint Lawrence and Chambly (Sorelle) Riv-
ers into Northwestern Vermont, and soon became so abundant in New
England and New York that the cultivation of wheat was mostly aban-
doned. Its attacks then decreased, and wheat was again raised until
in the year 1854, when wheat was largely in cultivation, it again became
_ very destructive, causing a loss in the State of New York alone, accord-
ing to the estimate of Dr. Fitch, of $15,000,000. In Canada, in 1856,
the loss was estimated to exceed $2,500,000. In the same year, in por-
tions of New York, the midge destroyed one-half to two-thirds on the
uplands, and nearly all on the lowlands, and the destruction was worse
in 1857 and 1858. In 1858 very little white wheat was sown in Western
New York, and the midge reduced the value of all the wheat-lands at least
40 per cent. In 1859 the midge unaccountably disappeared, to again
become prevalent in 1861.—(Fitch.) Mr. Riley, in the New York Tribune,
jy to this insect as infesting wheat in Indiana during the summer of
1876.

As regards the habits of the wheat-midge, I reproduce the following
account from my ‘“ Guide to the Study of Insects:” ‘When the wheat is
in blossom, the females lay their eggs in the evening by means of the
long retractile tube-like extremity of the body within the chafty scales
of the flowers, and in clusters of from two to fifteen or more. In eight
or ten days the eggs disclose the transparent maggots, which, with age,
become orange-colored, and, when fully grown, are one-eighth of an
inch long. They crowd around the germ of the wheat, which, by press-
ure, becomes shriveled and aborted. At the end of July and in the
beginning of August, the maggots become full-fed, and in a few days
molt their skius, leaving the old larva-skin entire, except a little rent
in one end of it. ‘Great numbers of these skins are found in the
wheat-ears immediately after the molting process is completed?

710 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Sometimes the larva descends to the ground and molts there. Harris
states that ‘it is shorter, somewhat flattened, and more obtuse than
before, and is of a deeper yellow color, with an oblong greenish spot in
the middle of the body. In this state, which is intermediate between
the larva and pupa states, which has, by Dr. Fitch, been termed the
‘“embryo-pupa” and by us “semi-pupa,” the insect spins a minute
silken cocoon, which, according to Dr. Fitch, is smaller than a mustard
seed, and remains in the ground through the winter, situated at the
depth of an inch beneath the surface. In the next June they are trans-
formed to pup, with the limbs free. When about to assume the adult
state, the pupa works its way to the surface in June and July.’”
Description—The eggs of the wheat-midge are long, oval-cylindrical, and tinged
with pale red. When the larva is at rest it is oval, flattened on the under side, deep
yellow, and 0.08 inch long. The female fly is nearly one-tenth of an inch long, bright
orange or lemon-yellow, and tarnished or slightly smoky on the back forward of the
wings, the latter clear, with a small cross-vein near their base; the antennz are about
as long as the body, and composed of twelve oblong joints, which are narrower in
their middles and separated by short pedicels. In the males the antenne are remark-

ably long, slender, and delicate, and consist of twenty-four globular joints; it is
smaller, but in other respects agrees with the female.—(Fitch.)

Parasites.—Dr. Fitch has shown that when the midges increase or di-
minish in numbers its parasites increase or diminish in the same ratio,
‘the same as the Hessian fly, once so frightfully destructive to our wheat-
crops here in America, has become subdued by its parasites, whereby it is
seldom noticed now or known to be present in our country, although it
can be found almost every year in our wheat-fields, showing it is still
with us, everywhere ready to again increase and become destructive
were it not constantly repressed and kept down by its parasitic foes.”
Mr. Curtis is quoted as saying that in Europe “ these parasites so effect-
ually execute their mission, that it has often happened a year or two
after the midges were in excess not a specimen could be found.” Its
destructiveness in this country is due to the fact that we have no native
parasites to keep it within proper limits, and Dr. Fitch urges that the
parasites be imported from Europe.

Grain-APHIs, dphis avene Fabricius.—Multitudes of dark plant-lice, clustering on

the heads of wheat in August, blackening the fields of grain, and, by sucking the ker-
nels, causing them to shrink in size and diminish in weight.

We will suppose a number of eggs to hatch out their wingless females ;
with an occasional winged individual there are as yet no males in exist-
ence, and yet these virgin aphides, or plant-lice, every few days produce
hundreds of young alive; each of which in turn come to maturity and.
produce their young alive. Hence, by the end of summer we have mill-
ions of lice overrunning our wheat-fields, the very youngest as well as,
the oldest as if for their lives sucking in the sap from the ear of the
grain. For by a marvelous adaptation to their mode of life, what in
beetles are jaws for biting are here lengthened out and joined together
to form a tube, with a sucking-stomach at the base. This tube the louse
forces into the root of the ear, and thus anchored by their jaws, whole
groups cluster head downward on the heads of grain, and by their
numbers color a whole field. But the supply of liquid food is greater
than the aphides can manage, hence two tubes open out from the hind
part of the abdomen, from which exudes a sweet sticky fluid called
‘shoney-dew.” Ants come to eat it as it falls on the leaves, or lap it
from the honey-tubes of the aphis, and as the supply lessens, they gently
strike the aphis with their antenne to make them yield more.

At the approach of cold weather, when the whole race of aphides.

PACKARD. | THE GRAIN-APHIS. re bi

must be cut off, the virgin females produce winged individuals of both
sexes, which after pairing die, after depositing their eggs for the spring
brood.

Our species is oblong-oval shaped, narrowing toward the head, while
the abdomen behind is swelled out and rather blunt at the end, with a
rather long ovipositor in the female. Its color is green, covered often
with a reddish-brown bloom. The ends of the antenne, the end of the
shanks and thighs and the feet, are black. In the young, these parts are
only smoky or dusky. Length of those with wings about one-tenth of
an inch.

Dr. Fitch gives in the Boston Courier, interesting observations on
this aphis. Of its variation in color he says: ‘One of the most remark-
able circumstances relating to these insects is the change in their color
which now began to take place. While they were scattered about upon
the leaves and stalks of the grain, they were of a bright grass-green
color. Now orange-yellow or deep flesh-red individuals began to appear
among them. This color is so wholly different from green, that these
orange ones might be suspected to be a different species. But green
females placed in vials were found next day to have young with them
of both colors ; some being green, others orange. And a few days later
other green females were found to have orange young only, no green
ones being born any longer. It is probably the change in the quality of
its food which causes the insect to change thus in its color, the juices
which the plant elaborates for the growth of its flowers and seeds being
much more highly refined, nutritious, and dainty than those which cir-
culate in the stalks and leaves, where the insect first feeds. And it is
truly curious and wonderful that this green-colored insect, on coming to
feed on the juices which grow the flowers, begins thereupon to give birth
to young having a gray orange color similar to that of the flowers.”

Dr. Fitch noticed several years ago in wheat-fields a green plant-louse,
though it was not common.

In East Hampden, Mass., ‘a plant-louse of a pale brick-red color was
extremely numerous” in 1860; so, also, a “red insect” on the oats in New
York was sent him. We thus know the insect we are to speak of was
overrunning the fields in some places last summer.

** Karly in May last, when rye and winter-wheat were but a few inches
out of the ground, I met with this insect more numerous than any other
in every part of every grain-field in my neighborhood. Toward the
close of that month specimens having wings began to occur. By in-
closing them singly in vials, I found that the winged female usually gave
birth to four young lice in twenty-four hours, while those without wings
produced eight within the same time.”

The grain-aphis became noticed the 18th July in New Jersey, then in
the New England States. Probably very few farms in Maine escaped
its presence. About the first of August I noticed them on a farm about
thirty miles above Mattawamkeag, on the Penobscot River. Also on
farms on the lakes that form the headwatevs of the Penobscot and Al-
leguash Rivers, and on the Alleguash and Saint John. [ also heard of
its occurrence in great numbers on the Saint John in New Brunswick.
Like the army-worm, while abundant on some fields, others were entirely
free from its attacks.

The injury this aphis does is to lessen the weight of the grain, which
of course is a matter of great consequence. The constant draining of
the sap that flows into the ear causes it to be very light, if not withered
and worthless.

712 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Parasites. —Artificial means of driving off this pest have not yet been
contrived. It has been suggested to kindle fires, throw on damp straw,
and let the wind carry the smoke over the field.

But the external enemies of this aphis are ready to help us. The
lady-bugs, coccinella, as larvee and beetles, the golden-eyed flies, chrysopa,
as larvee, have been seen the past season in great numbers in wheat-
fields, busily engaged in devouring the plant-lice.

These minute insects have also their internal parasites, little ichneu-’

mons of the genus Aphidius. We have to go again to Dr. Fitch’s arti-
cle for information respecting their habits :

‘‘On many of-the wheat-heads, nay at present (August 6) be noticed
from one toa half dozen or more of these lice, which are very large,
plump, and swollen, of the color of brown paper, standing in a posture
so perfectly natural you suppose they are alive. Touch them with the

point of a pin, you find they are dead. Pick off a part of their brittle ©

skin; you see there is inside a white maggot doubled together like a
ball. Put one or two of these wheat-heads in a vial, closing its mouth
with a wad of cotton. In a week’s time, or less, you find running
lively about in the vial some little black flies, like small ants. These
you see have come out from the dead lice, through a circular opening
which has been cut in their backs. Drive one or two of these flies into
another vial, and introduce to them a wheat-head having some fresh lice.
See how the fly runs about them, examining them with its antennz.
Having found one adapted to its wants, watch how dexterously it
curves its body forward under its breast, bringing the tip before its face,
as if to take accurate aim with its sting. There, the aphis gives a shrug,
the fly has pricked it with its sting, an egg has been lodged under its
skin, from which will grow a maggot like that first seen inside the dead,
swollen aphis. And thus the little fly runs busily around among the
lice on the wheat-heads, stinging one after another, till it exhausts its

stock of eggs, a hundred probably, or more, thus insuring the death of ~

that number of these lice. And of its progeny, fifty it may be supposed,
will be females, by which five thousand more will be destroyed. We
thus see what efficient agents these parasites are in subduing the insects
on which they prey. I find three different species of them now at work
in our fields destroying this grain-aphis.”

THE WHEAT-HEAD ARMy-WorM, Albilinea Huebner.—Injuring the heads of wheat,
rye, and barley, beginning at the base, sometimes the center of the ear, sometimes
hollowing out the soft grains, leaving nothing but the shell and the chaff; a caterpil-
lar resembling the northern army-worm, but striped with sulphur-yellow and light
and dark brown.

Though this is a common and wide-spread insect, ranging from Maine to
Kansas and southward, it was not known to be injurious to crops until
1872, when it was found, according to Riley, seriously injuring oats in
Pennsylvania. In 1874 and 1875 it was reported to injure wheat and tim-
othy headsin Maryland and Pennsylvania. It was described as “ hollow-
ing out the soft grains and leaving nothing but the shell and the chaff,”
and ‘in some rye-fields the heads are almost void of grains and the ground
literally covered with chaff, and that late-sowed rye would not be worth
the harvesting were it not for the straw.” It was more widely destruc-
tive in the Eastern States in 1875 than in 1874. June 14, 1876, Mr. J. W.
Robson, of Dickinson County, Kansas, wrote Mr. Riley that for ten days
past it had been noticed in the wheat. ‘The caterpillars begin their
depredations at the base of the ear, and sometimes near the center of the
ear. In one field that I examined to-day the caterpillars were abundant.

PACKARD. ] THE WHEAT-THRIPS—THE WHEAT-WORM. 16

They were mostly at rest, reclining at full length on the straw, while
only a few were feeding on the ears.”

Larva.—The best marked worms are prettily striped with sulphur-yellow and straw-
yellow, and with light and dark brown, as follows: A broad, dark-brown line along the
back, divided along the middle by a fine white line generally obsolete behind ; beneath
this broad line on each side a straw-yellow line, half as wide; then a light-brown one of
the same width as the last, and becoming yellow on the lower edge; then a narrower
dark-brown one, containing the white spiracles; then a sulphur-yellow as wide as the
third; then a less distinct light-brown subventral one, the venter being pale yellow.
The head is large, straw-colored, and with two attenuating brown marks from the top
to the lower face. The chrysalis is of the ordinary mahogany-brown color, and termi-
nates in a stout horny point, with a corrugated base.

Aduit.—The moth has the front wings straw-colored, with a pale line running along
the middle to the outer third, and shaded with brown as follows: A shade beneath the
white line, intensified at each end where it joins the white; another, along the poste-
rior border, narrow at apex and broadening to the middle, where it projects along the
middle of the wing above the white line, fading away toward base, and a fainter shade
along the front or costal edge, intensifying toward apex. The species is one of the
smallest of the genus, having but two-thirds of the size of the army-worm.—(Riley.)

Tue WHEAT-TuRrIPs, Limothrips tritici Fitch. Upon the heads and stalksin June
and July, exhausting the juices of the kernels and rendering them dwarfish and shriv-
eled ; exceedingly minute, active, long, and narrow six-legged insects, of a bright-yel-
low or of a shining-black color.”—(Fitch.) :

The wheat-thrips in this country also occurs on the onion, and is
described more fully under the head of onion-insects. It represents the
Phleothrips cenalium of Europe, which does, at times, extensive injury to
the wheat, gnawing and puncturing the seed, causing it to shrink and
become what the farmers call “pungled.” It also gnaws the young
stalks just above the knots, causing the ear to become abortive.
Another species common on wheat in New York, in June, is the Three-
banded Thrips (Coleothrips trifasciata) of Fitch. Itis nearly double the
size of the wheat-thrips, being 0.07 inch in length, and is black ; the dark
wings having three broad white bands across them, while the antennze
arise close together, ‘and are composed of only five principal joints,
of which the two first are short, and a third thicker than the others,
which are long and cylindrical, the last one gradually tapering to a slen-
der point, its apical portion being divided into small indistinct segments.”

Tae WHEAT-WorM, Anguilluta tritici Baner.—Filling the cavities of a grain of wheat,
a white fibrous substance, formed by gluten into balls of a silky nature, which
instantly dissolve in water and exhibit hundreds of minute worms, cansing the dis-
ease called “ ear-cockle” or “purples.”

Although this-worm has not yet been observed in America so far as
I am aware, it is not improbable that this disease occurs with us, though
not yet detected. I abstract the
following account, often word for
word, from Curtis’s “ Farm Insects.”
Mr. Curtis took his description of ®
tbe worm and its habits from
Bauer’s notes contained in Pro-
fessor Henslow’s “ Report on the
Diseases of Wheat.”*

“The eggs are taken up by the
sap from the infected grain which
may have been planted, and hatch
in the stalk as well as in the seed.

young worms. Their heads are

* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, vol. ii, p. 19.

714 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

very distinct; they have a proboscis, which has three or four joints, which
they contract or extend like an opera-glass. From the head, which is
somewhat roundish, they taper gradually off toward the tail, which is
searcely half the diameter of the middle of their body, and ends in an
obtuse, claw-like point. At a short distance from the end of the tail is
an orifice surrounded by an elevated fleshy edge; from this orifice the
worms discharge their eggs. The back of these old worms is nearly
opaque, and appears jointed or annular; the number of joints or rings
is from twenty-five to thirty. The belly-side is more transparent, and
strings of ova can be distinctly seen through almost the whole length
of the worm to the orifice by which the eggs are discharged.” Those
in the cavities of the mature grain are generally 5, or ; inch long,
milk-white, and semi-transparent. After laying all their eggs the
parent worms soon die, and in a few days they decay and fall to pieces ;
but such is not the case at an earlier period of life, for after being dried,
and appearing quite dead, on the application of moisture they become
as lively as they were at first, and thus for five years and eight
months Mr. Bauer was able to re-animate the worms by immersion,
but it required a lcnger period as the time lengthened, and after that
they died; other examples bred by him retained their reviviscent qual-
ities for six years and one month. It seems probable that the glutinous
substance in which they are enveloped preserves their vitality. They
may be kept alive for three months in water.

‘Tt appears from Mr. Bauer’s investigations that the cavities of the
grain are at first filled with a white fibrous substance, formed by gluten
into balls of a silky nature. In water they instantly dissolve, and ex-
hibit hundreds of minute worms, which become animated in less than a
quarter of an hour when moistened, and the grains eventually assumed
a dark-brown color, and were as hard as wood.”

In some grains approaching maturity only one worm was found with
the cluster of eggs, in others there were three (Fig. 8), the section of a
grain exhibiting some worms and multitudes of eggs. The eggs come
forth in strings of five or six together, and are detached in water; the
young worms can then be seen through the transparent skin. (Fig. 8.)
In about an hour and a half after the egg is laid in water the young
worm begins to extricate itself, which it took one of them an hour and
twelve minutes to accomplish.

INJURING STORED GRAIN.

THe ANGOUMOIS GRAIN-MorTH, Gelechia cerealella Linn. (Plate LXV, Figs. 7, 8.)
Devouring the intenor of the stored grains of wheat and corn, and transforming,
within the grain, a soft, thick, fleshy caterpillar.

This destructive moth is found in granaries in this country, having
been introduced from Europe, where it has been’ extremely destructive,
especially in the French province of Angoumois, from which it has de-
rived its common name. The first account of its occurrence in this
country was published in 1768. It was then destructive to stored grain .
in Virginia, but was said to injure wheat forty years previous in North
Carolina. Harris also adds that the French naturalist, Bose, in 1796, or
soon after, found this moth so abundant in Carolina as to extinguish
a candle when he entered his granary in the night.” Harris further
states that this grain-moth spread from North Carolina and Virginia
into Kentucky and Southern Ohio and Indiana, “and probably more or
less throughout the wheat region of the adjacent States, between the

PACKARD.] THE GRAIN-TINEA—THE GRAIN-WEEVIL. 715

thirty-sixth and fortieth degrees of north latitude,” and it has been found
even in New England. ‘ Wheat, barley, oats, and Indian corn suffer
alike from it, the last especially when kept unprotected more than six
or eight months.”— (Harris.)

The moth lays mostly in June and August, but probably at other
times during the year, from sixty to ninety eggs in clusters of about
twenty in a single grain of wheat or corn. In from four to six days the
larvee disperse, each selecting a single grain, burrowing in at the end
whence the plumule grows out. The caterpillar, after eating out the
‘inside of the grain of wheat or corn and exhausting its supply of food,
sometimes eats its excrement once or even a second time. 1t transforms
within the grain, spinning a silken web, and before pupating (t. é., trans-
forming to a pupa) gnaws a hole nearly through the shell for the exit of
the moth. The larve of the first, or summer, brood mature in about
three weeks, the moths appearing at harvest time. Those of the second
brood hybernate in the grain, changing into moths the following summer.

Description.—The caterpillar (Plate LXV, Fig. 8, much enlarged) is unusually thick and
plump, the skin being unusually thin and transparent. The moth (Plate LXV, Fig. 5) is
ochreous with a dark-brown streak toward the base, and a few dark dots toward the
end of the fore wings, while the hind wings are grayish-ochreous; sometimes the fore
wings are unspotted. The wings are long and narrow, beautifully fringed, and expand
about half an inch. Several chalcid parasites prey uponit.

Remedies.—Dry the grain in an oven or kiln with a heat of 167° Fahren-
heit for twelve hours; fumigate in close vessels with charcoal-gas. Early
thrashing and winnowing should be practiced, not later than the end of
July. The grain should be stored in tight bins.

THe GRAIN-TINEA, Tinca granella Linn. (Plate LXV, Fig. 9.)—Devouring the interior
of grains of wheat, tying several grains together, but transforming in cracks, etc., in
the floor; a slender caterpillar.

This is also a European importation, and is more or less injurious to
stored grain, though less so than the Angoumois moth. It is found fly-
ing in granaries in summer. The female lays from thirty to forty eggs,
one or two in each grain. The caterpillar hatches in a few days and
eats into the grain, closing the entrance with its castings, and after de-
vouring the interior of one grain passes into others, uniting them with
silk threads forming a web. When about to transform it deserts the
grain, retires to cracks in the floor and constructs a cocoon, often by
gnawing the wood and weaving the chips into its web until the cocoon
has the form and size of a grain of wheat. In this it hibernates, chang-
ing to a pupa in the spring, and in two or three weeks appearing as a
moth.

Description —The larva is cylindrical, with long, fine, scattered hairs, and of a light-
buff color, with a reddish head. It is about four or five tenths of an inch in length.
The moth differs entirely from the Angoumois moth in form, and is creamy-white, w vith
six brown spots on the costa of the fore wings, and with dark hind wings. The wings
expand 0.06 inch.

Remedies.—Besides those suggested for the attacks of the preceding
grain-moth, the granary when empty should be thoroughly cleansed and
whitewashed, or washed with coal-oil, and when the caterpillars are at
work the grain should be often and thoroughly stirred about.

THE GRarn- WEEVIL, Sitophilus granarius (Linn.). (Plate LXV, Fig. 10¢.)—A short, mag-
got-like grub, eating the interior of the grain and transforming into a minute reddish
weevil, which also injures stored grain.

While the wheat-fly and several other insects are dubbed “ weevils”

Tis REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

by the ignorant, the present insect and the rice-weevil are the only ones
found injuring wheat, and then only when stored. I copy the following
account of this common weevil from Harris, knowing nothing person-
ally of the insect: ‘ This little insect, both in the beetle and grub states,
devours stored wheat and otber grains, and often commits much havoe
in granaries and brew-houses. Its powers of multiplication are very
great, for it is stated that a single pair of these destroyers may produce
above six thousand descendants in one year. The female deposits her
eggs upon the wheat after it is housed, and the young grubs hatched
therefrom immediately burrow in the wheat, each individual occupying
alone a single grain, the substance of which it devours, so as often to
leave nothing but the hull; and this destruction goes on within while
no external appearance leads to its discovery, and the loss of weight is
the only evidence of the mischief that has been done to the grain. In
due time the grubs undergo their transformations, and come out of the
hulls, in the beetle state, to lay their eggs for another brood.

Grub and beetle—The grub is short, thick, fleshy, maggot-like; while the weevil is
“a slender beetle of a pitchy-red color, about one-eighth of an inch long, with a slender
snout slightly bent downward; a coarsely- punctured and very long thorax, constituting

almost one-half the length of the whole body, and wing-covers that are furrowed and
do not entirely cover the tip of the abdomen.”

temedies.—These insects are effectually destroyed by kiln-drying the
wheat; and grain that is kept cool, well ventilated, and is frequently
moved, is said to be exempt from attack.—( Harris.)

Therice-weevil, Sitophilus oryze Linn. (Plate LXV, Fig.10a, b,c), attacks
stored rice, and also grain and corn. It differs from the S. granarius in
having two large red spots on each wing-cover, and in being a little
smaller, as it measures only a line in length, exclusive of the snout. It
is abundant in the Southern States, where it is called the “‘ black weevil.”
In the South it is said, according to Harris, to lay its eggs on the rice in
the fields; but this statement needs confirmation. ‘The parent beetle
bores a hole into the grain, and drops therein a single egg, going from
one grain to another till all her eggs are laid; she then dies, leaving,
however, the rice well seeded for a future harvest of weevil-grubs. In
due time the eggs are hatched, the grubs live securely and unseen in -
the center of the rice, devouring a considerable portion of its substance,
and when fully grown they gnaw a little hole through the end of the
grain, artfully stopping it up again with particles of rice-flour, and then
change to pups. This usually occurs during the winter; and in the
following spring the insects are transformed to beetles, and come ont of
the grain. By winnowing and sifting the rice the beetles can be sepa-
rated, and then should be gathered immediately and destroyed.” (Harris.)
Besides these insects of the granary Dr. Fitch describes the Agromyza
tritici, which sometimes occurs in great numbers in stored wheat in New
York.

Tue GRAIN SYLVANUS, Silvanus surinamansis (Linn.).—A small brown beetle gnawing
the ends of rye, oat, and wheat grains.

This is a very common and annoying little beetle, which in Europe is
known to be a great pest in stores and warehouses. In Pennsylvania,
it has been found to injure stored rye, wheat, and oats, eating holes in
the grain. It is a little flat, brown beetle, not quite a line in length,
characterized chiefly by the last three joints of the antenne being
enlarged, and by having three prominent longitudinal ridges on the
thorax, which is armed on the sides with six teeth.

Remedies.—“ The best way to get rid of it, when the grain cannot be

PACKARD. ] CUT-WORMS INJURING ROOTS OF CORN. 717

subjected to a killing heat, is to stack the grain a year or two until the
insects are starved out of the barns, just as they lay by sbips in the
grain-trade, or use them for other freight when they once become infested
with this insect, or with the true grain-weevil.”—(Riley.)

AFFECTING INDIAN CORN.—INJURING THE ROOTS.

CutT-worms, Agrotis suffusa (Denis and Schiefermiiller) and other species. (Plate
LXY, Pigs. 2,3,4,5.) Eating the roots of corn and other cereals; large, dark, obscurely-
colored, smooth-bodied caterpillars, hiding by day and feeding by night.

Not only Indian corn but other cereals and grasses are indiscriminately
attacked by different species of caterpillars called cut-worms from their
habit of cutting off young, succulent plants as they are coming up out
of the ground. They are thick, with a distinct horny prothoracic plate,
and are usually marked with shining and warty, or smooth, spots of the
same general color as the rest of the body; they are usually striped
longitudinally. They are seen early in spring hiding under sticks and
stones, having hibernated in this state. They feed by night, hiding in
the day-time. The chrysalids are situated under ground. They trans-
form to moths, sometimes call dart-moths, which might be known by
their crested trunks and ciliated or pectinated antennz, while the fore
wings are rather narrow, usually with a dark dot near the middle of the
wing, and just beyond a reniform marking, while there is usually a basal,
median, black streak. The moths appear in midsummer, and lay their
eggs near the roots of grasses, which hatch in the autumn, the worms
living on roots and sprouts of herbaceous plants. ‘On the approach of
winter they descend deeper into the ground, and, curling themselves up,
remain in a torpid state until the following spring, when they ascend
toward the surface, and renew their devastations.”—( Harris.)

Our largest species, Agrotis suffusa (Plate LXV, Fig. 2), was probably
imported from Europe. The caterpillar is described as follows by Riley:

Its general color above is dull, dark, leaden-brown, with a faint trace of a dirty
yellow-white line along the back. The subdorsal line is more distinct, and between it
and the stigmata are two other indistinct pale lines. There are eight black, shiny,
piliferous spots on each segment, two near the subdorsal line, the smaller a little
above anteriorly ; the larger just below it, and a little back of the middle of the seg-
ment, with the line appearing especially light above it. The other two are placed
each side of the stigmata, the one anteriorly a little above, the other just behind, in
the same line with them, and having a white shade above it.

Another cut-worm, which is still more abundant in the Middle and
New England States, is the young of the Clandestine moth (Noctua
clandestina of Harris), and may be called the Corn cut moth. While
the fully-grown caterpiller has not been described, the young are said by
Harris to be *“* more or less distinctly marked above with pale and dark
stripes, and are uniformly paler below.” According to Melsheimer, as
quoted by Harris, when first hatched, it feeds on the various grasses,
descending, when half-grown, in the ground on the approach of severe
frosts, and re-appearing in the spring, and then beginning to grow again,
attaining their full size and pupating before the middle of July, often
much earlier, as in.the New England States the moth is seen from the
middle of June to the middle or end of August.

Moth.—It is of a peculiar dull-blackish, with the body very flat when the wings are
expanded, and with obscure markings. ‘The fore wings are generally of a dark ash-
color, with only a very faint trace of the double transverse wavy bands that are found
in most species of Agrotis ; the two ordinary spots are small and narrow, the anterior
spot being oblong oval, and connected with the oblique kidney-shaped spot by a lon-

gitudinal black line.” The hind wings are rather dark, and the head and legs darker
than usual, almost blackish. It expands an inch and three-quarters.

718 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Remedies— Among the more general preventive remedies, suggested
by Harris, are the’ soaking of corn, before planting, in copperas-water,
and mixing salt with the manure, though these are of less use than
plowing deep in the autumn so as to turn up the half-grown worms, so
as to expose them to winter colds and insectivorous birds. When the
worms have begun their attacks, hand-picking, 7. ¢., digging up the
worms which hide by day in the soil around the plant, is, of course, the
most efficacious remedy. An excellent plan is to make a deep hole, with
a stake, in the hills, down which trap the caterpillar is liable to fall.

Wire-W orms.—Eating the roots of corn and wheat, hard cylindrical, round, reddish
wornis, tapering toward the head and tail, and changing into snapping-beetles.

The roots of corn, wheat, and. grasses are often injured to a lament-
able extent by wire-worms, the larve of various species of snapping-bee-
tles belonging to the family Hlateride.

THE Corn-MaGGor, Anthomyia zee Riley.—Gnawing seed-corn after it is planted; a
maggot like the onion-worm.
This maggot has been found to injure seed-corn just after being
planted, and to abound to
such an extent as to nearly
ruin whole corn-fields, as it
gnaws into the corn, finally
causingittorot. When fully
fed they contract, forming
Fig. 9.—Corn-Maggot. a, larva, enlarged; b, pupa- a barrel-shaped brown Cane
case; ¢, corn injured by worms, natural size. (Fig. 8, b), within -which lies
the pupa, and in a week after the flies appear. Asa remedy, soak the
corn before planting in gas-tar or copperas-water.

Larva.—Closely resembling the maggot of the onion-fly; yellowish-white ; blunt at
the posterior end and pointed in front. It is about a quarter of an inch in length.

Fly.—Head tawny in front, with a brownish edge; antennz black; face and orbits
brownish-white ; thorax and abdomen pale yellow-brownisk ash-colored; thorax with
an indistinct middle stripe of brown; legs black. Length one-fifth of an inch.—(Riley.

THE Corn-WEEVIL, Sphenophorus zee.—Puncturing large holes in young corn near
the base of the stalk, before it has spindled, and sometimes destroying whole fields of
young corn.

In the Practical Entomologist (vol. ii, p. 117, 1867) the late Mr. Walsh
described this weevil, and gave an account of its ravages in the Middle »
and Western States. Mr. Robert Howell, in Tioga County, New York,
was among the first to detect it, and under date of June 14, 1869, he
writes me that “this is the fourth year they have infested the newly-
planted corn in this vicinity. Theinclosed specimens were taken on the
11th instant. I presume they have been in every hill of corn in my
field. They pierce the young corn in numerous places, so that each
blade has from one to six or eight holes the size of a pin or larger, and
I found a number last Friday about an inch under ground, hanging to
young stalks with much tenacity. When very numerous, every stalk is
killed. Some filds, two or three years ago, were wholly destroyed by
this insect.” I have detected this insect at Hyannis, Mass., June 25.

Itis arather large black weevil, with a long, narrow, subcylindrical
body, and with coarse gray punctures. The head is black, finely pune-
tured, with still more minute punctures on the beak. At the base of
the beak just between the eyes is a small oval pit. The beak is nearly
one-third as long as the body; it is curved downward, slightly com-
pressed, witb the tip seen from above dilated slightly and triangular.

PACKARD.] THE SPINDLE-WORM—THE STALK-BORER. 715

On the prothorax is a long, lozenge-shaped, smooth black median area,
with two smooth spots on the side near the front; these, with two longer
diverging spots behind, form an inverted Y on each side of the body.
Behind are coarse gray punctures. The wing-covers are marked with
rows of coarse punctures along the striw, much larger than those on the
thorax. On the smooth spaces between the striz is a row of more or
~less crowded minute punctures. On the base of the elytra, near the
outer edge, is a low smooth tubercle, and a larger one near the tip. On
the extreme tip of the abdomen, near the elytra, are two short diverg-
ing rows of fine stiff tawny hairs, which stand out straight from the
end. The legs are black, the tarsi reddish, piceous. Beneath, the body
is black and widely punctured. It measures 0.40 of an inch in length.

Remedies.—Until we know more of its habits, its mode of life in the
larva stage, and its native food-plant, we are at a loss to suggest reme-
dies against the attacks of this insect. When the corn is observed to
be suffering from their punctures, they should be picked off with the
hand, and the young blades of corn carefully watched. These weevils
are so large as to be readily detected after a little practice.

THE SPINDLE-WorRM, Achatodes zee (Harris).—Boring in the stalk before the corn-
spindles, causing the leaves to wither, a caterpillar an inch long, smooth and naked,
with the head and last segment black.

The ravages of this worm generally begin, says Harris, ‘ while the
corn-stalk is young, and before the spindle rises much above the tuft of
leaves in which it is embosomed. The mischief is discovered by the
withering of the Jeaves, and, when these are taken hold of, they may
often be drawn out with the included spindle. On examining the corn,
a small hole may be seen in the side of the leafy stalk, near the ground,
penetrating into the soft center of the stalk, which, when cut open, will
be found to be perforated, both upward and downward, by a slender
worm-like caterpillar, whose excrementitious castings surround the ori-
fice of the hole.” It also bores into the stalks of the dahlia and of the
elder. The brown chrysalis is rather slender, and is found within the
burrow made by the caterpillar. .

Larva.--Smooth and apparently naked, yellowish, with the head, the top of the
first and of the last wings black, and with a double row, across each of the other rings,
of small, smooth, slightly elevated, shining black dots.

Moth.—The fore wings rust-red; they are mottled with gray, almost in bands,
uniting with the ordinary spots, which are also gray and indistinct; there is an irreg-
ular tawny spot near the tip, and on the veins there are a few black dots. The hind
wings are yellowish-gray, with a centra) dusky spot, behind which are two faint, dusky
bands, The head and thorax are rust-red, with an elevated tawny tuft on each. The

abdomen is pale brown, with a row of tawny tufts on the back. The wings expand
nearly an inch and a half.—( Harris.)

Remedies.—The obvious remedy is, when the leaves are seen to wither,
to cut open the stalk, and, on finding the worm, pull all the infested
plants.

THe StaLk-Borer, Gortyna nitella Guenée (Plate LXV, Fig. 6), moth and caterpillar
Boring in the stalks of corn, potato, tomato, etc., a caterpillar of a pale, livid hue, with
light stripes along the body; also sometimes boring into the cob of growing Indian
corn.

This borer not only infests corn and potatoes, but also the tomato and
the dahlia, aster, etc., according to Riley. The worm is not found in
the Western States earlier than June and July, and the moths appear
late in August and early in September. The insect is probably single-

720 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

brooded. “The young worm hatches about the 1st of July and imme-
diately commences its work of destruction. It works in such a surrep-
titious manner as to be too often unnoticed till the vine is destroyed.
The plant does not generally show any signs of decay until the cocoon
is about fully grown, when it wilts and is past recovery. This occurs
about a month after the worm is hatched, and it then crawls just under
the surface of the ground, fastens a little earth together around itself
by a slight net, and changes to a chrysalis of a very light mahogany-
brown color, and three-fourths of an inch long. The moth comes forth
the fore part of September. The careful culturist need fear nothing
from this troublesome insect, as an occasional close inspection of the
plants about the 1st of July will reveal the hole where the borer has
entered, which is generally quite a distance from the ground, and by
splitting downward one side of the stalk with a penknife it may be found
and killed. If this inspection be made at the proper time the worm will
be found but a short distance from the hole, and the split in the stalk
will heal by being kept closed with a piece of thread.”—(Tiiley.)

Description of the larva.—Of a livid hue when young, with light stripes along the
pods 5 when full grown, it generally becomes lighter, with the longitudinal lines

roacer.

Moih.—Of a mouse-gray color, with the fore-wings finely sprinkled with Naples-yel-
low, and having a very faint lilac-colored hue; but distinguished mainly by an arcu-
ated pale line running across their outer third.—( Riley.)

Besides the chinch-bug, and also other insects already noticed among
those preying on wheat, the leaves of corn are infested by the young of
the large Io moth and by the Arctia arge.

The cotton-boll worm (Heliothis armigera) sometimes attacks corn in
the ear, eating the silk, and afterward devouring the terminal kernels,
hiding within the husk. Whole fields of corn have been thus injured
in Kentucky, but it is most destructive in Southern Illinois, where there
are two broods of the worm, the early and late corn faring the worst.

INJURING THE ROOTS AND LEAVES OF GRASS.

Besides most of the insects previously mentioned, which injure the
roots and stalks of cereals, the
grass on lawns is often killed
in patches by the white grub or
larva of the June beetle (Lach-
nosterna fusca, Fig. 10). So
effectually are the roots eaten
that the sod can be rolled up
like acarpet. The white grub
is injurious on lawns in Illinois,
as well as in the New England
States. Wire-worms, the larva
of the various species of Ne-
onympha, cut-worms, the larvee
of crane-flies ( Tipula),and of the
salt-marsh caterpillars (Lew-
carctia acrea), and very hom-
ie opterous insects, such as the
F1G. 10.—June beetle, Lachnosterna fusca, 1, larva; Spittle insects, especially Pty-

2, pupa; 3, 4, adult. ches lineatus, (Fig. 11), are de-
pendent for their livelihood on grasses. The latter is a very abun-

PACKARD. | THE COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE. y psi!

dant insect in early summer, living in the center of a mass of frost on
the leaves of grass. The larva isto be
found concealed in a mass of frost late
in May and early in June; the adult

is exceedingly abundant late in sum-
mer.

Clover isattacked by various insects,
especially the larva of Drasteria erech-
tia, a moth very abundant in May, and
again in August and September, in
grass-lands. The seeds are sometimes
inhabited by minute weevils, while
clover, when stacked or even housed, fig, 11,—spittle Insect. a, larva, en-
is sometimes injured by the “clover- larged; }, natural size of larva; ¢,
worm,” the larva of Asopia costalis, a adult, enlarged.
dull, whitish worm, changing to a lilac-colored moth ornamented with
golden lines and fringes.

THE COLORADO POTATO-BEFTLE, Leptinotarsa decemlineata of Gemminger and Harold,
Doryphora 10-lineata Say.—Devouring the leaves, sometimes the tubers, a large, thick-
bodied, reddish-orange grub, spotted on the sides with black, changing under ground into
a large hemispherical yellow beetle about half an inch long, with ten wide black stripes
on the back ; three broods of the w6rm appearing in one season.

Its original habitat.—This beetle was originally described by Mr. Say
in 1824, having been found by him the year previous, when he remarked,
“This species seems to be not uncommon on the Upper Missouri,
where it was obtained by Mr. Nuttall and by myself. The variety
(white with two of the lines united, probably the species juncta) I found on.
the Arkansas.” (Journal Academy of NaturalSciences Philadelphia, vol.
ili, 1824.) This would indicate that its native habitat was the plains of
Dakota, Western Nebraska and Kansas, Colorado, and perhaps the
western portion of Indian Territory and Texas. Dr. G. H. Horn, the
well-known coleopterist, writes me as follows: ‘* West of the Mississippi
I have it from Texas. I have never seen it from Mexico nor west of the
Rocky Mountains. If it goes west, I believe it will be through New
Mexico and Arizona, and not over the Rocky Mountains.”

Lieutenant Carpenter, U.S. A., writes me: “I have never seen the
Colorado potato-beetle north of the North Platte as far west as Fort
Laramie, Fort Fetterman, and Big Horn Mountains.” Probably co-ex-
tensive with the original distribution of the Colorado potato-beetle, is
that of its original food-plant, concerning which Mr. Sereno Watson,
the botanist of the United States Geological Survey of the one hundredth
parallel, thus writes me: ‘The Solanum rostratum ranges from Texas
and New Mexico to the Upper Missouri eastward of the mountains. I
have no evidence of its being found at all west of the Rocky Mountains,
and, indeed, the order appears to be almost wholly wanting throughout
the entire Great Basin.”

In Colorado, in 1875, I first met with this beetle at Lawrence,
Kans., when Professor Snow told me it was chiefly confined to the
Solanum rostratum, a road-side weed, which is now very abundant in
Kansas and draws off the beetle from the potato, which consequently
suffers comparatively little from its attacks in that State.

Professor Snow further writes me that for five or six years past, since
taking up his residence in Kansas, “ it has never done any damage worth
mentioning, always preferring its original food-plant (which abounds
here as a roadside weed) to the potato. I did not see it in Manitou, -
Colo., this summer (1876),

46G58

722 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLUGICAL SURVEY:

The 4nestion arises whether the cultivation of this weed around po-
tato-fieldsin the East may not be a means of relief from its attacks,
though it might breed in larger numbers, if that were possible.

In Colorado I first noticed the beetle in the vicinity of Denver, where
it was not then common, but earlier in the season had ravaged potato-fields
out of town. At Golden, July 3, it was observed in abundance on So-
lanum rostratum, not only the eggs but the larvee in all stages as well as
the beetles. I was told by one farmer that he had two rows of potatoes
devoured by them earlier in the season.

It is evident that in Colorado the injury to the potato will always be
limited. Five or six miles up Clear Creek Cafion it has injured the
potato-plants for five or six years, but nowhere above an altitude of
about 7,000 feet could I learn that it occurred, and it seems indigenous
only to the plains, and the cafions among the foot-hills. None were
to be seen in Utah.

Mr. T. Martin Trippe writes me that it destroyed potato-plants early
in the season in Howardsville, Southern Colorado.

Its journey from the plains east of the Rocixy Mountains to the Atlantice.—
The history of the successive invasion of the prairies of the Mississippi
Valley and of the wooded district of the Middle and Northeastern States,
until only the ocean proved a sufficient barrier to their advances, is a
subject of a good deal of interest to the naturalist, whatever may be
thought of the dismay with which eastern farmers have looked upon its
arrival. Some years ago it was confidently announced that the Colo-
rado beetle would not flourish in the damp, cold climate of New Eng-
land; that the summers were so wet that it would die while lying as a
pupa under ground. But at the present time of writing, September 15,
1876, it is doing perhaps as much damage in the Northeastern States as
in the Western, and the newspapers report that it has crossed the At-
lantic and effected a landing in Bremen, Germany, and there is no reason
why it should not overrun Europe after successfully withstanding the
ereat differences in climate between the eastern and western regions of
the United States. This insect, so indifferent to ordinary climatic dif-
ferences, may be compared to a weed which, introduced in a new coun-
try, overruns anid displaces the native vegetation. Like weeds, the Col-
orado potato-beetle, with a number of other widely-destructive insects,
may be regarded as prepotent animals.

Fortunately for the historian of the movements of this insect, the late
Mr. B. D. Walsh, at an early date after it began to spread eastward from
the plains of Colorado, published in the Practical Entomologist, vol. i, °
No. 1, October, 1865, an account of its travels. In 1859 if had in its
journey eastward reached a point 100 miles west of Omaha, Nebr. It
appeared in Kansas and Iowa in 1861. It entered Southwestern Wis-
consin in 1862. In 1864 and 1865 it crossed the Mississippi River, en-
tering Hlinois from the eastern borders of North Missouri and from Lowa
“upon at least five different points on a line of 200 miles.” Thence it
has traveled eastward at the-rate of a little over 70 miles a year. In
1867 it had appeared in Western Indiana and Southwestern Michigan,
and in 1868 had generally overspread Indiana and appeared in Ohio.
From the statements of Mr. Riley, it appears that this insect entered Can-
adain July, 1870, and swarmed in 1871 between the Saint Clair and Niag-
ara Rivers. The same year Dr. Trimble reported its presence in Pennsyl-
vania, and in 1871 it also was seen in New York. A southern column
advanced eastward into Kentucky, arriving there probably in 1869, In
1872 it had reached Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, and Cattaraugus
County, New York; and in 1873, according to Mr. Riley, it had pushed

PACKARD. ] THE COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE. 723

to the ‘extreme eastern limit” of that State. It was reported in the
same year to have been seen in the District of Columbia, according to the
Monthly Report of the Department of Agriculture for August and Sep-
tember, 1873.

During the summer of 1876 it was observed by Prof. H. W. Parker
in great abundance at Long Branch, being thrown up in windrows
on the beach. The two following extracts from the daily papers also
show how abundant it has been on Long Island and in Connecticut :

It is said that the potato-bugs on Long Island are very numerous and have already
made sad havoe with the early crops. Mr. Jacob Schoemaker, a farmer at Flatbush,
has had about $2,000 worth of early sprouts destroyed, and the farmers in that section,
ea esata up their grounds, discovered bushels of the bugs.—( Forest and Stream, April

Uoloraio potato-bugs have been washed ashore at Milestone and other places in Con-
necticut in such numbers of late as to poison the air. The captain of a New London
vessel says that they came on board in such swarms while at sea that they had to close
the hatches.

