THE

VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

NARRATIVE-VOL. I.

SECOND PART.

-M

REPORT

ON THE

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

OF THE

VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER

DURING THE YEARS i 8 7 3-7 6

UNDER THE COMMAND OF

Captain GEORGE S. NARES, R.N., F.R.S.

AND THE LATE

Captain FRANK TOURLE THOMSON, R.N.

PREPARED UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF

THE LATE

Sir C. WYVILLE THOMSON, Knt., F.R.S., &c.

REGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH
DIRECTOR OF THE CIVILIAN SCIENTIFIC STAFF ON BOARD

AND NOW OF

JOHN MURRAY

ONE OF THE NATURALISTS OF THE EXPEDITION

Narrative — Vol. I.

SECOND PART.

JpubltslicB by <®rber of Dec ^Majesty's ®oberamnu

c, \q-A-ql°

PRINTED FOR HER MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE

AND SOLD BY

LONDON LONGMANS & CO.; JOHN MURRAY; MACMILLAN & CO.; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO.
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NARRATIVE

OF THE

CRUISE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER

WITH A

GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE SCIENTIFIC RESULTS
OF THE EXPEDITION

BY

Staff-Commander T. H. TIZARD, R.N.; Professor H. N. MOSELEY, F.R.S.;
Mr. J. Y. BUCHANAN, M.A.; and Mr. JOHN MURRAY, Ph.D.;

MEMBERS OF THE EXPEDITION.

Partly Illustrated by Dr. J. J. WILD, Artist to the Expedition.

CONTENTS OF SECOND PART.

CHAPTER XIII.

PAGE

Fiji Islands to the New Hebrides Islands — -Halobates — Api — The Macrura — Raine Island —
Cape York — Arrou Islands — Ki Islands — Banda Group, ....

511-560

CHAPTER XI Y.

Banda Islands — The Monaxonida — Banda to Amboina — The Actiniaria — Amboina — Mimicry
in Butterflies and Moths — The Brachyura — Amboina to Ternate — Ternate — The Medusae,

561-603

CHAPTER XY.

Ternate to Samhoangan — The Asteroidea — Samboangan to Ilo Ilo — The Amphipoda — Ilo Ilo
to Manila — The Lamellibranchiata — Manila to Hong Kong — The Annelida — The Calcarea and
Keratosa, ............

604-645

CHAPTER XYI.

Hong Kong to Manila and Zebu — Mactan and Zebu — Zebu to Camiguin Island and Sambo-
angan— Samboangan — Samboangan to Humboldt Bay — The Polyzoa — Cephalodiscus — Humboldt
Bay — Humboldt Bay to the Admiralty Islands — The Alcyonaria — The Nudibranchiata, .

646-695

CHAPTER XYll.

The Admiralty Islands — History of their Discovery — Description of Nares Harbour — General
Appearance of the Islands and Botany — Natives — Their Houses, Habits, Customs, Ornaments,
Weapons, and Implements — Zoology — Polynesian Races, ......

696-733

CHAPTER XYIII.

Admiralty Islands to Japan — The Schizopoda, Cumacea, and Phyllocarida — Japan — The
Japan Stream — Japan to the Sandwich Islands — The Hydroida — Honolulu — Hawaii — Sandwich
Islands to Tahiti — -Dr. Rudolf von Willemoes-Suhm — Tahiti — Structure of Coral Reefs — The
Corals, . . . . . . ,

734-800

CHAPTER XIX.

Tahiti to Juan Fernandez — Manganese Nodules, Sharks’ Teeth, Zeolites, and Cosmic Spherules
in the Deposits of the Central South Pacific — The Stomatopoda — Historical Account of Juan
Fernandez — Physical Features — Botany and Zoology — The Nemertea — Juan Fernandez to Val-
paraiso— The Foraminifera — Valparaiso — The Copepoda and Ostracoda, ....

801-848

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

CHAPTER XX.

Valparaiso to Cape Tres Montes — The Cirripedia and Pycnogonida— Through the Messier
Channel, Sarmiento Channel, and the Strait of Magellan to the Falkland Islands — The Isopoda —
The Falkland Islands — Fossils — The Scaphopoda and Gasteropoda — The Anomura,

CHAPTER XXI.

Falkland Islands to Monte Video — The Deep-Sea Fishes — Monte Video — The Gephyrea —
Monte Video to Ascension — Description of the Deposits — On Deep-Sea Deposits in General —
Ascension — Ascension to Porto Praya — Pelagic Diatoms — Infusoria — Pyrocystis — Coccospheres
and Rhabdospheres — Bathybius — Cape Verde Islands to England — Synoptical Table of the
Voyage — The Botany of the Expedition — Challenger Collections and Publications,

CHAPTER XXII.

Density of Sea Water — Composition of Ocean Water Salts — Geographical and Bathymetrical
Distribution of Specific Gravity — Carbonic Acid, Nitrogen, and Oxygen in Sea Water — Discussion
of Meteorological Observations as bearing on Oceanic Circulation, .....

APPENDICES.

Appendix

I. Explanation of Symbols and Abbreviations used in the Charts and Diagrams,

II. Revised Table showing the positions of the Soundings obtained by H.M.S. Challenger, the
Temperature and Specific Gravity of the Surface and Bottom Water, and the Stations
where Serial Temperatures, Trawlings, and Dredgings were procured,

III. Report on the Chronometers supplied to, and the Meridian Distances obtained by H.M.S.

Challenger,, between the 1st December 1872 and the. 12th June 187 6, by Staff-Commander
T. H. Tizard, R.N.

IV. Report on the Health of the Crew of H.M.S. Challenger, during the years 1873-76. By

Fleet-Surgeon George Maclean, R!N. .

V. Chemical Analyses, . . .

VI. Bibliography, giving the Titles of Books, Reports, and Memoirs referring to the Results of
the Challenger Expedition, . . . . . . .

VII. List of Reports on the Scientific Results of the Expedition, ....

VIII. Letters addressed by the Admiralty to the Captain of H.M.S. Challenger, and the Director
of the Civilian Scientific Staff, after the Arrival of the Expedition in England, .

Index, . . . . . . .

(For List of Illustrations in this Part see First Part.)

PAGE

849-901

902-947

948-1003

1005

1007-1015

1017-1026

1027-1031

1033-1051

1053-1063

1065-1072

1073

1075-1110

H.M.S. Challenger — Shortening Sail to Sound.

CHAPTER XIII.

Fiji Islands to the New Hebrides Islands — Halobates — Api — The Macrnra — Raine Island — Cape York-
Arrou Islands — Ki Island's — Banda Group.

Fiji Islands to the New Hebrides.

On the 11th August 1874, at 6 p.m., after swinging for magnetic purposes, the ship finally
left the Fiji Islands, all sail being made to the westward. Mount Washington was in
sight all day.

On the 12th, at 6 A.M., a sounding, trawling, and temperatures were taken in 1350
fathoms, at Station 175 (see Sheet 27). The trawl caught at the bottom, but was
successfully cleared and brought to the surface at 3 p.m.

On the 15th another sounding and serial temperatures were taken in 1450 fathoms.
From the 11th to the 15th, wet changeable weather was experienced, the wind blowing
chiefly from N.E., but never remaining steady. On the 13th the fore topgallant mast
and flying jib-boom were carried away in a rain squall before sail could be shortened.

The deposits at 1350 and 1450 fathoms were Globigerina oozes of a. reddish colour,
closely resembling the red clays in that respect. They contained respectively 45 and 61
per cent, of carbonate of lime, consisting of Rhabdoliths, Coccoliths, the shells of Globi-
gerina, Orbulina, Hastigerina, Piilvinulina, Sjphceroidina, Pullenia, and some bottom-
living species. A few of the Globigerina shells had still the delicate spines attached as in
the specimens taken on the surface. The absence of Pteropod, Heteropod, and other pelagic
Molluscan shells from these deposits is somewhat remarkable, for they were very abundant
(nark, chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 65

512

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

on the surface, and at a similar depth and latitude in the Atlantic they were usually present
in considerable numbers. The Foraminifera shells were in some instances quite white,
or with a rosy tinge as if lately fallen from the surface, but the great majority were
brown coloured, and in some instances black, from a deposit of oxide of manganese on
their surface. When one of these dark coloured shells from 1450 fathoms is broken,
three zones can be distinguished : at the centre an internal cast of the shell, then the
white carbonate of lime shell itself, and outside this an external cast of the same nature
and aspect as the internal one, to which it is connected by little red pillars which fill
up the foramina of the shell. These casts do not appear to be formed by a simple
filling of the shell, but to be due to a chemical combination. There were in these deposits
none of the smooth pale yellow and green casts so abundant in the green muds along
continental shores. If the brown casts be treated with warm hydrochloric acid and the
iron thus extracted, a number of colourless globules are obtained, which have resisted
the action of the acid. It has been found that these casts consist of a hydrated
silicate containing alumina, lime, magnesia, and alkalies. The mean diameter of the
minerals in these deposits — felspars, black mica, augite, hornblende, and magnetite — rarely
exceeded 0'05 mm. The great bulk of the residue, however, after removal of the lime,
consisted of pumice stone in a fine state of division, with argillaceous matter. Radiolarians
and Diatoms made up about 2 per cent, of the whole deposit.

The trawling at 1350 fathoms gave a few deep-sea animals, many rounded fragments
of pumice covered with oxide of manganese, and the branch of a tree several feet in
length which was carbonised in some places.

There were many very productive hauls with the surface nets between the Fiji Islands
and the New Hebrides, Pteropods, Heteropods, and pelagic Foraminifera being specially
abundant. With the exception of a very large cylindrical species of Etmodiscus ,
Diatoms were very rare both on the surface and at the bottom. It was observed that the
larger Foraminifera, • such as Sphceroidina dehiscent, Pulvimdinci menardii, and thick
shelled Orbulince, were procured in greatest abundance when the tow-net was dragged at
a depth of 80 or 100 fathoms.

On one occasion the otter trawl was towed for some time from the lower boom, a
short distance beneath the surface. It was not so successful in catching fish as was
hoped; it contained, however, large masses and strings of jelly, which on examination
turned out to be the eggs of a Cephalopod.

Flying Fish ( Exocetus ) were especially abundant during this trip, and at night
frequently dashed on board ship near the exposed lights.

Holobates. — Specimens of this insect, of which very many were collected during the
cruise, were especially abundant on the surface between the Fijis and the New Hebrides.
This group of Hemiptera is interesting as containing (along with the allied genus

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUI8E.

5X3

Halobatodes) the only insects with an organisation adapted to a truly pelagic mode of
life. The head, in addition to the antennae (fig. 179, a), bears three tubercles on either
side, surmounted by a single hair, but of unknown function. The mandibles are pointed
and serrated, and serve to puncture the creatures upon which they feed, whilst they suck
out the juices through a kind of tubular proboscis formed by the united maxillae. The
thorax forms by far the largest part of the body ; the first segment is transverse and
collar-like, the second and third elongated and fused, and produced behind and below into
the acetabula with which the hinder legs are articulated (fig. 179, £ , $ ). The abdomen
is larger in the male than in the female ; it consists of six ring-like segments followed by
three others specially modified (fig. 179, g,g.a). The abdomen of the female consists of

Fig. 179. —Halobates wullerstorffi., Frauenfelcl.

<5, Male, upper side ; <? , outline of the body of the female ; a, antenna ; ft, front tarsus ; fta, front tarsus of the larva ;
m.t, middle tibia and tarsus ; g, genital segments of the male, from above ; g.a, the same in profile.

the same number of segments and carries an ovipositor made up of four valves ; in both
sexes the ventral surface of the first segment bears a curious tubercle whose extremity is
pierced by a transverse perforation. The fore-legs are short, and for the greater part of
their length lie well in advance of the body, without being raptorial they are fitted for
grasping ; and the second joint of the tarsus is furnished with two curved sharp-pointed
claws, as well as a thin ribbon-like process (fig. 179 ,ft). The two hinder legs are long,
and by their means the little creatures scud over the surface of the water.

The tarsus of the middle legs (fig. 179, m.t) has a fringe of long hairs, which probably
serves to aid the animal in swimming or to prevent its being so readily driven by the

wind.

514

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The genus was first founded by Eschscholtz in 1822 for the reception of three species
taken during von Kotzebue’s voyage round the world ; at present it appears from the
investigations of Dr. F. Buchanan White1 to contain eleven species, of which six were
discovered by the Challenger. The allied genus Halobatodes contains four species, two
being new, but only one is certainly known to be marine.

They appear to live upon the juices of dead animals floating upon the surface. Some
species, at all events, have the power of diving, and have been seen to do so in order to
avoid being captured.

Their distribution is very wide, for they occur in all the great oceans. Mr. Murray
noted their occurrence twenty-one times in the Atlantic between the parallels of 35° N.
and 20° S., and thirty-eight times in the Pacific between lats. 37° N. and 23° S., so that
they would seem to be confined to the warmer waters of the ocean. The region between
the eastern part of the Indian Ocean and the Western Pacific seems to be the metropolis
of the genus, nine out of the eleven known species occurring there, and five nowhere
else ; it is also interesting to note that the species of the genus Halobatodes occur
in this region.

It is very desirable that those who have the opportunity should make further
investigations into their life-history and habits, especially with respect to : —

1. Their food and the manner in which it is seized and retained.

2. The manner of locomotion, and especially whether all species have the power of
diving. Experiments might also be made as to the effects of compulsory submergence.

3. What enemies they have, and what means of defence.

4. The use of the peculiar tubercles on the head, the perforated tubercle of the
abdomen, and the ribbon-like process connected with the claws of the tarsi.

The New Hebrides.

On the 17th August, at noon, the island of Tongariki, one of the New Hebrides, was
sighted ahead, and shortly after Makura Island on the port bow. A course was shaped
to pass between Makura and Three Hills Island, the wind being a fresh trade, with
numerous rain squalls. At 5.45 P.M., having cleared the channel between Makura and
Three Hills Island, sail was shortened to topsails, and the vessel “hove to” on the port
tack. The weather, being thick and rainy, was not very favourable for making observa-
tions, but, so far as could be ascertained, the islands of Tongariki, Bunina, Three Hills,
Makura, Two Hills, and Monument, are correctly placed relatively to each other in
Admiralty chart 1380, and the positions assigned them cannot be far out.

The island of Tongariki has a high solitary peak on its northeast end, while the western
part is flat-topped and about 400 feet high ; Bunina Island is round-backed, and about
1 F. Buchanan White, Report on the Pelagic Hemiptera, Zool. Chall. Exp., part xix., 1883.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

515

500 feet high ; Three Hills Island is readily distinguished, the peaks all being high, the
middle one the lowest ; there is not much difference in their height, and the saddles
between them are comparatively low. Two Hills Island has one sharp peak on its
north side, the other hill is flat-topped and comparatively low, and between the two hills
the island is very low, so that seen from a distance this island appears as two. The
Monument is a small high rock with precipitous sides. Makura Island is wedge-shaped,
“ steep-to ” to the southward, sloping to the northward, its summit bare, but on the
northern slope are bushes and trees, and at its northwest point a small sandy beach ;
the sea was seen to break against the island itself, so that it can have but a very
small fringing reef, if any. Occasionally through the rain squalls a lofty peak was
seen, which by its bearing must have been on the east side of Sandwich Island.
Westward of Three Hills Island and Two Hills Island no bottom could be obtained at
250 fathoms.

At 1.30 a.m., on the 18th, the ship wore and “ hove, to ” on the starboard tack. At
6 a.m. Two Hills Island bore E. ^ S., and the left peak of Three Hills Island N.E. E.,
and a course was shaped to pass westward of Cook’s Eeef, which, however, was not seen.
At 7 a.m., when Three Hills Island bore east, a course was shaped for the southwest
point' of Api Island, as some natives of the New Hebrides had been brought from the Fiji
Islands to be landed at Api. At 8 a.m. the right extremity of Api Island bore N. 72° E.,
and the left extremity, the Foreland, N. by W. W. ; -from this position the ship was
steered along -the west coast a short distance, and at 9 a.m. sails were furled and the
vessel steamed in towards the land. At this time, when the right extremity of Api bore
S. 57° E., the apex of the Foreland N. 9° W., and a high hill over the coast N.E. by E.,
a sounding was obtained in 130 fathoms, hard ground, about miles off the shore. Steer-
ing in eastwards towards the land, soundings of 125, 95, 55, and eventually 15 fathoms
were successively obtained, the latter close to a reef which fringes the point next north
of the S.W. point of the island, and extends about 1-| cables from the shore. This being
the spot where the Api men wished to be landed, an armed boat was sent in to the shore
as the natives were reported to be treacherous ; they proved, however, friendly enough,
coming down to the beach with green branches, bows and arrows, and other weapons, so
in the afternoon the officers and naturalists landed, whilst the ship dredged in the offing,
there being no secure anchorage (see fig. 180).

Api lies south of Ambrym and Malicolo, between these islands and Efate or
Sandwich Island, and in about the same latitude as the northern part of the Fiji group.
The island is upwards of 20 miles long, and its highest peak is about 1500 feet above
the sea level. The island rises in steep slopes from the sea, with only here and there a
stretch of flat shore land, and consists of a series of peaks and steep-sided valleys
and ridges. The whole is entirely covered with the densest possible vegetation, except
on very small spots with difficulty discerned with a glass, where plots are cleared by the

THE YOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

516

natives for cultivation. The ship steamed close in to the island, opposite a spot where
a valley terminated towards the sea with a widened mouth, evidently containing a
river. There was a stretch of flat land at the bottom of the valley on which were
conspicuous amongst the other foliage some cocoanut trees and another species of palm.

As the vessel came near natives appeared on the shore, some hiding in the bushes,
others running along at full speed, whilst some shouted a loud “hoa.” One man stood
on the shore and waved a green branch with untiring perseverance. These natives were
said to be hostile and dangerous, a character which they have fully proved themselves
worthy of since the visit of the Expedition, and therefore Captain Nares’ boat, the first
which landed, was armed. The returned labourers, however, acted as an introduction and

Fig. 180. — Landing of natives at Api, New Hebrides.

made matters smooth ; still, as all the natives were armed, either with bows and poisoned
arrows, clubs, or trade muskets, and as the inhabitants of these islands are noted for
treachery, no one was allowed to leave the beach. Thus very little was seen of this
island, which had certainly never been landed on before by any scientific man or
naval officer.

The shore is formed of a banked-up beach, composed of small fragments of volcanic
rock and volcanic sand, mingled with a large proportion of coral fragments, and is fringed
by a narrow shore platform of coral, which, near the place of landing, was not much
more than 100 yards wide. This shore reef is remarkable for its extreme flatness.
Almost everywhere the living corals embedded in it are growing only laterally, the upper
surfaces being dead from want of sufficient depth of water. In some small specimens of

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

517

a massive Porites the consequent flattening of the top and the expansion of the lateral
dimensions were most excellently shown in pieces convenient for museum purposes.

The corals, which were few in number as regards species, were finer grown towards the
outer verge of the reef, as is always the case on shore platforms, and on the outer edge
of barrier reefs. In some places were deep holes in the coral platform, reminding one of
glacier crevasses on a small scale, evidently arising from the loose nature of the sloping
'beach on which the coral structure here rests. On the reef lay weathered remains of
a more ancient shore platform which were honeycombed and wave-worn. The rock
composing them was, however, undoubtedly in situ , and proved elevation of the island to
the extent of five feet or so. Similar fragments of raised reef were found by Mr. Murray
a short distance up the bed of the stream already mentioned. Some specimens of
Porites were unattached, though living, being in the form of rounded masses entirely
covered with living polyps, and probably from time to time rolled over by the waves ;
an Alcyonium occurs on the coasts of England also forming rounded unattached colonies
which are rolled about from place to place on the sand. They call to mind the similarly
detached rounded masses formed by some Lichens ( Lecanora esculenta) which are carried
about over the land by the winds as are these coral colonies by the waves.

On the reefs were comparatively few free-living animals, .but one of the huge
Syna'ptce, so abundant amongst the East Indian Islands and at the Philippines, was met
with. The animal was a yard long and two inches in diameter, and looked like an ugly
brown and black snake.

Above the shore the first land plant met with was the ubiquitous tropical littoral plant
(. Ipomcea pes-capfce), which is alwa}^s the first plant above high water mark on these
tropical shores. Above a skirting of this commenced a thick growth of rather large
trees, a species of Barringtonia, a fig, and the common Pandanus of the Pacific Islands,
occupies the shore margin. A few paces within the wood it was gloomy, from the
thickness of the growth of trees and creepers overhead. The same climbing Aroids
grow here as at Fiji, and a Draccena was common, as also a beautiful climbing
Asclepiad ( Hoya ) with white waxy flowers, and one or two ferns. The explorers were
not permitted to penetrate the wood far enough to get any adequate idea of the nature
of the vegetation.

The Api men wore as clothing nothing but a narrow bandage of dirty European
fabric of various kinds. They are a small race, few being above five feet in height, and
are much darker in colour than the Fijians ; their limbs, and especially their legs, are
small and badly shaped. Notwithstanding the bad character they have received, they
seemed quiet enough. Several amongst those seen were returned labourers, and were at
once known by their having fastened to their waist-cloth the key of the chest which every
labourer brings back with him, containing the fruits of his toil, so that they thus retain,
even in Api, the property for which they have worked. Two men joined the party on

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

518

the reef, one of whom head been in Queensland, the other in Fiji ; both spoke a good deal
of English, and one said he was willing to go to Fiji again. Nearly all the men wore
round their necks a small triangular ornament, cut out of one of the septa from the shell
of the pearly Nautilus, and threaded by the hole through which the syphon passes. Many
had broad flat tortoiseshell bracelets, and nearly all wore ear-rings made of narrow strips
of tortoiseshell moulded into a flat spiral from which the tips of pigs’ tails sometimes
hung as ornaments.

The bows used by the natives are made of hard wood. The arrows are without
feathers, but notched for the string, and made of reeds with heavy wooden ends, frequently
with tips of human bone. The tips are all covered with poison, in the form of a black
incrustation. The arrows have an elaborate and artistic coloured decoration in the
binding round the part where the bone tips are inserted. They prize these arrows
highly, and were unwilling to part with them. They carry -them rolled up in an oblong
strip of plantain leaf, and showed by signs that they considered the poison deadly,
and were much in awe of it.

All the men have cicatrices on their bodies, usually representing a human face, and
placed sometimes on the shoulder, but more often upon the breast, and sometimes on
both breasts. They understood the value of the usual trade articles very well. Knives,
tobacco, and pipes were what they wanted most, but they were not at all eager to trade,
and few weapons or ornaments were obtained from them. The tortoiseshell bracelets
' they would not part with at any price.

It was very trying to the scientific staff of the Expedition to be obliged to leave a
totally unknown island like Api after spending only two hours on shore.

Swallows ( Hirundo tahitica ) and Swifts ( Collocalia uropygialis) wTere flying about
in considerable numbers near the landing place. Specimens of a Kingfisher [Halcyon
julice), a Shrike ( Artamus melaleucus), and a Pigeon (Carpophaga pacijxca ) were also
procured ; and in addition to these a Heron, Tern, and a few other birds were
observed. A G-annet (Sula piscator ) which came on board had specimens of a Cephalopod
[Ommastrephes oualaniensis ) in its stomach.

Several Spiders 1 were obtained at Api : — Epeira moluccensis, Dol. , Epeira man-
gareva, Walck., Nepliila victorialis, L. Koch, Meta sp. ?. Argyrodes sp. ?, and Trochosa
sp. ?; seven species of land shells2 were collected, of which four are new: — Pythia
apiensis, Melania apiensis, Melania turbans, and Melania ordinaria.

The landing place was in the bay north of the first point north of the southwest
extremity of the island, on a steep black sandy beach a cable south of the entrance to a
small stream, and inside a large coral border, the northernmost rock above water.

Whilst the officers and naturalists were on shore, some very rich hauls of the dredge

1 Determined by Rev. 0. P. Cambridge.

2 E. A. Smith, Proc. Zool, Soc. Loncl., p. 268, 1884,

■

'

PACIFIC OCEAN

Longitudinal Temperature Section . Fiji Islands to the Barrier reef , Australia

Islands to the Barrier reef , Australia..

Engraved By M&LBy & Sons

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

519

and trawl were obtained, in depths varying from 63 to 130 fathoms, at a distance of from
half a mile to a mile from the shore. The weather was squally, rainy, and cloudy all day,
so that the summit of Api Island was not visible. So far as could be distinguished,
the land was intersected by numerous deep ravines and water-courses, and covered with
a rich vegetation.

At 4 p.m. the boats returned from the shore, and sail was made to the westward for
Raine Island.

Api to Raine Island and Cape York.

On the 19th August, a sounding and serial temperatures were taken in 2650 fathoms.
The bottom temperature here proved to be the same as that at 1300 fathoms, viz., 35°'8.
Between Australia and New Zealand, and as far north as the 25 th parallel, the
temperature of the water at the bottom was 34°‘5.

On the 21st a sounding and serial temperatures were obtained in 2325 fathoms, the
thermometer at the bottom again registering the same as those at 1300 fathoms (36°‘0).

On the 24th the depth was 2450 fathoms, and the temperature observations showed
results similar to those on the 21st; the same phenomenon continued for the remainder
of the Stations between the New Hebrides and Raine Island, at which depths of 2440,
2275, 1700, and 1400 fathoms were obtained (see Sheet 27).

The section from the Fiji Islands to Raine Island via Api Island shows that depths
of 1400 fathoms exist between the Fiji and New Hebrides Islands, and of 2650 fathoms
between the New Hebrides and Raine Island (see Diagram 13). The. bottom shows a
rapid fall from the Fijis and New Hebrides, but a very gradual rise to the Barrier Reef of
Australia.

The bottom temperature the whole way from the Fiji group to the Barrier Reef was
uniform at about 36°, and this temperature was also found at a depth of 1300 fathoms.
There exists therefore between the New’ Hebrides and the Barrier Reef a mass of water
1300 miles long, and 1200 fathoms in depth, of the uniform temperature of 36°.
The isotherms from the surface to the depth of 1300 fathoms are very nearly parallel,
the isotherm of 40° occupying a mean depth of 480 fathoms, that of 50° a mean depth
of 230 fathoms, that of 60° a mean depth of 160 fathoms, and that of 70° a mean depth
of 100 fathoms. There can be little doubt that the uniform temperature of the water
from the depth of 1300 fathoms to the bottom, between the New Hebrides Islands and
Australia, is caused by the “ Coral Sea ” being cut off from the colder water by an elevated
ridge on the floor of the ocean over which the greatest depth of water cannot exceed
1300 fathoms.

The deposits between the New Hebrides and Raine Island presented considerable
variety, and were very interesting. At 2650 fathoms not a trace of carbonate of lime

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i.— 1885.) 66

520

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

could be detected either by the microscope, or by treating the red clay with weak
acid. At 2325 fathoms there was 32 per cent, of carbonate of lime, consisting of
the dead shells of pelagic Foraminifera and a few Rhabdoliths. At 2450 fathoms
there was 1 or 2 per cent, of carbonate of lime, consisting of a few broken fragments
of Foraminifera. At 2440 fathoms there was a red clay on the surface with only
a small percentage of carbonate of lime, but three inches beneath the surface
a much lighter coloured deposit containing a very large number of Foraminfera. It
very frequently happened during the cruise that the deeper layers contained less car-
bonate of lime than the surface ones, but only on two or three occasions were more
calcareous shells noticed in the deeper layer of the deposit as in this case. The surface
layer, it will be observed, was the same in nearly all respects as the deposit in 2450
fathoms 80 miles to the eastward, and the deeper layer resembled that at 2325 fathoms
still farther to the eastward, or the deposits in a lesser depth towards Raine Island, which
contained over 50 per cent, of carbonate of lime. It is clearly illustrated in this section,
that all the other conditions remaining the same or nearly so, the quantity of
carbonate of lime found in a deposit is less the greater the depth. It has been stated
above that this basin below 1300 fathoms is probably cut off from the colder water
farther south, and, indeed, from general oceanic circulation below that depth. In all
such basins the surface shells appear to be removed from the deposits at lesser depths
than in areas where there is no interruption to free communication arising from the
existence of submarine barriers.

The mineral particles in these deposits consisted chiefly of angular fragments of
volcanic rocks and minerals, all of small size except the pieces of pumice which- were
numerous in all the dredgings. There were many manganese particles, and, at the
sounding in 1400 fathoms, some of the Foraminifera shells were filled with the peroxide
of manganese, so that a complete internal cast of the shell was left after treatment with
weak acid.

Amongst Coelenterata two specimens of Umbellula lejytocaulis, Roll., and one of
Bathyactis symmetrica, Moseley, and of fishes a new genus of Ophidiiclse, Typhlonus
nasus, Giinth.,1 and a new species of Stomiatidge, Echiostoma microdon, Giinth.,2 were
obtained with the trawl from 2440 fathoms, together with a few other animals.

The Ophidiid above mentioned had a large, rounded, fleshy head ; no trace of an eye
could be seen other than a small dark spot a considerable distance underneath the skin.
The fins were black, but the body of the fish was white ; with the exception of one or
two, all the scales had been rubbed off, and with them apparently a thin, black skin, so
that probably the fish when first caught by the trawl was of a uniform black colour ;
the mouth and gill chambers were black. The total length was 10 inches, depth at vent
2 inches.

Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. ii. p. 21, 1878.

a Ibid., p. 180.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.. 521

The new species of Ecliiostoma was uniformly black, the total length being 9.}
inches. It showed signs of life, when taken out of the trawl, so that probably it
had not come from any great depth. It had one club-shaped spot of a rose colour
directly below the eye, and another, about half the size, directly in front of this, of the
same colour ; these spots turned yellow in spirit. The two rows of probably phosphor-
escent dots along the body were red, surrounded by a circle of pale violet ; these dots
turned white in spirit.

It several times happened during the cruise that the back bone of a fish and some of
the bones of the head were taken out of the trawl. These probably belonged to delicate
deep-sea fish, the flesh of which had been completely torn away by the rapid passage of
the trawl through the water.

At 1400 fathoms, some distance to the east of the Barrier Reef, there was a very
successful trawling, a large number of deep-sea genera and species being obtained,
together with many pumice stones and several cocoanuts. There were two other new
genera of Ophidiidse, Bathynectes gracilis, Giinth.,1 and Aphynonus gelatinosus, Giinth.,2
of which latter there were three specimens. The latter were transparent, the head round
and gibbous ; immediately behind the nostrils was a small dark spot at a considerable
distance beneath the skin, which probably was the rudimentary eye. A Scopelid ( Alepo -
cephalus niger, Giinth.3), 12 inches in length, was also obtained ; the whole animal was
of a light blue colour, of a deeper tint about the fins and gill covers.

The surface and subsurface waters in this region were teeming with life, all the usual
tropical forms being found in great abundance. The list of animals obtained was nearly
identical with that observed in the tropical regions of the Atlantic (see pp. 221, 222),
although considerable differences were noticed in the relative abundance of the species.
Leptocephali and young Pleuronectids were very numerous ; some specimens of the
former were 9 inches in length.

Birds were seldom seen when far from land, but on approaching shore Boatswain
Birds, Gannets, Terns, and Frigate Birds were observed, the two former occasionally
alighting on the ship.

On the 30th August, at 5 a.m., the position was ascertained by observations of
Aldebaran, Sirius, and Canopus, and' a course steered for Raine Island, which, as well as
the Great Detached Reef, was sighted at noon. Contrary to expectation, only a slight
northerly set was experienced, less than half a mile per hour, from 5 a.m. to noon. Pre-
viously to 5 a.m., the current was N. 18° E. (true), three quarters of a mile per hour.
From the time of leaving the New Hebrides to the 29th August, the amount of current
experienced was very little, the total set being N. 74° W., 36 miles in ten days. The
ship was steered northward of Raine Island, so as to round it and ascertain whether there
was good landing. Passing at a distance of a quarter of a mile from the north and west

1 Ann, and May. Nat, Hist,, ser, 5, vol. ii. p. 21, 1878, 2 Ibid., p. 22, :: Ibid., p. 248,

522

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

sides, it was seen that landing was practicable, but this was put off until the next day,
the ship standing to the southward, on the port tack, for the Great Detached Reef,
anchoring there at 3.30 P.M., with the northwest point of the reef N. by E., distant half a
mile, the depth being 20 fathoms.

The Macrura. — Mr. C. Spence Bate, F.R.S., who is preparing a Report on the

Pig. 181. — Willemcesia leplodadyla, Sulim; male, natural size. From 1900 fathoms, North Atlantic.

Macrurous Crustaceans, writes : — “ Although several expeditions have . recently explored
the depths of the ocean, in special localities, the Challenger Expedition appears to have

N ARR ATI YE OF THE CRUISE.

523

anticipated the discovery of nearly every characteristic form belonging to the group
of animals that I have had. to examine.

“In this order the new species amount to more than one hundred and fifty —
about thirty in the Trichobranchiata, sixty in the Dendrobranchiata, and eighty in the
Phyllobranchiata. But the great value of the Expedition consists not so much in the
number of new genera and species added to our knowledge, as in the large amount of

Fig.182. -Polycheles crucifera , Sulim ; twice the natural size. From 450 fathoms, off Sombrero, Westlndies

information which has been obtained concerning the earlier stages of many Crustaceans
and the conditions under which they exist.

“ The family Polychelidse bears a general appearance and close anatomical relation
to that of the fossil Eryon from the lithographic limestones of Bavaria and the
Lias of England. Polycheles, Willemoesia, and their congeners are inhabitants of the
deepest parts of the ocean that have been explored with the dredge or trawl, and I believe

524

THE YOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

there is little doubt that they have been brought up from the bottom of the sea, the
largest specimens having been taken from the greatest depths. Willemcesia leptodactyla
(see fig. 181) has -been taken from a depth of 1900 fathoms, or rather more than two
miles, both in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Polycheles, which is represented by four
species, has been taken in the Mediterranean and off the coast of Spain, in the Mid
Atlantic, and off the Fiji Islands, as well as near the Kermadec and New Guinea groups.
The beautiful Polycheles crucifera (see fig. 182) was captured in the West Indian seas.

<! The closely- allied genus Pentacheles, which is represented by six species that differ
from each other in no very remarkable degree in their external features, is scattered over
a large area, the specimens being captured when the dredge or trawl was let down to
depths ranging from 120 to 1070 fathoms. They were taken on the western shores of
South America, around the broken coast, and in the channels between the rocky islands
that lie along the shore, of Patagonia ; among the Philippine Islands ; from the deeper

water around New Guinea ; off the Fiji Islands ;
and from near the New Hebrides.

“ The organs of vision are entirely absent
in Eryoneicus (see fig. 183), and are so hidden
in Willemcesia and the other genera that they
were long supposed not to exist, and in the
fossil representative they have not yet been
detected.1 It has generally been supposed that
this rudimentary condition of the organs of
vision in animals that live in deep waters is
largely due to their being far beyond the reach
of sunlight. The genus Glyphocrangon, in
which the eyes are remarkable for their large
and well-developed condition, was taken when
the trawl was sent to great depths, and frequently associated with Willemcesia ; and
taking the several Stations from which species have been obtained, the average depth of
the Willemoesian group is less than that of other deep-sea forms in which the eyes are
large and conspicuous organs. An examination of the embryo before it has quitted the
egg, shows that in its earliest stages of development the young has organs of vision
conformable to the ordinary Crustacean type.

“ The genus Thaumastocheles (fig. 184) taken by the Challenger in the West Indies is
totally blind, without even the rudiment of an organ of vision. It is related to the
genus Calocaris of the British seas, which has only very small visual organs, and is also
allied to Gebia.

1 In the typical Eryon eyes have never been preserved, but Dr. Woodward figures them as being present in a
restored figure of Eryon barrovensis, M'CJoy.

Fig. 183. — Eryoneicus coccus. After a drawing by von Wille-
inoes Suhni. a1, first antenna: ; eft, second antenna: ;
p1, p 2, p, p 4, p^, pereiopoda; st, stomach ; t, testis (?) ;
i, intestinal canal.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

525

“ Plioberus, a genus named by Professor A. Milne-Edwards, was first taken by the
Challenger in about 500 fathoms of water in the West Indies ; it is nearly allied to the
genus Nephrops, which lives at no very great depth, and it grows to a considerable

Fig 184. — Thaumastocheles zaleuca, Sulim ; male, natural size. From 450 fathoms, off Sombrero, West Indies.

size, the Challenger specimen being eight inches in length, and that taken in the
‘ Blake ’ expedition being a little larger ; the ophthalmopoda are reduced to the smallest
dimensions, and the eye to a rudimentary condition.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

526

“ The genus of long-legged prawns to which A. Milne-Edwards has given the name
of Nematocarcinus was frequently taken in the trawl when let down to great depths, and
has a very extended geographical range. There are specimens from the following
localities, the depths being the greatest reached by the trawl or dredge : — off the western
and northwestern coast of Celebes Island, 255 to 2150 fathoms; off Japan, 350, 560,
1875, and 3000 fathoms ; near the Island of Juan Fernandez, 1375 and 1450 fathoms ;
in the Southern Ocean, 1260 fathoms ; off the Kermadec and Fiji Islands, in 600
fathoms.

“ The fact that the depths vary from 255 to 3000 fathoms suggests that the animals
do not live at the greatest depths reached by the nets, but that they are caught while
swimming in mid-water and brought to the surface. Two Stations with the greatest
depths are not far distant from two or three of the shallower ones, hence in the same
regions the species have either the power of living under very different conditions of
temperature and bathymetrical influences, or they live suspended in the ocean over the
greater depths. The several species brought home vary in points of little importance
from each other, such as a longer or shorter rostrum, a shorter or a longer foot. They
extend from the Polar regions to the Equator.

“ One of the most abundant of specific forms is that of the genus Alpliceus, in which
I include those congeners that have been separated from it, more for the convenience of
classification than on account of any structural value. It contains twenty recognised
species, which with a single exception have been taken within a depth of 50
fathoms. They are mostly recorded from muddy bottoms, but they are also frequently
found sheltered among masses of Sponge or Coral. I am induced, from the peculiar
localities in which they are found, and the protected condition of their eyes, to believe
that they burrow beneath the surface of the mud. They are mostly inhabitants of the
warm seas, abounding in tropical and subtropical regions, becoming more scarce in the
temperate, and gradually disappearing towards the cold temperate and Arctic regions.
One species, Betceus truncatus, is recorded from Cape Horn, where it was dredged in
about 10 fathoms. With this exception none has been observed farther south than
New Zealand or 50° S. lat., or farther north than the English Channel or 50° N. lat.
They are essentially a sublittoral form, for the instances of their having been taken
in depths greater than 20 fathoms are few. Alphceus avarus in the Challenger collection
is recorded as having been twice taken off the coast of Australia, once at a depth of
8 fathoms, and once when the dredge had been sent down to 2675 fathoms.

“ The members of the Penseid division exist most numerously in the open waters of
the ocean, some genera passing their whole existence within 100 fathoms of the surface ;
others are found as constantly in deep water, below 300 fathoms, while others again
appear to exist in the more remote abysses of the deepest parts of the ocean in close
contact with the sea bottom.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

“ The numerous species of Sergestes together with those of the allied forms Acetes
and Leucifer exist everywhere in the ocean within a few fathoms of the surface, from the
cold temperate regions of the north to those of the south. Of the genus Acetes I have
not seen an indubitable specimen in the collection, but in the locality from which the
type, first described by Milne-Edwards, was taken, Sir Walter Elliot records it as being
abundant, and forming the staple food of some of the larger species of fish that frequent
the Bay of Bengal. In Leucifer the posterior two pairs of walking legs have entirely
disappeared, although the penult pair is present at one stage of its existence. Four or
five species of this genus have been named by authors, but a close analytical examination
of all the numerous specimens brought home by the Challenger, enables me to determine
with confidence that the several forms described are but different stages in the growth
of two species, or perhaps only two varieties of the same species.

“ When the ocean is searched at a depth greater than 100 fathoms the true Penceus
and its gallant congener Aristeus are found to exist in more or less -abundance. These,
if we may judge from the uniform appearance of the long sweeping pleopoda, are
powerfully swimming animals, and the form of Aristeus with its long and slender
rostrum, its narrow and compressed condition with polished surface, shows that it is
capable of swimming through the water with considerable velocity; when at rest, the
large and leaf-like scaphocerites are probably extended laterally on each side in the
water. The rostrum, which is generally long and powerful in several genera of this
division, acts not only as a sharp cutwater but probably also as a weapon of offence.
The genus Sicyonia appears to have the scaphocerite especially formed for attack, and
instead of being broad and leaf-like, flexible and membranaceous, has the outer margin
developed as a long and powerful spear, and the inner division tapers towards the
extremity into a plate of extreme tenuity; this organ with its strong and spear-like point
is under the animal’s control, becoming when fixed a strong and formidable bayonet-like
weapon of offence, or when relaxed a harmless balancing organ.

“ A similar offensive weapon is formed by the telson of the genus Glyphoerangon,
which is a rigid, sharp-pointed, and powerful organ. This the animal has the power of
locking and unlocking at will, and according to its size. and power is capable of striking,
scorpion-like, with much force, inflicting thereby no slight wound.

“ Such genera as Gennadcis and Benthesicyinus (see fig. 185) dwell apparently in deep
water, probably far beneath the predaceous pelagic animals. The former seems to lose
the osseous texture of its integument, and with it all power of defence. The eyes
become less brilliant through the diminishing quantity of black pigment, while the small
phosphorescent organ increases in size and value. With the exception of Glyphoerangon ,
which is a powerful combatant, all the animals brought from great depths arc soft and
flexible creatures, being ineapable of attack or defence.

“That the existing species of Crustacea live, each of them, within certain limits
(narr. ©hall. exp. — yotj. i, — 1885.) 07

528

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

varying according to temperature and bathymetrical conditions is well shown' by the
Challenger observations, and as these creatures are a very considerable and common
source of food for the larger animals, the knowledge of their life history becomes an
important element, in that of others.

“ Before we' shall be able to determine with . accuracy the relative bathymetrical

A

Fig; 185 .—Benthesicymus altus, n. sp. From a drawing by von Willemoes Sulim.
a, extremity of mandibular appendage ; h, maxillipede ; c, first joint of first pair of pleopoda with small leaf-like
appendage on the inner side.

distribution of the Crustacea, it is desirable that we should be able to sweep the ocean
at various depths without fear of entangling specimens from other strata than those
required. Owing to the construction of the apparatus in use for dredging and trawling,
it is difficult to determine whether a specimen from a Station with a recorded depth
may or may not have become entangled in the nets during the downward or upward
passage through the water.”

Raine Island.

On the 31st, at 5.40 a.m., the ship proceeded under steam towards Raine Island,
stopping off it at 8 a.m., and landing a party to inspect the beacon and collect birds.
The tide was half flood, with a strong southeast trade wind blowing, raising a considerable
sea in the passage. The gig succeeded in landing without difficulty on the beach, but at
low water the coral would have prevented a boat from reaching the shore ; as it was, the
cutter could not cross the ledge.

The Beacon Tower on Raine Island is well described in the sailing directions. It is a
substantial sandstone tower, 60 feet in height, which would need no restoration if

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

529

required as a lighthouse, the woodwork inside has long since decayed, hut in falling has
not injured the masonry. There are now no supplies of any sort at the beacon, even the
iron tank is completely worn out, nor would it be of any use landing another, unless the
tower were re-roofed ; however, as any party which made Raine Island could reach the
settlement at Cape York in twenty-four hours, there is no necessity to re-victual the
beacon.

The birds form the most striking feature at Raine Island. They are in such numbers
as to darken the air as they fly overhead, and the noise of their various mingled screams
is very trying to the ears at first, but not so painful as that of a penguin rookery. Eleven
species of birds were seen on the island. A Heron, seen only at a distance, the
cosmopolitan “Turnstone” ( Strepsilas interpret), and a small Gull ( Lancs novce-hollandice )
appeared to be casual visitors to the island, as they were not nesting there, the Turn-
stones being seen in flocks on the shore. The birds breeding on the island were as
follows : — A Landrail (. Radius pectoralis), a widely spread species, occurring commonly
in Australia, Central Polynesia, the Moluccas, and the Philippines. These birds were so
tame that they could be knocked down with sticks and caught by the hand ; they had
full-fledged young running about. A Tern (, Sterna fuliginosa), a widely spread species,
the well-known “ Wideawake ” of Ascension Island, was exceedingly abundant. The
stretches of flat ground above the shore line covered with grass were absolutely full of
the brown fledged young of this bird, and eggs were already very scarce. A Noddy
( Anous stolidus), the same bird as that at St. Paul’s Rocks and Inaccessible Island, so
far off in the Atlantic, makes here a rude nest of twigs and grass amongst the low
bushes, but often nests also on the ground. There were plenty of 'eggs of this bird, it
being not so advanced in breeding as the Tern. Two species of Gannets (Sulci leucogastra
and Sulci cyanops ) were nesting on the ground, and especially on a plot quite flat and
bare of vegetation, probably the site of the dwellings of the men employed in 1844 in
putting up the beacon. Sulci leucogastra, the “ Booby ” of St. Paul’s Rocks, makes a
slight nest of green twigs and grass on the ground. Sula cyanops makes a circular hole
in the earth, about 1| inches deep. This species is nearly white, with the naked parts
about the head of a dull blue, and a bright yellow iris, which gives the bird a ferocious
look as it ruffles its feathers and croaks at an intruder. It would almost seem as if the
cause of the colouring of the eye might be the savage appearance which it gives to the
bird, possibly thus protecting it from attack. A third smaller species of Gannet (Sula
pisccitor) has red feet, which distinguish it at once from the other two ; one or two
of its nests were observed made in the bushes, like those of the noddies, raised 6 inches
from the ground. There remain to be mentioned the Frigate Birds (Fregata minor),
whose nests were nearly all confined to a small area near the cleared patch already referred
to. They are, like those of Sula piscator, raised on the bushes, and are compact platform-
like masses of twigs and grass matted together with dung, about 8 inches in diameter.

530

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

There were no eggs of the birds in the nests, but mostly far advanced young which were
covered with frills of a rusty coloured down. The old birds soared overhead, and could
only be obtained by being shot ; whereas the Gannets were easily knocked over on the
nests with sticks. It was curious to see the Frigate Birds, the nesting place of which is
usually on high cliffs- as at Fernando Noronha, here, through the entire security of the
locality, nesting on the ground. The main body of the Frigate Birds remained during the
stay of the party on the island soaring high up in the air with their eagle-like flight, far
above the cloud of other birds beneath. In the stomachs of some of these birds which were
shot, small cuttle-fish and Spirula shells were found. One Phaethon cethereus was seen.

The shells of numerous turtles which had died on the island were lying about. In
one place there was quite a heap of these at a sort of miniature gully, bounded by a
perpendicular wall of rock about 2 feet in height. ' It appeared as though the turtles had
crawled up from the sea shore to spawn, and being stopped by this small cliff, had been
unable to turn round or go backwards, and had died there. A Locust ( Acridium ) was very
common amongst the grass on the island, and a large Earwig (Forjicula) under the stones.

Whilst the naturalists were on shore, the ship obtained a few soundings close to the
island, the position of the soundings being fixed by the officer at the beacon taking a
bearing and masthead angle of the ship at each cast. The exploring parties returned at
11 a.m., when two hauls of the dredge to leeward of the island were obtained, but they
were not very productive.

Raine Island is situated on the west or leeward edge of a small coral atoll, which
extends over two miles in a southeast and northwest direction, and is about a mile
broad (see Sheet 27). The lagoon of this atoll is represented merely by shallow patches
of water with sandy bottoms. The atoll is separated from the Great Detached Reef and
the Barrier Reef by channels with a depth exceeding 100 fathoms, and the outer edge of
the reef has a very steep slope. The island itself is about a third of a mile long and a
quarter of a mile broad, and is composed of a blown calcareous sand which has consoli-
dated towards the centre of the island into a compact limestone. In some places there
is a soil from 2 to 3 inches thick. Numerous fragments of pumice were picked up on
the island.

The soundings. and dredgings in 135, 150, and 155 fathoms showed that the deposit
was a coral sand, composed of white and brownish coloured fragments of Corals, Molluscs,
and Foraminifera shells, with a considerable admixture of calcareous Algae. Mr. H. B.
Brady, F.R.S.,1 found in this deposit a larger number of species of Foraminifera than in
any other taken during the cruise. The deposit contained 8 7 per cent, of carbonate of
lime, and it was estimated that more than half of this consisted of pelagic Molluscs and
pelagic Foraminifera. The few mineral particles in the deposit consisted of rounded
fragments of quartz, felspars, mica, apatite, and fragments of pumice.

1 Zool. Cliall. Exp., part xxii. pp. 93, 94, 1884.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

531

By treating this deposit with dilute acid, casts of the Foraminifera shells are- obtained,
the majority of which are of a brick red colour, although a few are of a yellowish, or
even greenish, tinge. They are not so compact or well-marked in outline as the white and
pale straw-coloured casts usually met with in glauconitic muds, and have very frequently
a porous aspect, from the solution of the carbonate of lime being, in many instances,
associated with the red material forming the casts. If some of the Foraminifera be treated
with dilute acid, and the action stopped after it has continued for some time, and the
substance dried and examined by reflected light, a number of casts of the organisms are
seen in carbonate of lime looking quite like milky quartz. If, however, the action be
continued, it is seen that they are composed of lime as they quite disappear, leaving a
small residue of a reddish colour, or very areolar casts of the shells in the same red sub-
stance. Examined in thin sections, it is observed that the shells are filled with a red,
yellowish, or greenish matter, frequently extending into the foramina. The shell is at
once distinguished from the cast by its structure, transparency, and optical properties.
It is sometimes observed that two or three shells or fragments are cemented by the same
red substance forming the casts. This substance when sufficiently transparent appears of
a yellowish red colour, and gives sometimes aggregate polarisation, but is never extin-
guished between crossed Nicols. Often the casts enclose small mineral particles. Seen
by transmitted light, there is a great difference between the calcareous casts and the
carbonate of lime constituting the shells themselves. These casts are but slightly
transparent, greyish coloured, or almost opaque, the opacity being due to infinitesimal
foreign particles which remain as a red residue after treatment with dilute hydrochloric
acid. With very high powers it is seen that the structure of the grey calcareous casts
is granular, and between crossed Nicols it is evident that the grains are crystalline.

An analysis of the red coloured casts above described, obtained by treating the deposit
with very dilute acid, was made by Dr. Sipocz ; and, although the analysis shows that
they are composed of a hydrated silicate containing all the constituents of typical
glauconite (iron, alumina, magnesia, and alkalies), yet the various percentages, especially
that of silica, differ so considerably from the mean numbers obtained for glauconite, that
the substance cannot be grouped with that mineral species. Perhaps these casts are in
the process of becoming true glauconite. The large percentage of ferric oxide (39 to 93),
which is in the form of hydrate, gives the red-brown colour to the casts.

IIaine Island to Cape York.

At 1.30 p.m. Raine Island beacon bore N. 52° E., and the extremities of the Great
Detached Reef S. 81° E. and S. 63° E. From here the ship was steered S.W. £ W.
(under sail) towards the Ashmore Banks, which were sighted at 3.30 p.m., Hardy Island
being seen shortly afterwards. Crossing the edge of the barrier, the 5 and 6 fathom

532

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

patches were not seen, but the shoal patches southward of the 5 fathom patch were
readily distinguished from aloft. When near the Ashmore Banks the position of the ship
by bearings of them placed her considerably farther to the northward than the bearing of
Hardy Island, which would indicate that these banks are not so far apart as shown on
the chart. At 4.20 p.m. sail was shortened and the vessel stood on under the jib and
spanker, with the intention of anchoring on one of the shoal patches of from 6 to 10
fathoms ; several were passed, but they were in each case so small that before the
ship could “round to” the depth was again 25 fathoms. Eventually the vessel was
anchored in 10 fathoms, but slipped off into 21 fathoms, the anchorage bearings being
right extremity of Hardy Island S. 68° W., and the south small island S. 44° W. The
weather was very misty, the trade wind strong, and there was a nasty sea which made
it necessary to veer 125 fathoms of cable.

On the 1st September the anchor was weighed, aud sail made at 7 a.m., the vessel
standing towards the Cockburn Beef, which was sighted at 7.30 a.m. The route pursued
was that recommended by the sailing directions and chart, the position of the ship being
fixed by the Cockburn and Hardy Islands, the main reliance, of course, being placed in the
lookout from aloft, which duty was personally undertaken by the Captain. When abreast
of the sandbank on the small reef just to the northwestward of the northwest point of the
Cockburn Beef, the ship passed between it and the reef, steering towards the Bird
Islands, no bottom being obtained at 20 fathoms with the deep-sea lead. At 0.30 p.m.
the vessel passed Halfway Island, and at 2.30 p.m. between Cairncross Islands and Bushy
Bocks. At 5 p.m. York Island was seen in line with Osnaburgh Point, unci a course
shaped for Port Albany, and, shortening sail, the ship proceeded into the pass under
steam, and was moored opposite the settlement at Somerset at 6 p.m. The wind was
fresh all day, the ship going 10 knots per hour, and making, with the current, 1 1^ knots
over the ground ; the atmosphere was very misty.