In 1874 it became well established in Connecticut, New Jersey, New

- York,* Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. (Riley’s

Seventh Report.) In the summer of 1874 it appeared at Williamstown,
Mass., in small numbers, as I am told by Mr. J. 8S. Kingsley. In 1875
they were commonly seen, especially on the railroad-track, before July 9.

Concerning its habits in Connecticut, Mr. J. H. Pillsbury writes me as
follows from Middlebury, September 26, 1876:

I took from the sides of a glass jar, in which I had confined a number of beetles of
Doryphora decemlineata, a few eggs, which had been laid May 30, and placed them in
circumstances tor hatching them. Theeggs hatched June 6, and the larve were placed
upon fresh leaves of the potato. They immediately commenced eating, and continued
almost without ceasing during the day, until June 22, when all but one entered the
earth that had been provided for them to pupaliin. The remaining larva entered the
earth the next day.

Two of the beetles appeared July 1, and more the next day. Upon examining the
earth I found one pupa with the wings only slightly developed, and this one did not
mature. As soon as the beetles were out they were fed with potato-leaves, and re-
sumed their eating as if determined to make up lost time. The first eggs laid by these
beetles were found July 7. The whole time, therefore, from the one brood of eggs to
another is only thirty-eight days, twenty-two of which were spent in actively devouring
the plant on which it feeds. If we suppose the female to continue to deposit her eggs for
forty days, as Professor Packard states, sixty-two days of the seventy-eight which the
insect lives are spent in vigorous destruction of its favorite plant, the potato. These
observations also indicate the probability of three broods from the earliest of each
season before the middle of September, up to which time the insect has been found on

the potato in our section.
J. H. PILLSBURY.
MIDDLETOWN, CoNnN., September 26, 1876.

Its first appearance in the center of the State was in Belchertown,
where, I am informed by Mr. L. W. Goodell, ‘a single larva was found
July 15, and was apparently the last one of a brood, as several hills of
potatoes near were entirely denuded of foliage, and I could find no
others nor signs of any in that or other fields of potatoes in the vicinity,
although I searched carefully. The one taken was placed in a box of
earth and immediately buried itself, and was transformed to a beetle
eleven days thereafter. About this time I found and killed some fifty
of the beetles on the same potato-patch, which were probably a part of
the same brood. No more of the larve were seen for about three weeks,
when they made their appearance in large numbers in several fields.”
When I visited these fields during the last of September, thousands of
the larve, in different stages of growth, were to be seen on the vines.

* At Norwich, N. Y., Mr. J. S. Kingsley first found the larve in July, 1874, and they

were much more abundant the year following. He found them in abundance in 1875,
in Binghamton and Owego.

724 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

The next year, 1876, in Essex County, Massachusetts, they attracted the
attention of farmers and othersabout the Jstof June. Specimens brought
me from Marblehead and Lawrence laid eggs June 7, which hatched
June 12. June 22, I found the beetle and young in all stages, from the
egg up to the nearly mature larva, in a garden in Salem, and a few days
after beard of its appearance in the towns of Reading, Beverly, Wen-
ham, Hamilton, and Essex. In 1876 it was extremely injurious in Essex
County. I am informed by Mr. John H.-Sears, of Danvers, that half
his crop of late potatoes were devoured by this beetle, and he thinks
that there was a proportionate loss throughout the county. Early
potatoes mostly escaped their ravages. The potato-fields in the neigh-
borhood of Amherst were overrun with them soon after the plants came
up, and in September I saw the beetle everywhere. In 1877 the yield
of potatoes will be undoubtedly very light and potatoes high priced.
During the autumn of 1876 they were said to be unusually high.

At the same time I learned from Mr, Isaac L. Ham, of Wipchendon,
Mass., a town about 18 miles west of Boston, that eggs and beetles were
found on the vines the 20th of July, 1875. Beetles were seen at Lowell
in August, 1875. It appears from these facts that the beetles must have
been introduced along lines of railway in different portions of Massa-
chusetts in 1874.

In 1875 it appeared in the western part of Vermont, and during the
summer of 1876 has been reported as more or less abundant in various
parts of the State. In 1875 it appeared for the first time in New Hamp-
shire, according to C. H. Fernald. In 1866 Mr. Walsh predicted that it
would reach Maine ‘in ten or twelve years.” His prediction has proved
to beatrueone. In Maine, according to Prof. C. H. Fernald, it was first
seen in 1875, and occurred not, so far as I can learn, on the southwestern
border of the State, but in the central portion, and this leads me to think
that its appearance here, as well as in New England generally, has been
accelerated by its transportation on freight-cars which have been sent
through from different points in the West. It is a well-determined fact
that the diffusion of noxious insects over the United States is greatly
promoted by railways and ‘“ through” freight-cars, as permanent tracks
are thus made through forests and across rivers, the natural barriers of
insect life. ,

Regarding its advent in Maine, I will first quote from a letter of Prof.
C. H. Fernald, of the Maine State Agricultural College, dated Orono,
August 23, 1876:

The true Colorado potato-beetle is really in this State, but has not yet arrived so far
east as this place. It has been reported at Orrington, near Bucksport, but I think it
more than likely to have been the three-lined potato;beetle, (Lema trilineata). Speci-
mens were sent me from Winterport which proved to be the three-lined. The true beetle
(imago) was sent to me about three weeks ago from Skowhegan, where it was common
enough to attract attention. One of our students found it in Saco in July of this year.
A few days ago I had a letter from a friend in Wilton, who says they are common there.
Last fall I looked mto the matter a little, and could not learn that they had at that
time reached the western boundary of Maine, though they were in New Hampshire.
Reasoning from their rate of progress across the continent, I concluded they would
travel this year as far as the Kennebec River, which they seem to have done. I sup-
pose they have come into the State by their own means of distribution—flying from
field to field.

Mr. D. A. Conant, in a communication to the Maine Farmer, dated
July 28, states that certain beetles, identified by the editor of that
paper (Mr. 8. L. Boardman) as Doryphora 10-lineata, occurred in Temple,
Me., near West Farmington. Mr. R. A. Davis writes to the same paper
August 6, from South Norridgewock, as follows:

We had very dry and hot weather in July; crops suffered very much. Two weeks
ago to-day we had a nice rain, with heavy showers, and since that corn and potatoes

PACKARD. | THE COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE. 125:

look quite well. Grasshoppers have taken all the grain about here, and they are very
thick now. The caterpillars took all the leaves from the orchards, consequently there
are no apples to speak of; and now the Colorado potato-bug is here, or what we call
the same as has been making such havoc in the West for several years past. f
send one to you to-day in a box. I hope you will be able to inform usif this is the
genuine potato-beetle. [It is the genuine Colorado beetle-—Ep.] They first made
their appearance in this town on a small piece of potatoes belonging to Herbert E.
Hale, near where H. C. Hall & Co. have unloaded considerable corn that came direct
from the West, and it is supposed that they might have been brought here in that way.
They have also made their appearance on Ed. Farnham’s potatoes on the old Whiting
farm at Larone. The one I send you I took from the potato-vines in John W. Bates’s
garden inthis town. They have not done much damage here as yet, for they have
been pretty thoroughly picked.

Early in October specimens were found on potato-tops in North Dix-
mont, Me.—(Maine Farmer.)

None have yet been reported from New Brunswick or Nova Scotia.

The Colorado beetle has unfortunately got a foot-hold in California.
Mr. Henry Edwards, of San Francisco, Cal., writes me under date of
September 10, 1876, that the “ Doryphora 10-lineata is extremely rare. It
has found its way into the State by way of San Diego and of course
will soon spread. I have some specimens from there, but from no other
locality.”

According to Riley, its eastern progress has averaged 88 miles a year.

The accompanying map is taken from Professor Riley’s Ninth Report
on the Injurious Insects of Missouri, and explains itself.

Habits.—The habits of the Colorado potato-beetle are apparently the
same in New England as in Illinois or Missouri, where it has been
watched and studied for more than a dozen years. The following ac-
count is based on the observations of Walsh, Shimer, Riley, Le Bauer,
and others, and myself. The beetle having wintered a few inches under
the surface of the ground, appears above the surface before the potato-
plants come up (in New England early in May), and feeds on the young
shoots, and by the time the leaves are expanded lays its eggson the under
side of the leaf in clusters of from thirty to forty, side by side, the eggs
standing on end. The eggs are oval-cylindrical, and orange-red in
color. Regarding the number of eggs laid, Dr. Shimer writesas follows in
the Practical Entomologist for 1566: “From an equal number of males
and females, well-fed and made as comfortable as possible in confine-
ment, I obtained an average of 719 eggs to each female; but in the fresh
pure air, sunlight and freedom of nature, under propitious circumstances,
I have no doubt of its exceeding a thousand. They laid some eggs
every day for forty days, commencing July 15 and ending on the Ist of
September. The smallest average was in the first part of this time, being
74 eggs per day to each female; the greatest average was about the
middle of the time, 75 eggs; the last day they averaged 124 eggs.” The
young grub, on hatching out, are deep blood-red, but of nearly the same
form as the adult. They usually first appear on the leaves in New En-
gland early inJune. The following summary of its habits is taken from
Riley’s first report, and applies to Missouri, Hlinois, and neighboring
States: “In the latitude of Saint Louis there are three broods during
the year, the last brood wintering over in the beetle state underground.
They are usually dug up in the spring of the year in land that had been
planted to potatoes the year before. The beetles issue of their own
accord from the ground about the 1st of May, and the last brood of
beetles enters the ground to hibernate during the month of October.
Though in general terms this beetle may be said to be three-brooded,
yet it may be found at almost any time of the year in allits different
stages. This is owing to the fact that the female continues to deposit

726 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

her eggs in patches from time to time, covering a period of about forty
days; and also from the fact that among, those larva, which all hatch
out in one day, some will develop and become beetles in a week and
even ten days earlier than others. Thus it may be that some of the late
individuals of the third brood pass the winter in the pupa state, though
the normal habit is to transform to beetles. Each female is capable of
depositing upward of a thousand eggs before she becomes barren, and
in from thirty to forty days from the time they were deposited they will
have produced perfect beetles. These beetles are again capable of de-
| a Wma EV hin coal NN ee 7 Jina Wha a

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Map showing spread of Colorado potato-beetle.

ings whatever.”

rackarD.] ENEMIES OF THE COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE. 127

Although no species of this family are known to be poisonous, yet it
is probably true, from the facts adduced by Riley and others, that the
fumes arising from the bodies of a large number of them when killed by
hot water produces sickness. This is due, perhaps, to a volatile poison
thrown off from their body immediately after death; but since fowl feed
upon them to a large extent, and as no one has been known to have been
poisoned, at least severely, in handling them, there is no reason why
hand-picking should not be resorted to.

Enemies of the Colorado potato-beetle—Besides a number of bugs and
beetles which devour this beetle, a species of Lydella (ZL. doryphore

tiley, Fig. 12) is very destructive to it.
Mr. Riley says, “ this fly destroyed fullv
10 per cent. of the second brood and 50
per cent. of the third brood of potato-
beetles that were in my garden. It bears
a very close resemblance, both in color
and size, to the common house-fly, but
is readily distinguished from the latter
by its extremely brilliant silver-white
face.” No ichneumon parasite has yet
beeu found preyingupon it. Inthe West-
ern States turkeys, hens, and chickens,
and other birds destroy numbers of the
grubs and beetles, and render most effi- Fic. 12.—Tachina parasite (Lydella
cient aid. J. W. Perry, esq., of Salem, @”yphor@) of the potato-heetle.
Mass., tells me that he saw a Baltimore oriole and a “ small yellow-bird”
fiy down and eat the grubs.

£9g.—The eggs are oval-cylindrical, bright yellow, 0.08 inch long, and laid in clus-
ters side by side, to the number of thirty or forty, on the under side of the leaves.

Larva.—The larva molts three times, four distinct stages occurring with the eggs
and beetles in July, either in Colorado or Massachusetts. When first hatched it is
deep blood-red, with the head and prothorax dark brown, and with two rows of black
spots on the side, the upper row the larger. (In one case the head and prothorax was
concolorous with the body, and there was only one row of lateral spots, as in the larva
of L. juncia). Length, 0,10-0.12. After the first,molt it measures 0.17-0.20 inch, and
has the saine appearance. After the third molt it becomes paler yellowish, and meas-
ures 0,25-0.35 inch in length. At this time the body more distinctly than before is seen
to be much thicker behind the feet, nearly as thick as broad, while the abdomen is
suddenly pointed. The mature larva, when of full size, measures about half an inch
(0.40-0.50) in length and is yellow, with the head black, the prethorax yellowish but
dark on the hinder edge; two rows of black spots on the side of the abdomen, the two
terminal segments of which are dark above, while just behind the head are four small
black dots; the legs are black. It matures in about seventeen days after hatching. On
comparing about fifty alcoholic specimens in all four stages, from Salem, Mass., taken in
July, with the same number collected in Golden, Colo., July 3, I see no difference, unless
the latter set are a trifle paler in hue; but some of the Massachusetts examples ure as
pale as those from Colorado.

Beetle—Hemispherical, thick-bodied, with prothorax a little narrower than the rest
of the body. Yellow ; head yellow, sometimes black at the base, with a heart-shaped
black spot in the middle; two short diverging black lines in the middle of the pro-
thorax, with smaller lateral dots. Wing-covers with four broad black lines, and the
edge of the wing cover lined with black, making ten lines in all. Under side of the
abdomen with four rows of black spots. Legs of a reddish tinge, with the ends of the
joints dark; tarsal joints dark. Length about half an inch (0.40-0.50).*

* Though this species was referred to Doryphora by Say, and has been retained in
this genus by most subsequeut authors, it more properly belongs to Leptinotarsa. The
three species of Doryphora in the museum of the Peabody Academy of Science, Salem
(i. €., Doryphora sejeanii Ger., from Brazil, D. catenulata Oliv., from Para, and D. suturalis
Fabr., from Rio de Janeiro), have a much stouter and thicker body, with a large spine
between the anterior pair of legs. In Leptinotarsa the spine is entirely absent, and our
propies (together with ZL. craspiena Kl., from.Chiapas, Mexico) are apparently more
closely related to the common Labidomera trimaculata than to the species of Doryphora,

728 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

TLeptinotarsa juncta (Germar) represents D. 10-lineata in the Northern
and Western States. It may be easily confounded with the latter, but
differs from it in the third and fourth lines in each wing-cover (count-
ing from the inner edge of the elytron), being united to form a common
band, and the legs are entirely pale yellow, with a dark spot on the
thighs (femora). The larva has a lighter-colored head, and but a single
row of lateral dark spots. It feeds on the wild potato, not eating the
cultivated species. Though first collected in Georgia, it partially in-
habits all the Southern States.

Remedies.—The surest and safest remedy is hand-picking. As soon
as the eggs are laid they should be looked for on the under side of the
leaf and the leaf torn off and burned. Afterward the grubs and bee-
tles should be picked off. The following extract from a correspondent
of the New York Tribune shows the efficacy of this remedy :

From June 7 to August 17 I have caught and killed, by actual counting, over eight-
een thousand (18,802) “hard shells,” without reckoning the eggs and young ones, on
less than a quarter acre of potatoes, so that not a vine has lost its leaves. The bugs
have stripped the neighboring patches, and now come swarming on mine. My neigh-
bors Paris-greened, scalded, mashed, and burned bugs till the vines had blossomed,

then left them live, grow fat, and migrate. Would it be feasible to fine the negligent
bug-catching farmers next year and offer medals to the diligent ?

While hand-picking should be practiced and perhaps State bounties
paid for the eggs, grubs, and beetles, prizes might be offered by agri-
cultural societies for the largest collections. Co-operation among farm-
ers and others should also be urged, even if legislation should have to
be resorted to. President P. A. Chadbourne, of Williams College, ad-
vocates higher culture. ‘+ Since,” he has remarked, ‘it costs as much
to protect an acre of potatoes yielding twenty bushels as one yielding
one hundred bushels, less land should be planted and more highly cul-
tivated, as in soil properly tilled it would perhaps not cost more than 5
cents a bushel to protect the potatoes.” The aid of fowl should also be
invoked, as chickens freely feed on the grubs.

In the Western States the use of Paris green is advocated. This is a
preparation of arsenic, and is deadly poison. If used at all in the
thickly-settled Eastern States, it should be handled with extreme can-
tion, and only by careful persons, and in gardens and farms where no
children are about. One part of Paris green may be mixed with about
twenty of cheap flour and dusted over the vines early in the morning while
the dew is on the leaves. The simplest way is to sift the flour from a
fine muslin bag attached to a pole or from a dredging-box. Although
Paris green is freely used in the West, I would not advocate its use in
New Engiand on small farms near houses and in the vicinity of large
towns. Mr. John H. Sears tells me that several valuable horses and
cows have to his knowledge died from this poison. Human life 1s threat-
ened, as the powder blows about, and the risk of poisoning is too great
to be lightly taken.

Various machines have been devised for use on large farms, and liquid
preparations and patent sprinklers manufactured for the purpose. Those

Both L .10-lineata and juncta, the latter inhabiting the Southern States and originally
representing 10-lineata of the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountain Plateau, are repre-
sented in Mexico, Costa Rica, Bogota, and Bolivia by J. 11-lineata Chevr., in which
the head is black and the body darker yellow, but the elytra striped in much the same
way, while it is a little smaller. Regarding the generic name of the 10-lineata, Dr.
Horn writes me “there is some difficulty, but I think all will finally settle down to
the name Leptinotarsa decemlineata.” M. A. Preudhomme de Borre, in his writings on
this insect, calls it Leptinotarsa decemlineata, and says that it has been improperly re
erred to Doryphora.

PACKARD.] THE YELLOW-STRIPED SYSTENA. 729

who are not inclined to use Paris green may use carbolate of lime, made
by mixing in the proportion of half an ounce of crude carbolic acid with
a pound of lime, forming a powder, which can be dusted on the leaves.
Others have used air-slacked lime with success. Hellebore is ineffectual.

The following suggestions by Prof. H. H. McAfee, of Iowa Agricult-
ural College, are valuable: “ We know that the Dor yphora 10-lineata
can only remain healthy and increase rapidly when feeding upon sola-
naceous plants. Cut off his rations for any considerable length of time
and he will surely die; hence if we plant only early potatoes, whose tops
are all dead by August 10, but few potato-bettles will be found alive on
your grounds next season. * * * <A word as to how this policy has
geod in practice. During the seasons past, in which I have grown

2,100 bushels of potatoes on the lowa Agricultural College farm, the ex-
pense of keeping potato-beetles in check by hand- -picking, when they
became too numerous, has been less than $2, and no poison has been
used and no late potatoes have been grown in my department. Of course
where potato-patches are contiguous any patch may suffer from the
neighbors’ bugs, so that this policy of autumn starvation must be gen-
eral to be most effective.”

Also, aS a preventive, it would be well to try planting the prickly
solanum (S. rostratum) around potato-fields, and asertain whether the
beetles would not desert the useful plants for the weed; if so, the culture
of the weed would be an invaluable adjunct to that of the potato. A
correspondent of the New York Tribune states that the Colorado potato-
beetle feeds on the common nightshade (Solanum nigrum). To quote
his words: ‘The Colorado potato-beetle troubled the potatoes in my
garden very little; but at the side of the garden, close at the ends of
the rows, were two or three large shrubs or vines commonly called
nightshade. Upon these were hundreds of the slugs of the ‘pest,’
which seemed to thrive splendidly ; and so long as the marauders con-
fine their foraging to this noxious plant I shall not molest them.”—(G.
H. B., Franklin, N. Y.)

It would be also worth while for experiments to be made in planting
not only the common nightshade, but the bittersweet (Solanum dul-
camara), 2 common vine imported from Europe, growing in our gardens
and about our houses. The horse-nettle (Solanwm carolinense), a com-
mon weed flourishing from Connecticut to Illinois and southward, and
upon which the Leptinotarsa juncta feeds, might also be planted in
broad borders around the potato-fields with probably good results.
Whether it is a good policy to heed the natural food-plants of insects,
and thus perhaps increase the number of the noxious insects preying
upon them, has always been a question in my mind. Still it would bean
experiment worth trying in the present case, where it seems almost im-
possible to increase the numbers of this beetle beyond what they have
already attained.

THE YELLOW-STRIPED SysTENA, Systena mitis Le C. var. ligata Le C. (Plate LXVI,
Fig. 3.)—Eating holes in tie leaves and making blotches on them; a small beetle nearly
two lines in length; black, with two broad yellow stripes along the back.

This beetle I have only noticed in Colorado, where I observed it in a
field of potatoes at Idaho Springs, July 5. It was very abundant on the
leaves, eating holes in them and making blotches. As they were pair-
ing it is evident that the eggs are laid at this time, and soon after the
larve should be looked for, either upon the leaves or at the roots or in
the stalk.

Description.—Body rather flat, and rather long and narrow; blackish-brown; head
with yellow orbits; a broad dark band between the eyes, anda dark patch behind the

730 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

eyes. Antenne and bead in front yellowish ; upper lip (labrum) black ; both pairs of
palpi-reddish-brown. Prothorax yellow, especially on the hinder edge, and tinged with
brown on the sides and in the middle. Wing-covers black, each with a broad yellow
longitudinal stripe one-half as wide as the wing-covers. Body beneath black. Legs
yellowish, tinged with brown on the hind femora, which are much swollen, and be-
come paler toward the tip. Length, 0.18 inch, or nearly two lines. The species has
been identified by Dr. Horn.

Tue THREE-LINED PoTaTo-BEETLE, Lema trilineata, (Olivier. Plate LXVI, Figs. 4,
5.)—Thick-bodied grubs, much smaller than those of the Colorado beetles, feeding on
the leaves and disguising themselves with their own excrement, becoming black beetles
striped with yellow, and with a reddish head and prothorax. :

This beetle need not be confounded with the Colorado beetle, as it is
about half the size of the latter, and is only occasionally destructive in
the Eastern States, especially New England. The beetle is black, striped
with yellow, with a reddish head and prothorax. The grub or larva is
a soft-bodied, thick grub, but slenderer than that of Doryphora. It
conceals itself by covering its body with accumulations of its own ex-
crement. It matures in two weeks, and transforms in the ground, the
beetle appearing about the 1st of August. Hand-picking in the early
part of July is a sufficient remedy.

BLISTERING BEETLES, Epicauta cinerea Fabricius (Plate LXVI, Fig. 6); EH. macrobasis
murina Le Conte; atrata Fabricius (Fig. 7); 2. fabricii Le Conte (Fig. 5).—Long, slen-
der, gray, striped or spotted, or black beetles, with a prominent head, feeding on the
leaves, and sometimes even more destructive than the Colorado beetle.

These beetles are allied to the Spanish fly, and, like that insect, all
secrete the blistering substance called “‘ cantharadine.”

The gray blistering beetles (Plate LXVI, Fig. 6) in Massachusetts
appear, according to Harris, about the 20th of June, and sometimes do a
great deal of mischief. In the night-time and in rainy weather they leave
the plants and burrow at the roots for shelter, and eat in the morning
and evening.

Common as these insects are in the beetle state, the larva of some of
our native species have not yet been discovered, and the only informa-
tion available to me is a brief account of the young of the European
Spanish fly Lytta vesicatoria in Westwood’s Modern Classification of
Insects, where it is stated that thelarve live underground, feeding upon
the roots of vegetables. ‘‘ They have the body soft, and of a yellow-
ish-white, composed of thirteen segments, with two short filiform an-
tenn, and six short, scaly feet.”

While the gray blistering beetle is common northwards, the black
species, H. pensylvanica, is equally or more so, while H. cinerea (Forster)
(Plate LXVI, Fig. 8,) is more common southward, and E. vittata (Plate
LXVIL, Fig. 9) is very destructive in potato-fields in the Middle, Western,
and Southern States.

Epicauta pennsylvanica is perhaps our commonest species northward, and is totally
black, and slightly smaller than £. cinerea; it is black, but ash-colored on the head
and prothorax and on the under side of the body. It occurs as far west as Kansas.
(£. vittata is longer and slenderer than the others-named, and is clay-yellow, with six
black longitudinal stripes.)

Macrobasis muria is found west as far as Northern New Mexico, and
is to be looked for in Colorado and Wyoming.

The following is Fay’s description: “ Lake Superior, two males.
Easily distinguished by its more sparse pubescence; the thorax is
shorter, more convex, and more narrowed anteriorly, and the upper sur-
face is more distinetly punctured ; theantenne are one-half the length of
the body, the first joint reaching the occiput, the second joint equal to
the two following. With this species I doubtfully associate a female
from Missouri Territory, agreeing in form and punctation, in which the

packanp.] THE SPOTTED AND LEOPARD BLISTER-BEETLE. 731

antenne are a little stouter than in C. fabricii, with the second joint
about one-third longer than the third.”

M. fabricii (cinerea of Fabricius) is of a uniform dull-ash color. It is
found usually east of the Mississippi, but also occurs in Kansas and
New Mexico, according to Dr. Le Conte.

Remedies—Hand-picking and brushing the insects off the leaves in
the morning and evening is the best remedy. Harris says: “I have
repeatedly taken these insects in considerable quantities, by brushing
or shaking them from the potato-vines into a broad tin pan, from which
they were emptied into a covered pail containing a little water, which,
by wetting their wings, prevented their flying out when the pail was un-
covered. The same method may be employed for taking the other kinds
of cantharides when they become troublesome and destructive from
their numbers; or they may be caught by gently sweeping the plants
they frequent with a deep muslin bag-net. They should be killed by
throwing them into scalding-water for one or two minutes, after which
they may be spread out on sheets of paper to dry, and may be made
profitable by selling them to the apothecaries for medical use.”

THE SPOTTED BLISTER-BEETLE, Epicauta maculata (Say). (Plate LXVI, Fig. 10.)
Feeding on beets and liable to devour potatoes ; a light-gray blister-beetle, spotted with
black; destructive about Manitou, Coio.

While none of the preceding species have yet been found to be injuri-
ous in Colorado or adjacent Territories, there are a number of species of
blister-beetles which inhabit the Rocky Mountain Plateau, and two have
been found to be injerious to field-crops. While at Manitou during the
middle of July I visited a large farm and found this spotted blister-
beetle in abundance on the leaves of the beet, and was told that on the
1st of July they swarmed upon the leaves so that “the plants were
gray with them.” I also found this beetle at Golden, and it is evident
that it is destined to be more or less annoying to garden-vegetables and
probably potatoes.

Description of the beetle—Pale yellowish-gray varying to a dark gray, being dark,
covered with a gray powder, consisting of minute short hairs when examined under a
hand-lens, and finely spotted with black on the wing-covers, the spots being nearly
obsolete on the head and prothorax as well as the under side of the body. The legs
are of the same color as the rest of the body, but the toe-joints (tarsi) and the tips of
the shanks (tibiz) are blackish, as well as the antenne and feelers (palpi). It is usually ~
about half aninch long, but varies from a quarter to half aninch. Itis rather slenderer
in form than any other of the species bere named except the striped species (2. vittata).

It also occurs in Kansas and Eastern New Mexico. This species has been named by
Dr. Horn.

THE LEOPARD BLISTER-BEETLE, Epicauta pardalis Le Conte. (Plate LXVI, Fig. 11.)—
Injuring the potato-leavesin Southern Colorado, and doing more damage locally than
the striped Colorado potato-beetle ; a beautiful gray-spotted shining-black biister-
beetle. ’

I received from Mr. T. Martin Trippe, a well-known naturalist, numerous
specimens of this blister-beetle, with the following account, dated How-
ardsville, Colo., July 25, 1875:

I send you herewith some specimens of a beetle that has lately destroyed the potato-
plant in this vicinity. They are worse than the Doryphora decemlineata in the
extent and rapidity of their devastations, and seem to have driven the latter out of
the country. Before the appearance of this new potato-bug the latter were quite nu-
merous, and had already begun to injure the crops somewhat; but these new-comers
stripped the vines in a week, and a few days after they appeared in numbers the
Doryphoras were nowhere to be seen. No one seems to know of or to have seen them
before. Before immersion in alcohol they were spotted with white, the spots being
quite small—size of a pin-point ; the head unspotted. They feed on wild Solanaceae.

hae REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

The same remedies may be employed against this and the spotted
blister-beetle as suggested for the eastern species.

Description of the Beetle.—It differs from E. maculata in being shining black, with
pale-gray scalloped lines across the elytra, which unite to form about seven or eight
pale-gray irregular ringlets, inclosing black spots, whence the name pardalis, or leop-
ard-like. The thorax is black, but gray around the edges, and spotted with gray on the
sides and beneath. It is of the usual form, but a little shorter and stouter than £.
maculata. Length, 0.45inch. Identified by Dr. G. H. Horn.

THE FLEA-BEETLE, Haltica (Epitriz) cucumeris Harris. (Plate LXVI, Fig. 13.)—
Eating holes in the leaves, sometimes riddling them, and causing them to turn rust-
color; minute black beetles, which on being disturbed leap off like fleas.

This minute beetle not only infects the potato but also injures
beans, beets, tomato-plants, and especially young cucumber-vines. At-
tacking the leaves when small, and-eating round holes in them, by their
numbers and the pertinacity of their attacks they each year do muck
harm, and certain seasons carry off whole beds of young beets and
cucumber-vines, as well as seriously injure the potato-plants. The habits
of the young of this species are not known, but it is very probable that
the eggs are laid on the leaves, and that the larve bore into and mine
the leaves feeding upon the pulpy substance. The larve of other species
of the genus known to have such habits are, according to Harris, “little
slender grubs, tapering toward each end, and provided with six legs,
They arrive at maturity, turn to pup, and then to beetles in a few
weeks. Hence there is a constant succession of these insects in their
various states throughout the summer.”

Description.—It is only one-sixteenth of an inch long, of a black color, with clay-yel-
low antenn and legs, except the hindmost thighs, which are brown. The upper side

of the body is covered with punctures, which are arranged in rows on the wing-cases 5
and there is a deep transverse furrow across the hinder part of the thorax, | (Harris.)

REMEDIES.—W ater the leaves with a solution of lime.

THE STRIPED GARDEN BuG, Lygus lineolaris (Beauvois) Uhler. (Plate LXVI, Fig.
14.)—Puneturing and poisoning the leaves of the potato and all sorts of garden-vege-
tables, causing them to wither and turn back; a medium-sized bug.

This bug is very widely disseminated, and is everywhere abundant and
annoying in the United States from Maine southward to Alabama, and
westward to Colorado and Wyoming. Ubler states that specimens were |
collected above the timber-line in Colorado by Lieutenant Carpenter ;
and it occurs on the bald summits of the highest mountains in North
Carolina. It hibernates, and in New England appears in April.

Description.—Head yellowish, with three narrow, longitudinal, reddish thorax, bor-
dered with yellow, with five longitudinal yellow lines. The male is much darker-
colored ; 4 inch in length.

Remedies.—Harris advises sprinkling the leaves with alkaline solutions,
such as strong soap-suds, or potash-water, or with decoctions of tobacco
and of walnut leaves, or of dusting the plants with air-slaked lime or
sulphur.

Besides these insects the sphinx (Macrosila 5-maculata) whose horned
caterpillar is called the “potato-worm,” and the larva of the golden-
helmet beetle (Cassida aurichalcea) ieed on the leaves.

BORING THE ROOTS.

THE PoTaTo-STaLk WEEVIL, Baridius trinotatus Say. (Plate LXVI, Fig. 12; a,
larva; b, pupa.)—Boring into the stalks and causing them to wilt and die; a small,
white, footless grub.

This is a common insect in the Middle and Western States, where it
is at times quite annoying. The female, according to Riley, deposits a

PACKARD. ] THE HAIRY POTATO-MAGGOT. 733

single egg in an oblong slit in the stalk about one-eighth of an inch long,
which she has previously formed with her beak in the stalk of the potato.
The grub afterward batches and bores into the heart of the stalk, work-
ing downward toward the root, causing the stalk to wilt. When ob-
served to suddenly die the stalks should be cut down and burned.

Beetle.—Bluish or ash-gray, with three shining, black, impressed spots at the lower
edge of the thorax. The grub (larva) when fully grown is a little over one-fourth of
an inch long, and is soft, whitish, footless, with a scaly head.—(Riley.)

Besides these insects the “ potato-worm,” or caterpillar of the five-
spotted hawk-moth, and the caterpillar of the Gortyna nitela, which
bores in corn, and the helmet-beetle (Coptocycla auwrichalcea), which
usually feeds on the sweet-potato and morning-glory, occasionally prey
on the potato-leaves.

The clubbed tortoise-beetle (Deloyala clarata) was found in 1871 by
Mr. A. G. Smith, of Berlin, Mass., to be feeding on the leaves of the
potato, “ eating indifferently different varieties.”

THE Harry Potato-MaGGoT, Homalomyia tuberosa Curtis? (Fig. 13.)—Feeding in
decaying (?) potatoes and cabbages; a flat, hairy maggot, which transforms to a fly
like the common house-fly, but paler and smaller.

A few years ago specimens of a hairy
maggot taken by Mr. C. A. Putnam Au-
gust 15, 1875, in defective potatoes, were
sent to the museum of the Peabody Acad-
emy of Science, at Salem, Mass., and shortly
after the museum received a number of
maggots of the same species found, July
2, 1875, in the Savoy cabbage, by Mr. John
H. Sears, of Danvers, Mass. The latter
lot consisted of two broods, 7. e., of maggots
fully grown, and others one-quarter grown. = 5...
They are very similar, if not identical, with aye
Curtis’s Homalomyia tuberosa. Our species
= oy ae oo ae eye by Harris a Fic. 13.—Hairy_ potato-maggot
the Anthomyia canicularis of Europe, and ~ (7omatomyia tuberosa?) a, larva;
is perhaps, as suggested by Baron Osten — 5,thesameenlarged twice. After
Sacken, H. scalaris. Curtis.

a

Description of the larva (Fig. 13: a, natural size; b, magnified twice).—Head minute,
fleshy, not seen in the pupa-case. Body flattened, cylindrical, ovate. Prothoracic seg-
ment flat, square, trapezoidal. On the body are two rows of long, slender dorsal spines
or hairs, two rows of lateral longer hairs (seen under a high magnifying power to have
short spiracles), one subdorsal, the other subvential. The last four dorsal are longer
than those in front. The end of the body forms a flat, smooth declivity, on each side
of the front edge of which is a thick, stout, short spine (a produced spiracle), much
thicker than the others, and ending suddenly in four short, blunt spines. Behind these
two spines, on the side of the declivity, are six hairs, with short, slender respiratory
hairs on the basal half. Some of the lateral hairs have similar lateral respiratory fila-
ments, but they are less distinct than on the six terminal hairs. The under side of the
body is flattened. The spiracles at the base, on each edge of the first segment behind
the head, have six long, slender respiratory processes. Length, 0.27 inch. This descrip-
tion will also apply to the pupa-case.

It is easy to see how maggots like these, which bury themselves in
cabbages and potatoes, may become swallowed with the food, and if
the latter is only partially cooked and hastily swallowed, how the living
worms become conveyed into the stomach, and become so annoying that
the doctor has to be sent for. The European Homalomyia scalaris, or
““ladder-maggot,” is not unfrequently voided from the bowels of boys
and adults in both countries.

734 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

T append the following account of several potato-insects of Europe,
taken from Curtis’s Farm Insects, and which may prove of interest, since
we same or closely-allied species are likely to occur in the United

tates:

‘Dead and silent as the earth appears to be, it teems with life; for not
only is the soil full of seeds, which merely require light and heat to
Start them into life, but it must abound with the eggs of insects so mi-
nute that even with the assistance of a lens they escape one’s notice. To
be convinced of the truth of this, if a flower-pot be filled with mold
from a field or garden, and then tied over with the finest muslin, the
experimentalist will be astonished to find the multitudes of little flies
which are constantly making their appearance, bred no doubt from larve,
nourished on the vegetable matter which such soils contain. Where
crops are grown, and any portion of them become decayed, the num-
ber of these minute insects is vastly multiplied, and thus where the
deceased potatoes have existed additional swarms of various little flies
have been the consequence. As a proof of the incredible numbers that
must be thus generated, I may mention that from one growing and par-
tially-rotten potato I bred in August, 1845, 128 flies, independent of
many more which had died in the pupastate, or been destroyed by damp
and mites before I discovered them in the vessel in which the tuber was
placed, as well as multitudes of smaller flies, all of which I will now
describe.

“The whole belong to the order DipTERA. The first I shall notice is
included in the family TipuLIpa and the genus Psychoda and has
been named—

“P. nervosa.—The males are twice as large as the females; they are ashy-white,
clothed with longish wool ; the little head is buried under the thorax; the black eyes
are large and lunate ; the two horns areas long as the thorax, and composed of eleven (?)
small points, black at the base, giving them an annulated appearance; the abdomen
18 short, and of a dirty color; the two wings when at rest meet over the back slant-
ing; they are iridescent, very large, oval, and lanceolate, with numerous longitudinal,
hairy nervures; the entire margin is also hairy; balancers small, clubbed, and white ;
six legs woolly; the feet fine-pointed, the tips black ; length, } line ; expanse, 3 lines.

“Tn February, 1846, the larvee and pup were abundant in the rotten
potatoes, also in decaying leaves and dung-hills, and the flies have been
bred by Mr. Haliday from putrescent fungi. These flies sometimes
swarm in out-houses and about drains in spring and autumn.

‘The larve are not 4 line long, yellowish-white, cylindrical, spindle-
shaped, with eleven distinct annulations besides the head, which is
triangular; the tail is elongated and tubular. The pupa is about 3 line
long, ocherous, and ferruginous; it is elongate-ovate in repose, but the
body can be stretched out and attenuated when disturbed; from the fore-
head project two slender appendages, like horns; on either side are laid
the short, stout antennz, and the wings meet over the breast, with the
legs stretched out between them; the abdominal segments are ciliated
and the tail is forked.

‘‘ Several species of a little swarthy two-winged fly were bred from the
decaying potatoes in multitudes. They are called Sciara by Meigen
and Molobrus by Latreille. The larve I received from Mr. Graham ;
they are slender worms, about 4 inch long, whitish, and opaque, but
when immersed in water they become perfectly transparent, exhibiting
the ocherous viscera and the food digesting in the stomach; when in
motion they taper toward the head, which is oval, horny, black, and
shining; the body is composed of thirteen segments, with seven or
eight spiracles on each side; the tail is broad and rounded, but slightly
pointed in the center. The pupa is shorter, cylindrical, elliptical, and of

PACKARD. |] . POTATO-INSECTS OF EUROPE. 735

a dull-ocherous tint, becoming darker ‘as the period approaches of the
birth of the fly; the antenna, eyes, wings, and legs are visible beneath
their horny sheaths. At this period they are deprived of locomotion,
but the larve, although perfect maggots, and destitute of feet, are able
to move along in moisture, at the same time waving about and thrust-
ing out their heads with great energy. There are thirty species of these
flies which inhabit England, and three or four of them have been bred
from putrid potatoes. One is called—

“ Sciara fucata Meig.—When alive itis 1 line long. The male is of a pale inky black,
the head is small and spherical, with two triarticulate feelers bent under, the two
horns are not longer than the thorax, tapering, pubescent, inserted in front of che face,
and sixteen-jointed ; two basal joints the stoutest, the remainder oblong, apex conical ;
eyes lateral, kidney-shaped, and coarsely granulated ; ocelli three, but unequal; trunk
gibbose, subquadrate, scooped out at the base, with two indistinct lines of short ochreous
hairs down the back ; scutel lunate, postscutel oval, of a grayish color; abdomen slen-
der, greenish-black, brownish after death, seven-jointed; the margins of the segments
pale, apex obtuse, and furnished with two incurved biarticulate lobes ; two wings, in-
cumbent in repose, parallel, longer than the body, iridescent, slightly smoky, but
transparent and clear at the base; nervures brown, excepting the central one, which
is scarcely visible, but forked and dark at the margin; the costal nervure does not
reach the base of the forked cell; balancers pale, dirty yellow or ochreous; six legs,
long, slender, and of a dirty-yellow or pale-olive tint. emale similar, but larger, being
1} line long, the wings expanding nearly 3 lines, the thorax is not narrowed behind ;
the abdomen is spindle-shaped, attenuated, and conical, terminating in two little par-
allel sheaths; the two balancers are dusky when dry.

This was bred in the winter of 1845~46, and again in 1848, in vast quantities; the
flies are also found throughout the summer in fields and gardens, on umbellate flow-
ers and on grasses. I have likewise bred them from rotten turnips in March.

“S. quinque-lineata of Macquart is 1} line long. ‘It is black, with five lines on the
thorax of a deep dull gray ; anterior hips testaceous; wings almost hyaline ;’ balancers
brown or dirty white.

** Specimens agreeing with this description were bred from rotten potatoes in March,
1848, and sent to me with the tubers containing the larve and pupe also. The pota-
toes were like old rotten cheese, and portions of the outside were covered with slimy
threads, which Mr. Graham saw the larve spin. He thinks they cause the ‘scab’ in
potatoes ; but I saw not the least vestige of the insect ou one variety of my potatoes,
which was very scabby.

“S, pulicaria? Meigen, Hoff., is 4.a line long or upward, and is distinguished from
the two foregoing species by its longer antenn, which are equal in length to the rest
of the body. It is black, with testaceous legs; the wings almost hyaline; balancers
brown.

‘*My specimens being as big again as Meigen’s, with ochreous balancers, I am doubt-
ful if they be the S. pulcaria of that author. I bred them in August, 1845, from a rotten

otato.
Pe Another dipterous insect was bred from the potatoes in less quantities. It also be-
longs to the family TieuLipz, and the genus Scathopse. It appears to be Meigen’s.

“ §. punctata.—It is black and shining, the head is small, the eyes are kidney-shaped,
with three little ocelli on the crown; the antennz are short, stout, cylindrical, and
composed of eleven cup-shaped joints; thorax elongated and somewhat compressed,
with a white dot on each side; scutel small and rough; abdomen broad, oval, and de-
pressed; wings ample, resting horizontally, transparent and iridescent, with a black.
costal, subcostal, and basal nervure, the first and second united beyond the middle,
and divided near the base by an obliqué nervure; there are also four other very faint
longitudinal nervures, the apical one forked, the anal one waved; balancers yellowish ;
legs simple, longish, and rusty; extremity of thighs and shanks variegated with
fuscous ; feet brown, five-jointed, terminated by a pair of minute claws; length, 1} line;
expanse, 34 lines,

“The larvee from which these flies proceed live in various putrid sub-
stances, and even in dung; they have also been bred from the cocoons
of silk-worms, in all probability containing decomposing caterpillars or
rotten pup; they are from 2 lines to nearly 4 inch long, flat and
narrowed at both ends, of a dirty grayish-yellow color; the head is
brown and oval, with two short feelers; the body is composed of twelve
pubescent segments, the first thoracic one with a prominent spiracle on

736 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

each side as well as the penultinate, which, with the apex, is covered
with radiating bristles. The pupa is 14 line long; it is inclosed in the
skin of the larva, and little depressed, and yellowish-brown; from the
thorax projects a branched spiracle like a buck’s horn, and the tail has
a stout spine. It remains from a week to a fortnight in this state, and
the flies are often exceedingly abundant in the autumn.

“Two large species of flies belonging to the family Muscip.a I also
bred from a single potatoe, as previously stated. There were forty-eight
specimens of one which was named by Fallens—

“Musca stabulaus.—The male is 34 lines long, and the wings expand 4 aninch; it is of ©
an ash-color, and clothed with black bristles; the feelers are ferruginous; the anten-
ne drooping, five-pointed, and rust-colored, pitchy at the base, third joint elliptical
and heavy, except at the base; the seta black and feathery, the basal joint minute ;
eyes large, approximating, naked, and chestnut color, the margins silvery white as
well as the face, with a black stripe tapering from the antenne to the three ocelli on
the crown; thorax hoary, with four black longitudinal stripes before, the two central
ones the longest, with a spot on each side beyond the center; scutel hoary, with a
dark stripe at the base, ferruginous at the tip; abdomen ashy-ochreous, shining, the
back variegated with brown patches; wings with the apical cell not angulated, but
suddenly rounded, scales at the base with pale tawny margins, and concealing the
ochreous-clubbed balances ; legs black, apex of thighs and tibie ferruginous; pulvilliat
the extremity of the feet elongated. Female similar, but the eyes do not approximate,
the face has a yellow tinge, and the stripe on the crown is broad and elliptical; the
abdomen is broader, with an oviduct at the tail, and the pulvilli are small.