Somerset, Cape York.

As the vessel entered Albany Pass every one was struck with the strange appear-
ance of the wonderful Termite hills, which stood in numbers on each grassy point,
some 12 feet in height, red pinnacles looking like the chimneys of pottery kilns (see
PI. XX.).

The half dozen houses of the settlement are those built originally by the marines, who
were taken away in 1867. They are one-storied wooden bungalows, situated on the
hills which rise on each side of a bay, and are readily seen from the anchorage. One was
occupied temporarily by the London Missionary Society, who were then endeavouring
to establish themselves in New Guinea, gradually working their way from the islands to
the mainland.

Plate XX

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

533

The barren sandy appearance of the coast, as the ship ran quickly past it towards
Albany Pass, gave anything but pleasing or hopeful impressions, nor were they bettered
during the few days’ stay at this distant, solitary outpost of the colony of Queensland.
Whilst the large and profitable pearl fishery continues to be carried on in Torres Strait,
it is necessary to maintain a station in the vicinity. The site occupied was convenient
and healthy, two very important factors in choosing a place for a new settlement, and
there seemed little object in changing it. However, since the Expedition’s visit, the
Government staff has been transferred to Thursday Island in Torres Strait, and the mail
steamers now call there. No fresh provisions are procurable at Thursday Island, and the
water is bad. There is a small quantity of coal in a hulk belonging the the Eastern and
Australian Steamship Company.

Owing to the anchorage opposite the settlement of Somerset being occupied by two
or three small vessels, the Challenger had to moor rather farther out in the stream than
otherwise would have been necessary. This necessitated the ship being steered when she
swung to the ebb tide, as the wind was then aft, and when not steered, the vessel sheered
five to six points away from the true direction of the stream; and on one occasion, with
the strength of the tide on the broadside, the northwest anchor dragged a considerable
distance over the rocky ground before the ship could be brought head on to the stream.
This only occurred during the night, the day tides being much weaker. In mooring or
anchoring here it is well to keep the cable slack when first the anchor is let go, as the
holding ground is so bad, being all rock, that the cables require to be at a good angle
before the anchor will bite at all.

In entering the Albany Pass it was surprising to find that the calculated^ time of high
water corresponded neither with the actual time of high water by the shore, nor the turn
of the stream. The calculation was made on the assumption that the age of the tide was
two days.’ No age of tide is given in the sailing directions, nor is any mention made of
peculiarities in the tidal wave, or stream, either there or in the voyages of the “Fly” and
“ Rattlesnake,” the only remark made being relative to velocity. During the stay a tide
pole was established on shore, and a register kept of the turn of the stream, &c.
The four days’ observations showed that there were two regular tides, and tidal
streams, in the twenty-four hours, but there was a marked difference between them ;
although they both fell to nearly the same level, the night tide rose nearly twice the
height of the day tide above low water. The ebb and flow during the night occupied
fourteen hours, and during the day ten hours. In each case the stream turned one hour
after high or low water by the shore, the flood running northwest and the ebb south-
east. The highest tide registered was nine days after full and change, or when,
ordinarily speaking, neap tides might be expected, and the velocity of the stream was
also greatest at this time. These peculiarities may possibly extend over the whole of
Torres Strait, for the same phenomena are recorded as taking place in the channels

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

534

north of Prince of Wales Island.1 It appears evident that some further investigations
of tidal phenomena in this neighbourhood are requisite in order that some means may
be found to enable the seamen to calculate with certainty the time and height of high
water, and the change of the streams, a matter of considerable importance where these
run with great velocity through narrow channels.

Behind the shore of the small bay in which Somerset lies, the land rises steeply, and
is covered with wood, except where clearings have been made around two conspicuous
sets of wooden buildings, the one the residence of the magistrate, the other the barracks
of the water police.

The country is wooded in every direction, but with constantly recurring open patches
covered with scattered Acacias, Gum Trees, and Proteacese with only grass growing beneath.
In the dense woods, with their tall forest trees and tangled masses of creepers, one might
for a moment imagine oneself back in Fiji or Api, but the characteristic open spaces,
with scattered Eucalypti, remind one at once that one is in Australia. The principal
features of Australian and Indian vegetation are, as it were, dove-tailed into one another.
In the woods, the tree trunks are covered with climbing Aroids, and often with Orchids.
Two Palms, an Areca with a tall slender stem not thicker than a man’s wrist, but
50 feet high, and a most beautiful Caryota, strong evidence of Indian affinities in the
flora, are abundant. The cocoanut palm, as is well known, is not found growing
naturally anywhere in Australia, though it is abundant in islands not far from Cape
York. At Cape York some trees had been planted, but they did not appear to thrive.
One of them, already more than eight years old, at which age it ought to have been
bearing fruit, had as yet a trunk only a few feet in height. A Rattan Palm ( Calamus
sp.), trailing everywhere between the underwood, is a terrible opponent as one tries
to creep through the forest in search of birds.

The number and variety of birds at Cape York is astonishing. Two species of
Ptilotis ( Ptilotis chrysotis and Ptilotis jUigera) , different from those at Fiji, but closely
resembling them, suck the honey from, or search -for insects on, the scarlet blossoms of
the same Erythrina tree as that at Fiji. With these are to be seen a Myzomela, and the
gorgeous little Brush-tongued Parroquet (Trichoglossus swainsoni), which flies screaming
about in small flocks, and gathers so much honey from the flowers, that it pours out of
the bird’s beak when it falls shot to the ground. Amongst the same flowers is to be seen
also a true Honey Bird {Nectar inia frenata), with brilliant metallic blue tints on its
throat. The common White Crested Cockatoo ( Cacatua galerita) is here wary and difficult
to get near, though not so much so as in the frequented parts of Victoria. The Great
Black Cockatoo (Microglossus aterrimus) is to be found at Cape York, but none were
seen. The Pheasant Cuckoo (Centropus pliasianus) rises occasionally from the long grass
in the opens, and though of the cuckoo tribe, has exactly the appearance of a pheasant
1 Australian Directory, vo], ii. p. 337, 3rd eel.,

Plat* XX T

Nest op Megapodius, Cape York.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

535

when on the wing. On one of the excursions a large brown Owl ( Ninox boobook) was
shot ; it was sitting at daybreak in the fork of a large tree, and the native guide espied it
at once.

The great prize at Cape York is, however, the Rifle Bird ( Ptilorhis alberti), one of the
Birds of Paradise. It is velvety black, except on the top of the head and breast, where
the feathers are brightly iridescent with a golden and green lustre, and in the tail also
are two iridescent feathers. The bird lives in the woods, where the trees and under-
growth are twined with creepers, and does not frequent the higher forest trees much, but
the tops of the shorter sapling-like growths and masses of creepers binding these together.,
The call of the bird consists of three loud shrill short whistling notes, the third some-
what louder and shorter than the first two, followed by a similar but much lower
pitched note. This is the full call of the bird, sometimes only two notes are uttered
before the low note, and sometimes only a single whistle. The call is most striking
and peculiar, and, guided by it, one steals gradually through the wood,* treading
cautiously upon the dead leaves, and trying to creep within shot of the birds. The
call is uttered usually only at intervals of several minutes ; it is very easily imitated
by whistling, and thus a call may often be elicited, and the bird’s whereabouts
discovered. The bird is extremely shy, and the snapping of a dead twig is sufficient to
scare it, so that it requires great patience and perseverance to shoot one. One may often
approach within 15 or 20 yards of a Rifle Bird, and stand gazing into the thick tangled
mass of creepers overhead, where one knows that the bird is, without being able to get a
glimpse of it, until at last it darts out. The bird takes short rapid flights from one part
of the bush to another, the rounding of the front of the wings giving it a peculiar
appearance when on the wing. The blacks pointed out the red fruit of the Areca Palm
as the food of the bird, and abundance of the seeds of this palm were found in the
stomachs of birds shot. The male in full plumage is indeed a splendid object ; the
female and the young birds of both sexes are of a dull brown colour, as is the case with
all the Birds of Paradise.

When walking in the woods in search of birds, a slight rustling in the fallen leaves
may attract one’s attention, upon which the black guide becomes greatly excited. It
is a pair of the Mound Birds ” ( Megapodius tumulus), which are disturbed and are
seen running off like barn-door fowls, and when thus luckily hit upon are easily shot.
Several “Brush Turkeys” ( Talegalla lathami) were shot during the stay at Somerset,
and the huge mounds thrown up by them were common objects at the borders of the
scrubs, but the season was not far enough advanced for them to have commenced laying
eggs (see PI. XXI.). A brilliant Bee-eater ( Merops ornatus) was common at Cape York,
and to be seen seated, as is the wont of Bee-eaters, on some dead branch, and darting
thence from time to time after its prey. A little Ground Pigeon (Geopelia), not much
bigger than a sparrow, was also abundant. A species of Swallow-shrike ( Artemius

(nakr, chall. exp.— vol. i. — 1885.) 68

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

536

leucopygialis ) was very common, sitting in small flocks in rows on wires stretched for
drying clothes near one of the houses, just as swallows sit on telegraph wires in England.
The birds made excursions after flies, flying just like swallows, and returning to their
perch. All those shot had their feathers at the base of the bill clogged with pollen
from the flowers, in which no doubt they had been searching for insects ; like some
humming birds, they must act as fertilizers, carrying pollen from one flower to another.

Two Bats (Phyllorhina . cervina, Gould, and Taphozous australis, Gould), a Lizard
(Lialis punctulata) , a Snake ( Acanthophis antarctica), and an immature specimen of Mus
alexandrinus, Geof., were collected at Cape York.

“ In all my excursions,” writes Mr. Moseley, “ I was accompanied by blacks. A
small encampment of natives, composed of the remnants of three tribes, lay about half a
mile from the shore. There were twenty-one natives in this camp when I visited it early
one morning in search of a guide, before daybreak, before the blacks were awake. Of
these twenty-one, about six were adult males, one of whom was employed at the water
police station during the daytime ; there were four boys of from ten to fourteen years,
two young girls, two old women, two middle-aged women, and the remainder were young
women. One of the old women was the mother of Longway, who acted as my guide,
and who had a son about ten years old.

“ The blacks were mostly of the Gudang tribe, a vocabulary of whose language is
given in the Appendix to Macgillivray’s Voyage of the ‘Rattlesnake.’1 About 35 miles
from Somerset is a tribe of fierce and more powerful blacks, of whom the Gudangs are
in great terror. The natives were in a lower condition than I had expected. Their
camp consisted of an irregularly oval space concealed in the bushes, at some distance
from one of the paths through the forest. In the centre were low heaps of wood ashes
with fire-sticks smouldering on them. All around was a shallow groove or depression,
caused partly by the constant lying and sitting of the blacks in it, partly by the gradual
accumulation of ashes inside, and the casting of these and other refuse immediately
outside it. On the outer side of this groove or form were stuck up at an angle large
leaves of a Fan Palm here and there so as to form a shelter, and under the shelter of
these the blacks huddled together at night to sleep (see PI. XXII.).

“ A camp of this shape with a slight mound inside, and a bank outside, formed
involuntarily by primitive man, may have given the first idea of the mound, the ditch,
and rampart. The large amount of wood-ashes accumulated in such a camp, accounts
for their occurrence in such large quantities in kitchen-middens, where camping must
have been in the same style. A good many shells brought from the shore lay here and
there about the camp. There were besides in the neighbourhood remains of shelters of
the common Australian form, long huts made of bushy branches set at an angle to meet

1 For a further account of Cape York, see J. Beete Jukes, Narrative of the Surveying Voyage of H.M.S. “Fly,”
London, 1847.

Palm-leaf Huts Cape York.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

537

one another above, and partially covered with palm leaves and grass ; these the blacks
used occasionally.

“ In the daytime the young women and the men were usually away searching for
food, but two miserable old women, reduced nearly to skeletons, but with protuberant
stomachs, with sores on their bodies and no clothing but a narrow bit jff dirty mat, were
always to be seen sitting huddled up in the camp. These hags looked up at a visitor
with an apparently meaningless stare, but only to see if any tobacco or biscuit were
going to be given them ; they exhibited no curiosity, but only scratched themselves
now and then with a pointed stick.

“ The younger women had all of them a piece of some European stuff round their loins.
Some of the men had tattered shirts, but one, who acted as my guide, was invariably
absolutely without clothing, as was his son, who always accompanied him. The only
property to be seen about the camp were a few baskets of plaited grass, in the making
of which the old women were sometimes engaged, and which were used by the “gins ”
(women) for collecting food in. Two large Cymbium shells with the core smashed out had
been used also to hold food or water, but were replaced for the latter purpose now by
Square gin bottles, of which there were plenty lying about the camp, brought from the
settlement.

“ The most prized possession of these blacks is, however, the bamboo pipe, of which
there were several in the camp. The bamboos are procured by barter from the Murray
Islanders, who visit Cape York from time to time, and the tobacco is smoked in them
by the blacks in nearly the same curious manner as that in vogue amongst the
Dalrymple Islanders. No doubt the Australians have learnt to smoke from the Murray
Islanders.1 The tobacco pipe is a large joint of bamboo as much as 2 feet in length
and 3 inches in diameter. There is a small round hole on the side at one end and
a larger hole in the extremity of the other end. A small cone of green leaf is inserted
into the smaller round hole and filled with tobacco, which is lighted at the top as usual.
A woman (sometimes a man performs the operation) then opening her mouth wide covers
the cone and lighted tobacco with it and applies her lips to the bamboo all round it, having
the leaf cone and burning tobacco thus entirely within her mouth. She then blows and
forces the smoke into the cavity of the bamboo, keeping her hand over the hole at the other
end, and closing the aperture as soon as the bamboo is full. The leaf cone is then with-
drawn and the pipe handed to the smoker, who, putting his hand over the bottom hole to
keep in the smoke, sucks at the hole in which the leaf was inserted, and uses his hand as
a valve meanwhile to allow the requisite air to enter at the other end. The pipe being
empty the leaf is replaced and the process repeated. The smoke is thus inhaled quite
cold. The pipes are ornamented by the blacks with rude drawings. The bamboo pipes
of Dalrymple Island are described as having bowls made of smaller bamboo tubes instead
1 J. Beete Jukes, Narrative of the Surveying Voyage of H.M.S. “Fly,” vol. i. p. 65, London, 1847.

538

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S, CHALLENGEB.

of the leaf cone; there are many such in museums. Possibly the leaf is only a make-
shift. The Dalrymple Islanders, however, sucked the bamboo full of smoke from the
large hole at the end instead of blowing. It is remarkable that the Southern Papuans
should have invented this peculiar method of smoking for themselves, since there can
be little doubt that they derived the idea of smoking from the Malays, probably through
the Northern and Western Papuans. There seems no doubt that the habit of smoking
was first introduced into Java by the Portuguese, as well as the tobacco plant itself,1 and
the habit and plant no doubt spread thence to New Guinea. The Papuans at Humboldt
Bay smoke their tobacco in the form of cigarettes.

“ No other property than that mentioned was to be seen about the camp of the
Gudangs, but on our asking for them, Longway produced some small spears and a
throwing stick, which were hidden in the bush close by ; and a second lot of spears was
produced afterwards from a similar hiding-place. The blacks keep what property they
have thus hidden away, just as a dog hides his bone, and not in the camp ; hence it is
impossible to find out what they really have. I saw no knife or tomahawk. No doubt
the practice of thus hiding things away from the camp has arisen from constant fear
of surprise from hostile tribes.

“ The blacks feed on shell fish, snails (a very large Helix), snakes and grubs, and
such things, which are hunted for by the women, who go out into the woods in a gang
every day for the purpose of collecting food, and also dig wild yam roots with a pointed
stick hardened in the fire. They have not got the perforated stone to weight their
digging-stick, and are thus behind the Bushmen of the Cape in this matter. A staple
article of food with these blacks is afforded by the large seeds of a climbing bean (Entada
scandens), and their only stone implements are a round flat-topped stone and another
long conical one, suitable for grasping in the hands. This is used as a pestle with which
to pound these beans on the flat stone. Both stones are merely selected and not shaped
in any way.

“These blacks never seem to have had any stone tomahawks, and their spear-heads
are of bone. They do not hunt the Wallabies or climb after the Opossums, like the
more southern blacks, but live almost entirely on creeping things and roots, and on
fish, which they spear with four-pronged spears. Staff-Surgeon Crosbie of the
Challenger saw Longway and his boy smashing up logs of drift-wood and pulling out
Teredos and eating them one by one as they came to them.

“ I tested Longway and also several of the blacks together at the camp, by putting
groups of objects such as cartridges before them, but could not get them to count in
their language above three — piama, labaima, damma.2 They used the word ‘ nurra’3 also,

1 A. de Candolle, Geographic Botanicpue, t. ii. p. 850.

2 Macgillivray gives “epiamnna, elahaiu, dama” (Voyage of the “ Rattlesnake,” Appendix).

3 unora ? Macgillivray.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

539

apparently for all higher numbers. It was curious to see their procedure when I put
a heap of five or six objects before them. They separated them into groups of two, or
two and one, and. pointing to the heaps successively said, ‘ labaima, labaima, piama,’

£ two,’ £ two,’ £ one.’ Though another of the guides had been long with the whites
he had little idea of counting ; after he had picked up two dozen birds which had been
shot, and seen them packed away, he was asked how many there were in the tin ; he
said six. No doubt amongst such people language changes with remarkable rapidity,;
especially as here, where tribes are mixed; some of the words at least seem to have
changed since Macgillivray’s time.

££ The blacks are wonderfully forgetful, and never seem to carry an idea long in their
heads. One day when Longway was out with me he kept constantly repeating to him-
self £ two shilling,’ a sum I had promised him if I shot a Rifle Bird, and he constantly
reminded me of it, evidently with his thoughts full of the idea. After the day was over,
and we were near home, he suddenly left me and disappeared, having been taken with
a sudden desire to smoke his bamboo, and gone by a short cut to the camp. When I
found him there he seemed astonished, and to have forgotten about his day’s pay
altogether, although he had successfully earned it.

£ £ The blacks spend what little money they get in biscuit at the store, and they
know that for a florin they ought to get more biscuit than for a shilling, but that is all ;
food is their greatest desire. Their use of English is most amusing, especially that of
the word ‘fellow.’ ‘This feller gin, this feller gin, this feller boy,’- said Longway,
when I asked whether some young blacks crouched by the fire were boys or girls. They
apply the term also to all kinds of inanimate objects. There are several graves of blacks
near Somerset. I asked Longway what became of the black fellows when they died ; he
said £ fly away,’’ and that they became white men.

“ When I wanted some plants which were a little way up a tree, Longway was not at
all inclined to climb, but let a sailor who was with me do it. Longway’s boy said he
could not climb.

“As I have .said, Longway was always completely naked. He not only had no
clothing of any description, but no ornament of any kind whatsoever, and he was not
even tattooed. Further, he never carried, when he walked with me, any kind of weapon,
not even < a stick. His boy, who was always with him, was in the same natural
condition. It was some time before I got quite accustomed to Longway’s absolute
nakedness, but after I had been about with him for a bit, the thing seemed quite familiar
and natural, and I noticed it no more.

“ On one of our excursions. Longway begged me to shoot him some parroquets to eat ;
I killed half a dozen at a shot, but should not have done so if I had known the result, for
Longway insisted on stopping and eating them there and then, so I was obliged to wait,
whilst he and his boy lighted a fire of grass? and sticks, tore a couple of clutches of

540

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

feathers off each of the birds and threw them on the fire for the rest of the feathers to
singe partly off. Before they were well warm through, they pulled the birds out and
tore them to pieces, and ate them all bleeding, devouring a good deal of the entrails.

“ On one occasion, when I wished to start very early on a shooting expedition in order
to come upon the birds about daybreak, which is always the best time for finding them
in the tropics, I went to the camp of the blacks to fetch Longway, just as it was begin-
ning to dawn. The blacks were not by any means so easily roused as I had expected ; I
found them all asleep, and had to shout at them, but then they all started up scared, as
if expecting an attack. I had great difficulty in persuading Longway to go with me at
that' early hour, and he complained of the cold for some hours. I think the blacks
usually lie in camp till the sun has been up some little time, and the air has been
warmed.

“ With regard to expression, I noticed that the Gudangs used the same gesture of
refusal or dissent as the Api men, namely, the shrugging of one shoulder, with the head
bent over to the same side. Their facial expressions were, as far as I saw them, normal,
I mean like those of Europeans.

“ Altogether, these blacks are, I suppose, nearly as low as any savages. They have no
clothes (some have bits of European ones now), no canoes, no hatchets, no boomerangs,
no chiefs. Their graves, described in the Voyage of the ‘ Fly,5 are remarkable in their
form, being long low mounds of sand, with a wooden post set up at each of the corners.
There is far more trouble taken with them than would be expected.”

The beach at Somerset is composed of siliceous sand. The European voyager
amongst coral islands becomes so used to see the beaches made up of calcareous sand,
that it appears quite a novel feature to him when he meets again with siliceous sand, to
which he is accustomed at home. The sandy beach slopes down, to end abruptly on a
nearly horizontal mud flat, bare at low water, which is mainly calcareous, and in fact a
shore platform reef. At low water, during spring tides, blocks of dead massive corals,
such as Astrseidse, are seen to compose the verge of these mud flats, and it is from the
detritus of these that the mud is formed. Amongst these blocks are a few living corals,
a species of Euphyllia, a small Astrcea, and a cup or mushroom-shaped Turbinaria.

There is a considerable variety of species of seaweeds on the flats, and also
several forms of sea-grasses, as a species of Halophila, the large hairy Enhalus, and a
Thalassia growing together, and spreading in abundance over the mud, which was
matted with their roots in many places.

The channel between Somerset and Albany Island is shallow, being nowhere more
than 14 fathoms in depth. The dredge here brought up a rare species of Trigonia. and
the “ Lancelet ” (Ampkioxus lanceolatus), which seems to have an extremely wide range
of distribution. The fauna on the whole was very like that of Port Jackson.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

541

Featlier-stars belonging to the genus Actinometra, coloured dark purple, were numerous
in the dredgings in from 8 to 12 fathoms. Dr. von Willemoes Suhm mentions that, in
eighty specimens which he examined, he found the following animals living on them
parasitically, and all coloured like them : — (1) an Ophiurid, (2) an Alplieus, (3) a
Myzostomum (large species, two or three on about every tenth specimen), (4) an
Aphroditacean Annelid, (5) an Isopod ( Anilocra , found in the stomach of the Actinometrce).
The dark purple colouring matter of these Actinometrce ( Actinometra strata), unlike the
colouring matters of most Comatulidse, gives a very characteristic banded absorption
spectrum, and has been named by Mr. Moseley “ Antedonin.” The same colouring matter
was found in a Holothurian dredged in the South Indian Ocean from 1975 fathoms.1

Cape York is a sort of emporium of savage weapons and ornaments. Pearl-shell
gathering vessels (“ pearl-shellers ” as they are called) come to Somerset with crews which
they have picked up at all the islands in the neighbourhood, from New Guinea, and from
all over the Pacific, and they bring weapons and ornaments from all these places with
them. Moreover, the Murray Islanders visit the port in their canoes, and bring bows and
arrows, drums, and such things for barter. The water police stationed at Somerset deal
in these curiosities, buying them up and selling them to passengers in the passing
steamers, or to other visitors. Hence all kinds of savage weapons have found their way
into English collections, with the label “ Cape York,” and the northern Australians have
got credit for having learnt the use of the bow and arrow. Apparently, however, no
Australian natives use the bow at all. Weapons from very remote places find their way
to Cape York, and thus no doubt the first specimens of Admiralty Island javelins reached
the English museums. Accurate determination of locality is of course essential to the
interest of savage weapons. Surgeon Maclean of the Challenger had a large New Guinea
drum of the crocodile form thrust upon his acceptance as a Tee for visiting a patient on
board one of the “ pearl-shellers.”

Dr. von Willemoes Suhm broke into five of the large Termite hills with pickaxes,
and secured some females, but never more than one in each hill. He states that this
Termes is different from the Indian forms, in which the female always resides in
a larger hole at the bottom of the hill, and is two inches in length.

Cape York to the Arrou (Aru) Islands.

At 1 1 a.m. on the 8th September the ship left Somerset, Cape York, and proceeded
to the westward through the Albany Pass, crossing over the tail of the bank from Sextant
Rock, with the left extremity of Ida Island in line with the rocky point in Muddy Bay ;

5 fathoms being the least depth obtained at high water. A course was then steered

1 H. N. Moseley, On the Colouring Matters of Various Animals, and especially of Deep-Sea Forms, Quart. Journ.
Micr. Sci., N. S., vol. xvii. pp. 8-10, 1877.

542

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

for rock (a), and passing eastward of it, the regular track was followed to the Prince of
Wales Channel. It was intended to search for Edward’s Rock, but the water was too
muddy, and the weather too misty, to afford any reasonable hope of finding it. At
2.45 p.m. several rich hauls of the dredge were obtained at the entrance to the Prince of
Wales Channel (Station 186, 8 fathoms), and then the ship anchored between Wednesday
and Hammond Islands, where the Expedition was rejoined by the steam pinnace, which
had sailed from Albany Pass over to Flinders Pass on a dredging excursion. A rock
specimen obtained at Hammond Island is a quartz porphyry.

Rock (a) is about 40 feet high ; Horned Hill on Horn Island is a prominent saddle ;
Strait Rock is bushy, and some 60 to 70 feet high ; Tuesday Islets are about 100 feet
high, and Wednesday Island 200 feet. The whole of the reefs in the vicinity of the
anchorage were dry at 3 p.m., and but little tidal stream was felt until 4 p.m., when a
strong southeast set was experienced, which lasted till 8.15 p.m., after which the tide
turned to the northwestward. The time of low water appears, therefore, to be nearly
the same as at Port Albany, but there the northwest stream would begin at 5 p.m., while
at this anchorage it did not commence until 8. 1 5 p.m. The ship remained swung to the
northwest tide until 3.45 a.m., when slack water ensued, and at 4 a.m. the southeast
stream commenced to flow. At Port Albany the northwest stream finished at 1 a.m.

On the 9th, at 5.45 a.m., the anchor was weighed and the vessel proceeded under sail
through the Prince of Wales Channel. The mail steamer, from Singapore to Brisbane,
being met with at the west end of this channel, was communicated with, and through the
kindness of the captain some newspapers were received from her. At 8 a.m. Ipili Reef
was passed and a course shaped as necessary towards Booby Island, off which sail was
shortened, and at 10 a.m. a party of naturalists landed, the ship obtaining some hauls
of the dredge (Station 187). The dredgings were very successful, amongst other things
a remarkably large Starfish ( Oreaster ), two feet in diameter, being obtained. At
1.30 p.m. the party returned from Booby Island, and the ship bore up for the passage
between Proudfoot Shoal and Cook’s Reef, carrying a line of soundings of from 8 to 10
fathoms until 5.50 p.m., when the patent log showed the vessel had passed Cook’s Reef,
and 16 fathoms were obtained, after which the course was altered to W. by N.

The Ipili Reef is marked on the chart as though the rocks were always above high
water, and the sailing directions also lead one to suppose so by calling them a cluster
of high rocks,1 whereas they must certainly all be covered at high water, as when they
were passed at dead low water, they were but a foot or two uncovered, and looked like the
elevated part of a reef which dries at low water, or perhaps half-tide.

On Booby Island there were a few cases of biscuits, but the cases were fast decaying,
and shipwrecked people should not trust to this island for supplies, but push on at once
for the settlement at Cape York.

1 See Australian Directory, vol. ii. p. 240, 2ml Ed.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

543

On the 10th, 11th, 12th, and 13th September, the ship dredged each day, shortening
sail and putting over the trawl or dredge ; the water being shallow, no steam was required.
The dredging on the 10th (Station 188) was remarkable for the number of Cephalopods it
yielded ; there were five species of Sepia, of which four are certainly new, an undescribed
species of Loligo, and an Octopus, too young to determine with certainty. A sounding
was also obtained every two hours to ascertain the depths between Torres Strait and
the Arrou Islands. On the lltli, the cutter was anchored by the trawl, and no current
was detected.

On the 14th September, at 10 A.M., the Arrou Islands were observed on the starboard bow from
the masthead, and at 11 A.M. from the decks. At noon the north side of Ngor Island bore N. 53° E.
(true) distant 8 or 9 miles, and a N.W. by N. course was steered until 3.25 p.m., when the coast
of Trangan Island could be distinctly made out, soundings of from 19 to 17 fathoms being obtained.
At this time the two small islets off the south point of Trangan Island were seen ; the outer one is
merely a rock, which appears white when seen against the green background, and was consequently
named White Rock. It is in lat. 6° 58' S., long. 134° 13' E., and about 20 feet high. The
other islet close to White Rock is small, with a few scattered trees, and just north of it is the south
point of Trangan Island, about which there is nothing remarkable; eastward of the south point,
however, are some red cliffs, which are very conspicuous (see Sheet 32).

The islands of Krei and Batu Goyang were not seen, although the ship passed within 5 or G
miles of the positions assigned them ; so that if they exist they are not correctly placed on the
chart.

From the south point of Trangan Island, the coast trends northwest for 2 or 3 miles (to a cleared
point), and then runs away to the northward, forming a bay, the southwest point of which is a bluff,
with a red patch near its extremity, by which it may readily be distinguished. The extremity of
this Red Patch Point is in lat. 6° 51^' S., long. 134° 4|' E., aud as it was seen at a distance of 1 0
miles, it cannot be less than 200 feet in height to the top of the trees. Three or four miles northeast
of Red Patch Point is a flat-topped hill in lat. 6° 49' S., long. 134° 8J' E., which is conspicuous
from the southward. The tops of the trees on it were estimated as 300 feet above the sea level.
The whole of Trangan Island is covered with trees, which give it a very uniform appearance from
the sea.

At 5.40 p.m., White Rock bore N. 87° E., Red Patch Point N. 18° W., and Flat Hill N. 11° E.,
the depth being 13 fathoms. From this position the ship was steered W.N.W. until 8 p.m., and then
N.W. by W., but at 9.30 p.m. the water suddenly shoaling from 13 to 7 and then 5 fathoms, the
anchor was at once let go and sail shortened, the wind beiug very light, so that the ship had barely
steerage way. On anchoring the tide was found setting W.N.W.; at 2.15 a.m. on the 15th it turned
to E.S.E., its velocity being a quarter of a mile per hour.

On the 15th, at daylight, the position of the anchorage by star observations was found to be
lat. 6° 54' 38" S., long. 133° 57' 30" E., Red Patch Point bearing -K 66° E,, and White Rock S. 79° E.
The wind being light and variable steam was raised, and at 6.45 a.m. the anchor was weighed and the
ship proceeded to the northward round a shallow patch with about 1 fathom on it, on which the vessel
would certainly have run had the anchor not been promptly let go the previous evening. This patch,
which was named “ Blackburne Shoal,” in lat. 6° 55' S., long. 133° 57' E., is about one mile in diameter

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 69

544

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

and circular in form, as seen from the masthead. In rounding it soundings of from 4 to 7 fathoms
were obtained, and there was apparently shallow water to the westward. After passing Blackburne
Shoal a course was shaped to the northward, soundings of from 7 to 10 fathoms being obtained until
11 a.m., when in lat. 6° 35' S., long. 133° 54' E. the water deepened, and at noon the depth was 33
fathoms. The Aram Islands were in sight all day, but presented a flat uniform appearance, owing to
their being entirely covered with a virgin jungle. The only conspicuous object north of Red Patch
Point was a small hill, slightly elevated above the adjacent land, in lat. 6° 40' S., long. 134° 6' E.
The flat hill close to 'Red Patch Point can hardly be distinguished when seen from the northwestward.
A breeze springing up just before noon enabled the ship to proceed under sail again, a great advantage
in the tropics. In the afternoon the course was altered towards the northwest point of Lutor Island,
which ends abruptly, and as the vessel proceeded, Maika and Babi Islands, which are flat and covered
with trees, were sighted. At 6 p.m. Babi Island bore N.E. by N., the left extremity of Maika Island
N. 43° E., the left extremity of Lutor Island S. 76° E., and the water having shoaled to 10 fathoms,
a course was shaped to the north until 8 p.m., when, the depth being 45 fathoms, the ship hove to
under topsails for the night.

On the 16th, whilst drifting slowly away from the land, the water deepened until at 4 A.M. no
bottom could be obtained at 150 fathoms. At 6 a.m. Babi Island bore N. 68° E., the left extremity of
Maika Island S. 89° E., and the right extremity S. 52° E., and from this position the vessel was steered
for Dobbo Harbour, and at 9 a.m. proceeded into the harbour under steam, with Dobbo Spit bearing
E.S.E. When the rock off the northwest point of Wamma Island bore S. by W., several casts of
6 to 5|- fathoms were obtained. At 11 A.M. the ship anchored in 16 fathoms off the town of Dobbo,
with the rock off the northwest point of Wamma Island bearing west, the left extremity of Wokan
Island N. 38J W„ and Dobbo Spit S. 31° E.

The deposits in 6 and 7 fathoms around and near Booby and Wednesday Islands
consisted of siliceous sand with large numbers of non-pelagic Foraminifera, fragments
of calcareous Algae, Polyzoa, and Mollusc shells. Between the Arrou Islands and
Cape York the depth in the Arafura Sea never exceeded 50 fathoms, usually ranging
from 28 to 40 fathoms. The deposit was a greenish mud in all cases, containing
fragments of quartz, mica, felspars, glauconite, &c., about 0'5 mm. in diameter. In
the dredgings there Were fragments of sandstone and other continental rocks. The
carbonate of lime in these deposits rarely exceeded 10 per cent., and consisted of
the shells of Textularia and Rotalia , fragments of Echinoderms and Molluscs.

A very remarkable new compound coral was obtained at the entrance to the Prince
of Wales Channel, Station 186, 8 fathoms, which has been made by Mr. Quelch the type
of a new genus, Moseley a, and provisionally referred by him to a uew subfamily of the
Astraeidae, Moseleyinae. This coral is of great importance as showing an approach to the
Rugosa in its structure, possessing dissepiments disposed in concentric circles and forming
nearly complete tabulae.1

The surface nets in the Arafura Sea yielded large numbers of Diatoms, being fre-
quently filled with a yellow shiny mass', which recalled the hauls of Diatoms made during
1 J. J. Quelch, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. xiii. p. 292, 1884.

SHEET 32

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

545

the cruise in the Antarctic Ocean. As the Arrou Islands were approached Oscillatorise
( Trichodesmium ) were very numerous, colouring the sea in some places dull red or yellow-
ish brown. The bundles of Trichodesmium were usually massed in great patches or long-
lines. These algae appeared to be confined to the immediate surface layers, as tow-nets
dragged several fathoms beneath the surface captured very few. Between Cape York and
the Arrou Islands not a single specimen of pelagic Foraminifera was taken in the nets, and
none were noticed in the deposits. The water was greenish in colour, but as the ship
neared the Arrou Islands it became blue, and a few of the truly pelagic and open ocean
organisms were again noticed- in the tow-nets. As the water of the Arafura' Sea has a
low specific gravity, it is most probable that one or more large rivers enter it from New
Guinea ; the surface fauna and that of the bottom and the deposits are also more like
that of a large bay than of the ocean. A few Frigate Birds, Boatswain Birds; and Terns
were noticed during the trip, and Dolphins were very numerous.

Arrou (Aru) Islands.

Dobho. — Immediately on anchoring, the head traders of Dobbo and the Dutch
missionaries came off to visit the ship, all of them Malays from Macassar, their boats
flying the Dutch flag. The traders came off in a Malay boat, with a double row of
paddlers, dressed in gold embroidered coats, and full white trousers, supported by an orna-
mental belt. The missionaries who came from the village on the west side of Wamma
Island were . dressed in black tailed coats, trousers, and tall hats ; each of them bore
a silver-topped stick, with the Dutch royal arms on it, as their badge of office. They
all appeared very hot and uncomfortable in their ceremonial dress, and brought off in
their boats boxes containing their ordinary costume, into which they got as soon as
their visit was paid, and they certainly looked much better in their picturesque dress
of “sarong and baju” than they did in the by no means handsome black coat and hat
of Europeans.

The time of the visit to Dobbo, the capital of the Arrou Islands, was at the end of the
southeast monsoon, so that nearly all the trading vessels had taken their departure for
Singapore, and the population of the village was reduced to about three hundred, of
whom twenty were Chinese, ten Arrou Islanders (see PI. XXV.), and the rest Malays ; and
a short time later the village would have been found nearly deserted, as the men left
behind would have resumed their fishing, on the east coast of the group, for trepang,
pearl-shells,' and tortoiseshell. The price of the tortoiseshell at Dobbo was 15s. per pound,
pearl-shells 2s. per pound, and Great Birds of Paradise 10s. each. The headquarters of
the fishery on the east coast is at a place called Gomo Gomo, a small detached island, on
which there are goats and plenty of poultry.

On Pulo Ougia and Pulo Wassia are some deer, which were no doubt originally landed

54G

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. OH ALLEN GEE .

by the Dutch, and have since rapidly increased, and the Malays said that alligators are met
with in the swamps all over the islands.

The village of Dobbo was not in the least altered in the few years which had
elapsed since Wallace’s visit. Its line of Macassar trading vessels was drawn up on the
beach. It is built on a spit of sand, extending a quarter of a mile from the shore, and
about a cable broad ; it consists of three rows of houses, divided by two narrow streets.
The houses, of the usual Malay type, are raised on heavy piles, and have bamboo lath
sides and floors, the whole covered with a high pitched roof of thick thatch. The ground
floor, i.e., the space between the piles enclosed by matwork, is used as storehouse and
shop, and the floor above as the residence of the Malay families. Plate XXIII. shows a
view up the main street of Dobbo ; some timber for shipbuilding is seen lying about.
The village appeared fairly healthy. The inhabitants procured their water from wells
close to the town, near a burying place, a very unsanitary arrangement, which might give
rise to sickness.

The Arrou group is nominally under Dutch authority. The Eesident at Banda pays
periodical visits to Dobbo, and inquires into the condition of the people, but there is
no regular governor or magistrate on the islands, and the inhabitants do not appear
to need one.

The Dutch have established a coal depot at the east point of Wamma Island, called
by the Malays “Blakan Ammara,” which consists of a long shed 90 feet by 30 feet, and
about 20 feet high, the coals contained in it being estimated at 300 to 350 tons. The
water was deep right up to the beach on which the coaling shed was built, and boats can
probably load at any time of tide, whilst ships requiring coals can find secure anchorage
at a distance of about half a mile from the point.

The sun was excessively powerful at Arrou, the glare on the white sandy beach being
felt more severely than anywhere else during the voyage. In wading in search of sea-
weeds on the coral shore platform, the water was positively found much warmer than
was pleasant to the legs. The water was very shallow, only half way up to the knees,
and the bottom white ; the unusual heating being probably caused by the strong
insolation on the water in these conditions.

Frequent excursions were made on shore with guides. The manner in which these
guides met a heavy storm of rain was most amusing ; they had, of course, no umbrellas,
but did not wish their clothes, which consisted merely of two cloths, one worn round
the shoulders, and the other round the loins, to get wet. They therefore simply
stripped naked, rolled their clothes up tightly inside a large Screw-pine leaf, and so
walked along till the rain was over, when they shook themselves dry and put their
clothes on again.

A very large species of Screw-pine ( Pandcmus ), a common East Indian littoral plant,
with fruit as big as a man’s head, is found along the shore. The stem, though large, is

-Plate JPHU.

Native Houses, Dobbo.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

547

soft and succulent, and hence with a small axe one can enjoy all the pleasure of felling a
large tree without any fatigue.

On the Island of Wokan, not far from the anchorage, sago palms abound in the
swamps. Several parties of natives from the back country were living near the shore,
having come from a distance in their boats, to prepare a store of sago to take home with
them. They lived in small low-roofed houses made of poles and reeds, and raised on
posts about two feet above the swampy ground. These temporary houses were so low
that the natives could only squat or lie in them ; two of them are shown on PI. XXIV.,
the one in the background being merely a frame-work unfinished. The men were darker
than the inhabitants of Wokan in the neighbourhood, and looked more Papuan in
appearance. They were armed with finely-made spears with iron blade-like points, 6 or
8 inches long, and ornamented handles of carefully shaped wood. They would not part
with these at any price.

They resented an attempt to look into their house, no doubt because of the presence
of the women, who seemed extremely shy, and huddled together out of the way, as was
also the case at Wanumbai. The men had wrist ornaments, which were closely similar
in make to those common at Humboldt Bay, New Guinea, and at the Admiralty Islands,
and consisted of broad band-shaped wristlets made of plaited fibres (of Pandanus ?),
yellow and black worked into a pattern. The belts of the Admiralty Islanders are
figured on PI. H. figs. 2 and 3.

The bracelets of the Arrou Islanders were ornamented with European shirt buttons in
lieu of the small ground-down shells ( Neritina ) used at New Guinea and the Admiralty
Islands for the same purpose. The buttons came, no doubt, from the Chinese traders,
and probably the natives thought they were intended for this purpose, as they do not
look so very unlike the shells. The men had a number of buckets made of leaves full of
sago, ready prepared, and their rude kneading-trough and strainers of palm fibre were
seen in a swamp close by.

The trees are excessively high and large in the Arrou forests. To a botanical collector,
with no time to spare, such a forest is a hopeless problem. Only the few low-growing
plants can be gathered, and the orchids and ferns that hang on the stems low down,
especially along the coast. A few small palms can be cut down, but not the forest trees,
the flowers and fruits of which, - the main features of the plant, and those most likely to
prove of especial interest, are far out of reach. It would take a day at least to fell one
of the trees. The only hope is for the botanist to lie on his back and .look for blossoms
or fruit with a binocular glass, and then try and shoot a branch down with shot. Very
often, however, the trees are far too high for that, and then the matter must be given
up altogether.

Some most enormous Stag’s-horn Ferns (Platy cerium), which appeared to be at least
8 feet in the height of the fronds, were seen growing on the high trees in Wokan Island

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CH ALLEN GET! .

548

but unfortunately only small specimens could be readied. The rattans are a serious
obstacle in excursions in the forests. The tendrils of these trailing and climbing palms
are beset with rows of recurved hooks, which, -as they are drawn across the explorer’s
flesh in a dash made to get a shot at a bird, or by a stumble, cut into it as readily as
knives, and inflict a more unpleasant wound.

An immense tree with a tall stem free from branches, until at a great height it spreads
out into a wide and evenly shaped crown, was full of the nests of the Metallic Starling
( Calornis metallica), a very beautiful small starling with dark plumage, which displays a,
brilliant purple metallic glance all over its surface. The Starlings breed thus gregariously ;
there must have been three or four hundred nests in the tree, every available branch being
full of them. The birds were busy flying to and fro, and were -quite safe, for the tree
was so high that they were out of shot.

On one of the excursions in the forest a flock of brilliant plumaged parrots was met
with, apparently feeding in coriipany with a flock of white cockatoos. One of the parrots
was successfully stalked and shot, whereupon the cockatoos set up the most angry harsh
screaming, evidently making common cause with the parrots. They sat and screamed
at the shooter on a tree close by, as angrily as if one of their own flock had been shot,
and then flew overhead high up out of reach of the gun, looking down at the dead bird
and still screaming.

The splendid large Bird- winged Butterfly ( Ornithoptera poseidon), with brilliant green
and velvety black wings, was common in the woods, but flew high and was difticult to
catch. One or two were shot with dust shot, without their being utterly damaged, but
the best chance of catching them is when a flock of males can be met with, fluttering
round and mobbing a single female ; they are then hovering slowly, quite close to the
ground, and can easily be caught. The female has thus a large body of gaudy admirers
from which to make her choice. Interesting results might possibly be derived from a
series of experiments in which, in the case of brightly coloured and decorated butterflies,
the colours should be rubbed off the wings of a few amongst a number of males, or painted
over of a black or brown colour. It might be tested whether the females would always
prefer the brightly coloured ones, and dark coloured butterflies might have the wings
of the male touched up with a little colour.

A Snake ( Dipsas arruensis ) was obtained at Wokan. Amongst the insects collected
were three new species of Lepidoptera,1 viz., Thcmcios inornatus, Plesioneurci proserpina,
and Papilio alcidinus, the last of which furnishes an interesting case of mimicry, which
will be alluded to in the sequel (p. 581) ; a new species of Coleoptera ( Cautires amabilis),
and specimens of Telephorus pramstus, Guerin, which have been made the type of a
new genus ( Sphcerarthrum) by Mr. Waterhouse.2

. ] A. G. Butler, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. xi. pp. 423, 424, 1884,

2 C. 0, Waterhouse, Ibid., vol. xiii. pp. 280-282, 1884.

.Plate JOUY.

HQM. ‘^H HAIiVN

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

549

One day was devoted to an excursion to the mainland of the Arrou Islands, to
Wanumbai, Mr. Wallace’s old hunting ground, in the channel between Maykor and Wokan
Islands called by the Malays “ Sungei Wateiai.” For this purpose the steam pinnace
was used ; and as the right position of the channel was unknown to the navigating
officers a guide was taken from the shore.

The guide having been procured, the pinnace proceeded for the Wateiai Channel, passing
a large sea-snake on the surface of the water on the way, and at 1.30 p.m. arrived at the
entrance and steamed up it about lb miles to the small village of Wanumbai, where a
stream of fresh water fell into the channel from a height of about 15 feet. The channel
runs east and west through the island, dividing the island of Wokan from that of
Maykor ; it is about a quarter of a mile wide, and the depth in the centre was found to
vary from 4 to 5 fathoms.

The scene on the beach as the pinnace steamed into the village was most picturesque ;
none of the inhabitants having ever seen so small a craft propelled by steam, the whole
population turned out to inspect the boat, Malays, Chinamen, and Arrou Islanders, al
mixed together in a high state of curiosity and excitement. The people of Wanumbai
were very much scared at the appearance of the pinnace, full of men with guns, but
the Malay guide from Dobbo introduced the party ; he jumped on shore and addressed
the people of Wanumbai (Orang Wanumbai) and soon made matters right, telling them
that the strangers had only come to shoot “dead birds” (Burong mate), the trade term
by which the Birds of Paradise are known.

On the margin of the narrow sea channel was a compound house, a number of
families living, as in Papua and elsewhere, under a single roof. It was an oblong building
raised on numerous posts above the ground ; inside was a central passage, leading from
the door to the back wall, and on either side of this it was divided into small pens by low
irregularly made partitions. Each of these pens held a family, and the women huddled
together to hide themselves in the corners of them, just as did those in Wokan Island.

Bows and arrows were purchased from the natives. The arrows are very like New
Guinea arrows in the various forms of their points, but, unlike them, are all provided
with a notch and feathers, the latter often bright parrots’ feathers. Some have' a blade-
like point of bamboo, and a man who was watching a native plantation, to keep wild
animals off, said he used these for shooting pigs. Some are tipped with Cassowary
bone, some are many-pronged ; these latter are used for shooting birds, and are not
exclusively fish arrows, as is often supposed. Besides these, there are the arrows
with a large blunt knob at the end, used for stunning the large Birds of Paradise, with-
out spoiling their skins, as described by Mr. Wallace.1 Pointed arrows are, however, used
more frequently for this purpose, as Wallace relates, because the birds are so strong as to
escape being stunned, and the points are more certain weapons. It is curious that closely
1 Wallace, Malay Archipelago, vol. ii. p. 220, London, 1869.

550

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

similar knobbed arrows are used in South America by certain tribes, to kill Trogons and
other fine plumaged birds. One man brought for sale a large Bird of Paradise, dried in the
usual manner, but he wanted the full price for it asked by the Chinese dealers at Dobbo.

Mr. Moseley writes of this excursion as follows : — “ I procured two guides, a man and
a boy, and promised them a florin for every Bird of Paradise that I shot. I had
previously been in pursuit of the birds at Wokan, but they were not so common there,
and I believe that the native guides did not exert themselves to show us the birds, as
they no doubt regard them more or less as property, and a source of wealth.

“ My first acquaintance with the great Bird of Paradise ( Paradisea apoda ) was at
Wokan. I was making my way through the forest with a guide in the very early morning,
when a flock of birds flew by in the misty light, passing right over my head. They flewT
somewhat like a flock of jackdaws, and I was disgusted to realize when too late that they
were a flock of the very birds I was in search of. I did not fire for fear of disturbing the
woods. I heard them cry soon after ‘ wauk, wauk,’ but could not come up with them.

“ At Wanumbai with my guides, I first encountered a number of Fruit Bats, which
were on the wing in the early morning, and I killed one with a young one hanging at
its breast. We soon heard the cry of the great Bird of Paradise, £wauk, wauk.’ I
crept up within shot with my guides several times, but as usual, though they saw the
bird plainly amongst the foliage, I could not make it out in time, though I saw the
leaves rustle, and I did not want to fire without making sure. The guides, in view of the
florin, were as excited as I was, and kept seizing my arm and pointing, ‘ burong mate,
burong mate,’ but away went the bird without showing itself to me. The birds seemed
to keep constantly on the move in the trees, hopping from branch to branch,., and were
very quick and silent in their flight away to a fresh spot. Several times I saw them
amongst the branches of trees so high that it was useless to shoot at them, for my
cartridges, specially prepared with nearly four drachms of powder, had no effect. The
birds seemed to be as often single as in companies, and were evidently on the feed in
the early morning. At last a hen bird flew up off the ground close to me, with a small
lizard in her beak, and pitched on a dead branch to eat it, and I shot her. But, of course,
what I wished was a male in full plumage. This, however, was not to be obtained,
for not a single one was shot. It is remarkable what a very large proportion of young-
males and females of the great Bird of Paradise there seems to be, to the comparatively
small number of males in full dress. I believe I saw one at the top of a high tree,
but am not certain. Probably the old males are warier, being often hunted, and keep
out of the way. They require four or five years to develop full dress.1 At the breeding

1 It is improbable that Paradisea apoda loses its breeding plumage as soon as the breeding season is over.
Paradise a minor, as has been observed in the case of specimens kept in confinement in the Zoological Gardens, London,
certainly loses its plumes only at the moulting season, like other richly ornamented birds. Paradisea apoda moults,
according to Wallace, in January or February, and is in full plumage in May. At all events there must have remained
birds with plumes in September.

MateXW.

Aru Islanders.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

551

season, when the natives kill most of them, they assemble, and are easily obtained. The
cry ‘ wauk,’ is not so far removed from such cries as those of the Rook and others of the
Corvidae, to which the Paradise Birds are allied. The voices of birds need, however, no
more necessarily be a test of the pedigrees of the birds themselves, than need language
be a test of true race connection amongst mankind.

“ In the case of the other smaller species of Paradise Birds found in the Arrou Islands,
the King Bird ( Cicinnurus regius), the males in full plumage seemed as common as the
simple brown young males and females. The natives knew these latter well, as forms
of the brilliant red bird, though so vastly different, and several times pointed them out
to me, as 4 Gobi, gobi,’ their name for the King Bird. The King Birds were even
more abundant at Wanumbai than the larger species. The males when settled in the
trees constantly uttered a cry which is very like that of the Wryneck or Cuckoo’s
Mate. I saw most of them in the lower trees of the forest, at about 30 feet from the
ground. One shot by Mr. Abbott, one of the Challenger engineers, when in Wokan,
hovered and hopped for some time about a mass of creepers hanging from a large tree,
apparently searching for insects, and as it hovered, it showed its bright scarlet back like
a flash of fire. Usually the bird sitting on the twigs and seen from below shows none
of its beauty. The birds seem very tame, but like the Rifle Bird and the Great Bird of
Paradise, are usually in constant motion. One full-plumagecl bird sat on a twig about four
feet from the ground, and looked at me for a while at not more than three yards distance,
and then darted away, more out of natural impulse, I imagine, than fear. I shot five
of the birds in one day. One of them had the wonderful spiral green tail feathers, only
just growing out. The bright lapis-lazuli blue colour of the birds’ legs and feet when
fresh greatly enhances its beauty. Luckily the skin of the Paradise Birds is tough, and
I found the King Bird easy to skin. The short red feathers encr'oach on the base of the
bill on its upper surface, in an unusual manner, the tip of the bill only being free, and
this gives the head a curious appearance.”

The coral rock of Wokan Island is exposed in section on the shore not far from Dobbo,
in a cliff about 1 1 feet in height. The strata are inclined towards the sea at an angle
of about 20°. Inland, the surface is marked by a series of ridges of small elevation,
and from the presence of numerous bivalve shells, seems to have been raised above sea level.

There is a freshwater stream not far from Wanumbai, which flows over the coral
rock, overhung by dense vegetation. In the bed of the stream, a constant deposit of
carbonate of lime is taking place, and the bed is partitioned into a series of pools,
separated by ridges and projections of stalactite-like substance, which lines also the
pools themselves.

The following account of the weather at Dobbo was obtained from the Malays : —
The southeast monsoon commences early in May, and continues until the end of

(nare. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 70

552

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S CHALLENGER.

August or middle of September, after which light variable winds are experienced, until
the middle or end of November, when the northwest monsoon sets in. Although during
the southeast monsoon rain squalls are frequent, the regular rainy season is the north-
west monsoon ; the finest months are September and October.

The tides in Dobbo Harbour are somewhat irregular ; during the stay, however, the
diurnal inequality was very slight. It is high water at full and change at 2 hours
30 minutes, and the tides rise 6 feet. The flood stream was of very little strength, but
the ebb ran to the westward at the rate of from 1 to 1^ miles per hour at the anchorage.

The coin in circulation at the village was the Dutch dollar, 4s. 2d., and rupee,
Is. 8d., but the Chinamen were eager to obtain English gold.

The Arrou Islands appear to be by no means visited so infrequently as one would
suppose. The Malays stated that a Russian frigate had called there about two years
previously, a small Italian vessel had been there not long before, and they also asserted
that an English yawl had lately visited Dobbo, and the main islands of the group ;
besides which a party of Americans, two years previously, stopped a considerable time in
Kobroor, and one of them died and was buried there.

The only supplies that could -be obtained were a few poor fowls at twTo shillings each,
and some eggs, twopence each ; occasionally a few fish were brought alongside.

The Arrou Islands to the Ki Islands.

Having procured astronomical and magnetic observations, the ship left Dobbo
Harbour on the 23rd September for the Ki Islands. In going out of the harbour
the water suddenly shoaled to 3i> fathoms, with the northwest point of Wamma Island
S. 86° W., and Dobbo Spit S. 68° E. When Pulo Babi came open of Wamma Island,
the water deepened to 16 and 20 fathoms, and shortly afterwards to 48 fathoms, with the
extremity of Dobbo Spit S. 66° 40' E., the left extremity of Wassia Island N. 32° 4 0r E.,
and the right extremity of Pulo Babi S. 17° E. At 10 a.m. a sounding, trawling, and
temperatures were taken in 800 fathoms (Station 191), with Dobbo Spit S. 66° 40' E., the
left extremity of Wassia Island N. 44° 20' E., and the right extremity of Pulo Babi
S. 26° E., and at 6 p.m. sail was made for the north point of Great Ki Island (see Sheet
32). Whilst trawling, the tide was setting northwest until 4 p.m. ; and as it was ebbing
in Dobbo Harbour, it is probable that the ebb sets northwest, and the flood southeast.

The Ki (Ke) Islands.

On the 24th, at daylight, Great Ki Island was observed ahead. By observa-
tions and bearings of the land, it was found that there had been a current of 20 miles
to the westward since 6 p.m. of the previous day, at the rate of 1-| miles per hour. At
6 a.m. a sounding and serial temperatures were taken in 580 fathoms, and then sail

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

553

was made for the north end of the island. Whilst the ship was off the coast of Great Ki
Island several boats full of natives came off. The boats have been described by Wallace;1
they are shaped like whale boats, and are constructed of planks fastened together with
pegs and rattans. The crews used paddles with long blades pointed at the ends and with
cross handles. They paddled in time to a chanted cadence identical with one used by the
Fijians in their dances, “ e ai 6 turn turn.” At intervals the sound rose loud from the
approaching boats as it was taken up in chorus. The chant was accompanied by a drum
with a tense membrane on which two sounds were made by striking it slightly with the tips
of the fingers or more violently with the palm of the hand, the sound reminding one that
the course was tending towards India, for such a method of tomtom playing is not known
in Melanesia or Polynesia, but is in vogue in Ceylon and India, especially by Tamil coolies.

The men, a boat-load of whom came on board, were like the Arrou Islanders, but
for the most part more strongly built. They wore their hair long and loose, and had
no ornaments ; most of them wore only an apron of cloth. All of them were in the most-
horrible state of cutaneous disease, the skin being in a rough scurfy condition in many
cases all over the body. Worse cases of vegetable itch could not occur. The disease is
due to a parasitic fungus, and closely allied to or identical with Pityriasis versicolor.
Dr. Crosbie, Staff- Surgeon of the Challenger, made a careful microscopical examination
of it. The disease is widely spread in Melanesia and Polynesia.2 The men kept
constantly scratching themselves violently, and life can be scarcely bearable in Great Ki
Island ; yet the disease is one easily cured.

The men begged for all kinds of things, and especially spirits and tobacco. One of
the boats had well-made pottery, nicely ornamented with patterns in red, for barter, but
unfortunately 119 specimens were procured. The men, as did also the Malays at Dobbo,
used a slight click with the tongue, accompanied by a very slow shaking of the head to
express astonishment. At 1 p.m. the ship rounded the north end of Great Ki Island,
and steered towards Little Ki Island.

The position of the north point of Great Ki Island (which is called Tanjong
Burong) was made to be lat. 5° 16' 45" S., long. 133° 10' 45" E. It is a bluff point
readily distinguished, and has on each side a small bay where probably anchorage may be
found ; there were a few huts in these bays. The northeast point of Great Ki Island is
low and sandy, with a group of Casuarina trees ; it lies S. 50° E., just over two miles
from Tanjong Burong, and off the point are two small islets, the outermost of which is
40 feet high. From here the land trends to the southward for three miles, and then
recedes to the westward, forming a small bay, on the south point of which (lat. 5° 24' S.,
long. 133° 11' E.) is the village of Ali Bandang, from which the land runs S. by W. ^ W.
to a conspicuous point in lat. 5° 34/ S., long. 133° W E. Between the northeast point

Malay Archipelago, vol. ii. pp. 183-186, London, 1869.

See Tilbury Fox, M.D., On the Tokelau Ringworm and its Fungus, The Lancet, p. 304, 1874,

554

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

and the village of Ali Bandang are two other small villages. Nearly two miles west-
ward of Tanjong Burong is the northwest point of Great Ki Island, off which is a
small detached rock 30 to 40 feet in height. From the northwest point the land
trends S.S.W. for a considerable distance without any conspicuous object on the coast.
The whole of Great Ki Island is mountainous, but the tops of the hills were capped
with cloud during the day, so that it was impossible to obtain the heights of any but the
extreme northern mountain, which was found to be 2000 feet above the sea. The land is
densely wooded, but here and there in the vicinity of the villages are clearings.

Little Ki Island, with its off-lying islets, is low, but as they are all covered with
trees, the tops of which are at least 100 feet in height, they can be seen at a distance
of 15 or 16 miles.

At 4 p.m. the peak of Kalamit was distinguished, and bringing it in line with the
northwest point of Ki Doulan, the ship was steered in for the anchorage off Tamandan,
where she was brought up at dusk in 8 fathoms, with the left extremity of Dranan Island
west, the right extremity of Pulo Bandang N. 22° W., Tanjong Serbat S. 81° E., Bukit
Krain S. 31° W.

Shortly after anchoring, several boats came off to the ship flying the Dutch flag and
paddling to a chant different from that sung by the inhabitants of Great Ki, but very
similar. The men being shipbuilders by profession were delighted with the ship and
ran all over her, and climbed into the rigging.

A dance was got up on the quarter deck. The drum was beaten by two performers and
a song accompanied it, but there was no clapping of hands as at Fiji ; the whole mode
of dancing was absolutely different, and the attitudes of the dancers were sufficient
alone to have told one that one was amongst Malays and not Melanesians or Polynesians,
The dance, in which only two or three performers danced at a time, consisted of a
very slowly executed series of poses of the body and limbs. There was no exact keep-
ing of time to the accompaniment, nor union of action between the dancers. The hands
and arms during the action were slowly moved from behind to the front, the palms being
held forwards, and the thumbs stretched out straight from them. In another dance a
motion as of pulling a rope was used. The chant to one dance was the words “ uela a
uela.” There was also a dance of two performers with sticks to represent a combat with
swords. The whole was closely like the dancing of the Lutaos seen afterwards at
Samboangan, which will be described in the sequel.

On the 25th, at 6 a.m., the ship proceeded for the anchorage off Ki Doulan, where the
Rajah resides, and at 7 a.m. “came to” in 19 fathoms, very close to the reef, abreast
a small pier running out in front of the village. The pier, which is formed of loose coral
stones, has a depth of 5 or 6 feet at its outer end at low water.

The Rajah of Ki Doulan came on board shortly after the anchor was down, and
breakfasted in the cabin, making a hearty meal off curried meat and sardines. He

Plate XXIX.

Horsburgh, Edinburgh. Permanent Phototype.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

555

was afterwards conducted round the ship, and was evidently struck with the superior
comfort of the style of living in comparison with his own.

The day was employed in surveying the harbour, in taking astronomical and magnetic
observations, in observing the tides and exploring the islands. There was a large
number of cocoanut trees by the villages on the beaches, and numerous bread fruit and
sago trees, sago being the staple food of the natives (see PL XXVII.).

The houses of the village of the Ki Doulan were all raised on posts, except the
Mohammedan Mosque, which building shows a curious development of the high-peaked
Malay roof into a sort of half tower, half spire, representing no doubt an equivalent of
the dome (see PI. XXVI.). Under the eaves of the houses baskets were hung up for
the fowls to nest in.

Some boys were playing near the village, and, as a toy, they had a very ingeniously
made model of a spring gun, or rather spring bow, a trap by which a large arrow is shot
into a wild pig, on its setting loose a catch. A boy who acted as guide, and wore a
turban, placed his hand upon it and said, :e Mohammed,” and explained to Captain
Tizard that the small boys at play, whose heads were bare, were heathen ; he was
evidently very proud of his religion.

The Ki Islanders, besides arrows like those of the Arrou Islanders, use others which are
peculiar. They are light, thin narrow strips cut out of the long leaves of what is believed
to be a species of Carina. The strips are so cut that the stiff midrib of the leaf forms the
shaft of the arrow, and portions of the wings of the leaf are left on at the base of the
arrow to act as feathers ; the point is simply sharpened with the knife. These leaf
arrows when dry are hard and stiff, and are very easily made by a few strokes of the
knife. A large bundle of them is carried by the archer, and they are shot away at a
bird in the bush without the trouble being taken to find them again, as in the case of
other arrows. They are so small and light that they make very little show in their flight,
and no noise ; and a youth was seen to shoot at least a dozen of them, at a large Nutmeg
Pigeon, without the birds doing more than move its head, and start a little as they flew
by almost touching it. These Nutmeg Pigeons ( Carpophaga concinna ) are very large
heavy birds ; some of those shot weighed 2 lbs., and a considerable supply was obtained.

A Fruit Bat ( Pteropus melanopogon ) and several Lizards ( Varanus indicus, Hemi-
dactylus sp., Cyclodus sp., and Heteropus sp.), as also several of the Scincidse, were
obtained.

A large collection of insects was made, of which the following species are new : —
Lepicloptera,1 Hamadryas niveipicta, Lampides cetherialis, Terias photoprhila, Papilio
thomsonii, Parnphila moseleyi ; Coleoptera,2 Pelops gularis; Hymenoptera,3 Braeon
stigmaticus, Dielis wallacei.

] A. G. Butlers, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist,., ser. 5, vol. xiii. p. 191 et seq., 1884.
r C, 0. Waterhouse, Ibid., p. 279. W. F. Kirby, Ibid., pp. 404, 407,

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

556

Among the land shells Nanina citrina, Linn., was collected, which has not been
previously recorded from these islands.1

Mr. Darwin in his Journal 2 refers to Epeira clavipes, as said by Sloane to make webs
so strong as to catch birds. At Little Ki Island von Willemoes Suhm actually found a
strong and healthy “Glossy or Metallic Starling” ( Calornis metallica ) caught fast
in a yellow spider’s web, made by a large Nephilci, and he took the bird out alive and
brought it on board the ship to be preserved.

A few fowls, eggs, pumpkins, and plantains were procured, but the supply was
limited. There were several large patches of cleared ground under cultivation, and
boat-building was being carried on briskly, for here the boats are built with which the
pearl fishers at the Arrou Islands pursue their occupation.

The natives appeared to be very jealous of their women, for not one was seen by
any of the exploring parties.

The tidal observations showed that it is high water at full and change at 1 hour 26
minutes, and that spring tides rise 7 feet.

Ki Islands to the Banda Islands.

On the 26th September, at 6.30 a.m., the vessel left Ki Doulan for the Banda Islands,
passing out to the westward, where the Malay people said a passage existed, and making
a running survey of the channel. The ship was steered south of Pulo Doulan Laut, and
between it and the islands of Oboor and Oot, and then between the northwest point
of Pulo Letman and the Gadang Islands. Deep water was found from the anchorage
to the northeast end of Pulo Oboor, when depths of from 7 to 10 fathoms were obtained,
whilst rounding the north point of that island at a distance of three cables. When the
west point of Oboor bore south, the water again deepened, and no bottom was obtained
at 25 fathoms, although the ship was passing between coral reefs nearly dry. Off the
southwest extremity of the shore reef, from Pulo Doulan Laut, the soundings were
21 to 28 fathoms, and a little farther westward 9 to 12 fathoms over what appeared
to be a ledge joining the northwest extremity of Pulo Letman with Pulo Doulan Laut.
Farther on the water again deepened until the depth was 90 fathoms between the
Gadang Islands and Pulo Letman, from whence a S.W. by W. course was steered for
a group of islands marked on the chart, “ Tionfolokker, P.D.” At 3.30 p.m. a running
survey of the Tionfolokker Islands was completed, and the ship stopped and trawled in
129 to 140 fathoms, and then steamed to the westward until 8 p.m., when sail was
made for the night.

The two trawlings, taken in 129 to 140 fathoms (Station 192), off the southwest

1 E. A. Smith, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 259, 1884.

- Journal of Researches during the Voyage of H.M.S. “Beagle,” p. 36, ed. 1879,

Breadfruit Tree, Ke Doulan.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

557

point of the Tionfolokker Islands, were the richest in new species and number of speci-
mens obtained during the cruise, siliceous Sponges, Corals, Pennatulids, and Echinoderms
being especially abundant.

The deposit at this Station was also of considerable interest. The sounding tube
brought up specimens of a blue mud, containing about 10 per cent, of carbonate of
lime, and in the trawls, besides pumice stones, were several large concretions or
fragments of a calcareous rock, differing very considerably from the deposit.

The Concretions were of two kinds. First, many more or less rounded agglutinations
loosely held together, and from 1 to 7 centimetres in diameter. Second, several large
honeycombed pieces of rock, several decimetres in diameter, and requiring a sharp blow
from a hammer to break them.

Those belonging to the first variety are grey or brown, sometimes slightly greenish,
granular, and it can be seen with the lens that they are essentially composed of
Foraminifera. An examination of thin sections of these nodules shows that they are
agglutinated, or coagulated by an argillo-ealcareous cement which is not in great
abundance. Some of the shells are entirely filled with pale green glauconite, others
only partially. The intervals between the shells are not filled up with the cementing-
matter, and appear to be the first phase of agglutination.

Those of the second variety are very irregular in shape, and consist of large pieces of
a hard rock traversed in all directions by large and small perforations, with a diameter
varying from 1 to 4 centimetres. These blocks have thus a cavernous or coarse cellular
appearance. The perforations are covered, like the surface of the rock, with organisms, as
Sponges, Polyzoa, &c., and rough to the touch ; the smaller perforations have sometimes
the appearance of having been produced by litliophagous Molluscs. These concretions
have the hardness of ealcite ; the freshly broken fragments are white-grey. A microscopic
examination shows that they are mainly composed of various species of pelagic Foramini-
fera. Treated with weak acid the concretions decompose with effervescence, leaving a.
residue of 20 '44 per cent., the rest being carbonate of lime. The residue is essentially
composed of argillaceous matter, together with a few grains of felspar and quartz, and
glauconitic casts of the Foraminifera, these last being brown or green and feebly
transparent. The greenish casts present most of the characters of true glauconite.
Examined with the microscope in thin sections, the Foraminifera composing the rock
are seen to be the same as those in the first variety and also in the muds of the
same region ; mixed up with these are fragments of Echinoderms, &c. They are some-
times filled with greenish glauconite, but more generally with a semi-opaque greyish
matter which constitutes the cement of the various elements of the rock, and must be
considered as impure carbonate of lime. It has a slightly opaline aspect, is homogeneous
under low powers, but with higher powers a fine granulation can be seen which the

558

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

optical properties show to be due to minute crystalline particles. A section of these
concretions resembles in most respects a section of a hardened Globigerina ooze from
tropical regions. In this case, however, the shells are nearly all filled and cemented by
the finely granular carbonate of lime, while in a Globigerina ooze they are empty.

It is not improbable that these large concretions or rock-fragments are hardened
portions of a deep-sea deposit formed at a much greater depth, and subsequently
elevated into the position in which they were found, probably by the same elevation
as that which upheaved the neighbouring islands.

On the 27th, at 5.30 a.m., the position was obtained by star observations, and from
that time until 4.30 p.m. the course was altered as necessary to complete the survey of
the Brother Islands and the Tionfolokker group.

It was found that the Tionfolokker group consisted of three large and four small
islands, with a few outlying rocks. The southwesternmost island of the group is 550
feet high, and round-backed, the other islands are all low and flat, but 'covered with
trees, so that they are visible at a distance of from 12 to 15 miles. They lie in a N.E.
by N. and S.W. by. S. direction, between the parallels of 5° 31' and 5° 47' S. latitude,
and the meridians of 132° 8' and 132° 23' E. longitude. Passing the group on the
southeast side, soundings of 170 to 140 fathoms were obtained. On the northeast
side of the high, or southwestern, island are two small islets, from which a reef extends
to the southward a distance of three miles, and near the edge of this reef are some rocks
above water ; with this exception no danger was seen, but ships should be cautious in
venturing amongst these islands until the channels between them have been sounded
(see Sheet 32).

The Brother Islands are three in number. The southern island, Pulo Ta, 390 feet
high, is in lat. 5° 40^' S., long. 131° 55' E., circular in shape, about one mile in diameter,
and a small reef fringes its shore. The northwest Brother, Pulo Onelin, is low, but
covered with trees, circular in shape, and about half a mile in diameter, bears N. by W.
5 miles from Pulo Ta, and is in lat. 5° 26' 15" S., long. 131° 54^' E. Pulo Dol, the
northeasternmost island of the Brother group is also low, but is larger than the other
two islands, being a mile and a quarter long in a N. by W. and S. by E. direction,
and one mile wide ; it lies 6 miles N.E.- by N. from Pulo Ta, and is in lat. 5° 36^' S.,
long. 131° 58l>' E. A coral reef fringes the shores of all three islands, but does
not extend to any great distance from them ; the channels between them appear free
from danger.

Kanalur Island, the southern island of the Nusa Tello group, is of considerable size, and
rises in a succession of terraces to a height of 1600 feet. The summit is in lat. 5° 20 J' S.,
long. 131° 57' E. In the passage between the Brother Islands and Kanalur Island,
which is 12 miles wide, a sounding of 175 fathoms was obtained.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

559

The Brother Islands and Kanalur are inhabited, for cocoanut trees were seen grow-
ing on them, and boats pulling from one island to the other, besides smoke rising
from Kanalur. It could not be ascertained whether the Tionfolokker Islands were
inhabited or not. The officers forbore naming the various islands of that group, as
doubtless they have already received names from the Malays, and it would have been
a pity to introduce others.

All these islands appeared to be of coral formation. Even Kanalur, 1600 feet high,
looked like a succession of . raised reefs, but whether they really are all of coral formation
it was impossible to determine, as landing was not effected on any of them.

At 5 p.m. Pulo Ta bore S. 32° W., and Kanalur peak N. 44° W. From this posi-
tion the ship proceeded under steam for Bird Island, in order to fix its position, which
appeared to be very uncertain, the chart and Horsburgh’s Directory disagreeing con-
siderably.

At daylight on the 28th Bird Island was sighted, and at 9 a.m. a sounding and
temperatures were taken in 2800 fathoms (see Sheet 31). The temperature from 900
fathoms to the bottom remained the same, showing that the Banda Sea is separated
from the Arafura Sea and Pacific Ocean by a ridge, the greatest depth over which cannot
exceed 900 fathoms. At noon the ship proceeded to the westward, and at 2.45 p.m.,
when Bird Island bore south (true) sights for longitude and a meridian altitude of Venus
were obtained, which enabled the position of the island to be fixed accurately. The
result was considerably different from the position assigned it on the chart. At 6 p.m.
no' bottom was obtained at 600 fathoms, and the course then altered for the Banda
Islands.

Bird Island, in lat. 5° 33^' S., long. 130° 18' E., is about one mile long, N.N.W. and
S.S.E., and half a mile wide. In shape it is somewhat like a small prism, and rises at an
angle of 30° from the sea to the summit, which attains an elevation of 980 feet. There
are trees on the island, but they do not completely cover it, as the southern part of the
summit and the western side of its slopes were bare. Smoke was seen on shore, but
whether this was due to volcanic agency, or merely to a fire lit by natives, could not be
determined.

On the 29th, at daylight, the Banda Islands were seen ahead, Pulo, Rhun bearing
N.N.W. f W., and Pulo Rozengain N.N.E. ^ E. Steering for the passage between
Banda and Rozengain Islands, the islands were found placed incorrectly relatively to
each other on the chart, so a running survey of them was made. At 10 a.m. no bottom
was obtained with 300 fathoms, the left extremity of Pulo Waii, in line with the left
extremity of Banda N. 76^ W., and the right extremity of Banda N. 14° W. Proceeding
a short distance farther to the northward, a sounding and dredging were obtained in 200
fathoms with the left extremity of Banda S. 65° W., the peak of Rozengain S. 67° E.,
and the right extremity of Bancla N. 29° W. ; and again in 360 fathoms, with Gunung

(narr. chall. exp. — vol, i. — 1885.) 71

560 THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Api.S. 81° W., Banda S. 45° 30' W., and the left peak of Rozengain S. 47° 15' E. At
1.30 p.m. the ship was steered in for the anchorage, passing between Pulo Pisang and
Tangong Boerong, and at 2.15 p.m. anchored in 7 fathoms, with the right extremity of
Pulo Neira N. 35° E., Fort Nassau N. 5° W., and the left extremity of Gunung Api
Island N. 86° W.

The deposit at 2800 fathoms in the Banda Sea was a blue mud, without any traces
of carbonate of lime or shells of pelagic Foraminifera. The deposits at lesser depths in
the same region usually contained many Foraminifera in the surface layers, while the
deeper layers, which were of a blue colour, contained very few. Glauconite was present
in all the deposits, together with the usual mineral particles derived from continental
land. In the trawling in 360 fathoms, close to the island of Banda, a Spirula, with the
soft tissues preserved, was taken — the only one obtained during the cruise. It had
possibly been disgorged from the stomach of some animal, perhaps a fish, as the epidermis
was partially digested, as is the case in most specimens known.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

5(31

CHAPTER XIV.

Banda Islands — The Monaxonida —Banda to Ainboina — Actiniaria — Amboina — Mimicry in Butterflies
and Moths — The Brachyura — Ainboina to Ternate— Ternate — The Medusa;.

Banda Islands.

The Banda Islands,1 twelve in number, were known to, and frequently visited by, the
Malays and Javanese before the advent of Europeans. The first European who landed
at Banda was Bartema, of Bologna, who returned to Europe in 1506, and gave the first
account of the clove tree. In 1511 Affonso Alboquerque, after his conquest of Malacca,
despatched Antonio d’Abreu, one of his lieutenants, to trade with, and take possession of,
the Spice Islands. On his way d’Abreu touched at Gressic, in Java, and procured Malay
and Javanese pilots, who took him first to Amboina and then to Banda. He loaded, his
ships with mace and nutmegs, and left the islands well satisfied with his reception.

The Banda group consists of twelve islands, the names of which are written as follows
on the Admiralty charts : — Banda (or Great Banda), Neira, Goonong Api, Kraka, Pisang,
Kapal, Waii, Rhun, Naailaka, Swangi, Rozengain, and Poeloe (see Sheet 33). Their
names were correctly given by the Malayan traders who had frequented them for ages.
Banda, correctly Bandan, means in Javanese, “ the. thing or things tied or united,” or
with the word Pulo, “ united islands.” Pulo Nera is the “ island of palm-wine,” Lontar,
written by Europeans Lonthor, is the name of the palm, the leaf of which is used for
writing on, the word being half Sanscrit and half Javanese. Pulo Ai, properly Pulo Wai,
means “water island.” Pulo Pisang, “banana island.” Pulo Run (Rung), “chamber
island.” Pulo Suwanggi, “sorcery island.” Gunung-api, “fire mountain” or “volcano.”

The whole Banda group, which has an area of not less than 18 square miles, is of
volcanic formation, and the island of Gunung Api is an active volcano, the summit of
which is 1860 feet above the level of the sea.

The eruptions of this mountain have been frequent and destructive. The first of which
there is any record took place in 1629 ; this was followed by others in 1690 and the five
following years, also in the years 1765, 1775, 1816, 1820, and 1852. In the months of
November and December of 1852 a succession of fearful earthquakes, unaccompanied
by any eruption of Gunung Api, took place, which nearly overwhelmed the islands of

1 Crawford's Descriptive Dictionary of Indian Islands ; Crawfnrd’s Indian Archipelago ; Wallace’s Malay Archi-
pelago; Hakluyt Society’s Publications ; Pinkerton’s Voyages, 1808-14; Stavorinus’ Voyages; Somerot’s Spice Islands;
Rozengain, Een der Eilanden van de Banda Groep ; Samuel Purchas, his Pilgrimes, Lond. 1625 ; Harris’s Collection of
Voyages.

562

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGE!!,

Banda and Neira, overthrowing houses, and destroying ships and nutmeg plantations.
The eruptions of Gunung Api are generally accompanied by violent earthquakes and
an earthquake wave. In the eruption of 1690 the sea is said to have risen 25 feet
above the' level of high water at springs, to have swept off every dwelling near the
shore, and to have destroyed all the ships in the harbour ; a cannon weighing 3500 lbs.
was carried away from the quay on which it stood to the distance of 30 feet. In the
eruption of 1691 the succesion of earthquakes which took place was such as to terrify
the inhabitants, many of whom emigrated to Amboina and Celebes. The eruption of
1852 seems to have been as disastrous as that of 1690.

At the time of the visit of the Portuguese to the Banda Islands in 1512, the natives,
although few in number, were a spirited and independent people, living under a kind of rude
republican government, and Mohammedan in religion. Soon after 1512 the Portuguese
established a factory here for the purchase of spices, and remained in possession of the
nutmeg trade for nearly a century, when in 1609 the Dutch, with three ships, and seven
hundred soldiers, made their appearance, took possession of the islands, and began con-
structing a fort on the ruins of one which had belonged to the Portuguese. The natives
resisted, seduced the Dutch Admiral and forty-live of his companions into an ambuscade,
and massacred them. This led to a war of extermination, which was not closed until
1627. The unfortunate natives in these contests behaved with much courage and per-
severance, virtues which would have been successful in the expulsion of the invaders but
for the disunion and feebleness incident to their geographical position and to their want
of civilization. In 1615 a large fleet and military expedition attempted the conquest of
the group, but the Banda men conducting themselves with extraordinary courage, the
Dutch were defeated, and the governor-general, who accompanied the troops, died of
chagrin on account of the failure. In 1616 the islanders were subdued and forced into
treaties more hostile to their prosperity than ever. In 1620 the Banda men again
attempted to regain their independence. ■ At this period the Dutch and English were
reconciled to each other, and the latter regretted their inability, from want of means, to
j oin the Dutch in a league for the subversion of .the natives. The Dutch governor-
general piously declared he would undertake the enterprise with the assistance of
Heaven, which he boasted had hitherto been so favourable to him. In 1621 all the
islands but Great Banda submitted to the rule of the Dutch ; but there the natives
betook themselves to the mountains, where in time they were starved and hunted down
until at length the survivors, a poor remnant of eight hundred persons, surrendered
themselves, were transported to Batavia, and in the course of time absorbed into the
ranks of the inhabitants of Java, so that now no vestige of the language or customs of
the original inhabitants can be traced. In this manner the Dutch became undisputed
masters of the nutmeg monopoly, and introduced slaves for the purpose of carrying on
the cultivation ; when slavery was abolished, convict labour was substituted.

SHEET 33

Engraved d>y Malby & Sons .

«

,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

563

At present a great part of the labour is imported from Java, by contract between the
labourer and the owner of an estate ; the man agrees to work for a term of years, the
wages being, after £15 passage money has been paid, from £10 to £20 per annum. As
many women are encouraged to follow the men as possible ; but it is difficult to induce
the better class of men to emigrate. Here as elsewhere the native does not appreciate
hard manual labour, whilst the European sits in his verandah, smoking, with plenty of
cooling drinks at hand. The management of these imported labourers is a matter of no
small difficulty ; the only punishment allowed by the Government is imprisonment, and
consequent loss of the man’s services ; and a blow given by a European is also punished
with imprisonment, a fine for such an offence being disallowed. This naturally most effec-
tually prevents ill treatment, but does not commend itself to the planter’s notion of justice.

Almost the whole of the low ground and many of the slopes of the Banda group are
planted with nutmegs grown under the shade of lofty Canary trees ( Canarium commune).
The light volcanic soil, the shade, and the excessive moisture of these islands, where it
rains more or less every month in the year, seem exactly to suit the nutmeg tree, which
requires no manure and but little attention.

A party from the ship ascended the east side of Gunung Api. It appears to. be but
seldom climbed either by Dutch residents or natives. The mountain is a steep simple
cone covered with bushes up to within about 700 or 800 feet of the summit, and with
the help of these, climbing is easy enough. Above the limit of the bushes there are steep
slopes of loose stones, wearisome to climb and constantly falling. Above these, again,
the surface of the cone is hard, the fine ashes and lava fragments, of which it is composed,
being cemented together so as to form a hard crust. This is roughened by the projection of
fragments, but still smooth enough to require some care in the placing of the feet to men
wearing boots. The Malay guides with naked feet stood with ease upon it anywhere.

The inclination of the slope is about 33°; and to a man who easily becomes giddy no
doubt would be rather formidable in descent. An American traveller, Mr. Bickmore,
has written a most appalling account of the danger which he encountered in descending,
but to a man with an ordinarily good head there are no difficulties either in the
ascent or descent.

At the summit the fragments of rock were undergoing slow decomposition under
the action of heated vapours issuing in all directions from amongst them, and were
softened and turned white, like chalk. Any of these fragments when broken showed
part of their mass still black and unaltered, and the remainder white ; the decomposition
not having reached as yet through the whole. The rocks collected at Gunung Api arc
augite-andesite, the augite is generally pleochroic, the plagioclase very much decomposed.
Along with these rocks are some specimens of more scoriaceous character, but having the
same mineralogical composition as the first ones.

Jets of hot steam issued in many places from fissures. Around the mouths of these

564

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

were growing gelatinous masses formed by lowly organized Algae closely similar in appear-
ance to those found growing around the mouths of hot springs in the Azores. Here,
however, there was no water issuing, the only moisture being supplied by the condensa-
tion of the steam. There was no accumulation of water, but drops of moisture hung on
the sides of the fissures. In some places the gelatinous algae, and a white mineral incrus-
tation, formed alternate layers coating the mouths of the fissures. The steam on issuing
within the fissure had a temperature of 250° F.; and where the crust of algse was flourishing
the thermometer showed 140° F. The steam had a strongly acid and sulphurous smell.

On the summit of the mountain, where the ground is cool, grow a Fern, a Sedge,
and a Melastomaceous plant. Besides these was found another flowering plant, growing
in a crack in the midst of a strongly sulphurous smoke which issued constantly from it.
The thermometer when laid on the surface of the ground where this plant was growing
showed a temperature of 100° F.; and at a depth of one and a half feet below it the
soil about the fissure had a temperature of 220° F.

At the summit of the mountain were numerous flying insects of various kinds,
although there was nothing for them to feed upon, and large numbers of them lay dead
in the cracks, killed by the. poisonous volcanic vapours. So numerous were they that the
swallows had come up to the top of the mountain to feed on them.

Similarly, large numbers of insects were noticed at the summit of the volcano of
Ternate, at an altitude of more than 5000 feet. Insects are commonly to be seen being
carried along before the wind in successive efforts of flight, and no doubt they are blown
up to the tops of these mountains, there being no vegetation towards the summits for them
to hold on to. The winds pressing against the mountains form currents up their slopes,
and in the case of volcanoes, which are heated at the summits, there is no doubt a constant
upward draught towards their tops, caused by the ascending column of hot air. The
accumulation of insects at the tops of these mountains is interesting, because when blown
off into the free air from these great elevations by heavy winds, as no doubt they often
are, the insects are likely to fly and drift before the wind to very long distances, and
thus become the means of colonizing far-off islands.

The skull of a Woolly Phalanger ( Cuscus maculatus) was found on the mountain ;
the animal is common in the Banda group, and occurs also in the Moluccas and elsewhere.
Its occurrence on the Banda Islands seems most easily accounted for on the supposition
that it escaped from confinement, having been brought there at some time by Malay
voyagers. Malays seem fond of keeping wild animals in confinement, or taming them ;
there were several such pets about the houses at Dobbo at the time of the visit.

At the base of the Banda volcano, on the shores of the island, a belt of living corals
composed of a considerable variety of species is easily accessible at low tide. Of these
corals the most numerous are massive Astraeids,- of which about ten different forms
were collected ; a massive Porites is also very abundant. One species of “ Brain Coral,”

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

565

and an Astrcea, form huge masses, often as much as 5 feet in diameter, which have their
bases attached to the bare basaltic rock of the shore. The tops of all of these coral
masses are dead, and flat and somewhat decayed. ; but on these dead tops fresh growth
is taking place, showing that slight oscillations in the level of the shore of a foot at
least have taken place recently. Such slight oscillations are to be expected at the base
of an active volcano. The tops of the corals have been certainly killed by being left
exposed above water, and the present growth is due to the corals being now again sub-
merged. The fact that these corals are to be seen growing on the bare rock itself, and
not on debris of older corals, shows that the coral growth is very recent. The Brain
Coral grows in convex, mostly hemispherical, masses, the Astrcea more in the form of
vertically standing cylindrical masses, or masses which may be described as made up of a
number of fused cylinders. The masses of the Astrcea are usually higher than those of
the Mceandrina by about a foot, because they are able to grow in shallower water, and
they thus range also higher up on the beach. Many of the masses of this Astrcea in the
shallower water are left dry at each low tide, and appear to suffer no more in consequence
than do the common sea anemones of our English coasts, which are so closely allied to
them. There seem to be but few instances of species of Madreporarian corals which thus
grow where they are exposed at low tide. The Brain Coral apparently cannot survive
exposure, and hqnce the tops of its masses have been killed during the change of depth of
the water at about a foot below the height at which those of the Astrcea have perished.
The common Mushroom Coral ( Fungia sp.), so often to be seen as a. chimney-piece
ornament in England, is most extraordinarily abundant on the shore, at a depth of 1 or 2
feet at low water, and with it an allied larger, similarly free-growing Coral ( Herpetolitlia
Umax, Esch.). The Mushroom Corals cover the bottom in places in such large quantities
that a cart-load of them might be picked up in a very short time ; nowhere else were they
seen so common during the voyage. A Beef Coral ( Pliysogyra aperta ) was found, which
has been made the type of a new genus.1

Many visits were paid to the nutmeg plantations. The nutmeg is the kernel of
a fruit very like a peach in appearance, which makes an excellent sweetmeat when
preserved in sugar. The owner of a plantation, a very wealthy Malay native of
Banda, said that about one male tree to every fifty females was planted on the estate ;
he had a superstition that if a nutmeg seed were planted with its flatter side upper-
most, it would be more likely to produce a male seedling. Formerly, before the
Dutch Government renounced its monopoly of the growth of nutmegs in the Moluccas,
the trees were strictly and most jealously confined to the island of Great Banda. The
utmost care was taken that no seeds fit for germination should be carried away from the
island, for fear of rival plantations being formed elsewhere ; seeds were, however, often
smuggled out. The Government destroyed the nutmeg trees on all the other islands of
1 Quelch, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. xiii. p. 293, 1884.

506

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER'.

the group. It was, however, found necessary to send a commission every year to uproot
the young nutmeg trees sown on these islands by the Fruit Pigeons ( Carpophaga concinna),
called “ Nutcrackers ” by the Dutch residents.

The various Fruit Pigeons must have played a most important part in the dissemina-
tion of plants, and especially trees, over the wide region inhabited by them. Sir Charles
Lyell,1 referring to the transportation of seeds by the agency of birds, noted especially
this transportation effected by pigeons, and quotes Captain Cook’s Voyages to the effect
that at Tanna “ Mr. Forster shot a pigeon (obviously a Carpophaga ) in whose craw was
a wild nutmeg.” 2 At the Admiralty Islands the officers of the Challenger shot very large
numbers of a Fruit Pigeon ( Carpophaga rliodinolcema) , whose crops were full of fruits
of various kinds. Amongst them were abundance of wild nutmegs and wild coffee-
berries ; many of the fruits were entirely uninjured, and the seeds quite fit for germina-
tion. No doubt, when frightened or wounded by accident, the pigeons eject the whole
fruits, and they habitually eject the hard kernels, as I saw quantities of them lying about
under the trees on a small island at the Admiralty Islands, on which the birds roost in
vast numbers. As soon as a few littoral trees, such as Barringtonia and Calophyllum
inopliyllum, have established themselves by means of their drifting seeds on a freshly
dry coral islet, the Fruit Pigeons alight in the branches in their flight from place to
place, and drop the seeds of all kinds of other trees with succulent fruits. The pigeons
were seen thus resting on two or three small littoral trees, which as yet form almost
the only vegetation of Observatory Islet, a very small islet in Nares Harbour, Admiralty
Islands.

The Eesident or Governor at Banda, like all the Europeans, received the Expedi-
tion in a most friendly manner, and held a reception at his house in its honour,
where nearly the whole community assembled. A very good Malay band performed
a selection during the evening, which was spent by most of the guests in playing cards
and smoking.

One day was devoted to a visit to the nutmeg plantation of Mr. Laws, called
Laoetang, on Great Banda Island. The party started in the steam pinnace at 6 a.m.,
accompanied by the Resident, his Secretary, and Mr. de Borges. The Resident’s large
canoe with high pointed bow and stern, profusely decorated with banners, and paddled
by eighteen Malays, who kept stroke to the beat of tom-toms and gongs, accompanied
the party. The semi-savage appearance of the Malays, their mode of throwing their
paddles straight up in the air in exact time and all together between each stroke, the
song with which they accompanied their efforts, together with their decorated canoe,
presented a most picturesque and pleasing effect. The speed of the canoe was consider-
able, but not sufficient to keep up with the steam pinnace (see fig. 186).

1 Principles of Geology, 10th eel., vol. ii. p. 69.

2 Cook’s Second Voyage, London, 1877, vol. ii. p. 69,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

567

Outside the harbour a slight southeasterly swell was experienced, which rendered
the landing on the weather shore of Banda Island a little difficult. A coral reef, which
dries at low water, skirted the shore for about 50 yards at the landing place, imme-
diately outside of which the depth was 20 fathoms, so that the pinnace was barely able
to anchor. The party was conveyed on shore in small boats, the native labourers from
the plantation running the canoes clear of the worst seas, and then carrying the members
of it to land in arm-chairs.

Whilst breakfast was being prepared, a Javanese band of a dozen musicians and two
dancing girls, hired for the amusement of the labourers, and evidently a part of the
establishment, gave an entertainment. At first it was thought that stringed music was

heard, but it was found that the sound was produced from the usual Javan instruments,
some dozen bell-shaped gongs with raised knobs on their tops, standing on the ground,
and a number of melophones made from bamboo laths, arranged like musical glasses.
The girls were dressed in the usual sarongs, with a long scarf crossed gracefully
over their shoulders, the- face, arms, and hands were coloured with a yellowish dye, and
the hair bound into a knot above their heads, and ornamented with a wreath of flowers.
The dance consisted of graceful bendings of the body accompanied with movements of
the arms and scarf, and a musical chant.

After breakfast the party rode to the top of the range of hills running through the
island. When the land is viewed from seaward, it appears to be covered with an almost

(narr, chall. exp.— vol. i.— 1885.) 72

568

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

impenetrable jungle, but it is really more like a park, as all the undergrowth is cleared
away. At the summit of the hills the Malays brought some freshly-cut bamboos, the
spaces between the joints of which were filled with deliciously cool water.

After remaining some time on the hills admiring the nutmeg plantations and the tall
Canary trees with the numerous orchids on them, the party rode to the north side of the
island, where the pinnace had been sent to await its arrival. On dismounting near the
shore a party of men appeared dressed in parti-coloured garments, amongst which red
and yellow predominated, armed with decorated swords and spears, with brass shields
sufficiently long to protect the arm as high as the elbow, and flat silver filigree helmets
adorned with the feathers of the Birds of Paradise. They danced to the sound of a drum
and small gong, keeping excellent time, and imitated the attack and defence of war
parties amidst the firing of guns.

The seat of government, principal fort, and European settlement at the Banda group
are on the island of Neira. Two piers run out from the shore to facilitate landing at low
water, one on the southwest point of the island opposite the fort, which is the commercial
pier, and the other on the south coast of the island, opposite the Resident’s house, which
is the official pier. A road with trees on each side, and grass plots towards the sea, runs
parallel with the coast from the fort, round the south and east sides of the island, and by
the side of this road are the residences of the Dutch officials, and the usual club house.
The club house is a regular feature in all the Dutch settlements of the East, and every
night the officials and residents assemble there to talk over the affairs of the day, and
enjoy their cigars in the open air in the cool of the evening, sitting either on chairs
round a table placed on the grass flat in front of the club house, or in easy chairs in the
verandah.

Life at Banda is similar to that at Batavia, and, in fact, all over the Dutch
possessions in the Indian Archipelago. The whole community rises at daybreak, and
after a light breakfast of fruit and coffee, attend at their offices until 11 a.m. ; at
this hour practically all work for the day is over, for after a bath and luncheon at
noon, they indulge in a siesta until between 3 and 4 p.m., when they rise, dress
themselves for the evening, and take a stroll before dinner, after which they meet
at the club.

Supplies at Banda are scanty, for as the islands produce nothing but the nutmeg,
rice and all other necessaries for the maintenance of the population have to be imported.
Beef could be procured occasionally, fowls were 3s. to 4s. each, and eggs 2|d. each.
Yams, cucumbers, pumpkins, and plantains are grown, and can be purchased at moderate
rates, coal is stored on the island, and could also generally be procured.

The population of the Banda Islands in 1870 was 6224, of whom 589 were Europeans,
5479 Natives, 128 Chinese, and 28 Arabs. There were also at this time 1063 head of
cattle and 30 horses on the islands.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

569

The nutmeg trees on the island, about half a million in number, produced in 1870
1,022,207 lbs. of nutmegs, and 197,143 lbs. of mace.

The weather at Banda is rainy and moist throughout the year, August, to
November being the driest months. The northwest monsoon blows occasionally with
violence, while the southeast monsoon seldom exceeds a moderate breeze. There is
monthly mail communication with Banda from Batavia.

The Resident and some of the other gentlemen at Banda stated that in July and August
the water was usually milky white, but during the Challenger’s visit it was exceptionally
clear ; in connection with this it may be mentioned that on the 28th September, shortly
before reaching Banda, Mr. Buchanan procured in the water-bottles from 400 and 600
fathoms a milky-white water, the appearance being due to an amorphous precipitate.

It having been ascertained from the Resident during the stay that a small steamer
which had been for a cruise to Ceram had broken down on its return when within a few
miles of Banda, and that the crew had no provisions on board, the steam pinnace was sent
out to search. In the evening the pinnace returned, having found a small boat, contain-
ing the Dutch master and half a dozen Malays so exhausted from want of food as to be
unable to reach the islands. They reported leaving the steamer two days previously, and
that its crew had then no water left ; under these circumstances the ship proceeded out
in search of the steamer, and steamed nearly over to Ceram without seeing it or its crew,
natives of that island, consequently it was concluded that they had reached' a harbour
there, and the Challenger returned to Banda. While the ship was away, the steam pinnace
remained with some of the naturalists dredging in 20 to 30 fathoms, close to Banda, when
along with other specimens numerous Monaxonid sponges were obtained. Mr. S. O.
Ridley, F.L.S., of the British Museum, who is preparing a Report on this group, has
furnished the following notes

“ The Monaxonida (as it is proposed, in accordance with principles laid down by Pro-
fessor Sollas1 and advocated by Professor F. E. Schulze, to term that group of the Siliceous
Sponges named Monactinellidse by Professor Zittel) are, as the investigations of the
‘Lightning’ and ‘Porcupine’ in the North Atlantic, those of Dr. Bowerbank in the Shetland
seas, and those of Professor Agassiz in the Gulf of Mexico would lead us to expect, well
represented in the Challenger collections, viz., by about two hundred species, of which
about seventy are new to science ; and they are by no means confined to the more
moderate depths. Representatives of the group were obtained at seventy-three distinct
localities out of the total number of dredging and trawling Stations.

“ Of the six marine families, Renieridee, Chalinidse, Desmacidinidse, Ectyonidse,
Axinellidse, and Suberitidse, commonly recognised in this suborder, the Desmacidinidse
take unequivocally the first place in the collection, both from their abundance and
1 See Cassell’s Natural History, vol. vi. p. 326, 1883,

570

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

from the interest attaching to the types represented. At the same time no form
has been discovered in this family of sufficient distinctness from the known genera
to rank as the representative of a new generic type. Those extraordinary forms
allied to Esperia, with which the researches of Professor G. 0. Sars, Sir Wyville
Thomson, Mr. Carter, and Professor 0. Schmidt have made us familiar, viz., Chondro-
clcidia and Cladorrhiza, are present to the number of at least nine species, of which-
three Cladorrhiza and as many Chondrocladice are certainly new
to science ; among the points of interest which they present not
the least is the fact that the majority of the species do not exhibit
the same shrubby form as the original species to which these
names were applied, but a shape the peculiarities of which led
Professor Schmidt to found the genus Crinorrhiza for a specimen
belonging to this division of the Desmacidines obtained off Bar-
bados. Crinorrhiza has a relatively small, subglobular body,
from the equatorial aspect of which radiate in a horizontal direction
a number of strong spicular tufts ; a central root may also be
present. While, however, Professor Schmidt considered these,
certainly remarkable, external characteristics of sufficient import-
ance to justify the erection of a genus, the Challeuger specimens
show that the spiculation of the five species which exhibit them
belongs to two distinct types, the one that of Chondrocladia, the
other that of Cladorrhiza. It therefore becomes necessary (having
regard to the superior weight which must be admitted to attach
to spicular characters in contrast to those derived from the
external form) to abandon the genus Crinorrhiza , as constituting a
mere growth-type, comparable to the £ artificial genera,’ Ampho-
riscus, Olynthus, &c., recognized by Professor Haeckel among the
Calcarea. Of the more familiar genera Esperia has nine or <ten
species, of which probably one-half are new to science. Esperia
rotalis,, Bowerbank, is remarkable for ranging from Britain to Port
Jackson ; a new species from the Cape is distinguished by its
immense tricurvate and bihamate spicules. Alebion is represented
by some new species in which the ‘ bipocillate ’ spicule attains a
size and beauty hitherto unknown. Myxilla is rich in individuals, but there is a sameness
about the characters of the species which contrasts strongly with the manifold forms
assumed by Esperia; a new species from Japan will be termed Myxilla japonica.

“ A type characterised by a smooth acuate skeletal and an equianch orate parenchyma
spicule, to which the name Amphilectus, Yosmaer, has been restricted, produces one of
the few new Monaxonida possessing a striking external habit. Amphilectus challengeri

‘ig. 187. — Amphilectus chal-
lengeri, Ridley, as seen from
the front, reduced to one-half
natural size. Molucca Sea,
825 fathoms.

NARRATIVE OE THE CRUISE.

571

(see fig. 187) differs very slightly in the characters of its skeleton from Amphileotus
edwardi, a species common in British seas, but whereas the habit of the other known
species of the genus is either massive or simply ramose, that of the species from
the Molucca Sea is altogether novel in its family, although it simulates somewhat
Ccmlospongia, Kent, which has been placed among the Suberitidse, and Foliolina,
Schmidt, a Renierid. A new species of Crellct ( Crellci navicelligera) is remarkable for
the extraordinary lateral extension of the shaft of its small anchorate spicule, giving it
the general outline of those reproductive bodies of the Gregarinidse known as ‘ pseudo-
navicellse.’ The Stations between the Cape and Kerguelen Island exhibit a rich fauna
of European facies, among which may be mentioned a new Vomerula and a fine GeMius
of extraordinarily delicate and vitreous character, recalling that of many Lyssacine
Hexactinellida, and with the ends of the usually doubly-pointed skeletal spicule quite
rounded off. Of the curious, probably almost cosmopolitan, genus Rhizochcdina. immense
examples, in which the body alone attains a diameter of 6 inches, were obtained in Bass
Strait ; they are evidently identical with a specimen from South Australia, described by
Lamarck in 1815 under the name of Alcyoniwn piitridosum, and are closely related to
Desmacidon Jistulosa. Bowerbank. A study of the genus Tedania, by hardening and
staining the soft tissues, shows that its systematic position is with the Desmacidinidm
rather than the Renieridae. The long fine
acerate spicules commonly occur in bundles,
and evidently represent the ‘ trichites ’ of
Esperia.

“ In all, the collection contains about eighty
species belonging to this family, of which
upwards of thirty are new to science.

“ The Renieridse proper are not numerous.

The difficulty of finding constant and dis-
tinctive generic and specific characters in this
subdivision is well illustrated by the large
series of Amorphina megalirrhaphis, Carter,
from Kerguelen Island. Most of these- speci-
mens, like the typical ones, have a rather pale brown colour and. a glabrous surface, and
consist of low irregularly-shaped masses ; the only traces of skeletal fibre consist of some
short strands apparently representing the primary or vertical fibres of other Renierids ;
however, the specimen figured (fig. 188), besides its definite, regularly lobate form and
dark amber-brown coloration, possesses a very distinct set of primary fibres and a dermal
reticulation like that of Pellina, with which genus it might have been placed if its
relations to the other typically Amorphinoid specimens were not obvious. A Pellina,
forming flat sheets of large size, occurs in 600 fathoms at the mouth of the Rio de la Plata,

Fig. 188.— Amorphina megalirrhaphis, Carter, fc: Variety with
distinct dermal and primary skeletal fibres, and numerous
vents ( v ), natural size, from the side. Christmas Harbour.
Kerguelen Island, 60 fathoms.

572

THE VOYAGE OF II.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Stylorrhiza extends as far south as Kerguelen Island, where it is abundant. The
Renieridse amount to about thirty species, of which five are new. The Chalinidse comprise
about twenty species, but are not as a whole in a very satisfactory state of preservation ;
Pachychalina, with three new species, is the only genus of much interest. The
Ectyonidee are remarkably few in number.

“ The Axinellidse are, after the Desmacidinidse, of the greatest interest. For a species
from near Bahia having the erect slender digitate habit of the European species of
Raspailia, but distinguished by remarkably elongate dermal spicules, blunt at one end
and terminating at the other in three short and scarcely divergent points, and occurring
in groups, a new genus is necessary, which will be called Thrinacophora ; 1 the main
skeletal spicule is acerate, and the parenchyma contains bundles of slender acerate
‘trichites’; it appears to stand to some extent between the Axinellidse and Desma-
cidinidse. Another species of similar habit approaches the curious discoid Halicnemia
patera of the Shetland seas so closely in speculation as to enforce very strongly the
doctrine that external form must be only used with the greatest caution as a guide to
affinity. About thirty species, of which fully one-third are undescribed, belong to the
family.

“ The Suberitidse (excluding Tetliya, which has been relegated to the Tetractinellida
on the ground of its spiculation and skeletal arrangement) are surprisingly scanty, con-
sidering their abundance in both shallow and deep water in the North Atlantic area.
They number about thirty species. Of the essentially bathybial forms, the range
of Trichostemma ( Radiella , Schmidt) is extended by the Challenger collection from
the North Sea and equatorial Atlantic to the equatorial Indo-Pacific area, whence comes
a new species. Sceptrella ( Latrunculia , Bocage) is represented by two new species from
the southern hemisphere, in one of which the outer end of the characteristic sceptre-like
spicule is prolonged into a spike. Bursulina muta, Schmidt, which is closely related
to Polymastia brevis of Bowerbank, extends to the North American Atlantic coast,
Thecaphora to the Tristan da Cunha group of islands.

“ General Distribution.-^ The most prolific localities are the neighbourhood of Bahia,
the southern and western coasts of Patagonia (distinguished by the abundance of
individuals of Alebion and Tedania), the Philippine Islands (a very varied fauna), and
(as already shown by the investigations of the | Alert ’) Torres Strait, also Kerguelen Island
(especially Renieridse and Suberitidse). But little of striking novelty was obtained in the
Atlantic; on the other hand, at the few (eight) very deep Stations in the Pacific which
produced Monaxonida, the captures were almost exclusively new Desmacidines of the
important genera Chondrocladia and Cladorrhiza mentioned above, almost every
Station having a species peculiar to it.

“ Some idea of the proportions in which Monaxonida occur at different depths may be

1 a three-pronged fork,

NARRATIVE OP THE CRUISE.