“The maggots had bred and accumulated among the slimy matter of
the rotting potato, just as meat-maggots are found, together with the
horny pup. Indeed, the largest maggots were exceedingly like those of
the flesh-flies, being flat and whitish, the ochreous food and white lines of
viscera shining through the transparent skin; the head was pointed
with a black proboscis formed of two horny claws, and the two spiracles
at the blunt tail were like two black horny knobs. The tough and oval
pup were of a bright chestnut color, the segments slightly marked,
the head end rounded and wrinkled to a point; the tail furnished with
two black specular tubes.

“« Of the other fly I bred fifty-eight specimens from the same potato in
the middle of August. The larve escaped my notice at first from being
so very like the earth in color, and they are still more difficult to detect
from their sluggishness. They must be in the greatest force in July, but -
J have met with them in rotten potatoes in the end of November. The
group of flies with these singularly spiny larvee have been formed by
Bouché into a genus called Homalomia, being a section of Anthomyia.
The parent fly of our species is exceedingly like Musca cunicularis of
Linnzeus; still there are differences, and as the larve are also dissimilar,
I have named this potato-fly—

“ Anthomyia tuberosa.—The male is 24 lines long, and expands 54; it is grayish-black
and bristly; the eyes are chestnut color, naked, approximating on the crown, the inner
margin silvery white; antenne drooping, five jointed, third joint oblong, fourth a
slender elongated basal joint to the longish pubescent seta; thorax with five indis-
tinct broad stripes down the back, second and third abdominal segments with bright
ocherous spots on each side, third rarely with two similar minute spots; wings trans-
parent, nervures dark, the two transverse ones not very remote ; balancers pale tawny ;
legs black, base of shanks indistinctly ferruginous. Female, ashy slate-color; the
eyes smaller than those of the male and remote; the face not silvery; thorax with
five distinct broad blackish lines down the back ; abdomen ovate-conic, with two indis-
tinct ocherous slightly-diaphanous spots on the second abdominal segment; in other
respects this sex is similar to the male.

“ The larvae, although indolent, can crawl well; they are of a dull
tawny color, clothed with long bristly spines, somewhat depressed,
elliptical, tapering to the head, which is waved about, and when thrust
out is whitish and fleshy, armed with two minute hooks like ebony, and

PACKARD. ] POTATO-INSECTS. 137
there is a little fleshy horn on each side; on the following segment is a
spiracle on either side, surrounded by several stout short rays ; the two
next segments have tubercles on the back;.the remainder have a
double series down the center, producing bristles, with a double row
on each and eight of the segments have a pair of short spines
each beneath, which enable it to walk; the apex is armed with six
long bristles a little spiny at the base, but most of the others are
naked, or with the slightest appearance of pubescence or little spines
at the base; on the apical segment are two spiracular tubes. The pupa
being formed within the indurated skin of the larve, it varies from it
only in being more convex above, and the fly escapes by a lateral open-
ing in the thorax.

* These larve and purpe I find occasionally in my garden where cab-
bages have long occupied the ground, and Dr. Harris remarks that the
hairy maggots of Anthomyia cunicularis, or an allied species, live in rot-
ten turnips; they also abound in privies, and the purpe-cases are found
in multitudes under boards.

“ From the large quantities of these maggots which have been ejected
from the human stomach and intestines, accompanied by the most dis-
tressing symptoms, I am led to conclude from their economy that the
eggs or larve are conveyed into the stomach in badly or half cooked
vegetables, for it is evident they subsist upon decomposing vegetables
and excrementitious substances, and I have found similar but very small
larve on cabbage-leaves in October. It is, therefore, very probable
that, under certain morbid conditions of the constitution, they are able
to live in the human body until they have arrived at their full growth,
when they are necessarily ejected to become pup, and after a short
time to be transformed into flies. It is not a little remarkable that the
maggots of Musca stabulans should have been also voided from the in-
testines, and that fact tends to substantiate the view I have taken of
the subject and the cause of their presence in the human system, for
that is the other species of large fly which I bred trom maggots gen-
erated in the same potato.

“T also detected the larvae and pupe of a smaller species of fly called
Drosophila, which hatched in the middle of August with the foregoing
insects. They are also inhabitants of cellars, as their specific name
implies, where the larve are usualiy very abundant all the year round.
They will breed in stale beer, and probably are generated where there
is any leakage from the tap and oozing about the bung, as well as from
the fungi which spring up round rotten wood, ete., in cellars. I have
also known them to be bred from vinegar, and it will be remembered
that one species, D. flava, lives on the pulpy substance of the turnip-
leaves, and another, D. graminum, I have bred from cabbage-leaves.
In spring and autumn the flies abound, and are not unfrequently on the
inside of our windows. They belong to the family Muscipa and the
genus Drosophila. That bred from the potatoes appears to be the
Linnean species named

“Drosophila cellaris—It is 14 line long, and expands 4 lines ; the general color is ochre-
ous ; the head is broad as well as the face, jn the center of which are inserted the two little
drooping pubescent horns, the third joint is Oval, and from the back arises a feathery
bristle jointed at the base ; the orifice forming the mouth is very large ; eyes large, hemi-
spherical ; ocelli three on the crown ; thorax globose-quadrate ; scutal semi-ovate ; abdo-
men small, depressed, oval, blackish, and six-jointed, with four or five ochreous bands; the
apex pointed in the female; wings incumbent in repose, very long, and ample, yel-
lowish and iridescent, with a very short marginal cell, and four longitudinal nervures,
the second and third united toward the base, the third and fourth toward the mar-

gin; balancers small, clavate; six legs, tapering ; feet long, slender, and five-jointed,
terminated by minute claws. «

47GS8

738 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

“ The larvee are 2} lines iong, of a whitish color, tapering toward the head, composed
of twelve joints: on each side of the thoracic segment is a short branching spiracle,
and the tail is furnished with four divaricating blunt spines, the edges of the seg-
ments being serrated with hooked ones. When full grown this skin becomes horny,
changing to a rust color, the maggot is transformed to a pupa within an internal
horny shell of a chestnut color, and of course the pupa greatly resembles the larva.

‘There is also an extensive group of flies called Borborus, the larve
of which live upon decomposing vegetables, and probably animal sub-
stances also; at all events they are generated in fungi. A portion of
these flies is now distinguished by Macquart, under the generic name
of Limosina ; one of them I have bred from rotting potatoes, and it
seems to be identical with that author’s—

“DT, geniculata.—It is only 1 line long, and expands a little more than 2 lines. It is
black; the head is moderately large, with an ample cavity beneath to receive the
mouth; the eyes are hemispheric and rust-colored, and there are three minute ocelli
on the crown; the face is concave, with two little horns in the center, the third joint
orbicular, with a tomentose seta; thorax broader, very convex; scuatel semi-orbicular
and flat; abdomen very short, the segments equal in length; wings rather small,
smoky, nervures pitchy ; costal the strongest ; submarginal cell not extending to the
apex, second and third longitudinal nervures united at the middle, third and fourth
forming a loop with two minute branches at the extremity ; balancers small and ocbre-
ous; legs pitchy; hips ochreous, as well as the ‘tips of the anterior thighs and the
base of the shanks; hinder with a few spines outside ; feet long, five-jointed, especially
the hinder, which are slender and longer than the shanks; dull ochreous, basal-joint
very long and pitchy, terminal one very short, and furnished with short claws.

‘¢M. Rayer also observed a species in the infected potatoes which has
been named by Guérin Limosina payenii, and it is not improbable that
it may be the male of Macquart’s species, for it agrees very well with our
female, except in the color of the wings and the structure of the hinder
feet.

‘¢ With the foregoing Diptera I often bred a parasitic insect in consid-
erable numbers, but to which it is attached, or whether to any of them,
IT am unable to ascertain. It belongs to the order HYMENOPTERA, the
family PROCTOTRUPIDA, and the genus Cerapsilon, which has been
divided by Mr. Westwood into three genera, one of which is called
Paramesius, and to that section our insect belongs. It is included by
Nees ab Esenbeck in the genus Diapria, and has been named by hin—

““P. brachialis—The male is scarcely 1 line long and expands 13; it is very glossy
black; the head is globose, the face short, ovate, and at the bottom are attached the
antenna, which are nearly as long as the body, ferruginous and fourteen-jointed, basal
joint long, second short, obovate, third notched or comma-shaped, remainder short and
obovate, apical joint conical; eyes small, lateral, with three ocelli on the crown in a
triangle; thorax very globose, scarcely larger than the head; scutel small, semi-oval,
deeply hollowed at the base; metathorax ferruginous and uneven; petiole forming a
ferruginous knob, woolly behind; abdomen small, ovate-conic, pitchy, base ferruginous,
with four longitudinal channels on a very large segment, apical segment very short;
fore wings dusky and pubescent, with a few nervures at the base of the superior,
forming an elongated cell; six legs short, slender, and ochreous, pitchy at the base;
thighs thickened, as well as the anterior shanks, and pitchy at the middle ; feet slender,
five-jointed, tips dusky. Hemale: Above 1 line long, and expanding 1}; this sex is
not only distinguished by its larger size, but the horns are shorter, with only twelve ©
joints, the third being simple like the second; and the extremity of the abdomen is
acuminated, and very acute.

“This insect belongs to a family which is very serviceable in keeping
down wire-worms and other subterranean larve, as will be seen by a
reference to a former chapter and the Gardener’s Chronicle. Nees also
says that the Diaprie breed in the subterranean larvee of Tipule, or
gnats. , ;

‘*T must not omit to record another fly, called Dilophus febrilis, which
is exceedingly abundant every year, the larve causing much mischief

.

PACKARD.| THE SWEET-POTATO HELMET-BEETLE. ~ | (39

in gardens; and at the close of the year 1845, many of them were sent
to me as abounding on decayed portions of planted potatoes, and I[ have
met with them likewise about the tubers and in flower-pots, where they
burrow in all directions. Some I received in July were about 4 of an
inch long, of an ochreous-brown or snuff color, and shagreened ; the
back is slightly convex, with twelve well-defined wrinkled segments,
and a horny, shining head, much narrower than the body, intensely
black or inclining to chestnut color, and slighty hairy; there are eight
distinct spiracles on each side, the penultimate segment is rounded,
with four teeth on the margin, and the anal one has four smaller teeth,
with two large spiracles near the base; it has no feet.

“They were transformed to pup in the earth in the beginning of
August, and were then yellowish-white; the thoracic portion was very
thick, with two horns in front; the body slender and suabcylindric, the
segments very distinct, with spiracles down the sides, and the tail spiny.

“‘The flies hatched on the 21st of August, but they abound in fields,
hedges, especially under trees, and even in the highways around Lon-
don, the whole of that month; and there must be two broods of them, as
they are found likewise in May. They belong to the family TrPULID a,
and to the genus Dilophus. The species was named febrilis by Lin-
neus, from the generally-received opinions in Sweden of these flies
resorting to houses where intermittent fevers existed.

“ D. febrilis is intensely black, shining, and hairy. The head of the male is hemis-

' pheric, and covered with large densely pubescent eyes of a reddish-brown color. There

are three minute ocelli forming au elevated triangle near the base; the tip is broad,
and the feelers incurved; the trunk is oval and gibbose, with two transverse rows of
minute teeth before; the scutel is short and broad; abdomen sublinear, eight-jointed,
the apex, clubbed ; the two wings are incumbent in repose, perfectly transparent and
white but iridescent, the pinion only is slightly tinged with brown, the costal nervures
pitchy, the others very faintly marked; a radial nervure uniting with the costa atthe
middle forms a brown spot at the extremity: two balancers, with a large compressed
brown club; it has six long legs; anterior thighs the thickest, the shanks very short,
the apex surrounded by a coronet of teeth. There are also several short spines outside;
feet slender, five-jointed, terminated by claws and suckers; length, 24 lines ; expanse,
5 lines. The female is larger and very different, the head being much less, with small
oval eyes not meeting on the crown; the abdomen is brownish and elongated, ovate at
the extremity but narrowed at the base, and the tip is furnished with two minute tuber-
cles; the wings are much longer and very ample, entirely brown, the pinion being the
darkest, with a brown stigmatic spot; all the nervures are pitchy; the anterior thighs
are incrassated.

“These insects fly heavily, their hinder legs hanging down, and in the
evening they become sluggish, resting on herbage and bushes. The
larve also inhabit cow-dung and horse-muck ; it is therefore very possi-
ble they may be introduced into potato-grounds with the manure, or
the flies may be attracted to highly-manured ground to deposit their
eggs; for so little is known of the economy of many insects, that it is
impossible to determine their exact habits; indeed, no description or
figures were to be found of the larvee and pupe of this fly until I sent
them to the Gardener’s Chronicle.”

INJURING THE SWEET-POTATO.

THE HELMET-BEETLE, Coptocycla aurichaleea (Fabricius).—Feeding on the leaves; .
broad, flattened, spiny grubs, holding their cast-off skins over their backs.

This beetle, which usually feeds on the leaves of the morning-glory,
will sometimes destroy whole fields of sweet-pqtatoes, and is specially
injurious to plants transf-rred from hot-houses.

The larva is broad and flat, with a row of large, long, barbed, spines
along the edge of the body, sixteen on each side, the two posterior of

740 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

which serve as a fork to hold the cast skin, covered with excrement, over
its body, probably as a protection from its enemies, the birds. The eggs
are irregular, flattened, with three spines behind, sometimes, however,
wanting, and they are laid on the leaves. The larva matures in three
weeks after hatching, molting three times. The larva, when about to
change to a pupa, adheres by a mass of silk to the surface of a leaf, with
its cast-skin about it. The pupa is smooth, its tail movable, and the
limbs, according to Riley, are soldered to the body, as in the chrysalids
of moths and butterflies. The pupa state lasts a week. In Massachu-
setts, during the last week in July, I have found the larve in all stages
of growth very abundant on the morning-glory (Convolvulus), eating
holes in the leaves. They pupated late in July and early in August;
the beetles appear from the 7th to the 12th. Hand-picking is obviously
amply sufficient to destroy them if too numerous.

Description of the beetle-—Ofw« rich amber-yellow, with a reddish tinge over the body.
Two black spots on the back and two on each side, disappearing a few days after cast-
ing off the pupa-skin. The wing-covers are ornamented with finely-impressed pune-
tured lines. Body beneath shining black ; antennz pale on the basal half, dark beyond.
Legs pale amber. Length a little less than a quarter (0.22) of an inch.

THE TWwo-STRIPED SWEET-POTATO BEETLE, Cassida bivittata
Say.—In the Western States the most common helmet-beetle found on
the sweet-potato, and, according to Mr. Riley, feeding exclusively upon
it, is the above-named beetle. The grub or larva is dirty-white or yel-
lowish-white, with a more or less intense neutral-colored longitudinal
line along the back, usually relieved by an extra light band on each side.
It differs from the larve of all other known species in not using ifs fork
for merdigerous purposes. Indeed, this fork is rendered useless as a
shield to the body, by being ever enveloped, after the first month, in
the cast-off prickly skins, which are kept free from excrement. The
beetle is ofa pale yellow, striped with black. (Riley.) Besides these two
helmet-beetles, two other species (Cassida nigripes and Coptocycla gut-
tata) prey to a certain extent upon the sweet-potato. The cucumber
flea-beetle, Hpitrix cucumeris (Harris), and a few caterpillars are said
by Riley to feed on this plant. Besides these, Harris states that plant-
lice sometimes infest the leaves, and to drive them off he recommends
dusting the leaves with lime.

INJURING THE ONION.

THE ONION-FLY, Anthomyia ceparum Meigen. (Plate LXVII, Fig. 1.)—Killing the tops,
causing them to turn yellow and wilt; asmooth, conical, white maggot, attacking the
bulb soon after the leaves appear early in June, and afterward through the summer,
and changing to an ash-gray fly, a little smaller than the house-fly, and with a row of
black spots along the middle of the hind body, which lays its eggs on the leaves, close
to thg earth.

The onion-fly has been an inhabitant of this country for about forty
years, having been imported from Europe. Fitch remarks that ‘in
many parts of New England and New York it was extremely numerous
and destructive about the year 1854, and again in 1863.” In Essex
County, Massachusetts, it has been for a number of years, and still is,

very annoying and destructive. Having had little opportunity of ob-
serving the habits of this fly, I avail myself of the quite full account
given by Dr. Fitch in his Eleventh Report on the Noxious Insects of New
York, often using his own words: “In June, as soon as the young seed-
ling-onions are only an inch or two in height, these insects commence
their depredations and continue them through the whole season, getting
their growth and coming out in their perfect state one after another,

PACKARD.] THE ONION-FLY. TAl

whereby some of the flies are liable to be always present in the garden,
in readiness to deposit their eggs; and maggots of widely-different sizes
are commonly met with in the same onion.

“The eggs or ‘fly-blows’ are loosely placed upon the onion slightly
above the surface of the ground (Fig. —), some of them being dropped
along the thin edge of the sheath or white membranous collar, which is
formed by the base of the lower leaf clasping around the stalk, and
others are crowded into the crevices between the bases of the leaves,
slightly above where they issue from this sheath. From two to six or
more eggs are usually placed on particular plants here and there through
the bed. They are perceptible to the eye, being white and smooth,
four-hundredths of an inch (0.04) long, and a fourth as thick, and of an
oval form.” When the minute maggot hatches from the egg, it works
its way downward inside of the sheath, its track being marked by a
slender, discolored streak, till it reaches the root, on which it feeds till
it is wholly consumed, only the thin outer skin remaining. After eating
the bulb of one plant they attack the next, until sometimes a third or
a half of the bed is destroyed.

The first indication that the plant has been attacked is afforded by
the leaves turning yellow and wilting. ‘On carefully digging up and
examining the affected plant, if it is young and the root small and
eylindrical, we commonly find it completely cut asunder as represented
in Fig. —, only the thin outer skin remaining, whereby the slightest pull-
ing upon the top draws it up out of the ground. Later in the season,
when the round bulb is beginning to be formed, as in Fig. —, we find a
hole perforated in its side, opening into a cavity in the interior, and the
earth around this perforation is wet and slimy, forming a mass of filthy
mud in which those worms are lying which are not engaged in feeding.
And by this interior cavity the central leaves of the plant are severed
from their connection with the fibrous rootlets, as shown in the figure,
whereby it is now these central and not the outer leaves which first
turn yellow and die, and all the upper portion of the root soon becomes
soft and putrid, while the bottom part, continuing to be nourished by
the fibrous rootlets, remains sound, and the worms now crowd into this
part to feed, whereby it sometimes presents a wonderful appearance,
being thronged with worms wedged together side by side in a compact
mass, all with their heads downward, eagerly consuming the last
remains of food there is there, and only the rounded hind ends of their
bodies exposed to view, these forming an even surface similar to the
cobble-stones of a street-pavement, as represented in Fig.—.”

The maggot attains its growth, in summer, in about a fortnight, and
changes to a pupa either in the cavity in the onion or in “the wet, slimy
earth which is in contact with the onion. It here ceases to move, it
becomes contracted and sborter in length, its skin hardens and changes
to a tarnished yellow and finally toa chestnut color with a stain of
black at each end.” This is the pupa-case, and the true pupa is inside.
In this condition it lies about two weeks before the fly escapes.

In Hssex County, Massachusetts, this fly is very destructive. The
maggots appear about the middle and last of May, and by the third
week in August the larve are not found, only the pupa-cases.

Description.—The larva or maggot is shining, dull white, cylindrical, tapering to a
point in front, and when crawling and elongated, nearly the whole length of the body
becomes tapering. At the forward end the jaws appear under the skin as a short black
stripe. The hind end is cut off abruptly in an oblique direction, forming a flattened
surface, on which, slightly above the center, are two elevated dots of a cinnamon-brown

color, and appearing somewhat like a pair of eyes; and around the margin are eight
small projecting teeth, of which the two lowest ones are largest ; and a little forward

742 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

of these, on the under side of the body, are two additional. teeth, like minute feet,
by the aid of which the maggot shoves itself forward when crawling. (Fitch.) Speci-
mens from Essex County, Massachusetts, are long, conical, the end of the body squarely
docked, with barrel-shaped spiracles projecting from the end of the body. On the
under side of the segments are raised folds, one to each segment, and of service in loco-

motion. The spiracles and termination of the trachez or air-tubes are very distinct —

on the prothorax, while there are no traces of antenne. The fly is like the common
house-fly, but smaller and slenderer. The two sexes are readily distinguished from
each other by the eyes, which in the males are close together and so large as to occupy
almost the whole surface of the head, while in the female they are widely separated
from each other. These flies are of an ash-gray color, with the head silvery, and a
rusty-black stripe between the eyes, forked at its hind end. The species.is particu-
larly distinguished by having a row of black spots along the middle of the abdomen
or hind body, which sometimes run into each other, then forming a continuous black

stripe. This row of spots is quite distinct in the male, but in the female it is very

faint or is often wholly imperceptible. This fly measures 0.22 to 0.25 inch in length,
the females being usually rather larger than the males. (Fitch.)

Remedies —ASs a preventive measure worth trial the seed should be
sown two inches deeper than usual, so that the fly cannot so readily get
to it to lay its eggs. Sow also on ground on which straw has been pre-
viously burned. Rotation of crops is also a most important preventive
measure. When the roots are infested pour boiling water along the
drills near the roots, or even on the plants, going over the bed four
times during one season. ‘The diseased onions should be pulled up and
burned. Fitch recommends cultivating the onions in hills, scattered
among the other vegetables in the garden. ‘ With only three or four
seedlings in a hill it is evident that the young worms could nowhere
find a sufficient amount of food to nourish them to maturity. Having
consumed all the young plants in one hill, they will be unable to work
their way through the ground to come at another hill except it be by
the merest chance, and will thus perish.” '

THE BLack ONION-FLY, Ortalis fleca Wiedermann. (Plate LXVII, Fig. 2.) —Infesting

the bulb in the Western States; a more slender, less conical maggot than the Euro-
ean onion-maggot, with the head blunter; killing the tops and causing the onions to
ecay; changing to a black fly, with three oblique white stripes on each wing.

This native onion-fly was first found to be destructive to onions in
Illinois by Dr. Henry Shimer, who writes in the Practical Entomologist
(i, 4) as follows regarding it: “‘ In the latter part of June | first observed
the larva or maggot among the onions here; the top dead, tuber rot-
ten, and the maggots in the decayed substance. From them I bred the
fly. They passed about two weeks in the pupa state. At that time I
first observed the flies in the garden, and now few are to be found.
Their favorite roosting-place is a row of asparagus running along the
onion-ground, where they are easily captured and destroyed, from day-
light to sunrise, while it is cool and wet. During the day they are seat-
tered over the ground and on the leaves and stalks of the onions, and not
easily captured. Their wings point obliquely backward, outward, and
upward, with an irregular jerking, fan-like movement; flight not very
‘apid or prolonged. They are not very numerous, probably not over 200
or 300. All that I observed originated in one part of the bed, where

they were doubtless deposited by one parent fly. Two broods appear -

in a season.”

THE OntON-THRIpS, Limothrips tritici Fitch. (Plate LXVII, Figs. 3-5.)—Attacking
the leaves, causing them to turn yellow and wilt and die; minute, yellow, slender
insects, living on the leaves in all stages of growth.

The following account is taken from my Second Annual Report on the

Injurious and Beneficial Insects of Massachusetts:
“About the middle of August my attention was called by Mr. B. P.

PACKARD. ] THE ONION-THRIPS. 743

Ware, of Swampscott, to his serious loss of onions from the attacks of
a minute insect. The leaves were observed to suddenly turn yellow and
wilt, and the plant died. In this way large patches became infested and
turned yellow, until in two or three days these prolific insects spread
over the whole field. They seemed to increase most rapidly during the
unusual dry, hot weather that we experienced about the middle of last
August. On the 11th of August a whole acre was thus cut off. Mr.
Ware informed me that the onion-plants have been more or less infested
in this way for some fifteen years, but the damage done this year was
greater than ever before. This evil seems wide-spread in Essex County,
as not in Swampscott alone, but in Lynn, Salem, and parts of Danvers,
the onion-crop has been similarly infested. About $100,000 worth of
onions are raised in Essex County alone, and Mr. Ware judged that at
least a tenth part was destroyed by this new pest; so that in one county
alone and by one kind of injurious insect we have in one season lost
$10,000. The onion-crop is next to the hay-crop in value, as it is sold
for cash.

“ Onexamining the specimens brought into the Museum of the Peabody
Academy of Science the leaves were found to be covered with hundreds
of a minute thrips, which, by gnawing the surface of the leaves, had
caused them to turn white in spots, and subsequently yellow; where
they were most numerous the outer skin of the fleshy leaves was
entirely eaten off, and though it was difficult to imagine that so minute
insects could have caused the death of so stout and thick-leaved a plant,
yet here were hundreds of the culprits in all stages of growth plying
their jaws before our eyes in proof. '

“This insect, which occurred in both sexes and in all stages of growth
from larvze of minute size, proved to be the wheat-thrips of Fitch (Lim-
othrips tritic’), who gives an account of its appearance and habits in his
‘Second Report on the Noxious, ete., Insects of New York,’ p. 304. His
attention was first called to this insect by a correspondent in Wisconsin,
who found them in great numbers in blossoms of various plants. He
wrote Dr. Fitch that they first ‘made their appearance about the middle
of Juue, or at least they were then first noticed, so far as I have heard.
For about two weeks they were found in the biossoms of wheat and of
clover, causing numbers of the blossoms to wither, and in some cases
the kernel was also attacked’ Dr. Fitch himself never seems to have
noticed this insect in New York, nor that it has ever been found in the
onion, but thinks it is the species to which Dr. Harris refers in his
treatise. In that work the author speaks of a ‘ pernicious insect in the
ears of growing wheat,’ which ‘ seems to agree with the accounts of the
Thrips cerealium which sometimes infests wheat in Europe to a great
extent.’ From his brief description it is probably the insect now under
consideration to which Dr. Harris refers.

“The various kinds of thrips are minute, narrow-bodied insects seldom
exceeding a line in length, and remotely allied to the bed-bug and squash-
bug in structure, but differing from them in having free jaws adapted to
biting, while those of the bed or squash bug form with the other meuth-
organs a sharp, hard beak, with which they puncture leaves, or the flesh
of their victims, when carnivorous in their tastes. These thrips are
further distinguished by their wings being very long and narrow, and
beautifully fringed ; and when folded over their back they do not conceal
the body beneath, as is usually the case. Moreover, they are exceed-
ingly active in their habits, running or leaping like fleas.

“Description.—The females alone are winged, the males being wingless and closely re-
sembling the larve. The body of the female is smooth and shining, uniformly green-

ue

744 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

ish-yellow, with no other markings; the legs area little paler toward the articulations.
The antenne are eight-jointed, slightly longer than the head; the two basal joints are the
largest; the three succeeding joints equal, regularly ovate, the sixth a little longer than
the fifth ; ; seventh and eighth minute, seventh a little shorter than eighth, each joint
bearing four large bristles. This species differs from the European L. cerealium in hav-
ing but eight joints, the seventh and eighth being minute, and with no intermediate
short one, as described in the European insect.

“The prothorax is square, the scutellum short, crescent- shaped, and the abdomen is
long and narrow, smooth and shining, ten-jointed. Length, four one-hundredths of an
inch, or less than half a line.

“The larva (Plate LX VII, Fig. 46) is entirely greenish-yellow, the head and prothorax
of the same color as the rest of the body ; the eyes are reddish ; the feet and antenn are
whitish, not annulated, as in Z. cerealium; the feet (tarsi) consist of but a single
joint ending in a point.

“The male (Plate LXVII, Fig. 4 a) differs from the larva in having two-jointed feet
(tarsi) and seven-jointed antenne, those of the larva being four-jointed. Thesecond joint
is exactly barrel-shaped, with two ridges or lines surrounding it, third and fourth joints
long, ovate, the third being a little larger than the fourth, and with about twelve trans-
verse lines, there being about eight on the fourth joint, from the end of which projects
a remarkable tubercle, as seen in the figure. The fifth joint is square at the end, with
about eleven transverse lines, and three or four stout hairs externally; sixth joint
ininute and spherical, while the seventh is three times as long as the sixth, and is finely
striated, and with four unequal stout hairs. It is just twice the length of the female,
measuring 0.08 inch.

‘““Remedies.—The best remedy of a preventive nature against further
ravages, after this insect has made its appearance, is to build a bonfire
upon the diseased patch, pull up the onions about, and throw them into
it. By thus sacrificing a few onions at the outset, the evil may be
nipped in the bud. As remedies less effective we would recommend
showering the plants with strong soap-suds, or sprinkling them with
sulphur, or the use of a solution of copperas, such as is used in killing
the currant saw-fly, 7. e., a solution of a pound of copperas to ten gallons
of water. The use of a carbolate of lime or air-slaked lime may also
be recommended.

“A heavy shower of rain will cause them to disappear for a while,
and they probably only appear in such overwhelming numbers as this
past year in consequence of the summer being an unusually dry and
warm one.”

INSECTS INJURING THE TURNIP.

Tue Turnip FLEA-BEETLE, Haltica (Orchestris) striolata Iiger—Feeding on the
seed-leaves in the spfing and later; small, yellow-striped, flea-beetles. In June, the
plants die from the attacks of the grubs which live io the roots.

This is a very annoying little beetle, universally abundant in gardens,
and especially injurious to the seed-leaves of the turnips, cabbage, and
other garden- vegetables. The fullest account which we have of its
habits is that given by Dr. Shimer in the American Naturalist, vol. 2, p.
514, which I copy:

“This beautiful little beetle, also called striped turnip-fly (Haltica
striolata Fabricius) at the West, is well known and abundant. Every
gardener is conversant with the fact that, like fleas, gr asshoppers, etc.,
it springs away to a great distance when he attempts to put his finger
upon it. It appears in early spring, and is a constant annoyance to the
gardener during the whole summer.

‘rom my notes I see that on June 14, 1865, I put a number of the
larve into a breeding-box, with a supply of their natural food. June
17 some of the larvae had disappeared beneath the ground. July 4,1
found in the box the beetle. This gives us seventeen days from the
time the larva entered the ground, “having ceased eating, until I ob-
tained the perfect insect. I did not open the breeding-box every day,

ltl

PACKARD.] THE TURNIP FLEA-BEETLE. 745

but as the insect was yet quite pale and soft, conclude that it was not
more than a day or so out of the ground. The actual time, however, in
the pupa state, was less than seventeen days, for, like the larva of the
cucumber-beetle and other beetles, these worms pass a kind of inter-
mediate state, in a quiet, motionless condition, in their little dirt-tombs
beneath the ground. During this time they decrease in length very
much, becoming a shorter, thicker ‘ grub” This period is a peculiar
part of the larval state, and may be called the quiéscent, or ‘shortening
period,’ in contrast with the feeding period. At the end of this pre-
paratory shortening period, the little larva casts its skin and becomes a
pupa.

“ During the past summer I bred a good number of these beetles from
the larva and pupa, taken from their breeding-places beneath the
ground; but as I took no precise notes of the date, I can say no more
regarding the time of the pupa state, except that it is short, only a few
days.

‘‘ Hvery gardener knows that these insects are very injurious to young
cabbages and turnips as soon as they appear above the ground, by eat-
ing off the seed-leaves; he also almost universally imagines that when
the second or true plant-leaves appear, then the young plant is safe from
their depredations, then the stem is so hard that the insect will not bite
it, and the leaves grow out so rapidly as not usually to be injured by
them; but if we would gain much true knowledge of what is going on
around us, even among these most simple and common things, we must
learn to observe more closely than most men do.

“The gardener sees his young cabbage-plants growing well for a time,
but at length they become pale or sickly, wither and die in some dry
period that usually occurs about that time, and attributes their death
to the dry weather; but if he will take the pains to examine the roots
of the plants, he will find them eaten away by some insect, and by
searching closely about the roots will find the larva, grub, worm, or
whatever else he may choose to call it; from this he can breed the striped
turnip-beetle, as I have often done.

“JT have observed the depredations of these larve for ten years, and
most of that time had a convincing knowledge of their origin, but only
proved it in 1865; since that time I have made yearly verifications of
this fact.

‘¢ Every year the young cabbage-plants and turnips in this region re-
ceive great damage from these larve, and often when we have dry
weather, in the latter part of May and early in June, the cabbage-plants
are ruined. A large proportion of the plants are killed outright in June,
and the balance rendered scarcely fit for planting; but when the ground
is wet to the surface all the time by frequent rains, the young plant is
able to defend itself much more effectually, by throwing out roots at
the surface of the ground, when the main or center root is devoured by
the larva; but in the dry weather these surface roots find no nourish-
ment and the plants must perish.

“This year I saw these beetles most numerous in early spring, but
have often seen them in August and September so abundant on cab-
bages that the leaves were eaten full of holes and all speckled from
their presence, hundreds often being on a leaf, and at this time the
entire turnip-crop is sometimes destroyed by them, and seldom a year
passes without their doing great injury.”

These observation are not entirely in accordance with the teachings
of the masters in entomology. From Westwood’s Introduction we learn
that the Chrysomelians feed on the leavesof plants; that some of them
attach themselves to the leaves to transform, and that others descend

746 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

into the ground for this purpose; but he has no notes of species feeding
beneath the ground. Harris was of the opinion that the striped cucum-
bre-beetles, in the larval state, fed on the roots of plants, but was never
able to find them. I have demonstrated many years ago that they feed
on the roots of melon, cucumber, squash, and pumpkin vines, and ever
since I attempted to raise any kind of vine my greatest trouble has been
not to find them.

‘The Chrysomelians, probably, as a rule, feed on the leaves of plants
in the larval state, but in my limited researches I have found the major-
ity of them beneath the ground. According to undisputed authority,
they often congregate together in great numbers and do great injury to
the leaves of plants, even so as to compare with the ravages of cater-
pillars. I, myself, have observed some of this work.

‘“‘Asthe cucumber-beetle exclusively raises its young on the roots of
the Cucurbitaceous (gourd) family, so from these observations I am led
to believe from analogy that the striped turnip beetle raises its young
always on the roots of the Cruciferous (mustard) family.

“The striped turnip-beetle (Fig. 14) is less than one-tenth of an inch

_inlength. Its general appearance is black, with

a broad, wavy- -yellowish or buff colored stripe

on each wing-cover. The larva (Fig. 14) is white

is with a faint darkened or dusky median line on

the anterior half of the body, being’ probably

y, the contentsof the alimentary canal seen through

Fic. 14.—Turnip Flea- the semi-translucent skin. The head is horny

beetle, larva and and light brown. On the posterior extremity is

pupa: a brown spot equal to the heall in size; and

there are six true legs and one proleg. In its form and general appear-

ance it somewat resembles the larva of the cucumber-beetle, but it

is much smaller. Its motion is slow, arching up the abdomen slighfly,

on paper or any smooth surface, in such a position that its motions

are necessarily awkward and unnatural, because in a state of nature

it never crawls over the surface, but digs and burrows among the roots

in the ground. Its length is 0.35 of an inch, and breadth 0.06 of an
inch. It feeds upon roots beneath the ground.

‘‘The pupa is naked, white, and transforms in a little earthern cocoon,
pressed and prepared by the larva, in the ground near its feeding-place.
This period is short.”

THE TURNIP-BUTTERFLY, Pieris oleracea (Harris).—Devouring the leaves of the
turnip; a velvety dark-green caterpillar, changing to an unspotted white butterfly.

Though this butterfly is spread all over the northern portion of our conti-
--.. nent from Maine to Utah, andis more abun-
-— ~*~, dant in Colorado and Utah (having prob-
~, ably recently been introduced there) than
—~+} in the Eastern States, so far as my observa-
=” tions have extended, it is nowhere particu-
larly distinctive. AS Iam somewhat de-
pendent on my own observations regarding
the transformations of this delicate-tinted
butterfly, I extract the following notice
of it from my Guide to the Study of In-
sects: ‘‘We have found the larve of this
species on turnip-leaves in the middle of

Fia. 15 5.—Turni Butterfl :
and Pormip, Baten 4 August at Chamberlain Farm, in north-

ern Maine. They are of a dull green, and covered with dense hairs,

~aetadi

PACKARD.] THE EUROPEAN CABBAGE-BUTTERFLY. 747

They suspend themselves by the tail and a transverse loop, and their
chrysalids are angular at the sides and pointed at both ends (Harris).
Pieris oleracea is white, with the wings dusky next the body. The tips
of the fore wings are yellowish beneath and the hind wings are straw-
colored beneath. The yellowish, pear-shaped, longitudinally-ribbed eggs

are laid three or four on a single leaf. In a week or ten days this larve
are hatched. They live three weeks before becoming full-fed. The
chrysalis state lasts from ten to twelve days. There is an early (May)
and a late summer (July) brood.”

Remedies.—It should be borne in mind that the caterpillar feeds on
the under side of the leaves, so that if they are turned over in June and
again in August and carefully examined, the dark-green caterpillar,
whose color blends with that of the turnip-leaf, can be picked off and
trod under foot.

INSECTS INJURING THE CABBAGE.

THE EUROPEAN CABBAGE-BUTTERELY, Pieris rape Schrank.—Feeding not only on
the outer leaves, but boring into the heads in all directions; a green, velvety cater-
pillar with a yellowish stripe along the back and side, and turning into a white butter-
fly with four (male) or six (female) conspicuous black spots.

While the caterpillar of our native cabbage (and turnip) butterfly Cee
oleracea) feeds on the outer leaves, the present species is much more de-
structive and difficult to destroy, from its habit of boring into the inte-
rior of the cabbage-head. It also devours the cauliflower and feeds on
the mignonette.

It was introduced from Europe to Quebec about the year 1857, having
been captured in 1859 by Mr. Bowles, of that city. It rapidly spread
into New England along the different railroads leading in from Canada,
and 3s now common about Boston and New York and southward to
Philadelphia and Washington. During the year 1870 it did much
damage in gardens in Monmouth County, New Jersey, as I am informed
by Dr. S. Lockwood. About Quebec it annually destroys $250,000 worth
of cabbages, according to the Abbé Provancher.

A correspondent of the American Agriculturist for November, 1870,
’ states that “it is estimated that the loss from this insect will, in the
vicinity of New York [city] alone, exceed half a million of dollars, and
already the price of cabbages has advanced.” He says that Mr. Quinn,
the owner of a large plantation, ‘‘has found carbolic powder, superphos-
phate, and lime together to destroy them. The carbolic powder appears
to be sawdust impregnated with carbolic acid. Salt has been recom-
mended, but Mr. Quinn did not find dry salt efficacious, though lime
has been reported by others as useful.”

It is evident that in this newly-arrived insect we have another for-
midable pest added to our list of imported insects.

It is to the parasites of this butterfly that we are to look for the natu-
ral means of keeping this insect pest within bounds.

Mr. Curtis has described and figured several parasites of the three
species of cabbage-butterflies found in England, and he shows how
thoroughly they keep in check these troublesome worms. Certain mi-
nute ichneumon-flies (Chalcids) lay their eggs in those of the butterflies.
Another chalcid fly (Pteromalus brassice) lays its eggs on the outside
of the chrysalis of the white cabbage butterfly (Pieris brassice), and
sometimes 200 or 300 of the little chalecid maggots have been found liv-
ing riotously witbin a single chrysalis. They turn into minute brilliant
flies, which multiply in excessive quantities. Mr. Curtis remarks that
“some species of this extensive genus (Pteromalus), probably comprising

748 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

nearly 1,000 species (!), swarm even in our houses, especially in the coun-
try, where in October and November I have seen immense numbers in-
side of the windows, and I believe that they hibernate behind the shut-
ters, in the curtains,” etc.

Were it not for the native ichneumon parasite, (Fig. 16, a, male; b,
female,) which has been found to prey upon
it very extensively, the cultivation of the
cibbage would have to be given up in some
districts. This invaluable ichneumon is one
of the chaleid family, and is the Pterom-
alus puparum of Linneus. It is well known
that the cabbage-caterpillar (Pieris rape)
was introduced into this country about the
year 1857. I had supposed that the par-
asite had perhaps been imported with its
host, but now find that it is undoubtedly a
native of this country as well as Europe.
Having been favored by Mr. Francis Walker
with specimens of both sexes from England,
labeled by him Pt. puparum, I found that
our specimens did not differ specificially.
Further, Mr. Walker wrote me that there
Fic. 16.—Parasite of the im- were specimens of the same species in

ported Cabbage Butterfly. the British Museum, taken in Hudson’s
Bay territory in 1844. During the past summer Mr. P. S. Sprague,
sent me specimens which had been raised from the rape caterpillar in
Vermont. Mr. J. A. Lintner has also published a note in the Ameri-
can Naturalist stating that he had reared this parasite from the same
kind of caterpillar, and previously to this Mr. 8S. H. Seudder had re-
ceived numerous specimens from Mr. A. G. T. Ritchie, of Montreal,
Canada, who, if I understand his letter aright, first observed these
chaleids upon the cabbage-leaves in July, 1870, when the caterpillars
were abundant. On the 23d of August of the same year he had some
of the parasites hatch out. To Mr. Ritchie, then, is due the credit of
being the first to make known the history of this invaluable insect.

It seems that the parasite covers even a wider field than its host, and
probably preys on our native cabbage-butterfly, the Pieris oleracea, as
in Europe it preys on Pieris brassice, the caterpillar so destructive to
the cabbage there.

Description.—The male of this Pteromalus is a beautiful pale-green fly, with the
body finely punctured and emitting metallic tints; the abdomen, or hind body, is flat,
in dried specimens with a deep crease along the middle of the upper side, and ib is
much lighter in color and with more decided metallic reflections than in the rest of
the body. The antenne are honey-yellow, with narrow black wings. The legs are
pale honey-yellow. It is .08 inch to a tenth in length.

The body of the female, which would be thought at first to be an entirely different
kind of insect, ismuch stouter, broader, with a broader oval abdomen, ending in a very
short ovipositor, while the under side of the body near the base has a large conical
projection. It is much duller green than the male,and the body is more coarsely
punctured. The scutellum of the metathorax is regularly convex, not keeled, in both
sexes. The antenna are brown, and the legs brown, becoming pale toward the ends,
the ends of the femora being pale; the tibiz pale brown in the middle, much paler at
each end, while the tarsi are whitish, though the tip of the last joint is dark, It is
from a line to a line and a third in length. It differs from Harris’s Pteromalus vanesse
in the little piece known as the scutellum of the metathorax being smooth, not keeled,
and by its darker legs.

The larva is a little white maggot about a sixth (.17) of an inch in length. The
body consists of thirteen segments, exclusive of the head, and is cylindrical, taper-
ing rapidly toward the head, while the end of the body is acutely pointed. The
chrysalis is whitish, the limbs being folded along the under side of the body, the

PACKARD. ] THE EUROPEAN CABBAGE-BUTTERFLY. 749

antennie reaching to the end of the wings; the second pair of legs reaching half-way
between the end of the wings and end of abdomen; while the tips of the third pair
of feet reach half-way between the second pair of feet and the end of the abdomen.
It is from a line to a line and a third in length.

In the middle of September Mr. F. W. Putnam handed me one hundred
and ten chrysalids, all but two of which were infested by these parasites
in both the larval and pupal states; while from other chrysalids the adult
chalcid flies were emerging. They continued to emerge until late in the
autumn. Theinfested chrysalids of the butterfly could be easily distin-
guished by the livid aud otherwise discolored and diseased appearance
of the body, while those unattacked bad preserved the fresh color, and
the tail moved about readily ; the diseased ones becoming stiff and more
or less dried. Mr. Patnam thinks that at least two-thirds of the chrys-
alids of this butterfly, hundreds of which had in the early autumn sus-
pended themselves about his house and fences, had been attacked by
these useful allies.

On opening the body of the infested chrysalids I found about thirty -
parasites in different stages of growth, in one case thirty two, in an-
other only twelve. We can readily see how efficient these minute in-
sects become in reducing the numbers of their hosts. A large propor-
tion of the Pteromalus undoubtedly winter over in the body of the
chrysalis, the adult insects appearing in the spring. In England Mr.
Curtis found the fly in June, so that evidently there is an autumn and
spring brood of flies.

Another parasite is the larva of a parasitic fly, Tachina (Fig. 17,
enlarged three times), the adult form of which closely resem-
bles the common house fly. It is a flattened, cylindrical mag-
got, both ends of the body rounded much alike. The mouth
parts are partly aborted, there being only two retractile &
horny mandibles by which the fatty portions of its host is B=
eaten.

Besides this large Tachina I found a minute fly in the same
bottle with a number of the chrysalids of the butterfly, and am
inclined to think that it may have lived parasitically in them, ~ [iupva of
but would not be confident that itis so. It is asmall black Tachina.
fly, about a line in length, and with dark wings.

The male butterfly (Fig. 18) is white, with the tips of the fore wings

Fig. 18.—European Cabbage Butterfly, male.

black, dusted with white, while on the fore wings is a single, and in the
female there are two large black spots, situated two-thirds of the
distance from the base to the outer edge of the wing. It expands
about two inches. The female lays her eggs singly on the under side of
the leaves. The caterpillar (Fig. 20, a) is green, and so densely clothed
with minute hairs as to be velvety; it has a yellowish stripe down the
back and another along each side, the belly being of a paler, brighter
green; it is often more than an inch long, and about as thick as a large

750 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

crow-quill. It changes in September, under some board or stone, to a
chrysalis, suspended by a thread spun over the back as shown at Fig.
20,6. It is of a pale flesh-brown color, freckled with
black. It winters in this state, the butterfly appearing
in Massachusetts early in May.

The native cabbage-butterfly (Pieris protodice, Figs.
21-23) is but slightly injurious to the cabbage in the
Southern and Western States.

Remedies.—It does not appear to have been very de-
structive in Europe, but, like other introduced species,
it suddenly becomes a fearful scourge in a new country.
The best remedies are evidently hand-picking, when the
caterpillars can be seen, and the capture of the butter-
flies by means of a light gauze-net mounted on a wire
ring a foot in diameter, and attached to a short pole.
Affected cabbage-heads should be carefully examined, yg. 29.enropean
and if much infested by worms, be burned; for, if they Cabbage Butterfly.
are suffered to lie about the garden after being pulled o.oo b,
up, the caterpillars will attack the other plants.

Fic. 21.—Native Gabhars Butterfly, Fic. 22.—Native Cabbage Butterfly,
male. female.

Mr. C. 8. Minot, in an article
4/) entitled “ Cabbage- butterflies,”
TP in the American Entomologist,
vol. ii, strongly recommends de-
stroying the chrysalis, which
may be found under chips,
boards, stones, ete., and advises
that boards, raised two inches
above the surface of the ground,
be placed among the plants to
attract the caterpillars when
a . about to change to a chrysalis.

Fic. 23.—Native Cabbage Butterfly. a, cater- Riley recommends drenching

Bor, >, chryealie the plants with a wash of cres-
ylic soap, for this and other noxious cabbage-insects. As those chrys-
alids which are infested by the chalcid flies are readily distinguished
from the healthy ones by their livid and diseased appearance, they can
be selected and preserved or left alone, and thus the parasites can be
bred.

The Toronto Globe recommends hot water to be applied to cabbages
that are infested with the Pieris rape, sprinkled on from a fine rose wa-
tering-can. The water may be boiling-hot when put into the can, but it
will not be too hot when it reaches the leaves. The thick fleshy nature

PACKARD. | EUROPEAN CABBAGE WEB-MOTH. 751

of the leaves enables them to withstand considerable heat with very
little injury. The sacrifice of a few heads of cabbage will soon teach
an experimenter how far he can go with the hot water. A Rural Home
correspondent speaks also from his own experience and says: “1 heat
water to nearly a boiling-heat, and put it on with a common watering-
pot, with the sprinkler removed. If it is very hot it will color some of
the leaves, but it does not seem to hurt the cabbage in the least. This
will kill the young worms and nearly all the old ones. There will some-
times be a few that do not get touched with the water. These can be
picked off with a small pair of pincers. If there are not a great many
the last remedy will do.”

Tur EUROPEAN CABBAGE WEB-MorTH, Plutella xylostella (Linnzeus).—Small green
caterpillars, feeding on the under side of the outer leaves, and spinning web-like cocoons
in folds in the leaves; changing to a small moth somewhat like a clothes-moth.

My attention was first called to this moth, now almost cosmopolitan
in its distribution, in September and October, 1870, at the Agricultural
College at Amherst, Mass. The little green caterpillars were quite
abundant on the under side of the outer leaves of the cabbages on the
college-farm, and their web-like, delicate cocoons were found attached
to the leaf in depressions or folds. Afterward a correspondent in Mich-
igan sent me specimens of the worm, the cocoon, and moth, stating that
it was doing great damage to the cabbages there. The season at Am-
herst, as all over New England in 1870, was very warm and unusually
dry, which accounts for the unusual increase in this insect.

‘This insect, well known in Europe, whence it has been carried all over
the civilized world, was first noticed in this country by Dr. Fitch in
1855, who gives an account of it in his “ First and Second Reports,” ete.,
having observed it in Illinois, but not in New York. He called it Ceros-
toma brassicella, but it is undoubtedly the well-kuown European Plutella
ayllostella Linn. Though the insect has been observed in this country
only late in the autuma when the cabbages have headed, yet these
worms, as Dr. Fitch suggests, probably belong to a second brood.
Stainton, in his ‘ Manual of British Butterflies and Moths,” states that
the moths fly in May and August, while the caterpillars appear in June,
July, and a second brood again in September. Dr. Fitch suspects that
the first brood of caterpillars may feed on the young cabbage-plants in
early summer, and thus do more mischief than in the autumn when the
heads are fully formed.

Mr. C. A. Putnam, of Salem, brought me specimens found on the
cauliflower. On November 15 it pupated in a thin cocoon consisting
of a single layer of silk forming a very open web.

Description.—tThe caterpillar is a little pale-green worm, with small, stiff, dark hairs
scattered over the body; it is a quarter of an inch long. When about to transform it
spins a beautiful open net-work of silk as a cocoon, open at one end, of white silken
threads; it is a third of an inch long.

Pupa with a long, broad, white dorsal band, and a broad, lateral band, widening be-
fore and inclosing three oblique dark stripes, the lower of which is formed by the an-
tenn. In a more mature chrysalis the white bands become narrower, and the dark
portions darker.

The mothispale gray, with the head, palpi, and antenne& white, but the latter are ringed
alternately with white and gray on the outer half. The rest of the body is gray, except
on the under side, and on the middle of the thorax, where there is a broad, white, lon-
gitudinal band, which, when the wings are folded, is continuous with the white band
along the inner side of the wings. The two front pair of legs are gray, with the tar-
sal joints ringed narrowly with white; the hind legs are whitish and hairy. The fore
wings are gray, with a conspicuous broad, longitudinal, white band along the inner
edge, and extending to the outer third of the wing; this band sends out three teeth

752 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

toward the middle of the wing, the third tooth being at the end of the band. There
is a row of dark dots along the outer edge of the stripe; a row of blackish dots along
a pale shade just outside of the front edge of the wing, and two diverging rows of
blackish dots diverging upon the tip or apex of the wing. The fringe is marked with
afew dark spots. The middle of the wing next the white band is darker than the front
edge, while a faint yellowish shade runs along the middle of the outer half of the wing
toward the tip, inclosing a few black dots. It expands a little over half an inch.

Remedies.—Should young plants be attacked by the worms, the best
remedy would be to shower them with soap-suds. For the autumnal
brood of worms the plants should be plentifully showered; and if this is
not efficacious, the worms, and the cocoons especially, should be picked
off by hand.

THE CaBBAGE PLusiA, Plusia brassice Riley. (Fig. 25.)—In August and September,
gnawing large, irregular holes in the leaves; a rather large, pale-green caterpillar,
marked with still paler, more opaque
lines, and with three pairs of abdomi-
nal feet, being a semilooper, and
changing to a grayish-brown moth,
whose wings are marked with a dis-
tinct silver interrogation mark.

This caterpillar has been
found by Mr. Riley to do con-
siderable mischief in Missouri.
I quote his account of its ap-
/ pearance and habits:

‘In the month of August.
‘ and September, the larve may
2 be found quite abundant on
(~~ this plant, gnawing large, ir-
XO regular holes in the leaves. It
Ss 5

is a pale-green translucent

worm, marked longitudinally
Fig. 25.—Cabbage Plusia. a, caterpillar, 6, pupa with still paler, more opaque

in its coccon, c, moth. After Riley. lines, and, like all the known
larve of the family to which it belongs, it has but two pair of abdominal
prolegs, the two anterior segments, which are usually furnished with
such legs in ordinary caterpillars, not having the slightest trace of any.
Consequently, they have to loop the body in marching, as represented
in the figure, and are true ‘span-worms.’ Their bodies are very soft and
tender, and as they live exposed on the outside of the plants, and often
rest motionless, with the body arched, for hours at a time, they are espied
and devoured by many of their enemies, such as birds, toads, &e. They
are aiso subject to the attacks of at least two parasites, and die very
often from disease, especially in wet weather; so that they are never
_ likely to increase quite as badly as the butterflies just now described.

“When full-grown, this worm weaves a very tbin, loose, white cocoon,
sometimes between the leaves of the plant on which it fed, but more
often in some more sheltered situation, and changes to a chrysalis,
which varies from a pale yellowish-green to brown, and has a consider-
able protuberance at the end of the wing and leg cases, caused by the
long proboscis of the inclosed moth being bent back at that point.
This chrysalis is soft, the skin being very thin, and it is furnished at
the extremity with an obtuse roughened projection which emits two con-
verging points, and several short, curled bristles, by the aid of which
it is enabled to cling to its cocoon.

“The moth is of a dark smoky-gray, inclining to brown, variegated
with light grayish-brown, and marked in the middle of each front wing

PACKARD. J THE ZEBRA CATERPILLAR 753

with a small oval spot and a somewhat U-shaped silvery-white mark,
as in the figure. The male is easily distinguished from the female by a
large tuft of golden hairs, covering a few black ones, which springs from
each side of his abdomen toward the tip.

“The suggestions given for destroying the larve of the cabbage-butter-
flies apply equally well to those of this cabbage plusia, and drenchings
with a cresylic wash will be found even more effectual, as the worms
drop to the ground with the slightest jar.”

THE ZEBRA CATERPILLAR, Mamestra picta Harris.—Feeding on the leaves of turnips
and cabbages, and other garden vegetables ; a long, cylindrical caterpillar with a red
head, with a broad band along the side, composed of numerous transverse, short, black
lines, like Runic characters upon a white ground, changing to a reddish-brown dark
moth.

While this pretty caterpillar, than which none are more curiously and
gaily decked, is ordinarily harmless, feeding indiscriminately on differ-
ent vegetables, it has been twice found in Massachusetts, within my own
knowledge, to be extremely destructive to the ruta-baga turnip, nearly
destroying entire beds. In the summer of 1876, up to the middle of
September, it was very abundant and eat off the tops of a good many
ruta-bagas on the farm of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, at
Amherst, Mass. Iam also told that it sometimes attacks the roots.
Harris says that it “is often found to be injurious to cabbages, cauli-
flowers, spinach, beets, and other garden vegetables with succulent
leaves.” In the New England States the caterpillars are usually seen
in August and September. Harris remarks that early in October it
leaves off eating, goes into the ground, chauges to a shining-brown
chrysalis, and is transformed to a moth about the first of June. It is
probable that there are two broods of this kind of caterpillar every sum-
mer in some, if not all, parts of this country ; for Dr. Melsheimer informs
me that it appears in Pennsylvania in June, goes into the ground, and
is changed to a chrysalis toward the end of June or the beginning of
July, and comes forth in the moth state near the end of August.” In
Missouri, according to Riley, early in June the young worms, which are
first almost black, though they soon become pale and green, may be found —
in dense clusters on these plants, for they are at that time gregarious.
As they grow older they disperse and are not soeasily found, and in about
four weeks from the time of hatching they come to their full growth.
* * * * Tt changes to chrysalis within a rude cocoon, formed just
under the surface of the ground by interweaving a few grains of sand,
or a few particles of whatever soil it happens on, with silken threads.
* * * * ‘There are two broods of this insect each year, the sec-
ond brood of worms appearing in the latitude of Saint Louis from the
middle of August along into October, and in all probability passing the
winter in the chrysalis state, though a few may issue in the fall and
hibernate as moths, or may even hibernate as worms; for Mr. J. H. Par-
sons, of New York, found that some of the worms which were on his
ruta-baga leaves stood a frost hard enough to freeze potatoes in the hill
without being killed. I have noticed that the spring brood confines it-
self more especially to young cruciferous plants, such as cabbages, beets,
spinach, etc., but have found the fall brood collecting in hundreds on
the heads and flower-buds of asters, on the white berry or snow-berry
(Symphoricarpus racemosus), on different kinds of honeysuckle, on mig-
nonette, and on asparagus; they are also said to occur on the flowers
of clover, and are quite partial to the common lamb’s quarter or goose-
foot (Chenopodium album). On account of their gregarious habit when
young, they are very easily destroyed at this stage of growth.

48 Gs

754 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Description.—I have observed this caterpillar in different stages at Amherst, Mass.,
in September, 1876, when it was ravaging the ruta-bagas. In the young, before the first
molt, the head is as wide as the body, pale greenish, while the body is pale greenish,
with a double, dark, livid, dorsal
stripe divided by a pale median
line and three lateral dark stripes,
the uppermost of which is the nar-
rower; five pairs of abdominal feet,
the first pair one-half as large as -
the fourthpair. The body is tuber-
culated, being much smoother in
the fully-grown larva. Length, a
little over a line. After the first
molt, when the worm is a little
over three lines in length, the colors
are much as in the fully-fed larva,
being deep yellow, with a broad,
black, dorsal band, sometimes
entire and sometimes divided by a
median pale line. A lateral area
is marbled with transverse, short,
black and white lines, and with a
row of conspicuous black spots. A
ey of dark spots down on the sides.
P be hci Aaa : ead reddish testaceous; abdomi-
Fic. 26.—Painted Mamestro. a,larva. After Riley. nal feet reddish. After the third
molt, when the caterpillar is one inch long (observed September 16,) the markings
are nearly the same as the mature caterpillar. The fully-fed larva is unusually long,
cylindrical, about two inches in length, the body tapering slightly toward the head,
which is orange-red. A broad, dorsal, dark line, edged with yellow, with two white
dots in the middle of each ring. <A broad, lateral, white band, traversed by rune-
like black lines, inclosing a line of large black dots, one in the lower edge of each ring.
A lateral line of yellow, below which is a marbled line of white and black dots. Legs,
both thoracic and abdominal, and under side of the body, tinged with orang». The
moth is clear reddish-brown, with a purplish tint, on the head, thorax, and fore wings,
while the hind wings are whitish, contrasting strongly with the rest of the body. The
hind body, or abdomen, is dull ash-gray. Fore wings with a conspicuons, light, round
spot in the middle of the ring, beyond which is a kidney-shaped light spot, containing
a dark ring. The veins are darker than the rest of the wing, and firmly spotted with
light scales. It expands a little over an inch and a half.

Tur CaBBAGE-PLANT Louse, Aphis brassice Linn.—Sometimes gathering in immense
numbers on the outer leaves; a woolly, greenish louse, the winged ones spotted with
black, disfiguring the heads.

This insect is called by Curtis, in his “‘ Farm Insects,” the cabbage and
Swedish turnip-leaf plant louse; the species that L have observed in ~
Maine and Massachusetts is without much doubt the same as the Huro-
pean.

It has not yet been known to be specially injurious in the New England
States, though liable at any year to be so. In New York, however, in
one case it has proved very destructive, as in the following case cited
by Dr. Fitch: “J. L. Edgerton, of Waverly, N. Y., states (Country
Gentleman, July, 1857, p. 80) that his patch of cabbages the year before,
comprising three hundred and fifty large, thrifty plants, were attacked by
lice just as they were beginning to head, and in three weeks every plant was
covered by these vermin and he lost the whole, neither ashes nor salt hav- -
ing any effect upon them.” From July, says Fitch, to the close of the
season it may be found on the plants, either solitary or in clusters, inhab-
iting for the most part the upper sides of the inner leaves and the under
sides of the outer ones. Itis in the former case that itis most pernicious
by sucking the juices from and weakening this part, whereby it heads tar-
dily and imperfectly, or, if thel ice are numerous, no head is formed and
the plant is worthless. The ruta-baga, er Swedish turnip, is also in
this country, says Dr. Fitch, subject to its attacks, ‘“‘ the under side of the

PACKARD.] HARLEQUIN CABBAGE-BUG. 755

curled leaves being sometimes densely covered with them, of all sizes.”
Dr. Fitch shows that it was known in this country as early as 1791.

Description.—These winged females measure 0.075 in length to the tip of the abdomen,
and 0.14 to the end of the closed wings, and their width from tip to tip of the extended
wings is 0.18. They are of a dull greenish color, varying to pale, dull yellowish, and
largely varied with black. The head, neck, and fore body onits upper side are black and
shining. The horns, or antenne, are two-thirds the length of the body, more slender
toward their tips, and black. On the neck one or two pale yellowish bands are some-
times perceptible. The hind body is usually pale green, with dark-green or black
bands on the back, which are often narrowed or somewhat broken asunder in the
middle, and have one or two dots or small spots at their outer ends in a longitudinal
row ; the honey-tubes scarcely equal the distance to the tip and are black, with their
bases pale yellowish. The legs are black; with the basal half of the shanks and of the
thighs pale yellowish. The wings are hyaline and iridescent, their stigma pale green-
ish, and their veins black or dark brown. The distance between the first and second
veins at their base is a little more than half that between them at their tips; third
vein farther from the second at the tip than at the base, and a little nearer to the
second at the base than the second is to the first ; first fork a little nearer to the second
fork than to the third vein, and a little nearer to the third vein than the third is to the
second ; second fork very little nearer to the fourth vein than to the first fork; fourth
vein slightly curved, and very little nearer to the second fork than to the tip of the
Tib-vein.

Remedies.—W hen specially destructive, Dr. Fitch recommends driving
Short stakes and spreading a sheet, a large piece of canvas, or old
carpeting over as many plants as the cloth will cover, and fumigating
with tobacco until the space is filled with smoke. The plants may then
be cleaned with water from a watering-pot. The remainder of the cab-
bage-patch can be treated inthe same way. Soap-suds will only kill
the young lice, leaving the old ones unhurt. ‘ Watering the plants
with equal parts of tobacco-water and lime-water is said to be the best
mode of destroying the Aphides in gardens; and if plants be washed
with tobacco-water alone—about half a pound of tobacco to a balf-gallon
of hot water—it will kill the Aphides; and if applied warm, it will kill
them the sooner.”—(Fitch.)

THE COMMON GARDEN PLANT-BuG, Lygus lineolaris (Beauvois); Capsus lineolaris
Beauvois. (Plate LXVI, Fig. 14.)—Pucturing with its beak the cabbage and all sorts of
succulent garden-vegetables and the shoots of shrubs and fruit-trees, causing them to
wither and shrivel ; flying from April to October, and clustering on the flowers of the
cabbage in summer.

Though this plant-bug is indiscriminate in its attacks upon all sorts
of garden-vegetables, more complaints have been made of its injuries to
- the cabbage than any other vegetable. It is especially abundant during
warm, dry seasons. On examining the insect, a long, slender beak will
be found resting on the breast; this it inserts in the leaf or shoot and
sucks the sap. Frequent repetitions by great numbers of these bugs
cause the leaves to wilt and die, and as they abound during a season of
drought when the plants are weak, they are at times very destructive.
Mr. Riley bas found that it injures the tender shoots of pear-trees, while
it has long been known to attack asters, dahlias, marigolds, balsams, and
other flowers. The larve appear in the spring and acquire the rudi-
ments of wings late in May or early in June in New York, becoming
fully fledged by the 10th of June, according to Fitch. Mr. Uhler says
that it is almost as common in the cultivated districts of Colorado as it
is in the Eastern United States. I have found it to be common in Col-
orado and Utah. For remedies and other facts see page .

THe HARLEQUIN CaBBAGE-BuG, Murgantia histrionica (Hahn).—Destroying, in the
Southern States, by its punctures, cabbages, turnips, radishes, mustard, and other cru-
ciferous plants; a bright black and orange-colored bug.

This pretty bug has been found to be very destructive in Texas by

756 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Dr. G. Lincecum, who has given in the Practical Entomologist (vol. i,
p. 110) the following account of its.
habits :

‘‘The year before last they got into
my garden and utterly destroyed
my cabbage, radishes, mustard, seed-
turnips, and every other cruciform
plant. Last year I did not set any of

that order of plants in my garden. *
But the present year, thinking that
the bugs had probably left the prem-
ises, | planted my garden with rad-
: ce-Rne g, ishes, mustard, and a variety of cab-
fro, 2 5 sires aa ha bnge vue wai bages. By the 1st of April the mus-

size and magnified; g,h, adult. After tard and radishes were large enough

Riley. for use, and I discovered that the in-
sect had commenced on them. 1 began picking them off by hand and
tramping them under foot. By that means I have preserved my four
hundred and thirty-four cabbages, but I have visited every one of
them daily now for four months, finding on them from thirty-four to
sixty full-grown insects every day, some coupled, and some in the act
of depositing their eggs. Although many have been hatched in my
garden the present season, I have suffered none to come to maturity,
and the daily supplies of grown insects that I have been blessed with
are immigrants from some other garden.

“‘ The perfect insect lives through the winter, and is ready to deposit
its eggs as early as the 13th of March, or sooner, if it finds any cruci-
form plant large enough. They set their eggs on end in two rows,
cemented together, mostly on the under side of the leaf, and generally
from eleven to twelve in number. In about six days in April—four
days in July—there hatches out from these eggs a brood of larve re-
sembling the perfect insect, except in having no wings. This brood
immediately begins the work of destruction by piercing and sucking
the life-sap from the leaves; and in twelve days they have matured.
They are timid, and will run off and hide behind the first leaf, stem, or
any part of the plant that will answer the purpose. The leaf that they
puncture immediately wilts, like the effects of poison, and soon withers..
Half a dozen grown insects will killa cabbagein aday. They continue
through the summer, and sufficient perfect insects survive the winter to
insure a full crop of them for the coming season. * * * * IThave as.
yet found no way to get clear of them ‘but to pick them off by hand.”

It has spread northward from Texas into Missouri, appearing there, ac-
cording to Riley, in 1870. Mr. Uhler (List of Hemiptera, p. 24) says that
it inhabits Guatemala, Mexico, Texas, Arizona, Indian Territory, Califor-
nia, Nevada, Colorado, and from Delaware to Florida and Louisiana.
“In the Atlantic region,” he adds, ‘this species seems to be steadily
but slowly advancing northward. Its introduction into Maryland has
been effected since the late war, and now it is known as far north as
the vicinity of the Pennsylvania boundary-line in Delaware. In the
Mississippi Valley it appears to be equally common, particularly in the
States of Illinois and Missouri.” I found it to be not uncommon at.
Golden, Colo., in the summer of 1875, and it will probably be destruct-
ive there soon.

Description.—‘ The larva is of a uniform pale-greenish color, marked with polished
black. The pupa differs from it only in some of the pale marks inclining to orange,
and in the possession of conspicuous wing-pads; and they both differ from the mature:

(PACKARD. ] COLORADO GREEN FLEA-BEETLE. 157

‘bug, not only in the non-possession of win gs, vut in their antenne being but four instead
of five-jointed, as they afterward become.” The mature bug is prettily marked with
polished orange and blue-black, the relative proportion of the two colors being very
variable and the orange inclining either to yellow or red (Riley). Ubhler says that
various patterns of markings and colors, ranging from yellow to steel-blue, are con-
spicuously exhibited in this pretty but unstable and pernicious insect.

Remedy.—The best and surest, though most costly, remedy is hand-
picking.

Tur CoLORADO GREEN FLEA-BEETLE, Orchestris albionica Le Conte.—Very abundant
in Colorado at different elevations, eating holes in the leaves of cabbages and radishes,
ete.; a small green flea-beetle, about one-tenth of a line in length.

This little flea-beetle is very abundant in Colorado at all elevations,
and is destined to become a great plague. At Denver it was very
abundant in June and July on cruciferous plants, espe-
cially the cabbage and radish, eating holes in the leaves.
At Golden it was extremely abundant on young cabbage
and radishes. At Idaho it was abundant on young tur-
nips and potatoes, eating holesin the leaves. At Manitou
these little beetles swarmed on beds of radishes and cab-
bages; the plants were small, just coming up, and these
little pests were eating them up. Multitudes of them were
found on the summit of Pike’s Peak, on the grass and Fie. 28—Colo-
_ Alpine flowers, among the patches of snow, having prob- trado green

ably been borne up from the plains and parks below by Flea-Beetle.
currents of air. Its habits are probably nearly identical with those of
the turnip flea-beetle, to the account of which the reader is referred.
The larva is to be looked for in the roots of the plants on which it
feeds.

Description.—It is a very small, green beetle, not quite one line in length; uniformly
deep, shining olive-green. The surface of the body, especially the wing-covers, is
coarsely punctured with little pits. Antenne pubescent, dark, with the third, fourth,

and fifth joints reddish-brown. Legs concolorous with the body ; tarsi with a brown-
ish tinge.

Remedies.—The use of Paris green on beds of young plants, and
dusting ashes, or air-slacked lime over them, together with the planting
of abundant seed.

THE PitcHy-LEGGED WEEVIL, Otiorhynchus picipes (Fabricius).—Damaging young
ecabbages, kale, broccoli, and other garden-vegetables; a pitchy-brown weevil, a quarter
of an inch in length.

A weevil has for several years been not uncommon in Essex County,
Massachusetts, which in England, from which it has been imported, is
often, as Mr. Curtis says, “‘a dreadful pest in gardens, committing sad
ravages on vines in hot-houses and on wall-fruit, during the night, when
they emerge from their hiding-places in old walls, from under the bark,
and clods of earth, to revel upon the branches of the new wood in
April, or to feed upon the young shoots, which soon become black.
They likewise injure raspberry plants in spring, by eating through the
flowering stems and leaves, and they nibble off the bark, and eat out
the buds of apple and pear trees as early as February or March.” But
they are said by Curtis to do still more damage to pease, turnips, and
young winter-plants, as savoy, kale, broccoli, etc.

I have detected this weevil on the beach-pea during the last week in
July at Salem, Mass., and it is not uncommon in gardens, and even, if
I am not mistaken as to the identity of the insect, will enter ferneries

758 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

and nibble the ferns and make considerable havoc among the plants
before its presence is suspected.

On July 16 I found one in a thin silken semi-transparent cocoon at-
tached to a leaf of Lathyrus maritimus ; the cocoon was large and fall,
being nearly half an inch long, cylindrical, both ends being rounded
alike.

Description.—This insect (Fig. 29, enlarged) is pitchy brown,
and covered with microscopic, pale scales, resembling a scallop-
shell, being marked with a few prominent ribs. Indeed, many
of the weevils seem to be provided with scales like those
of butterflies, Poduras, and a few other insects. The beak,
so short and slender in the radish-weevil, is here broad and
short, square at the end, from which the elbowed reddish-brown
antenne arise. The head is a little darker than the rest of the
body, and is coarsely punctured. The prothorax is coarsely gran-
ulated, the granulations being arranged in irregular rows. The
wing-covers are adorned with about eleven high, rounded, longi-
tudinal ridges on each cover, and with coarse punctures along the
furrows between them. There are also about twenty rows of pale
dots along the wing-covers, consisting of scales. The legs, includ-
; ing the claws, are rather paler than the rest of the body. The body
FiG. 29.—Pitchy- js also covered with scattered pale hairs bent down on the surface,

Legged Weevil, especially on the top of the head; these hairs remain after the

enlarged. scales are rubbed off. It is a quarter of an inch in length.

WIRE- WORMS AND Cut-WoRMS.—Larve of various snapping- beetles,
Hlater, Agrotis, ete.—Although these insects have been fully described
among those preying on wheat, corn, and grass, they are very destrue-
tive to young cabbages and allied garden-plants. Wire-worms feed on
the roots, and sometimes destroy the whole crop in Kentucky. In En-
gland wire-worms are destroyed for many successive years by sowing
salt over the surface of the ground at the rate of six bushels per acre
just as the small grain is coming up.

Cut-worms are more difficult to contend with than wire-worms. They
are active at night, hiding by day in the soil around the roots of the —
plants they infest. It would be well, therefore, to examine the soil
around the young cabbage-plants, or to inclose the plants in tubes of
stout paper to prevent the attacks of the worm.

As a remedy for wire-worms, J. H. Charnock, of Canada, advised the
use of rape-cake. ‘The remedy consists,” says Mr. Riley, “in applying
3 cwt. per acre of rape-cake broken into small lumps, and not crushed
into dust. It is spread on the land and plowed in before sowing the
seed. The worms are said to be so fond of it that they leave all other
kinds of food, while the cake is said to act upon them as a vermifuge
and to kill them, as they are found in it afterward in all stages, ‘ from re-
pletion to death and decay,’ Rape-cake is extensively used in England
as a fertilizer, and I have not the least doubt but that it attracts the
wire-worms, and may be used as a trap for this purpose like sliced pota-
toes, etc.”

Riley questions whether it is so efficacious as has been claimed, but
considers that it ‘‘is, however, well worthy of further trial, for even if,
as I suspect, it does not kill, it has the advantage over the other sub-
stances tobe strewn as traps and then collected, in that it at the same
time acts as a fertilizer. Where it can be safely done, rape-cake as well
as sliced potatoes, turnips, etc., that can be used as baits for these in-
sects, might be poisoned with Paris green, and the necessity of collecting
the worms to destroy them thus avoided. I know of nothing manufact-
ured in this country that has the character of rape-cake, or could take
its place.”

PACKARD.| FLATTENED MILLIPEDE. 159

THE FLATTENED MILLEPEDE, Polydesmus canadensis Newport.—“ Eating the roots
of plants and other tender vegetations, and probably causing the anbury (club-root)
disease in cabbages; small, slender, white and brown worms, from one to five-tenths

-of an inch long, flattened upon the back, and with numerous small legs appearing like

a fringe along each side of the body; crawl-
ing everywhere over the damp surface of
the ground by night, and withdrawing
into the crevices under chips, stones, and
similar situations during the day-time.”—

(Fiteh.) Fra. 30.—Many-lined Thousand-legs.

Although the myriapods are in general harmless, feeding either as in
the case of the centipedes on other insects, or as in the millepedes on
decaying vegetables or animal matter, one species of millepede (Lulus
multistriatus) injures the roots of the strawberry in Illinois, and either
this or another species, it is not known which, eats the bulbs of the
carnation pink, according to a writer in the American Agriculturist. As
it has been generally thought that the millipedes are harmless, feeding
on dead and decaying animal and vegetable matter, I insert the state-
ment of this writer, who lives at Montreal, Canada: “I planted out last
spring a good-sized bed of carnations; two-thirds of them were cut .
down in about a fortnight, and I could trace it to nothing else than these
worms, with which I found the bed to be infested. I removed the bal-
ance to another part of the garden, and saved them. I then examined
some of the lily-bulbs in the next bed and found some of the living
bulbs partly eaten, with the worms in them. I have destroyed large
quantities this autumn, by slicing apples aud turnips and laying them
on the infested beds, the worms collecting under them in masses, which
were removed and burned.” ;

It is generally stated in systematic works on entomology that the
millepedes feed on decaying vegetable or animal substances,* but there
are some exceptions to this rule, which 1 will give.

Curtis in his “‘ Farm Insects” tells that Zulus londinensis “ infests the
roots of wheat in Surrey,” while of Iulus latestriatus Curtis, “ thousands
were infesting a garden at Nantwich.” Of another species, Julus pilosus,
he remarks: “I have found it more than once infesting the roots of
cabbages in gardensin March.” A species of another genus, Polydesmus
complanatus Linn., is, he says, ‘“‘reported to be by far the most destruc-
tive species. In April, considerable numbers of the smaller ones were
detected eating the roots of wheat, and in the spring and autumn
they were injuring the roots of onions and pansies. They propagate
rapidly when the earth is undisturbed; and specimens measuring three-
quarters of an inch have been found under garden-pots at the roots of
anemonies.” The iuli, or snake-millepedes, Curtis adds, ‘seem to be
both carnivorous and herbivorous, for they have been detected feeding
upon small snails, as well as upon the pupa of a fly; and they are be-
lieved to live ‘also upon larvee, acari, earth-worms, etc.; and there is
such abundant evidence of their destroying the roots of many vegetables,
being found clustered together in multitudes at the roots of corn, pota-
toes, turnips, cabbages, etc., that there can be little doubt of their doing
great mischief to many crops of the gardener, and apparently to the
farmer also. In order to confirm this generally received opinion, which
appeared formerly to rest upon doubttul evidence, I shal] enumerate the
different proofs which have come to my own knowledge. A garden at
Ledbury, Herefordshire, was infested by Julus pulchellus, which congre-
gated in masses at the roots of the Brassica tribe. On pulling up some

ers says that Iulus gattatus of Fabricius bas been observed feeding on a small
elix.

760 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

rotten cabbage-stalks in the beginning of Marcb I found the Julus pilo-
sus among the roots; they were then of a large size, and had, as well as
I could ascertain, one hundred and fifty-six feet, being thirty- nine pairs
on each side. At the end of the same month Julus londinensis was de-
tected at the roots of wheat; they were at that time an inch long, and
Tulus pulchellus was observed with them; these I buried at the roots of
some potatoes and wheat, which I dug up in August, when the former
were completely decayed, but the latter were not in the least injured ;
and I could not detect any of the snake-millepedes. I received some
roots of the scarlet-bean from Ullswater, in Westmoreland, which were

eaten through and through by the ulus pulchellus and Poh ydesmus com-
planatus, which were still sticking in the holes formed by them in the
cotyledons, and the party who transmitted them stated that thousands
of those species infested his garden, destroying the pease and kidney-
beans also. Near Nantwich, in Cheshire, the Lulus latestriatus was in
countless myriads in January, 1844, destroying the potted plants in the
green-houses by eating the rind just at or under the surface of the soil ;
and cauliflowers and cabbage-plants shared the same fate in the gar.
den. Nearly at that period of the year the Julus londinensis was doing
great injury to the early potato-crops near Chester. My friend, Mr. W..
W. Saunders, who is too able a naturalist to be deceived, has ascertained
that the iuli are very destructive in his garden at W adsworth, where
they devoured the young shoots of the heart’s-ease just below the surface.
I have more than once observed the snake-millepedes and polydesmi in
September infesting the roots of onions which had been attacked by the
maggots of aflv; and the polydesmus injures the carrot-crops by eating
various labyrinths in the roots. The iuli are also found in pears, apples,
ete., but I believe not in sound fruit. A few similar proofs the reader
will have observed appended to the descriptions of the various species.
These animals are also found in considerable numbers under the loose
bark of decaying trees, in company with wood-lice, earwigs, etc.; also
among the moss which clothes the base and holes in the trunk and
stumps of trees, and likewise under stones in humid situations.

In his ‘‘ Entomologie horticole,” Boisduval tells us that Zulus sabulosas
Linn., ‘‘sometimes enters pots, onaws the plants at the necks of the root,
and, like the sowbugs, makes it die of feebleness.” Blanniulus guttulatus
is usually found under the straw in strawberry-beds; it introduces itself
into the fruit at the time of maturity, devours the pulp, and remains
coiled up in the interior like a small snake. The hole by which it
penetrates is not always very large; thus it often happens that straw-
berries are picked which undoubtedly contain iuli. We only know it
when eating them by their cracking between our teeth. This small myria-
pod prefers the larger species of strawberry, but the small ones which
grow ou Fragasia vesca are not exempt; we have very often found them
in autumn in the variety called des quatre saisons.” The most auther-
tative writer on the subject of the tood of the millepedes is Prof. F.
Plateau, of Gaud, Belgium, from whose ‘“ Researches sur les Phénoménes
de la Digestion et sur la Structure de ’Appareil digestif chez les Myri-
apodes de Belgique,” Belgium, 1876, we quote as follows: “It is com-
monly understood that the iuli live on vegetable matters; but the
notion is general, vague, and I have found nothing exact in the works
devoted to this eroup of animals. This leads me to state with some
detail what I bave myself observed. I do not believe that any ialus
feeds naturally on green leaves like a caterpillar. One of our smallest
species, the Blaniulus guttulatus (Gervais, Lulus fragariarum of Lamareh),
eats strawberries in spring-time. Before and after the season of straw-

Sane inp.] THE EARTH-WORM. | 761

berries it contents itself with a food less choice; thus I have found it in
abundance in the decayed bulbs of Gladiolus communis. The Iulus lon-
dinensis, So common in heaps of dead leaves and decaying vegeta-
bles, feeds on decaying vegetable tissues, and if it has to choose between
green and fresh vegetables and the débris of rotten vegetables, it selects
the latter: an individual placed in a box with green leaves of the pear,
lilac, grape-vine, and grass, gnawed exclusively an old, dry, and brown
pea-leaf. The Julus sabulosus lives under heaps of the dried leaves of
the elm, ash, oak, beach, and is nourished by them. M. Gervais has
found the Julus lucifugus in the tan of the green-houses of the Museum
of Paris.” From this statement it will be seen that as a rule these mille-
pedes are scavengers, and more beneficial than injurious, as they live
principally on decaying vegetable matter.

Returning to Dr. Fitch’s account of the Polydesmus canadensis, he
states that it eats the skin of cucumbers, and he thinks that stunted,
gnarly, deformed, and bitter cucumbers are the result of the wound
of these millepedes. Onions, when thickly growing together, having
attained but a third or half their growth, in many cases stop growing,
and the tops graduaily wither and die. ‘On pulling up those which
are thus affected, it is found that most of the thread-like rootlets
underneath have been severed at the point of their junction with the
bulb as smoothly and evenly as though they had been cut off with a
knife, only a few of the central ones retaining their connection with the
bulb.” He has no doubt but that the millepedes do this. He also
thinks that the disease in cabbages called anbury, or club-root, is caused
by the bite of these millepedes.

Thr Earru-worm, Lumbricus terrestris Linn.—Drawing young cabbage, lettuce, and
beans into their holes; the common earth-worm.

It is a well-known fact that earth-worms, in the main beneficial from
their habits of boring into soil of gardens and plowed lands, and thus
allowing the air to get to the roots of
plants, occasionally injure young seed-
ling-plants of the cabbage, lettuce, beet,
ete., by drawing them into their holes
or uprooting them, working by night.
They are also sometimes known to eat :
large holes in the tender leaves of x “83s” Beau
plants. Mr.R.P.Knightthusdesecribes -.4€ i}
the habits of the earth-worm (American ,
Naturalist, vol. 3, p.388): ‘‘Lastspring '
(and this) Iwas led to watch the common
earth-worms in my garden, and on the
plot of grass saw their manner of feed-
ing. I was within ten inches of their
bodies. I saw one prepare to feed on a Seta ales adruacdi Gate Gee taies 1G
young clover-leaf from a clover-stock ; Curtis.) me rae pews Siti wae
he kept his tail secured to the hole (as _ jpentation ‘of the yolk; b, embryo
a base line) in the ground, by which he _ further advanced; (0, mouth); ¢, em-
retreated quicker than the eye could _ bryostillolder; (k, primitive streak) ;
follow him. Finding all quiet, he came a embryo still older; (0, mouth, after

2 pes ally ; owalevsky).
again. Within a few inckes of my eye
the pointed head of the worm changed, and the end was as if cut off
square. I then saw it was a mouth. He approached the leaf and by a
strong and rapid muscular action of the rings of the whole body drew
the leaf and one inch of the tender stock into his mouth, and then by a

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762 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

violent muscular action drew the whole stock of young and tender clover
toward him, and when all the substance was sucked out he let the plant
go and it (the stock) flew back to its former place. The leaf and stem
were entire, but looked as though it had been boiled. I then laid a small
piece of cold mutton down, and he appeared to feast both on the fat and
lean, dragging them after him as his powers of suction could not act as
well as if they had been held like the clover-leaf. I also find that when
the male and female are together, they appear as one worm of double
the size.”

The earth-worm, like snails aad slugs, is hermaphrodite. In Lum-
bricus agricola ot Europe, the female sexual apparatus consists of two
ovaries lying in the thirteenth segment, and two oviducts (segmental
organs), Which, beginning in a trumpet-shaped opening, collects several
eggs into a small sac, which is ejected through an opening on each side
of the ventral surface of the fourteenth segment. Moreover, we find in
the ninth and tenth segments two pairs of pyriform seminal recepta-
cles, which open into as many openings on the edges of the ninth and
tenth, as well as the tenth and eleventh, segments, and during copula-
tion are filled with sperm. The male sexual organs consist (1) of two
pairs of testes, which, formed like the ovaries, lie in the tenth and elev-
enth segments, and (2) two seminal ducts, which begin with four trum-
pet-shaped openings, and terminate externally on the fifteenth segment,
and (3) two seminal vesicles with several flaps and united by a cross-
band and enveloped by the testes and trumpet-shaped mouths of the
seminal ducts. Sexual union is reciprocal, each worm impregnating
the other, and it takes place in Juneand July in the night-time. The
worms lie with their ventral surfaces opposed, each stretched out so
that the opening of the seminal receptacle of one is opposed to the girdle
of the other. (See Fig. 31.)

During tbe act the sperm passes out to the opening of the seminal
ducts, flows in a groove along the body to the girdle, and from thence
into the seminal receptacle of the other worm. The eggs are very small,
and contained in acapsule (Fig. 31); but, asa rule, only one egg develops
a worm, the others addling. Fig. 31 illustrates the mode of pairing in
the earth-worm and the development of the embryo from the egg of
Lumbricus rubellus Grube, ebserved in Russia by Kowalevsky. The
eggs of Lumbricus rubellus were found in dung, inclosed one in a single
capsule. The European JL. agricola lays numerous egg-capsules, each
containing sometimes as many as fifty eggs, though only three or four
embryos are to be found in a capsule (Kowalevsky).

INSECTS INJURING THE RADISH.

THE RADISsH-FLY, Anthomyia radicum Bouché, A. raphani Harris.—Eating the roots
of young radishes, particularly in old soils; small white maggots, which change to
barrel-shaped, reddish pupa-cases, from which about the first of June emerge small,
ash-colored flies, with a silvery-gray face, copper-colored eyes, and a brown spot on the
front of the head, with faint brown lines on the thorax, and a longitudinal black line
on the abdomen, crossed by narrower lines.

Soon after early-sown radishes come up, the roots are attacked by
‘small white maggots, and when the plants grow inold soil the maggots.
are especially destructive, as Ihave found them in Maine over twenty
years since, when the cup was badly infested. The plants were not al-
ways killed, but the roots were so worm-eaten as to be unfit for
the table. Though we raised the fly in abundance, we made no notes of
it at the time, and copy a description of the larvee, pupa, and fly from Dr.
Fitch’s Eleventh Report. Our figures (Plate LXIII, Fig. 2) are copied

PACKARD. ] THE RADISH SEED-WEEVIL. 763.

from Cuartis’s ‘‘ Farm Insects.” Dr. Fitch regards our species (A. raphani
Harris) as identical “in every particular with the European A. radicum.”
In Europe it gnaws the roots of the turnip. The, larve appear in the
spring as soon as the radishes get partly grown. ‘ When full-grown,
they change in the ground to reddish-brown pups, similar to those of
the onion and cabbage maggots. The insect remains in this state two
or three weeks, when the fly hatches and crawls up out of the ground,
with its wings crumpled up, and climbing up the side of a clod or any
perpendicular surface which it finds, these members expand and assume
their proper form before they become dried and firm.” (Fitch.)

Description of larva.—The larva is 0.20 inch long, elongating itself to 0.25 inch when
crawling. It is about three times as long as thick, appearing to be more short and
broad than larve of the.onion-fly. It is white, shining, cylindrical, and tapering to a
point anteriorly, where the jaws appear under the skin as a short, black, movable line,
its anterior end when protruded forward becoming split, and then seen to be two
sharp hooks, which are curved downward, and when the animal is crawling these
hooks are pressed downward against the surface to aid in locomotion. The body is
divided by transverse lines into eleven or twelve segments, and when the head is ex-
serted thirteen segments can be counted. At the hind end of the back a pale, tawny-
yellowish dorsal stripe is faintly visible. The hind end is abruptly cut off, obliquely
downward and slightly backward, forming a flat surface, having above its center two-
conspicuous spiracles, or elevated dots, their surface opaque and rugose, and their color
sometimes tawny-yellow, sometimes black. This flattened hind end has a number of
small acute teeth around its outer margin, of which the two lower ones are thicker, of
a brownish color, and slightly notched or two-tootked at their tips in the large but not
in the smaller young larvaw. Above these on each side are three teeth, distant from
each other, the middle one nearer to the upper than to the lower one.