573

gathered from the following table, if it is remembered that the productiveness of a
locality in sponges of this group is usually in inverse proportion to its depth.”

Depths of Stations.

Number of Stations of this depth at 1
which Monaxonida were obtained.

3000 fathoms.

1

2900

1

2000-2600 „ •

7

1000-2000

5

200-1000

11

100- 200

17

Less than 100 „

31

Banda to Amboina.

The vessel, left Banda at 8 p.m. on the 2nd October, passing out by the channel between
the islands of Neira and. Pisang, and then between the islands of Swangi and Rhun.

On the 3rd, at 5.30 a. m., the ship was stopped, being then close to the position of a
sounding of 4000 fathoms marked on the chart, and the trawl put over. The weather
was unfortunately cloudy, so that the position could not be ascertained by observation.
After paying out 4400 fathoms of trawl rope, bottom was found by sounding in 1425
fathoms. At this time the weather cleared a little, and sights were obtained and a
bearing of Gunung Api, which placed the ship about six miles west of the position of the
4000 fathoms sounding. The bottom temperature was 38°, the same as that at 900
fathoms. At 4 p.m. the trawl was hove in, after which sail was made for Amboina, the
weather being squally, with heavy rain.

The deposit at the above depth was a blue mud containing 3 1 per cent, of carbonate
of lime. The surface layer, about half an inch in thickness, was brownish in colour,
while the deeper ones were blue and very compact. Pelagic Foraminifera, Radiolarians,
and Coccoliths were abundant. The mineral particles consisted of quartz, mica, magnetite,
felspar, pumice, and fragments of rocks.

The trawl brought up a considerable quantity of mud, which, with the exception of
a few lumps, all belonged to the brownish surface layer. Mixed up with the mud were
many large fragments of pumice, pieces of wood, leaves, and fragments of cocoanuts and
other fruits. As was usually the case when the trawl brought up mud from the imme-

574

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

diate surface layer, there was a large quantity of the algae-like branching Rhizopod
described by Mr. H. B. Brady, F.R.S., under the name of Rhizammina algceformis, and in
addition many deep-sea animals. A Ceplialopod was found here which does not seem
to be specifically distinct from Enoploteutliis margaritifera, Rupp;, hitherto known
oidy from the Mediterranean. Mr. Moseley described from this trawling a new genus
and species of Actiniaria, Corcdlimorphus rigidus, full particulars regarding which are
given by Professor Richard Hertwig in his Report 1 on this group. Professor Hertwig has
summed up the principal peculiarities of the deep-sea Actiniaria in the following notes : —

The Actiniaria. — “ The soft-bodied Zoantharia (Actiniae, or Malacodermata) are among
the groups which are represented in the depths of the sea by a relatively considerable
number of members. The Challenger Expedition discovered at depths varying from 280
to 2300 fathoms some twenty species, many of them in great numbers. In most cases
the species and genera are new, and not unfrequently they belong to new families, so
that it has been demonstrated by the Expedition that the organisation of these animals
is much more varied than was previously known.

“ All Anthozoa, whether solitary or colonial, agree with one another in certain general
features of structure. The body of the individual polyp is a hollow cylinder, which is
enclosed by a ipembrane called the ‘wall.’ The ends of this cylinder are constituted
above by the ‘pedal disk’ or ‘base,’ below by the ‘ oral disk’; both of which are
intimately connected with the wall, and for the most part abut at right angles against
it. Along the margin of the oral disk arise the tentacles, hollow evaginations, into which
the lumen of the hollow cylinder is produced.

“ In the centre of the oral disk lies the mouth, which has the form of a narrow slit,
always placed in a certain definite direction, the sagittal axis of the body of the Actinia
being always indicated by the length of the slit, whilst its shortest diameter indicates
the transverse axis (fig. 189).

“A tube open below, which is compressed transversely in accordance with the form of
the mouth, and must be regarded as an invaginated portion of the oral disk, hangs
down from the mouth into the body cavity. This tube, formerly called stomach, now
more correctly oesophagus, is held in position by radial septa, which arise from the body
wall as well as from the oral and pedal disks, and are inserted into the oesophagus.
The number and arrangement of the septa are of morphological significance ; in most
Actiniae they are united in pairs ; the number of such pairs is at least 6, and increases
in multiples of 6, so that 12, 24. 48, &c., pairs of septa are met with. Exceptions to
this arrangement, which also occurs in the hexamerous skeleton-forming corals, were
previously known, in the case of the Edwardsise, Zoantheae, and Cerianthese, but by the
Challenger Expedition the number of exceptions has been increased. Thus, although in
1 Zool. Chall. Exp., part xv., 1882.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

57-5

the Paractinise and Monauleae the septa are grouped in pairs, some number other than
6 is the basis of their arrangement.

“ One Paractinia, Sicyonis crassa, certainly, and another, Polyopis striata, probably
belong to the tetramerous Actiniae, and probably bear to the fossil Tetracorallia a relation
similar to that which the hexamerous Actiniae bear to the recent Hexacorallia.

“ Scytophorus striatus, the sole representative of the family Monauleae, possesses an
uneven number of pairs of septa, because in it there is wanting one of the two pairs which
correspond to the extremities of the sagittal axis, and are called £ directive septa ’ from
their peculiar position and structure.

“It is of interest to observe that in the Actiniae, as in other groups, types of structure

Fig. 189. — Polysipkonict tuberosa, Hertwig ; A, oral view, and B, lateral view. Station 235, 4th June 1875, off Japan,
565 fathoms ; natural size.

which have died out in shallow water have maintained themselves in the deep sea.
Still more striking is a second peculiarity of the Challenger collection, which is also
explained by the fact that all the specimens come from great depths ; it contains
numerous forms in which the tentacles have undergone a more or less extensive retro-
grade metamorphosis, by means of which they become converted first into short tubes
and finally into simple openings surrounding the mouth. This modification can be
followed step by step in different species. Paradis tubulifera (1875 fathoms) has still
well- developed tentacles, like most Actiniae, except that the terminal aperture, which
in these is quite small or even entirely absent, has expanded into a widely gaping orifice.
(tstarb. chall, exp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 73

570

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Next comes Polysiphonia tuberosa (565 fathoms), whose handsome calycine form is shown
in fig. 189b, while fig. 189a represents the animal as seen from above. The tentacles
have here become short wide-mouthed tubes, whose bases are swollen into curiously
shaped pads (fig. 190). In Sicyonis crassci (1600 fathoms) the tentacles are only small
warty or sucker-like rings ; in Polystomidium patens (1825 fathoms) and Polyopis striata

(2160 fathoms) their walls are almost entirely lost, so
that the terminal opening has become a slit in the oral
disk, an annular ridge, which surrounds the aperture,
being the sole remnant of the tentacle-wall. Finally,
in the genus Liponema (1875 fathoms), only simple
openings indicate the places where the tentacles
should stand.

“ Thus then, of the twenty species hitherto
described from depths of 500 to 2600 fathoms, not
less than six species have shown modifications of the tentacles in one direction, whilst no
such change has been observed in any one of the very numerous forms which belong to
the coast-fauna. This makes it probable that the retrograde metamorphosis of the
tentacles is a consequence of living in the deep sea ; and, indeed, peculiarities in the
conditions of existence which there obtain can be suggested which might be
favourable to a metamorphosis of the tentacles into tubes. Probably the nutriment
of the deep-sea animals consists of matters which are far advanced in decomposition
and of soft consistence. Such substances, suspended in water or embedded in mud,
could not be seized by tentacles, but might be readily .absorbed by suctorial apertures or
tubes.”

Amboina.

On the 4th October, at daylight, the green hills of Amboina were in sight 1 8 miles
off, but the summits were hidden in the clouds ; it was found that a current of 1 2 miles
to the westward had been experienced during the night. At 7 a.m. the ship was swung
to ascertain the errors of the dipping needle, but the day was far from favourable for this
purpose, the weather being overcast with frequent rain squalls, so that it was impossible
to complete the observations, and at 3 p.m. the ship rounded Noessaniva Point, and
proceeded up the harbour.

On the peninsula of Leytimur, the southeast peninsula of Amboina, three distinct
hills are seen from seaward, the easternmost being the highest (2030 feet by the chart) ;
about 5 miles to the westward of this peak is a second hill, longbacked and slightly
lower ; the land then falls to the westward in a series of rugged slopes, rising again at a
distance of 2 or 3 miles from Noessaniva Point, to a round grass-covered hill, which

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

577

bears a few scattered clumps of cocoanut trees, and appears like an island at a distance
of 25 miles. The ravines and lower lands are all well wooded. The western extremity
of Noessaniva Point is a bluff some 300 feet high.

The island of Melano -is about 700 feet high, steep to the southeast, sloping to the
northwest.

The island of Saparoea has a hill some 1000 feet in height on its northwest end, the
east point as seen from a distance of 25 miles appears low.

The centre of Haruku Island is about 1200 feet in height.

At 5 p.m. the ship “ came to” in Amboina Bay, off' Fort Victoria, in 24 fathoms, one
cable W. by N. from the pier and, sending a hawser to an anchor on the shore just south
of the pier, moored with the off anchor and hawser. This method of securing the ship
is necessary in Amboina Bay, for the water is so deep that it becomes extremely
awkward anchoring at a sufficient distance from the shore to allow the ship to
swing, consequently the Dutch authorities have placed anchors at convenient distances
apart, on the mud flat before the town, to which vessels may fasten a cable or
hawser, using their own anchors as off moorings. As these anchors are only partially
rincovered at low water, it is necessary to dive to fasten the hawser to the ring, but
the Malays are first-rate divers, and their services can be hired at a very cheap rate,
so that it is much better to obtain one of these men (numbers of whom are sure to be
on the beach or on the pier) than to expose Europeans to the hot sun of the tropics. The
edge of the shoal abreast the town of Amboina is well marked with fishing stakes, which
indeed are to be seen stretching out from the shore at intervals all down the bay.

The existence of Amboina (like Banda) was first known to Europeans in 1506, and
about 1521 the island was taken possession of by a Portuguese squadron of nine ships,
commanded by Antonio de Britto, who built a fort on the island.

The Portuguese occupation continued until 1605, when the natives called on the Dutch
to assist them in expelling the Portuguese. In February of that year a Dutch fleet of
five sail, under the command of Admiral Van der Hagen, anchored off the Portuguese
fort of Amboina, and landing some men summoned the Governor to surrender, the
ships opening fire. The Portuguese, without defending themselves, capitulated, and
the Dutch admiral took possession of the island, which his countymen have since
held with one short exception, when Admiral Rainier, during the great continental
war, captured it in 1796, and it was held by the English until 1813, when at the
general peace it was returned to the Dutch. The terms of capitulation between the
Dutch and Portuguese were, that the single men, six hundred in number, should be
granted a passage to their own country, and the married men, forty-six in number, should
remain on the island provided they took the oath of allegiance to the States-general.
This bloodless contest was attended by one tragic circumstance, for the wife of the
Governor (Gasper de Melo), apprehensive of his disgrace, poisoned him.

578

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The Dutch had scarcely obtained possession of Amboina, when the natives began to
entertain the same wish for their expulsion as they had formerly for that of the
Portuguese, and eventually they were so oppressed that they took up arms, and being
numerous and powerful, their efforts to regain their independence were not finally
overcome until 1670. Shortly after the' Dutch obtained possession of the island, the
jealousies that existed between them and the English caused them to seize on the
English factory and execute its occupiers after torturing them. This crime, which
is generally known as the massacre of Amboina, led to many disputes between the two
nations, which were not finally settled until the peace of Breda in 1667.

Amboina Island consists of two peninsulas, joined together by a low narrow isthmus,
thus forming two large bays. The smaller or southeast peninsula, on which is the
town, is called “ Leytimur,” the larger or northwest peninsula, “ Hitoe,” the low isthmus
“ Baguala,” the bay on the southwest side of the island “ Amboina Bay,” and' that on the
northeast “ Baguala Bay.” In 1683 the Dutch Governor formed a design of cutting a canal
through the isthmus of Baguala, and so joining the bay of that name to Amboina Bay.
This idea was frustrated partly by the superstitions of the Amboinese, who asserted that
blood spouted from the ground each time they inserted their spades, and partly by a
notion, promulgated without reason, that the level of the sea in Baguala Bay was con-
siderably higher than that in Amboina Bay.

The Governor or Resident of Amboina has jurisdiction over the neighbouring
islands of Ceram, Bouro, Amblau, Manipa, Kelang, Bonoa., Ceram Laut, Nussa Laut,
Saparoea, Haruku, and Melano.

The whole -island is mountainous, and rises to an elevation of 4000 feet above the
level of the sea. The highest mountain, Capaha, is in Hitoe Peninsula ; the highest
mountain in Leytimur is Soya, 2030 feet above the sea. There are records of an
eruption from a volcano on the west side of the island in the years 1674, 1694, 1816,
and 1820, and in 1824 a new crater was formed ; since that date, however, all eruptions
have ceased, and some of the European inhabitants appear ignorant that there ever was
an active volcano on the island. Earthquakes are occasionally felt, but, from a record
kept by the Dutch authorities, appear to happen only between the months of December
and June, or during the northwest monsoon.

The chief advantage derived by the Dutch from the possession of Amboina was the
monopoly of the clove cultivation. They would not, however, have succeeded in securing
to themselves the exclusive trade in this spice, which is spontaneously produced in all
the Molucca Islands, had they not confined the cultivation of the tree to Amboina by
destroying all they found elsewhere. Besides cloves, considerable quantities of Cajeput
oil are exported.

Fort Victoria at Amboina, formed by the Portuguese in 1521, is situated close to the
landing place ; in fact, the main road goes through the centre of the fort, there being

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

579

only a pathway to the town outside the glacis. The fort itself is completely commanded
from the neighbouring heights, but can scarcely be said to be armed, as there are only
two or three guns mounted for saluting purposes, the rest lying on the ground. Outside
the fort is a shallow wet ditch, and inside it is in excellent order and beautifully clean ;
indeed, one cannot but admire the scrupulous cleanliness of the Dutch in all their Eastern
settlements, so well are they kept that there is hardly a dead leaf or twig to be seen on
the roads. On arrival, the Challenger saluted the Dutch flag, but the salute from
the fort in reply was fired at intervals of about two minutes between each gun, and
occupied three quarters of an hour ; of course no one had patience to count the number
of guns; all breakfast time it was said, “Now surely that’s the last,” when bang would
go another gun.

The mercantile part of the town is a long street facing the sea, with another behind
it. Running at right angles to the streets are roads leading into the country, bordered
on each side by country houses or native huts, each building detached with a plot of
ground round it. Many of the native houses had a small covered stall, by the road-
side, where some parcels of eatables were exposed for sale. The . hedges were generally
formed of Crotons, which were very fine. The detached houses naturally give the
settlement a long straggling appearance.

Here, as at Banda, the officers and civilian staff were made honorary members of the
club, where the illustrated papers of London, Paris, and Berlin, besides numerous Dutch
periodicals, were found. During the stay the monthly steamer from Sourabaya arrived,
after making the usual round by Koepang and Dilli, in Timor, and the Banda Islands
before calling at Amboina, proceeding thence to Ternate and either Kema or Menado in
Celebes Island on the return voyage to Sourabaya.

There is a large market near the west end of the town of Amboina, which was well
attended ; the articles for sale were the usual sago cakes, rice, areca palm nuts, sweet
potatoes, fish, &c. ; the fruit consisted of pine apples, oranges, and bananas. The
supplies were for Europeans scanty and dear ; beef 2s. per pound, fowls Is. 6cl. each,
ducks 3s. to 4s. each, eggs 2s. 6cl. per dozen. Washing is fairly and moderately
done, the price being 2s. per dozen. The Malay term for a washerman is “Orang
Menatu.”

The population appears to consist of Europeans, Amboinese, Malays, and Chinamen,
with a few Arabs. The Chinamen appear to monopolise the small trade, and two or
three Europeans the wholesale business. The articles for sale are usually of a very
trashy nature, the stalls being more like those at a fair than anything else, and the goods
of the cheapest description.

A large quantity of coal is kept in stock under sheds at Tanjong Mungayen, a point a
little over a mile south of the town pier. Running out from this point is a rickety wharf,
which has four fathoms water alongside it. Vessels proceeding there to coal should

580

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

steer in, with their heads to the southeastward, keeping about half a cable outside the
extremity of the wharf, and when the centre of it is abreast the centre part of the ship,
let go the port anchor (which will then be dropped in about 10 fathoms), and haul in by
means of the wooden piles placed at convenient distances along the shore. A red buoy
is moored to the northward as an off-fast for the stern, but large vessels will require to lay
out an anchor in addition, as the moorings of the buoy being light, the anchors “ come
home ” with any strain. The price paid for the coal was £3 per ton, but with labour
for coaling ship, it amounted to £3, 4s. lid. per ton. The hire of the labourers was a
Dutch rupee, or Is. 8d. per day, but since here, as in all Dutch places, they cease work
at 11 a.m., and do not commence again until 4 P.M., the coaling is necessarily slow and
irritating.

On the shore of the harbour of Amboina, coral reef rock occurs raised many hundred
feet above sea level, forming a steep hillslope. At the summit of the ridges so formed
the rock stands out here and there, weathered into fantastic pinnacles, with surfaces
honeycombed by the action of rain, just as at Bermuda. The rocks collected beneath
the coral reef rock at Amboina were serpentine, granitite, and altered diabase.

Some of the smaller trees growing on the coral rock ridges are covered with the
curious Epiphytes, Myrmecodia armata and Hydnophytum formicarum, belonging
to the natural order Cinchonacese. Both are associated in their growth with certain
species of ants ; as soon as the young plants develop a stem, the ants gnaw at the
base of this, and the irritation produced causes the stem to swell ; the ants continuing to
irritate and excavate the swelling, it assumes a globular form, and may become larger
than a man’s head. The globular mass contains within a labyrinth of chambers and
passages, which are occupied by the ants as their nest. The walls of these chambers and
the whole mass of the inflated stem retain their vitality and thrive, continuing to
increase in size with growth. From the surface of the rounded mass are given off small
twigs, bearing the leaves and flowers. It appears that this curious gall-like tumour on
the stem has become a normal condition of the plants, which cannot thrive without the
ants. In Myrmecodia armata the globular mass is covered with spine-like excrescences.
The trees referred to at Amboina had these curious spine-covered masses perched
in every fork, and with them also the smooth-surfaced masses of Hydnophytum
formicarum.

Two Lizards ( Keneuxia smaragdina and Bronchocela cristatella ) were obtained near
Amboina, also a new species of Orthopterous Insect (Necroscia moderata, Kirby).1 A
large collection of Lepidoptera was made, including the following new species : — Vadebra
murrayi, Gerydus boisduvalii, Terias biformis, Artaxa simulans, Pegella ichorina, and
Spiramia funestis.

The Moth ( Artaxa simulans) is shown in fig. 191, and is interesting as representing
1 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. xiii. pp. 477-479, 1884.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

581

one of those eases of protective mimicry so often described in works on natural
history; it mimics very exactly Ophthalmis lincea (fig. 192), another moth belonging
to a different family.

Mr. Butler writes : — “ This is one of those instances of mimetic assimilation so perfect
as to catch the eye at the first glance. That the Agaristid is the species copied cannot

Fia. 191. — Artaxa simulans, A. G. Butler. Fig. 192. — Ophthalmis lincea, Cramer.

be questioned, since it is not only a common form, but it belongs to a group which, like
the allied Zygsenidse, is evidently distasteful to insect enemies.” 1

Another illustration of this protective mimicry occurs in a new species of Butterfly
obtained at the Arrou Islands (see p. 548), in which the Butterfly ( Papilio alcidinus,

Fig. 198, — Alcidis aruus, Felder.

fig. 194) imitates a day-flying Moth {Alcidis aruus, fig. 193) common in the
same locality. Mr. A. G. Butler, who described the species, calls attention to an
important peculiarity, in addition to the general resemblance of the upper sur-
face : — “ On the under surface, however, is a character which strongly supports the
1 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. xiii. p. 200, 1884.

582

THE YOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

view held by Messrs. Bates, Wallace, Trimen, and others, that resemblances of this kind
are due to the assimilation of species in need of protection to the pattern of others which,
owing to their odour, taste, or uneatable aspect, enjoy immunity from the attacks of
insect enemies. This character consists in a longitudinal orange streak, so placed upon
the abdominal area of the hind wings as to simulate (when the butterfly is in repose) the
orange ventral surface of the abdomen in the moth ; the same character may also be seen
in Papilio laglaizei. If the Papiliones in repose retained the same flattened wing surface as
do the species of Alcidis, it is obvious that the orange streak would rather hinder than assist
the resemblance between the two ; it is, however, well known that the abdominal border
in Papilio is in this position so folded that the streak would appear to be on the body.

“ One must not, however, overlook one fact in connection with this question, and that

Fig. 194. — Papilio alcidinus, A. G. Butler.

is the fact of the apparent rarity of these copying Papilionidee. If it be of great import-
ance for one species to resemble another, inasmuch as that thereby the copying species
shares, in common with its model, immunity from evil, one would naturally suppose
that this advantage would be evidenced by abundance of specimens. It seems to me,
however, that on the other hand, if the numbers of the butterfly and moth were equal,
many of the former would fall victims to the inexperience of young birds before the
association of an evil taste or smell with such a type of coloration was discovered ; this
would greatly reduce the number of the butterfly, whilst the moth escaped.1 On the other
hand, many of the butterflies which resemble Euplceinse appear to be abundant ; and I
think we must look for the explanation of this in the abundance of examples in the species
of that group, coupled with the abundance of species all much alike, and therefore repre-
1 In fact, the young birds are taught by the parents, and thus profit by accumulated experience. — H. N, M,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

58:

senting an army of unpalatable individuals greatly exceeding in numbers the so-called
‘ mimicking species.’ ” 1

Another interesting Moth ( Phyllodes ) is represented in this region by several
species, and some new ones were discovered by the Expedition which furnish links
in a remarkable chain of modifications in
the colouring of the wings.. The posterior
wing bears a red patch near the anal border,
in one species a white patch appears in the
centre of this, and then in other different
species is observed successively nearer and
nearer to the apex, until at length it reaches
it. These changes are shown in the accom-
panying cut.

It may be noticed that as the white
emerges from the red it seems to give off
atoms in advance, so that the apical patch
becomes gradually larger and whiter from its
commencement in Phyllodes jloralis. For
this alteration in the position of colour-
patches Dr. Leuthner proposes the term
“ chromatropy.” Such cases show how im-
portant it is to describe all the local forms
which are known to be constant, since only
by this means will it be possible to discover the laws which regulate the disposition of
the colours and markings on the Lepidoptera.2

Numerous dealers brought trays of the shells, for which Amboina is famous, to the
ship, but the prices asked were so high, that it would probably pay to bring some of the
shells back again from Europe to Amboina for sale to passing visitors. Cassowaries’ eggs
were also offered for sale, and large quantities of horns of the Deer ( Rusa moluccensis).

The deer are very abundant in Amboina, and a party from the ship went in pursuit
of them. They had a letter to a native head-man in one of the villages on the
shores of the > inlet in which the harbour lies, who treated them hospitably, and
collected about a dozen beaters. The deer were lying down concealed on a plain of
some extent close to the shore, covered with tall grass in some places about 3 feet
high, and skirted by bushes. A stag and two hinds were seen to make off out of
range, as the party made its way along the edge of the tall grass. The men beat the
bushes at the edges of the grass, and at last drove a hind out of one clump to the

1 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. xi. p. 404, 1883. 2 Ibid., p. 426.

(narr. chall, exp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 74

Fig. 195. — Hind wings of Phyllodes (reduced).

1. Phyllodes roseigera, Butler, the red patch touching the anal

margin, slightly suffused with white in some examples.
Andaman Islands.

2. Phyllodes consobrina, Westw., the red patch more rounded, of

a more crimson tint, with a conspicuous snow-white centre.
Silhet.

3. Phyllodes cerasifera, Butler, the red patch considerably larger,

the white patch within it also larger, extending nearly to
the inner edge of its red zone. Philippines.

4. Phyllodes Jloralis, Butler, the red patch only extend-

ing half-way round the white patch, which is rounded and
very large. Borneo.

5. Phyllodes verhuellii, Vollenh. , the red patch still more abbre-

viated, so as only to encircle one-third of the white patch.
Java.

6. Phyllodes conspicillator, Cramer, the red patch dark elon-

gated, not suffused with or interrupted by white ; the apex
broadly ash-grey or white. Amboina.

584

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CH ALLEN GEE ,

guns, and it was shot. The numerous tracks in the grass showed that plenty of deer
must come there to feed. Another party from the ship, on returning from a deer hunt
in a native canoe, narrowly escaped a serious accident, from the swamping of the canoe.

The monsoons do not affect the weather at Amboina in the same manner as at Java,
Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, the south coast of Borneo, and the west coast of Celebes, for
when the southeast monsoon prevails at those places it is accompanied by fine, dry,
pleasant weather ; whereas it is the rainy season at Amboina, Ceram, Banda, and the
east coast of the Celebes. On the contrary the northwest monsoon, which brings rain to
the former islands, is the fine season at the latter.

The accompanying table of the climate of Amboina has been compiled from a register
kept for four years, kindly supplied by the Dutch authorities. By this table it appears

Meteorological Table compiled from a Register kept by the Dutch authorities
for four years at Amboina.

Month.

Mean Maximum
Temperature in
1 tlie Shade,

| Fahrenheit.

Mean Minimum
Temperature in
the Shade,
Fahrenheit.

Number
of days
Rain.

Rainfall
in English
Inches.

General Directions of Wind.

Dry-

Bulb.

Wet

Bulb.

Dry

Bulb.

Wet

Bulb.

January, ....

86-8

82-3

747

747

13

675

N. to N.W.

February, . . ■

87-6

82-7

737

72-5

10

4-25

N. to W.N.W.

March, ....

87'9

84-3

747

747

18

9-00

N.W. to S.W.

April, ....

88-0

83-0

74-6

747

13

7-26

N.W. to W.S.W.

May, . . .

85-5

81-3

74-3

737

20

1770

Variable.

June, . .

CA

GO

80-9

747

73-4

22

3S75

E. to S.S.E.

July,

83-4

81-0

747

73-6

20

3075

E. to S.S.E.

August, . . . .

84-0

81-2

727

72-2

22

24-33

S.E.

September, ....

85-2

81-8

72-9.

72-0

1

19

22-30

Variable.

October, ....

87-9

82-6

73-8

73-2

16

970

E., S.E. to- S.W.

November, . .

• 88-5

83-5

74-3

. 73-8

10

1175

S.E., S.W. to N.W,

December, ....

88-3

83-0

747

73-5

14

9-20

N. through W. to S,

Means and Totals, '

86-4

1 82-3

747

73-5

197

*

19174 j

NARRATIVE OE THE CRUISE.

585

that even in the driest season (November, December, January, and February) rain falls on
an average twelve. days in each month, the mean fall for the month being 8 inches;
whilst in the rainy season (May, June, July, August, and September), rain falls on an
average twenty-one days in each month, the mean fall per month being 2 7 inches.
The northwest monsoon appears to commence about November, and lasts until .April,
but only in January, February, and March do steady north and northwest winds prevail.
The southeast monsoon sets in in May, and lasts until the beginning of September ; in
the other months the winds are variable.

During the stay at Amboina the pinnace was engaged several days in dredging in
depths from 15 to 130 fathoms. Among the new species obtained were two Brachyurous
Crabs, referred to in the following notes by Mr. Edward J. Miers, of the British Museum,
who is preparing a Report on the Bracliyura collected by the Expedition : —

The Brachyura. — “The Bracliyura collected during the voyage of H.M.S. Challenger
are of much interest, not only because many of the new species are remarkable for beauty
of form and structure, but also by reason of the additional facts relating to the distribution
of several already described, which a study of the collection enables us to record. The
groups richest in new genera and species are the Oxyrhyncha ( Maioidea ) .and Oxystomata
(Leucosiidea) , and to these belong most of the new forms collected at depths exceeding
100 fathoms. The Cyclometopa ( Cancroidea ) and Catometopa ( Grctpsoidea ) are for the
most part terrestrial, littoral, or shallow-water species, but exceptions occur, notably in
the genus (or rather sub-genus) Pilumnoplax, and among the swimming crabs
(Portunidse). No Brachyurous Crab was brought up in any of the deep-water dredgings
at depths exceeding 1000 fathoms ; at this depth a small female Crab, nearly allied to or
identical with Ethusa microphtlialma, Smith, was dredged at the Azores (Station 73);
and but very few were dredged at depths exceeding 400 fathoms, but between
100 and 400 fathoms occurred nearly all the most interesting new forms in the
collection. Sir Wyville Thomson’s statement is therefore correct as regards the
Challenger Crustacea ‘that the Brachyurous Decapoda appear to be confined almost
entirely to comparatively shallow water.’1

“In the following brief account of the Brachyura, I have referred, as a general rule, to
the more interesting new species in the order in which they were collected. As regards
the pelagic species, I need only say that the Gulf Weed Crab, Nautilograpsus minutus,
occurred not only in the north and northwest Atlantic, and at the Bermudas, West

1 Voyage of the Challenger, The Atlantic, vol. ii. p. 349. Of. Rev. A. M. Norman, President’s Address in Trans.
Nat. Hist. Soc. North, and Durham, vol. viii. (pt. 1) p. 42 (1883). But Prof. S. I. Smith, in a note on the Crustacea
of the “ Albatross ” Dredgings in 1883, mentions the occurrence of a new genus of Brachyura allied to Ethusa in the
N.W. Atlantic, in 1496 to 1735 fathoms (Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts, vol. xxviii. p. 53, 1884 ; reprinted in Ann. and
Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. xiv. p. 179, 1884). Since these notes have been in type I have received, in a consignment
taken from among the Anomura by Mr. Henderson, some remarkable forms (probably Dorippkke) dredged at depths
varying from 310 to 800 fathoms, and one species dredged at Station 237 in 1875 fathoms.

586

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Indies, Canaries, and Azores, but also at the Kermadec Islands, South Pacific, off Volcano
Island in the North Pacific, and on the coast of Japan. Neptunus sayi, A. M.-E.,1 was
taken on weed only in the western North Atlantic and south of Nova Scotia-
(Station 49). Plcigusia immacidatci, Lamarck, and Vciruna litterata, Fabr., occurred
in abundance on floating driftwood north of New Guinea, on the 22nd February 1875 ;
but the two latter are not strictly pelagic species.1

“ Atlantic Region. — Little need be said respecting the Brachyura taken in the Atlantic.
The species collected at the Bermudas, Azores, and Cape Verde Islands are somewhat
numerous, but are for the most part littoral and shallow- water forms. No Brachyurous
Crustacean occurred at any of the deep-water stations in the North Atlantic except the
carapace of a small swimming crab allied to Bathynectes, which was. dredged off the
Bermudas in 435 fathoms (Station 33), and PLetevocrypta maltzani, Miers, in 450 fathoms,
off Fayal (Station 75). Of a dozen littoral or shallow- water species collected at the
Cape Verde Islands, several are common West Indian forms. At St. Paul’s Rocks,
besides the common and very widely distributed Grapsus maculatus (Catesby), the
only crab taken was a new species of Stenorhynchns ( Stenorhynchus spinifer), distin-
guished from all its congeners by the strongly developed supra-ocular and post-ocular
spines (depth, 10 to 80 fathoms).

“At Ascension Island, which H.M.S. Challenger visited on the homeward voyage,
occurred the Land Crab ( Gecarcinus lagostoma ) referred to by Mr. Moseley2 as
swarming everywhere on the island ; the common Grapsus maculatus (Catesby) and
Pseudozius mellissi, Miers, received with the fishes of H.M.S. Challenger and described
in 1881. 3

“ The Brachyura collected at Fernando Noronha (7 to 20 fathoms) are few in
number, and for the most part belong to genera common at the West Indian Islands
and on the South American coasts: they include species of Pericera, Macrocceloma,
Mithraculus, and Mithrax. There is also in the collection a small Crab, apparently
referable to the rare Floridan Apocremnus septemspinosus, A. M.-E. The localities on
the Brazilian coast at which Brachyura were collected are Barra Grande (Station 122)
in 30 to 350 fathoms, and Bahia in shallow water ; I may particularly mention the
occurrence at the former locality of the remarkable Neptunus ( Hellenus ) spinicarpus
(Stimpson), characterised by the extraordinary development of the carpal spine of the
chelipedes, and also a very interesting variety ( oculiferus ) of the West Indian deep-
water Bathyplax typhlus, A. M.-E., in which the ocular cornece, although small, are dis-
tinctly developed. Milne-Edwards’ types, it is to be noted, were dredged in deeper water.

“At the Tristan da Cunha group (Nightingale Island), in 100 fathoms, occurred a new

1 Cf. H. N. Moseley, Notes by a Naturalist on the Challenger, p. 434, London, 1879.

2 Loc. tit., p. 561.

3 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. viii. p. 432, 1881.

NARRATIVE OE THE CRUISE.

587

species of Grapsoid Crustacean ( Pseudorhombila [ Pilumnoplax ]. normani), which was
taken also on the Agulhas Bank (Station 142) in 150 fathoms, and which has a bilobatecl
front, three antero-lateral marginal teeth (the first obtuse), and the chelipedes granulated,
the granules most numerous on the smaller chela.

“ The species collected in the South African seas show affinities both with the Atlantic
and Oriental Crustacea. At the Cape of Good Hope several Brachyura were collected
at Simon’s Bay and Sea Point near Cape Town ; among them are specimens of the
West Indian Pericera cornuta , M.-E., and Calappa jlammea (Herbst). Mursia
cristimana, Desmarest (with which I believe the Oriental Cryptosoma orientis, Adams
and White, to be identical), occurred both at these localities and in 150 fathoms, on
the Agulhas Bank (Station 142), where also were taken Lispognathus thomsoni (Norman),
common in the deep waters of the North Atlantic and Mediterranean, to which is also
doubtfully referred a mutilated male trawled off Sydney in 410 fathoms (Station 164b),
a new Grapsoid Crustacean (. Brachygrapsus hingsleyi) distinguished from the New
Zealand Brachygrapsus Icevis, Kingsley, by the bilobated front, and specimens of
Ebalia tuberculosa (A. M.-E.), which was also taken frequently on the South Australian
coast and in the New Zealand seas.

“ Antarctic Region. — The only crab occurring in, the Southern Ocean between the Cape
and Australia is the Halicarcinus planatus, Fabr., common everywhere on the coasts and
islands of the Southern Ocean, which was taken at Marion Island (50 to 75 fathoms), off
Prince Edward Island (85 to 150 fathoms), and., at Kerguelen Island, New Zealand, and
the Falklands (Station 316), and which besides Eurypodius latreillei , Guer.-Menev., and
Peltarion spinulosum, White, common in Magellan Strait and at the Falklands, is
the only Brachyurous species taken by the Expedition in the Antarctic or Austral
circumpolar region.1

“ Oriental or Indo-Paci/ic Region. — The Brachyura taken in Bass Strait and on the
coasts of Victoria and New South Wales are numerous, and for the most part included
in Mr. Haswell’s recently-published Catalogue - of the Australian Crustacea ; among
them, however, are several species apparently new to science. At Port Philip
(Station 161, 33 fathoms) occurred the European Portunus corrugatus (Pennant), and
at Port Jackson (3 to 8 fathoms) specimens of a species of Pacliygrapsus, which
I think cannot be distinguished from the West Indian Pachygrapsus transversus,
Gibbes. Pachygrapsus ■ transversus occurred also at the Bermudas and St. Vincent,
and may itself prove to be identical with the Mediterranean Pachygrapsus
maurus, Lucas.

“ The only Station on these coasts where any Brachyura (beside the Lispognathus
thomsoni already referred to) occurred at a greater depth than 100 fathoms is Station

1 Dr. R. v. Willeruoes Suhm (Zeitschr. f. iciss. Zool., Bd. xxir. p. xvi, 1874) remarks “class Inhere Crustaceen
den Ufern der antarctischen Inseln fast ganz fehlen.” -

588

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

163a, off Twofold Bay, in 150 fathoms, where two or three species were dredged;
among them a new species of the Cancroid genus Medceus ( Medceus haswelli ) allied
to Medceus elegans, A. M.-E., from New Caledonia, but distinguished by the different
areolation of the carapace, and the absence of the numerous small spines and tubercles
which in Medceus elegans exist between the antero-lateral marginal teeth of the
carapace.

“At Tongatabu (Station 172), in 18 to 240 fathoms, several new and interesting forms
were collected, notably in 240 fathoms a new' species {Randcdlia gramdata ) of the rare
Leucosoid genus Randcdlia, Stimpson, distinguished from the Californian Randallia
ornata by the coarsely and evenly granulated carapace, the less prominent front, and
slenderer chelipedes. This species occurred also at the Fijis (Station 173) in 315 fathoms,
together with Pseudorhombila ( Pilumnoplax ) abyssicola, n. sp., a species with nearly
glabrous carapace, straight entire front, and three antero-lateral marginal teeth, of which
the two last only are spiniform and acute, and a new species of Mursia ( Mursia
eurtispina)aW ied to Mursia armata, de Haan.

“ The Crustacea of the northern and northeastern coasts of Australia are as a rule
very distinct from those of the eastern and southern shores ; but few species collected
by the Challenger in the Torres Strait and Arafura Sea are new to science. At the
Ki (Ke) Islands, however, in 140 fathoms, occurred some of the most interesting and
remarkable forms in the collection. There are specimens of a large and beautiful Maioid
Crustacean which I have designated Cyrtomaia murrayi, a new genus and species (see
fig. 196), apparently allied to Euprognatha, Stimpson, but distinguished by the remarkable
convexity of the carapace, which is almost vertically deflexed at the gastric region, by
the great development of the gastric spines, and by the elongated and spinuliferous
chelipedes; also Oxypleurodon stimpsoni, a new genus and species allied to Leucippe,
Epicdtus, and Eupleurodon, and characterized by the subpyriform deeply channelled
carapace, the slender divergent rostral spines, the distinct prseocular and branchial spines,
and the non-dentigerous ambulatory legs ; and apparently new species of Pugettia,
Hyastenus, Pilumnus, Lupocyclus, and Platyonyclius ( Pldtyonychus iridescens). The
last-named is a very fine species, and is distinguished by the strongly granulated and
spiniferous palm and dactyl of the chelipedes, and by the iridescent reflections of
the carapace.

“ At Banda and Ternate the few crabs taken were common species. At Amboina new
species of Naxia and Gtonoplax were dredged in 100 and in 15 to 25 fathoms; the
latter ( Gonoplctx sinuatifrons) very nearly allied to the common European Gonoplax
rhomboides, and distinguished only by the sinuated frontal margin and shorter cheli-
pedes. In the Molucca Passage Oncinopus aranea, de Haan, was dredged at Station.
196 in 825 fathoms; this, with two exceptions, referred to above, is the greatest depth
at which any Brachyurous'Crab was taken by the Expedition.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

589

“ At the Philippines, Brachyura were collected at several different localities on the
beach or in shallow water, but the most interesting forms from these islands occurred at
Station 210 in 375 fathoms, where were dredged a new species of Amathia ( Amathia
pulchra ) nearly allied to the Mediterranean Amathia rissoana (Roux) and the West
Indian deep-water Amathia hystrix, Stimpson, but distinguished from both by having
six spines on the gastric region of the carapace and from Amathia rissoana by
the distinctly developed prseocular spine ; it is distinguished from Amathia agassizi,
S. I. Smith, by the more robust and carinated palms of the.chelipedes ; here also occurred

Echinoplax moseleyi, a new genus and species very nearly allied to Amathia, but having
the carapace covered with very numerous small spines and spinules, and the spines of
the rostrum armed with small accessory spines ; and the Oxypleurodon stimpsoni already
referred to as occurring at the Ki Islands (Station 192).

“ The few Brachyura taken at Hong Kong were common and well-known species,
and need not be specially mentioned. Off Celebes some more interesting crabs were
taken in 10 fathoms (Station 212), among them a species of Lissocarcinus, probably new,
and a new Leucosia, which had already occurred in the Arafura Sea.

“At Station 214, between the Meangis and Tulur Islands, in 500 fathoms, occurred a
second species ( Cyrtomaia suhmi) of the remarkable new genus Cyrtomaia, distinguished
from Cyrtomaia murrayi, dredged at the Ki Islands, by the greater development of
the gastric spines, the longer rostrum, and the shorter thicker eyes.

590

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

“ At the Admiralty Islands species were trawled in 150 fathoms (Station 219), among
which are some of the most interesting new forms collected by the Expedition ; these are
Platymaia wyville-thomsoni (see fig. 197), a large and fine new genus and species allied to
Cyrtomaia and to Euprognatha, Stimpson, but characterised by the depressed suborbicu-
late carapace, and the remarkably elongated aud dissimilar ambulatory legs, the first pair
of which have the fourth to last joints armed with strong spines ; the second to last pairs
are almost devoid of spines, but have the penultimate joints dilated and compressed as
in Eurypodius ; here also was taken a new species ( Ergasticus naresi) of the genus

Pig. 197. — Platymaia wyville-thomsoni, n. gen. et sp.

Ergasticus, A. M.-E.,1 distinguished from the type of the genus Ergasticus clouei,
A. M.-E., found in the deep waters of the Mediterranean, by the different disposition of
the spines and spinules of the carapace, and by having spines on the inferior as well as
the superior wall of the orbit ; lastly, a remarkable new genus and species of Oxystoma-
tous Braehyura which I propose to designate Paracyclois milne-edwardsi (see fig.
198), allied to Calappa, Cryptosoma, and Platymera, but distinguished from the
first mentioned genus by the rudimentary lateral wings of the carapace, which in
Calappa are developed so as to cover the bases of the ambulatory legs, and from
the two last by the absence of the lateral marginal spines of the carapace and by
other characters.

1 Rapport sur la faune sous marine dans les grandes profondeurs de la Mediterranee et de l’Ocean Atlantique, p. 17
(1882).

NAKJRATIVE OF THE CEUISE.

591

“ At Japan, Brachyura were collected at several different localities, but among them
are few novelties or species of special interest ; I need only refer to the Land-crab
Telphusa ( Geotelpliusa ) dehaani, White, which was taken at Hakoui at an elevation
of 2500 feet above the sea level, and occurred also at Kobe and hear Lake Biva. Its
occurrence at this remarkable elevation has already been alluded to by Mr. Moseley.1

“The Brachyura collected at the Sandwich Islands (Hilo and Honolulu) and Society
Islands (Tahiti) require no special mention. None were taken at Juan Fernandez, where
the ship remained for two or three days.

“ Chili, Magellan Strait, and Falkland Islands. — At Valparaiso, Chili, the only
crabs taken were the well-known Cancer longipes, Bell, Leptograpsus variegatus (Fabr.),

Fig. 198.— Paracyclo'is mil-ne-edivardsi, n. gen. et sp.

and Acanthoeyclus gayi, M.-Eclw. and Lucas, which occurred also on the coast of Chiloe
in fresh water. Off the coast of Chiloe occurred also two apparently new species of the
Maioicl genus Lihinia, the first, Lihinia smithi, taken at Station 311 in 245 fathoms,
is characterised by the great length of the spines of the dorsal surface of the carapace,
of which there are four in a longitudinal and median series, and three on each branchial
region, one (the lateral spine) extremely long ; the second (. Lihinia gracilipes), was
dredged at Station 304 in 45 fathoms ; and an Eurypodius ( Eurypodius longirostris),
which I have regarded as new, but which may possibly be a deep-water variety of
Eurypodius latreillei. It is distinguished by the elongated and remarkably reflexed

1 Notes by a Naturalist on the Challenger, p. 561, London, 1879.

(nark, chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 75

592

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

rostrum of the male, whose spines toward the apex are laterally divergent, and was
trawled at Station 308 in 175 fathoms. In Magellan Strait and at the Falklands
the only Brachyura taken were, as I have noted above, Eurypodius latreillei, Guer.-
Menev., Hcdicarcinus planatus (Fabr.), and Peltarion spinulosum, White.”

Amboina to Ternate.

On the 10th October, at 3.30 p.m., after obtaining the requisite observations for rating
the chronometers, the Expedition left Amboina for Ternate. When off the entrance to the
bay the ship was swung for the errors of the compass, but a bank of clouds gathering in
the western horizon hid the sun, and prevented the completion of the circle, so that after
finishing swinging for the errors of the dipping needle, at 8 p.m., a course was shaped to
the northward towards Suangi Island, sail being made at 10 p.m. to a fine easterly
breeze.

On the 11th, at daylight, Suangi Island bore N. 17° W., the right extremity of Manipa, N. 33° E.,
Sial Point S. 87° E., and the left extremity of Bouro Island S. 67° W., showing a set of 7 miles
to the northwestward during the night. Advantage was taken of a fine sunrise to complete the
observations for the errors of the compass, again resuming the course to the northward at 8 A.M. The
peaks of Manipa and Kelang, which were stated on the chart to be 500 and 600 feet in height
respectively, are much higher, Manipa rising to an elevation of 2100 feet, Kelang to 2400 feet, and
Suangi Island to 327 feet. Passing between Suangi Island and Bouro the bearings and angles obtained
indicated a discrepancy between the position of the islands on the eastern side of Manipa Straits and
Bouro on the western side. This may be owing to the position of Bouro Island having been based on
the observations of Sir E. Belcher at Cajeli, whilst the islands on the other side of the strait are based
on Dutch positions. A pleasant breeze with slightly misty weather was experienced the whole day.

On the 12th, at 5.30 A.M., the position of the ship by star observations was lat, 1° 53' S.,
long. 127° 5' E., showing a slight westerly set. At daylight the island of Obi Major was seen on
the starboard bow, and a course shaped to pass just outside Obi Lato. As the bearings taken to the
various islands did not agree, a running survey of them was attempted as the ship passed, but this was
rendered extremely difficult, owing to the varying velocity of the tide, and to the cloudy state of
the weather in the afternoon, which prevented the latitude being obtained either by the meridian
altitude of Venus, or, later, by the stars. Some few observations were, however, made.

Gomomo Island is round-backed and about 850 feet high, but appeared to be incorrectly placed
on the chart : its summit is in lat. 1° 50J' S., long. 127° 38' E. Obi Lato is a high island with
three or four sharp well-defined peaks of nearly equal height, reaching an elevation of 2400 feet ;
the highest peak is in lat. 1° 25' S., long. 127° 18J' E. The northwest point of Obi Major has
a remarkable bluff near its extremity, with apparently a knob (probably a clump of trees) on its
highest part ; the knob is in lat. 1° 24' S., long. 127° 24' E. Five miles southward of this knob is a
projecting point which looks like an island. The interior of Obi Major is mountainous, but clouds
capping the summit of the hills prevented their height being ascertained. Tapa Islaud has a single
round-backed hill on it about 1000 feet in height, the summit of which is in lat. 1° 12' S.,
long. 127° 23' E.

r iv >. V U . • '-rki -01 •■ •

'

*

■

'

- .• -■•■■■- .

DIAGRAM 14

Diagram stowing the Distribution o£ Temperature in the Seas
enclosed hy the Islands of the EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.

For explanation, of Symbols see/ Appendix/ 1 .

NORTH

PACIFIC

(229)

2500

78-5

CHINA SEA
(206) (20§)

1546 2100 1050

84° 75° 82°

SULU SEA

(HD dS)

1778 2550 2225

83° 83° 81°

CELEBES SEA
(198) (j99) CfjD

2150 2600 2050

85° 83° 83°

MOLUCCA NORTH
STRAIT PACIFIC
(J97) (gD

1200 2550

82?5 81-8

BANDA SEA

(SB) (Jg)

800 580 2800

82?2 81-5 83-5

PHILIPPINE

ISLANDS

© (go)

700 375

80° 80°

Eaioravecl By Malby& Sons

NARRATIVE 0 E THE CRUISE.

593

During the day numerous tide ripples were passed, but from observations the title did not appear
to run stronger amongst than between them. At 5.50 p.m., when abreast of Obi Lato, steam was
raised and the vessel proceeded N. by E. for 20 miles, and then stood N.W. by N., partly to avoid
the Bahia Shoal, and partly to get into a position for sounding and dredging off Batian Islands.
During the night there was very vivid lightning.

On the 13th, at 5.30 A.M., the position of the ship by star observations being lat. 0° 48' 37" S.,
long. 126° 58' 30" E., a sounding, trawling, and temperatures were taken in 825 fathoms (see Sheet 31).
At daylight the adjacent land could be clearly made out, and angles were obtained verifying the
positions, given above, of Tapa and Obi Lato Islands, angles being also obtained to all the prominent
objects on the Batian Islands as far north as Tapi Island. At 11 a.m. the trawl was hove up,
and sail was made towards Tapi Island, a running survey being made as the ship proceeded. At
3 p.m. ar latitude by Venus was fortunately obtained, and observations for longitude at the same time,
which, with the observations obtained at daylight, and at frequent intervals since, enabled the
prominent peaks of the Batian group to be fixed satisfactorily, and rendered the results to a great
extent independent of the tide.

The islands of Mandioli, Sao, Tawali, and Tapi, and the summit of Mount Laboa, on Batian
Island, are correct relatively to each other on Sheet 3 of the Admiralty Charts of the Indian
Archipelago, but they all require to be shifted S. 75° E. (true) 3 miles to make them agree with
the positions obtained by the Challenger (depending on the longitude of Amboina). Mount Laboa is
a remarkable flat-topped mountain, 7150 feet high, in lat. 0° 44' 30" S., long. 127° 31' 45" E. Mandioli
Island is about 1000 feet high, and is also flat-topped. Sao Islets are low. Tawali Island is high
and flat-topped, but has a peak rising above the surrounding hills, 2650 feet high, in lat. 0° 20' S,,
long. 127° 10' E. The highest peak of Tapi, 1300 feet above the level of the sea, is in lat. 0° 15' S.,
long. 127° 4' E. Off the south and west extremities of Tapi are two small islets, about 200 feet high
and 3 miles to the northward of its north point, in lat. 0° 11' S., long. 127° 1' E., are three small
rocks 130 feet high and close together.

From the position of the ship at 6 p.m., 10 miles due west of the peak oE Tapi, the islands of
Ternate, Tidore, and Metir were seen, as well as one of the islands northward of Little Tawali,
probably Guaricha.

A fine breeze was experienced from 6 a.m. to 4 p.m., when the weather became calm and showery,
so steam was raised and the vessel proceeded N.W. by N. outside the Wolf Rock. Whilst sounding in the
morning a strong southerly set was observed, but this changed after 11 A.M., as the sights at 3 p.m.
showed a greater run than the patent log. There can be no doubt, therefore, that tides are experienced
in the Molucca Passage occasionally, although they may be irregular.

On the 14th, at 1.40 a.m., the ship rounded the Wolf Eock, and at 5.30 a.m. stopped
and sounded in 1200 fathoms, obtaining temperature observations, in lat. 0° 42' N.,
long. 126° 37' 30" E. The serial temperatures here showed that the Molucca Strait or
Passage was open to the Pacific Ocean to, at any rate, the depth of 1200 fathoms (see
Sheet 31 and Diagram 14).

At daylight all the Molucca Islands, as well as the island of Meyo, were in sight, but
Tifore was not seen ; it must, therefore, be much lower than supposed. At this time the
view was magnificent — looking east no less than ten volcanic cones were visible, several
of them in eruption, extending from the northern end of Gillolo to Makyan Island, the

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

594

clouds, however, quickly capped their summits and limited the view to -the lower parts
of the land. At 7 a.m. the ship proceeded under steam towards Ternate, steering for
the channel between it and Tidore Island (see fig. 199).

Hieri, the northernmost islet of the Molucca group, 2200 feet high, is a small but
very steep truncated volcanic cone, not in eruption, circular in shape, its diameter being
about one and three quarter miles. Close off its north and northwest sides are small
rocks. Ternate is a single grand volcanic cone, from the summit of which smoke is con-
stantly issuing. Its height was found to be 5600 feet, and position lat. 0° 48' 30" N.,
long. 127° 19' E. The summit itself is bare, but the sides are thickly wooded. The
slope of the side is about 30° from the horizontal for about two thirds of the distance
down, after which it becomes more gradual, and ends in a margin of gently rising ground
all round the base, which is cultivated in some way or other. Tidore, the highest and

Fig. 199. — Island of Tidore.

most perfect cone, is now entirely quiescent. It was found to be 5900 feet in height, and
its position lat. 0° 39' N., long. 127° 23' E. As in Ternate, the lower grounds on this island
are everywhere cultivated, in fact the clearings extend far up the hillsides, and appear
to be increasing. Mareh is about 7 00 or 800 feet in height, with two peaked hills.
Metir is another volcanic cone in lat. 0° 28' N., long. 127° 23' E., attaining an eleva-
tion of 2800 feet.

As the entrance between Tidore and Ternate- was neared, the small but perfect cone of
Mitara Island was very conspicuous. On its summit at the edge of an old crater is a
signal station. During the passage between this island and Ternate, the eddies were so
strong and the water so much discoloured from a recent heavy thunderstorm that it
was thought for a moment that the ship was steaming on to. the edge of a reef, and
the engines were stopped. It was however only a tide ripple, and the vessel soon pro-
ceeded for the anchorage, arriving there at 6 p.m., and anchoring off the coaling pier in
13 fathoms.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

595

Ternate.