The fly.—In these radish-flies the two sexes differ materially. The male is ash-gray
and very bristly ; the large compound eyes occupy most of the surface of the head and
are almost in contact upon thecr own. Thereare also three minute eyes at the base of
the crown. The face is silvery-gray, almost white in some reflections of the light, with
a long black streak on the forehead, which is pointed at its hind end. Below this
streak are the black three-jointed antenne, the basal joint being small, the second
large, the third largest and oval, with a two-jointed pubescent bristle on the back, the
first of the joints being very minute. The tore body is oblong, whitish on the sides,
with three faint, interrupted dusky stripes upon the back. The hind body is shining
gray, rather small and elliptical, tapering to the apex, with a black stripe down the
back, the edges of the segments and the region of the scutel being also black. The
two rings are large, transparent, iridescent, laid the one upon the other in repose, the
longitudinal veins extending to the margin, with two transverse veinlets in the disk.
The poisers are pale yellowish. The six legs are black and bristly, the feet five-jointed,
ending in two little claws and two large pale leathery lobes.

The female is of a uniform ash-gray color, excepting the silvery-white face and pale
sides of the fore body. The eves are widely apart, with a broad black stripe between:
them, which is shaded into chestnut color in front. The hind body is larger than in
the male and conical toward its apex. The wings have a tinge of yellowish at their
bases. The species measures 0.22 inch in length and 0.45 inch in width across the ex-
tended wings.

Remedies.—The best preventive is undoubtedly early sowing and the:
rotation of crops; while infected roots should be pulled up and burned
with the maggots in them, hot water should be poured on the roots,
and salt and lime applied.

THE RapisH SEED-WEEVIL.—Devouring the seeds, gnawing a hole through the side
of the pod; the small white grub of a pale-gray, broad, short weevil.

In the year 1857 I found in Maine upon the radish-leaves a specimen
of a weevil, which I cannot distinguish by Curtis’s description and fig-
ure from the European Ceutorhynchus assimilis Payk.

In Europe this weevil was first observed among turnip-seed, where, as.
a white maggot, it devours the seed in the pods; when fally fed it gnaws
a hole through the side of the pod, out of which it escapes, and makes.
its way into the ground two or three inches below the surface, where it

764 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

forms a brown, oval cocoon of grains of dirt. Here it remains three
weeks in the pupa state, and by the third week in July the beetle
appears. Mr. Curtis,
whose account we
have _ reproduced,
thinks thatthe female
lays its eggs in the
embryo pods.

As it has not before
been noticed in this
country, and may be-
come in future years
more or less of a
Fra. 32.—a, beetle; ¢, larva; b, pupa; e, pod with hole out of Plague, we give a

which the grub has come ; d, earthen cocoon. From Curtis. brief description of

The right-hand figure drawn from an American specimen. the insect:

Description.—The beetle is minute and pale gray, with a remarkably long, slender,
curved snout, from the middle of which arise the long elbowed, slender antennz ; the
basa] joint is long and slender and succeeded by seven spherical joints ; the oval club
pale at tip, consisting of four joints. The body is black, but so densely covered with
gray, flattened hair and scales that it seems to be uniformly pale gray. These hairs
become broad, flattened scales on the sides of the body. The prothorax is triangular,
seen from above, swollen on the sides, and the head, exclusive of the snout, is very
small. The body behind is unusually broad ; the wing-covers have each nine (Curtis
mentions only eight) longitudinal, fine, punctate furrows, the ridges between being
much flattened. The legs are rather short, and pale gray, like the rest of the body.
Curtis mentions that the hindermost thighs have a short, thick tooth beneath. I find
one on the thighs of both the middle and hind legs. However, the insect may be
considered identical with the European species, until proved otherwise by comparison
of specimens, as it has probably been imported in radish and turnip seed.

INSECTS INFESTING LETTUCE.

Tue LettucEe EartH-LouseE, Rhizobius lactuce Fitch.—On the roots of lettuce often
in great numbers; very smal, oval, white and pale-yellow lice, with dusky legs and
antenne, their bodies dusted over with a white powder.

These little lice belong to the family of true plant-lice (Aphid), but
are always wingless, and with more of a white powder on the body than
usual in the family, in this respect resembling the coccus or scale-insects.
These little root-lice cluster about the roots of the lettuce, appearing
soon after the plants are up, and becoming more numerous toward the
end of the season. I have found them on the roots of the aster, and
they also occur on those of the verbena. By watering the earth around
the plants with tobacco-water they can be easily destroyed.

INSECTS INFESTING ASPARAGUS.

THE EUROPEAN ASPARAGUS-BEETLE, Crioceris asparagi Linn.—Eating irregular,
rounded holes in the bark; an oblong, shining blue-black beetle a quarter of an inch
long, with a red prothorax and head and three bright-yellow spots on each wing-cover ;
with a soft-bodied larva, thrice as long as thick, larger behind, of a dull ash-gray or
obscure olive, with a black head and legs.

This beetle was first found in New York in 1858 or 1859, and in 1862
became very destructive on Long Island. Early in May, soon after the
season for cutting the asparagus for the market has begun, these beetles,
says Fitch, come forth from their winter-quarters and commence feed-
ing upon it, gnawing and marring it, and scattering their eggs upon
the stalks. The eggs are dark brown, small,.and are attached to the
stalk or leaves. They hatch in eight days, and the larva becomes fully

PACKARD. | THE PARSNIP-BUTTERFLY. 765

fed in ten or twelve days. The grub feeds upon the asparagus, gnawing
through the outer bark, “ preferring the tender bark on the ends of the
stalks and on the branches to the more tough and stringy bark toward
the base of the stem.” In about thirty days from the time the egg is
laid the beetle appears, and is found through the summer and autumn,
hibernating in the winter in crevices in fences, etc. The beetles ‘feed
upon the bark, eating irregular oval or oblong holes through it, length-
wise of the stalks, and varying in size from about an eighth to a quarter
of an inch in length. These holes are most numerous toward the top of
the stalks and on the branches, where, frequently, nearly the whole of
the bark is consumed.”

Description of the larva.—lt attains a length of about a quarter of an inch. It is of
an obscure olive or dull ash-gray color, often with a blackish stripe along the middle
of the back. Itis soft and of a flesh-like consistency, about three times as long as
thick, thickest back of the middle, with the body much wrinkled transversely. The
head is black and shining, and the neck, which is thicker than the head, has two shin-
ing black spots above. ‘Three pairs of legs are placed anteriorly upon the breast, and
are of the same shining black color with the head. As will be seen when it is crawling,
the larva clings also with the tip end of its body, and all along its under side may then
be seen two rows of small tubercles, slightly projecting from the surface, which serve
as prolegs in addition to the tip of its body. Above these tubercles on each side is a
row of elevated shining dots like warts, above which the breathing-pores appear like
a row of minute black dots.

The beetle is oblong, blue-black, the prothorax bright tawny-red; the wing-covers
broadly bordered with orange-yellow, while along the middle is a row of three lemon-
yellow spots. The legs and under side of the body are shining blue-black, and there is
frequently a dull yellowish band below the knees, and a spot of the same color on the
base of the hind thighs.—( Fitch. )

Remedy.—Hand-picking and the aid of hens and chickens.

INSECTS INFESTING THE CARROT AND PARSNIP.

THE PARSNIP-BUTTERFLY, Papilio asterias Drury.—Feeding upon the leaves of the
carrot, parsley, and parsnips; a large yellow caterpillar, smooth, cylindrical, striped and
spotted with black, and changing to alarge and black swallow-tailed butterfly, spotted
with yellow.

Our large, common asterias butterfly is not usually common enough to
be injurious, but is liable in certain seasons to be locally so. It appears
in the Northern States in June, when it lays its eggs on the leaves of
the carrot, parsley, and parsnip. From this brood a new set of butter:
flies appear in August. The larva is yellow, striped and spotted with
black, and when irritated, pushes out from a slit just behind the head a
V-shaped, yellow, fleshy scent-organ, used as a means of defense. The
chrysalis is free, attached by the tip of the abdomen and supported by
a loose silken thread, which is passed over the back. It has two ear-like
projections on each side of the head and a prominence on the back of
the thorax. It lives in this state from nine to fifteen days.

The butterfly is black, with a row of yellow spots across the wing and
a similar row near the hinder edge, with a row of large blue patches on
the hind wings between the two rows of yellow spots. The female is
larger and differs from the male in wanting the inner row of yellow spots
on the fore wings. The wings expand from 34-4 inches. The obvious
one is hand-picking. A large ichneumon fly, Trogon exesorius, preys
upon it.

The seeds of these umbelliferous plants are often infested by minute
“steals flies, and small moths, but we know as yet but little about

em.

766 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

INSECTS INFESTING THE PHA.

THE PEA-WEEVIL, Bruchus pisi Linn. (Fig. 33).—Infesting seed-peas, living in the pea
its whole life; a rusty black weevil-like beetle, spotted with lighter shades; a little
over a tenth of an inch long.

The pea-weevil belongs to a small family of beetles called Bruchide,
from Bruchus, the name of the principal genus, of which there are 300
species known. They differ from the true weevils in the proboscis being
folded on the chest, the antennz being short and straight and inserted
in a cavity next to the eyes. The beetles are short and broad, and are
noted for their activity and readiness to take flight when disturbed.
The pea-weevil is oval in form, about an eighth of an inch long, rusty
black, with a white spot on the hinder part of the prothorax, and four
or five white dots behind the middle of each elytron and a T-shaped
white spot on the tip of the abdomen.

They frequent the pea during and just after the flowering season.
Harris states that ‘‘ after the pea-vines have flowered, and while the pods
are young and tender, and thet peas within them are just beginning to
swell, the beetles gather upon them, and deposit their tiny eggs singly
in the punctures or wounds which they make upon the surface of the

rss pods.” Other authors
state that with their
beak they puncture the
base of the flower and
lay an egg in the punct-
ure. Riley tells us in
his Third Report (p. 47)
that ‘the eggs are deep
yellow, 0.035 inch long,
three times as long as
wide, fusiform, pointed
¥iG. 33.—Pea-Weevil, natural size; b, much enlarged; ¢, !2 front, blunt behind,

larva, natural size and enlarged; d, pupa seen from above, but larger anteriorly

natural size and enlarged; g, the beetle coming out of than posteriorly. They

the pea (after Curtis); f, egg (after Riley). are fastened to the pod
by some viscid fluid which dries white and glistens like silk. As the
operation of depositing is only occasionally noticed during cloudy
‘weather, we may safely assume that it takes place for the most part by
night. If pea-vines are carefully examined in this latitude (Missouri)
during the month of June,.the pods will often be found to have from
one to fifteen or twenty such eggs upon them, and the biack head
of the future larva may frequently be noticed through the delicate
shell. * * * * The newly-hatched larva is of a deep yellow color
with a black head, and it makes a direct cut through the pod into the
nearest pea, the hole soon filling up in the pod, and leaving but a mere
speck, not so large as a pin-hole, in the pea.” The cylindrical, thick,
fleshy grub hatches, and perforates the pod, entering the pea, and there
lives until it changes to a weevil; and in stored peas, hibernates within
them. Their presence in the pea may be detected by a discoloration
made by the larva within, corresponding to a dark spot on the pea.
The grub becomes fully grown by the time the pea ripens and dries. It
then bores around hole from the hollow in the center of the pea, leaving
the hull and generally the germ untouched; hence infested peas will
spring up and grow. The grub changes to a pupa within the pea in the
autumn, and before the spring casts its skin, becomes a weevil, and
gnaws a hole through the pea; it often does not appear until after the

PACKARD.] THE BEAN-WEEVIL. 767

pea is planted. ‘Sometimes every pea in a pod contains a grub. So
numerous at times is it that the cultivation of the pea has been aban-
doned. By diminishing the weight of the pea it causes a great loss in
the crop,

The pea-weevil is a native of this country, and has been introduced
into Southern and Central Europe. It was first noticed by gardeners as
injurious in Pennsylvania, but is now abundant all over the Northern
and Western States.

Remedies.—The seed should be kept sealed up in tin cans over one year
before planting. In this way the weevils, which live but a single year,
would die before being liberated. It is also customary to soak peas in
boiling water for a few minutes before planting; by so doing the sprout-
ing of the seed will be hastened and the peas get their growth in part
before the weevils attack them. As the weevils appear only once during
the summer, at the time when the pea usually flowers, if a second crop
is planted, they will be free from the attacks of weevils.

The crow blackbird is known to destroy great numbers of weevils in
spring, and the Baltimore oriole splits open the green pods in search for
grubs.

" INSECTS INFESTING THE BEAN.

THE BEAN-WEEVIL, Bruchus fabe Riley (Fig. 34).—Injuring beans in the same
manner as peas, except that the beans are tenanted by several weevils; a similar but
smaller weevil.

This very destructive weevil seems, according to Mr. Riley, to be indig-
enous, and has become injurious in the vicinity of New York, in Illi-
nois, and in Missouri, bidding fair to become a most
formidable pest of our bean-crop. Mr. Angus has been
the first to detect its ravages, having found it to be
already very destructive at West Farms, N. Y. Sev-
eral years since he sent me specimens, and in 1870
wrote me more particularly about its ravages, as fol-
lows: “I also send you a sample of beans, which I
think will startle you, if you have not seen such be-
fore. I discovered this beetle in the kidney or bush
beans a few years ago, and they have been greatly on
the increase every year since. I might say much on
the gloomy prospect before us in the cultivation of Fic. 34.—Grub of
this important garden and farm product, if the work Bean-Weevil.
of this insect is not cut short by some means or other. The pea bruchus
is bad enough, but this is worse.”

Description.—It closely resembles the pea-weevil (Bruchus pisi). It is rather smaller
than the pea-weevil, measuring 0.15 of an inch in length, while the latter is 0.20 of an
inch in length. Compared with that insect, it is lighter and more uniform in color, be-
ing of a tawny-gray, without the white spots so conspicuous in B. pisi. The uniform
tawny-gray elytra are spotted with a few oblong dark spots, situated between the
stria ; the antenne also differ in having the four basal joints more reddish than in B.
pisi, while the terminal joint is red, being blackish-brown in B. pisi. The fore legs are
much redder, and the two hind pairs are reddish where they are dark brown in B. pisi.
The spine on the hind femora is smaller but longer, and the antenne are flatter, the
joints being farther separated, and the whole body narrower than in B. pisi.

The larva (Fig. 33) is short, thick, fleshy, footless, and about + inch long. The pupa
is white, and measures 0.17 of an inch in length. The head is laid upon the breast,
the red tip of the mandibles reaching to the base of the tarsi of the first pair of feet.
The two front pair of legs are folded on the breast at right angles to the body, the
tarsi of the second pair reaching a little beyond the anterior third of the body, while -
the hind pair are concealed beneath the wings. The elytra are laid along the side of
the body, directed obliquely downward, and are marked with deep longitudinal ribs;
the under or hind pair of wings, whieh are much narrower than the elytra, project

768 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

beyond the elytra, nearly meeting on the median line of the body. The eyes are dark
and conspicuous, being red, horseshoe-like spots. The antenne are laid upward and
backward on the base of the elytra and behind the legs. The tip of the abdomen is
smooth and unarmed. Length, 0.17 of an inch.

The chrysalis lies in a cavity in the bean just large enough to receive
its body, there being as many as eight ortwelvein asingle bean. (Fig. —.)
This cavity is indicated by a round, sometimes oval, semi-transparent
spot 0.08 of an inch in diameter, the insect escaping through a thin orbic-
ular, almost transparent, lid, previously gnawn by the larva, which falls
off when the beetle emerges. The chrysalis is surrounded by a thin
cocoon-like case, consisting of the castings of the larva (which are long,
cylindrical, when highly magnified), closely packed together.

Though most of the pupze had, November 25, changed to beetles,
which had deserted the beans, many had not changed, and two or three
out of the whole lot were in the semi-pupa state, the head and posterior
part of the body being unchanged. By this we could determine that
the larva closely resembled the larva of the true weevils in form. It is
a short, thick, fleshy, cylindrical, footless white grub. The tip of its
abdomen is rather blunt; its head is rather small, white, with a pale
yellowish clypeus, while the mandibles are flat, short, and broad and red
in color. The rudimentary antennze form a flattened round area on
each side of the clypeus. The segments of the body are not convex,
being rather flattened, but the sutures are slightly impressed. The body
is a little flattened beneath and very convex above, while the lateral or
pleural region of the body is wel] marked. Length, 0.16; thickness, 0.07
of an inch.

Remedies.—The best remedy against its attacks is to carefully exam-
ine the beans in the autumn and before sowing time, when their pres-
ence can be easily detected by the transparent spots made by the larva.
These should be burned, and such beans as are apparently uninjured
should be soaked for a minute in boiling-hot water, so that no beetles
be overlooked.

Another Bruchus which is not uncommon in Colorado has been sent
me by Mr. F. G. Sanborn, and is Bruchus prosopis Le Conte (Fig. 35).
As it is liable to attack the pea or bean in Colorado and the
Western Territories, Ladd a description and figure of it. It
resembles Bruchus fabe, the body being of nearly the same
proportions. It is larger than that species, but the mark-
ings are very similar. It may be distinguished, however, by
the entire under side of the body being uniformly whitish.
Length, 0.20 inch. Another species, like the other kindly
identified for me by Dr. E. H. Horn, is Bruchus amicus

s. Horn. It was inclosed in the same bottle with B. prosopis.
Fic. 35.—Bru. 1t may at once be distinguished by its uniformly slate-
chus prosopis gray color above and beneath, not being spotted as usual
Le C in the genus. It is slightly smaller than prosopis.

Tue Brean Lear-Horper, Empoa fabe (Harris).—Puncturing the leaves, causing them
to wither and die, and the pods to become rough and scarred ; a small pale-green leaf-
hopper.

As I have had no personal experience with this insect, | copy Harris’s
account and description of it: ‘I have found that the Windsor bean, a
variety of the Vicia faba of Linnzeus, is subject to the attacks of a
species of leaf-hopper, particularly during dry seasons, and when culti-
vated in light soils. In the early part of summer the insects are so
small and so light-colored that they easily escape observation, and it is
not till the beginning of July, when the beans are usually large enough

PACKARD. THE SQUASH-BORER. 769

_ to be gathered for the table, that the ravages of the insects leads to
their discovery. A large proportion of the pods will then be found to
be rough, and covered with little dark-colored dots or scars, and many
of them seem to be unusually spongy and not well filled. On opening
these spongy pods we find that the beans have not grown to their proper
size, and if they are left on the plant they cease to enlarge. At the
same time the leaves, pods, and stalks are more or less infested with
little leaf-hoppers, not fully grown, and unprovided with wings. Usually
between the end of July and the middle of August the insects come to
their growth and acquire their wings; but the mischief at this time is
finished, and the plants have suffered so much that all prospect of a
second crop of beans from new shoots, produced after the old stems are
cut down, is frustrated.

These leaf-hoppers have the same agility in their motions, and appar-
ently the same habits, as the vine-hoppers; but in the perfect state they
are longer, more slender, and much more delicate. They are of a pale-
green color; the wing-covers and wings are transparent and colorless ;
and the last joint of the hind feet is bluish. The head, as seen from
above, is crescent-shaped, and the two eyelets are situated on its front
edge. The male has two long recurved feathery threads at the extremity
of the body. The length of this species is rather more than one-tenth,
but less than three-twentieths of an inch wide. It may be called Tetti-
gonia fabe. Probably it passes the winter in the same way as the vine-
hopper.

INSECTS INJURING THE SQUASH AND PUMPKIN.

THE SquasH-BorER, Ageria (Melittia) cucurbite Harris (Fig. 36).—Often suddenly
killing the vine; a borer in the stalk, short and ‘ ,
thick, with a dark head and a dark horny patch just
behind it; changing to a beautiful narrow-wivged, cee,
orange-colored moth spotted with black. ;
During the last of summer when the vines
are nearly fully grown and the squashes have
nearly attained their full size, they suddenly
die as if cut off at the roots. This is the work
of the caterpillar of the beautiful moth here F1G.36.--Squash-Borer; a, grub.
figured. This Agerian appears in New England from July 10 to Au-
gust 15, when it deposits its eggs on the stalk of the vine close to the
roots. The larva on hatching bores into the stalk, and when nearly
grown occupies the center near the ground, devouring the interior,
and thus killing the plant. Here it lives until the last of Septem-
ber or early in October, when it either deserts the vine and spins a
rude earthen cocoon near the roots, or, as is often the case, remains
in the hollow it has made in the stalk, and then changes to a chrysalis.
From this fact the means of prevention against its attacks are com-
_ paratively easy, for if the vines are collected and burned in the autumn,
in many cases the worms or chrysalides will be destroyed with them.

Description—The larva is a short, thick, fleshy, white caterpillar, with short legs,
and a dusky head, with a horny dark scale on the segment next behind it. The
moth is exceedingly beautiful, being a member of the family of Agerians, in which
the wings are very narrow. ‘The body, for one of this family, is unusually thick. It
is dark green with a bluish tint. The antennz are steel-blue. In the male the
antenne are pectinated, and the abdomen dark above. In the female the abdomen
is orange-red above and beneath, except on the basal segment; on the upper side are
five large dark spots. The legs in both sexes are thick, with dense stiff hairs, black
and orange, forming brushes, some white hairs, and four stiff spines; a large white
spot at the base of the hind legs and on the breast. Head in front white; palpi,
orange. It expands nearly an inch and a half.

49GS

770 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

THE STRIPED SquasH-BEETLE, Diabrotica vittata Fabricius (Fig. 37).—Appearing on
the squash pumpkin, cucumber, and melon vines as soon as the leaves are up, eating
holes in the leaves and killing the young plant; a small yellow-striped beetle, whose
larva is a long, slender grub, which bores in the roots in June and J uly.

This universal pest is so familiar in the Northern States as to scareely
need description. The beetle hibernates under leaves or in the crey-

ices in the bark of trees or in -
py its fences, appearing among the
pee earliest insects of spring, at
the time that the shad-bush
(Amelanchier canadensis) is in

blossom, on the pollen of whose
flowers it feeds, afterward de-

a c Mn serting wild flowers for the
Fic. 37.—Striped Squash-Beetle; a, larva; }, garden. As soon as the seed-
pupa ¢, adult; d, 12-spotted Deabrotica. leaves of the squash, pump-

kin, melon, or cucumber are formed, and even before they appear above
the surface of the soil, they devour them, and until the plant is about
six inches high it is liable to be devoured by them. I take the follow-
ing account in part from my ‘Guide to the Study of Insects.” Dr.
H. Shimer has given an account of the habits of this insect in its
different stages. He states that the grub, in June and July, “eats
the bark and often perforates and hollows out the lower part of the
stem which is beneath the ground, and the upper portion of the root,
and occasionally, when the supply below fails, we find them in the vine
just above the ground.” It hibernates in the pupa state. ‘The larva
arrives at maturity in about a month after the egg is laid; it remains
in the pupa state about two weeks, and the beetle probably lives several
days before depositing her eggs, so that one generation is in existence
about two months, and we can only have two, never more than three,
broods in one season.” Dr. Shimer has found them boring in the squash
and musk-melon vines as late as October 1. <A generation appears in
two months, and there are two or three broods in a season.

In an article in the American Naturalist (vol. v, p. 217), Dr. Shiner
gives further information concerning the habits of this beetle. Theeggs,
he says, are deposited on the root at the surface of the ground, or on
the root just below the upper loose particles of earth, for although the
perfect beetle does not burrow into the compact ground, yet it often is
found down along the stem or root, just below the surface, under the
loose, dry clots or finer particles of earth which are not pressed closely
or beaten down by rains and hardened in drying.

Description of the larva.—It is a long, slender, white, cylindrical grub, with a small,
brownish head. The prothorax is coreous. The thoracic legs are very slender, pale
brown; the end of the body is suddenly truncated, with a small prop-leg beneath.
Above is an articular brown space, growing black posteriorly and ending in a pair of
upeurved, vertical, slender, black spines. It is 0.40 of an inch long. In its boring
habits, and its remarkably long, cylindrical, soft, white body this larva widely differs
from that of Galleruca, to which the beetle is closely allied. The pupa is 0.17 of an inch
long, white, with the tip of the abdomen ending in two long acute spines arising from
a common base.

A Tachina parasite (Melanoshora diabrotice Shimer) preys upon this
beetle in the adult state, materially reducing its numbers. A single
maggot fills almost the entire cavity of the abdomen of its host, the
beetle. When about to transform into the pupa, the maggot leaves the
body of the fly, and its pupa-case is found in the surface of the ground,
the fly appearing late in July.

PACKARD.] THE SQUASH-BUG. TT

Description of Melanosphora diabrotice Shimer.—Pitch black. Eyes and proboscis light.
brown. Halters pale brownish. A crescentic line on each side of the face bordering
the eye, almost meeting in the medial line, silvery-gray. Anterior portion and sides
of the prothorax in some lights give the same lustrous gray reflections as the face; in
others, blackish. Body moderately clothed with stiff black spines. Wings hyaline,
iridescent, with a smoky yellowish shade toward the base. Expanse of wings, 0.24 of
apinch; width of wing, 0.06 of an inch; length of body, 0.13-0.15 of an inch; described
from five dry specimens.—(Shimer. )

Dr. Shimer has also found a small red mite
attached to the posterior end of the body of
the beetle, which is very annoying to its host.

Remedies.—Covering the vines with cotton
or a high frame covered with muslin or milli-
net is the only sure preventive, while pow-
dered charcoal, hellebore, or lime may be
sprinkled on the leaves. Mr. Grerory, says
the American Agriculturist, ‘“‘relies upon
plaster or oyster-shell lime, which may be
shaken from a small sieve while the leaves
are wet with dew or rain; to be applied as
soon as the plants are up. He objects to the
use of air-slacked stone-lime as it is apt to be too caustic and injures
the plant.”

THE SQquAsH-BuG, Coreus tristis De Geer (Fig. 39).—Sucking the sap of the stems;
lege a? bugs, often surrounding in large numbers the stems of squash-vines in
ugust.

While the squash-beetle is a coleopterous insect, the large black bug
which is so abundant and destructive to the squash is a
hemipterous insect, not having free-biting jaws as in the
beetles, but a long, slender, sharp beak, lying, when at rest,
on the breast, which it thrusts into the stem or leaf-stalks
of its food-plant.

I extract the following account of it from the ‘‘ Guide to
the Study of Insects.” The squash-bug is very destructive
to squash-vines, collecting in great numbers around the
stem near the ground and sucking the sap with its stout me. 39—sqnash-
beak. It is a large, blackish-brown insect, six-tenths of Bug, nat. size.
an inch long, and dirty yellowish beneath. It hibernates in the adult
condition, leaving the plants in October. About the last of June the
sexes meet, and the females “lay their eggs in little patches, fastening
them with a gummy substance to the under side of the leaves. Theeggs
are round and flattened on two sides and are soon hatched. The young
bugs are proportionally shorter and more rounded than the perfect
insects, are of a pale ash color, and have quite large antenna, the joints
of which are somewhat flattened. As they grow older and increase in
size, after molting their skins a few times, they become more oval in
form, and the under side of their bodies gradually acquires a dull ocher-
yellow color.” (Harris’s Treatise). The young attack the leaves, causing
them to wither. Successive broods are said to appear during the sum-
mer. The odor of this bug is very offensive. Professor Verriel has found,
with the assistance of Prof. S. W. Johnson, of Yale College, that the
odor of this and other hemipterous insects bears the most resemblance
to that of the formate of amylicether. It is probable that this substance
is its most essential and active ingredient.

Remedies.—This insect is so conspicuous that it can readily be con-
trolled by hand-picking, especially when fully grown.

Fia. 38.—Tachina parasite of the
Squash-Beetle.

Tia REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

THE Squasu Lapy-Bmp, Epilachna borealis Thunberg (Fig. 40).—Feeding on the
leaves of the squash and pumpkin; a yellowish grub, with long branched spines.
While all the other species of the family of * lady-bird” (Coe-
cinellide) are carnivorous, preying on other living insects, as
plant-lice, etc., the present species is injurious to cucurbita-
Fic. 40, Ceous plants. The beetle is yellowish, with seven large black
Squash La- Spots on each wing-cover. ‘The larva is yellow, with long,
dy-Bird. brown, branched spines, arranged in rows of six on each
segment, except the first thoracic segment, which has only four. The
pupa instead of spines has short bristles, especially on the thorax.”—
(Ostensacker.) Besides this beetle, the common black flea-beetle, Haltica
(Hpithrix) cucumen’s Harris, punctures the seed-leaves, causing at times
a great deal of mischief.

THE PIcKLE-WoRM, Phacellura nitidalis Cramer (Fig. 41.)—Boring cylindrical holes in
cucumbers, causing the fruit of the cucumber, melon, or squash to decay; a pale,
greenish yellow caterpillar, with a pale reddish head.

According to Riley, the pick-
le-worm begins to appear in
the latitude of Saint Louis,
Mo., about the middle of July,
and continues its destructive
work until the end of Septem-
ber. ‘They bore cylindrical
holes into the fruit and feed
on its fleshy parts. They are
grass-feeders, and produce a
large amount of soft excre-
ment. Ihavefound as many as
four in a medium-sized cucum-
ber, and a single worm will
often cause the fruit to rot.
pai They develop very rapidly, and
Fra. 41.—a, pickle-worm; b, head and prothoracie Come to their growth in from

segment, enlarged; ¢, d, e, f, g, markings; h, three to four weeks. When

cocoon ; i, male moth.—(After Riley.) about to transform they for-
sake the fruit in which they had burrowed, and drawing together portions
of some leaf that lies on or near the ground, spin a slight cocoon of white
silk, Within this cocoon they soon become slender, brown chrysalides,
with the head parts prolonged, and with a very long ventral sheath
which ineloses the legs. If it is not too late in the season the moths issue
in from eight to ten days afterward. The late individuals, however, pass
the winter within their cocoons ; though from the fact that some moths
come out as late as November, I infer that they may also winter over
in the moth state.” (Riley.) The moth is yellowish-brown, with golden,
yellow spots on the fore wings, and the hind wings yellow, with a broad,
dark border.
Ieemedies.—The cucumbers, melons, or squashes can be examined and
the infested ones destroyed with the worm within.

¢

INJURING THE HOP.
THE APHIS OF THE Hup.—Clustering often in vast numbers on the branches and
leaves of the hop-vine; small, greenish, wingless or winged plant-lice.

The most destructive insect of the hop at times in New England is an
aphis, which it is very difficult to exterminate. The best remedy is,

a ee

PACKARD.] THE HOP-VINE CATERPILLAR. 773

when possible, to turn a powerful stream of water upon the leaves, or
to shower them with soap-suds. So abundant is it in certain years in
New Egland that the hop-crop has
almost been cut off. The following
figure of the apple aphis is intro-
duced to illustrate the usual form of
the plant-louse.

THe Hop CATERPILLAR, Hypena humuli
(Harris).—Devouring the leaves in June,
and again in July or August ; active, slen-
der, glass-green caterpillars, with but four
false legs and nearly half an inch long.

The following account of this de- Fic, 42.—Apple Aphis, natural size and
structive caterpillar is taken from my enlarged.
‘Guide to the Study of Insects.” Late in May or in June, as soon as
the leaves expand, they are often devoured by the caterpillar of a grunt-
moth, which, on being disturbed is very active, wriggling off the leaf to
the ground. It is double-brooded, the first lot of caterpillars appearing
late in May and early in June, the moths flying about late in June and
early in July. Asecond brood of caterpillars appear in July and August,
in Massachusetts, the moth flying in September. When the caterpillar
is fully grown it forms a loose eee
silken cocoon within a folded
leaf or any crevice, the moth ap-
pearing three weeks after. I
haveraised a species of parasitic
fly (Tachina) from the chrysali- PRD WW RRR
des, which probably somewhat Fra. 43.—Hop-vine caterpillar, pupa, and moth,
reduce the number of the moths. natural size.

Remedies.—Handa-picking and shaking the vines vigorously twice a day
would, if systematically pursued, be sufficient; while, in addition, show-
ering the leaves with whale-oil soap, or a similar wash, would be effi-
cacious.

Description of the caterpiller—Body long and slender, with the segments rather con-
vex, and with long, sparse hairs. It is uniformly of a glassy, pea-green color. The
head is rather large, and deeply divided into two lobes by the median suture ; it isa

little more yellowish-green than the body, which tapers gradually toward the tail,
while the last pair of legs are long and slender. As there are but two pairs of abdom-
inal legs, the caterpillar walks with a looping gait like the span or measuring worms.
The body is striped with a narrow whitish line, edged broadly below with dusky, and
with two white lines on the sides of the body, though specimens vary in the number of
lines, some having no lateral whitish stripes. Itis nearly half an inch (0.45) inlength.
When half-grown the caterpillar is of a pale, livid, flesh color, not greenish, with a
broad, dark, dorsal line, bounded on each side by a whitish line.

Description of the moth.—It has remarkably long feelers (palpi), and when the wings
are folded is triangular in outlike like the Greek letter 4. It is marbled with gray
beyond the middle of the fore wings, with a distinct oblique gray stripe at the apex;
and the fore wings are crossed by two wavy blackish lines formed of elevated black
tufts, while there are two similar black tufts in the middle of the wings; the hind
wings are paler than the rest of the moth. It expands one inch and a quarter.

z.

399) -3-0 Bs aS

THe Hop-Vine Harr-StReAK BUTTERFLY, Uranotes melinus (Hiibn.); Thecla humult
Harris.—Frequently feeding on the heads of the hop; a small, short, thick, green and
downy caterpillar with very short legs, transforming into a small, delicate, brown but-
terfly with four linear tails, two on each hind wing.

As I have never seen this caterpillar, my account is taken from that
of Harris. Allhe says of the larvais given in the preceding paragraph.

_ Description of the butterfly.—The wings on the upper side are dusky brown, with a
tint of blue-gray ; and, in the males, there is an oval darker spot near the front edge;

W74 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

the hind wings have two short, thread-like tails, the inner one the longest, and tipped
with white; along the hind margin of these same wings is a row of little pale-blue
spots, interrupted by a large orange-red crescent inclosing a small black spot; the
wings beneath are slate-gray, with two wavy streaks of brown edged on one side with
white, and on the hind wings an orange-colored spot near the hind angle, and a larger
spot of the same color inclosing a black dot just before the tails. It expands one inch
and one-tenth. (Harris.) It ranges, according to Scudder, from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, and from the Canadian border to the Gulf of Mexico and southward to Ven-
ezuela. Besides the hop, it feeds on Crataegus apiifolia, Hypericum auream, and Phaseolus.

THE SEMICOLON BUTTERFLY, Pylygonia (Grapta) interrogationis (Fabr.).—A brown
caterpillar with a red head and pale-yellow or brownish spines, sometimes defoliating
the vine, and changing into a large tawny-orange butterfly with jagged and angular
wings.

Though the caterpillars of this common butterfly lives on the Ameri-
can elm and lime trees, it is also at times quite destructive to the hop-
vine, sometimes abounding “ to such a degree as totally to destroy the
produce of the plant.”—(Harris.) The caterpillars are so conspicuous
early in August that they can be easily plucked off with the hand. The
chrysalides, which late in August suspend themselves beneath theleaves
and to the stems of the vine, can be picked off, though Harris recom-
mends that the vine “ should be cut down, stipped of the fruit that is
sufficiently ripened, and then burned.”

Caterpillar.—“ Browish, variegated with pale yellow, or pale yellow variegated with
brown, with a yellowish line on each side of the body; the head is rust-red, with two
blackish branched-spines on the top; and the spines of the body are pale yellow or
brownish, and tipped with black.”—( Harris.)

Chrysalis.— Ashen brown, with the head deeply nofched, and surmounted by two
conical ears, a long and thin nose-like promin-nce on the thorax, and eight silvery spots
on the back. The chrysalis state usually lasts from eleven to fourteen days; but the
later broods are more tady in tbeir transformations, the butterfly sometimes not ap-
pearing in less than twenty-six days after the change to the chrysalis.”—(Harris. )

Butter fly.—Tawny orange, wings very angular, though less dentate than in Polygonia
comma and progne, but the “ tails” of the hind wings are longer and more pointed. The
fore wings are tawny orange, but dark brown along the outer margin, with the extreme
edge washed with violet. Beneath ash-colored like old unpainted pine wood, with a
large heavy silver mark of interrogation. It is much larger than P. comma and progne,
expanding over two and a half (2.60) inches. ;

Harris states that ‘ great numbers of the chrysalides are annually
destroyed by little maggots within them, which, in due time, are trans-
formed to tiny four-winged flies, (Pteromalus vanesse,) which make their
escape by eating little holes through the sides of the chrysalis.”

THE CoMMA BUTTERFLY, Polygonia (Grapta) comma (Harris)—This

. is a smaller butterfly than the pre-

“em ceding, appearing in May and lay-

‘ey ing its eggs on the leaves of the

hop-vine, as well as other plants

(the elm, nettle and Baehmeria cylin-

drica). The caterpillars change to

chrysalides in the middle of July,

their butterflies lay eggs for a new

brood of caterpillars, which change

to. chrysalides the first of Septem-
ber and the butterflies hibernate.

Fic. 44.—Progne Butterfly.
Description —The caterpillar closely resembles that of G. interrogationis. The but
teifly is much smaller than P. interrogationis, and the fore wings of much the same shape,
but the hind wings are more toothed, with a yey ¥ less sharp “ tail.” The spots and

color are much the same but darker. Hind wibgs with an angular, slender, silvery
mark, somewhat like a comma. The inner half of both wings darker wood-ash color
than in P. interrogationis. Expanse of wings, 2} inches. Itis very closely allied to P.
progne (Fig. 44).

PACKARD.) THE COTTON ARMY-WORM. 775

THE Hop-VINE Root-BoRER, Hepialus mustelinus Packard.—This
moth is closely allied to the Hepialus humuli of Europe, which bores in
the roots of the hop. No borer has yet been detected in our vines, but
it is not improbable that the above-named species will be found to attack
this plant. It flies in Maine from the middle of July to the middle of
August.

Description of the moth—Female with the body and wings sable-brown. Fore wings
with three broad silvery spots on the costa, margined with black ; a broad silvery line
along the internal margin, which is continued as a submarginal oblique straight line,
dislocated near the middle of the wing, and margined with yellowish-brown with some
black scales. A marginal series of triangular spots. Fringe dark at the base, spotted
externally with silver. Beneath, the body is yellowish-brown, as is the front edge of
the fore wings, which is banded with three dusky patches, the middle of the wing is
dusky, while the legs are dark externally. It expands a little over one and a quarter
(1.30) inches,

Hepialus pulcher of Grote is a species which is common in the foot-
hills and mountains of Colorado during July, August, and September.
It may prove destructive to the hop when cultivated in Colorado,

INJURING THE COTTON-PLANT.

Tue Cotton ArMy-WorM, JAletia argillacea Hiibner; Anomis xylina Say (Fig. 45).—
Feeding often in vast numbers upon the leaves of the cotton-plant; a caterpillar with a
looping gait, hairy, green, dotted with black along a subdorsal yellowish line, and with
black dots beneath, changing to a pale reddish-brown moth.

Although this moth, and especially the caterpillar, are so abundant
and destructive in the cotton-growing States, there is much that needs
to be known about its habits and transform-
ations, as good authorities differ. The follow- (ee,
ing account and illustrations are taken from
my ‘‘Guide to the Study of Insects,” with
some additions from Riley’s Second Report
on the Noxious Insects of Missouri, and Mr.
Grote’s account in Smith’s Report on the
Geology of Alabama for 1875, p. 199.

The parent of the cotton-worm is a red-
dish brown moth, with a dark discal oval
spot centered by two pale dots. She de- Fig. 45.—Cotton Army-Worm,
posits, according to Mr. Glover, a low, Egg, and Moth.
much-flattened, vertically-ribbed egg upon the surface of the leaf.
“ Hach female moth deposits from 400 to 600, and, according to the
late Thomas Affbek, of Brenham, they hatch two days after being
deposited, if. the weather be moist and warm. ‘The worms at first
feed upon the parenchyma or soft, fleshy parts of the leaves, but
afterward devour indifferently, not only any portion of the leaves, but
also the blossom-bud and blossom, together with the calyx leaves at the
base of the boll, thus causing the lobes which hold the cotton to fall
entirely back and allow the cotton to drop at the slightest touch. While
young these worms readily let themselves down by a web when disturbed,
but when older they make less use of this web, and jerk themselves
away to a considerable distance when suddenly touched. They cast
their skins at five successive periods, and come to their growth in the
incredibly short space of fifteen or twenty days.”

The larva is a looper, four (the two foremost pair) out of the sixteen
abdominal legs usually present in the family being wanting, so that the

776 REPORT UNITED STATES. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

caterpillar resembles the germetrid or measuring-worms in its gait. In
this way it can readily be distinguished from either the northern army-
worm or the boll-worm. Its body is thickest in the middle, very hairy,
green, dotted with black along a subdorsal yellowish line, and with black
dots beneath.

-“Tn Central Alabama,” says Grote, ‘‘I have watched the growth of
the worms on the cotton-plant. The worm appears there in certain
seasons, as early as the latter part of June. After feeding for a period
of about fourteen days, the cotton-worms commence preparations for
shedding their skin to pass into the chrysalis stage of growth. For this
they spin a few loose threads of silk on the plant itself, which they rarely
forsake for that purpose. Within this light web the lost larve skin is
thrown off, and the brown chrysalis skin is exposed. In this state the
worm passes from a week to ten days.”

Riley states that, ‘‘according to the best authority, there are three
different broods of worms during the year, the first appearing in June
or July, and the last which does the most damage, appearing in August
or September, or even later.”

Like our northern army-worm (Leucania unipuncta), the cotton army-
worm, the early stages of the caterpillar having been unnoticed, owing
to the faet that it simulates the leaves on which it feeds and is so small,
becomes suddenly visible in great numbers in a single day, committing
the greatest havoc in a few hours. [ extract the following account of
an invasion of these cotton-worms, written by Prof. J. Darby, of Auburn,
Ala., and quoted in my Guide: “Saturday, September 19, 1 was in
the field examining the forms (buds before flowering) and the young
bolls (fruit after the floral organs have fallen off). I examined all care-
fully, with no signs of eggs or worms. On Sunday I did not see it. On
Monday I passed it as usual and observed nothing unusual. On Tues-
day morning I passed it and noticed nothing unusual. On Tuesday
noon every plant in the field was stripped of all its upper leaves, not
one remaining as far as could be seen, and the plants were covered with
millions of worms. I counted on one plant forty-six worms. They com-
mence at the top of the plant, eating every leaf. When the leaves were
gone they attacked the young bolls, eating through the perianth and
consuming the young cotton. In the course of four days the work was
done. They did not touch the grape. nor any other plant in the field.
Many left the field and thousands were in the road and on the fences,
but not one in a thousand thns escaped. To-day, September 23, there
is scarcely one to be seen. Their disappearance is as mysterious as
their coming. They have left no signs that I can see, either on the stalks
or in the ground. They have extended over hundreds of miles, and
nothing has proved a barrier to them, having been as destructive on
islands in the river as elsewhere. One-third of the cotton-crop has been
destroyed. Nothing of the kind has occurred in thirty years past to my
knowledge.”

In 1788 the cotton army-worm destroyed, at a low estimate, 200 tons
of cotton in the Bahamas; in Georgia, the crop was destroyed in 1793,
and it was very destructive in 1800, 1804, 1825, and 1826, and since then
has been destructive in certain localities nearly each year, though not
always in the same State. The average annual loss in this country is
probably some years $50,000,000. So great is the annual loss that it
would be well if the cotton States would each employ a salaried ento-
mologist to investigate and report on the insects injurious to the cotton-
plant. The United States Government should also employ competent
entomological talent, and have the subject investigated from a broad,

PACKARD. ] THE COTTON ARMY-WORM. T77

scientific standpoint, as it is a matter of national interest to arrest the
immense annual loss resulting from the attacks of the army-worm.

As to the original habitat of this insect there is some question. Mr.
Grote believes that it is ‘an imported insect, and not indigenous to the
Southern States.” He claims that, as in our climate cotton is an intro-
duced plant, and has become an annual, the cotton-worm has been im-
ported with it. Ashe says: ‘“ The first herald of the cotton-worm I have
found to be always the flight of the parent moths. These would come
to light in houses, and in a few days thereafter I found the young worms
on the plants. This, in Central Alabama, was in June or July, and
previously I had always heard of the appearance of the worm to the
southward. Before it, the cotton in my vicinity had shown no signs of
worm, and, had any existed in the country, it must have showed itself
during the preceding three months, while the young cotton-plants were
growing. In favorable seasons the broods were successive until frost,
and the death of the cotton-plant. Where food failed on one plantation
the worms wandered to another, and not till then. The first brood in
one locality is irregular, skipping some plantations, invading others.
Again, I have noticed that, while there was yet leaf enough left, and
the season yet warm, whole sections would be forsaken by the freshly-
disclosed moths. There is no doubt on my mind that the cotton-worm
has a yearly migration northward, from the facts in the case. The cold
weather finally kills the moths, without their being able to provide for
a further brood. [ have noticed the moth in the fall as far north as
Canada and the great lakes, and on the coast of Maine.* Always ar-
riving there late in the season, it must perish; there is no food for its
progeny ; it is too late for it to retrace its steps.” This supposed migra-
tion northward of the cotton army-worm is an interesting and practical
subject for further investigation. As yet I am hardly inclined to sup-
pose that this particular species should not live in all its stages where it
is now found, and I think that further research will prove that it is so.
It should be remembered that the caterpillars of a good many species of
this family do not hatch out until toward midsummer, for example,
the northern army-worm. Its larva should be looked for in the North-
ern States where it occurs, and, if found, the food-plant ascertained. It
is possible that the chrysalides have been carried north in cotton-bales,
but under the circumstances in which I have seen the moth flying on
an island in Salem Harbor, I do not doubt but that the caterpillar will
be found. I have taken several specimens of this moth on Coney Isl-
and in Salem Harbor. Mr. Edward Burgess informs me that it flew
aboard his yacbt in Boston Bay, September 9, 1873. Mr. Grote records
it from Buffalo, N. Y., and Mr. Riley from Chicago.

In the accompanying map showing the area of distribution of the cot-
ton army and boll worm, I have indicated the area in which it is per-
manently destructive, being the cotton-growing portion of the Southern
States, taken from Walker’s Statistical Atlas.

Description of the moth.—Pale brown, with a slight reddish tinge; hind wings some-
what paler. Fore wings with three indistinct irregularly scalloped reddish lines, the
basal one on the inner third of the wing composed of four or five scallops; the second
is situated deyond the middle of the wing, and branches out behind the middle (trans-
versely) of the wing, and sends a branch just beyond the discal dot, forming a third
line. The scallops differ in size, but the line curves out mest just below the costa, and
again opposite the discal spot, which is large, dark, conspicuous, obliquely oval, and
centered with two unequal bluish spots. Expanse of wings, 1.55inches. Salem, Mass.,

Demopolis, Ala., and Waco, Tex., September 5, October 12, and November 15.—(Bel-
frage.)

*This is most probably a mistake for Massachusetts, as I am quite sure it has not
been observed north of Salem, Mass.

778 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Remedies.—Picking the caterpillars off the plants by hand, ditching,
and the use of burning straw when the caterpillars migrate from one
field to another, are remedies that can be applied in the cotton States,
when labor is cheap, to good advantage. By these means, and the use
of Paris green, the evil can be stamped out, provided co-operation is
practised among adjoining plantations. The same means should be
used as with the northern army-worm and potato-beetle. The most
serviceable remedy has been the use of Paris green, either dry, mixed
with cheap flour, or in water, in proportions sufficient to kill the cater-
pillars without injuring the plants. This remedy has been successfully
tried in the South. I take the following modes of using this poison
from Mr. Riley’s Sixth Report. In Texas, by the use of Paris green
mixed with lime or plaster, or even fine sand, ‘a neighbor has picked
already 10 bales of 500 pounds each from 13 acres, while freedmen on
the same farm lost their whole crop by refusing to use it.” Repeated
applications should be made. after the appearance of successive broods
of worms. By some, it is said application should not be made after the
bolls are open, lest it become dangerous to picker and ginner.” Mr. J.
hh. Maxwell, of Alabama, writes to the Southern Farmer: ‘‘I have been
successful in the use of Paris green on the cotton-worm. I had 100
acres of cotton on swamp-land that would have been ruined, but on
their first appearance I commenced on them. I put eight hands on
mules, with two-gallon watering-pots, and had ten more hands and two
wagons engaged in keeping them supplied with water and poison, and
went over my cotton twice, up one side of a row and down the other,
going thus twice to each row. Poison, labor, and all cost me about
$300. It has saved me at the very least 20 bales of cotton. I used the
poison by putting to each canful of water half a table-spoonful of poi-
son and three table-spoonfuls of flour, stirring it well. I tried it first
without flour, but every shower would wash all the poison off.” Another
Alabama farmer successfully used the powder-mixture on 50 acres at a
cost of 68 cents an acre. Mr. D. F. Prout says that the cost of material
an acre “for two applications will not exceed $1.75, viz: 40 pounds of
flour, at 24 cents per pound, and 2 pounds of Paris green, at 373 cents.”
He found, in his own experience, that an expenditure of $100 on about
59 acres increased the crop at least 10 bales.

THE Boit-Worm, Heleothis armigera Linn.—Eating the boll of the cotton-plant,
corn in the ear, tomato-fruit, etc.; a rather large, thick-bodied, pale-green or dark-
brown caterpillar, with longitudinal light and dark lines, and with a broad yellow
aca below tae breathing-pores, and marked with black spots, from which arise fine

alrs.

This moth is a cosmopolitan, being injurious in Europe, and inhab-
iting Japan and even Australia. It feeds on a variety of .plants, not
only devouring the calyx of the flower
but the boll, and corn in the ear as well
as the stock, unripe aud ripe tomates,
green pease, string-beans, and young
pumpkins. It bores into the stalks of
the gladiolus, and in Europe is known to
devour the heads of hemp and leaves of
tobacco and of lucern, as well as chick
or coffee pea.—(Riley.)

‘‘The egg from which the worm hatches
is ribbed in a somewhat similar manner
to that of the cotton-worm, but may
readily be distinguished by being less
Moth. (After Glover.) flattened and of a pale straw color in-

PACKARD. ] THE BOLL-WORM. 779

stead of green. It is usually deposited singly on the outside of the
involucel or outer calyx of the flower or young boll, and each female moth
is capable of thus consigning to their proper places upward of five hun-
dred eggs.”—(Riley.)

“ Some eggs of the boll-worm hatched in three or four days after being
brought in from the field, the inclosed worms gnawing a hole through .
the shell of the egg, and then escaping. They soon commenced feeding
upon the tender, fleshy substance of the calyx near the place where the
egg had been deposited. When they had gained strength, some of the
worms pierced through the calyx and others through the petals
of the closed flower-bud, or even penetrated into the young and
tender boll itself. The pistils and stamens of the open flower are
frequently found to be disturbed and injured without any apparent
eause. This has been done by the young boll-worm; when hidden
in the unopened bud, it has eaten one side only of the pistils and
stamens, so that when the flower is open the parts injured are dis-
torted and maimed, and very frequently the flower falls without form-
ing any boll whatever. In many cases, however, the young worm
bores through the bottom of the flower into the immature boll before
the old flower falls, thus leaving the boll and involucel, or envelope, still
adhering to the foot-stalk with the worm safely lodged in the growing
boll. The number of buds destroyed by this worm is very great, as they
fall off when quite small, and are scarcely observed as they lie brown
and withering on the ground beneath the plant. The instinct of the
boll-worm, however, teaches it to forsake a bud or boll about to fall, and
either to seek another healthy boll or to fasten itself to a leaf, on which
it remains until at length it acquires size and strength sufficient to enable
it to bore into the nearly-matured bolls, the interior of which is nearly
destroyed by its attacks, as, should it not be completely devoured, rain
penetrates through the hole made by the worm, and the cotton soon
becomes rotten and will not ripen. * * * One thing is worthy
of observation, and that is whenever a young boll or bud is seen with
the involucre spread open and of a sickly yellow color, it may be safely
concluded that it has been attacked by the boll-worm, and will soon
Perish: and fall to the ground.

* * *

“The buds aaa by the worm may be readily distinguished by a
minute hole where it has eftered, and which, when cut open, will be
found partially filled with small black grains, something like coarse
gunpowder, which is nothing but the digested food after having passed
through the body of the worm.”—(Glover, Monthly Agricultural Report,
July, 1866.)

When fully grown, the worm descends into the ground, there forming
an oval cocoon of earth interwoven with silk wherein it changes to a
bright chestnut-brown chrysalis with four spines at the end of the body,
the two middle ones being stouter than the others. In this state it re-
mains three or four weeks when the moth escapes. Mr. Glover says
that ‘‘ there are at least three broods each year in Georgia, the last
brood issuing as moths latein November. With us (Missouri) there are
usually but two, though as already hinted there may be exceptionally
three. Most of the moths issue in the fall and hibernate as such,'but
some of them pass the winter in the chrysalis state and do not issue till
the following spring. I have known them to issue in this latitude after
the first of November, when no frost had previously occurred.”—(Riley.)

Description of the moth.—I regret that there is no good description of the caterpillar
in existence and that I have no opportunity to study these caterpillars either in a

780 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

state of nature or preserved in alcohol. Specimens in allstages would be very welcome.
The moth is pale tawny, the hind wings whitish. The fore wings are uniformly pale
tawny yellowish, with a small, not very distinct, oval, dark discal dot. Half-way
between this and the outer edge of the wing is a row of whitish points, shaded with
black within; fringe, flesh red. Hind wings whitish, blackish on the outer two-
thirds, with a white fringe. Expanse of wings,.1.40 to. 1.60 inches. I have received
perce from Mr. Belfrage, of Waco, Tex., taken May 18, June 22, July 29, and Au-
gust 6.

Remedies.—This caterpillar is difficult to manage, as itis hidden most
of its life. Hand-picking, if thoroughly tried, will save much loss.
The moths may be trapped by spreading a mixture of vinegar and sugar
over foods or in plates, and moth-traps should be liberally used. A
moth closely allied to this and which in the caterpillar as well as
moth state may be easily confounded with the boll-worm, is the so-called
phlex worm, originally described by Messrs. Grote and Robinson under
the name of Heliothis phloxophaga. It occurs all over the South and west
as far as California and Oregon. Professor Riley, in the Prairie Farmer,
states that there are ‘‘two broods a year, the first appearing in July
and becoming moths by the middle of August, the second passing the
winter in the chrysalis state. The eggs are deposited singly on all por-
tions of the plant, and the caterpillar when about to become a chrysalis
euters the ground and interweaves grains of sand with a few silken
threads, forming a very slight elastic cocoon.”

Description of the moth.—It is usually a little smaller than H. armigera and with a
large black discal spot fully twice as large as in that species. A dark tawny band ©
runs from the discal spot to the inner edge of the wing. In front of the discal spot are
two dark, small costal spots, and a third much larger, one near the apex. Hind wings
with a very large, black lunate discal spot, almost entirely wanting in H. armigera,,

while as in that species the black border incloses a white spot, usually, however, much
better marked than in H. armigera. Expanse of wings, 1.00-1.40 inches.

INSECTS ATTACKING THE TOBACCO-PLANT.

THE Tosacco-Worm, Sphinx 5-maculata Haworth.—Devouring the leaves; a large
green caterpillar as thick as one’s little finger, with a stiff horn on the end of its body,
and changing to a chrysalis in the earth, the moth flying in June to September.

About the only serious enemies of the tobacco-plant are the two
species of Sphinx moths, Macrosila carolina Linn., and JMacrosila 5-
maculata, or the Carolina and five-spotted hawk-moth. The Carolina
worm is confined to the Middle and Southern States, while the cater-
pillar of the five-spotted hawk-moth occurs in the Northern and Western
States, as well as the Southern. I have received J. 5-maculata from
Salt Lake City, through Mr. Joseph L. Barfoot, curator of the Salt Lake
museum.

So far as my personal knowledge extends, the tobacco-worm is inju-
rious to the tobacco-crop of the Connecticut Valley in Connecticut and
Western Massachusetts, and is only kept under by watchfulness, being
picked off by hand. In the Middle States, for example Tennessee, the
ravages of the ‘“tobacco-worm,” as stated by the Scientific Farmer,
which may refer either to this insect or the Carolina sphinx, is a great -
hinderance to the successful cultivation of tobacco in Tennessee. ‘ But,”
adds the editor, ‘‘an enemy to it has appeared in the person of an ich-
neumon-fly, which destroys the worms in large numbers. It is thought
if this ichneumon keeps at its work, that certain lands will possess a
high value for the cultivation of tobacco.” The accompanying cut (Fig.
48) represents an ichneumon-parasite, a species of iMicrogaster, bred by

PACKARD.] THE TOBACCO-WORM. 781

Mr. J. H. Emerton, from Macrosila 5-maculata ; the cross-lines represent
the natural size, and a, the cocoon, natural size.

Fic. 48.—Ichneumon-parasite of the Northern Tobacco-Worm.

782 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Fig, 49 illustrates an ichneumon-para-
site of the vine-dresser, Chanocampa pam-
pinating, reared at Salem, Mass., by Mr.
Emerton, by whom the drawings of both
were made. Professor Riley notices a
species of Microgaster and ichneumon, an
undescribed species of Blacus, a braconid
ichneumon, which preys on the five-spot- -
ted sphinx.

The moth in the Northern States ap-
pears in June, without doubt, though I
have not personally seen them, lays its
eggs on the leaves, probably the under
side, and the caterpillar lives about six
Fic. 49.—Ichneumon-parasite of Weeks, attaining its full size from the

Vine-Dresser. middle of August until the first of Sep-
tember, going under ground in September and early October. During
this month I have frequently seen the moths at twilight in Amherst,
Mass., flying about the flowers of the petunia, probing their deep
tubular cerollas with their long tongue. Our figure, (47,) copied from
Harris, will sufficiently indicate the size and transformations of this
common moth, the caterpillar of which, in the Northern States, often
passes under the name of the tomato or potato worm.

The caterpillar is rather dark green, with seven oblique greenish-
yellow stripes on the side of the body. The chrysalis may be known
by the large, conspicuous tongue-case which projects from the body like
the handle of a pitcher.

In the Macrosila 5-maculata there is no white spot at the base of the
fore wings, and on the hind wings are two distinct angulated bands.

The Carolina moth is ash-colored, with a white spot at the base of the
fore wings, while the central band of the hind wings is indistinct. The
caterpillar feeds on the tobacco and the tomato. It is dark green, with
lateral, oblique, white bands, edged above with bluish and short trans-
verse black stripes. The tongue-case is shorter and less curved than
in the five-spotted sphinx.

INSECTS INJURING THE GRAPE.

THE GRAPE PHYLLOXERA, Pemphigus vitifolie Fitch; Phylloxera
vastatriz Planchon.—What the Colorado potato-beetle is to the potato,
the Hessian fly to wheat, and the canker-worm is to the apple, the
phylloxera is to the grape. This amounts to saying that the vine is in
danger of extermination from the latter insect. My attention has been
drawn for two years past, while spending a few weeks in September at
the Agricultural College in Amherst, to the ravages of this pest, by
Professor Maynard. In the autumn of 1875, we found it in abundance
on the leaves of several varieties in the vineyard on the college farm,
while this year; in company with Professor Maynard, I examined the
roots and found the following varieties more or less infested by the root-
variety of this plant-louse: Clinton, Agawam, Concord, Lona, Delaware,
Adirondack, Israella, Isabella, Wilder, and the native grape under
cultivation; the Clinton was affected more than the others, and the
Concord much so when growing in a slightly damp, ill-drained and par-
tially shady place.

I am not aware that this formidable pest, which has occasioned such
consternation in Europe, has been detected before in New England,

PACKARD.] THE GRAPE PHYLLOXERA. 783

except in Connecticut, where it has been found by Mr. Riley. I received
it several years ago from Philadelphia, and it has done much damage
in the Middle and Western States, while it is known to affect vines in
California. As we are destined to be greatly annoyed by it, a brief
description condensed from the excellent account by Mr. Riley in his
sixth, seventh, and eighth report of the insect in its two forms, may be
timely. The insect was first found in this country, and was described
by Dr. Fitch in 1856, under the name of Pemphigus vitifolie. Its proper
name is Phylloxera vitifolie, though most authors speak of it as Phyl-
loxera vastatrix. It exists in two forms, one raising irregular galls on
the leaves, and the other forming small swellings on the rootlets. The
root-form is both wingless and winged, the latter very rare. The leaf-
form is said to be always wingless.

The wingless female of the leaf-form lays, on an average, 200 eggs,
and sometimes 500. There are perhaps five generations ina year. This
leaf-form produces round, irregular galls, sometimes as large as a pea,
but it does little damage compared with the root-form, which is much
more abundant than the leaf-form (especially on native vines) in France,
where its ravages have been so alarming that the French government
have offered a reward of 300,000 francs for a simple available remedy.

The leaf-form descends to the roots in the autumn, and there hyber-
nates. The larve of the root-form are at first smooth and like the
young of the leaf-form, but afterward molt and become warty, so as
to become readily distinguishable from them.

Professor Riley and certain French observers have lately proved that
the gall-producers (or the leaf-form) come from the impregnated or
winter egg.

The winged females begin to appear in July, but are most abundant
in August and September. Like the wingless females, they reproduce
by budding (parthenogenesis), the eggs not being fertilized by males,
no males being in existence. Having issued from the ground while in
the pupa state, they rise in F
the air, and spread to new ;
vineyards, where they lay
two or three, sometimes eight
eggs. Theseeggs are of two
sizes, and,in about a fort-
night, from the larger eggs eo
are hatched wingless true SS
sexual females, and from the :
smaller eggs wingless males. * pitas
“The abdomen of the fe- } os,”
male, after impregnation, en- ff J. — :

H
Uv

larges somewhat, and she is $
soon delivered of a solitary —
egg, which differs from the g yy
ordinary eggs of the parthe- :
nogenetic mother, only in S d
becoming somewhat darker. ae eee gallon’, a, b, rs
This impregnated egg gives oa Ne Ta. nit orsa. Ni i c, eg@; d, section
birth toayounglouse, which {ouso, jateral, dorsal, and voutial views i her
becomesa virginal,egg-bear- antenna; j, her two-jointed tarsus. The figure
ing, wingless mother, and on the side of each enlarged drawing represents
thus recommences the cycle the natural size. (After Riley.)

of the species’ evolution. But one of the most important discoveries of
Balbiani is that, during the latter part of the season, many of the wing-

~ he J

784 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

less, hypogean mothers perform the very same function as the winged
ones ; 7. ¢., they lay a few eggs, which are of two sizes, and which pro-
duce males and females, organized and constructed precisely as those
born of the winged females, and, like them, producing the solitary
impreguated egg. Thus, the interesting fact is established that even
the winged form is by no means essential to the perpetuation of

j the species; but that, if all
such winged individuals
were destroyed as fast as
they issue from the ground,
the species could still go on
multiplying in a vineyard
from year to year. We have,
therefore, the spectacle of an
underground insect, posses-
sing the power of continued
existence, even when con-
fined to its subterranean re-
treats. It spreads in the
wingless state from vine to
vine, and. from vineyard to
vineyard,when these are ad-

Fie. «1.—Type radicicola. a, roots of Clinton vine, Lomas 2: ee throug
showing the relation of swellings to leaf-galls, Sages in the ground itself
the power of resisting decomposition; b, larva, Or Over the surface ; at the
as it appears when hibernating; c,d,antenna same time it is able, in the
and leg of the same ; 05,9) forms of more mature winged condition to migrate
lice; h, granulations of skin ; i, tubercle; j, trans- to much more distant
verse folds at border of joints; k, simple eyes. t :
(After Riley.) points.”—( Riley.)

The solitary egg above referred to is the winter egg. As autumn ad-
vapces, the winged individuals become more and more scarce, and only
eggs, newly-hatched larve,
and afew wingless, egg-bear-
ing mothers are seen. The
latter are said to die during
the winter, and consequently
the species in winter is repre-
\. sented by the larvee and a few

‘eggs. In spring the larve molt
their winter coat, and, after
attaining maturity, lay eggs.

The eggs laid by the winged

females are placed in thedown

of the leaf of the vine, bunt
more commonly in the earth
around the roots.

As to remedies, one hun-
dred and forty have already
been proposed in France, but —
none are infallible. The best

a ae ; general remedyis floodiag the

vi problemate individual orsuppesed males cd aa Vineyards in autumn or Win-
antenna and leg; e, vesicles found in the abdomen. ter. The best specific appli-
(After Riley.) cation has been found to be the
bisulphide of carbon, two ounces to be placed in a hole near the root, the
earth becoming impregnated, the insects are killed. Mr. Riley has urged

= aS a

PACKARD. ] THE GRAPE FORESTER. 785

the use of resisting American vines as stocks, and this is undoubtedly
one of the best preventive measures which can be adopted. The writer
would like to know how extensive in the Eastern States is the distribu-
tion of the phylloxera. The galls are at once recognizable, and appear
in midsummer, while the root-form may be detected by little swellings on
the rootlets, in which the small greenish-yellow lice may be detected
after close examination.

The following recapitulation of the different forms in the insect is
taken from Professor Riley’s article on the Phyollexera in Johnson’s
Cyclopedia:

1. The gall-inhabiting type (gallecola), forming galls on the leaves, and presenting—
a, The ordinary egg (Fig. 50, c), with which the gall is crowded;

b, The ordinary larva, (Fig. 50, a, b);
ce, The swollen parthenogenetic mother, without tubercles (Fig. 50, g, h);

2. The root-inhabiting type (radicicola), forming knots on the roots, and presenting—
aa, The ordinary egg, differing in nothing from a, except in its slight large average
size ;

b b, The ordinary larva, also differing in no respect from b ;
d, The parthenogenetic, wingless mother, the analogue of ¢, but covered with
tubercles (Fig. 55, g, f);
é, The more oval form, destined to become winged ;
Ff, The pupa, (Plate LXVIII, Fig. 1 e);
g, The winged, parthenogenetic female (Plate LXVIII, Fig. 1 g, h);
h, The sexual egg deposited by g, being of two sizes, and giving birth
to the two males and females;
i, The male (Plate LXVIII, Fig. 2 e);
j, The true female (Plate LXVIII, Fig. 2, a, b);
k, The solitary impregnated egg deposited by j ;
bb b, The larva hatched from k, which, so far as known, does not differ from the
ordinary larva, exeept in its greater prolificacy ;
1, The hybernating laiva, which differs only from b in being
rougher and darker. Fr

THE GRraPe Forester, Alypia octomaculatuFabr. (Fig. 53).—Devouring the leayes H
bright orange, blue and black banded caterpillars.

By the time the syringa is in blossom, the eight-spotted, or grape-
forester moth flies about. It is easily
known by its black hue, with eight large
spots on the wings, two on each wing,
those on the fore wings being yellowish,
those on the hind wings white. The cat-
erpillar is banded with whitish-blue, with
black lines, and on the middle of each
segment is a broader orange-yellow band
dotted with black, with a conspicuous _ ap,
white spot on each side behind. Itis an /[i}
inch and a quarter long. By the middle ¢
of July it becomes fully fed, and pupates
in slight webs on the ground or in earthen a
cocoons. Hand-picking is the best rem- Hye: 53:—TDhe Grape Forester. a,
edy. Thisinsectis briefly mentioned here, caterpillar; b, side view of aseg-
from the fact that a similar caterpillar was ment enlarged. ;
very common at Golden, Colo., July 3, 1875, on the wild grapes by the
side of the railroad, and when the cultivated varieties become reared ™
extensively, it will probably transfer its affections from the wild to the
cultivated varieties. The caterpillars of several species of similar moths
which occur in California, the genus Alypia being. more numerously
represented on the Pacific coast than elsewhere, may ultimately be found
injurious to the cultivated grape.

5065s

ge
a

786 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

THE GRAPE-VINE CoLaspPis, Colaspis flanda, Lay. (Fig. 54).—Eating the terminal
buds and young leaves, also riddling the leaves. A cream-colored and black beetle.

This little beetle is one of the worst of the forty or fifty different insect-
enemies of the grape-vine.
=e The beetle ranges from New
York to Illinois and Missouri.
d It is cream-colored and black,
with long club-shaped feelers
y hearly a fifth of an inch long;
the head and prothoray are red-
dish-yellow, while the wing-
Fra. 54.—Grape-Vine Colaspis. 2 nat. size; 1, covers are black. Hand-pick-
the same magnified ; a, the larva; b, end of body ing is the best remedy. The
enlarged. (After Riley.) larva (Fig. 57 a) has been
found by Professor Riley to feed on the roots of the strawberry. It
transforms in the ground.

THE VINE-LEAF HOPPER, Erythionenis vitis Harris. (Fig. 55).—Swarming upon the
leaves in August and early September ; a small, pale yellow leaf-hopper, with two broad
red bands on the wings, causing the leaves to wither.

This little insect, which I have seen abounding in the vineyard of
the Massachusetts Agricultural
College early in September, when
the grapes were ripening, is pale
yellow, with two broad red bands
and a third dusky one at the
apex. Itisa little over a tenth
. of an inch long. It swarms on
_ the leaves in August, puncturing
i ® them with its tiny beak and draw-
Fa. 55.—Vine-Leaf-Hopper. ing out the sap until the leaves
turn yellow and become dry and stiff. The young appear in June, and
the leaves are thus depleted for a period of nearly three months. They
wither, and hence the plant becomes enfeebled, little new wood is formed,
the canes do not ripen well, and the fruit is stunted and easily mildews,
while in a few years the vines become exhausted and barren. The leaf-
hoppers hibernate, and Jay their eggsin the spring. As aremedy, wash
the vines with soap-suds in June, and, if possible, fumigate the leaves
with tobacco.

THE RED-SHOULDERED SINOXYLON, Sinoxylon basillare Lay. (Fig. 56).—Boring under
the bark and into the middle of grape-stems ;
a short, thick maggot.

This blight insect sometimes bores
under the bark of the grape, as well
as in the heart of grape-stems. It also
tunnels in apple-trees and in the shag-
- bark hickory, bering holes straight
it toward the heart of the tree, and
°¢ @& changing to the pupa state at the
Fic. 56.—Red shouldered Sinorylon. a, inner ends of their burrows. (Harris.)

larva; b, pupa; ¢, beetle. (After As a remedy, burn the infested twigs

Riley.) © or stems.

PACKARD.] THE EUROPEAN CURRANT SAW-FLY. 787

INJURING THE CURRANT.

TuE EUROPEAN CURRANT Saw-FLy, Nematus ventricosus Klug. (Figs. 57-59).—Devour-
ing the leaves from June until August; a green false caterpillar, changing to a pale
honey-brown saw-ily.

This destructive insect was imported from Europe into nurseries at
Toronto, Canada, and was detected at Rochester, N. Y., during the
year 1857. It seems since that time to have spread westward and east-
ward, arriving in Eastern Massachusetts about 1865, as I am informed
by Mr. F. G. Sanborn. For eight seasons past it has been very de-
structive in gardens in Massachusetts as well as in Illinois and Michi-
gan, where it seems destined to spread farther west.

The parent of this worm is a saw-fly, so named from bearing a saw-
like sting, or ovipositor, with which it pierces the leaves or stalks of
plants, cutting a gash, in which it deposits an egg, the egg passing out
from the ovary through the oviduct, and thence through the blades of
the ovipositor into the wound made in the plant. While most of the
members of this family cut a gash in the leaf, into which an egg is
pushed, a few, as in the present insect, simply place them on the under
surface of the leaf, as seen in Fig. 59. (1.) The fly has four wings, and
belongs to the same group of insects (Hymenoptera) that comprises the
bee, wasp, and ichneumon-fly.

The following account of its habits is taken from the writer’s Guide
to the Study of Insects: “There are about fifty species of Nematus in
this country, of which the most injurious one, the gooseberry saw-fly,
has been brought from Europe. Professor Winchell, who has studied
this insect in Ann Arbor, Mich., where it has been very destructive,
observed the female on the 16th of June, while depositing her cylindri-
cal, whitish, and transparent eggs in
regular rows along the under side of
the veins of the leaves, at the rate
of about one in forty-five seconds.
The embryo escapes from the egg
in four days. It feeds, molts, and
burrows into the ground within a
period of eight days. It remains
thirteen days in the ground, being

‘most of the time in the pupa state,
while the fly lives nine days. The
first brood of worms appeared May
21; the second brood, June 25.”
Fig. 57 shows the eggs deposited
along the under side of the midribs
of the leaf; 2, the holes bored by }

the very young larve; and, 3, those Fic. 57.—Currant-leaf with (1) eggs; 2, 3,
eaten by the larger worms. holes eaten by the larvx. (After Riley.)

Fig. 58 (a, enlarged) represents the worm when fully grown. It is
then cylindrical, pale green, with a pale-green head, with the segment
next behind the head, and the third segment from the end of the body,
together with the last or anal segment yellow ; the 16 false or abdom-
inal legs are also yellow; the six thoracic legs are horn-colored. The
body is transversely wrinkled, especially on the back, and is slightly
hairy. The eyes are black, and the jaws (mandibles) are black, and

on the inner side of the edge reddish. It is about three-quarters of_an
inch in length.

788 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Previous to the last molt, however, and before it had gained its full
size, preparatory to
passing into the adult
or winged condition,
the body is covered
with black tubercles ;
from each of which
arises a stiff black
hair. There is also
a supraanal or dorsal
lack patch on the
last segment of the
body, from which
arises a pair of black
spines. On the back
of the false caterpillar
the tubercles become
smooth and _ trans-
versely oval, and ar-
ranged in two regular
rows. Moreover, a
still more important
, ; characteristic of the
Fig. 58.—Currant saw-fly larva, natural size; a, enlarged. Worm in this stage is
the jet-black head, which in the fully-grown insect is pale pea-green.

In Salem, my attention was drawn to the ravages of this worm by Dr.
William Mack, who found them feeding on the currants in his garden
June 8. At this time they were spin-
ning their cocoons, which were of silk,
tough, dense, like parchment, and at
first green, then becoming blackish, and
covered with particles of dirt, and at-
tached to the leaves in the breeding-box.
Out of doors they may be found the first
week in June, and again during the first

stalks on the bushes, or among the

leaves lying on the ground, or perhaps

more frequently a little under the sur-

face of the ground. Here they remain

between two and three weeks in June,

= the adult flies (in Salem) appearing

¥ June 25, At nearly the same date (June

g 29) the worms of the second brood were

b spinning their cocoons. These cocoons

Fig. 59.—European Currant Saw-Fly. (belonging to the second brood) remain

a,male. b, female. (After Riley.) under ground or on the leaves about the

roots through the winter, the flies appearing in the spring and laying
their eggs as soon as the leaves unfold.

Not having specimens of both sexes of this saw-fly at hand, I compile
the following description (often using their own words) from Messrs.
Walsh and Riley’s account in the American Entomologist, vol. ti, p. 16,
from which these illustrations (Fig. 59 a, b) are taken.

The female (Fig. 59 b) is a quarter of an inch long (232,25), and is
of a bright honey-yellow color. The head is black, with all the parts
between and below the origin of the anteunz, except the tip of the

week in July among the leaves and —

PACKARD.) THE EUROPEAN CURRANT SAW-FLY. 789

mandibles (jaws), dull honey-yellow. The antennez are brown-black,
often tinged with reddish above, except toward the base, and beneath
entirely dull reddish, except the two basal joints. They are four-fifths as
long as the body; the third joint, when viewed sideways, is four times
as long as wide; the third, fourth, and fifth joints are equal in length, the
remaining joints slowly diminishing in length. On the thorax are four
conspicuous black spots and other smaller ones. The legs are bright
honey-yellow ; the basal or hip-joints (coxz.and trochanters) whitish,
while the extreme tips of the hind shanks (tibizw) and the whole of the
hind toe-joints (tarsi) are blackish brown. The wings are glossy, with
dark veins, and expand a little over half an inch.

The male (Fig. 59 a) is rather smaller (4%, inch in length), and is
black. The head is dull honey-yellow. The antenne are brown-black,
often a little reddish beneath, except toward the base; they are as long
as the body, and while longer than in the female, are also somewhat
flattened out. The thorax has thé wing-scales and the prothorax, or
collar, honey-yellow. The under side and tip of the abdomen are honey-
yellow. ;

The injury done to currant-bushes during the past year was very
great. In June, we saw them in great numbers in a garden at Law-
rence, where they had stripped the bushes, eating the leaves down to
the leaf-stalk, myriads clustering upon the branches. The birds evi-
dently do not feed upon them, and thus, in dealing with this insect, we
are deprived of one of the most powerful agencies in nature for restrain-
ing a superabundance of insect-life.

As this is an important and practical subject, let us digress for a
moment to notice some facts brought out by Mr. J. J. Weir, of the London
Entomological Society on the insects that seem distasteful to birds.
He finds by caging up birds whose food is of a mixed character (purely
insect-eating birds could not be kept alive in confinement), that all hairy
caterpillars were uniformly uneaten. Such caterpillars are the ‘ yellow
bears” (Arctia and Spilosoma), the salt-marsh caterpillars (Leucaretia
acrea), andthe caterpillar of the Vaporer moth (Orgyia), and the spring
larvee of butterflies; with these may perhaps be classed the European
currant saw-fly. He was disposed to consider that the ‘flavor of all
these caterpillars is nauseous, and not that the mechanical troublesome,
ness of the hairs prevents their being eaten. Larve which spin webs-
and are gregarious, are eaten by birds, but not with avidity; they ap-
pear very much to dislike the web sticking to their beaks, and those
completely concealed in the web are left unmolested. When branches
covered with the web of Hyponomenta evonymella (a little moth of the
Tinea family) were introduced. into the aviary, those larve only which
ventured beyond the protection of the web were eaten.” ‘ Smooth-
skinned, gaily-colored caterpillars (such as the currant Abraxas, or span
worm), which never conceal themselves, but on the contrary appear to
court observation”, were not touched by the birds. He states, on the
other hand, that ‘all caterpillars whose habits are nocturnal, and are
dull-colored, with fleshy bodies and smooth skins, are eaten with the
greatest avidity. Every species of green caterpillar is also much rel-
ished. All Geometre, whose larvee resemble twigs, as they stand out
from the plant on their anal prolegs, are invariably eaten.” Mr. A, G.
Butler, of London, has also found that frogs and spiders will not eat
the same larvee rejected by birds, the frogs having an especial aversion
to the currant span-worms (Abraxas and Halia).

The natural enemies of the currant saw-fly are three kinds of ichneu-
mon-flies, of which one is a minute egg-parasite. Mr. Lintner, of New

790 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

York, states that of fifty eggs laid by the parent saw-fly, only four or
tive hatched out the currant-worm. We see, then, that though the
birds apparently destroy none, an immense number are carried off, even
before they have a chance of doing any mischief, by minute insects of
their own order.

One of the best remedies next to picking them off by hand, and which
is really the most practicable method of getting rid of them, is to dust
powdered white hellebore over the bushes, by sprinkling it from a
muslin bag tied toa stick, as it otherwise excites violent sneezing.
Used in this small quantity it is not poisonous. This is the remedy
used with most success in the West, and recommended by Messrs.
Walsh and Riley. I have used it with good success in my own garden,
and it is a thorough remedy if thoroughly and persistently applied.
Dr. W. Mack, of Salem, tells me that he has used a solution, consisting
of a pound of copperas to six gallons of water, with much success. It
blackens the leaves, but does not injure them permanently.

Dr. E. Worcester, of Waltham, according to the Boston Journal of
Chemistry, finds that this worm “may be fully and almost immediately
destroyed by the use of carbolate of lime. The doctor tried the powder
in many instances during the past summer, and found that while it was
fully as effective as hellebore, it was less disagreeable, less costly, and
perfectly safe. The method of using it is to sprinkle it over the vines
as soon as the worm makes its appearance, bringing it well in contact
with the leaves, and soon the insect is destroyed. It will need but two
or three applications, and the work is done.”

This worm attacks the gooseberry as well as the currant, though in
Massachusetts its ravages have been more confined to the latter shrub.
As a preventive measure against. its further spread, in buying or
transporting gooseberry and currant bushes, Walsh recommends that
the roots be carefully cleaned of dirt, so that the cocoons may not be
carried from one garden or nursery to another.

THE NATIVE CURRANT SAW-FLY, Pristophora grossulane Walsh.—
As this species may be confounded with the European saw-fly, though
belonging to a different genus (Pristiphora), the following brief account
of it is extracted from my Guide to the Study of Insects:

This saw-fly (Fig. 60 a, larva;
b, female, from the ‘American
Entomologist”; P. grossularie of
Walsh) “is a widely diffused spe-
cies in the Northern and Western
States, and injures the currant
and gooseberry. The female fly
is shining black, while the head

: is dull yellow, and the legs are

= a

honey-yellow, with the tips of the
six tarsi, and sometimes the ex-
Fie. 60.—Native Currant Saw-Fly. a, larva; treme tips of the hinder tibie, and

peernial of the tarsal joints, pale dusky for
a quarter of their length. The wings are partly hyaline, with black
veins, a honey-yellow costa, and a dusky stigma, edged with honey-
yellow. The male differs a little in having black coxew. Mr. Walsh
states that the larva is a pale grass-green worm, half an inch long, with
a black head, which becomes green after the last molt, but with a
lateral brown stripe meeting with the opposite one on the top of the
head, where it is more or less confluent; and a central brown-black
spot on its face. It appears the last of June and early in July, and a

PACKARD.) THE CURRANT SPAN-WORM—THE CANKER-WORM. 791

second brood in August. They spin their cocoons on the bushes on
which they feed, and the fly appears in two or three weeks, the speci-
mens reared by him flying on the 26th of August.” This worm may at
once be distinguished from the imported currant-worm by the absence
of the minute black warts that cover the body of the latter. The same
remedies should be used for this worm as are recommended for the pre-
ceding insect.

THE CURRANT SPAN-WORM, Lujitchia ribearia Fitch. (Fig. 61, moth; Fig. 62, 1, 2,
caterpillar; 3, pupa, from the “American Entomologist.”)—Devouring the leaves; @
span-worm, about an inch long, bright yellow, spotted, being nut-black.

Many persons, in speaking of the “ currant-
worm,” confound the caterpillar-like saw-fly larva
with the well-known geometer caterpillar, which
is a native species, and was long since described
by Dr. Fitch, under the name of Abraxas ribea-
via. As soon as the leaves of the currant are
fairly expanded, late in May or early in June, the
young caterpillars, scarcely thicker than a horse-
hair, may be found eating little holes in them.
In about three weeks after hatching it becomes fully grown, being
about an inch long, and bright-yellow in color, the body being covered
with large, black dots. The chrys- hy
alis isshining reddish-brown, about ~)
half an inch long, and may be found
late in June, either upon the
ground or just under the surface. 4,
In two weeks after entering the \
chrysalis state the moth may be Wh )
observed flying about the garden WS “aE
or resting upon the leaves during 4
cloudy weather. The moth is yel-
low ochreous, with dark, often 9W\
nearly transparent, blotches on the ,\\
wings. It is not easily mistaken
for any other moth. Mr. Riley, in \N
an article on this insect in the NN
“American Entomologist,” states
that by sprinkling powdered helle- ~~
bore upon the leaves, or applying
a solution of eight or twelve ounces
to a bucketful of water, the cater-
pillars will be killed. Hand-pick- ;
ing assiduously followed up, and Ss
a vigorous shaking of the bushes F1c.62.—Currant Span-Worm. (After Riley.)
over a sheet or a newspaper, repeated twice a day, will keep the insect
within moderate bounds.

SULLA: Ajj

UY

INSECTS INJURING THE APPLE.

THE CANKER-WoRM, Anisopteryx vernata Peck, and A. autumnata Packard. (Plate
LXIX Figs. 1-4.)—Devouring the leaves ; a dark-striped span-worm, varying in color to
pale green, transforming in the earth, and with wingless females and winged males.

Next to the apple-tree borer, which has almost cut off the apple-crop
of the Eastern States in certain localities, the canker-worm, always
local in its distribution, is the most injurious. Originally confined, as

792 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SUKVEY.

an injurious insect, to Eastern Massachusetts and Connecticut, it is now
injurious in Illinois and Missouri. It must originally, at least A. vernata,
have occurred all over the United States east of the Mississippi, as I
have received it from Texas. It may possibly be introduced into the
Territories, and therefore I refer to it simply in this connection.

Let us now examine the life-history of a canker-worm. And here we
will confine ourselves to a single species, the Anisopteryx vernata of
Peck, which appears in the spring, not touching at present on the
autumnal species. About the 1st of May, at the time when the leaves
of the apple are unfolding, the young canker-worms break through the
eggs, which have been laid earlier in the season, in March and April, in ©
patches on the bark of the trunk and limbs. They may be soon found
clustering on the terminal buds and partly unfolded leaves, and are
then about a line in length, and not much thicker than a bit of thick
thread.

How they grow and devour every green thing on the tree is too well
known to the fruit-raisers in the eastern part of Massachusetts. Fortu-
nately, owing to the want of wings, the female is exceedingly sedentary,
and year after year the trees of particular orchards and towns are defo-
liated and turned brown, while adjoining orchards and towns scarcely -
suffer. By the 20th of June, in Essex County, Massachusetts, the orch-
ard looks as if a fire had run through it. At that date the worms are
fully fed, and they then descend to the ground, letting themselves down
by a silken thread. At this time I have destroyed thousands by jarring
the tree and collecting those which fall down. I have watched old and
young robins busily engaged in eating them, and from the number of
toads in my garden, gathered about under the trees, I feel confident
that they eat multitudes of them.

The worms at once enter the ground, change to chrysalids several
inches below the surface, near the truuk of the tree, and there remain
until the early days of March and April, when the wingless females
ascend the trees, and the winged males may be seen fluttering about.

I took pains one spring, in the middle of April, to count the number
of these moths on my apple-trees, fourteen in number, averaging from
6 to 7 inches in thickness, besides three elms. They were more abund-
ant on the apple-trees than the elms. But on those seventeen trees
there were counted, adhering mostly to the tarred paper, 1,000 males
and 200 females. The spring of 1875 was cold and backward, and few
moths were seen before this date. From these data we can ascertain
approximately the relative numerical proportions between the sexes,
which seems to approximate five males to one female.

The species I have referred to is the spring moth, the Anisopteryx
vernata of Peck, but not of Harris. The other species is much less
abundant in the adult condition, and only appears in the autumn. The
wings are thicker than those of vernata, and the caterpillar has an addi-
tional pair of prop-legs, though so short as to be useless. I find that
most of the damage is done by the caterpillars of vernata. On June
15, 1875, I collected 557 caterpillars from the apple-trees in my garden.
Of these 520 were vernata, and 27 were the young of the autumn species.
Peck, in his account published in 1795, states that vernata does the -
principal damage.

As for remedies, the use of printer’s ink laid on tarred paper is the
cheapest, though the ink should be applied every day or two. The use
of tin troughs of oil surrounding the tree is almost sure to stop the
ascent of the females, while wooden troughs of oil built around the bot-
tom of the trunk is almost equally efficacious. Care and attention, and,

PACKARD. } THE AMERICAN TENT-CATERPILLAR. 793

above all, co-operation among those sutfering from these worms, would
enable us to check their ravages.

Plate LX VIX, Fig. 1, a, represents the caterpillar of vernata ; b, egg; c,
d, side and dorsal view of a segment of the caterpillar. Fig. 2, a, the male
moth; b, the wingless female ; c, three joints of the antenna; d, dorsal
view of an abdominal segment. Figs. 3 and 4 the different stages of the:
autumnal species (A. autumnata).

THE AMERICAN TENT-CATERPILLAR, Clisiocampa americana Harris. (Plate LXIX,
Figs. 5, 6.)—Devouring the foliage and forming conspicuous tent-like webs or nests in the
forks of the branches ; a large, hairy caterpillar with a dorsal white stripe and numer-
ous fine, wrinkled black lines on a yellow ground, united below into a common black
_ band, with a blue spot on the side of each ring.