A small Dutch gunboat was lying here, the officer in command of which supplied a
plan of the anchorage, and furnished every information.

On the 15th, in the morning, the Dutch flag was saluted, and the salute was returned
by the gunboat, the echo from the high mountains giving a very peculiar ringing report to
the guns. In the afternoon the Resident or Governor came on board and was- saluted on
leaving with thirteen guns. The usual salute allowed by the Dutch authorities is eleven
guns, but as the Sultan of Ternate is entitled to that number, the Resident, at this station
is allowed thirteen.

The Moluccas consist of the islands of Ternate, Ticlore, Metir, Makyan, and Batian,
with the adjacent islets. The first European to visit them was Bartema of Bologna in
1506. He was followed in 1512 by Francisco Serrao, who commanded an expedition
despatched by the Portuguese from Malacca.

In November 1521 the Moluccas were visited by the ships of Magellan’s squadron
after Magellan had been killed at Zebu. They anchored off Ticlore Island, where they
were honourably entertained by the King, who entered into a league of friendship with
them. At that time the islands were rich in productions of all kinds : cloves, ginger, sago,
rice, figs, almonds, oranges, lemons, and sugar cane. Neither was there any want of
goats and fowls,* the ships being furnished with provisions in such quantities, that, to
use their own expression, “ it was marvellous to behold.”

Shortly after the visit of Magellan’s squadron in the same year (1521), the Portuguese
appeared in force in the Moluccas, with nine ships, commanded by Antonio de Britto.
The simple sovereigns of the Moluccas received their guests with caresses, and
contended for the honour of entertaining them, and even allowed them to establish a
military settlement in their country. For this purpose the island of Ternate was
selected, and here, in the kingdom of the most powerful chieftain of the islands, the
Portuguese Commander established himself. De Britto, to his astonishment, found in the
Moluccas some of the companions of Magellan; these he seized and imprisoned.

After the Portuguese had established themselves at the Moluccas, disputes arose
between them and the Spaniards respecting the ownership of the islands, and a com-
mission met near Badajos to decide the question, but like a great many other conferences
it ended in talk, each side maintaining their own view of the question. In 1529, however,
the Emperor Charles Y. relinquished to the Portuguese all the countries lying west of a
meridian 17° east of the Moluccas. Notwithstanding this treaty, in 1545 a Spanish
expedition under Villalobos visited the islands, and entered into an offensive and defensive
treaty with the King of Tidore against the Portuguese, but this only lasted until their
differences were for a time patched up with that nation, when Villalobos abandoned the
Tidore Islanders to the Portuguese.

596

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Shortly after this the Portuguese were driven out of Ternate by the Rajah of that
island, and took up their quarters at Tidore, for when Drake arrived at the Moluccas in
1579, there were no Portuguese at Ternate ; consequently Drake anchored off that island,
and traded with the King, carefully avoiding the Portuguese.

In 1599 the Dutch admiral Van Warwyck established intercourse with, and a factory
on, Ternate Island ; it was, in fact, in this year that the Dutch first began to trade with
the Spice Islands,1 and veiy soon quarrels arose between them and the Portuguese, so
that the Dutch resolved if possible to drive the Portuguese from the Moluccas, and reap
for themselves the benefit of the spice trade, and in the year 1603, twelve ships under the
command of Stephen Verbayen left Holland for this purpose. After capturing Amboina
the fleet divided, five ships being sent to Tidore, and the others to Banda. Arriving at
Tidore on the 2nd May 1605, the Dutch summoned the Portuguese to yield on the 5th,
and a spirited contest took place between the ships and the fort ; but the magazine in the
fort blowing up, and killing sixty or seventy men, the Portuguese surrendered. The
Dutch were assisted in this action by the Rajah of Ternate.

The early period of the Dutch history consists of an account of their commercial
transactions, their wars with the Spaniards, and their aggressions upon the natives. In
the beginning of 1606, the garrisons at Ternate and Tidore were overpowered by the
Spaniards under Pedro de Acuna, and it was not until ten years later that the Dutch
recovered their ascendency in these islands, at which time they had the dexterity to
inveigle the greater number of the Rajahs into treaties, conferring upon themselves the
exclusive right of buying cloves. These treaties, imperfectly understood by the Molucca
Islanders, led to wars which desolated their country, with little interruption, to the year
1681, when, enfeebled and broken spirited by their ineffectual efforts, they submitted
to the rule of the Dutch, who have since remained in possession of this fertile group.

As stated above, the island of Ternate is a volcanic cone, the summit of which rises
to a height of 5600 feet above the level of the sea. There have been, during the Dutch
occupation, no fewer than fourteen different important eruptions, beginning with the year
1608. In the eruption of 1840, the earthquakes lasted from the 2nd to the 15th February,
with intervals of a few hours only. The inhabitants fled to the beach, or took to their
boats. Every stone building in the town was overthrown, and the people were on the
point of abandoning the island altogether, until ordered to remain by the supreme Govern-
ment at Batavia. It is singular that no earthquake wave accompanied this earthquake.

The members of the Expedition were fortunate enough to find in the Resident of
Ternate the late distinguished naturalist Mr. S. C. J. van Musschenbroek, who rendered
every assistance in his power, and treated them with the greatest kindness and hospitality,
even getting up a ball on the shortest notice., The musicians were Malays who were
indefatigable, but knew only one tune.

1 Purchas, pp. 709, 710.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

597

Ternate is again rising into importance as a spice island, for the Dutch no longer
confine the cultivation of cloves to the island of Amboina, or that of nutmegs to the island
of Banda ; consequently, the rich soil of this island will soon again be most productive.
Already there are nutmeg, pepper, cinnamon, and clove trees growing, besides a pro-
fusion of fruit trees. The durian, mangosteen, mango, and pine-apple all flourish on the
island, which also produces oranges, lemons, pomegranates, &c., and there is hope that
coffee and cocoa may likewise thrive. Sago is still, as it was two centuries ago,
the staple food of the inhabitants. The supplies are, as they were in the time of
Magellan, plentiful and moderate : beef Is. per lb., fowls 8s. per dozen, ducks 2s. 9d. to
3s. each, geese 6s. or 7s. each, and sweet potatoes 5s. per picul (133^ lbs.).

A fair supply of coal is kept in stock, and vessels may be certain of always
obtaining sufficient here to take them on to Amboina, the main depot of the Dutch
amongst these islands. A pier runs out from the shore, alongside which a vessel may
lie whilst receiving the coal, but as it is very rickety, off-fasts are required. There
are 5 fathoms alongside the end of this pier at low water. From the beach abreast
the town three piers run out ; the northernmost and best is opposite the Resident’s
house, the second is for the use of the natives, and the third and southernmost is the
coaling pier.

After the pier has, been traversed, a well-kept road is reached, running parallel with
the shore, on each side of which trees are planted, as closely together as possible,
affording a grateful shade from the vertical rays of the sun. By the side of this road
is the residence of the Governor, and also those of the officials, and here again, in a
most pleasant situation, is the usual club house, to which the members of the Expedi-
tion were made most welcome. If this road is further pursued. Fort Orange, the strong-
hold of the Dutch in the island, is at last reached, which, founded in about 1616, yet
remains as a shelter for the European inhabitants, in case of a revolt of the natives, but
is of no use against foreign aggression.

From Ternate a- trade is carried on with New Guinea under the general direction of
the Rajah of Tidore, who claims a certain jurisdiction over all the land to the meridian
of 141° E. longitude, or rather the Dutch do for him. Very considerable distrust
appeared to exist between the New Guinea people and these traders. During the season
of 1873 three Malay proas, wrecked on the New Guinea coast, were plundered, and most
of the crew slain ; but it seemed probable that the influence of the travellers engaged in
the exploration of the interior of New Guinea, together with the abolition of slavery
throughout the Dutch possessions, and the establishment of legitimate trade, would pro-
duce more amicable feelings between the Papuan race and the outside world.

There was a report at Ternate, during the stay, that there were a number of piratical
proas in the neighbourhood of Batian Island, and the Resident of Ternate intended,
after the Challenger’s departure, to go to Batian, in the Dutch gunboat, and make

598

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

inquiries as to the truth of this statement. If he found there really were pirates there-
abouts, he would, with the assistance of the Tidore proas, attack them at once.

The coin in circulation at Ternate is the Dutch dollar, 4s. 2d., and the Dutch rupee,
Is. 8ch An English shilling only passes as a half rupee, hut English sovereigns can be
exchanged in small quantities at their proper value in dollars and rupees.

The Malay collectors who are sent every year with the traders to New Guinea from
Ternate, to collect Birds of Paradise and other birds, are some of them extremely expert
in preparing and preserving bird-skins. They mount them, with a small stick stuck into
the tow stuffing, and protruding at the tail ; the skin is handled by the stick, and thus
the bird’s feathers are prevented from being injured. There are several Mohammedan
dealers in bird-skins in the town of Ternate. A Papuan Bird of Paradise [Paradise d
papuana) , well-skinned, costs about eight shillings, and a well-skinned Bed Bird of
Paradise [Paradisea rubra) fourteen shillings. Skins of various Paradise Birds, prepared
flat, and dried in the old native style, were common and cheap enough. Amongst these
skins were a large quantity of what appeared to be the very rare black and scarlet-
coloured Parrot [Dasyptilus pequeti). These birds could hardly have been killed and
thus prepared for sale, as ornaments,' like the batch they were amongst, but they were
unfortunately of no use as natural history specimens in their mangled condition.

Mr. Moseley and Lieutenant Balfour ascended the Peak of Ternate accompanied by
four Malay guides provided by the Resident for the purpose. Mr. Moseley thus describes
the ascent : — “We passed a night at the house of one of the Government officials, who
kindly offered us hospitality, at an altitude of about 1000 feet. Leaving the house at
4.30 a.m. on the following morning, we commenced the climb through a field of sugar
cane. The path led nearly straight up the cone all the way, and was excessively steep,
and the ground was very slippery from a heavy fall of rain the night before.

“ It was pitch-dark for the first hour, and we slipped and fell constantly. At an
altitude of about 2000 feet above sea level, the last cleared and cultivated land, a rice
field, was passed. On the border of the field grew several of the Saguir Palms [Arenga
saccliarifera), which are abundant in the gardens at sea level. An intoxicating drink
is made from the juice of this palm, and like many other palms it yields sugar. Above
the rice fields, woods were entered at about daylight, and these extend up to an altitude
of about 4150 feet. Jack- fruit and a wild plantain were observed to grow up to a height
of about 2600 feet. In the woods was a small hut, used by men who come up to hunt
the deer, which are abundant on the mountains. On a tree close to the hut was cut
the name of Miklucho-Maclay, the well-known explorer of New Guinea. From the verge
of the woods at 4150 feet altitude, for about 650 feet farther ascent, a dense
growth of tall reeds was traversed. At this height (4800 feet above sea level) a ridge
was reached from which a descent of about 100 feet was made into an outer ancient
crater, corresponding to the Canadas of the Peak of Tenerife. There are two such outer

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

599

ancient craters at the summit of the Peak of Ternate, and the ridges forming the old
borders of these craters and the outer portions of the bottoms of the craters themselves
are traversed in succession on the way to the terminal modern cone of eruption which
stands in the inner of the two. The outermost and oldest of the craters is a wild-looking
place, inhabited by numerous wild pigs and deer, and is covered with a growth of bushes
and a small tree fern, and three other species of ferns,1 and with these grow a Club-moss
{Lycopodium) and a Whortleberry ( Vaccinium). The shrubs apparently belonged to
only two species, and the flora seemed a very poor one in number of species. The second
ridge, marking the summit of the inner extinct crater, is about 50 feet higher than the
outer one. Within this inner crater there is scarcely any vegetation, only a few scattered
blades of grass. Here a large mass of lava was met with, evidently recently ejected
from the active crater, and hurled to this distance. The mass had a smooth reddened
surface, and was deeply split all over by cracks evidently formed by contraction on
cooling. The terminal cone itself is entirely devoid of vegetation. The cavity of the
inner extinct crater from which it rises is filled up, except at its margin, by the results
of later eruptions, hence the base of the terminal cone lies about 60 feet above the
level of the margin of this crater, and is approached by a gentle ascent. The cone itself
rises steeply and suddenly, with a slope of 30°, and is about 350 feet in height. The
guides had hesitated somewhat when we ascended the slope leading out of the first
extinct crater, and had done their best to persuade us not to go any farther, telling us
that it was dangerous to proceed. They lagged behind as we approached the terminal
cone, and as soon as we began to climb it, turned round and ran back as fast as they
could go. We were told afterwards that they have strong superstitious fears concerning
the volcano, and believe that if any one climbs the terminal cone, a terrible eruption and
earthquake are certain to ensue. It appeared as if there might be some real risk in the
ascent. The cone is not composed of ashes, but of masses of basaltic lava of various sizes;
all of these on the surface appeared freshly fractured and split, as if quite recently thrown
out of the crater, and broken up on cooling. At the summit, a slope of 30°, exactly the
same as that of the outside of the cone, the natural slope, no doubt, of the lava fragments,
leads down into the crater, from a sharp ridge, along which we walked. A dense smoke
rose from the interior of the crater, and hid its form and extent entirely from view. The
wind was easterly (E. by N.), and drove the smoke away from the side of the crater on
which we were. The smoke is excessively suffocating, and a sudden shift in the wind
might be fatal to any one who was a short way down within the crater, or even at some
places on its margin. It would not be easy to get down' it in some places, at all events
in a hurry. It was only possible to descend about 20 yards into the crater, and even
then the vapours inhaled were very trying. Steam and acid vapours issued from cracks

) Gleichenia dichotoma, Pteris incisa, Polypodium plilebiscopum ; J. G. Baker, F.R.S., On the Polynesian Ferns of
the Challenger Expedition, Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Bot.), vol. xv. pp. 104-113, 1877.

(NARR. CHALL. EXP. — VOL. I. — 1885.)

76

600

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

everywhere, decomposing the lava amongst which they passed ; in most of the cracks
were small quantities of sulphur. From the margin of the crater overlooking the town of
Ternate there was a magnificent view, embracing the island of Halmahera (Gillolo), which
lay spread as a map beneath us, and the peak of Tidore, and many far-distant islands.
Our guides rejoined us when we came down to the outer crater. For the benefit of any
future explorers of the Peak, which is very seldom ascended, I give the time required for
the ascent. We left the house at 1000 feet altitude at 4.30 a.m., reached the margin of
the outer crater at 8.30 a.m., and the summit at 9.30 a.m. The temperature of the air
at an altitude of 4800 feet was 71° F. at 8.30 a.m., at the summit of the mountain it
was 68°'5 F. at 9.30 a.m.”

The rocks collected at Ternate were augite-andesite with pleochroic augites and
probably with some hypersthene crystals.

From a record of the temperature kept at Ternate for eight years, it appears that the
climate is very uniform, the mean temperature for each month varying only from 80° to
81°. Rain falls od a average 216 days in the year, or 18 days per month. The number
of days’ rain per month being rather under the average during the northerly, and over
the average during the southerly, monsoon. The northerly monsoon commences in
January and ends in March, the southerly monsoon in April and lasts until the beginning
of November.

Each day whilst the ship was at Ternate the clouds banked up over the hills towards
the afternoon, and about 5 or 6 p.m. a heavy rain squall was experienced, which lasted
about three quarters of an hour, and produced a deliciously cool atmosphere after the
heat of the day.

The rise and fall of the tide at springs is about 4 feet, but may vary with the
season of the year.

The zoological collections at Ternate included a new species of Snake of the family
Calamaridse, and a new Butterfly ( Gerydus stygianus, Butler), as well as a Sphynx Moth
( Protoparce cingulata [Fabr.]), concerning which Mr. Butler remarks : — “ The appearance
of this New World species at Ternate is very surprising ; it is probably only an accidental
immigrant. The specimen was much worn and shattered, and may have been long on
the wing. Some of the Sphingidse have been taken at an almost incredible distance from
land, showing that their flight is not only extremely rapid, but capable of being sustained
for a considerable time.” 1

The Medusce. — Professor Haeckel, who has drawn up a Report on the Medusae
collected during the Expedition, has indicated the more important points in his Report 2
in the following notes : — “ Few classes of animals appear so ill-suited for life in the deep

1 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. xiii. pp. 194, 199, 1884.

2 Report on the Deep-Sea Medusae, Zool. Chall. Exp., part xii., 1881.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

601

sea as the Medusae, with their soft, gelatinous, watery bodies and their natatory life.
There are, however, some few species of this class which descend to great depths. In
the Memoir only eighteen such species are described, and in many of these cases it is
very doubtful whether they are really inhabitants of the deep sea, or whether they
have not been accidentally caught by the dredge while it was being drawn up to
the surface.

“Two families of peculiar Medusae can, with a considerable degree of certainty, be
regarded as characteristic inhabitants of the deep sea, namely, the Pectyllidae among the
Craspedota, and the Periphyllidae amongst the Acraspeda.

“ The Pectyllidae (genera Pectis,Pectyllis, and Pectanthis) belong to the order of Tracho-
medusae;they are nearly related to the Trachynemidae, and are especially remarkable
for their peculiar suctorial tentacles, which are distributed in great numbers around the
margin of the stiff almost cartilaginous umbrella (shown in the contracted state in fig. 200).
These tentacles closely resemble the ambulacral tube-feet of the Echinodermata ; they are
highly contractile and elastic, and are armed at the ends with a strong sucker. The
living Pectyllid uses these for attaching itself, and also to creep with, just in the same

Fra. 200. — Pedis antarctica, Haeckel ; twice tlie natural size.

manner as a starfish or a sea urchin. Another peculiarity of the Pectyllidae consists
in eight radial “ Mesogonia ” or sexual mesenteries ; these are membranous septa in the
hollow of the umbrella, which divide it into eight “ adradial ” partitions, and are extended
between the subumbrella, on the one hand, and the eight gonades or sexual glands, which
surround the basis of the stomach, on the other.

“The Periphyllidae (represented by the two genera Periphylla and Periphema) are
Acraspedote Medusae of a very curious and complicated structure, and belong to the
peculiar order Peromedusae, which was first constituted by Professor Haeckel in 1880, in
his System der Medusen. They possess many important characteristics common to the
Lucernaridae on the one hand, and to the Charybdeidae on the other. The highly arched
and conical umbrella bears on its margin four interradial sense organs of very remarkable
structure, and between these, twelve very long and powerful tentacles (four perradia

602

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

and eight adradial). On the inner margin of the umbrella is a very strong coronaiy
muscle, which is divided by means of sixteen subradial septa into the same number
of quadrilateral portions. The septa are attached to the central ribs of the sixteen
marginal lobes.

“ Just internal to this powerful coronary muscle are attached to the subumbrella eight
horse-shoe shaped gonades or sexual glands, which alternate with eight three-cornered
deltoid muscles (four perradial and four interradial). In the centre there arises a large
and almost cubical manubrium, on which four wide perradial buccal pouches {bur sob
buccales) are separated by means of four strong interradial buccal columns. On the edge
of- the mouth are found eight oral tentacles. The cavity of the manubrium opens into
a large central stomach, which is filled for the most part with extremely long and

Pig. 201. — Periphylla mirabilis, Haeckel ; half the natural size.

numerous gastral filaments ; and this, by means of four long perradial slits (or gastral-
ostia), communicates with a colossal annular sinus. About half way up the stomach
are four interradial cathammata or septal knots, in which the subumbrella and the
exumbrella are fused. Complicated pouches pass downwards from the circular sinus to
the umbrella margin.

“ Periphylla mirabilis (see fig. 201), 160 mm. high, 120 mm. broad, was taken by
the Challenger, on the east coast of New Zealand, when the trawl was lowered to a

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

603

depth of 1100 fathoms, and Periphema regina, 180 to 200 mm. high, and about the same
in breadth, in the lat. 62° Southern Ocean, when the depth was 1975 fathoms. Two
other remarkable deep-sea Medusae discovered by the Challenger are Nauphanta chal-
lengeri (from Tristan da Cunha, depth 1425 fathoms) and Atolla wyvillii, both belonging
to the group of Ephyridae, which are the oldest of the Discomedusse, and are nearly
related to Nausithoe. Atolla seems to be very widely distributed in the deep sea.
It was captured in the Antarctic Ocean (Station 157, depth 1950 fathoms) and also in
the South Atlantic Ocean (Station 318, depth 2040 fathoms). In August 1882 it was
again found by Mr. John Murray in the Faeroe Channel, at a depth of 430 to 640
fathoms.”

604

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

CHAPTEK XV.

Ternate to Samboangan — The Asteroidea — Samboangan to Ilo Ilo — The Amphipoda — Ilo Ilo to Manila —
The Lamellibranchiata — Manila to Hong Kong — The Annelida — The Calcarea and Keratosa.

Ternate to Samboangan.

On the 17th October, at 11.30 a.m., the Challenger left Ternate for the Philippines,
passing out northwards of Hieri Island. During the passage the surveyors made many
observations referring to the position of the land sighted.

The point on the coast of Gillolo opposite Hieri Island was wrongly placed on the chart ; it lies
H.E. f N., 8 miles from the peak of Hieri Island. Just over this point, in lat. 1° 2\' N., long.
127° 24' E., is a hill 1050 feet high, and N. by E., 3, miles from this hill, is a remarkable sharp peak
3450 feet high, in lat. 1° 5' H, long. 127° 25' E. About 8 miles north of this mountain is a flat-
topped hill with four knobs on it, in lat. 1° 13' N., long. 127° 25' E. The coast of Gillolo did not
appear to extend west of the meridian of 127° 23' E. At 6 p.m. Ternate Peak bore S. 44V E.,
Hieri Peak S. 65° E., and Tidore Peak S. 37° E. From this position a course was shaped for Tifore
Island.

On the 18th, at daylight, Tifore Island was in sight ahead, and Meyo Island to the northward. A
clear day, which allowed of numerous astronomical observations being obtained, including the meridian
altitude of Venus at 3 p.m., permitted the correct position of the two islands to be ascertained.

Meyo Island is about 3^ miles long, in an east and west direction, and rises gradually from the
shore to the summit, 1280 feet above the level of the sea, which is in lat. 1° 20V X., long.
126° 22' 40" E.

Tifore Island is about 2 miles in length, in an E. by N. and W. by S. direction, and 1£ miles in
breadth. On its northwest end is a saddle peak 530 feet high, the eastern and highest summit of which'
is in lat. 1° V N., long. 126° 8' 20" E. A cable from its north point is a small islet, which has a steep
bluff at the north end, sloping gradually to the southward. On the eastern side of Tifore Island there is
said to be a bay, in which the depths are reported as being 20 or 30 fathoms, but there is a ridge of coral
across its entrance with but from 1 to 3 fathoms water over it. The Malay prOas frequently take
shelter here, and it is sometimes used as a rendezvous for pirates. Outside the harbour is anchorage
for large ships; from the description given^ of this harbour, it .would appear to. be formed by an
extinct crater. It was a matter of regret that time did not permit landing on this uninhabited island.
The Malays also state that anchorage may be found either north or south of Meyo Island. The
channel between Meyo and Tifore Islands is 21 miles wide, and free from danger.

The wind was very light all day, nearly calm, so that very little progress was made. At 5 p.m.,
however, a breeze sprang up from the northeastward which lasted until 10 p.m. At 8 p.m. Meyo
Island bore east, and Tifore S. by. E. \ E., from whence a N.W. course was steered for Bejaren
Island.

On the 19th, at daylight, the ship was found to be 20 miles southeast of Bejareu Island, having

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

605

been set 8 or 10 miles to the northwest during the night. The Talautse Islands, as far north as Siao,
were in sight, as well as the land about the northeast point of Celebes Island. At 7 a.m. the position
of the ship could be fixed by the hills and islands off the northeast point of Celebes, and from that
time until 6 p.m. the surveyors were enabled/by so ascertaining the ship’s position, to correct the
position of the Talautse Islands.

Bejaren Island has a remarkable precipitous conical hill, 1240 feet in height, on the eastern side
of its centre. The summit was found to be in lat. 2° 6' 30" 1ST., long. 125° 21' 30" E. The rest of the
island is covered with trees. No patches of cleared land could be seen, but it is probably inhabited,
as smoke was observed on the northwest side, and a canoe was seen off that point. So far as
, could be made out it was perfectly free from coral, the sea breaking against the shore, A sound-
ing in 250 fathoms, hard ground, was obtained 2f miles south of the south point.

Roang Island has three peaks, the eastern and highest being 2450 feet above the level of the
sea in lat. 2° 19' N., long. 125° 21' E. Smoke was rising from the central peak throughout the
day, and scoriae and lava extended down the slope of the hill to a height of about 300 feet above the
level of the sea, beneath which vegetation commenced.

Passigi Island, a small flat island covered with trees, the tops of which are about 100 feet
above the level of the sea, is in lat. 2° 22' N., long. 125° 17' E.

Tagulanda Island has two peaks, the eastern and highest, in lat. 2° 21' 30" N., long.
125° 25' 30" E., is round-backed, and attains an elevation of 2550 feet; two miles west is the other
peak, 2450 feet high.

Mount Klobat is a very conspicuous »volcanic cone standing by itself, rising to the height of 6694
feet from a low base in the northeast extremity of Celebes Island. G-unung Sodara, the double peak
northeast of Klobat, is 4300 feet high. Banka and Salice Islands are each about 1100 feet high, and
the island of Tua Manado 2750 feet, instead of 1500 as marked on the chart. All the foregoing
positions depend on Mount Klobat being in lat. 1° 27' 30" N., long. 125° 0' E. After rounding
Bejaren Island a course was shaped to the northward towards Basilan Strait.

On the 20th, at 7 a.m., the island of Siao and the small islet of Makalehd were seen. At
9.30 a.m. a sounding, trawling, and serial temperatures were taken in 2150 fathoms, in lat.
2° 55' 18" N., long. 124° 53' 30" E. (see Sheet 31). From this position a true bearing of Roang
Peak was obtained, S. 37° 21' E. (true), and the following angles were taken with that peak as zero : —

>1 Makalehe

16°

55' Roang Island Peak.

Apex Do.

18°

20'

K Do.

19°

50'

>i Siao Island

23°

40'

K Do.

40°

50'

Passage or Kalama Island

82°

45'

These angles are sufficient to show that the islands of Siao and Makaldhe are much out of posi-
tion on the chart, but they could not be fixed, as trawling operations were being carried on all day.
The island of Makalehe appeared much smaller than that laid down in the chart ; it is round-backed,
with cocoanut trees on its highest ridge. Maquiliere Island was not seen from the ship, so it must be
low. Sanguir Island could just be distinguished to the northeastward, but no part of it was suffi-
ciently clear to allow of angles being taken to it.

606

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Siao Island has a most remarkable range of four volcanic cones perfectly distinct from each
other. The northern one is an active volcano, estimated as 6000 feet high ; the other three are lower,
gradually decreasing to the lowest in the south part of the island, southeast of which the land
appears much broken up.

The trawl was hove up at 6.45 p.m., and at 7 p.m. the ship proceeded towards Basilan Strait
under steam, the weather being quite calm. Whilst trawling a slight westerly current was
experienced.

On the 21st the calm continued throughout the day, rendering it necessary to proceed under
steam. At noon the surface temperature rose to 88°, the black bulb thermometer in the sun showing
at the same time 142°.

On the 22nd, at daylight, the high land of Mindanao Island was seen on the starboard bow. At
7.45 a.m. a sounding and serial temperatures were taken in 2600 fathoms, and at 11.30 a.m. the ship
again proceeded towards Basilan Strait. At 10 p.m. Basilan Island was sighted, and at midnight the
left extremity of that island bore W. \ S., Mount Matanal W. by N\, and Sibago Island N.W.
by W. I W.

On the 23rd, at daylight, Sibago Island bore S. 12° W., Mount Matanal S. 29° W., Tulnalutan
Island N. 25° W., and Malanipa Island N. 66° W. At this position the ship was swung to ascertain
the errors of the compass and dipping needle. At 2.35 p.m. the swinging was completed and two hauls
of the trawl obtained in 250 fathoms, with Mount Matanal 45° O' L.T. Lambil Island 62° 30'
Tulnalutan Island. At 5 p.m. the vessel proceeded towards Samboaugau, anchoring off that town at
8.50 p.m. in 17 fathoms, with the lighthouse N. 49° E., summit of Sibago Island S. 65° 20' E., Apex
Cocos Island S. 49° 20' E., Mount Matanal S. 40° E., L.T. Santa Cruz Island S. 3° E., right extremity
of Chica S. 65° 40' W.

The chart of Basilan Strait is by no means as correct as it should be, for it was found that bear-
ings or angles taken to objects on the south shore placed the ship in a different position from those
taken to objects on the north shore. The height of Tulnalutan Island was found to be 260 feet,
Malanipa 360 feet, and Sacol Island 720 feet.

The Expedition obtained, in the eastern part of the Celebes Sea, in addition to the
two soundings above referred to in 2150 and 2600 fathoms, another sounding in 2050
fathoms in the following February. The serial temperature observations showed that the
water had the same temperature at 700 fathoms as at the bottom, which indicates that
this sea is cut off from general oceanic circulation by a ridge about that height.

The deposits at the depths just mentioned contained only very slight traces of
carbonate of lime, and microscopic examination showed an absence of the shells of
pelagic Foraminifera, but in a sounding of 255 fathoms there were many of these shells.
Eadiolaria were numerous in all the deposits, but the great bulk of the mud was com-
posed of broken-down fragments of pumice and clayey matter. The deeper layers were
compact and of a blue colour, while the surface layer was oozy and reddish brown.

In passing through the Celebes Sea calm weather was generally experienced, and boats
were lowered while sounding to enable the naturalists to make observations. Several
species of Oscillatorise were very abundant, and when the sea was examined through a

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

607

water-glass these minute algae caused it to look as if filled with chopped hay. On the
surface of the sea there were also an immense number of small spheres of gelatinous
matter about the size of a pea, in which no structure could be observed ; probably the
jelly masses of some Diatoms, in which were entangled Coccospheres, Rhabdospheres,
Radiolarians, and the threads of . Trichodesmium. The tow-nets when hauled in were
covered with a sticky substance resembling thin glue, due to the presence of these little
globular masses. The tow-nets when sunk and dragged at a depth contained a much
greater variety of organisms and less of the jelly-like matter and fewer Oscillatorise, so
that very probably these last were confined chiefly to the immediate surface layers.
Globigerinas, Pulvinulinas, Orbulinas, and Pullenias were very numerous in the deeper
hauls ; some of the spines of the Globigerinas were very long and delicate, being eleven
times the diameter of the shell in length.

The trawling in 2150 fathoms (Station 198) yielded several fragments of volcanic
rock ; some palm fruits, pieces of wood and bark, together with numerous animals
among which were specimens of the rare deep-sea Fishes Ipnops murrayi (see p. 239)
and Typhlonus nasus. There were several Starfish belonging to the families Brisingidse
and Archasteridae, two families which are referred to as characteristic deep-sea forms in
the following notes by Mr. W. Percy Sladen, F.L.S., who is at present engaged in the
preparation of a Report on the Asteroidea collected during the Expedition : —

The Asteroidea. — As the Starfishes are a group of animals universally distributed
throughout the whole of the marine portion of the globe, and inhabit alike the shallow
waters of the coast and the abyssal depths of the ocean, the collection made during such
a cruise as that of the Challenger is necessarily a very large one. It is also, unquestion-
ably, the most important addition which has ever been made to our knowledge of the
group, both from a geographical and a zoological point of view. That such should be the
case is not very surprising when it is borne in mind how little was previously known
about deep-water Asterids, or even about those inhabiting very moderate depths,
excepting only the limited areas of the Atlantic, north of the Equator, which have
been systematically investigated by European and American naturalists .within the past
twenty years.

“ The Challenger has contributed to the previous lists of Asterid species upwards of
one hundred and fifty forms new to science ; and twenty-eight new genera have been
established. A few remarks upon the most interesting of these types and upon their
habitats will in the meantime be acceptable to the naturalist.

“ In all the great ocean depths below 1000 fathoms the characteristic forms are genera
belonging to the Pterasteridse, Brisingidse, Archasteridse, and Porcellanasteridse ; a few
genera referable to the Astropectinidse proper also occur ; and the Echinasteridse and
Goniasteridae are still more feebly represented.

(narr. chall. exp, ---vol. i. — 1885.)

77

608

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGED.

“ Twenty-six -genera of Starfishes have been found living in depths greater than 1000
fathoms, and all but eight of these were discovered by the Challenger.

“ In the abyssal depths beneath this limit in the Atlantic the Archasterkhe predominate;
in the Pacific, on the other hand, the Pterasteridae and Porcellanasteridae are the most
conspicuously represented ; whilst the Asterld fauna of the great Southern Ocean holds
somewhat of an intermediate character, between the two.

“ In the Atlantic the Pterasteridae are represented by the genus Hymenaster (fig. 202),
which in the South Atlantic at Station 325 descends to a depth of 2650 fathoms. At the

Fig, 202. —Hymenaster sacculatus. Sladen. Abactinal aspect. Slightly enlarged.

same Station was dredged the genus Dytaster, an Archasterid type with a more or less
inflated disk, and having very long attenuate rays, subearinate along their median dorsal
line, and very slightly flexible. The marginal plates, which form a square vertical wall, are
granulated, and each plate of either series bears one thin, thorn-like spine. Abactinal area
covered with small rounded scale-like plates, bearing pseudo-paxil lse which form a closely-
packed covering, in which no order of arrangement is discernible. Papulae distributed
over the whole area. Actinal interradial areas well developed, with plates arranged in
more or less definite columns. Armature of the adambulacral plates in longitudinal

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

609

series parallel with the furrow ; spinelets on the outer part of the plate usually granuli-
form. Actinostome widely expanded ; large fleshy lip. Enormous compound
madreporiform body. Numerous pedicellarise, subvalvuliform, on abactiual surface and
actinal interradial areas.

“ A very remarkable and abnormal Asterid, the morphological structure of which would
appear to justify its inclusion in the family Pterasteridse, notwithstanding its very
different habit, was found at Station 323, in 1900
fathoms. Pythonaster (fig. 203) is characterised by
very elongate, flexible, subcarinate rays, which are
slender and tapering outwardly, but considerably
swollen or inflated at the base ; this inflation being
further emphasized by a well-defined constriction
which extends along the interradial line up to the
dorsocentral aperture. This aperture is closed by
five triangular fan-like valves, as in Hymenaster
and its allies. The rays and corresponding radial
areas of the disk are covered with small regularly
placed fasciculi of short spinelets ; each fasciculus
is enclosed in a membranous sac, and the whole
arranged in regular obliquely transverse lines
on either side of the median dorsal line, which
pass along the side of the ray up to the adambu-
lacral plates. The armature of the adambulacral
plates forms transverse series, the spines being
united by membrane into fan-like structures com-
parable to those in Pteraster.

“ Brisinga occurs both in the North and South
Atlantic, and was dredged from a depth of 2400
fathoms at Station 89, where it was accompanied by
the genera Lonchotaster and Thovacaster. The
former is an Archasterid with some affinities to
Dy taster. The rays however, are but slightly

longer than the diameter of the disk, and are remarkably tapering, pointed, and sub-
cylindrical, and, in the specimens preserved in spirit, are in every instance turned back over
the abactinal area. The marginal plates are short and numerous, recalling those of Lepto-
pty chaster, excepting that the superior series are well developed. The adambulacral plates
have a compact and powerful armature ; pedicellarise are large and numerous, especially
on the actinal interradial areas ; and the madreporiform body is immense. Thoracaster
is an aberrant member of the Porcellanasteridae, having a large pentagonal disk and

?ig. 203. — Pythonaster murrayi, Sladen. Abactiual
aspect. Three fourths the natural size.

(310

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

moderately long cylindrical rigid rays, which are entirely encased by the smooth marginal
plates,' the form of the ray hearing a fanciful resemblance to an elongated Belemnite. .

“ In the deep water off the eastern coast of the
United States, a very rich assemblage of forms was met
with, Station 46 being especially remarkable for its
varied Asterid fauna. Here at a depth of 1350 fathoms
are Brisinga, Cribrella, Zoroaster, Porcellanaster, and
the three Archasterid genera, Pontaster, Pararchaster,
and Plutonaster. Pontaster is a genus established
for the reception of Archaster tenuispinvs. Diiben
and Koren, and its allied species, whose structure
does not admit of their being classed along with
Archaster typicus, Muller and Troschel, which by reason
of priority naturally stands as the type of Arcliaster,
sensu stricto.

“ Plutonaster has a comparatively large flat disk,
with elongate and more or less rigid rays. The marginal
plates are broad, and form a well-rounded margin ; both
series are granulated, the superior being devoid of large
spines, but the inferior may have one small more or less
rudimentary spine. The abactinal area is covered with
small closely packed pseudo-paxillse ; papulae are distri-
buted over the whole area, and the abactinal jdates at
the sides of the rays are arranged in oblique transverse
series. The actinal interradial areas are large, with
well-defined plates in regular columns, decreasing in
breadth towards the margin. Armature of the adambu-
lacral plates in longitudinal series, parallel with the
furrow ; several of the outer series usually granuliform.
No pedicellarise.

“ Pararchaster (fig. 204) is a remarkable form with
a small disk and very long, tapering, flexible rays.
Marginal plates more or less suboval or subtriangular,
elongate in the direction of the ray, and confined to the
margin entirely ; each with a prominent boss. The
Fl°- 204 0^m-archayer^edicifer, siaden. supero-marginal series with one long cylindro-conical

Abactmal aspect. Natural size. i to o J

spine, the infero-marginals with one or more similar
spines. The general surface of the plates, of both series is nominally naked, or only with
minute isolated spiniform granules. A large odd interradial marginal plate present at

NARRATIVE OP THE CRUISE.

611

the summit of the interbrachial angle, with prominent boss and very large spine.
Abactinal area covered with squamiform plates, bearing one to three spicules (spinelets) ;
no true paxillse ; no definite order of arrangement. Papulae confined to the area at the
base of the rays. Actinal interradial areas with very few ventral plates ; in some cases
apparently wanting altogether, but these may only be young forms. Armature of
adambulacral plates consisting of a semicircular furrow series of small uniform spines,
radiating fan-like, with one or more large, conical, outer spines. Madreporiform body
close to the odd interradial plate. Peculiar comb-like pedicellarise frequently present.

“ Associated with the above-mentioned genera a/t Station 46 is an interesting little Star-
fish which appears to hold an intermediate position between Ilyaster-, recently described
by Danielssen and Koren, and such forms as Bathybiaster and Psilaster. It also occurs
at Station 44 in 1700 fathoms. This genus, which is named Phoxcister, resembles in

Fig 205. — Porcellanaster cceruleus, Wyv. Thoms. A, abactinal aspect ; B, actinal aspect. Natural size.

miniature the outline of the northern species of Psilaster ; the sides of the rays being,
however, comparatively deeper and more vertical. The marginal plates are covered with
uniform squamules and are devoid of any larger spinelets whatever. The actinal
interradial areas are covered with squamiform spinelets encased in membrane,
simulating those on the marginal plates. A well-defined dorsocentral protuberance or
epiproctal cone is present, but by no means so specially developed as in Ilyaster. The
character of the adambulacral armature is intermediate between that of Ilyaster and
Psilaster.

“ Psilaster is a genus which includes the well-known North Atlantic form originally
described under the name of Astropecten andromeda, Muller and Troschel. The Challenger
has discovered several allied species, but in the Atlantic none are found at so great a depth
as 1000 fathoms,

612

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

“At Stations 44 and 45 Dytaster is associated with Pontaster and P drar chaster ; at
the former Station in company with Phoxaster, and at the latter with Porcellanaster
(fig. 205). Porcellanaster is found in the South Atlantic between Tristan da Cunha and
the Cape of Good Hope at a depth of 2550 fathoms (Station 137) ; and at Station 346,
north of Ascension, at 2350 fathoms, is the very remarkable allied genus Styracaster
(fig. 206). In this form the rays are long and attenuate, with the supero-marginal plates
meeting in the median dorsal line so as to encase the ray, and bearing long robust
cylindro-conical spines which form a single series along the median dorsal line. The
actinal interradial areas are paved with thin smooth imbricated plates arranged in
columns ; and the ambulacra! furrows are narrow and more or less enclosed.

“At Station 78, in a depth of 1000 fathoms, associated with Pontaster, is an elegant
form, Aphroditaster, the type of a genus especially interesting on account of its inter-
mediate character between the Archasteridse and Goniasteridse. The disk is rather small,
with the rays elongate and tapering ; and the interbrachial angle well-rounded. Marginal
plates broad, forming a well-rounded margin ; intermediate abactinal area narrow and
sunken. Superior marginal plates with rounded granules, inferior series with small
uniform conical, pointed, adl >ressed spinelets. No prominent spines on either series.
Abactinal area with large oblong hexagonal paxillse, the major axis in the direction of the
axis of the ray ; a conspicuous medio-radial series larger than the rest, each of these
paxillse being well spaced from its neighbours in the series. Papulae regularly distributed.
Abactinal plates arranged in lines parallel with the axis of the ray. Ventral areas small,
plates with small conical-pointed spinelets similar to those on the infero-marginal plates.
Armature of the adambulacral plates in two longitudinal series parallel with the furrow.
A post-adambul acral series of plates present with fascioles ( sensu A. Agassiz) at the margins
obliquely transverse to the axis of the ray. Madreporiform body small. No pedicellarise.

“ At Stations 3 (1525 fathoms), 106 (1850 fathoms), and south of the Equator at Station
125 (1200 fathoms), were dredged representatives of a very handsome Goniasterid genus,
Nymphaster. The disk is large and flat, with more or less elongate, slender, tapering-
rays, almost square in section. The marginal plates form a broad border to the disk, and
may either unite along the median line of the ray or admit a single series of medio-radial
plates. The marginal plates are granulated and bear no spines. The abactinal area of the
disk is covered with large- and regularly arranged hexagonal tabulated paxillse, those in
the radial area well separated, and each usually furnished with a sunken pedicellaria.
Large entrenched pedicellarise are frequently present on the marginal plates. Ventral
plates well-defined, covered with uniform granules, and with occasional pedicellarise.
Adambulacral armature arranged in longitudinal series.

“At Station 73, at a depth of 1000 fathoms, in company with Plutonaster, is an interest-
ing genus, Glyptaster, which seems to unite the characters of Zoroaster and Stichaster.
Glyptaster has a small disk and comparatively long, subrigid, tapering rays. The disk

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

613

Fig. 20 Q.—Styracaster horridun, Sladen. Abactinal aspect. Slightly .enlarged.

614

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

is occupied with largely developed permanent primary plates, tlie regularly placed
symmetrical interradials (basals), radials, and underbasals being especially prominent and
conspicuous. The rays are covered with large, subhexagonal and slightly convex plates
arranged in perfectly regular longitudinal lines, the plates diminishing regularly in size
as they proceed outward, and those of the median line being the largest. The plates
bear a few widely-spaced semicircular translucent granules, and a single large papula
occurs in the interspace left at the angles of adjoining plates. Each adambulacral plate
bears two short, thick, cylindrical spines, one directed towards the furrow and the other
outward, which form two regular longitudinal series. External to the adambulacral
plates is a complete longitudinal series of plates which bear two or rarely three spines
placed side by side, and on the inner portion of the ray a few additional plates similarly
armed form an incomplete pseudo-ventral series in large specimens. A few small
pedicellarise (forcipiform) are present on the lateral regions of the ray, and also, but less
frequently, on the abactinal area in the neighbourhood of the papulae.

“ In the Southern Ocean the genus Hymenaster occurs in depths varying from 1375 to
1950 fathoms, and Brisinga also shows a similar bathymetrical range. Both were dredged
at three Stations, but were associated only at one, Station 146 (1375 fathoms). Pararch-
aster, though likewise found at three Stations in depths varying from 1600 to 1900 fathoms,
occurs in company with Brisinga only at Station 147 (1600 fathoms) ; and this genus is not
found associated with the Pterasteridse in any area. The allied genus Pontaster occurs at
Station 146 along with Hymenaster and Brisinga above mentioned. The genus Leptopty-
chaster is associated with Brisinga at Station 156, south of the 60th parallel, at a depth of
1975 fathoms, and is accompanied by an interesting new form, remarkable for the way in
which it appears to unite the characters of Echinasteridse and Goniasteridse mimetically.
Chitonaster is a small stellate Asterid, with convex and inflated disk and short rigid rays.
The abactinal surface of disk and rays with short thick isolated and well-spaced rigid
conical truncate spinelets, each appearing as if standing perpendicularly on a hexagonal
plate, the whole surface at the base of the spines being covered with membrane. A double
series of marginal plates are present, likewise hidden in membrane, the inferior the larger,
and each plate with three spinelets similar to those above described, forming a line
transverse to the axis of the ray ; the supero-marginal plates with one or two spinelets.
The armature of the adambulacral plates consists of three isolated spines forming a line
transverse to the furrow and similar to the other spines. Actinal interradial areas very
small. No pedicellarise.

“ The Porcellanasteridse are represented in the Southern Ocean only by a species of
Hyphalaster , which occurs in company with Hymenaster at Station 157 at a depth of
1950 fathoms.

“ In the Eastern or Malay Archipelago only six genera of Starfishes occur at depths
greater than 1000 fathoms. In the area north of the Equator are Brisinga and Pontaster,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

615

associated together at depths of 1050 and 2150 fathoms ; whilst south of the Equator are
Hymenaster, Benthaster, and Zoroaster in company at 1070 fathoms; and Brisinga
descends to a depth of 2440 fathoms.

“ In the Pacific area the Pterasteridse and the Porcellanasteridse are the predominant
forms in depths below 1000 fathoms. The first named family is represented by the
genera Marsipaster, Hymenaster, and Benthaster. Marsipaster occurs in Mid South
Pacific at Station 286 in 2335 fathoms, and nearer the South American continent at
Station 299, between Juan Fernandez and Valparaiso, in 2160 fathoms. Hymenaster
is found both in the North and South Pacific at depths ranging from 1500 to
2900 fathoms. The latter (Station 244), situated due west of Yokohama, near the
meridian of 170° W. long., is the greatest depth at which Starfishes have as yet been
obtained. Here at 2900 fathoms, in company with Hymenaster, are Benthaster and
Brisinga. Brisinga also occurs in the North Pacific at depths of 1875 and 2300
fathoms (Stations 237 and 226 respectively), and south of the Equator, off Valparaiso,
in 2550 fathoms.

“ In the South Pacific the Archasteridse are represented below 1000 fathoms only by
Dytaster, and in the North Pacific by Bytaster and Pararchaster. Associated with the
last named genus at Station 237 (1875 fathoms) is Psilaster, the only representative of
the true Astropectinidse below 1000 fathoms in the Pacific, and this its only occurrence.
Porcellanaster and Hyphalaster are found at the same Station, and also Brisinga as
mentioned above. Porcellanaster is associated with Marsipaster and Hymenaster in
Mid South Pacific at Station 286 in 2335 fathoms; and is also found off Valparaiso
in 2225 fathoms. Hyphalaster is found in Mid Pacific a little south of the Equator
(Station 274) in 2750 fathoms, and off Valparaiso in 2160 fathoms. The allied genus
Styracaster occurs at Station 224 at a depth of 1850 fathoms. Near the southern point
of South America, at Station 303, at a depth of 1325 fathoms, are the northern genera
Lopliaster, Mimaster, and Ctenodiscus.

“ Comparing now the Asterid fauna of the Atlantic, Southern, and Pacific Oceans
respectively, including with the latter the Malay Archipelago, it will be found that of
the twenty-six genera which live at depths below the 1000 fathom line, seventeen genera
are represented in the Atlantic, seven in the Southern, and fifteen in the Pacific Ocean.
Four only are common to "the three areas, viz., Hymenaster, Brisinga, Pontaster, and
Pararchaster. Four are common to the Atlantic and Pacific, but do not occur in the
Southern Ocean, viz., Zoroaster, Dytaster, Porcellanaster, and Styracaster. One genus,
Hyphalaster, is common to the Southern and Pacific Oceans.

“ Seven genera are peculiar to the Atlantic, viz., Pythonaster, Glyptaster, Aphrodi-
taster, Plutonaster, Lonchotaster , Phoxaster, and Thoracaster. One genus, Chitonaster, is
peculiar to the Southern Ocean; and two, viz., Marsipaster and Benthaster are peculiar to
the Pacific, — a number which appears very small in consequence of those genera being

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 78

616

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

omitted from the category which have representatives in other areas at depths less than
1000 fathoms. The latter occurrences have, for the sake of brevity, not been referred
to in the present notes.

“ It may be remarked that the distribution of the deep-water Asterids fully supports
the views already propounded by Mr. Murray that abyssal depths near to continents are
more prolific in the number of genera and variety of forms than are similar depths in
mid ocean remote from land.

“ Mention only can be made here of the fact that a further and special interest attaches
to the abyssal forms living under these conditions of isolation, on account of their
furnishing a more striking presentment of archaic and permanent pseudembryonic
characters than any other recent Asterids with which we have hitherto been acquainted.

“ It is scarcely necessary to state that the importance, of the collection is not confined
to the deep-water Asterids only, as many valuable additions have been made to the fauna
inhabiting much shallower waters than those referred to in the foregoing notes, and
several interesting new genera have been discovered. Amongst these may be named
Pholidaster, a form allied to Zoroaster, of which two species were dredged in the Malay
Archipelago in depths between 100 and 130 fathoms. It differs from the latter genus in
having peculiar naked primary plates on the disk and along the median radial line,
margined by flat, skin-covered squamules ; the other plates being covered with similar
uniform squamules, and the ventro-laterals with regularly-disposed, small, delicate,
elongate, and slightly flattened spinelets.

“ Peribolaster is an interesting form obtained off the western coast of Patagonia at
Station 304 in a depth of 45 fathoms. This Asterid is at first sight suggestive of a large
species of Korethraster , but is readily distinguished by the reticulated abactinal skeleton,
composed of cruciform ossicles ; by the fasciculi, which upon the rays have seldom more
than four spinelets in each, being enveloped in a membranous sheath ; and by the immense
madreporiform body.

“ Leptogonaster is a handsome Goniasterid genus with large thin pentagonal disk,
slightly inflated ; and well produced flat tapering rays with a widely rounded interbrachial
angle. The marginal plates form a bevelled angular margin, with three or four short conical
spinelets at the line of junction of the superior and inferior series, in the curve of the
angle, but decreasing in number outwards. The whole of the abactinal surface is
granulated and the plates are marked out by very numerous papulae. A few peculiar
pincer-formed sessile pedicellarise are found here and there on the surface. Actinal
interradial areas covered with membrane through which the thin hexagonal plates are
hardly visible ; each of those in the series immediately behind the adambulacral plates
bearing a large well-developed tubercle, which is greatly diminished in size or wholly
wanting in the other plates of the area. The armature of the adambulacral plates
consists of a semicircular furrow series of five or six radiating spines with one equal-

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE,

617

sized pincer-formed pedicellaria at the adoral extremity of the series ; and two large
tubercles standing side by side within the area of the curve, simulating an outer
series.

“ Paragonaster is a form allied to Nymphaster and JDorigona, having a small
pentagonal disk and elongate slender rays, the supero-marginal plates being separated
from those of the opposite side of 'the ray by a single lineal series of regular quadrate
plates, all uniformly granulated. The disk, which is slightly inflated in the radial areas,
is covered with uniform hexagonal tabulated paxilke. The adambulacral plates are
broad, and bear on the margins at right angles to the furrow a number of small uniform
spinel ets directed towards the adjacent plate, forming a continuous series with the
spinelets on the furrow margin of the plate, the latter being larger, flattened transversely,
peculiarly curved, and arranged in a semicircle, radiating apart. Within this marginally
disposed armature, whose base line forms a parabolic curve, a transverse line of three or
four isolated conical spinelets traverses the breadth of the plate. This form comes from
the Malay Archipelago, Station 192, depth 129 fathoms.

“ An interesting link in addition to that already mentioned between the Archasteridse
and Goniasteridse is furnished by the genus Pseudar chaster. This Starfish has a rather
large, slightly inflated, disk ; and moderately long, tapering, almost rigid rays ; with the
interbrachial angles well-rounded. The marginal plates form a well-rounded margin ;
both series covered with granules, those on the inferior plates with a tendency to become
squamiform. No prominent spines on either series. Abactinal area with uniform substellate
plates, bearing an oblong prominence, whose major axis lies parallel with the axis of the
ray, covered with a compact paxilliform spinulation or granulation. A medio-radial line
of plates distinguishable ; plates arranged in longitudinal series along the rays ; papulae
regularly distributed. Actinal interradial areas well developed. Armature of the
adambulacral plates palmo-radiate ; the outer portion more or less irregularly grouped,
Madreporiform body small. No pedicellarise. Species of Pseudarchaster occur in
localities so widely separated as Station 49 off the coast of the United States, Simon’s
Bay, Cape of Good Hope, and Station 307 off the west coast of Patagonia, The greatest
depth is 147 fathoms, at the last Station.