At the same time that the canker-worms are breaking out of their egg-
shells, the young tent-caterpillars are following suit. This occurs usu-
ally about the 1st of May, in the region of Boston, or a month or six
weeks earlier.in the latitude of Saint Louis, just as the leaves are un-
folding. At this time, if one will examine closely the conspicuous
bunches of eggs on the twigs of the tree, he may be able to see the little
caterpillars clustering about on the outside of the egg-mass. When
hatched, they have large heads, and the body is provided with long, —
scattered hairs. They at once betake themselves to the opening buds,
congregating at noon-time, when the sun is hot among the axils of the
branches, there forming a tent of silk for protection from the sun and
rain. As they increase in size, they make extended journeys over dif-
ferent branches, laying pathways of silk wherever they go. The tent
or nest increases in size until it becomes the conspicuous, but by no
means ornamental, object so noticeable on the grounds of slovenly farm-
ers early‘in June. The caterpillars become fully grown by the middle
of June. Then they spin dense, tough, white cocoons under loose bark,
fe sate boards and rails of fences, and the moth appears about the 1st
of July.

I once experimented with a worm to see how persevering it would be
in spinning its cocoon. After one cocoon was finished I removed it,
when by another day a new one was spun like the other. Upon my re-
moving this, it spun a third one which was thin and slight, the supply
of silk having been exhausted. The silk is secreted by two glands one-
half longer than the body when drawn out, but which are folded up
beneath the digestive canal, and open out on the under lip. The silk is
fluid, becoming solid on exposure to the air.

The American tent-caterpillar is about two inches in length, with
long, rather dense hairs. Along the back runs a white stripe, accompa-
nied by numerous fine, wrinkled black lines on a yellow ground, united
below into a common black line. On the side of each segment of the body
is a conspicuous blue spot. —~

The moths hide by day about the garden, and when the lamps are
lighted, in they dart and tumble about on the table under the light, in
an insensate way, as if frightened out of their wits. So peculiar is their
mode of entering a lighted room, that one can usually tell what moth
is coming by its peculiar, noisy mode of entrance. The moth is reddish-
brown, very thick-bodied, clothed in a thick coat of long hairs, and with
short, broad, strong wings, as it flies swiftly. It is reddish-brown,
- with two oblique, dirty-white lines on the fore wings, which expand
when outstretched, about an inch and a half. Early in July the female
lays her eggs, in bunches of from three hundred to four hundred. They
are placed side by side, in a mass surrounding the twigs (Plate LXIX, Fig.
5, c), and after they are thus stuck on so as to surround the branch like

794 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

a collar, the entire mass is covered over with a gummy secretion, which
hardens, and serves as a protection to the eggs.

Remedies.—In the early spring as well as late autumn the bunches of
eggs should be picked off and burned. When the tents are formed in
June the nest should be removed with a mop dipped in oil or kerosene,
at noon-time, when the caterpillars are in the tent. By discharging a
gun Close to the nest it can be destroyed with a small charge of powder.

Plate LXIX, Fig. 7, represents the caterpillar of Clisiocampa disstria
Hiibner (sylvatica Harris), which rarely occurs on apple-trees, being more
common on the oak. It is a light blue, with a dorsal rim of eleven
white oval spots. The moth, with the eggs, is represented at Fig. 8.
There are two species of Clisiocampa in California (C. californica Pack.,
and C. constrictu Stretch), and one is troublesome to apple-trees at Salt
City, Mr. Barfort tells me, which may in time leave the oak on which it
feeds and attack the apple. Both of the eastern tent-caterpillars orig-
na ly fed on the oak.

THE FaLt WEB-WorM, Hyphantria textor Harris. (Fig. 63.)—Forming large webs on
fruit and forest trees in August ; a hairy, slender, greenish-yellow caterpillar dotted with
black, changing to a snow-white unspotted moth. :
This common and annoying cat-
erpillar is universally abundant,
weaving its conspicuous web or tent-
like structure on the branches of the

gust, the worms remaining about
until the leaves are nearly ready
to fall. They usually eat the leaves
on one entire branch and then pass
to the next, tying the leaves to-
gether with silken threads. They
Fig, 63—Fall Web-Worm. a, larva; 2, ®t, Casily exterminated by Mand:

chrysalis; c, moth. (After Riley.)’ | picking.

ke \\iR \ H | ih
AA

THE CoODDLING Mota, Carpocapsa pomonella Linn. (Plate LXIX, Fig. 9.)—Eating
holes in apples, causing them to fall prematurely; a small flesh-colored worm, trans-
forming into a small gray moth.

This moth, which is such a universal pest in the Eastern States, has
for tive years past, Mr. Barfort tells me, been injurious to the apples in
Salt Lake City. Indeed, it is the only considerable pest of the apple in
the Territory, but one that attracts a good deal of attention. Mr.
Henry Edwards, of San Francisco, writes me that it has not yet occurred
in California. ;

The moth lays usually one egg on the blossom end of the fruit early
in summer, and the caterpillar hatches in a few days, burrowing di-
rectly into the core of the forming fruit. It attains its full size, becom-
ing fully fed, in about three weeks, when the apple drops to the ground,
and the larva transforms in a thin or sometimes quite thick cocoon
in crevices in the bark of the tree, etc., and in a few days after another
brood of moths appear, though most of them, as I have found in Maine,
remain in their cocoons through the winter in the caterpillar state. In
this condition I have found them under the loosened bark early in May.
Many of the worms, Dr. Le Barm, in his [Illinois report, says one-half,
instead of waiting for the immature apples to fall, desert the apple and
let themselves down by the web or walk down the trunk of the trees.
The moth is gray, with numerous darker, transverse lines, and with a

apple, pear, and cherry, ete., in Au-.

: ‘
——~

PACKARD]. THE APPLE-WEEVIL—PLUM-WEEVIL. 795

curved black line before the ocellated patch on the inner angle, which
line is edged with a coppery tint. Plate LXIX, Fig. 9, represents the
caterpillar, with the worm-eaten apple, the cocoon (i), and the chrysalis
and moth.

Remedies.—This troublesome pest may be partially destroyed by gath-
ering the “ windfalls,” though the larva often deserts the worm-eaten
apples before it falls. The best remedy is that suggested by Dr. Trim-
ble, who binds bands of hay about the trees from July until the middle
of September. The larve crawl under these bands and there spin their
silken cocoons, when every fortnight the bands can be removed and the
worms destroyed. Dr. Le Barm recommends for Northern Illinois that
the bandages be in place a month after the blooming of the trees; that
they be examined seven weeks after the falling of the blossoms ; that
three subsequent examinations be made at intervals of twelve days,
and a final one after the leaves of the tree have fallen. In the latitude
of Saint Louis, Mr. Riley suggests that the first examination be made
not later than six weeks after the falling of the blossoms; and that four
subsequent examinations, at intervals of twelve days, be made between
it and the final one in the autumn when the apples are gathered.

THE APPLE-WEEVIL, Anthonomus quadrigibbus Say. (Figs. 64,65.)—Boring in the
apple; a long, slender maggot, transforming in the apple into a weevil, with a snout
nearly as long as the body. ;

a o ;
Fic. 64.—Apple-Weevil, adult. a, Fic. 65.—Apple-Weevil. a, pupa; 3},
nat. size; b, c, enlarged. (After maggot; both enlarged.
Riley.) ;

This weevil, which need not be confounded with the plum-weevil,
is smaller, and has a longer beak. With its long snout it drills holes
into the apple, deposits an egg, and the grub goes right to the heart of
the apple, feeding around the core for nearly a month, when it trans-
forms in the fruit, which does not fall. It remains two or three weeks
in the pupa state, not leaving the fruit until it becomes a beetle.—
(Riley.)

INSECTS AFFECTING THE PLUM.

THE PLUM-WEEVLL, Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst.—Puncturing the young fruit; a
weevil, like a dried plum-bud in general appearance, whose grub in the plum causes
the fruit to prematurely fall.

The plum-weevil has nearly cut off the fruit in the Eastern States, so
that comparatively little is raised. The following condensed account
is taken from ‘* The Guide to the Study of Insects:” “ This beetle is a
short, stout, thick weevil, and the snout is curved, rather longer than
the thorax, and bent on the chest when at rest. It is dark brown,
spotted with white, ochre-yellow and black, and the surface is rough,
from which the beetle, as Harris says, looks like a dried bud when
shaken from the tree. When the fruit is set, the beetles sting the

796 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

plums, and sometimes apples and peaches, with their snouts, making a
curved incision, in which a single egg is deposited. Mr. F. C. Hill
shows that the curculio makes the crescent-shaped cut after the egg is
pushed in, ‘so as to undermine the egg, and leave it in a kind of flap
formed by the little piece of the flesh of the fruit which she has under-
mined. Can her object be to wilt the piece around the egg, and pre-
vent the growing fruit from crushing it ?’—(Practical Entomologist, Vol.
ii, p. 115.) The grub hatched therefrom is a little footless, fleshy white
grub, with a distinct round light-brown head. The imitation set up by
these lave causes the fruit to drop before it is of full size, with the
lava still within. Now full-fed, it burrows directly into the ground and
transforms during the last of the summer. In three weeks it becomes
a beetle. It also attacks other garden-fruits, such as the cherry, peach,
and quince.

Remedy.—The best remedy is jarring the trees, and catching the larvae
in sheets and burning them. Dr. Hall’s “curculio catcher” is an excel-
lent invention for destroying these insects; it consists of a large inverted
white umbrella, fixed upon a large wheelbarrow, split in front to receive
the trunk of the tree, against which it is driven with force sufficient to
jar the curculios from the tree into the umbrella. .

INSECTS INJURING THE STRAWBERRY.

THE JUNE BEETLE, Phyllophaga fusca (Frohl.). (See Fig. 10, p. 720.)—Eating the
roots; the large, fleshy white grub of the common May or June beetle.

‘The following account is taken from my third annual report as State
- Entomologist of Massachusetts : ;

‘‘ With the increasing attention paid to the culture of the strawberry,
it has been found that several insects not before suspected to be inclined
to feed on this plant, now habitually frequentit. Of these perhaps the
most injurious is the strawberry saw-fly, which in this State, but more
especially the Western States, as in Illinois, does in some cases the
most grievous damage. Then a few moths which have been known to
feed on fruit-trees, the currant, etc., have transferred their affections to
the strawberry; such are the apple-leaf-roller or Tortrix, the saffron
measuring-moth (Angerona crocataria), and several other caterpillars
found in the Western States, and described in the entomological reports
of Messrs. Walsh and Riley, and also in ‘ Harris’s Treatise on the Inju-
rious Insects’ of this State, and the reporter’s ‘Guide to the Study of
Insects.’ :

‘¢ Next, however, in importance to the strawberry saw-fly (Emphytus
maculatus), is one of the most common and familiar of all these insects
which everywhere force their attention upon us. This is the common
May beetle, June beetle or ‘ dor bug,’ the American representative in its
abundance and injurious qualities of the European cockchafer.

“Dr. Harris has given a brief sketch of its habits and transformations
in his Treatise, and referred to the injury the grub, sometimes called
‘white-worm,’ does to the roots of grass, remarking that ‘in many
places the turf may be turned up like a carpet in consequence of the
destruction of the roots.’ He, however, does not say that it attacks
the strawberry-roots, which it has for several years been known to do in
gardens about Salem. My attention was especially called to its ravages
by Mr. D. M. Balch, of Salem, who has lost many strawberry-plants by
the white grub. It seemed evident that they were introduced in the
manure placed around the roots, as during July and late in summer a

PACKARD.) THE JUNE BEETLE. 197

manure-heap near by swarmed with the well-known white grubs, in va-
rious stages of development, some apparently in the second year and
others in the third year’s growth. They eat the main roots of the plant,
thus destroying one plant after another. From this it will be obvious
that if we observe the plant to wilt and suddenly die, we may look for
the white grub and at once kill it to prevent further ravages. Itis evi-
dent, so large and voracious are these worms, that one plant would be
a mere trifle to one of them.

“Tt also eats down in much the same manner young squash-plants, as
I am told by Mr. C. A Putnam, of Salem, who has been obliged to plant
the seed over once ortwice. They attack young plants at the time when
they have thrown out three or four leaves. It is obvious that in dealing
with this destructive insect we must become familiar with its habits.
Every one knows the larva or grub of this insect, so that a detailed de-
scription is not necessary. It is a large, soft-bodied, thick, white worm,
nearly as large as the thumb. Its head is yellowish or pale horn-col-
ored. Its skin is so thin and transparent that the air-vessels and viscera
can be seen through it, while, though it has three pairs of legs, it is so
gross and unwieldy that it lies, when dug out of its retreat, flat upon
its side.

‘« How many years the grub lives before changing into the beetle we do
not know, but probably at least three. It arrives at maturity in the
autumn, and early in May in this state the chrysalis may be found in
little rude cells or chambers about six inches under the mold, in which
position we have found it in Maine late in May. During the latter part
of May and early in June, i. ¢., for about a month, it flies about at night,
especially on warm nights. By day it hides in fruit and other trees,
clinging to the under side of the leaves by its long, curved claws, which
are admirably adapted for the purpose. Here it does at times much in-
jury, especially, as Harris remarks, to cherry-trees.

*“ Where it lays its eggs is not definitely known, but it is probable that

it burrows in the soil and there lays its éggs, as does the European
cockchafer, of whose habits Harris gives a summary, and also the gold-
smith beetle, of which we give an account farther on. Riley, however,
says that ‘soon after pairing, the female beetle creeps into the earth,
especially wherever the soil is loose and rough, and after depositing her
eggs to the number of forty or fifty, dies. ‘These hatch in the course of
a month, and, the grubs growing slowly, do not attain full size till the
early spring of the third year, when they construct an ovoid chamber,
lined with a gelatinous fluid, change into pupx, and soon afterward into
beetles.’
' “Tn the autumn at the approach of cold it descends to a considerable
depth below the surface to avoid the frost, probably about two feet be-
low the usual depth at which the ground is irozen in the winter. At the
approach of warm weather, however, it makes its way up near the sur-
face, where it forms a slight cell by wriggling about, and then passes
into the pupa state. It is said to sometimes pupate and appear in the
winged state in the autumn.

“As to remedies against this grub, the careful gardener will in the first
place destroy all those that he sees by crushing them to death. When
the manure is spread over the strawberry-bed, he must watch it nar-
rowly for the grubs so easily seen, and kill them. When a vine is seen

to die down suddenly in summer he must then dig around the roots and

search for them, and go over the bed carefully, even if help has to be
employed. Itis better to spend even much time and money for two or
three years in succession, in endeavoring to exterminate these grubs,

798 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

than to yield passively to the scourge. The remarks of Mr. Lockwood,
that we reprint in our account of the goldsmith beetle, are eminently
practical as applied to this insect. As for special remedies, we have
none to propose. Watchfulness and care in culture are better than any
special nostrums.

‘Undoubtedly the natural enemies of this grub are many, but we have
no observations bearing on this point. A fungus attacks the grubs in
certain seasons, often in considerable numbers. We have received speci-
mens from Missouri of dead and dried grubs, with a long stem growing
out from them, the result of the attacks of this fungus. It has been
figured by Mr. Riley, who states that another fungus attacks this worm
in Virginia. It is well known that caterpillars and even the common
house-fly are sometimes attacked by a fungus which replaces the animal
portion with its own vegetable substance.

* While many animals, such as skunks, moles, crows, ete., prey on the
beetles, the only insect-enemy I have personally observed is the fierce
carnivorous Calosoma beetle (C. calidum) which I have noticed on a
blueberry-bush busily engaged in tearing open the hard, horny sides of
one of these beetles, which was in vain struggling to escape; on taking |
up the May beetle a large hole had been eaten into its side, disclosing
the viscera.

‘“‘Occasionally the beetles appear in immense numbers. It is then the
duty of the agriculturist to pick them off the trees and burn them. If
the French take the pains to practice hand-picking, as in one instance
‘about eighty millions were collected and destroyed in a single portion
of the Lower Seine’ (Riley), our gardeners can afford to take similar
pains.

“A description of the May beetle is scarcely necessary. Fig. 10 (p.
720) gives a good idea of its appearance and size. It is bay-colored,
or chestnut and brown, with yellowish hairs beneath, and is nearly an
inch in length. Its scientific name is Lachnosterna fusca, or, literally
translated, the brown woolly-breasted beetle. The pupa is white.”

THE GOLDSMITH BEETLE, Cotalpa lanigera, Linn.—Feeding on the roots as grub; very
similar to that of the June beetle.

“We also have in the Eastern States an insect allied to the preceding,
and with much the same habits, both in the adult and preparatory states.
It is the Cotalpa lanigera. It is nearly an inch in length, bright yellow
above, with a golden metallic luster on the head and thorax, while
the under side of the body is copper-colored, and densely covered with
white hairs.

‘Dr. Harris says that it is very common in this State, remarking that
it begins to appear in Massachusetts about the middle of May, and
continues generally till the 20th of June. ‘In the morning and evening
twilight they come forth from their retreats, and fly about with a hum-
ming and rustling sound among the branches of trees, the tender leaves
of which they devour. Pear-trees are particularly subject to their at-
tacks, but the elm, hickory, poplar, oak, and probably also other kinds
of trees, are frequented and injured by them.’ Dr. Lockwood has found
it on the white poplar of Europe, the sweet-gum, and has seen it eating
the Lawton blackberry. He adds that the larve of these insects are
not known; probably they live in the ground upon the roots of plants.

“Tt has remained for the Rev. Dr. S. Lockwood to discover that the
grub or larva of this pretty beetle in New Jersey devastates strawberry-
beds, the larva feeding upon the roots, in the same manner as the May

PACKARD.] THE GOLDSMITH BEETLE. 199

beetle. His account was first published in the American Naturalist
(vol. ii, pp. 186, 441). He says that in the month of May in the ordinary
culture of his garden the spade has turned ap this beetle generally in
company with the May beetle. He found that some of the beetles, as
in the case of the May beetle, assume the adult beetle state in October
and remain under-ground for seven months before appearing in the
spring.

“Tarva.—The larve he describes as ‘ whitish grubs, about one inch and three-quar-
ters long and over half an inch thick, with a yellowish-brown scale on the part cor-
responding to the thorax.’ I may add that it so nearly resembles the young of the
May beetle that it requires a close examination to tell them apart. The proportions
of the two are much the same; if anything the Cotalpa is slightly shorter and
thicker, and its body is covered with short, stiff hair, especially at the end, while
in the May beetle the hairs are much finer, sparse, and the skin is consequently shiny.
They also differ in the head, being fuller, more rounded in Cotalpa, the clypeus shorter
and very convex, while in the May beetle itis flattened. The upper lip (labrum) is in
Cotalpa longer, more rounded in front and narrower at the base, and full convex on the
surface, while in the young May beetle it is flat. The antenne are longer and larger
in the goldsmith beetle, the second joint a little over half as long as the third, while
in the May beetle grub it is nearly three-quarters as long; the third joint is much
longer than in the latter grub, while the fourth and fifth are of the same relative
length as in the May beetle, but much thicker. The jaws (mandibles) are much alike
in both, but not quite so acute in the Cotalpa as in the other, nor are the inner teeth
so prominent. The maxilla is much longer and with stouter spines, and the palpi are
longer and slenderer in the grub of Cotalpa than in the other, though the joints have
the same relative proportion in each; the basal joint is nearly twice as long as in the
May beetle. The under lip (labium) is throughout much longer, and the palpi, though
two-jointed in each, are much longer and slenderer in the grub of Cotalpa than in that
of the May beetle. The feet are much larger and more hairy in the Cotalpa. Both
larv® are about an inch and a half long, and a third (.35) of an inch thick at the
widest part.

“Asregardsthe number of years in the life of this insect, Dr. Lock wood
remarks that ‘ when collecting the larve in May, I often observed in
the same places grubs of the Cotalpa of at least four distinct ages, each
representing a year in the life of the insect, judging from Renny’s
figures of the larve of the English cockechafer, or dor beetle (Melolontha
vulgaris). But the cockchafer becomes an imago in January or February,
and comes forth into active life in May, just four years from the deposit
of the egg. Supposing our Cotalpa to take on the imago form in
autumn, and to spend its life from that time to the next May in the
ground, it would be five years old when it makes its début as an arbo-
real insect” Itis possible that Dr. Lockwood may be in error regard-
ing the age of this beetle, as M. T. Reiset says in France this insect is
three years in arriving at its perfect beetlestate. The following remarks
on the habits of the European chafer may aid observers in this country
in studying the habits of our native species. M. Meiset says (see
‘Cosmos’ as translated in the American Naturalist, vol ii, p. 209)
‘that this beetle in the spring of 1865 defoliated the oaks and other
trees, while immense numbers of their larve in the succeeding year,
1866, devoured to a fearful extent the roots of garden-vegetables, etc.,
at a loss to the department of the Lower Seine of over five millions of
- dollars. This insect is three years in arriving at its perfect beetle state.
The larvee, hatched from eggs laid by the beetles which appeared in
such numbers in 1865, passed a second winter, that of 1867, at a mean
depth in the soil of forty one-hundredths of a meter, or nearly a foot
and a half. The thermometer placed in the ground (which was covered
with snow) at this mean depth, never rose to thirty-two degrees F. as
minimum. Thus the larve survived after being perfectly frozen (prob-
ably most subterranean larve are thus frozen, and thaw out in the
spring at the approach of warm weather). In June, 1867, the grubs

800 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

having become full-fed, made their way upward to a mean distance of
about 13 inches below the surface, where, in less than two months, they
all changed to the pupa state, and in October and November the per-
fect beetle appeared. .The beetles, however, hibernate, remaining below
the surface for a period of five or six months and appearing in April
and May. The immature larve, warned by the approaching cold, began
to migrate deep down in the soil in October, when the temperature of
the earth was ten degrees above zero. As soon as the snow melted they
gradually rose toward the surface.’

‘As regards the time and mode of laying the eggs, we quote from Dr.
Lockwood as follows: ‘On the evening of the 13th June last we
caught in the drug-store, Keyport, whither they were attracted by the
profusion of light, four Cotalpas, representing both sexes. These were
taken home and well cared for. On the 16th a pair coupled. A jar of
earth was at once provided, and the beetles placed on top of the dirt.
In the evening the female burrowed and disappeared. Near midnight
she had not returned to thesurface; next morning she had re-appeared.
The earth was then very carefully taken from the jar, and, as removed,
was inspected with a glass of wide field but low power. Fourteen eggs
were found, not laid (as we expected) in one spot or group, but singly
and at different depths. I was surprised at their great size. Laid
lengthwise, end touching end, two eggs measured very nearly three-
sixteenths of an inch. They were like white wax, semi-translucent; in
form, long-ovoid and perfectly symmetrical. On the 13th of July one
had hatched; the grub was well formed and very lively. Its dimen-
sions were about five-sixteenths of an inch in length and about three-
thirtieths of an inch in thickness. It was a dull white, the head-plate
precisely that dull yellow seen in the adult grub, the legs the same
color, and the extremity of the abdomen lead-color, the skin being
transparent. For food, a sod of white clover (Trifolium repens) was
given them, roots downward, knowing that the young larve would
come upward to eat. They were then left undisturbed until August
19, when the sod was removed, and it was found that the grubs had
eaten into it, thus making little oval chambers, which were enlarged as
the eating went on. They were carefully picked out and a fresh sod of
grass and clover supplied. They had now grown five-eighths of an
inch in length, preserving the same colors. E

‘‘Tt is quite possible that a few of the eggs escaped me in the search.
Iam of opinion, however, that from fifteen to twenty is the average
number laid by one beetle. In short, the insect lays her eggs in the
night, probably not more than twenty. The hatching of these required
in the present instance twenty-seven days. It must be remembered that
a large portion of this time was remarkably cold and wet. Itis almost
certain that with favorable thermal conditions this might be lessened
fully seven days.

“ Regarding its ravages in strawberry-beds, I cannot do better than
quote from Dr. Lock woou’s excellent account in the American Naturalist:
‘When on a visit in September last to the farm of a celebrated straw-
berry-grower in Monmouth County, New Jersey, my attention was
directed to certain large patches badly thinned out by, as the phrase
went, ‘“‘the worm.” The plants were dead on the surface and easily —
pulled up, the roots being eaten off below. It was observable that the
fields which presented the worst appearance were all of the same kind
of plant—that known as Wilson’s Albany Seedling. Besides this there
were nine other varieties under culture, Barnes’ Mammoth, Schenck’s
Excelsior, the Agriculturist, Triomphe de Gand, Cutter’s Seedling, the |

PACKARD.} _ THE STRAWBERRY CROWN-BORER. 801

Jucunda, Pineapple, Early Scarlet, and Brooklyn Scarlet. While the
Wilson stood second to none of these as a prolific fruit-bearer, yet it fell
behind them in vigorous plant-growth. Hence, while every kind was
more or less affected, the other varieties seemed saved by their own
growth and energy from a destruction so thorough as was that of the
Wilson. These patches were all planted in the spring and all received
_ the same treatment, the ground being kept open and free from weeds.
The amount of the spring-planting was seven and a half acres. Of the
Wilsons there were three different patches in places quite separated from
each other, and on not less than five different kinds of soil. These
patches were among and contiguous to those of the other varieties.
While all suffered more or less, the chief injury befell the Wilsons, of
which not less than two acres were irretrievably ruined. An examina-
tion turned up the depredator, who was none other than the larva of
the goldsmith beetle, now engaged in the first one of its allotted three-
summer campaigns of mischief. These grubs were from the eggs de-
posited in June in the well-tilled and clean soil, which, I have said else-
where, I thought the Cotalpa preferred to meadow or grass lands.
Compared with others, the larva of this beetle is sluggish and easily
captured. The black grub of the spring, which is such a pest, attacking
almost indiscriminately the early tender plants, inflicts its injuries chiefly
in the night, the exception being that of dull and cloudy days. The
night’s mischief done, it descends into concealment atearly dawn. Know-
ing this, the wise farmer is in search of it at an early hour, ere the warmth
of the sun gives it warning to retreat. But the goldsmith grub can be
taken at any hour of the day simply by scratching away the earth from
around the roots of those plants whose dark, shriveled leaves tell of
the enemy’s presence. It is my belief that this devastation might have
been spared by an outlay of from $20 to $30 for labor, much of which,
under proper direction, could have been done by children. Therein
would have been saved a s!rawberry-crop for the ensuing summer, worth
searcely less than $2,500, for from this same farm the crop of a single
acre has been sold for $1,500. Then, however valuable such labors are
in the immediate results, that is but a fraction of their worth as respects
the future. These Cotalpa grubs, with all their mischief, had not more
than a third of their ultimate size ; hence their real ravenousness is yet
to come. Besides, what a prospect of increase of numbers, should even
a moderate share of them reach maturity! Why should not our farmers
seek to know something about their insect-enemies, and, when practica-
ble, put forth some energy to meet such ?”

THE STRAWBERRY CROWN-BORER, Analcis fragarie Riley.—Boring from the crown
of ad plant down into and killing it; a small, soft, fleshy grub, transforming to a
weevil.

From the middle of June until the middle of July in Southern Illinois,
the grub hatches from an egg, sup-
posed to be deposited by the parent
weevil in the crown of the plant, A
_ and bores downward into the pith, *
where it remains until fully grown,
“ working in the thick, bulbous root,
and often eating through the more
woody portions; so that when frost

sets in, the plant easily breaks off @ b
and is heaved out of the ground.”— Fic. 66.—Strawberry Crown - Borer and
(Riley.) A remedy is difficult to Beetle. (After Riley.)

apply, but infested plants should be burned.
51 GS

802 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

INSECTS INJURING SHADE AND FOREST TREES.

Soimportant to the Western Territories is the preservation and culti-
vation of forest, as well as shade and ornamental, trees, that a slight
sketch of what is known of the insects found in Colorado to be injurious
to them will be of some importance until more definite information is
obtained. On Plate LXX, I have given outline figures of a number of
insects either found living in forest-trees in Colorado, or, from the habits
of their allies in the Eastern States, supposed to be injurious.

INJURING CONIFEROUS TREES.

THE SPRUCE-TIMBER BEETLE, Dryocetes affaber, Mannh. (Plate LXX,
Figs. 1-3.)

This beetle occurred (July 7) in abundance in all stages in a growth
of Abies menziesii,* the common spruce of the Rocky Mountains, at
Kelso’s Cabin, 11,200 feet elevation, on the road to Gray’s Peak. It
bores into the back and near the sap-wood in all directions, its burrows
resembling those of Tornicus pini, with which it is associated, being
irregular, but much smaller.

The larva (Plate LXX, Fig. 1) is cf the usual form of those of the family,
being cylindrical and of the same thickness throughout, with the end
of the body full and suddenly rounded; segments convex, especially
the thoracic ones, and slightly hairy. Head two-thirds as wide as the
body, rounded, honey-yellow. Length, 0.15 inch.

The pupa is much like that of J. pini, with two anal soft, sharp
tubercles. As my specimens are farther advanced than those of T. pint,
the wings being free from the body, and the abdomen longer, it is im-
possible for me to draw up a good description. In one example, the
pupa had retained the larval head, but it was split behind so as not to
interfere probably with the development of the adult beetle.

The beetle (Plate LX X, Fig. 3) differs from T. pini in its much smaller
and slightly slenderer body. The head and prothorax are two-thirds
as long as the rest of the body. The abdomen is not scooped out at
the end as in Z. pini, but truncated, moderately rounded, and the end
of the abdomen reaches to the end of the wing-covers, which are square
at the end instead of excavated as in 7. pini. Color reddish-brown,
much as in 7. pini. The body is covered with fine, stiff, straight hairs.
Length, 0.14 inch.

THE PINE-TIMBER BEETLE, Tornicus pint Say. Pupa and beetle.
(Plate LXX, Figs. 4, 5.)

This timber-beetle was common, boring irregularly into the inner
bark of Abies menziesii. The burrows are like those made by the same
insect in the white pines from Maine to North Carolina. On the Atlan-
tic coast the more regular burrows radiate from a common center.
Those observed on Gray’s Peak were 0.08 inch in diameter.

In the pupa the body ends in two long, pointed, horn-like appendages
arising from each side beneath. The ends of the hind tarsi extend to
the ter rminal third of the wings. The antenne are clavate, not extend-

*This tree was kindly identified for me by Mr. Sereno Watson, from specimens of
the leaves and cones sent him for identification.

~

PACKARD. | THE STOUT PINE-BORER. 803

ing beyond the coxe of the first legs. It is larger, more bulky than
the adult. Length, 0.22 inch. wy

The beetle (Plate LXX, Fig. 4) is cylindrical, with the head and pro-
thorax together three-fourths as long as the rest of the body; end of
the abdomen suddenly truncated, slanting, forming a scoop, the decliv-
ity smooth, concave, and bounded by high walls, which are four-toothed
on each side, the third from the top the largest. On each wing-cover
are eight lines of fine, raised tubercles ; prothorax with concentric rows
of fine tubercles, but smooth on the posterior third. Seen from beneath,
the wing-covers project well beyond the end of the abdomen. Color,
pale tan-brown, a little paler on the thorax than on the wing-covers.
Body covered with stiff, dense hairs. Length, 0.20 inch.

THE Stout PINE-BORER, Dendroctonus obesus Mannh. (Plate LXX,
Fig. 16.)

This beetle is not uncommon in Colorado. I met with it at Blackhawk
and at Manitou. It probably bores in the pines and spruces of the mount-
ains. It is short and stout, reddish-brown, the head and prothorax
smooth and shining, though finely punctured, while the wing-covers are
coarsely punctured and duall-colored, being a little darker than the rest
of the body. Length, 0.35 inch.

It scarcely differs from the Dendroctonus terebraus of the Eastern
States, which I have found in all stages in great abundance under the
bark of the white pine, associated with Pissodes strobi. It mines the
inner surface of the bark, slightly grooving the sap-wood, and pupates
in April, appearing as a beetle in great numbers on warm days early in
May. Ona cursory examination I am unable to see any difference be-
tween the eastern species and D. obesus, except that the latter is slightly
larger.

INJURING DECIDUOUS SHADE AND ORNAMENTAL TREES.

The following beetles are common in Colorado and the Rocky Mount-
ains, and in most cases will probably be found ere many years to be
injurious to the trees in towns and on farms. Knowing as yet nothing
of their habits I have thought it well to select a few of the more com-
mon species and present such figures and brief descriptions of them as
may prove useful to western gardeners and farmers hereafter. I will
not attempt to coin English names for them. The localities are given
in the List of Coleoptera collected by me in Colorado, at the end of this
report.

PRIONUS EMARGINATUS Say. (Plate LXX, Fig. 6.)

* Body castaneous; head, thorax, and breast covered with long yellow-
ish-ferruginous hair; antennee fourteen-jointed, glabrous, perfoliate, im-
bricate; the imbrications emarginate beneath ; mandibles black at tip ;
thorax but slightly margined, one-toothed on the middle of the lateral
‘edge; angles obtusely rounded ; elytra somewhat unequal, punctured ;
feet and venter subglabrous. Length nearly seven-tenths of an inch.
Female glabrous; antenne simple. Length four-fifths of aninch. This
species exhibits the general form of brevicornis, but the thorax is pro-
portionally much narrowed, and the characters above detailed prove it
to be very distinct from that species. The lepaceous processes of the
antenne are so profoundly emargipate beneath as to appear each bilo-
bate. I obtained it on the Arkansas River near the mountains.”—(Say.)

804 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.
CRIOCEPHALUS PRoDUCTUS Le Conte. (Plate LXX, Fig. 7.)

Varying from dark brown to black-brown ; unspotted, with two high,
thin, raised lines or ridges on each wing-cover. It is closely allied to
the eastern C. agrestis, but is somewhat narrower, and the ridges are
much more prominent. Length, 0.80-0.85 inch.

DECTES SPINOSUS (Say). (Plate LXX, Fig. 8.)

‘Head deeply indented between theantenne; labrum piceous; antenne
longer than the body, black, each joint gray at base; thorax cylindrical,
immaculate; an acute, slightly-recurved spine near the posterior angles;
elytra(wing-covers) with numerous small impressed punctures, at tip trun-
cated ; venter with a series of almost concealed black spots on each side.
Length more than three-tenths of an inch.”—(Say.) “I formed a special
genus, Dectes, for this insect, but it seems to be scarcely distinct from
Liopus.”—(Le Conte.)

POGONOCHERUS MIXTUS Haldeman. (Plate LXX, Fig. 9.)

‘“‘ Head sparsely hairy, black, with an indistinct yellowish spot before
the eyes; frontal. line impressed; antenn testaceous, with the tip of
the articulations blackish; scutel black; elytra hispid; base, middle,
and apex brown; extreme tip and an oblique band before the middle
running forward and outward, yellowish, with a. few brown dots; ex-
treme base testaceous; feet brown, varied with testaceous; 24 lines
long. Pennsylvania.”—(Haldeman.)

MECAS PERGRATA SAY. (Plate LXX, Fig. 10.) .

“‘ Body black, covered with short, prostrate hair, which partially con-
ceals the punctures; antennz nearly as long as the body, annulate with
cinereous and black ; thorax slightly dilated in the middle; a trans-
verse, arcuated series of four glabrous spots, and a longitudinal, ab-
breviated, glabrous line behind the middle; scutel whitish ; elytra with
a narrow white margin and suture; tip entire; thighs dull rufous.
Length about nine-twentieths of an inch. Upon the middle of each
elytron is a very indistinct rufous line, which is only visible upon close
inspection, and is very probably often wanting; a similar spot is upon
the anterior portion of the thorax; the white appearance of the margin
of the elytra is occasioned by the more dense disposition of the hairs on
that part. We captured but a single specimen on the Platte River (Ne-
braska) near the mountains.”—(Say.)

CHRYSOBOTHRIS TRINERYVIA (Kirby). (Plate LXX, Fig. 11.)

A rather small, short, broad species, dull blackish, with faint, metal-
lic reflections. Surface of the body, especially the wing-covers, with
irregular ridges, the inner one parallel to the inner edge of the wing-
cover; wing-covers with smooth elevated areas, between which the
surface is minutely pitted with dense golden punctures. Body clothed
beneath with short, coarse hairs. Length, 0.45 inch.

BUPRESTIS RUSTICORUM Kirby. (Plate LXX, Fig. 12.)

Body brown, with an olive-green tint. Head and thorax punctured.
Each wing-eover with five ridges, four of them well-marked and smooth,

PACKARD.) © TRANSFORMATIONS OF PLEOTOMUS PALLENS. 805

the interspaces with scattered punctures. On the head between the
eyes are five yellow spots; two simple dots, two long spots on the
orbits, sending two projections ontward, and a line in front sending
three projections upward. Two unequal yellow spots under the eyes.
Labrum and labium yellow. Five orange-yellow spots on each side of
the end of the abdomen beneath. Length, 0.84 inch.

DICERCA PROLONGATA Le Conte. (Plate LXX, Fig. 13.) _

“ Coppery gray, often pruinose ; width of thorax twice its length, sides
well rounded in front, behind somewhat sinuous, punctate, furrowed,
each side with an oblique, deeply-impressed line; wing-covers with
deeply -impressed lines ; apex rounded, the wing-covers scarcely divari-
cate. Length, 0.77-0.85 inch.”—(Le Conte.)

MELANOPHILA DRUMMOND! Kir- si

by. (Plate LXX, Fig. 14.)

Body densely punctured, sha- 1%
greened ; shining, reflecting me-
tallic colors, especially on the =
prothorax, with three bright yel- i,
low spots on the posterior two-
thirds of each wing-cover, the
anterior spot being the larger.

Length, 0.40 inch.

THE GIRDLER, Oncideres cingu-
latus Say. (Fig. 67.)

Although this beetle is not
known to inhabit Coloradoor the \
Rocky Mountains, [have thought Y
it well to introduce the following
figure received from Prof. I. 8.
Haldeman, of Chickies, Pa., as }

illustrating its mode of cutting ~~

off hickory branches. Professor

Haldeman’s account is given at

lengthin the “ Guide to the Study

of Insects”, p. 498. Fig. 67.—Work of the Girdler Beetle.

INSECTS NOT SPECIALLY INJURIOUS.
THE TRANSFORMATIONS OF PLEOTOMUS PALLENS Le Conte.

It is not improbable that this insect in its early stage as a larva is
beneficial to vegetation, since so far as known the young of our fire-flies
devour worms, other larva, and snails, but the individuals of this species
are so rare, that they probably exert but a slight influence for good or evil,
agriculturally speaking. I have received three specimens of this larva
from Texas through Mr. G. W. Belfrage, on whose authority solely the
above determination is given. For a specimen of the male, and of the
exceedingly rare female, I am indebted to the kindness of G. D- Smith,
esq., of Boston, who loaned them for the purpose of being drawn.

The larva is unsually long and narrow, and much flattened. The pro-
|

896 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

thoracic segment is nearly as wide as long, much rounded in front;
this and each following segment reddish, with three yellowish lines, viz,
a faint, straight, median one, and two curved lateral ones; these lines
on the abdominal segments more diffase and indistinct. The mandibles
are long, sickle-shaped, acute, much curved. The maxillary and labial
spalpi project considerably beyond the curve of the mandibles. Maxillary
palpi long and stout, three-jointed; the two terminal joints long and
slender, and of equal length ; the terminal third joint projects its entire
length beyond the end of the labial palpi. The latter are three jointed,
the third joint very minute. The terminal segment of the body is small,
one-half as wide and one-half as long as the preceding joint. The feet
are well developed, ending in a single claw. There are nine pairs of
spiracles. Length, 0.50 inch.

THE TRANSFORMATIONS OF DONACIA PROXIMA Kirby. (Plate LXX,
Figs. 17-19.)

None of the species of Donacia, so interesting from their living in
their early stages in the roots of aquatic plants, have been studied
biologically as yet in this country. For the first information we have

regarding the transformations of any of our species we are indebted to.

Mr. W. L. Wilder, of Clinton, Mass., who kindly sent me living speci-
mens of the larva of Donacia proxima, found June 23 in the roots of the
cow-lily (Nuphar advena). Mr. Wilder writes me under date of May 23,
1876: “I send you the life-history of an insect, except the egg, which I
hope to add to as soon as I have the mud in which the larva first ap-
pears. As you open the inclosed box, if all is right, you will find the
perfect insect, which I hope will remain alive; 2d, you will find a cap-
sule-like body attached to a bit of lily-root; examine it by transmitted
light, and you will see the perfect insect ready to emerge. You will
next come to another capsule, in which a white maggot has inclosed it-
self while in my possession; and at the bottom of the box is a ball of
mud inclosing a maggot, which has hatched out in the mud within a
few days.”

Afterward he writes, June 19: ‘I have not been able to find the
eggs, but think I have found their place of deposit in small cavities in
the large fleshy roots of the yellow lily, into which the larva burrows,
and in which it feeds, excavating large chambers after it emerges, and
almost invariably fixes itself on the tender rootlets beneath, where it
covers itself with its cocoon and remains until mature. I have found
the larvee in the root and with no outlet but the small puncture where
the eggs were deposited. I could have sent you hundreds of the pupz
just ready to emerge.”

Afterward the cocoons containing the beetles were found October 24,
1876, attached to the roots of the cow-lily (Nuphar advena), in a pond at
Salem, Mass., and presented by Mr. S. B. Buttrick to the museum of the
Peabody Academy of Science, so that we probably have nearly the entire
history of the insect. The females probably winter over in the dense,
_ tough, parchment-like brown oval cocoons (Plate LXX, Fig. 17, natural
size), and in the spring lay their eggs in such a position that the larve on
hatching bore into the roots of the lily; the larva, becoming fully de-
veloped by the end of June, transform into chrysalides, previously spin-
ning a cocoon much like that of the saw-flies, and assuming the beetle
condition in the autumn.

The body of thelarva (Plate LXX, Fig. 18, enlarged, seen from beneath)
18 white, thick, fleshy, cylindrical. The head is small, reddish, one-

eS

PACKARD.] THE CALIFORNIAN LAPPER MOTH. f 807

third as wide as the segment behind it; it is thick, and about as long as
broad. The antenne are short, conical, three-jointed ; the maxillary palpi
are short, projecting but slightly beyond the ends of the labial palpi;
they are three-jointed; the first but slightly shorter than the second; third
but half as wide and half as long as second. Labial palpi minute, con-
sisting of but a single joint, while the labium itself is large and fleshy.
Three pairs of well-developed legs, which are two-jointed, ending in a
single stout claw. The end of the body is suddenly somewhat flattened
and bent over onto the ventral side, and is armed above with two paral-
lel, flat, blade-like chitinous appendages, a little curved and appressed
to, though free from, the surface on which they rest, reaching to the tip of
the body, and curved slightly backward. The segments of the body
are quite convex, the sutures deeply impressed, and the exposed parts of
the body are covered with fine hairs. The prothoracic segment is
slightly reddish, pale brown posteriorly. Length of the body when
curved, 0.56 inch; thickness, 0.20 inch.

DERMESTES MARMORATUS Say. (Plate LXX, Fig. 15.)

This is the common larder-beetle of Colorado and other Western Ter-
ritories, and is noticed here as likely to be annoying in museums, and
as a nuisance in pantries and kitchens.

“Antenne reddish-brown; thorax indented before the scutel; pectus
blackish ; postpectus and cox with dense white hair; feet blackish ;
intermediate and posterior thighs with a white band before ; spot on
the lateral basal margin of the elytra large, angular; venter with
dense white hair; anal segment and lateral spots black-brown. Length
from three-tenths to nine-twentieths of an inch. This insect is of fre-
quent occurrence is Missouri and Arkansas, and is a large species.”—

(Say.)
TOE CALIFORNIAN LAPPER MOTH, Gastropacha californica Pack.

This and the following moth are somewhat annoying insects in Cali-
fornia, feeding upon the oak, and at my request Mr. Henry Edwards
has furnished me with the following account of them:

“The moth lays its eggs in June, and they must remain unhatched
until the following spring. Just when the young shoots of the oaks
(Quercus agrifolia Nee) begin to appear, the larve make their appear-

ance also, spinning thin and irregular webs over the branches of the
trees. In these webs they house mostly during the heat of the day,
but sally forth in the evening and at night for food. In this way they
will soon strip a tree of its leaves, though it is well to say that the oaks
do not seem to be permanently affected, as they soon send forth fresh
shoots, and toward the time that the caterpillars undergo their change
to the chrysalis they are green and gay again. The larve retain the
shelter of their web until after the third month, when they wander
away singly, are found everywhere, becoming sometimes a complete
nuisance in gardens and fields. They feed in their more mature stages
upon many plants besides the oak, eating with avidity willows, ash,
Aisculus californica, Photinia arbutifolia, Arbutus menziesii, as well as
apple and pear trees. Toward the end of May they spin their cocoons,
seeming to have no choice of locality, but fixing themselves wherever
they may chance to be, either on walls, palings, trunks or branches of
trees, stems of grapes, or among the leaves of herbaceous plants. The
time in the chrysalis state is about eighteen to twenty-one days, so that

§08 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

the moths emerge and are in the greatest abundance about the middle
of June. They come very readily to light, and are a pest to the ento-
mologist in his nocturnal rambles. I regret that I cannot now send
you descriptions of the larva and chrysalis. Mr. Stretch has them pre-
pared for his forthcoming book on our Bombycide, and I am sure he
will forward them to you. I will write and ask him to do so. I-can
send you the perfect insects if they are of value to you.”