“Amongst the general results deducible from the data furnished by the Challenger
Asteroidea not the least noteworthy will be found to be the indication of the existence of
a number of remarkable local groups, or associations of forms, reciprocally representative
of others which occur in widely distant areas. The enumeration of these and - various
other topics of special interest to the systematic zoologist would occupy more space than
is consistent with the present sketch. Such observations will be discussed in the
forthcoming detailed Report on the group.”

618

THE YOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Samboangan to Ilo Ilo.

As the Expedition visited Samboangan again in February 1875, an account of the
place is deferred until that portion of the Narrative is reached (see p. 655).

On the 26th October, at 6 a.m., the ship left Samboangan for Ilo Ilo. After passing
through Basilan Strait, trawling and sounding operations were carried on for a few hours
at its western entrance. On leaving as on entering this strait it was found that the
bearings taken from the ship disagreed in fixing the position on the chart. A re-survey
of this part of the Philippine Islands would be appreciated by the navigator.

On the 27th, at 9 a.m., a sounding and temperatures were taken in the Sulu Sea in
2550 fathoms (see Sheet 31). The temperature observations here showed that this sea
was cut off at the depth of 400 fathoms from the surrounding waters, the temperature
being 50°’5 at all depths beneath 400 fathoms. A similar result was obtained in the
following January a little to the south of this position, where a depth of 2225 fathoms
was obtained. At 10 p.m. Negros Island was seen on the starboard bow, and at midnight
its extremities bore N.E. ^ N. and E. \ S.

On the 28th, at daylight, Mount Malaspina bore N. 67° E., and Point Sojoton
S. 85° E., showing a set of 10 miles N.W. by N. since noon yesterday. From this
position the ship was steered towards Bondulan Point, and at a little before noon stopped,
intending to obtain a haul of the trawl if the water were shallow, but finding no bottom
with 270 fathoms of line, the vessel proceeded towards Ilo Ilo, steering in with Bondulan
Point N.E. f- N., until the clump of trees on the north side of Ilo Ilo was distinguished,
when, keeping them half their own breadth open of the point, soundings of from 10 to 6§
fathoms were obtained, between Port Santa Ana, and the point - next south of Point
Cabalic ; after which deep water was found until opposite the Sandy Bay, one-third the
distance from Cabalic to Bondulan Point ; when, edging out a little towards the cathedral
(a large building with two towers on its northwest side), the fort was brought open of
Bondulan Point, which was rounded with Point Dedap in line with the southwest angle
of the fort; then, steering for the anchorage, the ship came to in 10 fathoms, off" the
spit on which the fort stands, with the southeast angle of the fort S. 75° W., and the
right extremity of the spit N. 2° W., a cable’s length from the shore.

The surface nets yielded some rich hauls in the Sulu Sea, Amphipods being especially
abundant. The Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, who is preparing a Report on the Amphipoda,
gives the following notes : —

The Amphipoda. — “ In this group the Expedition has brought to light a large number
of new species. This remark applies especially to the Amphipoda Gammarina, for the
Hyperina, which are very numerous, have not yet been examined with the care required
to determine whether the species are for the most part new or chiefly such as are already

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

619

known. The Caprellina, though few in number, contain the notable new genus Dodecas,
which is unlike all the other genera of Caprellidae in the number of the feet attached to
the peraeon or thorax ; of these there are six pairs. Those of the fourth segment are
wanting, while those of the fifth segment are rudimentary, and those of the third but
feebly developed. In the arrangement of the Caprellidae, according to the scale of
completeness with which their thorax-feet are developed,1 Dodecas will obviously stand
after Proto with its seven pairs fully developed and Protella with its five complete and
two rudimentary pairs. It will as obviously stand before Caprellina (G. M. Thomson’s
genus, not to be confused with the divisional name above given) and Podalirius, which
have four well-developed pairs and one rudimentary. But whether it should stand before
or after Cercops, JEgina, JEginella, and Caprella , each of which has five fully- developed
pairs of feet, though those of the third and fourth segments are wanting altogether, is a
question that may require some consideration and debate. By having more than two
joints in the flagellum of its lower antennae, it will stand with Proto and Caprellina
apart from the rest of the group, and again, on a third principle of classification, by the
presence of a mandibular palp and of branchiae on the second, third, and fourth segments
of the peraeon, it will be united with Proto , Caprellina, and Cercops.

“ Like the Caprellidae in general, the new species Dodecas elongata is very slenderly
built, in thickness resembling a thread or piece of fine twine. It attains, however, the
exceptional length of 3 inches, half of that measurement
being constituted by the hind legs and the long upper’
antennae.

“ In contrast with the tenuity of the species just
mentioned we have the dimensions of Andania gigantea
here figured of the natural size (see fig. 207). Two speci-
mens of this bulky Amphipod were obtained between 46°
and 47° south latitude, the larger at a depth of 1875
fathoms, the smaller some 200 miles from the other at a
depth of 1600 fathoms. Two other species of Andania
have been brought home by the Challenger, one of them
from lat. 8° 37' S., long. 34° 28' W., where the depth was 675 fathoms ; the other, from
lat. 40° 28' S., long. 177° 43' E., where the depth was 1100 fathoms. The three species
of the genus hitherto known are the type species Andania abyssi, A. Boeck, Andania
nordlandica, A. Boeck, and. Andania' pectinata, G. O. Sars. The specific name of the
type species would have better suited one of those from the southern waters. Looking
to the various places of capture, it would seem that the genus is suited for life at very
considerable depths. In point of size the members of it exhibit great variations,
since Andania gigantea is one of the largest of the known Amphipods, while the three
1 Mayer, Dr. P., Fauna u. Flora d. Golfes v. Neapel, vi., Die Caprelliden, p. 8, Leipzig, 1882.

Fig. 207. — Andania gigantea, SteM>ing.

620

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

northern species have a length ranging between a tenth and a quarter of an inch ; at
the same time the species at the two extremes of size are by no means dissimilar in
general appearance. Among the Gammarina very few, and among the Caprellina none, are
reported from very great depths. In the deep waters explored over a vast tract of the
Pacific Ocean from Japan to Juan Fernandez the record for these tribes is almost a
complete blank. Nevertheless it should not be hastily inferred that the creatures them-
selves are wanting in those localities, simply because sixty or seventy dips of the dredge
over a course of many thousands of miles have not brought any to the surface. A
collector exploring some small fraction of coast round his own home takes a species on
a single occasion, and with repeated researches in the same locality does not find it again
for years. He finds also that species abundant at one part of the year or in one locality
of his district are not to be met with at all in the same place at other parts of the year
or in other than the special locality at any part of the year. With this experience he will
be little inclined to yield to the negative evidence as showing that the floor of the ocean
even at its greatest depths is barren of any particular tribe of Amphipods. He will
reflect that in the Southern Ocean a haul of the dredge from 1375 fathoms below
the surface brought up a single specimen of a single species of the Gammarina, and
that 200 miles away another haul from a still greater depth brought up another solitary
specimen of the same species. The securing of these two specimens can be explained on,
the not very probable hypothesis that numbers of the species are distributed over the
area where they were taken, so* that dredging there was more likely to find them than not,
or it maybe explained on the more probable hypothesis of a lucky coincidence. Had the
dredge often brought up Crustaceans of this division from great depths, the inference
would scarcely have been a hasty one that there was an enormous population of them in
the abysses of the sea ; as it very rarely brought them up, not indeed from the greatest
depths, but from waters which not so long ago would have been thought extraordinarily
profound for the existence of life at all, it may be at least suspected that no depth is
necessarily out of their reach, and no large region of the ocean necessarily, from present
evidence, out of their range. From a general point of view, and as showing the danger of
arguing non-existence from non-appearance, it may be noticed that, whereas the Amphi-
podan fauna described from Kerguelen Island and its neighbourhood has hitherto been very
scanty, it is this locality that has yielded more than any other searched by the Challenger.
The dredgings indeed here were very numerous, and in shallow water ; but the
question may still remain open whether similarly restricted areas of the Pacific at depths
between 2000 and 3000 fathoms might not, if they could be explored with similar
minuteness, produce at any rate a few representatives of the divisions of Amphipoda now
under discussion.

“ In the large number of new species collected, none are very eccentric in difference of
form from those already known. One of the most striking for its outward armature is

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

621

Acanthozone tricarinata, shown in fig. 208, enlarged. . How far the present distribution
into genera can be maintained under the light
thrown on the subject by the details of struc-
ture found in new forms, will have to be
discussed in the detailed Report. Meanwhile
it is interesting to observe that wherever the
species have been dredged, -either in localities
or at depths not previously explored, such
species are almost invariably found to be new
ones. Species living at or near the surface of
the ocean, and not therefore requiring to be
taken with the dredge, are, as might be

- . _ - t -1 i n- i Fig. 208. — Acanthozone tricarinata, Stebbing.

expected, widely distributed. Some that

occupy very moderate depths are found to be identical or scarcely distinguishable in

Fig. 209. — Cystosoma, neptuni (Guerin-Mendville), Sulim ; slightly reduced.

form at the most widely separated localities, and it is possible that occasionally
some specimens "while living may have a free passage from one extremity of the

622

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

world to the other on the very exploring vessel which eventually brings them back
round half the globe preserved in spirit for home inspection. '

“ It would not be proper to conclude this brief abstract without calling attention to
the fine Cystosoma figured and described en route by the late Dr. v. Willemoes-Suhm 1
(see fig. 209), a specimen which, if colour be put out of the question, surpasses in beauty,
as also it probably exceeds in size, every other known Amphipod.”

Ilo Ilo.

Ilo Ilo is situated on the island of Panay, one of the most fertile and densely
populated isles of the Philippine group. Well irrigated by abundant mountain streams,
it produces rice, sugar cane, cotton, coffee, tobacco, pepper, and cocoa ; its forests yield
ebony, and its shores and rivers abound with fish ; the chief town of the island, Ilo Ilo,
is, therefore, an important commercial emporium, and from it a brisk coasting trade is
carried on. In Ilo Ilo there is also the largest manufactory of pina, a fabric made of
thread stripped from fibres of the leaves of the pine-apple. This fabric cannot be woven
at all times, as extreme heat or humidity affects the fibre ; it is stronger than any other
of equal fineness, and its colour is unaffected by time or washing. The machinery
employed in its manufacture is of rude construction and entirely of .wood. The use of
pina is extensive, and the value of the annual export to Europe for dresses, handkerchiefs,
collars, scarfs, and finely embroidered shirts is considerable.

The harbour of Ilo Ilo is formed by a narrow strait separating the island of Guimaras
from that of Panay ; a small river runs into the strait on the Panay shore, which has a
low sandy flat on its right bank on which the town stands ; at the end of this flat is a
spit, on which a fort is built, and close to which there is deep water. Vessels of moderate
draught (16 feet and under) may ascend the river a short distance and lie alongside
wharves which communicate with the merchants’ storehouses, but large vessels should
anchor off the fort.

Strong tides run through Ilo Ilo Strait, forming numerous eddies and causing
vessels to sheer considerably. At its full, strength the tide ran 3 miles per hour, but a
patent log registered only 10 ‘25 miles as the total distance traversed by one tide of six
hours’ duration. The stream turns at high and low water by the shore. The eddies
appeared to be fewest off the mouth of the Ilo Ilo river ; this, therefore, would be a good
place for a ship to anchor. Coal may be obtained in small quantities at this port ; other
supplies are plentiful and moderate in price.

1 Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Zool.), ser. 2, vol. i. p. 24, 1875.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

623

Ilo Ilo to Manila.

On the 31st October, at 6 a.m., the ship left Ilo Ilo for Manila, proceeding to the
northwards by the coasting steamer route, through the channel north of Yguana Shoal
with the Siete Pecados on a W. ^ N. bearing, 27 feet being the least depth of water
obtained at low tide.

After clearing the Yguana Bank the ship proceeded to the northwestward towards Taguhanhan
Island, off which a trawling was obtained in 20 fathoms, and then anchored for the night at 5.40 P M.
in 10 fathoms, with the right extremity of Taguhanhan north, Anauayan Island south, and the left
extremity of Taguhanhan S. 53° W.

Mount Oroc and Mount Saligit are both low hills, about 300 feet high ; Mount Colan is a long
flat hill about 200 feet high, Mount Parapari is about 2000 feet high, and from it a range of hills
stretches to the northeast; Ylacaon Island is about 180 feet high, and Taguhanhan about 1000
feet.

On the 1st November, at 6 A.M., the vessel left the anchorage under Taguhanhan Island and pro-
ceeded towards Baliguian Island, which was passed at 8 A.M., after which it was kept on a south
hearing until Sicogon Island was rounded, when a course was shaped for the channel between
Tulunanaun and Balbagan. At 1 P.M., when the left extremity of North Gigantes Island bore
N. 59° E., the right extremity of Lulugban N. 59° W., and the left extremity of Tulunanaun S. 13° W.,
soundings of 28 feet, hard ground, were obtained, and the engines eased to slow speed, as the ship was then
steaming northwest, to avoid the 2f fathom patch off Lulugban Island. Soundings of from 28 feet
to 7 fathoms were obtained until the west point of Lulugban Island bore S. 20° W., and the north
point of North Gigantes N. 78° E. and Manigonigo S. 84° W., when the depth increased to 13 fathoms,
and the ship proceeded toward Zapata Mayor. Bounding the Zapata Islands at 5 P.M., a course was
shaped N.W. by W. \ W. towards the channel between Tablas and Bomblon Islands, and sail made
to a light breeze from the northeastward.

Tulunanaun Island has a hill on its north extremity about 200 feet high, Balbagan and
Lulugban Islands are about 100 feet high, and Culebra about 200 feet. The channels between Ho Ilo
and the Zapata Islands require to be used with caution until they have been surveyed in detail.
There are several shoals shown on the small scale chart of the Mindoro Sea in these channels, and
doubtless more exist. Vessels of large draught would do well to take the passage north of the Gigantes
Islands rather than that between Tulunanaun and Balbagan Islands.

On the 2nd, at daylight, the left extremity of Sibuyan Island bore N.E. f E., the right extremity
N.E. by E. \ E., and the left extremity of Bomblon N. J W., showing a set of 10 miles W.S.W.
during the night. From this position the ship steamed towards the channel between Tablas and
Bomblon, sounding at 10 A.M. in 705 fathoms, with the left extremity of Sibuyan Island S. 67° E.,
Apunan Point N. 79° E., the left extremity of Cobrador Island N. 2° W., and Mount Cabezo de
Tablas N. 28° W., afterwards steaming through' the channel. At 2 p.m. a trawling was obtained in
100 fathoms, with the rock off the north end of Tablas Island S. 51° W., the right extremity of
Banton Island N. 13° W., and the left extremity of Cobrador S. 62° E., and at 3.45 p.m., in 115
fathoms, with the left extremity of Simara Island N. 74° W., the right extremity of Banton
Island N. 17° W., and the left extremity of Cobrador S. 46 E. (see Sheet 31). At 5.30 p.m.
the ship proceeded for the channel between Simara and Banton Islands, after passing which the course

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 79

621

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGES.

was altered for the channel between Banton and Bantoncillo, and then to the southward of Dos
Hermanos, after passing which the course lay along the northeast shore of Mindoro for Verde Island.
A number of fishing lights were noticed on the shore of Simara and Banton Islands as they were passed.

On the 3rd, at 2 A.M., a breeze springing, up from the' N.N.E. allowed of sail being made, and the
engines stopped. The wind gradually drew aft as Verde Island was neared, and continued well to
the eastward until the strait had been cleared at 7 P.M. At 11 P.M. the light on Corregidor Island,
at the entrance of Manila Bay, was sighted.

The bearings of the points on Mindoro Island did not agree very well with those on Luzon.
Considering, however, the small scale of the charts between Cape York, Australia, and Manila, and the
few surveys that have been made, it is wonderful how accurately the position of the numerous islands
are laid down, and although, doubtless, much is required to perfect the knowledge of these parts, he
would be a very poor navigator who could not with their aid, and a little extra care in lookouts,
traverse these seas, with confidence.

On the 4th November, at 1 a.m., the ship passed Fortune Island, and proceeded north
of Corregidor Island for Manila, anchoring there at 2.45 p.m. in 4^ fathoms.

Between Ilo Ilo and Manila the trawlings in 15, 100, and 115 fathoms were
moderately productive, yielding among other things a considerable number of Mollusca.
Mr. Edgar A. Smith, F.L.S., of the British Museum, has furnished the following notes on
the Lamellibranchiata, on which group he is engaged in preparing a Report : —

The Lamellibranchiata. — “ The collection of Bivalve Mollusca brought home by the
Challenger is in some respects disappointing. Considering the appliances with which the
vessel was furnished, and the able staff of scientific men on board, and the number of
dredging Stations, it certainly does seem surprising that scarcely more than five hundred
different species of Lamellibranchs should have been obtained. Then again this
comparatively small number in very many, indeed I think I may say in the majority,
of instances, is only poorly represented in specimens, of dozens of the species there being
but single or a few odd valves, many in a bad state of preservation. This comparative
paucity1 of species is probably attributable to the scarcity of Molluscan life at great
depths,, for the chief part of the collection consists of species from rather shallow water,
Torres Strait, the Arafura Sea, Port Jackson, and Kerguelen Island supplying a large
number of species. At only about 100 out of the 282 Stations investigated were
Lamellibranchs obtained, and 2900 fathoms (Station 244, in Mid North Pacific) was the
greatest depth at which any species was found living.

“ The single form from this spot is a small fragile shell which I have named
Callocardia pacifica, and it is a very remarkable fact that a second species ( Callocardia
atlantica) was also brought up from a depth of 1000 fathoms off the Azores, which is all
but identical with the Pacific shell. The habitats of these two species, although so
remote, are almost on the same parallels. A third species of this genus ( Callocardia

1 The nearly exclusive use of the trawl in deep water may, possibly, to some extent account for the paucity of
Deep Sea Molluscs obtained by the Expedition. — J. M.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

625

adamsii, see fig. 210) was also obtained at a great depth (2450 fathoms) in the Atlantic,
southwest of Sierra Leone. Yet this genus does not always dwell in such deep water, for
the typical species ( Callocardia guttata) was dredged by Arthur Adams off Quelpart,
south of the Korea, at a depth of only 48 fathoms. As might be expected, the deep-water
forms present no colour-markings, but in Callocardia guttata a few pale orange spots are
scattered over the surface.

It is a curious fact, that, as far as the collection of Lamellibranchs has been studied,
although the number of new species is very considerable, only a single new generic form
has been discovered. This is contrary to one’s expectations, and even among the few
species dredged at depths exceeding 2000 fathoms I do not find one which we might not
have expected from 100 fathoms or less. The new genus Silenia was obtained from
2650 fathoms, two Areas from 2050 and 2150 fathoms, a Malletia from 2550 fathoms,
and a Lima from 2500 fathoms, genera of which species are already known from less
than 100 fathoms, and indeed in the case of Area and Lima from low-water mark.
Although the genera have such a, wide bathymetrical range, of course it does not follow

Fig. 210. — Callocardia adamsii, n. sp. Station 348, Fig. 211. — Nuculina ovalis, Searles Wood.

2450 fathoms. Enlarged. Simon’s Bay, Cape of Good Hope, 15 to

20 fathoms. Ten times the natural size.

that the species will always exhibit a similar distribution. In some cases, however, this
is known to occur, and it will no doubt be discovered in many more. As an instance
of this I may cite the well-known Ervilia castanea, which may be dredged in less than
50 fathoms off Great Britain and elsewhere. Specimens of this species were obtained by
the Challenger in 450 and 1000 fathoms off the Azores, agreeing precisely with shells
from shallow water, Cryptodon jlexuosus and Cryptodon croulinensis respectively, from
450 fathoms and 1000 fathoms off the Azores may also be got in British seas in less
than 50 fathoms. I was in hopes that certain types which at present are known only
in a fossil state, might still have been found existing at great depths. The discovery
of some of the remarkable forms of Trigonia, Pholadomya, and other genera which
abound as fossils have been hoped for in vain. One interesting occurrence, however, of
a species in a living state hitherto known only from the £ crag,’ is worth recording.
The little Nuculinaovalis of Searles Wood (see fig. 211) was brought up from a depth

626

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

of only 15 to 20 fathoms in Simon’s Bay off the Cape of Good Hope. This is not,
however, the first record of the genus as recent, a species from the Catalina Islands
and another from the Korean Straits having already been described.

“ Judging from this collection, the conclusion may be drawn that forms from very
deep water, as a rule, have thin shells and are devoid of colour. As an instance of this
I may cite a very beautiful species of Modiola from Stations 191 and 207. The
specimens from the first locality, dredged in 800 fathoms, besides being very fragile, are
totally white, those from Station 207, from 700 fathoms, being faintly tinged with olive
on one side, showing a return to the usual olive or brownish tint which mostly prevails
in species of this genus. Among the prizes of the Expedition are one or two very
beautiful forms of Amussium from depths exceeding 1000 fathoms. Unlike the type
of the genus, Amussium pleuronectes, these are excessively thin, semitransparent, and

Fig. 212. — Amussium watsoni, n. spl Station
218, 1070 fathoms. Natural size.

Fig. 213. — Area corpulenta, n. sp. Station 184’
1400 fathoms ; Station 194, 200 to 360 fathoms ’
Station 198, 2150 fathoms ; Station 216a, 2000
fathoms ; Station 271, 2425 fathoms ; Station
300, 1375 fathoms. Natural size.

destitute of colour, but a species dredged off the Philippine Islands in 375 fathoms,
although equally fragile, has the central portion of the valves of an orange tint.
Among the species of Area are a few from very great depths which have comparatively
thin shells, but which maintain the fibrous character and usual colour of the epidermis
prevailing in many well-known forms found in shallow water.

“ From the above notes it will therefore be seen that the abyssal fauna of the ocean,
so far as the Lamellibranchiata are concerned, does not apparently (judging from the
Challenger collection) difier greatly in the known generic types from that of shallower
seas. The species met with in very deep water may have been gradually modified from
those living nearer shore, and become scarcer through inhabiting regions where food is
less abundant and the general conditions of existence less favourable.”

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

627

Manila.

Manila, the Capital of the Philippine Islands, and the most ancient European
town in the East after Goa, has been so much visited and so well described that it is
unnecessary to say much respecting it.

The Jesuit fathers at Manila were kind enough to furnish a copy of the meteoro-
logical results, taken at their well-known magnetic, meteorological, and seismographic
observatory, from which the following table, showing the climate, has been compiled : —

Meteorological Table compiled from observations made at the Jesuits’ College, Manila,
from 1866 to 1871 inclusive. Position of observing station, lat. 14° 35' 58" N.,
long. 120° 58/ E. Barometer reduced to 32° and sea level.

BAKOMETEIt.

&

•si

c'S

Rain.

WIND.

MONTH.

Mean

bO

« |

S-!

S ^

1 ’3d

?!

Total

faU.

No.

f*

No. OF

DATS FROM

T3 K

. of daj
Fogs.

Height.

3

|.S

s°

v

~ %

1 1
ss

a.l

<3 >

N.

E.

-

,W.

w.

—

C’lm

§

Iz;

JANUARY, . _ .

29S92

0-54

79-2

14-9

92

61

inchi s.
1-32

7

5-6

6

5

5

2

i

2

4

3

3

FEBRUARY,

29-897

0-40

80-3

16-2

94

63

0-40

2

5-5

3

5

6

3

l

2

4

1

3

MARCH, ....

29-873

0-30

83-4

16-8

96

61

0-39

2

7-4

1

5

9

4

i

3

4

2

2

APRIL, ....

29-827

0-37

80 -0

16-9

100

68

0-66

3

7-5

1

4

8

6

i'

2

4

2

2

MAY, ....

29-822

0-38

85-0

16-2

97

68

3-62

10

7-1

2

3

5

6

2

6

4

2

1

JUNE, .

29-782

0-44

83-7

13-9

97

66

11-74

16

7-3

2

2

5

5

2

7

3

2

2

JULY, ....

29-780

0-38

81-7

12-5

92

6S

. 11-73

20

66

3

3

3

2

3

8

3

3

3

AUGUST,

29-748

0-41

82 T

13-1

92

67

13-00

21

9-0

3

2

2

3

3

11

3

2

2

SEPTEMBER, .

29-743

0-50

81-6

13-2

91

67

22-70

23

90

2

2

2

2

2

10

4

3

3

OCTOBER,

29-788

0-45

80-3

14-1

93

63

11-60

18

6-1

5

4

3

2

2

6

3

2

4

NOVEMBER,

29-810

0-60

so-i

14-3

92

61

6-65

12

5-5

8

5

3

1

1

3

3

5

1

DECEMBER,

29-855

0-44

78-9

16-0

90

54

1-55

10

5-9

9

5

4

2

1

2

2

3

3

Means and Totals,

29-818

0-60

81-9

14-8

100

54-0

95-36

144

6'9

45

45

55-

38

20

62

41

30

29

Manila to Hong Kong.

On the 11th November, at 2.30 p.m., the ship left Manila for Hong Kong, passing
Corregidor Island at 11 p.m., and proceeding to the northward along the coast of Luzon,
sometimes under sail and sometimes under steam, the wind being variable with a nasty

swell.

On the 13th, at 6 a.m., Mount St. Thomas (7000 feet high) bore S. 85° E., Mount
Calvario S. 54° E., and Mount Piedra S. 74° E., showing a strong northerly set. At

628

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

9 a.m. a sounding, trawling, and temperatures were taken in 1050 fathoms, a strong
northerly set being experienced the whole time. The temperature of the water decreased
regularly from the surface to the bottom, or nearly to the bottom, showing that the China
Sea was open to the influence of the Pacific to a depth of between 900 and 1000 fathoms
(see Sheet 31 and Diagram 14). At 4 p.m. the trawl was hove up, and at 5 p.m. sail
was made to a northeast breeze, which gradually freshened as the land disappeared.

The deposit at 1050 fathoms was a bluish coloured mud containing 20 per cent, of
carbonate of lime, which was chiefly composed of the shells of pelagic organisms.

The trawl brought up several pieces of pumice and some leaves and palm fruits, to which
a Chiton , a Patella, and a few worm tubes were attached. There were also two species
of Macruridse and many Echinoderms, among others Cystechinus clypeatus, A. Ag. ;
Phormosoma lueulentum, A. Ag. ; Phormosoma bursarium,A. Ag. ; Podocidaris pfionigera,
A. Ag. ; Ophioglypha radiata, Lyman ; Ophiomitra plicata, Lyman ; and many others.

The 14th and 15th were cloudy days, with a fresh northeast monsoon and strong
southwesterly current; on the 15th the velocity of the current was a little over 2 miles
per hour.

On the 16th, at 7 a.m., the land was observed ahead; at 8 a.m. the northeast head
of Lema Island bore N. 2° W., Pountin Island N. 25° W., Peaked Rock N. 62° W.,
showing a current of 26 miles S. 37° W. since noon on the previous day. At 11 a.m. the
ship passed through the Taitami Channel, and steering through the Lamma and Sulphur
Channels, anchored at Hong Kong at 2.15 p.m.

There is one point in connection with the navigation of China waters that it may be
as well to mention here, namely, that the numerous junks met with off the principal
ports carry no lights, but on the approach of vessels burn a flare up light from the stern.
They generally sail in couples, and are nearly all rigged in the same way, carrying two
sails, the smaller one forward. These facts are, of course, well known to all seamen
who traverse the China Sea, but may nevertheless be useful to the navigator who first
makes his landfall on the China coast during the night.

In the surface nets on the 13th there were enormous numbers of Foraminifera and
Radiolaria, the most abundant hauls of the former being procured when the net was
sent down to 100 fathoms beneath the surface. In the same nets there were several fine
specimens of Alciope, several new forms of which were obtained by the Expedition as
stated in the following notes by Professor MTntosh, F.R.S., whose Report on the Annelida
collected by the Naturalists during the cruise is now being printed : —

The Annelida. — “ The collection of Annelids procured by the Challenger is both
extensive and valuable, and though many are fragmentary, it is to be recollected that the
bristles and other parts form very reliable features in diagnosis. The total number of
species is over three hundred, and they include representatives of almost every family.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

629

“ Amongst the pelagic forms the most conspicuous are the Alciopidse, a group which
seldom comes under the eye of the British zoologist, and which are so delicate that great
care is necessary in preserving them. One of the best memoirs on these Annelids has
recently been published by B. Greeff, and most of the forms collected by the Challenger
agree generally in structure with those described by him. Two or three new forms
however occur, one ( Alciope antarctica) frequenting the surface of the Antarctic Ocean in
company with Cleodora, and the others in the warmer waters near Honolulu. The first
mentioned has its head formed almost wholly by its two great eyes, which project promi-
nently outward in front of the constricted neck. Moreover, the cornese of these eyes are
invisible from the dorsum, being so placed that they look outward and downward. The
anterior feet have the form of large globular processes. Another [Alcio^pe quadrioculata )
is characterised by the presence of four eyes,- two occupying almost the entire central
area of the head, with the cornese directed outward, while two others, somewhat rudimen-
tary, look outward, forward, and slightly downward. The third form ( Nauphanta ) with
massive lateral lamellae, somewhat resembles Notophyllum, one of the Phyllodocidse,
the head however bearing two great eyes with the cornese directed outward.

“ The presence of large eyes has hitherto
been associated with the Alciopidse, but the
explorations of the Challenger have made us
acquainted with a similar condition in a closely
allied group, viz., the Phyllodocidse. This new
form ( Geneiyllis oculata ), instead of being a
surface form, frequents a depth of 500 fathoms
near the Pacific entrance of the Celebes Sea,
south of Mindanao. In the form of its body
and the size of its eyes it resembles an Alciope.

The eyes (fig. 214) occupy most of the head,
only a small triangular space being left
anteriorly and posteriorly. The large trans-
parent cornese look outward, downward, and forward, and are surrounded by a belt of
brownish pigment. The minute anatomy of these organs, as well as those of the Alciopidse,
has been carefully investigated by Dr. Marcus Gunn, one of the oculists of the Moorfields
Hospital, London, and he finds that the head is composed of little more than the eyes
and agreat median nerve-mass, with which the retinse of both eyes are continuous. It
is interesting that the Ioida- forms (sexual buds) of the Syllidse with large eyes are also
pelagic, occurring near the surface of the ocean amongst Sagittce, Copepods, Nauplii, Zocese,
and the minute free young and ova of fishes.

“ In viewing the collection of Annelida brought home by the Challenger as a series of
families, it is found that while the Euphrosynidse present no new forms, the Amphinomidse

Fig. 214. — Horizontal’section through both eyes of Genetyllis
oculata, showing their relation to the cerebral ganglion
(somewhat diagrammatic), a, Junction of the anterior part
of the sclerotic, — the oval spaces are blood-vessels cut
across ; b, the cornea ; c, finely granular, clear, structure-
less material, probably of the nature of vitreous; d, pigment-
layer of retina; e, the large cerebral ganglion.

630

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGED.

have at least four, two of which fall under Grube’s interesting group Notopygos. The
Aphroditidse, again, for the most part come from deep water, a feature amongst others
somewhat dividing them from the three other groups (Polynoidse, Aeoetidse, and Sigali-
onidse) usually associated with them. Some of the species from their intermediate
structure help to clear up the relationships between Aphrodita, Lcetmonice, and Hermione,
and especially to indicate the steps between the two first mentioned.

“The great group of the Polynoidse is very fully represented by about fifty different
forms. The rotate and stalked papillae on the scales of Euphione elisabethce, n. sp.,
give this form a characteristic appearance, even more so than the remarkable lobes on
the scales of Lepidonotus cristatus, Grube, also present in the collection. The short and
ovoid type is represented by Polynoe iphionoides, n. sp., in which the fleshy part of the foot
is largely developed. Polynoella levisetosa, n. sp., also short and somewhat elliptic in
outline, is peculiar in having only a single bristle in the ventral division of the foot. A
singular modification of the head takes place in Macellicephala mirabilis, n. sp., which
from this cause and the form of its body might at first sight be mistaken for one of the
Hesionidse. The sexual differences existing in Polynoe grandipalpa, n. sp., are both
marked and interesting, the males being more elongated than the females.

“ Four or five of the groups are commensalistic. One frequents the hexactinellid
Sponge containing Syllis ramosa, a second accompanies the Crustaceans in Euplectella,
while a third occurs in the branchial chamber of an Ascidian, and a fourth in the tube
of Spiochcetopterus just as Polynoe scolopendrina and others do in Britain in the tubes
of various species.

“ Two species of Grube’s new genus Eulepis are present. Provisionally they may be
placed here, though the structure of the body wall somewhat differs from that in the
Polynoidse.

“ Without going into detail in regard to the other families, it may be mentioned that
in all of them new species occur, and in many new genera, but it has not been deemed
necessary to constitute a new family.

“Amongst the most remarkable forms is the branched Syllis1 ( Syllis ramosa,
MTntosh, fig. 215), dredged at Station 192, in 140 fathoms off the Ki Islands in the
Banda Sea, and again in 95 fathoms off Zebu, one of the Philippines ; in both instances
the greyish mud being peculiarly rich in Euplectellce and other hexactinellid sponges and
Sipunculi. The Annelid occurred in the canals of a cup-shaped hexactinellid sponge,
just above the wisp, but was only observed after preservation. The intricate manner in
which the branches are arranged makes it difficult to dissect them out, when the friable
nature of the animal and the sharp spicules of the sponge are taken into account. Even
after removal from the sponge it is a laborious operation to unravel the Annelid.
The body of this Syllis is about the thickness of fine sewing thread, branched in a
1 Journ, Linn. Soc. Lond. (Zool.), vol. xiv. p. 720, 1879.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

631

632

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

complex manner and consisting of narrow segments with well-formed feet. The latter
have dorsally a long and gracefully curved cirrus, a conical setigerous region with a few
simple bristles, and interiorly a broad and stout ventral cirrus. The dorsal cirri are alter-
nately longer and shorter, as in certain other forms, e.g., those described by Grube from
the Philippines. The buds appear laterally, terminally, and wherever a broken surface
occurs, and a diverticulum of the alimentary canal enters each. These buds on attaining
a certain size give off other buds, so that the whole has a remarkably branched form.

“ The tail of the bud (i.e., the distal part) is early formed, and soon presents two long
cirri. N o head appeared in the examples from Zebn, but in a particularly broad bud, on a
specimen from the Flores Sea, a head occupied the free end. This bud came off at right
angles, had shorter segments and a more distinctly moniliform alimentary canal. The
anterior margin of the snout is depressed and carries on each side a slender cirrus,
while another . appendage of the same kind occurs just in front of the eye. A sulcus
separates this area from the more elevated one behind, the latter resembling a broad
wedge with the eye on each angle anteriorly. The ocular pigment is dark red, the edge
being somewhat irregular. The folds on the posterior margin of the head are symmetrical
-and the nuchal border is clearly marked. Several female buds were found. The head in
an attached example is bilobed and somewhat like the sexua] form termed Ioida by Dr. G.
Johnston, having a large reddish brown eye on each side, and a still larger pair on the
ventral surface. The head is terminated posteriorly by two short cirri and a setigerous
process furnished with a spine. The entire fusiform body and the bases of the feet
are filled with ova, showing germinal vesicle and spot. The anterior segments are
provided with bristles of the same type as the parent stock, though the terminal
appendage is more differentiated. An older (free) bud seemed to differ from the fore-
going chiefly in the size of the ova (some of which appear to contain embryos), and in
the presence of long translucent bristles with broad flattened tips (the c Pubertatsborsten ’
of Professor Langerhans). A fragment of the posterior end of a male also occurred. The
feet have dorsally a convex margin, and the same outline exists ventrally at the base, but
the edge slopes upward distally. A short dorsal cirrus of a few segments is present,
and beneath it a tuft of long straight translucent sword-shaped bristles similar to those
in the female bud. The body contained a large number of granules and masses,
apparently of spermatozoa.

“ In no group of the Annelida is budding more conspicuous than in the Syllidse.
The linear division of Autolytus and Procercea, the lateral buds of Exogone, and the
ease with which .heads and tails are reproduced, are examples ; but the foregoing
( Syllis ramosa ) marks a new era in the invertebrates, for the branches occur as freely as
in a hydroid zoophyte, and the open ends of the ruptured alimentary canal would seem
to be sufficient for the nourishment of the various parts. In connection with this subject
the slightly branched tubes of Eunice magellanica form an interesting feature, since they

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

633

demonstrate that branching tubes by no means indicate a divided condition of the
Annelid.

“ From a depth of 1950 fathoms in the Antarctic Ocean
an equally peculiar example of the Chlorsemidse occurs.

This form ( Tr aphonia, wyvillei, n. sp., fig. 216) is large
and broadly elliptical, the long pale papillae which cover its
surface giving it the aspect of grey plush or loose felt.

These papillae are densely coated with the siliceous organisms
of the Diatom ooze, besides having these loose in the
interstices. The oral aperture is ventral, and has two large
foliaceous tentacles, which in life must have approached a
circular outline. The branchiae are clavate, and like the
tentacles tinted of a pale brown colour. The anus is also
ventral, and is situated a little within the posterior border.

The beautiful tufts of pale golden bristles which flank the
sides are twenty-two in number ; the ventral, in the case
of all except the first, being stronger and much more con-
spicuous than the dorsal.

“ The wide range and peculiar form of another member
of the Chlorsemidse, viz., Flabelligera (?) abyssorum, n. sp.,
frequenting the abysses of the Atlantic and Pacific, opens
up the question as to ancestral forms being driven into the
still depths by commoner and more hardy types. Unfor-
tunately all the specimens, though of considerable size, are
fragmentary, but it is probable that the type is inter-
mediate between the Chlorsemidse and the Chsetopteridse.

The anterior end of this remarkable Annelid (fig. 217) is
formed by the dark brownish muscular lip, which is convex
dorsally, concave ventrally, thus forming a horse-shoe-like
projection. The upper and posterior angles run into a
double foliaceous and somewhat frilled brownish mass
which constitutes the superior boundary of the oral aper-
ture. Close behind the latter is a stout process having a
median filament with an enlargement at the tip, and two
lateral processes considerably shorter and with filiform
extremities. The feet have long delicate flattened dorsal
bristles which possess a sheen like spun glass, and articula-
tions so large as to be visible under a lens. These tufts extend outward about 18 mm.
The ventral bristles are equally translucent but devoid of articulations. The hyaline

Fig. 216. — Trophonvi wyvillei,
Station 167, March 3, 1874
fathoms.

634

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

cuticle invests the body with a gelatiniform coating, but the contingencies connected with
its capture may have altered it, though numerous granules and elongated glands are still
evident.

“ The mouth leads into a dark brownish thick- walled pharynx, which in the prepara-
tion is somewhat moniliform. The latter terminates in a firm white and nearly cylindrical
region, somewhat narrowed posteriorly where it merges into a longitudinally furrowed
glandular part (stomach) continuous with the intestinal canal. The nervous system is
evident on the ventral surface as a double cord, two ganglia being placed antero-
posteriorly in each segment, the larger in front and the smaller behind.

Fig. 217. — Flabelligera (?) cibyssorum, n. sp.

“ Many interesting deep-sea forms occur in the family Maldanidse, which with the
closely allied Ammocharkke appear to abound in the abysses. Amongst the Ampharetidse
the Atlantic and Antarctic Oceans produced some curious new types, such as Rliynchos-
caphia antarctica, n. gen. and’ sp., from Station 151, a form in which the snout is
flattened and broadly spathulate as well as devoid of tentacles. Traces of four branchial
processes are present and there are fifteen pairs of bristle-bundles.

“Two or three new genera come from great depths, ranging from 1100 to 2300
fathoms.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

635

“ The large number of the Terebellidse is noteworthy. Amongst the new genera are
Eupista, in which the branchial processes are simple, and Eutlielepus, in which the three
post-cephalic segments have a process or lobe jutting forward from the anterior border on
each side, and a long simple branchial filament. This family, like that of the Serpulidse,
reaches very profound depths (such as 3125 fathoms), and both range to shallow water.

“The tubes fashioned by many forms are peculiar. Thus the tube of a large Eiyali-
ncecia is as wide as a goose-quill, which it much resembles in texture, but it is nine or ten
inches in length. Nothrice from the deep sea have their tubes strengthened by long
glassy spicules of sponges, by long arenaceous Foraminifera, by tubes of Serpulce, and in
the case of a Japanese form, by the long linear leaves of the Coniferse carried to the
sea by rivers. Perhaps the most remarkable tube of the group, however, is that of
Notliria willemoesii, n. sp. It is a large, rounded, and firm tube, externally composed of
of greyish sandy mud, and internally of a tough whitish secretion. The greater part
of the surface is furnished with a series of long, slightly bent elastic spines composed
(after the manner of a sponge spicule) of layer upon layer of a hyaline secretion, probably
of the same nature as the inner wall of the tube. The great length (500 mm.), again,
of the tubes of Notliria elder si, n. sp., is noteworthy. The new abyssal forms of the
Ampharetidse inhabit tubes of mud lined by a chitinous layer. The tubes of Pista
mirabilis, n. sp., one of the Terebellidse, are firm, rounded, chitinous structures tapering
from the anterior to the posterior extremity and studded all over with long spinous
processes, the wall of the tube being minutely marked by fine — almost linear — transverse
wrinkles. The tube is apparently free, in the majority, but in others it is immersed in
sponges.”

Hong Kong.

The colony of Hong Kong consists of the island of that name and -the opposite penin-
sula of Kowloon. The island is about 9 miles long, N.W. by W. and S.E. by E., and
from 2 to 5^ miles broad ; its shores are much indented, particularly on the south side.
The Kowloon Peninsula, on the main coast of China, opposite Hong Kong, is 2 miles in
length and 1 in breadth. The total area of the colony does not much exceed 30 square
miles. The island was originally ceded to Great Britain in 1841, and the peninsula of
Kowloon in 1861.

The harbour of Hong Kong is formed by the strait separating the island from the
China coast ; it is almost completely landlocked, and possesses anchorage ground
extending over nearly 10 square miles.

The general aspect of Hong Kong, and of the neighbouring part of China, is very
fine, for the island consists for the most part of rocky ranges, culminating in Mount
Victoria, 1825 feet above the level of the sea, and the hills on the China coast are similar

636

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S CHALLENGED.

ill character, rising to heights of 4000 feet, and the clear weather so frequently experienced
shows to advantage the wild mountain scenery, which offers a coup d’ceil that can
hardly he excelled.

The city of Victoria, on the north side of Hong Kong Island, extends for upwards of
3 miles along the coast at the base of the hills. Owing to the nature of the ground,
which rises abruptly from the sea, the streets are built in terraces, rising one above the
other, nearly a third of the way to the peak, which renders the view of the town from
the sea exceedingly picturesque. Along the coast, in front of the city, some land lias
been reclaimed, embanked, and formed into a handsome esplanade, 3 miles in length,
from which a few wharves extend to facilitate landing merchandise. A good military
road, 22 miles in Length, encircles the island, and other roads cross the mountains,
the principal beiug the road to Victoria Peak, on the summit of which is a signal
station, and near it a sanatorium and a few bungalows. The city of Hong Kong is
remarkably well built and laid out. Besides several handsome Government Buildings
there is a cathedral and bishop’s palace, several good hospitals, extensive barracks, and
club houses. At the back of the town, near Government House, on the slope of the hill,
are the botanical gardens, from which a fine view of the harbour is obtained, and at the
eastern extremity of the town is the only flat piece of land on the island, called “ Happy
Valley,” utilised as a racecourse, and close to which, in somewhat awkward proximity, are
the cemeteries.

The occupation of Hong Kong was originally of considerable cost to England, the
vote from Parliament in 1845 being nearly £50,000 in addition to military expenditure.
Since 1867, however, the colony has been self-supporting.

Lying as it does just within the tropics, Hong Kong is subject to an excessively hot
and a somewhat cool season, coinciding wTith the southwest and northeast monsoons.
The city being situated on the north side of the island, under the hills, does not receive
any benefit from the southwest monsoon, which on the southern side agreeably tempers
the violent heat. July and August are the hottest months, and November to January
the coolest period. March and April are foggy, with a penetrating damp, requiring
great care to be taken of books or instruments liable to injury from that cause. The
rainy season proper commences in May, and continues until the beginning of August, and
during this period the rain falls almost without intermission, frequently causing floods
which do great damage.

o o

A meteorological register has been kept at Hong Kong for fourteen years, from which
the following table has been compiled, showing with far greater precision than a long
explanation what the average climate of the island is. To this is added a register for
two years on Victoria Peak, and for the sake of comparison one for the same period at
the sea level : —

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

637

Hong Kong.

Meteorological Table compiled from observations made at the Government Civil Hospital for fourteen years,
viz., from 1861-74. The wind observations are from 1868-74, and the cloud observations from 1872-74.
The Barometer reduced to 32° and sea level.

BAROMETF.R.

c-6

o„-

Rain.

WIN D.

MONTH.

§>

H J

1 |

t-f,

Clouds— 0 to
Mean Amoui

No.

of

days.

£ J

No. OF DATS FROM

Mean

Height.

1

I5

1°

11

l|

Total

Fall.

N.

,,

1

‘1

S.E.

s.

S.W.

Clm

JANUARY.

30U38

ins.

0-64

60-6

7-5

76-0

43 0

5-9

inches.

0-65

3

s-i

2

8

9

0

1

5

FEBRUARY,

30-102

0-60

60-5

8-0

76-0

41-0

6-3

1-02

5

S3

1

7

11

0 1

0

1 i 1

5

MARCH, ....

30-023

0-59

64-5

7-8

81-0

43-0

7-6

2-83

8

S-7

0

5

15

0

1

5

ABRIL, ....

29-964

0-55

72-4

7-4

86-5

56-0

6-5

3-27

7

7-9

1

3

12

4

0

3

10

6

MAY, ....

29-838

0-51

7s 7

6-0

87-5

62-0

7-4

12-61

14

6-8

0

2

9

4

1

7

2 1

5

JUNE, ....

29-787

0-58

82-6

6-2

90-0

71-0

6-7

14-59

17

4-1

0

1

7

»

8

7

2! 1

7

JULY, ....

29-780

0-49

83-5

6-7

91-0

73-0

61

13-62

13

4-0

0

1

5

3

2

11

2 j 1

6

AUGUST, . j

29-789

0-55

83-1

6-9

92-0

75-0

6-7

13-25

14

1

1

7

2

l

9

2 I 0

8

SEPTEMBER,

29-842

1 00

SI'S

7-2

90-0

69 0

G-4

12-99

11

...

2

8

2

0

2 1

5

OCTOBER, .

29-993

0-85

77-3

6-1

88-0

64-0

4-40

6

13-4

3

10

11

2

0

0 1

3

NOVEMBER,

30-130

0-75

69-9

7-9

88*0

52-0

4-7

0-37

2

6-6

J

12

9

1

0

0

0 1

DECEMBER,

30-142

0-59

64-4

7-6

82-0 !

36-0

4-7

0-54

3

9-0

3

10

10

1

0

0

ll 1

5

Means and Totals,

29*961

1-0

73-3

7-1

92*0

30-0

6-2

80-14

103

...

17

|

67

113

29

6

16 j 11

I -
1

_

Hong Kong — Sea Level.

Meteorological Table compiled from observations taken at the Civil Hospital from Nov. 30tli, 1872 to
Nov. 30th, 1874. Barometer reduced to 32° and sea level.

Barometer.

a.-g

0 .1

Rain.

MONTH.

Mean

Height.

bfi

p

cl

1 1

I'l

I Clouds— 0 to

Mean Amou

Total

Fall.

No.
of {
days.

JANUARY,

30-140

0-51

58S

7-9

76-0

47-0

inches.

0-90

4

FEBRUARY,

30-105

0-54

62-0

10-0

740

50-0

0-72

3

MARCH

30 035

0-39

64-7

6-7

75-5

53-0

167

7

APRIL

29-955

0-46

71-3

5-7

83-0

56-0

2-98

11

MAY

29-802

0-46

7S-0

5-0

86-0

70-0

20-77

20

JUNE

29-795

0-48

84-1

5-0

90-0

71-0

7-97

1.2

JULY, ....

29-745

0-49

83-7

6-5

91-0

76-0

1512

14 1

AUGUST, .

29-790

0-31

83-1

6-7

89-0

75-0

14-18

IS

SEPTEMBER,

1 29-812

0-53

83-0

63

90-0

76-0

13-85

13

OCTOBER,

30-017

0-45

7S-3

88-0

65-0

1-08

5

NOVEMBER,

30-145

0-29

69-8

7-1

78-0

52-0

0-44

1

DECEMBER,

30-105

0-48

67-0

6-8

75-0

56-0

0-52

2

Means and Totals,

29-954

0-54

73*7

6-6

91-0

47-0

80-20

1 110

w i n n.

No. OF DAI'S FROM

5 4 j 11 j 1 0 0

1 3 15 3 1 0

1 1 21 2 1 0

2 2 21 0 0 1

1 1 13 3 1 3

1 1 11 2 2 4

No. of days

638

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Hong Eong — Victoria Peak.

Meteorological Table compiled from observations taken at the Signal House, Victoria Peak, between
Nov. 30th, 1872 and Nov. 30th, 1874. Barometer reduced to 32° but not to sea level. Height of
Victoria Peak on Admiralty Chart, 1825 feet.

Bakometek.

.5 |

Rain.

WIND.

MONTH.

Mean

|

|f

If

|f

e k

H £

No.

N<

OF DATS FROM

o. of da
Gales.

Height.

W

1 °

1 Max.
shade

■s v

Fall.

of

days.

N. 1

N.E.

E.

S.E.

-

s.w.

w.

N.W. C’lm

JANUARY,

ins.

2S-42G

•42

51 -S

°

67-0

0 1
40-0

inches.

1-14

7

6

12

i

0

1

1

5 0

2

FEBRUARY.

2S-407

0’43

55-4

7-1

69-0

39-5

1-00

7

3

4

14

2

2

o

1

1 1

4

MARCH .

28-343

0-27

5S-5

6-5

71-0

44-0

2-53

14

i

2

2

16

8

2

0

0

1 0

3

APRIL, .

28-286

0-33

64-3

6-0

73-5

49-0

4-21

16

2

1

16

4

4

1

°

i ; i

2

MAY,

28-134

0-32

70-8

4-6

77-5

61-0

23-44

26

0

1

9

3

10

1

2 0

4

, JUNE

28122

0-39

74-1

4-1

79-5

64-0

7-17

21

0

0

8

4

11

0

0 1

3

JULY

2S-125

0-34

74-7

3-9

82-0

68-0

14-50

21

1

0

4

4

11

1

1 °

3

i AUGUST

28-131 .

0-41

74-9

4-2

81-5

6S'0

11-77

21

0

1

10

5

7

7

0

O' 1

1

SEPTEMBER, .

28-114

0-73

75-0

5-0

83-0

67-0

S-53

16

4

3

10

2

4

2

2 1

4

OCTOBER,

28-230

0-34

70-1

6'0

80-0

56-0

2-31

7

4

3

21

0

1

1

0

M 0

0

j NOVEMBER,

28-2S1

0-49

61-7

6-8

72-0

42-0

0-42

2

6

6

17

0

0

0

0

0 1

1

| DECEMBER.

28-452

0-29

60-9

8-1

70-5

47-5

1-07

6

3

3

21

1

0

1

0

1 1

1

|

Means and Totals,

28-254

k

60-0

5-8

83-0

39-5

78-09

164

30

30

158

34

52

33

h

15 7

28

h

All the zoological and other specimens collected during the cruise between Sydney
and Hong Kong were landed at Kowloon and placed in a house belonging to the dock-
yard, where they were carefully packed ; one hundred and twenty-nine cases and several
casks being placed on board H.M.S. “Adventure” on the 1st January 1875 for trans-
mission to England.

The British residents and naval and military officers at Hong Kong received the
members of the Expedition with great hospitality, and a similar hospitality was extended
to those members of the Expedition who visited Canton.

The chief event during the stay at Hong Kong was, however, the appointment, much
to the regret of every one on board, of Captain Nares to the command of the Arctic
Expedition, and his departure for England accompanied by Lieutenant Aldrich, the first
lieutenant of the ship ; previous to their departure they were entertained to dinner by
the naval officers and members of the Civilian Scientific Staff.

The late Captain Frank Turle Thomson of H.M.S. “ Modeste,” who was then serving
on the China station, was appointed to the Challenger, and joined the Expedition on
the 2nd January 1875.

The water at Hong Kong was brilliantly phosphorescent during the whole of the stay

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

039

of the ship. Noctiluca miliaris, various species of Ceratium and Diatoms were always
present in great numbers, and in addition Copepods, Cirriped larvae, Annelid larvae,
Hydromedusae, Appendicularia, and Diphyes.