PHRYGANIDEA CALIFORNICA. (Plate LXX, Fig. 22, male.)

The following account has been furnished by Mr. H. Edwards:

“This insect is also very destructive to our young oaks, the cater-
pillars, which are perfectly naked and with the head almost monstrous
in size, making their appearance about the same time as those of Gas-
tropacha. They are restless little creatures, wandering incessantly over
the trees, and feeding very rapidly. They spin no cocoon, but hang by
the tail, like the larva of Vanessa, etc. The change to the chrysalis is
undergone in April and May, and the moths appear in about fifteen or |
sixteen days. There is a second brood of these insects, the imagos of
the latter appearing in September and October. Indeed, fresh speci-
mens are now upon the wing, though the second brood is by no means
so abundant as the first. I have observed that Phryganidea and Gas-
tropacha never associate upon the same tree, and I think that the for-
mer has always the mastery. ‘This is perhaps owing to some excretion
from its body which is unpleasant to the Gastropacha; but of course L
do not speak with certainty as to this fact. It is, however, sure that
they are never found in large quantities on the same tree. I am in-
clined to think that Phryganidea is more destructive to the oaks than
the other species, as it feeds solely upon Quercus, while the other, as I
have said, is not so particular in the choice of its food. I inclose my
published description of the egg of Phryganidea. I quote Mr. Edwards’s
description of the egg and larva:

“The egg is spherical, a little flattened above, shining, yellowish-white
at exclusion, attached in clusters of about ten or twelve to the upper
side of the leaves. The third day the apex of the egg assumes a dull
orange hue, afterward changing to a bright reddish-purple and grad-
ually to a duller shade as the young larve emerge. The eggs were
laid by a female in my possession on July 5. In the young larva the
head is very large, almost monstrous, pale olive-brown, with a narrow
black line at base; body pale canary-yellow, with four rows of black
spots arranged longitudinally in lines.

‘The mature form of the larva is noticed in Stretch’s ‘ Zygaenide and
Bombycide of North America,’ but I subjoin the description of one of the
many varieties to which it is subject, believing that all information with
reference to this species (the position of which in classification has not
yet been settled by entomologists) will prove to be of value: Yellow-
ish-white, shining, head large, round, stone color, with a black point on
each side of the mouth; a median stripe of reddish-brown and a narrow
one of the same color on each side. A broad black stripe extends lat-
erally across the second segment at base of the head and another across
the thirteenth segment, which also contains a broken black dorsal line.
In the middle of the black lateral stripe isa waved whitish line, inclosing
a narrow black one. At the base of the abdominal legs is a waved
interrupted yellow line, edged narrowly with black; under side yellow-
ish-white, faintly marked with broken brown waved lines; feet pinkish,
striped with black; abdominal legs yellowish-white.”

PACKARD.] PHRYGANIDEA CALIFORNICA. ~ 809

Mr. Behrens, of San Francisco, writes me that three generations of
the Phryganidea appear in ayear. “In 1875 it, with the larva of the
Gastropacha californica, ate our evergreen oaks to broomsticks. You
could hear the caterpillars eat and their manure drop, the latter cover-
ing everything; it could be swept together by the bushelful. In the
wake of both followed ichneumon parasites.”

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EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXII.

Fia. 1. Rocky Mountain locust.—a, a, a, female in different positions, ovipositing ; },
egg-pod extracted from the ground, with the end broken open, showing how the eggs
are arranged; c, a few eggs lying loose on the ground; d, e show the earth partially
removed to illustrate an egg-mass already in place and one being placed; f shows
where such a mass has been covered up.—After Riley.

Fig. 2, Rocky Mountain locust.—Front and side view of the embryo surrounded by
the inner embryonal membrane or amnion. Original: drawn by J. H. Emerton.

Fig. 3. Rocky Mountain locust.—a, a, newly-hatched larve ; b, full-grown larve; ce,
pupa.— After Riley.

Fia. 4. Rocky Mountain locust.—Process of acquiring wings; a, pupa with skin just
split on the back; b, the adult extruding ; c, the same nearly out; d, the same with
wings expanded ; e, the same with all the parts perfect.—After Riley.

Fic. 5. a, Rocky Mountain locust ; b, the common red-legged locust.—After Riley.

Fic. 6. Rocky Mountain locust.—Terminal abdominal ring; a, side view; b, c, hind
and top view of the same.—After Riley.

hg 7. Red-legged locust.—Lettering and explanations the same as in Fig. 6.—After
Riley.

Plate LXII.

Rep. U.S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv.

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Atte’ rh AH aOR Lato tea Abort} sy be TES a aS
Srp Posie Beiaeher oq heed |b 6 sotwrn seule ie Be
Dao iauttyet To shosienrtide. aust 20: oumt eto: bh ean agama Ronee ae
te W, joarinysrhy Dvahthas ses mat OR ts atin
Muro weneta: Pe es ty On ashes tee Te ob teeta hh Ty bik Kbit mene 3's
: ike if cougteat Dacsyatrigg t st és yi Deriney path ek pis tities Soap Pyrat qth aiade
no)? sc ieetel amie dash fished ontears ry oF: 4 wosiient 16 Atel ia Pay
Naseer Ts wor boeken Meting dare eres hi hee eres be 6
% Pabeih slg
sang theriets 9 Ce em CCN)
Bois hel deed rhs st tela ney tay HiT oni ry fab a Lana tn Lokagtgehs om? aby
ie TRE eC OE Me Cats ot SD, _ Saree 1 AS
SPOMAER ate ‘a7 piles hs 3a doy anthoutlieg Hite) Ee
sche elacctoulte sit >) eh Letts Geithhd Saliba fe; AIS CHR BEL 1 Sy OCA GTS brie.
Bowe tebe red wee (i) parietal |) oahendeiany ea aes
A cgrpaetn <aeeasjogen tee fli) Lidia. Sy NS ae
ios 3 are) to Rabiner Aline 4: UtaeRi Cott eas bee nw shes:
Aart acetal © boky See Jigie s wiry o eberlp Of <) Cia
au. pe eam mon chal sack Mal ta Be obi chee

re.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXIII.

Fic. 1. Larva of Harpalus, feeding on eggs of locust; enlarged. (Emerton del.)

Fig. 2. Larva of Anthomyia radicum, var. Calopteni Riley, feeding on eggs of locust.
a, larva, enlarged twice; b, pupa-case, natural size; c, the same raagnified twice. The
cross-lines represent the length of body and expanse of wing of the fly, which is mag-
nified three times.—(After Curtis.)

Fic. 3. Red-tailed Tachina fly (after Riley). a, alarva of Tachina which preys on
the European cabbage- butterfly, introduced to illustrate the maggot of Tachina.

Fic. 4. Trombidium sericeum Say, natural size and magnified.

Fic. 5. The Red mite, young of a species of Trombidiwm (Astoma gryllaria Le Baron) ;
enlarged.

Fic. 6. Gordius aquaticus. A, egg; B, egg undergoing segmentation of the yolk; C,
embryo (gastrula) with the primitive stomach an infold of the outer germinal layer of
cells (ectoderm); D, embryo farther advanced; E, larva, with the three circles of spines
retracted within.the esophagus; F, the same stage greatly enlarged to show the in-
ternal organs; c, middle circle of spines, the head being retracted ; m, muscular layer (?);
t, beak or proboscis; i, intestine; z,z,embryonal cells; f, excretory tube leading from
g, the secretory glands; @, esophagus; v, rectum; n, anus. G, the second larva,
encysted in a fish—(after Villot). H, Gordius varius, end of body of male, much en-
larged. I, Gordius aquaticus, end of body of male, much enlarged. K, Gordius
aquaticus, natural size. (H, I, K, drawn from nature by J. 8. Kingsley.)

Rep. U.S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv.

Parasites and Enemies of the Rocky Mountain Locust.

Plate LXIII.

ai wl
ae St oe i fa? i
4 sa ar ae my waa hae : ? C , A

ra 7, r i fe. Spins 4 oT ~ 7 ~& A >it ph me Ps . _

. ty te orn) E ; a ear Tin
J ve 7 ; - ‘ ced tn
® » }!
‘
ry . hd
r i.
3 4
. e
.
Nel a
rj
‘
ai .
’
.
xi
p j
1
,
* f
®
«ing d
ia, [
Tat a
‘
' ‘
. i»
¥
. . 4 / ‘ >
:
“ j i
Siald a7 % fa & S Grier ‘ ts

ropa ay aiaieed thet odrnnh i i

} one é en : "
op Ana he
oe iain, inAdg
G 4 42gT fy wt! eda
+ Nab y utp :

ee

EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXIV.

as Fic. 1. Larva of Sarcophaga carnaria, enlarged.
‘3 Fic. 2. Pupa-case of the same, enlarged.

LA Fie. 3. Adult of the same, enlarged. (Figs. 1-3, Emerton del.)

Rislan Fic. 4, Red-legged locust, engaged in laying {ts eggs; to the right, a ho
. ing an egg-mass, natural size. :

| e atexo: ‘Gdipoda (Camnula) pellucida (atroc), Emerton del.

"i Fic. 6. Acrydium Sere aanTR, natural size, (atter Riley).

|

> |
_
ta
4
Es)
+ |
Gs
—
se)
~~
ey
|
|
|
Ye)
oa

Rep. U.S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv.

Fig. 3.

:

Destructive Locusts and the Flesh-Fly.

wh ian hae i poe 2

Bilbaye ox ser; E
AWN Tiger seh G shen dod hie TE cee
' : vs F

ai Baer fe ee piel ‘

egg ely '
Dee a ‘ie * UMD gt HER? PEE vous |
4 y ky ~ he Suttl Lp hie) AallionsDiior hae wos? Asie ag
eee Pagar isi) Sd el tase by Ih sal cette chs
eds ae 7) " 4. agitiia ei MoRes a ra f oe. |

fis Mea a 2 sytane aioe J oy ite
SAT als Efige peek si tah he coun nt. SURE he
Sih Wh ier ol amet Stee 6 tore braced aye Penk Vi Se
a naga bash 7H sas: vs DRL Moh My. Cs
sry ras, om geet a el dats) dtelke stowed Ie
ae ROM yar aan tall & ue tiie ii fot greene ee
Ap do Poe dynein) daar til 4. esi: seu ous bash) aagey’ A dt
Ben sits on Sieh at v9 aera Tes ioe) 32 BL

oR Korn)

EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXV.

. Hessian Fly, Cecidomyia destructor.—a, larva; b, pupa; ¢, stalk of wheat, with

three cavities containing the larve, their heads toward the ground.—(After
Fitch.)

. Agrotis suffusa Denis and Schiffermiiller, and Caterpillar or Cut-Worm.—(After

Riley.)

. Agrotis subgothica.—(After Riley.)
. Celana renigera Stephens, and Caterpillar.—(After Riley.) A Cut-Worm feed-

ing on the roots of different flowers in gardens.

. Agrotis cochrani Riley, and Cut-Worm.—(After Riley.)

. Gortyna nitela Guenée, and Larva.—(After Riley.) .

. Angoumois Moth, and Fic. 8, its Larva.—(From Guide to Study of Insects.)

. Wheat Tinea, and its Jarva and chrysalis, natural size and enlarged, with the

grains of wheat tied together with silk threads.—(After Curtis. )

.10. a, larva; b, pupa; c, beetle of Sitophilus oryze (Linn.), Rice-Weevil; e,

Sitophilus granarius (Linn.), Grain-Weevil.—(After Curtis.)

Plate LXV.

2
££
A
ee
es ;

pen tar adialeis Si); de> iie44 Int ee
isis eae ut Ben tas yO See meas aheriled, ok J 2
Bibi elie, wd anes My ORES ee SAANEE, van ai
' 7 y Paige s Pa Pee tr, ims, Aj a
Lt ite nO ‘abil uy Festi aay ' igh i, Te Micke ie a aaa 4 cite
#01 ees Gre acd f ahd, ie ATats ssh VALe nl é De
‘ Lind ua a) es Bei Ai Be): ANS Jey# Hse ; f ,
< A yt Je et etre TE seadade Camatee a si i wd b cn
Y ‘ 27 Jt, yi re Mi. Eee. to) Suis, » Frptte. 2 ahh, yoNT daaelitat dutty, C glee
: : vis) ae (opal ihe pat/.) ¥ Canis by iat oh 4 i
Site VST k Ta oii fi.) gman yiendaneny 1% 7%, ts SOT
. ‘ fi ‘ teLleh ' z
Paka: hee ihy), bi Bit Aid. oO — (bib) “ patie SAPO E hi » he tah
‘ ARE ;
ROU? Sia EE (Tom Bho suits Aten ie 4 oy sets alae
ee esl Speuilny tos ha 144: i in oes oviny om aes be
waa ad DM 6 -SPy Seals ale Nir yeree ah ae a ‘a $e WR wigan
ran iO ‘ pe ae) aia i ree eens atti? aye) ai be. i i 7
a) perros t-- A rf oe eae ‘ sib SR, Ly vag me is 2 be bs has ah ony awe

ry ‘ pexpars Eins fixenid} pg aul ni ita oihattonats aE nf
; 5 UY pliv; taper’ + ROU SYA ik Baie of :

EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXVI.

Fic. 1. The Colorado Potato-Beetle (Doryphora 10-lineata).—a, a, eggs; b, b, b, larva
in three stages; c, pupa or chrysalis; d, d, beetle; e, a wing-cover, enlarged
twice.—(After Riley.)

Fic. 2. Doryphora juncta.—a, a, eggs; b, b, grub or larva; c, beetle; d, wing-cover,
enlarged, showing two of the black stripes joined together.—(After Riley.)

Fic. 3. The Potato Systena (S. mitis Lec.), Kingsley del.

Fic. 4. Lema trilineata, Eastern Potato-Beetle.

Fic. 5. Lema trilineata.—a, a, small and mature larva; 6, end of body of larva; ec,
pupa; d, eggs.—(After Riley.)

Fic. 6. a, Macrobasis cinerea (Fabr.).—d, male and female antenna, enlarged.—(After
Riley.)

Fic. 7. b, Macrobasis murina (Lec.).—c, male and female antennae, enlarged.—(After
Riley.)

Fic. 8. Epicauta marginata (Fabr.).—Blister-Beetle.

Fie. 9. Epicauta vittata (Fabr.).—Blister-Beetle.

Fig. 10. Lpicauta maculata (Say).—Blister-Beetle. (Kingsley del.)

Fig. 11. Epicauta pardalis (Lec.).—Blister-Beetle. (Kingsley del.)

Fic. 12. Potato-Stalk Weevil (Baridius trinotatus Say).—a, larva; b, pupa.—(After *
Riley.)

Fia. 13. Flea-beetle, Epitrix cucumeris (Harris).—(From Harris.)

Fic. 14. Lygus lineolaris Beauv.—(After Riley.)

7

Rep. U.S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv. Flate LAVI,.

D
aly 7

Ze

Fig. 10.

Insects injuring the Potato.

SAS et DOr ate

¥ *
* ‘
j
bi
t
, ,
ee:
:
: :
:
Tx
.

a 3 i on i ” : al
* F Hy Mi i ar 35) bart om Als
' , Dias ee , he A
. =f «% P
‘ } J
f eae
re
* :
F, ~
hi
| ‘
‘
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXVII.
Fic. 1. Anthomyia ceparum, Onion Maggot and Fly.
FiG. 2. Ortalis fleca Wied., Southern Onion-Worm.
Fic. 3. Limothrips tritici Fitch. Female.
* Fig. 4. a, Male; 5}, larva.
Fig. 5. End of antenna of male Limothrips tritici, Onion-Thrips.

a 4? “5
“ere f ee
OP Ce ye

) LJ

Rep. U.S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv.

Plate LXVII.

Insects injurious to the Onion.

: lA CY al] ae itech as aie seek
9 é t

a ee

kil oy al
- ’ : y ae ite’.
= /
‘a he
Ly ba oP \
ae
a 4
me

’ )
va .
oh i .
aa a *
-"
=
ee.
*
ms tt : ~ A \ c
en sine dB cena Cit ae aie ;
4 ; ay ght, (abies ke ARs ‘oe Was se) eaeap 4 i ret
y oe rh gi OF GS ed iy oti Math , “ah” Tei ts image ¢ Ahiey
TAP ANNT PAW useareer Bigs sn "I t MNEN Sr eh Wi4
BY, MRS: Te he OP ap re Pee AN yin
Rire? ieRTRes gilgatat Eepyils " i Re OTHE, OBE aT
i i, ae Di. tal xt 4 nae) es Fh ae ate oe ah Sr Sa
cot sah We ee opie CP BS oo GREET I U4 : b= -43 teeth iz. |
fare itet eis as Weg + pe ~y mA) - tye
Ba ATLAS os Pw Wee Ae ae :
+ : é hse
E *
[
oe as # .
. 7 .
: i fy
ry M ed y
; Sa
. ‘’,
; 7

EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXVIII. f

Fic. 1. Grape Phylloxera.—a, shows a healthy root; 6, one in which the lice are
working, representing the knots and swellings caused by their punctures; ¢, a root
that has been deserted by them, and where the rootlets have commenced to decay 3
d, d, d, shows how the lice are found on the larger roots ; e, female pupa, dorsal view;
f, the same, ventral view; g, winged female, dorsal view; h, same, ventral view; %,
magnified antenna of winged insect ; j, side view of the wingless female laying eggs
on roots; k, shows how the punctures of the lice cause the larger roots to decay.—
(After Riley.)

Fic.2. Sexual Phylloxere.—a, female vastatrix, ventral view, showing the egg through
the transparent skin of the body; b, dorsal view of the same; ¢, tarsus, greatly en-
_ larged; d, shrunken anal joints as they appear after oviposition ; e, male caryecautlia,
dorsal view; the dot in the circles indicates the natural size of the insect-—(Atter
Riley.)

——e

Rep. U.S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv.

The Grape Phylloxera.

e

wil ast ail ye
4 ee

pa.

Sioheeal a fe

Pai ne G se
Leas senls Oe
a fe wildtals mi ae A ma
i i ; ee eta misnte * = Sie vowing ayy a
12 uy : ie ae 2 ? rai 45 : pha vty co
aa i as {tT ty tere ;
Peay RS Ned * Sty es a ae 41.2 3 C Pers

aad ch ayes ae ery, heb Pets qe DRT eela ssh
( Todt Pat Py ae Pp ihae wr BERRY thy i* e8oia ie.
Cx at 984 ey > they +e “a aS yes ikabep say ror oan b hye
Ne we pid ipa Valois Sart Weg. Cua Be (gia
f fy * ‘&» 1 ‘ ~ r ws. ' oe ‘tA ei; Pew os

rh A, Mesh hoy fy, 190 eo odh) BOT hori ieiis 4 eee
sah ger eng pisiatonde ap he waledinreis 2.
. oy On ee ‘ eae U hel
anauit flat te farenyesinsel Yk init wed Bast Jv Sut
£3 shine Soe AGE Rove ri mh ua) 1 eA hs é14il w

ae <dee ure nee! ib par a eee $i Prior

ie ViPis inva & a6 Rite

y a et a; }} = oe he

Nee Me ! Coa »
yey

3 ae +u c

g %
bya ey
5 A ls 1
a . L ¢
V7] : ”
i _
° a
ade
. \. A ay
of a
yi Pe...
RS wh 8 vad ee

EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXIX.

la. 1. Anisopteryx vernata Peck. Canker-Worm,—-a, caterpillar; 0, a mass of eggs
natural size, and one much enlarged; ¢, lateral, d, dersal view of a segment enlarged.—
(After Riley.)

Fic. 2. Anisopteryx vernata Peck.—a, male, 6, female; c, three antennal joints; d,
an abdominal segment showing the two rows of spines not present in the female of
A. autumnata ; e, ovipositor.—(After Riley.)

Fic. 3. Anisopteryx autumnata (A. pométaria of Morrison & Mann).—a, b, e, egg; e¢, d,
f, caterpillar; g,h, female chrysalis—(After Riley.) :

Fic. 4. Anisopteryx autumnata.—a, male; b, female; c, portion of antenna enlarged ;
d, a female abdominal segment, dorsal view, enlarged.—(After Riley.)

Fic. 5. Clisiooampa americana.—a, b, American Tent-Caterpillar ; c, eggs; d, coeoon.—
(After Riley. )

Fic. 6. Female moth of American Tent-Caterpillar.—(After Riley.)

Fig. 7. Caterpillar of Clisiocampa disstria Hiibner.—(After Riley.)

Fic. 8. b, Female Clisiocampa disstria ; a, c,d, eggs.—(After Riley.)

Fria. 9.—Coddling moth, Carpocapsa pomonella Linn.—a, apple injured by the cater-
pillar e¢, which hatches from an egg laid at the’point b; d, chrysalis; h, head and next
segment of the larva; f, g, moth; i, the cocoon._(After Riley.)

Rep. U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv. Plate LXIX.

Insects injurious to the Apple.

a ee 4

*

i

“>
.

te
*.

iif ssn <Geboeaaete

eh ae

re a

1 :

nas ne ee a
pte pe Lah THU and ey Ag 2 a.

etgtalbs AUS ty Ft <

ers es, nae f “egg? Hea Bhs ie ‘
homey, aaa “00 hela Hea iE Siege ;
a, * ea) Soe Girt unter. 1 a
; 5 Weta ube ud :
Pix ; filetaw | pales ould ast
i 4 LAP) GPR Mam dont agtt .
ws yslalace: Fase Pal iatenn UC)
; FR OSE: ‘ys iin
¥ pdxi mice Mey CAA oe oy Obaltaiy Go £5 ae
7 ° ; Ck 3 aah wee ‘ A 49% 4 :
ae A ee AL wit) Shope AS RL re ae
‘ ry 7 A ee 14" LAR aae hyo pe wok Pr) wy Oa ,
oe i: OO «(Beare omen nr tatty 9 TTR et Saari
i tf Z ; fet yes ao tehtet ee
‘ 7 ; PX, OPAL Jad iy mit LES me 3g ;
me, a . "MOP las sabes 0G ih ao a ies : e:
‘, % Mey Sy is rae ih at ae ct an Wiad tied? i wits ae .
ae ‘é, nak ines Pini! ait if ae Tats) ¢ be ea pay SP ad) 1k invent hey ore as 7
Seah iii . ata thi? a ph” Tie! un i" i’
‘a

| peceiee tt

Gea ty sin Hits a4 i WDiweh om Aine Se! bite oe
' "e Sbaiih ais Ne Ree *

eat: ne Me u Ein tvaadngt Reh way

EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXX.

Fic. 1. Larva of Dryocetes affaber Mannh.
Fic. 2. Pupa of the same.
Fic. 3. Adult of the same.
Fic. 4. Pupa of Tomicus pini Say.
Fic. 5. Adult of Tomicus pini.
Fig. 6. Prionus emarginatus Say.
Fic. 7. Criocephalus productus Le Conte.
Fic. 8. Dectes spinosus (Say).
9

- 9. Pogonocherus mixtus Haldeman.

Fig. 10. Mecas pergrata Say.

Fia. 11. Chrysobothris trinervia (Kirby).

Fic. 12. Buprestis rusticorum Kirby.

Fig. 13. Dicerca prolongata Le Conte.

Fic. 14. Melanophila drummondi Kirby.

Fic. 15. Dermestes marmoratus Say.

Fic. 16. Dendroctonus obesus Mannh.

Fig. 17. Cocoon of Donacia proxima.

Fic. 18. Larva of Donacia proxima.

Fie, 19. Adult (enlarged twice) of Donacia proxima Kirby.

Fi. 20. Pleotomus pallens Le Conte, male.—a, dorsal and side view of the larva; },
dorsal, and ¢, ventral view of the mouth-parts.

Fie. 21. Female of Pleotomus pallens.

Fic. 22. Phryganidia californica Pack.; male.

NoTe.—Figs. 1-16 and 20 were drawn by Mr. J. 8. Kingsley, and Figs. 17-19, 21, and
22 were drawn by Mr. J. H. Emerton.

Rep. U.S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv.

Insects injurious to Western Forest Trees.

Plate LXX.

ng Gi

mr Ae Me

DURE again nen ei eae hal

|

ion

tvat

350 400

250 300

of the
00 2

Vy FLY & WHEAT MIDGE.

tern United States,

t of Wheat cult
Scale of Statute Miles

AS.PACKARD In.
ssian Fly =\Wheat Midge

Limi:

50 100 150

Ba 4 we a
83 *> Le c Weed i

ESS

z
=
ke
>
1m
cc
Fk
=
a
wl
ke
<
2
4
oO
ac
a.
a
<
o
z

wm €das

2

8 4),
Soh Sate

CaP EG 2B
= Duluth SSS

S~ == ae
Marquette
bie S._ Escanaba a-=s

=

RLY
IY

ie
fxs

Bros
GONOS,

COND

SERS

oO

eae
ee

7,
SER SORES
SES ERS

0,0, 9.¢
KP
SCS

K>
xX?
OREN

Memphis 7

Ay
SdS2525

5

e
Montgomery

Paras Kd
Wl XX
iP wean OK

=e \ Atlanta

a

i

==
~~ Galeeston

\
\\

\\

, sl
)

MAP

SHOWING APPROXIMATE DISTRIBUTION

of the

HESSIAN FLY & WHEAT MIDGE,)

AS.PACKARD In.
Hessian Fly =\Wheat Midge

Limit of Wheat cultivation
in eastern United States,

Scale of Statute Miles

—
100 150 200 250 300 35u

==

‘ be lan,

ies, an Pee ae

7 Pa Maa } +t
? eas T v ws Se.
} ‘ , S :
A 4 4
=
Py »
4 ds , -
she, > Je
ao
5
bet *
rs
‘
‘ *
1p. - h
ad ,
y a a rf
ia ¥ ~ oe \
{ r
-
. i
om
}
' W¢
. * \
; » >
‘ 3 }
A 7
we 5 va
' . ‘
y
’
a a
4
”
G
¢ ‘ { a :
'
J ‘
’ :
; .
- 4,
t
1 ; ;
+ ¥

oh
‘ Ge ee

cea hi Aes apt ot bane Sie

MAP

SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION 30
of the

CHINCH BUG

(BLISSUS LEUCOPTERUS)
AS.PACKARD Jr.
Regions most ravaged.
~— Limit of Wheat culti-
vation in eastern U.S.

Scale of Statute Miles

——=_—— ne
* 50 100 150 200 250 800 35 400 -~

Russell & Struthers.N.Y.

o

Ow;
ca)

G
\\
x S
= SS
NI re) e s
- D2 =
= 3 US
2 SE
c Oras
b of 8
Salt) pt |
Bosesss
A262 ae
e: & > eas
z ee
— ~~
=) oe
©. «btu uke
aes

i

Fy

moos DL

e

AN

Se ———¥
———S

Oyteans=}

Alba®

aS

SS piece
eee aes

ves
ate

|
LAKE OF THE
WOODS

SPS
RSose SoS

uit il :

. : ot ‘ a q SSOSD
5 4 5 SOC SSE
3a ry : . 4 ee eet oeer a

ce e ‘ am

LL SAL)

-
oo.

Surv. for 127.

ogr.

,
‘a

34

and Ge

Gila I

S. Geolo.

i=

t of Wheat cult
S.

i

Zin

Ch

stern
Miles

a

in €
Statute

vation

Scale of

Ss
Ee}
—
Ss
a

150 200

100

50

}
o
7

107”

Y.

Russell & Struthers.N,

"Y ree are

Nascent

J Ones #
a é . = Z a
pot ae Oe \
5 SANS 9
. ¢ 7 r . ‘
ie 5 ; *
{ a =n 2
;
‘
.
x~ ‘
5 .
4
q y
.e
.
Le)
~
s i
{
: ee
i 5 A
s) ~ 7
y
qi
f
‘ ee : ;
4,
.
" ,
4 ins i
i 7"
ls f : >
’
ire
:
Bh
eh
‘ ' ~~
; ¥ p
a i sae et te
tay y Pee Stee meee f
‘ ‘ uj ‘
i hooe eared wha he te eaaie 1, oe treble tele yeaa

— i

a
WSN

A

WH? Se 15 ar
OTA thine |
DOR ROSS ESACUS Mo” = Ay:

Lou! i
IW“ L908

ree

i

4

s

z
2
Fk
5
a
c
| od
2
a
WW
%
5
o
a
>.
°
2
n”

q
30

of the

ARMY WORM

N
ne
(HELIOPHILA UNIPUNCTA)

Rk

HE

D IR.

>
‘

A.S.PACKAT

d.

€
eat cul-

J

st rava

JLOns MLO

antag
Re
ee Limit of

VK

ted

ni

U

t

Wy
Eastern

Scale of Statute Miles

an

Lov

at
States

iv

t

INORT

25)

250 300 350 400

200

50 100) 15u

s |
PLAKE OF TLE

UZ 30UT? Rit,

|

Yelluu ¢ Sume ae

i
Ly
Petey, thay,
/ ing. / Olde Cit
NI

:&

°

95

*Santa Fe |

|

MAP
SHOWING -THE DISTRIBUTION
eo]

of the 30

NORTHERN ARMY WORM

(HELIOPHILA UNIPUNCTA)
A.S.PACKARD Jr.

PEE Reyions most ravaged.

aj Limit of Wheat cul-
tivation in Eustern United
States — scale of Statute Miles

60 lou 15 200 250 300 350 400

== “=P nite Daten a) nine ee ohe s

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MAP
SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION

of the

TTON ARMY WORM,

?

(ALETIA ARGILLACEA)

and

BOLL WORM.

(HELILOTHIS ARMIGERA)

y

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=
i
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ot
Ll
=
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oll Worm

Scale of Statute Miles Worm
200 250 300 350 400 450

100 150

50

tivation

cult

ts of Cotton

.

| Limi

Russell & Struthers,N.Y,

QS Kinastoted
augee =
a

Saginaw {7
rand Haven

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y wa ° ae) = aes = A i A < "$e —— ak

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iv Me ee B28 OM ore SIT LS o. 9 Of ah

2 Denyoy A les | |
ho () 5 lo
Kausas pea enworth

ii
a

fo

*Taos

°Santa Te

. == 1201205 1 TSE DAO) AS OR ae ia Be i == MAP
4 a tere Sate Bay ue ‘or in "3 "OG Oo. o SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION
of the

COTTON ARMY WORM;

(ALETIA ARGILLACEA)
and

BOLL WORM.

(HELIOTHIS ARMIGERA)

30

: 25 oe wed pally: ae . AS.PACKARD Jn.
| oo Ae

Cy Boll Worm C2559 Cotton Army

Scale of Statute Miles Worm
— $$" ee
50 100 150 200 250 300 360 400 450

= =-=-—Limits of Cotton cultivation

a0?

Russell & Struthers,N.Y,

f
}
4

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= , *,
= | z
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he cebinharreaeb ie Kc

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PS

MAP
20|__«| THE DISTRIBUTION
of the
T WORM
DMA HORDE!)

ACKARD Jr.

ost devastated
sof Wheat culti-

in eastern U.S.
f Statute Miles

0 200 250 3200 350 400

Russel] & Struthers,N.Y.

il ks: i,

Mh,

¢ r) ; iG
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= Grand Haven
filwaukee== = Gra Port Huron, ee '
e , == oit e <2 \ 7), -* nt ~ CPE —— = la
1eYenne | pie ie : i
5 ee. SS ae ae, . Bie ;

Chicago eS 7. qiedo =

oA.

| — te -
ow Knoxvie

"Santa Fe |

I

MAP
‘signet SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION
ugus !
seal | Savannah, of the |
| \ Vicksburg 3 30.
x or T a
A JOINT WORM
3s Baal
Sie a) ere ty _— A FS conville (ISOSOMA HORDE})
= A.S.PACKARD Jr.
a Saw New=Orleans==—SS, :
AGalvesto. == CORD Arveu most devastated
—-—-—Limits of Wheat culti-
vation in eastern U.S.
Scale of Statute Miles e
50 100 160 200 250 300 350 400 tes
m7 72° |
. 4 3 Russell & Struthers,N.Y.

ae “ a

a

2) Zz | a a

packard.) LIST OF COLEOPTERA COLLECTED IN COLORADO. 811

APPS DEX:

LIST OF COLEOPTERA COLLECTED IN 1875, IN COLORADO
AND UTAH, BY A. S. PACKARD, JR., M. D.

The collection of beetles which I made in the summer of 1875, while
attached to Professor Hayden’s Survey, was submitted to Dr. G. H.
Horn for examination and identification.

CICINDELID &.

Cicindela longilabris Say. Georgetown, Colo.
Cicindela punctulata Fabr. Garden of the Gods, Colo.
Cicindela repanda Dej. Boulder, Colo.

Cicindela hemorrhagica Lec. Salt Lake Point.

CARABID A.

Carabus tedatus Fabr. Kelso’s Cabin, foot of Gray’s Peak, elevation
11,200 feet ; Idaho Springs, Colo.

Pasimachus elongatus Lee. Denver, June 27.

Brachinus minutus Harr. Denver, Colo.

Calathus dubius Lee. Idaho Springs, Colo.

Platynus placidus (Say). Idaho Springs, Colo.

Pterostichus luczotit (Dej.). Idaho Springs, Colo. ; Georgetown, Colo.,

: 9,000 feet elevation.

Pterostichus riparius (Dej.). Gray’s Peak, at an elevation of about 12,000
feet.

Amara terrestris Lec. Idaho Springs, Colo.

Amara brunnipennis Dej. Arapahoe Peak, 11,000-12,000 feet elevation ;
summit of Pike’s Peak and lower down, about 13,000 feet ele-
vation.

Amara interstitialis Dej. Idaho Springs, Colo.

Amara obesa Say. Idaho Springs, Colo.; Manitou, July 12; Golden,
Colo.

Amara avida (Say). Idaho Springs, Colo.

Dicaelus sculptilis Say. Manitou, Colo.

Nothopus zabroides (Lec.). Denver, Colo.

Harpalus pensylvanicus (Dej.).. Denver, Colo.; Salt Lake City, Utah.

Harpalus furtivus Lee. Golden, Colo.; Idaho Springs, Colo.; Manitou,
Colo., July 12.

Harpalus fallax Lec. Idaho Springs; Kelso’s Cabin, Gray’s Peak,
11,200 feet elevation, July 6.

Harpalus oblitus Lec. Idaho Springs, Colo.; Manitou, Colo.

Cratacanthus dubius (Beauy.). Denver, Colo., June 27.

Agonoderus comma (Kabr.). Denver; Idaho Springs, Colo.

aaa parallelus (Hald.). Shores of Great Salt Lake at Lake Point,

tah.

Patrobus longicornis (Say). Boulder, Colo.

Patrobus aterrimus Dej. Idaho Springs, Colo.

81i2 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Bembidium bimaculatum (Kirby). Idaho Springs, Colo. vt
Bembidium ‘rupestre Dej. Idaho Springs, Colo.
Bembidium bifossulatum Sec. Denver, Col. :

DYTISCIDA.

Hydroporus vilis Lec. Colorado. :
Hydroporus sellatus Lec. Denver, Colo. |
Tlybius confusus Aubé. Denver, Colo.
Gaurodytes disintegratus Cr. Denver.

HYDROPHILID A.

Helophorus lineatus Say. Arapahoe Peak, 11,000-12,000 feet elevation.
- Tropisternus lateralis Hb. Denver.
Berosus styliferus Horn. Denver.

STAPHYLINID A.

Creophilus villosus (Grav.). Georgetown, Colo.; Lake Point, margin of
Great Salt Lake, Utah.

Philonthus californicus Mann. Margin of Great Salt Lake, Utah.

Philonthus pederoides Lec. Colorado.

Philonthus sp. Idaho Springs, Colo.

Tachinus sp. Idaho Springs, Colo.

SILPHID Zi.

Silpha lapponica Hb. Idaho Springs, Colo.
Catops sp.
DERMESTID Z.

Dermestes marmoratus Say. Utah. Mr. Barfoot.
Cryptorhopalum ruficorne Lec. Garden of the Gods.

NITIDULID Z&.
Carpophilus pallipennis (Say). Denver.
COCCINELLID &.

Coccinella 5-notata Kirby. Idaho Springs, Colo.

Coccinella 9-notata Hb. Denver, Colo.

Hippodamia 5-signata (Kirby). Denver; American Fork Caiion,, Utah. °
Hippodamia convergens Guér. Denver, Colo.

Hippodamia parenthesis (Say). Manitou, Colo.

HISTERID 4.

Saprinus lugens Er. Margin of Great Salt Lake, Utah.
Saprinus estriatus Lec. Margin of Great Salt Lake, Utah.

SCARAB EID Ai.

Canthon hudsonias (Forst.). Denver, Colo.
Canthon ebenus (Say). Denver, Colo.

PACKARD.] LIST OF COLEOPTERA COLLECTED IN COLORADO. 813

Rhyssemus scaber Haed.

Diplotaxis obscura Lec. Utah (Mr. Barfoot).

Polyphyila decemlineata (Say). Utah (Mr. Joseph L. Barfoot).
Cotaipa lanigera (Linn.). Utah (Mr. Barfoot).

Tostegoptera lanceolata (Say). Boulder, Garden of the Gods.
LTiggrus gibbosus (De Geer). Denver, June 27; Utah (Mr. Barfoot).
Euryomia inda (Linn.).

Trichius piger Fabr. Manitou, Colo., July 15.

BUPRESTID&.

Buprestis lauta Lee. Utah (Mr. Barfoot).

Buprestis rusticorum Kirby. Manitou, Colo., July 16.

Dicerca prolongata Lec. Denver, Colo.; Idaho Springs, on populus,
July 6.

Melanophila drummondi (Kirby). American Fork Caiion, Utah.

Chrysobothris trinervia (Kirby). The Divide (on the railroad), Colorado,
July 12.

Acmeodera mixta Lec. Manitou, and Garden of the Gods, July 15.

ELATERID &.

Asaphes coracinus Cand. Golden, Colo.
Melanotus castanipes (Payk).

LAMPYRID 2.
Photinus nigricans (Say).
TELEPHORID &.

Podabrus (near puncticollis Kirby). Gray’s Peak, about 12,000 feet.
Podabrus (not determined). Georgetown, Colo.

MALACHID A.
Collops vittatus Say? var. shore of Great Salt Lake, Salt Lake Point,
July 26.

Dasytes hudsonicus Lee.
Pristocelis antennatus (Motsch). Golden, Colo.

CLERIDZ.
Clerus ornatus (Say). Georgetown, Colo., on flowers, July 8.

PTINIDZ&.
Dinoderus cribratus Lec. Boulder, Colo.

CERAMBYCID &.

Prionus californicus Motsch. Salt Lake City (Mr. Barfoot).
Prionus emarginatus Say. Salt Lake City (Mr. Barfoot).
Asemum moestum Hald. Mederland, Colo., June 30.

Criocephalus productus Lec. Colorado. Shores of Great Salt Lake.
Batyle ignicollis (Say). Golden; Garden of the Gods, July 13.

fe
814 REPORT UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. Bee

Batyle suturalis (Say). Denver; Garden of the Gods, July 13. .

Neoclytus muricatulus (Kirby). "Boulder, Colo.

Acmeops pratensis (Laich.). Manitou, Colo. ; Georgetown, Colo., 9,500
feet elevation, July 8; Pike’s Peak, summit and 13 000 feet eleva-
tion; Arapahoe Peak, a] ,000-12,000 feet elevation.

Acmeops proteus (Kirby). Georgetown, Colo., 9,000 feet elevation,
July 6.

Pachyta nitens Kirby. Georgetown, Colo.

Leptura chrysocoma Kirby. Manitou, July 15.

Leptura sanguinea Le Conte. Manitou.

Dectes spinosus (Say). Denver, Manitou.

Pogonocherus mixtus Hald. Idaho Springs, July 5, on populus.

Mecas pergrata (Say). Denver.

Zetraopes basalis Lec. Common in gardens in Salt Lake City, Utah.

CHRYSOMELID.

Coscinoptera dominicana (Fabr.).

Pachybrachys (not described), American Fork Caiion, Utah.

Chrysochus cobaltinus Lec. Denver, Colo., Salt Lake City (Mr. Bar-
foot).

Chrysomela 10-lineata (Say). Common; eggs, larva, and imago. Golden,
Denver.

Chrysomela adonidis Fab. Georgetown, Colo., about 9,000 feet eleva-
tion.

Chrysomela scripta Fabr. (var. confluens Rog.). American Fork Caiion,
Utah.

Chrysomela exclamationis Fabr. Denver, Colo.

Graptodera punctipennis Lec. Idaho Springs, Colo.

Graptodera plicipennis (Mann.). Manitou, Colo.

Graptodera (not determined).

Luperus meraca Say. (Does not appear to differ from ‘‘meraca” Horn.).
Georgetown, Colo., 9,000 feet elevation.

Orchestris albionica (Lec.). Idaho Springs, Colo., July 6; Pike’s Peak,
on summit, abundant.

Orchestris ? Denver.

Systena mitis Lec. var. ligata Lec. Idaho Springs, Colo., July 5, on po-
tato-vines.

TENEBRIONID &.

EHusattus muricatus Lec. Utah (Mr. Barfoot).

Coniontis obesa Lec. Manitou.

Hleodes extricata (Say). Denver, Manitou, Idaho Springs.
Eleodes pimelioides Mann. Idaho Springs, Colo.

Kleodes suturalis (Say). Denver, June 27.

Kleodes nigrina Lec. Idaho Springs, Colo.

Hleodes planipennis Lec. Manitou, Colo.

Eleodes quadricollis Esch. Manitou.

Hleodes tricostata (Say). Kansas Pacific Railroad, Colorado, June 26.
Embaphion elongatum Horn. Utah (Mr. Barfoot).

Iphthimus serratus (Mann.) var. Lewisii Horn. Blackhawk, Colo.

MORDELLID 43.

Diclidia letula Lee. “ Mammoth Cave,” Manitou, Colo.
Anaspis rufa (Say). Georgetown, Colo. ., about 9,500 feet elevation.
Mordella scutellaris Fabr. American Fork Cation.

Ba

PACKARD.] LIST OF COLEOPTERA COLLECTED IN COLORADO. 815

Mordellistena emula Lee. Golden, Manitou, Colo.
Mordellistena unicolor Lee. Denver, June 27.
Mordellistena pustulata (Mels.). Denver, June 27.
Pentaria fuscula Lec. Manitou, Colo.

MELOID 42.

Epicauta pardalis Lec. Southern Colorado (T. M. Trippe).
Epicauta maculata (Say). Golden, Manitou, Colo., on beets.
Epicauta puncticollis Mann. American Fork Cation, Utah.
Cantharis sphericollis (Say). Blackhawk, Colo.
Nemognatha dichroa Lec. Denver.

Nemognatha sparsa Lec. Manitou, Colo.

Gnathium minimum (Say). Denver, Golden, July 3.

CURCULIONID &.

Rhynchites bicolor Fabr. Georgetown, Colo., about 9,500 feet elevation.
Ophryastes latirostris Lec. Salt Lake City (Mr. Bartoot).

Dorytomus brevicollis Lec. Denver, Colo.

Anthonomus (not described). Golden, Colo.

Tychius lineellus Lec. var. Denver, Colo.

Baris transversus Lec. Golden, Manitou, Colo.

Sphenophorus pertinax Oliv. Salt Lake City (Mr. Barfoot).

SCOLYTID A.

Dryocetes affaber (Mannh). Gray’s Peak, 11,200 feet elevation (Kelso’s
Cabin).

Tomicus pini (Say). Gray’s Peak, elevation 11,200 feet (Kelso’s Cabin).

Polygraphus rujipennis (Kirby). Gray’s Peak, elevation 11,200 feet (Kel-
so’s Cabin).

Dendroctonus obesus (Mann). Blackhawk, July 2; Manitou, July 15.

Packard, Alpheus Spring,
1839-1905.

Report on the Rocky
Mountain locust and
other insects. ....