The Calcarea and Keratosa. — On the return of the Expedition to England,
Dr. N. Polejaeff, of the University of Odessa, undertook to prepare a Report on the
collections of Calcareous and Horny Sponges, and his two separate Reports appear in
the zoological series.1 Dr. PolejaefF gives the chief results of his investigations in the
following notes : — “ The adequate discussion of questions bearing upon geographical
distribution as well as upon the relation of the deep-sea fauna to the fauna of the later
geological periods is quite impossible as regards the Calcareous and Horny Sponges. Both
the Calcarea and the Keratosa belong not to the deep-sea, but to the littoral, fauna, the
greatest depth from which they have hitherto been obtained not exceeding 400 to 450
fathoms, and even this only in exceptional cases ( Leucosolenia hlanca, var. bathyhia,
Leuconia crucifer a, Cacospongia levis, Stelospongos longispinus, Verongia tenuissima).
Again, up to this time, there are in p alee ontological literature no trustworthy statements
as to their occurrence in the earlier geological periods. The question as to whether the
Pharetrones, or at least a part of them, are really to be referred to the Calcarea remains
still open to discussion, and on the other hand the nature of a couple of fossils described by
Zittel and Carter as Horny Sponges is no less ambiguous. Finally, and with regard to the
geographical distribution of the two groups in question, it must be noticed that most of
their representatives in the Challenger collection have been found to present new forms,
almost every one of which is represented only by a single specimen, so that in this
respect also no further conclusions and generalisations were possible. Accordingly the
scientific investigation of the Challenger Calcarea and Keratosa was possible onty from
a purely zoological point of view.

“ Apart from the systematic description of new forms, the chief results with regard
to the Calcarea find their expression in the attempt to frame a new and more natural
classification than that proposed by Ernst Haeckel in his splendid monograph Die
Kalkschwamme. The necessity of this measure has been recognised for some years, but
there was a want of conditions appropriate to its realisation, since the reformer ought
also to have proved that the phylogenetic ideas on which Haeckel’s system is based are
false, the execution of this latter task involving, in its own turn, a similar proceeding
with respect to many of his statements as to the anatomy of the Calcarea in general.
Of course, numerous contributions to a more correct knowledge of their organisation
and mutual affinities have long since been made, as for instance the statements of
F. E. Schulze as. to the impossibility of adopting Haeckel’s strobiloid gemmation hypo-
thesis of the origin of the Sycones from the Ascones. Again, what we have learned from

1 Report on the Calcarea, Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxiv., 1883 ; Report on the Keratosa, Ibid., part xxi., 1884.

(narr. chall. exp. — voL. i.— l88o.) 81

640

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Barrois’s Embryologie de quelques Sponges de la Manclie and from Vosmaer’s paper on
Leucandra aspera, proved that, contrary to Haeckel’s assertions, the Leucones seem to
be more closely allied to the Sycones than to the Ascones. But all these statements,
valuable and important as they were from a morphological point of view, could not serve
as a basis for a new arrangement of the group. They rendered every one still more
conscious of the fact that Haeckel’s system is quite artificial, but they were too
fragmentary for any systematic deductions. In order to construct for the group in
question a new systematic edifice, not merely the study of a single species but the
revision of a whole collection was indispensable, together with the simultaneous examina-
tion of certain original forms examined and described by Haeckel. Such a collection
had been made during the voyage of H.M.S. Challenger, and, further, thanks to the
kindness of many naturalists, the author of the Report was enabled to obtain, for the
purpose of comparison, most of the original Calcarea of interest and importance. The
main results of the Report conducted under these very favourable circumstances are the
following :■ — ■

“ The group of Calcarea is not to be subdivided directly into families as proposed by
Haeckel, but primarily into two orders, namely (1) Homoccela, represented by the single
family Asconidse, and characterised by a complete absence of differentiated flagellated
chambers, the whole central cavity being covered with a continuous layer of flagellated
cells ; and (2) Heterocoela, embracing the families Syconidse, Leuconidse, and
Teichonidee, characterised by the fact that their central cavity, together with its clerivates,
are coated partly with pavement epithelium (inhalent and exhalent canal system), partly
with flagellated epithelium (flagellated chambers).

“The above deduction is perhaps the most important in the Memoir, and therefore
the communication here of the facts and arguments on which it is founded may not be
superfluous.

“The striking resemblance of the Asconidse to the phase of development of Calcarea
known under the name of Olynthus was remarked long ago, and Haeckel as well as
Vosmaer take the Olynthus in their phylogenetic speculations for the starting point,
identifying it with the primitive Ascon representing the stock of the whole group of
Calcarea. The deductions of Haeckel having been rejected by Vosmaer, those of
Vosmaer — and particularly his flagellated epithelium theory — are now in their turn
rejected by Dr. Polejaeff, who does not identify the Ascon with the Olynthus, this latter
being, according to him, ‘ a neutral being, and the Ascon one of its modifications, the
Sycon another.’ He states that £ an Olynthus may increase longitudinally without lateral
growth, and in that case it will give origin to an Ascon.’ £An Olynthus,’ he further
suggests, £ may also grow in all directions in length as well as laterally,’ and on the
ground of certain, so to speak, geometric arguments in connexion with others concerning
the question as to what histological elements do in the Calcarea take in the nutritious

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

641

particles, -he regards as a necessary result of such a kind of growth the substitution
of pavement epithelium for flagellated epithelium covering the central cavity in the
Olynthus, as well as the formation of differentiated flagellated chambers (radial
tubes).. In harmony with all this, and since, through forms like Leucilla liter,
Leucilla connexiva, Amphoriscus elongatus and Amphoriscus poculum, the typical
Sy con idee are most closely connected with typical Leuconidse, Dr. Polejaeff upholds
the existence of an absolute distinction between the Asconidse and all other Calcarea,
and gives systematic expression to it by subdividing the group into two orders.

“ Although the above theory is regarded as quite plausible, it must however be
noticed that it stands in a certain contradiction to some embryological data which,
though mentioned by the author, are not brought into harmony with his hypothesis.
Polejaeff regards his Homoccela and Heterocoela as systematically equivalent groups, i.e.,
to present divergent branches from the same spot of the genealogical tree of the animals.
Again, on page 21 of his Memoir, he adopts the opinion upheld by Metschnikoff that
in Parenchymula we have to do with a larva of more primary characters than those of
Amphiblastula, both these larvae, as is well known, being characteristic of the Calcarea.
But it is also known that these larvae are not distributed in such a manner that
Parenchymula characterises the development of Homocoela and Amphiblastula that of
Heterocoela. The latter is of course true, but the development of Homocoela is charac-
terised in some instances by Parenchymula, in others by Amphiblastula. The contra-
diction above alluded to is clear. And it is equally plain that the hypothesis under
consideration will become theory only when it has been proved either that the statements
of Barrois and Keller as to the occurrence of Amphiblastula within the Asconidse are
based on a mistake, or that the opinion of Metschnikoff above mentioned is erroneous, or
finally that the Amphiblastula of Heterocoela and that of Homocoela are only analogous
and not homologous larvae.

To return to the results of the Eeport, which concern the Heterocoela almost
exclusively. As to the order of Homocoela, the author believes it to contain only a
single family, but he is not prepared to say whether this family consists of but one or
of many genera. On the whole he believes our knowledge on this head to be still very
deficient.

“ In the order Heterocoela three families are distinguished, all already established by
former systematists. The inducement to adopt the family Teichonidae established by Carter
for a single genus, Teichonella, has been given by the circumstance that the Challenger
collection contained a form, the beautiful Eilhardia schulzei (see fig. 218), with its silvery
lustre, which, closely allied to the genus Teichonella as it is, differs from it so very much
that the creation of a new genus, and thus the adoption of the whole family, became indis-
pensable. The family is characterised by having the outer surface differentiated into two
different planes, one bearing oscula, the other pores, and the internal organisation of its re-

642

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

presentative in the Challenger collection recalling vividly that of the typical Leuconidae,
a great stress is laid upon the close relationship of both these families in spite of the want
of intermediate forms connecting them directly. Such being the case with regard to the
Teichonidae, a series of illustrations are given in the Report which, beginning with the
internal structure of one of the typical Syconidae ( Sycon arcticum), lead us gradually to
that of one of the typical Leuconidae ( Leuconia multiformis ). The results of this
argument are formulated as follows : — ‘ The Leu cones are nothing but modified Sy cones
with a non-articulated tubar skeleton, their flagellated chambers are complete homologues
of the radial tubes ; their exhalent canals owe their origin to the invaginations of the
inner cavity, and their inhalent canals are to be regarded as homologous wTith the
intercanals of the Sycones.’

“ The author adopts the families established by Haeckel, although with considerable

j Fig.. 218. — Hilhardia scJmlzei, Polejaeff.

modifications as to their diagnosis; but this is not the case so far as Haeckel’s genera arc
concerned. As is well known, the definitions of these latter are based on spicular characters
exclusively. Dr. Polejaeff regards this proceeding as thoroughly artificial, and comes to
the conclusion that ‘the spicules of the Calcarea being very variable in every direction,
could not serve as a basis for the distinction of genera, even if there were in the
Calcareous Sponges no other characters fit for very distinct systematic definitions.’
The principle upon which he proceeds is the consideration of all the organs in their
mutual correlation. Following it he distinguishes — in the family of Syconidae six genera
[Sycon, Grantia, Ute, Amphoriscus, Heteropegma, and Anamixilla), two of which,
namely Anamixilla and Heteropegma, are new ; in the family of Leuconidae four genera
( Leucilla , Leuconia, Leucetta, and Pericharax) , the genus Pericharax being created for
forms partly collected by the Challenger, partly described by Haeckel ; and as above

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

043

mentioned in the family of Teichonidse two genera, one created by Carter, the other
new. The whole collection being represented by thirty species (twenty-three new) ;
four species (one new) have been found to belong to the Asconidae, ten species (seven
new) to the Syconidse, fifteen species (fourteen new) to the Leuconidse, and one species
(new) to the Teichonidse.

“ The Challenger collection of Horny Sponges proved to be but little larger than that
of Calcarea, consisting of thirty-seven species, twenty-one of which have been found to
be new. The collection proved, however, to embrace all the genera of the group distin-
guished up to this time, with the exception of Darwinella, Aplysilla , Aplysina, and
Phyllospongia. The author has abstained from describing three species represented only
by specimens quite devoid of soft parts, the whole systematic proceeding of the Memoir
having been conducted according to the principles upheld by Professor F. E. Schulze,
and demanding the examination of the soft parts in no less degree than of the properties
of the skeleton. It is for the first time that a comparatively large collection, of Keratosa
has been classified and described according to the present state of our spongiological
knowledge. But in spite of the fact that the brilliant researches of F. E. Schulze
have considerably increased within the Keratosa the number of characters fit for
systematic application, the author- of the report is still of opinion that on the whole the
arrangement of the group lately proposed by Dr. Yosmaer, and based on the investiga-
tions of F. E. Schulze above mentioned, is still to be regarded as a provisional one, and
that so long as Spongiology will not attach due influence to Comparative Physiology in
its systematic proceedings, no hopes can be entertained of a natural arrangement of the
Keratose Sponges. This is the chief idea of the Memoir, and even the description of the
Challenger specimens is to a certain degree subordinated to it and devoted to its founda-
tion. The Memoir opens with the discussion on the organisation of the Keratosa in
general and on their chief systematic characters. Its results are that all these characters
(namely the structure of the horny skeleton, the tendency of the skeletal fibres to take in
foreign bodies, the presence of filaments, the differences iir anatomical organisation) are
either of little systematic importance, or of such a relative nature that the subdivision
of the Keratosa into two main groups (orders) as proposed by Hyatt, Carter, and
v. Lendenfeld is impossible. On the other hand the author comes to the conclusion that
a direct subdivision into families as suggested by Yosmaer is also of an undoubtedly
artificial nature ; for such a subdivision, although it pays attention to the relative
character of the main , systematic characters of the Keratose Sponges,- does not give
sufficient weight to the circumstance that the application of these characters — namely
the structure of the canal system, and the properties of the skeletal fibres, whether
homogeneous or heterogeneous — gives rise to systems which are antagonistic to one
another ; and furthermore, the representatives of Dr. Yosmaer’s families show such many-

644

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

sided affinities that the above mentioned subdivision of them could not be expressed
graphically in a satisfactory manner.

“ The second chapter of the Report is devoted to the characters of the Keratosa gene-
rally regarded as of generic importance, and it renders obvious that, firstly, these charac-
ters are really of more subordinate consequence than those discussed before, and that,
secondly, most of the genera hitherto distinguished are created on the basis of thoroughly
relative and often very ambiguous characters.

“ The third chapter is that dealing with the description of the Challenger forms,
and though not interrupted by any considerations of a more general character, it
neglects no opportunity to point out that the classifier, following the principles used
at the present time, is on the whole £ to be compared with a man wandering in the
dark.’

“ The £ concluding remarks ’ summarize the general results of the Memoir, and after
having discussed the systematic position of the Keratosa with respect to other groups
of Porifera, Dr. Polejaeff asserts that the Keratosa form probably in this type or subtype
nothing more than a single family, and that accordingly they are to be subdivided into
genera directly. In order to have no heterogeneous genera among them, he proposes- to
enlarge the definition of the genus, and for the instances when some undoubtedly good
species are constant to a relative character to unite them into a subgenus. According to
this the family in question would consist of the genera Darwinella , Simplicella (including
the subgenera Aplysilla and Dendrilla), Ianthella, Spongia (including the subgenera
Coscinoderma, Euspongia, Hippospongia (?), Cacospongia, and Stelospongos), Phyllo-
spongos (including the subgenera Phyllospongia and Carteriospongia), and Velaria
(including the subgenera Aplysina, Verongia, and Luff aria). He believes, however, that
it would have been premature to follow up in his Report the arrangement just mentioned.
Sure as he is that this arrangement is in the main natural in every direction, he confesses
that by its adoption only the simplest part of the problem would have been cleared up,
its most important part consisting in the task of proving actually which of the subgenera
just mentioned are really to be regarded as subgenera (i. e. , groups which, although
connected by numerous intermediate stages with their systematic neighbours, still present
in their organisation a new principle fit for a further development) and not as species
and even varieties. This latter question is, according to him, to be decided (perhaps
exclusively) by the methods of comparative physiology. Many passages are devoted to
the definition of the idea of the genus. In his report on the Challenger Calcarea Dr.
Polejaeff regarded the generic character to be a ‘ character of sufficient constancy, and
together with this, allowing numerous modifications either in the direction of a further
development, or in the direction of different variations.’ His experience whilst examining
the Challenger Keratosa leads him to the suggestion that at least in the instances where
but one character — and not a series of them as is the case with the Calcarea — decides

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

645

the question as to whether the given specimen is to be referred to this genus or to the
other, the existence of an absolute distinction (in the sense of Nageli) is indispensable.

“ The whole Report is almost exclusively of a critical character. Its most interesting
positive statements are the following : — on the structure of the skeletal fibres and their
development ; statements on the formations which Dr. Polejaeff feels inclined to connect
with the filaments ; some statements of a more detailed character on the anatomical
structure of the soft- parts; organisation of Darwinella, Ianthella, Psammoclema,
Psammopemma, Carteriospongia, Phyllospongia, Luff aria, and Verongia; and data on
the spermatogenesis in the last mentioned genus.”

646

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

CHAPTER XVI.

Hong Kong to Manila and Zebu — Mactan and Zebu — Zebu to Camiguin Island and Samboangan — Samboangan —
Samboangan to Humboldt Bay — The Polyzoa — Cephalodiscus — Humboldt Bay — Humboldt Bay to the Admiralty'
Islands — The Alcyonaria- — The Nudibranchiata.

Hong Kong to Manila.

On the 6th January 1875, the Challenger left Hong Kong just before noon, steam-
ing out to the eastward through the Lyemun Pass ; then between the Tathong Rock
and Hong Kong Island for the channel between Sunkong and Pootoy Islands, after pass-
ing through which the ship was steered for the northeast head of Lema Island, which
was passed at 3.30 p.m., when sail was made and the fires put out.

On the 8th the wind, which had been blowing fresh from the northeast, moderated
sufficiently to allow of sounding and trawling, at 11 a.m., in 2100 fathoms (see Sheet 31).
The temperature at the bottom proved to be precisely the same as that at 900 fathoms,
indicating that the China Sea is cut off from the Pacific Ocean by a ridge of about
that depth. At 5 p.m. the trawl was hove up, and sail was again made towards
Manila.

On the 9th, the wind having fallen light and hauled to the eastward, sails were
furled, and the ship proceeded at 4 p.m. under steam.

On the 10th, at 8 a.m., the land about Yba was seen, and the vessel was steered to
the southward as necessary. At 3 p.m. a dismasted vessel was sighted to the eastward,
which proved to be an abandoned coaster named the “ Santa Maria,” and being
dangerous to passing vessels was taken in tow. At 5 p.m. Point Silanguin bore S. 48° E.,
and Point Botolan N. 84° E.

On the 11th, at 4.30 p.m., the vessel anchored in Manila Bay in 4% fathoms, with
the Mole lighthouse N. 48° E., the Cathedral N. 70° E., and Cavite light S. 20° W.

On the passage from Manila to Hong Kong, as well as on this the return voyage, the
surface temperature was found to be 3° higher within 60 miles of the coast of Luzon
than it was at a greater distance from that island, and this change of temperature was
sudden, taking place in the voyage to Hong Kong in a distance of 10 miles, and in the
return voyage in 6 miles. On each occasion, so long as the ship was in the belt of
warm water, a northerly current was experienced. This stream is shown on the Current
Chart of the World, published in 1872, but on the chart of the China Sea (northern
portion, sheet 2) a current arrow is drawn as if a S.S.W. set were always experienced in
the neighbourhood. The source of this warm current on the Luzon coast has not

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

647

yet been satisfactorily determined. On the Current Chart of 1872, it is depicted as
issuing from the Sulu Sea through Mindoro Strait ; but it is highly probable that only a
small portion of it is derived from that sea, the greater part being the continuation of the
current which is known to set to windward in the middle of the China Sea during the
northeast monsoon. This weatherly current in the centre of the China Sea, extending
from the Natuna Islands certainly as far as the North Danger, appears to be caused by
the resurging of the water driven into this sea by the wind ; for it is known that along the
western shores of the sea a very strong current, amounting at times to 60 miles a day,
runs to the southwestward, that in the southern part of the China Sea the mean level of
the tide is higher in the northeast than in the southeast monsoon, and that from this
cause the stream is almost constantly running out of the China Sea through the Straits of
Singapore, Banka, Gaspar, and Carimata. These facts being known, and also that a north-
east current is met with in the centre of the sea, it may be inferred that the straits lead-
ing from the China Sea to the Indian Ocean are insufficient to relieve the southern part
of the China Sea from the head of water accumulated, and' consequently the weatherly
current is established in its centre. The existence of this weatherly current was well
known to the captains of the old opium clippers, who always worked to windward in
the neighbourhood of the reefs ; and the mail steamers, in their passage from Singapore to
Hong Kong during the northeast monsoon, now take advantage of this weatherly set,
and keep just west of the reefs which form the eastern boundary of the main route
to China. The tracing of these currents would be a most interesting work, more
especially as to whether the Luzon Current joins the stream running northeast along the
east coast of Formosa.

Manila to Zebu.

On the 15th January the Expedition left Manila for Zebu, passing through Saint
Bernardino Strait, where a small Spanish station was noticed on Santiago Point. On the
16th a sounding and a trawling were obtained in 700 fathoms in Romblon Strait, and
on the 17th in 11 fathoms east of the Gigantes Islands. After passing the Gigantes
Islands the ship proceeded north of Tanguingui Island, and then through the channel
between Malaspascua and Chocolate Islands, round the north end of Zebu Island. Gato
Island is pyramidal in shape, about 150 feet high, Chocolate Island is also conspicuous,
Malaspascua is low, as is the north extremity of Zebu.

On the 18th, at 1.30 p.m., the vessel arrived at Zebu, and anchored in 10^ fathoms
off the town. Steering towards Zebu Harbour from the northward, it was noticed that
Baguey Point, when first seen, looked like an island, as there is upon it a round-backed
hill about 150 feet high. Mactan and Olango Islands are both very low.

When the ship entered the port, the edges of the shoals were by no means readily

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 82

648

THE TOY AGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEB.

distinguished, for muddy water extended right across the narrowest part of the channel.
The mud patch northeast of Mandanui tower had only grass and small bushes on its
outer southwest part, the remainder being bare.

Zebu.

Mactan Island. — Maetan Island consists of an old coral reef raised a few feet (8 or 1 0
at most) above the present sea level. At one part of the island, where a convent stands,
a low cliff fringes the shore, being the edge of an upper stratum of the upheaved reef.
This raised reef is here preserved, but has, over the portion of the island immediately
fronting Zebu, been removed by denudation, with the exception of a few isolated pillar-
like blocks which remain, and which are conspicuous from the anchorage. These show
that the whole island was once of the same height as the distant cliff. Opposite the
town of Zebu, the island of Mactan is bordered by a wide belt of denuded coral flat,
partly covered at high tide. The surface is scooped out into irregular basins and sharp
projecting pinnacles, and covered in all directions with mud, resulting from the denuda-
tion. Very few living corals are to be found on these flats, but small beds of them fringe
their seaward margin.

These muddy expanses are the haunt of numerous shore birds. In the pools a large
Sea Anemone, belonging to the genus Cerianthus, expands its tentacles in the full blaze
of the sun. Cerianthus uses its nematocysts, which in all its widely varying allies are
apparently only employed as offensive stinging organs, to construct a dwelling. The
cysts are shed out in enormous abundance, and with their protruded filaments matted
together and combined with abundant secreted slime, form a tough leathery tube with a
smooth and glistening inner surface, which is buried upright in the mud. Within this
tube the anemone lives, expanding its tentacles at the mouth of the tube, on a level with
the surface of the mud. It has the power of moving itself with extreme rapidity down
its tube, and disappears like a flash when alarmed. The species at Mactan Island is
very large ; the tube measures 1 foot 4 inches in length, and is very thick and heavy ;
the animal itself is 6 inches in length. This species of Cerianthus lives in shallow
water in the full heat and glare of the sun, while another species of the same genus,
Cerianthus bathymetricus, Moseley,1 differing from it in hardly any particular, except
that it is of much smaller size, inhabits the sea at a depth of 3 miles, in almost entire, if
not absolute absence of sunlight, at a temperature near freezing point, and under a
pressure of, roughly, 3 tons to the square inch.

Zebu. — Zebu (Cebu) is celebrated as being the scene of the death of Ferdinand
Magellan (in Portuguese Fernao de Magalhaes), the first circumnavigator. Magellan
arrived here on the 5th April 1521 (the ships entering the port with all their colours fly-
1 Trans. Linn. Soc. Land. (Zool.), ser. 2, vol. i. p. 302, 1877.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

649

ing, and saluting with their cannon), and met with a most friendly reception from the
Rajah of Zebu, who allowed him to erect a chapel on shore and celebrate mass, and who
eventually became a Christian, being with all his family publicly baptized; an example
followed by most of his subjects. Notwithstanding their Christianity, the natives were
wholly addicted to pleasure and idleness. Five or six hours every day were occupied by
their meals, their meat being very little cooked and much salted, making them drink much
and often. Their dress consisted only of a light covering round the middle, and their
houses were built on poles, the ground floor being occupied by their pigs, goats, or
poultry. In the villages many houses were constructed in trees. The domestic animals
at Zebu were dogs, cats, pigs, goats, and poultry, the two former being used for food
equally with the latter. The vegetable provisions were rice, maize, cocoanuts, sugar-
cane, oranges, pumpkins, and lemons.

Magellan, unfortunately for himself, shortly after his arrival began interfering in the
wars between the various Rajahs of Zebu and the neighbouring islands, and was killed
at Mactan, on the 27th April, in a quarrel unnecessarily engaged in, and for an unjust
cause. On the spot where he was killed a monument has been erected to his memory.

In April 1565, forty-four years after the death of Magellan, Miguel Lopez de
Legaspi arrived at Zebu, having been commissioned to annex the Philippine Islands as
a colony of Spain, and to convert the natives. He also was peacefully and well received
by the Zebu people, but quarrels arising respecting provisions, the natives took up arms
and were then conquered and subjected by the Spaniards, who founded here their first
settlement, which they named the “ City of Jesus,” because they found in one of the
native huts a carved image of Christ, which it was believed had remained there
from the time of Magellan. This image is still in the monastery of St. Augustine
in the city.

The island of Zebu is 120 miles in length, and varies from 10 to 17 miles in
breadth; its area is about 1200 square miles. A lofty* mountain range traverses
the island from north to south, reducing the ground sufficiently level for cultivation to a
minimum, so that although the island produces sugar, tobacco, maize, and rice, and, in the
mountains, potatoes, the quantity of rice grown is not sufficient for the population, the
deficiency being supplied from Panay.

The town of Zebu has a population of about 34,000 ; it is the seat of government of
the Bisayans and the residence of a bishop. A considerable export trade is carried on,
the articles exported being principally sugar and Manila hemp (abaca). The sugar is of
inferior quality, and principally used in the distillery and for making beer, its value being
from £12 to £15 per ton.

Zebu possesses considerable beds of coal, but the surface crop only is worked. The
ship took in 10 tons to report on its quality, and found it very inferior; the price paid
was 8 dollars a ton, whilst for Australian coal the price was 1 6 dollars a ton ; small

650

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

quantities only of the latter can, however, be procured here. The rock near the town
is a diabase, probably an olivine-diabase in which the olivine is almost entirely
decomposed.

The land in Zebu belongs for the most part to the Mestizes (half-breeds), and is let
out by them to the peasants. The owners of the soil know how to keep the peasants
in a state. of dependence by usurious loans, and consequently agriculture in this island
stands lower than in almost any other part of the Philippine group.

The imported goods, which consist for the most part of cotton stuffs, come from
Manila though the Chinese traders there, who purchase from the foreign merchants.
Among the importations in 1868 were twenty chests of images.

The tides at Zebu at this season of the year (January) appear to be rather peculiar.
It was high water at full and change at midnight. Immediately after high water the
tide ebbed 7 feet in about seven hours ; it then rose 3^ feet in six and a half hours,
after which it fell about 6 inches in three hours, and then rose 4 feet in eight hours,
reaching its culminating point at about the time of the moon’s transit. The tidal stream
however sets regularly six hours each way, the flood tide coming from the southward ;
but the ebb or south-going stream, immediately following the moon’s superior transit, ran
with far greater strength than either of the other tides. Its velocity at its greatest
strength at the anchorage off Zebu was two miles per hour. Whilst lying at anchor
the ship had to be steered for the six hours during which this strong ebb stream was
running ; during the remaining eighteen hours this was unnecessary. As a surface
stream of two knots cannot be considered out of the way, the sheering of the ship can
only be accounted for by supposing the under current to have a much greater rapidity
than that on the surface.

Supplies at Zebu are scanty; beef very bad, 10 to 12 cents per lb.; fowls $3 to $3-§-
per dozen, ducks $8 to $10 per dozen; vegetables and fruit very scarce; fish plentiful
and moderate ; and eggs $3-| per hundred.

South of the town of Zebu the beacons on the reefs had, at the time of the visit, been
all blown down, but the buoys remained in position ; the one on the Mactan side of the
channel was red and white, the others red. These beacons and buoys are maintained by
a tax of from one to two cents per ton levied on ships entering the port.

When St. Nicholas Church tower bears N. ^ E., which is the mark given for leading
through the south channel into Zebu, it is in line with the central apex of a triple peaked
hill 10 or 12 miles north of the town.

Zebu had a special interest for the naturalists aS being the locality from which the
beautiful siliceous Sponge, Euplectella aspergillum (Venus’ flower basket), had been for
many years obtained in considerable abundance. It is called by the natives “Recka-
deros,” and is dredged for in 100 fathoms in the channel between Bohol and Zebu.
The form of dredge used by the natives is a very ingenious and effective one. It is

NARRATIVE OE THE CRUISE.

651

represented in fig. 219, and consists of a light framework made of split bamboo, with
two long straight strips about 8 feet in length forming its front, and meeting at a
wide angle to form a point, which is dragged first in using the machine. The long
straight strips have fish-hooks bound to them at intervals all along their length, the
points of the hooks being directed towards the angle of the machine. The whole is very
ingeniously strengthened by well-planned cross pieces, and is weighted with stones. It
is dragged on the bottom by means of a light Manila hemp cord not more than one-
eighth of an inch in diameter, which is attached to the angle. A stone attached to a
stick is fastened just in front of the angle to keep the point down on the bottom.

Fig. 219. — Dredge used by the Native Fishermen at Zebu for obtaining Euplectella.

The hooks creeping over the bottom and sweeping an area nearly 14 feet wide, catch in
the upright sponges and drag their bases out from the mud.

In addition to the Euplectella, a good many other siliceous Sponges were obtained
both by the native dredge and the ship’s dredges and trawls, as well as Echini, Star-
fishes, Annelids, Pentacrinus, Pennatulids, and many other invertebrates. Four parasitic
animals were found living on or in the Euplectella : an Isopod (JEga spongiophila), an
Aphroditacean Annelid an inch in length, a small Pecten, and a Palamion. Dr. von
Willemoes Suhm succeeded in hatching the eggs of the last and keeping the young,
which was an ordinary zooea, in water for some time.

The steam pinnace made several visits to the Euplectella ground along with the

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S, CHALLENGER.

652

native fishermen, and many trials were made with the different forms of dredges and
trawls. The ship also spent one day in similar work. The position where the greatest
number of these sponges were obtained was: the village of Tuiaan 48° 0' a conspicuous
red house at Talisay 54° O' St. Nicholas Church, Zebu, the depth being 95 fathoms.
The deposit was a green-blue mud containing about 15 per cent, of carbonate of lime,
which consisted of a few pelagic and a large number of other Foraminifera, fragments of
Echinoderms, Molluscs, and Polyzoa.

Zebu to Camiguin Island and Samboangan.

On the 24th January the vessel left Zebu for Samboangan, intending to touch at
Camiguin Island on the way. Steering to the southward through the channel separating
Zebu from Bohol Island, a favourable current of two miles per hour was experienced. This
current would appear to be by no means uncommon during the northeast monsoon, for
Captain Riches of the British Ship “ Glamorganshire,” who happened to be at Zebu at
the time of the Expedition’s visit, and who has had much experience amongst the
Philippine Islands, said that he had always failed in attempting to work to the north-
ward in this channel. On one occasion he struggled against wind and current for six
days without making a mile, and eventually bore up and went round Negros and Panay
Islands and came to Zebu from the northward, making this passage in four days from
the south end of Bohol.

After rounding Balicasay Island, steam was got up and a sounding, dredging, trawling
and temperatures were obtained in 375 fathoms, with Balicasay Island N. 73° W., the
left extremity of Siquijor S. 4° W., and Pamilacan Island N. 73° E. (see Sheet 31);
at 6 p.m., the ship proceeded under easy steam towards Camiguin Island.

Camiguin Island. — On the 26th January, at daylight, the volcano on Camiguin
Island was seen quite distinctly. At noon the ship stopped about a mile from the land,
sounded in 185 fathoms, and sent, a cutter on shore with a party of naturalists and
photographers to examine the volcano, afterwards proceeding for Agajo, anchoring there
at 1.30 p.m., with the north points of Camiguin in line N. 78° E., the lighthouse at
Agajo S. 45° E., the N.W. point of Camiguin S. 50° W., and the Sandy Cay on the reef
off Agajo N. 40° W., in 6 fathoms. The Sandy Cay on the southwest extremity of the
reef off Agajo is small and has bushes growing on it.

The volcano at Camiguin Island burst forth in July 1871 from some low laud on the
west side of the island, and in two months had thrown up a hill two thirds of a mile long,
one third wide, and about 450 feet high, destroying the whole vegetation for miles round,
as also the flourishing village of Catarman on the western shore. The volcano had at the
time of the visit attained a height of 1950 feet and was still in vigour, as denoted by the

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

653

column of smoke seen by clay and the series of small fires visible at its summit by night.
Nearly all the inhabitants of Gamiguin, the population of which formerly amounted to 1 1,000
had left the island in consequence of the outburst. The volcano, a dome-shaped mass
standing on the sea shore, was found red and glowing with heat in cracks at the summit,
and smoke was ascending from it. There appeared to be no crater, and Mr. Buchanan,
who was one of the landing party, drew attention to the fact that the lava of which it
was composed was entirely trachytic. It recalled in form at once some of the smaller
trachytic domes of the Puy de Dome district, in the Auvergne, concerning the mode of
formation of which there has been much doubt. The mass in this case appeared never
to have had any crater, but rose with steep walls directly from the soil, formerly covered

‘ Fig. 220. — New Volcano, Gamiguin Island.

with vegetation which it had destroyed, and it appeared as if the trachytic lava 'had
issued from a central cavity and boiled over, as it were, till it set into the form of the
dome. The rocks collected at the volcano were amphibolic andesite containing some
crystals of augite, and augite-andesite with hornblende, the specimens showing often
transition between the two types of rocks.

The ground around the crater was still almost bare of vegetation, but some plants
were beginning to colonize the denuded soil, strongly impregnated as it was with various
volcanic chemical products. Three species of ferns, as first colonists, grew as isolated
plants here and there ; and along the courses of two small streams fed by hot springs,
issuing from the base of the volcano, where the poisoned ground was constantly washed,
a good deal of vegetation was to be found, amongst which were several sedges and grasses

654

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

and a rush. About the mouths of the cavities from which hot gases were slowly being
exhaled, a moss was found growing in great abundance, with several lowly organised
Cryptogams ; the whole being confined to the spot occupied by these fumeroles, and
forming green patches in the midst of the surrounding entirely bare rock.

The hot streams were full of green Algse, and as these streams, being very small,
became cooler and cooler from their source downwards, the temperature at which the
Algse commenced to flourish could be determined. At the source of one of these streams,
as it issued from beneath the volcano, the water had a temperature of 145°’2 F., and
was thus too hot to be borne by the hand. Here there were no Algse at all growing in
the water. There were, however, small green patches on stones projecting out of the
bed of the stream into the air, and also along the margins of the stream where they were
not bathed by the hot water itself, but only soaked up the moisture and received the
spray occasionally. At a distance of a few yards lower down, in a little side pool fed
by the stream, abundance of Algse were growing, but the pool had a temperature of only
101o,5 F., though the stream which fed it constantly was at 122° F. Lower down again,
Algse were growing in the middle of the stream, in water at 11 3° '5 F., and this seems
thus to be the limit of temperature at which the particular Algse gathered will flourish
in water impregnated with a certain amount of salts in solution. No doubt the amount
of salts present has a limiting effect as well as the temperature. Oscillatorise have been
observed growing in water, at a much higher temperature, even 178° to 185° F.1 The
fact is interesting, as showing that green algse of some considerable complexity may
have commenced life on the earth in its early history, before the water on its sur-
face had anywhere cooled down to a temperature sufficient to be borne by the human
hand, and which may have been strongly impregnated with various volcanic gases and
salts.

The upper slopes of the mountains of Camiguin Island were thickly wooded ; while
the lower slopes were cleared and planted with Manila hemp. A Manila hemp plantation
is not at all pleasant or easy to traverse ; the large trees, a species of Banana ( Musa
textilis), from the stems of which the fibres known as Manila hemp are obtained by
maceration, are planted close together. The plantations are full of fallen stems in a
half decayed condition, nasty pasty masses, which block the way and are very un-
pleasant to handle and climb over, or crawl beneath.

At 6 p.m. the vessel left the anchorage and steered to the westward towards Silino
Island. In steering towards, as well as on leaving, the anchorage, the north points of
Camiguin Island were kept in line, and no soundings were obtained with 1 5 fathoms until
the Sandy Cay on the reef bore west of north. Whilst the ship was at anchor, the tide was
falling until 4 p.m., after which it began to rise ; the ebb stream set N.E., the flood S.W.

1 See W. T. Thiselton Dyer, Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Bot.), vol, xiv. p. 327, 1875.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

655

On the 27th, at 9.15 a.m., the ship passed between Silino Island and Point Tagolo,
and then steered to pass inside Aliquay Island. At noon, whilst the position of the
ship was being ascertained, a small coral patch of 6 fathoms was passed over between
Aliquay Island and Point Sigayac, the bottom being distinctly seen. Only two casts of
the lead were obtained on it, there being no bottom with 20 fathoms on either side.
From it the extremities of Aliquay Island bore N. 13° W., and N. 27° W., and Point
Tagolo N. 81° E. The ground in this vicinity would appear to be patchy, as H.M.S.
“Nassau” got shoal soundings three miles north of Aliquay Island. After passing
Aliquay Island the ship was steered to the W.S.W. along the shore of Mindanao Island.

The islands of Silino and Aliquay are both low and flat. On the chart there is said
to be an obelisk at Dauit Point ; this was not seen in passing.

On the 28th, at 8 a.m., a sounding and serial temperatures were obtained in 2225
fathoms, in lat. 8° O' N., long. 121° 42' E. (see Sheet 31), partly to see if any alteration had
taken place in the temperatures since sounding in the Sulu Sea in October last, and partly
to test a new instrument for obtaining temperatures, the invention of Messrs. Negretti
& Zambra. A full account of this apparatus is given with the description of the other
instruments and therefore need not be here repeated (see p. 88). At 11 a.m. the ship
again proceeded towards Samboangan. The island of Mindanao was in sight all day,
but there were no points visible by which the position of the ship could be fixed.

Samboangan (Zamboanga).

On the 29th, at 7 a.m., the vessel anchored off Samboangan in 10 fathoms, with
the lighthouse N. 10° W., the right extremity of Tigtauan Island, in line with Mariqui
Point, S. 71° E., and the left extremity of Santa Cruz Island S. 3° W. Lying here
were four large Spanish gunboats employed in the blockade of the Sulu Archipelago.
Having obtained equal altitudes, the ship left the anchorage at Samboangan the same
day and proceeded for the anchorage off Malanipa Island, in order to be on the ground
ready for swinging ship the next morning. The ship passed between the great bank off
Malanipa, Tigtauan, and Sacol Islands, and anchored in 20 fathoms off Malanipa at
6.20 p.m., with the extremities of that island bearing S.S.W. ^ W. and S.E. by S.

On the 30th, at 4 a.m., the vessel left the anchorage off Malanipa and proceeded to
the eastward, ready to commence swinging at sunrise. At 8 a.m., the errors of the
compass having been ascertained, swinging was commenced for the dipping needle and
was completed at 1 p.m., when, having obtained a few dredgings off Malanipa, the ship
returned to Samboangan, anchoring off that town at 7 p.m.

The object in coming to Samboangan again was to complete the stock of coal before
standing to the eastward into the Pacific, as it was known that from the time of leaving
Samboangan no more fuel could be procured until Japan was reached. The Spanish

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i.— 1885.). 83

656

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER

authorities were daily expecting the arrival of a transport, and the ship remained at
Samboangan waiting for her, but on the 3rd February, seeing no signs of her approach,
the Spanish Governor very kindly allowed the vessel to proceed to Port Isabella, in
Basilan Island, and fill the bunkers from the stock of coal there remaining. This was
the more obliging on the part of the Governor, since they had but 200 tons remaining at
that time, and the Challenger required half that quantity.

The ship left Samboangan at 8 a.m. on the 3rd February, and steered to the westward
until Point Caldera bore north, when the course was altered for Malamaui Island. In
crossing the strait, soundings were struck on a small coral patch of 10 fathoms, with
the right extremity of Malamaui (the S.W. part), in line with a flat-topped hill on
Basilan Island, S. 8° E., north point of Basilan Island S. 72° E., the summit of Lampi-
nigan Island S. 22° W., and the right extremity of Santa Cruz Island N. 66° E. It will
be seen that these bearings, plotted on Admiralty chart 961, do not agree in fixing the
position of this patch of 10 fathoms, nor in fact have any of the bearings coincided in
one point when plotted on this sheet ; the whole place certainly requires re-surveying.
At 11 a.m. the vessel rounded the southwest point of Malamaui Island and was steered
as necessary into Port Isabella, passing north of the island at the entrance. . Being
provided with a Spanish chart of the port, there was no difficulty in piloting the ship
by it, especially as there were beacons on most of the dangers. These beacons consisted
of a stake with a ball on the top, the balls being coloured black on the Malamaui side of
the channel and white on the Basilan side. The coral and sand reef on the southeast
side of Mow Island is very conspicuous ; part of the sand is always above water, and
mangrove bushes are beginning to grow. there.

The ship steamed up to the coaling wharf, which projects from Malamaui Island
opposite the town of Isabella, and letting go an off anchor, was hauled alongside. The
wharf was merely a rough wooden jetty, with a depth of 3 fathoms at its outer extremity,
and so slightly built that even small vessels could not lasSf alongside, but were com-
pelled to use off anchors, both ahead and astern ; nor were there any anchors, or posts,
on shore to which hawsers could be secured ; in fact it was difficult to find any stable
thing to which attachments could be made. There were, however, a number of large flat
stones in the vicinity, and by backing one of these stones with another, it was managed,
with some little difficulty, to secure the ship properly. The stock of coal was completed
by 11 a.m. on the 4th February, and at 2 p.m. the ship left for Samboangan, anchoring
there at 7 p.m.

From a table of tides for Port Isabella kindly lent by the Spanish authorities, it appears
to be high water at full and change at 9h 15m. Spring tides rise 4 feet age of the tide
twenty-four hours. The flood stream comes from the N.E., the ebb runs N.E. Its
velocity is said to be sometimes very considerable, but whilst lying alongside the pier it
did not exceed 1^ miles per hour.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

657

At Samboangan the extremity of Tigtauan Island in line with Mariqui Point is
an excellent mark for the edge of the bank off Samboangan (between the extremities
of the town). Outside this line of transit the water is deep ; when on it, the soundings
vary from 10 to 13 fathoms, whilst inside the water shoals rapidly. Vessels intending
to remain at Samboangan for more than twenty-four hours should moor, as it is almost
impossible to keep a clear anchor owing to the strong tide and frequent calms. It was
noticed whilst lying at Samboangan that the stream did not turn at the time of high
and low water by the shore, but from two to three hours after high or low water. The
captain of the Spanish surveying vessel said that the tides in Basilan Strait were very
■irregular, and that the high water at full or change of the moon varies from seven to ten
hours after the moon’s transit. The diurnal inequality here follows the same law as over
the whole of the China Sea, the day tide being highest when the sea is north of the
Equator, and the night tide when it is south.

Samboangan is a small Spanish town at the southwest extremity of Mindanao Island.
From the town a pier extends to the edge of the shallow water to facilitate landing ; at
the outer end of this pier is a lighthouse, and at its inner end the captain of the port’s
office ; just behind which again is the church. Running parallel with the beach, between
the office of the captain of the port and the church is a canal, which is used by the
inhabitants as a bathing place. At low tide the water in the canal is fresh, but
brackish at high water. At the eastern end of the town is a quadrangular fort with
four bastions, founded in 1635. The town itself is small, but contains a few shops and
a hotel.

At the cemetery at Samboangan there are a number of small niches built against
the wall like ovens, into which the dead bodies are first placed and covered with quick-
lime. After remaining in these niches for three years, the bones are collected and thrown
into a common receptacle.

A plain extends from Samboangan some three miles, to the foot of the hills, which is
cultivated principally with rice ; this tract of land is so low and swampy as to appear
unhealthy, but the authorities do not give it that character. The traffic into the country
is kept up by means of sledges, drawn by water buffaloes, probably the soft muddy road
does not allow wheeled vehicles to be used. Small ponies can be hired at a moderate
rate for a ride into the interior, but they are not up to more than about a dozen miles
a day.

A Spanish surveying vessel was found here at anchor, engaged in the survey of the
Tawi Tawi group ; but as the Spaniards were at war with the Rajah or Sultan of Sulu
they were not able to prosecute their work satisfactorily.

On landing at Samboangan on the way from Australia the naturalist could not fail
to be reminded that the Expedition was nearing India, and scenes in Ceylon were
recalled -at once to memory. Swampy paddy fields stretched everywhere round the

658

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

town with plenty of snipe in them, and the domestic buffaloes lay about wallowing in
mud pools and throwing water over their backs with their scoop-like ears. In one pool,
several native women were bathing in company with the buffaloes.

Especially interesting in the Philippines are the various stages in development and
modification of pile-dwellings. All the native buildings are pile-dwellings or modifica-
tions of them, and some of the better houses, built under European influence, are
evidently copied directly from the same niodels. Pile-dwellings are first invented as an
expedient for raising houses in the water for protection; but when the race which for
generations has thus dwelt surrounded by water takes to living on dry land, actuated
somewhat no doubt by sanitary considerations, it follows the ancient pattern of architec-

Fig. 221. — Pile-Dwellings of Lutaos, Samboangan.

ture with slavish exactness, and only by gradually introduced modifications of that plan
arrives at last at a house supported directly on the ground.

At Samboangan and at the neighbouring island of Basilan are settlements of a con-
siderable number of a race called by the Spanish “ Moros ” (i.e., Mohammedans), who
keep themselves strictly apart from the Bisayan and other Malay races, amongst which
they here dwell. The' Moros at Basilan still build their pile-dwellings out in the sea, so
that they can only be approached by boats. At Samboangan, however, where the Moros
seem somewhat more tamed by Spanish influence, they have so far come on shore with
their houses, that these are built in a row along the beach, and at low tide are not entirely
surrounded with water, whilst the shore can always be reached from them by means of a
plank. The main inhabitants of the Philippines, in the course of successive generations,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

659

have taken their houses altogether on shore, except that occasionally there are houses
in swampy ground, which form a sort of gradation between the two conditions.

The Moros or “ Lutaos ” are said to have settled in Mindanao in the seventeenth
century, and to have considered themselves until quite recently as subjects of the Sultan
of Ternate.1 They are a fierce and warlike race ; pirates by profession at all events not
long ago at Basilan and Mindanao, and still so at the Sulu Islands. They seem but half
subjected to the Spanish rule. The men are short and broad shouldered, with powerful
chests and thick-set bodies, and extremely active ; their features are of the Malay type,
but peculiar ; their eyes are remarkably bright ; their colour is light yellowish brown ;
they have often a slight beard and moustache ; they wear bright coloured shirts and
rather tight fitting trousers., buttoned close round the leg at the ankle. The Moro
women are short and small, and delicate limbed, most of them very handsome when
young ; many of them ate very light coloured in complexion ; their eyes, like the men’s,
being extremely bright. They are fond of bright yellows and reds in their dress, and are
very fully clad. The men are armed with circular shields and spears, and also used,
formerly at least, suits of armour made of plates of buffalo horn, linked together with
wire, which are very rare objects in ethnological museums.

At Port Isabella, Basilan Island, the Moro houses are constructed on piles in a small
lagoon-like offset of the channel between this island and the small outlying island of
Malamaui. The houses are entirely isolated from the shore by the water. They stand
together, and a wide rickety platform connects many of them with one another.2 At
Samboangan the Moro houses are also built in a group. The main house in each case is
usually supported on three rows of piles, but various additions and out-buildings are
supported on irregularly added piles ; there is always a platform before the entrance, and
sometimes one for canoes behind. It was odd to see a horse left tied by its Moro owner
to the door-post, standing up to its belly in the water, through the rising of the tide.

The houses of the other native inhabitants throughout the towns of Samboangan and
Ilo Ilo are mostly of closely similar pattern, and they stand in like manner on piles, though
on dry ground, and have a platform usually at one end, which is reached by a short
st.eep ladder, with widely separated and irregular rounds, up which the house dogs, from
practice, run as nimbly and easily' as the children and their mothers. The platforms are
now used for drying clothes upon, and such purposes.

The first process of modification of the pile-dwelling gone on shore, is the putting up
of a fence of palm leaves in the lower part of the spaces between the piles supporting the
house. A pen is thus formed in which pigs or other animals are kept. Then well-made
mats or reed waffs are put up, entirely enclosing the space between the piles, with a

1 Dr. Th. Waitz, Anthropologie cler Naturvolker, Th. v. Hft. 1, Die Malaien, p. 56, Leipzig, 1865.

2 For an account of the inhabitants of the Sulu Islands, the same race as the Moros, with descriptions and figures
of their houses, see Wilkes, Narrative of the U.S. Exploring Expedition, vol. v. chap, ix., New York, 1856.

660

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER:

regular door for entrance, and the place becomes a convenient store-house. As a further
stage, boards are nailed between the piles, and a secure chamber is obtained. . PI. XXVIII.
is a photograph of two Bisayan pile-dwellings at Samboangan which are thus placed on
shore, although still, as is to be seen, close to the water’s brink. In the smaller one on the
right remains of the platform are seen in front of the door with the ladder leading
up to it. The space beneath the house occupied by the supporting piles is in its primitive
condition unenclosed. In the case of the larger house on the left, the area between the
piles beneath the actual house is completely enclosed by a fence ; the platform ladder
and entrance are not seen, being on the other side of the house.

A further step again, is the adoption of stone pillars for the wooden piles. Wooden
houses thus supported on stone representatives of piles, may often be seen with an iron
railing, passing from pillar to pillar beneath, and in this way forming an enclosure.
From stone pillars the step is easy to arches, supported on pillars of masonry as a sub-
structure ; and some houses of business, although their upper structures have ceased to be
wooden, and are built of more solid materials, are still to be seen amongst the rest, sup-
ported thus on the descendants of piles. In the last stage the arches are discarded, and
continuous walls of masonry substituted as a support to the wooden superstructure.
Even then the ground floor is often still used only as a storehouse or piggery, but in
many cases is regularly occupied. Thus in these houses, what would seem almost an
impossibility is nevertheless the fact : the ground floor is an addition to the first
storey, which latter is older than it, and preceded it. The verandah is the representative
of the platform originally intended for the inhabitants to land on from canoes. The
building of one house was watched, which, when finished, looked perfectly two-storied,
the lower part being neatly boarded in, and provided with a door and windows.
Nevertheless, in the construction of the house, the history of its development was exactly
recapitulated, just as is the case familiarly in natural history. The roof and first storey
were built first complete upon the piles, and the lower structure added in afterwards.

The remarkable resemblance of many of these Malay houses to Swiss chalets is
most striking. In the chalet the basement enclosed with stone walls is usually only a
cattle stall, the first storey is the dwelling house, and as in the Malay building, is con-
structed of wood. It seems possible that the chalet is the ancient lake-dwelling gone on
shore, like the Malay pile-dwelling, and that the substructure of masonry represents the
piles which formerly supported the inhabited portion of the house. There are similar
balconies in the chalets representing possibly the platforms. A good deal of the carving
of balconies, and some of the staircases, in the better constructed wooden houses in Ilo
Ilo, reminded one very much of that of the same structure in chalets, though the resem-
blance in this case is accidental.

The most interesting feature about pile-dwellings seems to be their very wide geogra-
phical extension. Representatives of almost all races of men seem to have arrived at the

IPlate XXVIII.

tan Houses, Zamboangan.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

661

same expedient, apparently not by any means a simple one, independently of one
another. There are the well-known Pfahlbauten in Switzerland, in Scotland, and in
South America the similar houses of the Cuajiro Indians on the Gulf of Maracaibo. In
North America the Haidahs on the northwest coast construct similar habitations.
Commander Cameron lately observed similar dwellings in Lake Mohrya, in Central
Africa,.1 In New Zealand the Lake Pas, which were mostly used as storehouses, are
known from the Rev. Richard Taylor’s description ; 2 in this case, piles were driven into
the bottom of the lake, and the interstices filled in with stones and mud, so as to form
a platform. There are the well-known New Guinea pile-dwellings, such as seen at
Humboldt Bay, and there are also the pile-dwellings of all the Malay races. The Gilbert
Islanders also construct houses raised on piles, and a number of these natives from
the island of Arorai, who were taken to Tahiti to serve as labourers on cotton estates,

have put up houses of this kind for themselves in the latter_island, amongst the very

different dwellings of the Tahitians themselves.

It seems probable that the idea of a pile-dwelling has in many cases arisen from the
escape of natives from enemies by getting into a canoe -or raft, and putting off from shore
into a lake or the sea, out of harm’s way. If the attacked had to stay on such a raft or

canoe for some time, they would anchor it in shallow water with one or more poles, as

the Fijians do with their canoes on rivers, and hence might easily be derived the idea of
a platform supported on piles. With a maritime race the difficulty connected with clearing
aAvay the jungle on shore may have led them to adopt pile-dwellings as more easily con-
structed, as well as safer.

The officers of a Spanish man-of-war in the port of Samboangan at the time of the
visit, hospitably gave an entertainment on shore, and got the Lutaos to dance. Two men
danced with spears and shields in imitation of a combat, in which the utmost rage was
simulated on both sides ; the teeth were, clenched and exposed, the head jerked forward,
and the eyes starting as they advanced to the attack (see fig. 222). The dance of the
women was like that already described as performed by the Ki Islanders. The body was
kept nearly rigid, and turned round slowly or moved a short distance from side
to side by motion of the feet alone. The feet were kept close together, and side
by side, and moved parallel to one another with a shuffling motion. The principal
display in the dancing consisted in the very slow and gradual movement of the
arms, wrists, and hands. One arm was maintained directed forwards and some-
what upwards, the other at about the same angle downwards, and the position of the two
was at intervals gradually reversed ; the hands were turned slowly round upon the wrists,
and often the dancing consisted for some interval merely in the graceful pose of the

1 V. L. Cameron, R.N,, Across Africa, vol. ii. p. 65, London, 1872.

2 Rev, Richard Taylor, F.L.S., On the New Zealand Lake Pas, Tram. N. Zeal. Inst., vol. v. p. 101, 1872.

662

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

body, and this movement of the hands (see Plate F.). The main point in the dancing
seemed to be that all the motions should follow and pass one into the other with perfect
gradation in time, and without any jerk or quickening. The thumbs were always main-
tained extended at right angles to the palms of the hands, as at the Ki Islands. A young-
boy danced a somewhat similar dance to that of the girls. During his performance he
at one time put forward one leg and curved the sole of his foot so that only the toe and
heel touched the floor, and turned round with the foot in that position. At another time
he shuffled along slowly with the heel of one foot in the hollow of the other.

Fig. 222. — Spear Dance of two Lntaos at Samboangan. From a sketch by Lient. Swire, B. A.

From a Moro boy a Jew’s-harp was obtained made of bamboo, on which he was
playing. The instrument is most ingeniously cut out of a single splinter of bamboo, the
vibrating tongue being extremely delicately shaped, and cleverly weighted by means of
a knob of the wood left projecting on its back. The instrument produces a tone
indistinguishable from that of a metal Jew’s-harp, and is quite unlike Melanesian bamboo
Jew’s-harps in its form.

In the tide- way between Samboangan and the Island of Santa Cruz Major, whilst the
water was running in both directions, a most unusual abundance and variety of surface-
living oceanic animals and larvae of shore forms was obtained with the tow-net ; amongst

The Voyage of H.M.S.'t!hallengi

LUTAO GIRL AND BOY, DANCING, AT SAMBOANGAN

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

663

these were Tornaria, and larvae of Sipunculids and Chirodota. The place would be a
most convenient and productive one to a working zoologist.

The Brachiopod, Lingula , is so abundant in shallow water close to the town, that
two boys gathered more than a hundred specimens at a single low tide at the request of
von Willemoes Suhm.

A King Crab ( Limulus rotundicaudatus) is not uncommon near Samboangan, and is
called “ cancreio.” Yon Willemoes Suhm thought that he had obtained a series of
young larvae of Limulus amongst the surface animals collected by the net, but he
subsequently came to the conclusion that he had been mistaken, and that the larvae
were probably those of Cirripeds.1 At low tide, by wading and turning over stones,
enormous Planarians belonging to the genus Thysanozoon are to be found in abundance ;
they are of a dark purple' colour, and measure, some of them, as much as 5 inches in
length and 2 inches in breadth.

Mr. Moseley, accompanied by von Willemoes Suhm, paid a visit to the island of Santa,
Cruz Major, sailing over in a Lutao canoe managed by two of these natives ; the boat
was armed with a large number of bamboo spears, simple light bamboos cut off slanting
at one end so as to form a sharp cutting point like that of a quill tooth-pick in shape.
A bamboo so cut is extremely sharp, and the spears must be formidable weapons, especially
against a thinly clad adversary. Two or three dozen of these spears were placed on rests
on either gunwale of the boat, and there were besides two round shields of a kind of
basket-work in the boat.

The object in visiting Santa Cruz Major Island was to search for the great Cocoanut-
eating Crab ( Birgus latro). It is called “ Tatos ” at Samboangan, and survives in Santa
Cruz Major because there are no pigs" in the island. Wild pigs destroy not only these
crabs, but dig up Shore Crabs ( Ocypoda ) and Land Crabs from their holes. In Ceylon,
near Trincomali, the wild swine come down every night to the beach to dig up crabs,
and large tracts of sandy beach are ploughed up by them in the search. The “ tatos ” is
sought for and eaten as a delicacy by the inhabitants of Samboangan.

Landing was effected close to a Moro house built out into the . sea, so as to be
surrounded at high water. The inhabitants were lolling about in the shade, and though
offered good pay they would not go a quarter of a mile to look for “ tatos.” At last a
boy consented to go as guide ; instead of searching for the crabs under the cocoanut trees
as expected, he showed as the haunts of the animals hollows at the roots of mangrove
and other trees in swampy ground, amongst the holes of ordinary land crabs, but
no “tatos” was discovered. Yon Willemoes Suhm was anxious to investigate the
development of the Birgus from the egg. An intelligent native at Samboangan, who
collected for the Expedition, said that the female crab carries about large masses of
eggs with it in the month of May, and retains them so attached until the young are
1 See Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., N. S., vol. xxiii. p. 145, 1883.

(narr. ohall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

84

664

THE YOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

developed, just like the parent ; he said the crabs went down to the sea occasionally
to “drink.”

A Mound Bird ( Megapodius ) is common in Santa Cruz Major Island. The calcareous
sand amongst the bushes close to the sea shore was scratched and turned over in many
places by these birds in burying their eggs. The guide dug out half a dozen eggs closely
resembling hen’s eggs in appearance from one of these places. They were buried in the
clean sand at a depth of 3| or 4 feet, and with no mound over them, or vegetable
rubbish of any kind. The eggs are thus hatched by the simple warmth of the sand
received from the sun and retained during the night, just in the same manner as
turtle’s eggs are hatched, indeed turtle’s eggs are found in precisely similar holes. It
was midday, and the surface sand was not much hotter than the sand below where the
eggs lay, which felt, as well as the eggs, distinctly cool to the touch. These birds do not
therefore, as commonly supposed, hatch their eggs solely by means of the heat derived
from decayed vegetable matter.

Alcyonarians (social Polyps distinguished by having eight tentacles) are extraor-
dinarily abundant about the beach of Santa Cruz Major. The reef rocks are covered with
the soft spongy forms, which form extensive beds, soft and boggy to tread on in wading.
Amongst these grows a stony coral which is likewise, as was' discovered by Mr. Moseley
on examining its minute structure, Alcyonarian, forming thick erect plate-like masses of
a chocolate colour when living. The coral is remarkable because its hard calcareous
skeleton is of a bright blue colour instead of white, as is usually the case, and is hence
named Heliopora ccerulea. It is, as far as is known, the only surviving representative
of a large number of extinct forms of Palseozoic age, which are familiar in the
fossil condition, and is nearly allied to the well known red coral of commerce.1 Again,
another interesting Alcyonarian is abundant, together with those just described, namely,
the red Organpipe Coral ( Tubipora musica ). There were cartloads of this coral, dead
and dried, lying on the beach, which was entirely composed of various coral debris. The
Organpipe Coral was not to be found living in shallow, water on the reefs, but living
specimens were dredged from a depth of 10 fathoms.

The houses of the Moros at Basilan Island have already been referred to ; the town
was mostly, at the time of the visit, in process of construction by families of Bisayans
moved from Samboangan, and much of it was being built on causeways and made ground
constructed with coral rock on tidal mud flats ; some families newly arrived were camped
on the sites of the houses they were building.

Separated from Basilan Island by a narrow strait is the very small island of Malamaui,
mostly covered by a dense forest of lofty trees, many of which have the curious
vertically projecting plank-like roots so fully described by Mr. Wallace in Tropical

1 H. N. Mossley, On the Structure and Relations of the Alcyonarian Heliopora cserulea, &c., Phil. Trans.,
vol. clxvi. pt. i. pp. 91-129, 1876.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

665

Nature.1 The natives cut solid wheels for their buffalo carts directly out of these
natural living planks, and the large circular window-like holes left in the roots at the
bases of the trees are curious features in the forest. When traversing the forest one
was constantly put on the alert by the rustling of what sounded like some large
animal amongst the dead leaves, and expected every minute to get a shot at a deer, but
at last it appeared that the animal disturbing the silence of the forest was a huge Lizard
(probably Hydrosaurus marmoratus ) which bolted up the trees when approached, and
sat in a fork to gaze at the intruder. The forest was full of these reptiles. In the same
forest occurs the well-known aberrant flying insectivorous mammal ( Galeopithecus pjhilip-
pinensis), which, like a flying squirrel, has membranes of skin (patagia) stretched between
its legs and out on to its tail ; so that, supported on this as by a parachute, it skims
through the air in its leaps from tree to tree with a partial flight. On one of a group of
trees standing isolated, not having been as yet felled in the process of the formation of a
clearing, after much search, a Kaguan ( Galeopithecus ) was seen hanging to the shady
side of the tall trunk. It was an object very easily seen, much more so than would be
expected, and moved up the tree with a shambling jerky gait, hitching itself up appa-
rently by a series of short springs. It was found when shot to be a female with a young
one clinging to the breast, and was in a tree at least 40 yards- distant from any other,
and must have flown that length to reach it. The guide said that numbers of the
animals were caught when trees were cut down in clearing. They are especially abundant
at the island of Bohol, north of Mindanao, and their skins were for sale at Zebu at four
dollars a dozen.

Close by on some lower trees were seen several Flying Lizards ( Draco volans), which
similarly have a flying membrane, but in their case supported on extensions of the
ribs. The little lizards were seen to spring several times from tree to tree and branch to
branch, but they pass through the air so quickly that the extension of their parachute
is hardly noticed during the flight. Several of them were kept alive on board the
ship for a day or two, where they flew from one leg of the table to another. It was
curious to find two animals so widely different in structure, yet provided with such similar
means of flight, thus occurring together in the same grove and even on the same tree.

While the ship was absent at Port Isabella coaling, a party of officers and naturalists,
with three men, remained at Samboangan and made an excursion to the high land about
seven miles distant, where they pitched a tent in a beautifully wooded valley and were
engaged during the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th February in various collecting and hunting
expeditions.

Monkeys ( Macacus philippensis) and Hornbills were very numerous in the valleys,
and the woods continually resounded with their cries and calls. A large number of
specimens were collected. Among twenty- two species of birds preserved were five new
1 A. R. Wallace, Tropical Nature and other Essays, p. 31, London, 1878.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER

606

species/ viz. — Buceros mindanensis, Tweedd.; Dicrurus striatus, Tweedd.; Phabotreron
brevirostris, Tweedd.; Batrachostomus Septimus, Tweedd.; and Dicceum mindanense,
Tweedd. Five new species of Lepidoptera2 were obtained, viz. — Zizera oriens, Butler ;
Terias invida, Butler ; Terias vallivolans, Butler ; Appias mindanensis, Butler ;
Phyllodes cerasifera, Butler ; and one new species of Hymenoptera,3 Bracon trisignatus,
Kirby ; and also Polyrhachis phyllophila and Polyrhachis sculpturata. Smith, not pre-
viously recorded from the Philippines.

At Malanipa Island, a very small island, not far from Samboahgan, natives had felled
a good many large trees to make canoes. The suitable trees are usually at some distance
from the water. A straight broad road is cut through the smaller wood direct from the
large tree to the sea shore ; the smaller trees are felled so as to fall across the road, and
across their prostrate trunks the canoe is hauled to the shore. The open avenues were
extremely useful in affording an easy road into the interior of the forest for collecting
purposes. Among nine species of birds shot on this island by a landing party was a new
species of Sun Bird {Nectar ophila julice, -Tweedd.), which was very numerous among the
tops of the high trees.

Samboangan to Humboldt Bay, New Guinea.

On the 5th February, after having obtained the necessary observations for rating the
chronometers, and purchasing a few goats and pigs to land on any uninhabited island
which might be visited, the ship left the anchorage at 6 p.m. and wTas steered to the
eastward for the Sarangani Islands at the south end of Mindanao Island.

The course after leaving Samboangan was over comparatively new ground. The main
object was to get sufficiently far to the eastward to be able to make a fair wind of the
northeast trade to Japan, so that the coals might be expended in sounding and trawling,
more especially as this would give a meridional section in the western part of the Pacific
Ocean from the Equator to Nipon Island. The secondary object was to visit any
unknown islands on the course, and if possible to pay a flying visit. to New Guinea. In
planning out the track, it was found that, so far as was known, only one navigator had
hitherto pursued it, viz., Dampier in the year 1700. His vessel rounded the northwestern
extremity of New Guinea on the 5th February, and sailing along the Equator reached the
meridian of 150° E. in twenty-one days. It was therefore reasonable to expect to get far
enough to the eastward by the end of February to be able to make a fair wind of the
northeast trade in proceeding towards Japan. The Expedition was, however, not so
fortunate as Dampier, for even occasionally using steam, it took twenty-six days to reach
the meridian of 147° E. (or the Admiralty Islands), but after leaving the Admiralty

1 Zool. Chall. Exp., part viii., 1880. 2 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. xi. pp. 417, &c., 1883.

3 Ibid., vo]. xiii. p. 505, 1884.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

667

Islands a nearly straight course was made for the south part of Nipon Island. Had the
winds been favourable, the Expedition would have proceeded east as far as Greenwich
Island, and from thence sailed to Hogolu in the Caroline group, thence to Guam in the
Ladrones, and afterwards to Yokohama, but the investigation of those interesting places
had to be abandoned.

On the 6th February, at daylight, inlat. 6° 38' N., long. 122° 38' E., the ship was again
swung for the errors of the compass. This additional swinging was rendered necessary
in consequence of the pinnace’s boiler having been shifted from the quarter deck to the
forecastle. At 8 a.m. this operation was completed and sail was made to the eastward,
the wind being, light and variable.

On the 8th February the ship sounded and trawled in 2050 fathoms in the Celebes
Sea in lat. 5° 47' N., and long. 124° 1' E. (see Sheet 31), and at 7 p.m. proceeded under
easy steam towards the Sarangani Islands.

On the 9th February, at 5 a.m., the Sarangani Islands were sighted, and the ship was
steered to pass between them and the island of Mindanao, and as it soon became evident
that the chart of this neighbourhood was incorrect, a running survey of the islands and
channel was made.

Balat Island has a rouuded top 2350 feet high in lat. 5° 28' N., long. 125° 23J' E. In shape it is
an irregular quadrangle 5f miles in length E.N.E. and W.S.W., and about 3 miles in breadth ; off its
southwest end is a rock about 40 feet high.

Sarangani Island lies in a north and south direction to the eastward of Balat Island, leaving a
channel 1-| miles in width between the two islands which appears to be navigable, as Captain
Waterman of the “ Volunteer ” passed through it and reported a shoal running out from one of its
sides.1 Sarangani is 5f miles in length and 2 in breadth. Its top, which is comparatively level, is
about 500 feet above the level of the sea. Its coast line appeared irregular on the western side, so
much so as to cause it to be believed that small bays or coves might there exist in which anchorage
could be found. The north part of Sarangani is in lat. 5° 33' N., long. 125° 29' E.

Lanibal Island is a small flat cay with trees on it, 60 feet in height, 1 mile N.E. by N. from the
north point of Sarangani Island ; it is surrounded by a coral reef, between which and that fringing
the north point of Sarangani is a narrow channel which appeared navigable.

The southern peninsula of Mindanao is high and has several remarkable peaks on it. The
southern hill, 1670 feet high, which is really round-topped, looks somewhat like a pyramid on an
E.S.E. or W.N.W. bearing ; its summit is in lat. 5° 39' N., long. 125° 21' E. Seven miles N.N.E. of
this round-topped hill is a saddle peak 3600 feet above the level of the sea, the summit of which is in
lat. 5° 46' N., long. 125° 24' E., and 8 miles northeast from this saddle mountain there is a high range,
the highest peak of which, 4530 feet, has a conical top when viewed from the southward, and is in
lat. 5° 51i' N., long. 125° 30' E.

Cape Sarangani is a bluff point in lat. 5° 34' N., long. 125° 21' E. From it the coast
on the west side trends N.W. by W. 3 miles, and on the other side east for 2 miles, after
which it turns to E.N.E., and afterwards to N.E. by N., the coast becoming low. A coral reef fringes
the shore.

1 Horsburgh’s Directory, 8th ed., vol. ii. p. 563, footnote.

668

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The slopes of the hills on Miudanao Island were cleared in patches, with liuts adjacent to the
clearings ; there were also huts on Balat Island, but none were seen on Sarangani.

The channel between the southern part of Mindanao Island and the Sarangani group is 5 miles
across between Lanibal Island and the southwest extremity of Cape Sarangani and 7 miles between
that Cape and Balat Island.

These positions may be depended on, as fortunately the meridian altitude of Venus was obtained
at 9 a.m., and that of the sun at noon, besides numerous observations for longitude. The longitude
depends on the lighthouse at Samboangan, taken for these calculations as 122° 6' E.

Having passed through Sarangani Passage, an E. by S. course was shaped for Mata Island, and
the ship proceeded under steam and fore and aft sails. At 3 p.m. a strong southerly current was
experienced, and the ship was hauled up to east, being then in lat. 5° 26' N., long. 125° 51' E., or 20
miles from the supposed position of Mata Island. The vessel was steered east until 6 p.m., at which
time it was in lat. 5° 29' N., long. 126° 11' E., or 6 miles south of the supposed position of Mata
Island. The latitude was obtained by a bearing of Balat Island, which could be distinctly seen, and
the longitude by D.R. from sights at 5 p.m. No sign of any island was seen from the masthead, which
commanded a view of at least 15 miles radius, and it was therefore thought that Mata Island did not
exist. In short, reading the accounts given, it is highly probable that Mata, Palmas, and Hunter or
Haycock Islands are one and the same island with different localities assigned to it. At 6 p.m. fires
were banked, and sail made to a fresh N.N.E. wind, the current running to the southward at the rate
of 1J miles per hour.

On the 10th February, at 4.45 a.m., the Meangis Islands were seen ahead, and the ship
was steered to pass to leeward of them, and at 8.30 a.m. sail was shortened, and a sounding
and two trawlings obtained in 500 fathoms, the position by astronomical observation
being lat. 4° 33' 10" N., long. 127° 5' 45" E., and by bearings of the islands lat. 4° 32' N.,
long. 127° 3' 45" E. The islands of the Meangis group appear to be laid down on the
chart correctly in relation to each other, with the exception of Central Island, which
requires verifying.

Sueste Island, a small peaked islet 266 feet high, is the southernmost , of the small
islets eastward of Kakarutan Island.

Nanusa Island rises gradually from the shore and is rounded gently at the summit,
which appears bare, with the exception of some cocoanut palms along the ridge. The
other islands of the group are low and flat, but being densely wooded can be seen at a
considerable distance. There are cocoanut trees on each of them.

Karckelang, the largest island of the Tulur group, appeared to be much out in
position; from the ship at 9 a.m. its extremities bore N. 87° W. and S. 36° W., which
would place it considerably to the northwest, supposing it to be as large as depicted
on the chart.

"Whilst dredging, a native canoe came alongside from the Meangis Islands, but as the
occupants spoke neither Malay, Dutch, nor Spanish, no communication could be opened
with them. The boat was 30 feet long, sharp at both ends and without outriggers, of
the Ki Island build. The men (twenty-two in number) wore turbans, like the Lutaos of

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

669

Samboangan, and were many of them apparently of the same race, but appeared to be a
mongrel lot, and were very dirty looking. They brought mats and very pretty blue and
red Lories (Eos indica ) alive for sale, secured to sticks by means of rings made of cocoa-
nut shell as at Amboina. The men did not chant or use drums as they paddled ; they
displayed Dutch colours.

There was a moderate northerly wind all day with fine weather. Whilst dredging,
the current ran to the southward at the rate of one mile per hour.

The two hauls of the trawl at this Station (214) proved to be among the most pro-
ductive of the whole cruise, twenty-two specimens of Teleostean fishes, and over one
hundred and fifty specimens of invertebrates belonging almost exclusively to new genera
and species of deep-sea animals, being procured. The deposit was a blue mud containing
34 per cent, of carbonate of lime. A new species of deep-sea fish ( Malacosteus indicus,
Giinth.) was obtained, which had between the maxilla and the eye on either side two
spots, the posterior one round and of a beautiful light yellowish green colour, the anterior
one larger, club-shaped (the head of the club pointing back), and of a dull red colour ;
the specimen was 4g inches long, entirely black, with minute dots over the surface.
A Lerncea was attached to its belly.

Crinoids were especially abundant in these trawlings ; the following is a list of the
species with the Myzostomida attached to them : — Pentacrinus alter nicirrus, Pentacrinus
naresianus, Metacrinus costatus , Metacrinus moseleyi, Metacrinus murrayi, Metacrinus
varians, Metacrinus ivyvillii, Antedon (six species), Promachocrinus naresi; Myzostoma
calycotyle, Myzostoma wyville-thomsoni, Myzostoma asymmetricum, Myzostoma pentacrini,
Myzostoma deformator, Myzostoma tenuispinum. Scalpellum album, Verruca nitida,
Gnathophausia calcarata, Porocidaris elegans, five new species of Ophiurids, and a new
Cephalopod ( Cirroteuthis meangensis ) belonging to a genus hitherto found only on the
coast of Greenland, but discovered by the Challenger also in the Southern Ocean and the
South Pacific, were also among the novelties obtained.

The new deep-sea genus and species of Polyzoa (Bifaxaria Icevis, Busk), was repre-
sented in this trawling. As will be seen from the following resume of his Report 1 on the
Polyzoa by George Busk, Esq., F.R.S., the Bifaxariadse are almost exclusively a deep-sea
family : —

1 Report on tlie Polyzoa, by Geo. Busk, F.B.S., Zool. Chalk Exp., part xxx. 1884.

670

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The Polyzoa. — “About three hundred to three hundred and twenty species of
Marine Polyzoa were collected during the Challenger Expedition, of which by far the
largest proportion, or not less than two hundred and eighty, belong to the suborder

Fig. 223. — Farciminaria hexagona, Busk, a, natural size ;
b, magnified. ; c, orifice, more highly magnified.

Fig. 224. — Farciminaria delicatissima, Busk.
a, natural size ; b, magnified.

Cheilostomata, of which about one hundred and seventy appear to have been previously
undescribed.

“ Belonging to the suborder Cyclostomata the number of species is about thirty,
including perhaps ten new forms ; whilst the Ctenostomata afford not more than seven
of which two are probably as yet undescribed.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

671

“ In the Endoproctous division the number of species is still more limited, including
only a species of Loxosoma not yet positively determined, and two species belonging to a
very peculiar and interesting generic type, for which some years since I had provisionally
adopted the name Ascopodaria,1 but two species of which have since been described and
published by Mr. Hincks, one as Barentsia bulbosa ,2 and more recently a second under
the appellation of Pedicellinopsis fruticosa, 3 the latter being one of the two species in the
Challenger collection upon which I had proposed to found the genus Ascopodaria.

Pig. 225.— Far ciminaria magna, Busk, a, natural size ; b, magnified ; c, ocecium,
more highly magnified.

Pig. 226. — Farciminaria gracilis ,
Busk, a, natural size ; b, mag-
nified.

“Besides these the collection contains one or more species, of Rhabdopleuxa ; and
allied to that genus the very remarkable form described by Professor MTntosh under
the name of Cephalodiscus dodecalophus.i

“The most important and characteristic part of the collection consists in the large
number of deep-water or abyssal forms, comprehending under that term only the species

1 Prof. Allman’s Presidential Address, Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Zool.), vol. xv. p. 2, 1879.

2 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 5, vol. vi. p. 285, pi. xv. figs. 12-14, 1880.

3 Ibid., vol. xiii. p. 363, pi. xiv. figs. 3-3c, 1884.

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

85

* Ibid., vol. x. p. 337, 1882.

672

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

which occurred at or below the depth of 1000 fathoms. A list of these, according to
their bathymetrical distribution, is subjoined, giving also the geographical region and
the nature of the bottom. The list includes about fifty species belonging to twenty

Pig. 227. — Farciminaria cribraria, Busk, a, one-
third. the natural size ; b, magnified.

Pig. 228. — Farciminaria pacific, Busk, a, natural size ;
b, magnified ; c, ocecium, more highly magnified.

genera in thirteen families, but of these the eighteen marked with an asterisk occur also
at depths less than 1000 fathoms, so that the exclusively abyssal forms in the collection
are reduced to about thirty-four.

Below 3000 fathoms.

Family.

Genus and Species.

Station.

Depth.

Bottom.

Region.1

Bifaxariadse,

Bifaxaria abyssicola, . .

253

3125

red clay.

N. Pacific.

Cribrilinidse,

* Gribrilina monoceros,

253

3125

§

Bicellariadse,

Bugula jolinstonice,

253

3125

»

Escharidse, .

Phylacitella, sp. 1 . -

253

3125

,,

A ■

But of these the last two were too fragmentary to admit of certain determination.

For these regions see the map in the Report, Zool. Chall, Exp., part xxx., 1884.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

673

Between 2500 and 3000 fathoms.

Family.

Genus and Species.

Station.

Depth.

Bottom.

Region.

Bicellariadae,

Kinetoslcias cyathus,

325

2650

hi. m.

S. Atlantic.

,,

Bugula reticulata, Tar. unicornis,

101

2500

hi. m.

N. Atlantic.

33 33 >3

104

2500

gl. oz.

„

Cellulariadae,

Gellularia crateriformis, .

325

2650

bl. m.

S. Atlantic.

Farciminaxiadse, .

Farciminaria delicatissima,

64

(2700)

red clay.

N. Atlantic.

„

„ magna,

325

2650

bl. m.

S. Atlantic.

Celleporidse,

- Cellepora solida, . . . .

160

2600

red clay.

Australia.

Between 2000 and 2500 fathoms.

Family.

Genus and Species.

Station.

Depth.

Bottom.

Region.

Bicellariadae,

* Kinetoslcias pocillum,

299

2160

bl. m.

S. Atlantic.

Bugula margaritifera,

332

2200

gl. oz.

„

,,

* „ reticulata, ....

299

2160

bl. m.

„

»

„ „ var. unicornis,

68

2175

gl. oz.

N. Atlantic.

”

„ mirabilis, . .

89

2400

gl. oz.

Bicellaria pectogemma,

299

2160

bl. m.

S. Atlantic.

* „ navicularis,

332

2200

gl. oz.

35

Cellulariadae,

Menipea pateriformis, .

299

2160

bl. m.

»

Farciminariadse, .

Farciminaria delicatissima,

89

2400

gl. oz.

N. Atlantic.

„

» „ • •

68

2175

gl. oz.

”

„ pacifica,

241

2300

red clay.

N. Pacific.

Bifaxariadae,

Bifaxaria reticulata,

68

2175

gl. oz.

N. Atlantic.

Flustridae, .

*Flustra biseriata, ....

299

2160

bl. m.

S. Atlantic.

674

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Between 1500 and 2000 fathoms.

Family.

Genus and Species.

Station.

Depth.

Bottom.

Region.

Eicellariadse,

KinetosJcias cyathus,

VI.

1090 to
1525

gl. oz.

N. Atlantic.

»

Bugula reticulata, var. unicornis, ,

106

1850

gl. oz.

»

* „ „

147

1600

di. oz.

S. Indian.

„ leontodon, ....

3

1525

h. gr.

N. Atlantic.

,,

„ bicornis, . . .

157

1950

di. oz.

S. Indian.

V,

„ margaritifera,

323

1900

hi. m.

S. Atlantic.

»»

Bicellaria infundibulata, .

147

1600

di. oz.

S. Indian.

„ „

156

1975

di. oz.

,,

Cellulariadse,

Canda simplex, ....

44

1700

hi. m.

N. Atlantic.

»

Menipea clausa, ....

70

1675

gl. oz.

»

Cellularia crateriformis, .

323

1900

hi. m.

S. Atlantic.

»

Nellia simplex, ....

87

1675

rock.

N. Atlantic.

Farciminariadas, .

Farciminaria delicatissima,

13

1900

gl. oz.

»

»

14

1950

»

,, gracilis, . .

70

1675

„ magna,

153

1675

bl. m.

S. Indian.

|

„ „ var. armata,

323

1900

bl. m.

S. Atlantic.

,, cribraria, . .

323

1900

„

Bifaxariadse,

Bifaxaria reticulata,

13

1900

gl. oz.

N. Atlantic.

„ minuta, . . .

70

1675

Salicornariadse,

* Salicornaria magnifica,

13

1900

„

ii

„

„ „ ...

323

1900

hi. m.

S. Atlantic.

If .

„ „

157

1950

di. oz.

S. Indian.

MembraniporidEe,

Foveolaria orbicularis,

147

1600

di. oz.

CatenariadcB,

Catenaria bicornis, ....

280

1940

gl. oz.

S. Pacific.

Onchoporidge,

*Oncliopora sinclairii,

157

1950

di. oz.

S. Indian.

Escharidae,

* Tessaradoma boreale,

13

1900

gl. oz.

N. Atlantic.

Idmoneidae,

Idmonea marionensis,

147

1600

di. oz.

S. Indian.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

G75

Between 1000 and 1500 fathoms.

Family.

Genus and Species.

Station.

|

Depth.

Bottom.

Region.

Bicellariadae,

Kinetoskias cyathus,

VI.

1090 to
1525

gl. oz.

N. Atlantic.

* Bugula reticulata , . .

303

1325

bl. m.

S. Atlantic.

Cellulariadse,

*Menipea benemunita ,

303

1325

„

»

_

* „ aculeata, ....

303

1325

„

»

Cellularia cirrata, . . . .

195

1425

bl. m.

Australian.

”

* Scrupocellaria macandrei ,

931

1070 to
1150

vole. m.

N. Atlantic.

Farciminariadse, .

*Farciminaria hexagona, .

195

1425

bl. m.

Australian. 1

SalicornariadiB,

* Salicornaria malvinensis, .

176

1450

gl. oz.

n

Reteporidse,

Betepora margaritacea ,

176

1450

»

>»

Celleporidse,

*Cellepora eatonensis,

303

1325

bl. m.

S. Atlantic.

Flustridse, .

*Carbasea ovoidea, . . .

303

1325

•„

Escharidae, .

.

* Cribrilina monoceros,

303

1325

„

„

Crisiidae,

Crisia delicatissima,

303

1325

|

”

“The extreme depth from which any Polyzoa were procured was 8125 fathoms, at
Station 253 in the North Pacific. In this haul there were four species attached to a
manganese nodule, from a bottom of red clay, and associated with them were two or three
minute specimens of a species of Stephanoscyphus. Of the four species thus living at a
depth of about 3-| miles, only one perhaps can be regarded as belonging to a decidedly or
almost exclusively deep-water family — the Bifaxariadse ; for although the Bicellariadse
include many abyssal forms, one, Bugula (Ilalophila) johnstonice has usually occurred in
comparatively shallow depths, whilst of the other two species, one, Cribrilina monoceros is
very generally distributed in the southern hemisphere, and apparently occurs at various
depths from 5 to 1350 fathoms; the fourth is too fragmentary to admit of complete
diagnosis, but it belongs to the family Escharidae, and probably to only moderately deep
water.

“ It will be seen that by far the greater number of the deep-sea forms belong to families
characterised by having the zoarium of great flexibility, rooted by , a dense bundle
of extremely delicate radical fibres, most of which are attached to separate Globigerince
or other solid particles in the ooze or mud of which the bottom at these depths is usually
formed.

Off St. Vincent, Cape Verde Islands.

676

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

“ Of aH the deep-water genera, Fcirciminaria appears to be the most exclusively
abyssal, and the accompanying figures of species belonging to that genus (figs. 225 to 229)

are given as types of the delicate and flexible con-
formation of the forms inhabiting the tranquil depths
of the ocean.

“ From the Tables it will be seen that the geogra-
phical distribution of the very deep-water forms has
no evident relation to the bathymetrical. And in even
still less degree is any evidence afforded respecting
their distribution in time as might indeed be expected
from the exceedingly delicate and fragile structure of
all or nearly all the species, excepting one of very
peculiar habit, Cellepora solida, which bears a very
close resemblance to, if it be not identical with, the
Miocene Celleporaria polythele, Manzoni,1 (nee Reuss).”

Cephalodiscus. — Professor MTntosh furnishes the
following note on this remarkable form : —

“ No more interesting or more novel type occurs
in the series of discoveries by the Challenger than
Cephalodiscus, a new Polyzoon allied to Professor'
Allman’s Rhabdopleura. This form, which has been
termed Cephalodiscus dodecalophus,2 was dredged in
the Strait of Magellan in 524 fathoms, and the Poly-
zoarium at first sight may readily be mistaken for a
seaweed, since it is composed of a much branched
fucoid tissue tinged of a pale brownish hue, and
semi-translucent (fig. 230). It is spinous all over, and moreover has numerous apertures
leading into the interior, which is honeycombed by a series of canals through which
sea water has constant ingress and egress. This remarkable coenoecium, which is
secreted by the little animals, has probably been found that best adapted for the
preservation of the species, by its resemblance on the one hand to other organisms in its
neighbourhood, and on the other hand by its affording complete aeration, abundant supply
of food, and security to the little polypides and their delicate plumes. The polypides
are quite free and in great profusion ; moreover, the caudal region has buds, and in addi-
tion free ova occur in numbers. Each adult polypide (fig. 231) is about 2 mm. in length,
with a bean or kidney-shaped body, from the posterior bulbous part of which a pedicle

Fig. 229. — Farciminarici, brasiliensis, Busk.

a, natural size; b, magnified ; c, ooeeium, more
highly, magnified.

1 I Briozoi Eossili del Miocene d’Austria ed Ungheria, p. 4, pi. i. fig. 3, 1877.

2 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. x. p. 337, 1882.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

677

comes off. The anterior region of the body curves somewhat suddenly downward so as
to form a flattened surface on which the great buccal disk rests. On the ventral surface
are two large pigment spots, or eyes, which are covered by the disk. The latter forms
a thin plate of a definite shape and marked by pigment, free all round the edge, but
fixed by a central pedicle in front of the mouth. Attached to the posterior part of the
disk is the basal tissue of the plumes, twelve of which arise from the dorsal edge. Each
plume consists of a central stem ornamented by a series of long, slender pinnae on the
ventral surface and sides, the tips in both cases being slightly bulbous. No special

organs occur in connection with the mouth, which leads by a canal with frilled walls into
the ventrally situated stomach. At the posterior end of the latter the intestine turns
upward and advances along the dorsum to open on the anterior projection of the body
behind the plumes. The body wall is composed from without inwards of hypodermic,
elastic and longitudinal muscular layers. There is no trace of a nervous system nor any
evidence of perigastric fluid. The ovary lies anteriorly and is generally distended
with one or two large and several smaller whitish ova. Posteriorly the ventral surface
of the body is continued into a cylindrical pedicle, which in almost every adult bears one
or more buds.”

678

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

On the 12th February, at 9 a.m., a sounding, trawling, and temperatures were obtained
in 2550 fathoms (see Sheet 31), this work being completed by 7 p.m., when sail was again
made to the eastward. The deposit was a blue mud which did not effervesce with
weak acid, and contained no calcareous shells, although pelagic Molluscs and
Foraminifera were taken abundantly at the surface. The trawl contained only a few
fragments of pumice about the size of hens’ eggs. On this occasion the trawl was used
without any bag being sewed in at the bottom, and it is possible that delicate organisms,
such as Holothurians, deep-sea fish, Umbellulas, and similar animals which live at
these depths might be completely destroyed and washed through the netting on being
hauled up through such a great depth of water.

During the two previous days the wind had been unsteady, varying from
N.W. to E.N.E., its general direction being N. by E. and its velocity 12 to 15
miles per hour ; the weather squally and rainy ; the current slightly to the north-
eastward.

On the 13th February, at 6 p.m., a fresh S.W. breeze was experienced, which continued
steady until 4 a.m. on the 14th, when it again became light and variable. The weather
overcast and showery.

On the 15th, at 10 p.m., the weather being quite calm, steam was got up and the ship
proceeded towards the supposed position of the Carteret Shoal.

At 5 a.m. on the 16th, a sounding was obtained in 1675 fathoms in lat. 2° 46' N.,
long. 133° 597 E., 15 miles southwest of the supposed position of the Carteret Shoal.
The deposit was a light grey Globigerina ooze, consisting of immense numbers of the dead
shells of pelagic Foraminifera. After obtaining serial temperatures, the ship steamed to
the northeast, and at noon, when in lat. 2° 56' N., long. 134° 11' E., being exactly on
the position of this danger as marked on the chart, a sounding was obtained in
2000 fathoms and the trawl was put over (see Sheet 31). The deposit at this depth
contained very much less carbonate of lime than at 1675 fathoms. The trawl brought
up a good many pieces of pumice partly coated with manganese, one deep-sea fish, and
about thirty specimens belonging to various invertebrate groups.

No sign of a shoal was seen, nor of shoal water ; indeed no such signs were expected,
as from Carteret’s account of the reef it could hardly be in the position marked. In the
narrative of his voyage1 he sees the St. David or Freewill Islands on September 25th, 1767,
to which he gives a certain position, and three days afterwards he sights the reef named
after him, which he places in lat. 2° 53' N. and long. 1° 41' W. of the Freewill Islands ;
this would place the reef N. 53° W. 200 miles from those islands, but in the chart
furnished, the reef is marked due north from them. If the Freewill Islands be in their
correct position, then the position of the Carteret Shoal, as given by its original discoverer,
would be nearly the same as that of the reef at present marked as the Helen Shoal, and
1 Hawksworth’s Voyages, vol. i. pp. 607-610, London, 1773.

DIAGRAM 15

PACIFIC OCEAH

Longitudinal Temperature S ectron . Meangis Is to Admiraltgr Is

For eccplrniedzoru of Symbols see/ FLpp endzjy 1 .

Engraved "by Malby & S ans

Admiralty 1 .

■ jATMCSlSC*

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

679

as the description of that danger by Rosser1 coincides remarkably with Carteret’s account,
there can be little doubt that the shoals are identical.

Shortly before stopping to sound at noon, a commotion in the water was seen from
the deck, which at first resembled the sea breaking over a reef. This, on examination,
proved to be a school of whales about thirty in number, who were swimming to the west-
ward. Their black backs appearing above the water looked at first remarkably like the
stones on the edge of a reef, and they might easily have been taken for one.

At 6 p.m. the ship proceeded to the eastward under easy steam, the wind being light and
variable. The early part of the day was fine, but from 1 p.m. to 6 p.m. rain squalls were expe-
rienced. The average velocity of the wind, by the anemometer, was six miles per hour.

From the 16th to the 20th, light breezes varying from north to east were experienced,
the average velocity being from 9 to 15 miles per hour, the weather cloudy with passing
showers ; from the 20th to the 22nd the weather was quite calm, necessitating the use of
steam. On the 22nd a sounding and temperatures were taken in 2000 fathoms, and the
ship then proceeded for Humboldt Bay. Whilst sounding the ship was in lat. 0° 39' S.,
long. 138° 55' E., about 70 miles northeast of the numerous mouths of the Mdmberan,2
the largest river in New Guinea.

On the 21st and 22nd the specific gravity of the surface water was lower than usual,
and the ship was at times surrounded by large quantities of drift wood. Among the
surface organisms was Noctiluca miliaris and others indicative of shore waters ; the
Naturalists were away in boats on both days examining the drift wood. As the
M amber an is the only river of any importance on the north coast of New Guinea, there
can be little doubt that the drift wood and fresh water were thence derived, especially
as similar discharges from its mouths have been met with by other explorers.3 The
river probably rises in the Charles Lewis Mountains on the opposite side of New Guinea,
which are said to reach a height of over 16,000 feet. Long lines of drift wood disposed
in curves at right angles to the direction in which the river lay were passed through by
the ship in her progress. The propeller had to be constantly stopped lest it should be
fouled by the wood. The logs had evidently not been very long in the water, being
covered only by a few young Barnacles ( Balanus ) and Hydroids. Amongst the logs
were many whole uprooted trees, one of which was 2 feet in diameter at its stem. The
majority of the pieces of wood were small branches and small stems ; the bark was often
floating separately. The midribs of the leaves of a pinnate-leaved palm were abundant,
and also the stems of a large Cane Grass (Saccharum) , like that so abundant on the shores
of the great river (Wai Levu) in Fiji. One of these cane stems was 14 feet in length,

1 W. H. Rosser, North Pacific Pilot, part ii. p. 181, London, 1870.

2 Ausziige aus den auf einer Neu Guinea Reise im Jahre 1873, gefiihrten Tagebuchern, yon A. B. Meyer, p. 6,
Dresden, 1875.

3 The mouths of the river were passed by Rosenberg on his way to Humboldt Bay in 1862, Nat. Tydsch. voor
Nederl. Indie, Deel. xxiv. p. 334, Batavia, 1862.

(XARR. CHALL. EXP. VQL. I. 1885.)

86

680

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

and from to 2 inches in diameter- Various fruits of trees and other fragments were
abundant, usually floating confined in the midst of the small aggregations into which the
floating timber was almost everywhere gathered.. Amongst them were the usual littoral
seeds, tho.se of two;- species of P and emus, and of the Puzzle-seed (jE Teritiera littoralis),
fruits of a Barrmgtonia and of Ipomcea pes-caprce. But besides these fruits of littoral
plants, there were seeds of forty or fifty species of more inland plants.. Very small seeds
were as abundant as large ones, the surface scum being so full of them that they could
be scooped up in quantities with a fine net- For a report on the nature of these fruits
and seeds- see the Report on the Botany.1 With the seeds occurred one or two flowers,
or parts of them.. Leaves were absent except those of the palm, on the midribs of
which some of the pinnae were still present. The leaves evidently drop first to the
bottom, wThilst vegetable drift is floating from a shore ; thus, as the debris sinks in the
sea water a deposit abounding in leaves, but with few fruits and little or no wood, will be
formed near shore, whilst the wood and fruits will sink to the bottom farther off the land.
Much of the wood was floating suspended vertically in the water, and most curiously,
logs and short branch pieces thus floating, often occurred in separate groups, apart from
the horizontally floating timber. The sunken ends of the wood were not weighted by
any attached masses of soil or other load of any kind ; possibly the water penetrates
certain kinds of wood more easily in one direction with regard to its growth than the
other, hence one end becomes water-logged before the other.

It is evident that a wide area of the sea off the mouth of the Mamberan River is thus
constantly covered with drift wood, for the floating wood is inhabited by various animals,
which seem to belong to it as it were. The fruits and wood were covered with the eggs
of a Gasteropod Mollusc, and with a Hydroid, and the interstices were filled with
Radiolarians washed into them, and gathered in masses, just as Diatoms, in the Antarctic
Ocean, are gathered together in the honeycombed ice. Two species, of crabs inhabit the
logs in abundance, and a small Dendrocoele Planarian swarms all over the drift matter
and on the living crabs also. A Lepas was common on the logs. Enormous quantities
of small fish swarmed under the drift wood, and troops of Dolphins (Coryphcena) and
small Sharks ( Carcharias ), 3 or 4 feet long, were seen feeding on them, dashing in
amongst the logs, splashing the water, and showing above the surface, as they darted on
their prey. The wood which had been longest in the water was bored by a Pliolas.

A large flock of the very widely spread Phalarope ( Phalaropus hyperboreus ) was
seen flying over the drift wood, no doubt following the timber out from shore, and roost-
ing on it. In England this bird is considered as one of the visitors from the far north,
so that it seems strange to meet with it at New Guinea, although it was previously known
from the Arrou Islands. Some specimens shot had small surface Crustacea in their
stomachs. The various smaller animals no doubt congregate about the drift wood because

1 Bot, Chall. Exp., part iii., 1885.

X ARE ATI YE OF THE CRUISE.

681

it seems to act as a sort of sieve or screen, and to concentrate amongst it the surface
animals on which they feed. The drift wood and seeds were also abundant on the surface
on the previous day, and a boat which was lowered from the ship captured amongst it a
Sea Snake ( Pelamys bicolor) over 3 feet in length.

On the 23rd, shortly after noon, the Cyclops Mountains were seen ahead, and the
vessel steamed towards Point Caillie, which was rounded at 7 p.m., -and shortly afterwards
anchored in 19 fathoms, with that Point hearing N. 24° W., distant It, miles.

There was no difficulty in distinguishing the land. Mount Bougainville -on the east side
of the entrance is a high solitary peak, and the Cyclops Mountains -stand well out. Point
Caillie appears like an island. Bonpland Point is at the extremity of a ridge of hills
westward of Mount Bougainville, and separated from it by a low neck of land, and at
a distance looks like an island in Humboldt Bay, which then appears to extend from
Mount Bougainville to Point Caillie.

Pounding Point Caillie at a distance of from 1 to 1 \ miles, .no soundings were -obtained
with 40 fathoms of line. The first sounding was 28 fathoms, and the ship was
immediately stopped, and when her way through the water was lost, the anchor was let
go in 19 fathoms, it being quite dark at the time.

Humboldt Bay, Hew Guinea,

As the ship entered the bay (“ Talok Lint jit ” of the inhabitants themselves), a
light flashed from the Point Caillie shore, glimmered and flashed again, then another
flashed, then another, and soon a dozen or more lights close together were flashing and
moving to and fro. These signal fires were answered from the south side of the bay, and
from another spot higher up on the same side, and the peculiar holloa of warning, “ lioa,
hoa,” was heard coming over the water from many voices, and sounding exactly like the
shouts with which the savages at Api in the New Hebrides greeted the ship. The masses
of lights glimmered from the very water level, as -eould be seen from the mode of reflec-
tion of the flashes in the water. The villages- of pile-dwellings -of Ungrau and Tobaddi
were giving the alarm, and were being answered by the people of Wawah on the other
side of the bay. The bright lights could be seen moving about, and waving to and fro
as they were carried by the excited natives along the platforms of the pile-built villages ;
glimpses of the shadows of the natives5 bodies eould be caught as they passed between
the ship and the light.

Just as the anchor was let go a light appeared on the water close to the ship, and a
canoe was evidently reconnoitring it, but the natives were shy and wary, and the light
disappeared again for some time. ~ Then it was again seen close at hand, being waved up
and down ; and a native standing up delivered a volley of his language.

Lights were placed at the gangways and were waved as a token of friendship, and all

682

THE YOYA.GE OE H.M.S. CHA.LLENGER.

sorts of encouragements were used, but the canoe kept at a distance, paddling to and fro.
The only word caught was “ sigor,” “sigor”! The canoes had two paddlers, one at
either end, apparently boys, and a full-grown savage on the small platform in the centre,
who had his huge mop-like head of hair set off by a radiant halo of feathers stuck into it,
and decked with a broad fillet of scarlet Hibiscus flowers, placed under the edge of the
mop, above his forehead. As he blew up his smouldering fire-stick into a blaze, his dark
face glowing in the light and set off by the scarlet blossoms, formed a most striking, and
at the same time most savage, spectacle.

The canoe at last dropped under the stern, the natives shouting still “ sigor”
“sigor”! and a gaudy handkerchief was thrown down from the stern boat. It was at
once fished out of the water with a four-pronged fish spear, and examined by the glow
of the fire-stick, and then another canoe which was approaching, and which contained
four natives, was shouted to in the most excited language, expressive evidently of
satisfaction.

“Sigor” being supposed to mean “ tobacco,” a cigar was let down with a line and
immediately taken and lighted, more were shouted for, and two cocoanuts neatly
husked and tied together with a part of the husk left attached for the purpose, as in the
many islands visited by us, , were fastened to the line, to be drawn up in exchange.
Then by cries of “ sigor ”! which acted as a loadstone, the canoes were drawn up opposite
the gangway, and every attempt was made from the bottom of the ladder to invite the
natives on board, but without success ; nor would they approach near enough to receive
presents from the hand, evidently fearing a trap, but they took a number of cigars,
receiving them two at a time, stuck between the prongs of a long fish-spear. The plac-
ing of the cigars between the jagged points of the spear was rather trying work, for the
ship was rolling somewhat, and the spear thus moved to and fro in a dangerous manner.
Another gaudy handkerchief being given to the boat which had received one already, it
was passed over to the other boat at once, either according to some agreement as to
division of spoil or perhaps because the occupant of the boat was a chief. The use of
ship’s biscuit was not understood. One native made signs that he wanted a gun, by
pretending to load his bow from some implement picked up from the bottom of his
eanoe to represent a powder flask, then ramming down in pantomime, drawing the bow
as if shooting, and saying “ boom.” The natives seemed frightened to some little extent
by a “ blue light,” and shoved off a bit, shouting something as it was lit. At one time
they commenced a sort of song in their canoe, as they lay off the ship hesitating to
approach. At last they left for the shore.

At daylight on the 24th the ship was surrounded by canoes, each containing from
two to six natives all jabbering together and making the most terrible din one could
possibly imagine. The anchorage being rather an uncomfortable one, owing to its being
exposed to the full effect of the swell rolling into the bay, which made the ship very

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

683

uneasy, at 7 a.m. the anchor was weighed and the ship steered in for a small cove under
Point Caillie. At the first movement of the screw the natives in the canoes seized their
weapons, and it was certainly thought for an instant that the officers on the bridge were
going to be favoured with a flight of arrows. Much relief was felt when they were seen
pointing to the propeller, which they evidently took at first to be a marine monster of

some kind or other. Having satisfied themselves, however, that it was machinery

connected in some way with the ship, they put their weapons down and resumed
paddling alongside, their canoes forming a wide trailing line as they accompanied the ship.
There were in all sixty-seven canoes present, and this was the greatest number
seen, a few of them contained five natives, some four, some three, and some

only two. In fifty canoes on one side of the vessel there were one hundred and

forty-eight natives, or about an average of three to a canoe ; in all, therefore, there
must have been two hundred natives. From time to time the shout which was heard
the night before was raised. When heard close by, it was found to commence with a short
quick “ wah wah,” followed by a long “ oh oh oh.” Some few natives had perforated
Conch shells, both a Triton perforated on the side of one of the upper whorls, and a large
conical Strombus perforated at the apex of the spire. They blew these shells, making a
booming sound which mingled with the shouts. They evidently prize these trumpet
shells highly, and would not part with them, perhaps from the same motives that prevent
them parting with their flutes, as described by the officers of the “Etna.” 1

When the ship moved the scene was very fine. In front were the Cyclops Mountains
rising to heights of 6000 feet, at the eastern base of which was a sheltered cove with one or
two small islets in it, all lit up by the rising sun behind, whilst around were a crowd of
canoes filled with naked savages ornamented with frizzled hair, tusks through the septa
of their noses, and blackened faces ; in the centre was the Challenger, steaming slowly
along in search of a secure anchorage, and rolling lazily to the heavy swell. As the ship
steamed towards the shore the water grew deeper instead of shallower, and finally it
became necessary to anchor in 36 fathoms, with the right extremity of Point Caillie
N. 82° E., Observation Islet S., and an island with a village on it S. 43° W. Here the
vessel was well protected trom the swell.

Many of the natives made a sign of drinking, and pointed to a part of the bay where
water was to be procured, evidently thinking that the ship required water. This shows
that they are more or less accustomed to ships watering here, and the fact that the
utmost endeavours failed to induce any of the natives to come on board the ship, and
their extreme caution in their first approach, seemed to show that they must have been
frightened or maltreated in some way by recent visitors to the bay. When the Dutch
vessel of war “Etna” came into the harbour in 1858, the natives clambered on board
before the cable had run out.

1 Neu Guinea und seine Bewohner, Otto Finsch, p. 144.

684

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

As soon as the ship anchored again, the natives crowded round and barter recom-
menced most briskly, being carried on through the main deck ports, the natives passing
up their weapons and ornaments stuck between the points of their four- pronged spears,
and receiving the price in the same manner.

The constant cry of the natives was “ sigor sigor,” often repeated {“sigor sigor,”
slowly, “sigor sigor sigor,” quickly), which was found to mean iron. Iron tub-hoop,
broken into 6 or 8 -inch lengths, was the commonest article of barter, but most prized
were small trade hatchets, for which the natives parted with anything they had. The
iron wherewith to replace the stone blades of their own hatchets, and the miserable
ready-made trade hatchets, are to them the most valuable property possible, since they
lessen the toil of clearing the rough land for cultivation, and of canoe and house building,
which with the stone implements alone must be arduous work indeed. Hence the
natives eared hardly for anything except iron ; bright handkerchiefs or Turkey red
stuff were seldom taken in exchange, and then for very little value ; beads, however,
were prized. Of their own property, the natives valued most their stone hatchets. Very
probably they obtain the stone for making them by barter from a distance, since the
rock at Humboldt Bay is a limestone, and the hatchets are made of nephrite or greenstone,
or of a slate. The labour involved in grinding down a nephrite hatchet head to the smooth
symmetrical surfaces which these native implements show, must be immense. Next in
value to the stone implements were the breastplate-like ornaments, each of which has as
its components, eight or more pairs of wild boar’s tusks, besides quantities of native beads,
made of small ground-down JSferita shells. These treasures required a trade hatchet at
least to purchase -them. All other articles, necklaces, armlets, tortoiseshell ear-ringSj
combs, paddles, daggers of Cassowary bone and such things, could be bought for plain
hoop iron, as could also bows -and arrows in any -quantity, and even the wig- like orna-
ments of Cassowary feathers, which the men wear over their brows, to eke out their mop-
like heads of hair.

The natives often attempted and succeeded in withdrawing an arrow or two from a
bundle purchased, just as it was being handed -on board, though on the whole they
understood the laws of barter thoroughly, and stuck to bargains. They attempted
once or twice to keep the articles given beforehand in payment without return,
but often returned pieces of hoop iron and other things which had been handed down
for inspection and examination, as to whether they were worth the article required
for them or not. One or two of these natives tried to fish things Out through the
lower deck-scuttles from the cabins with their arrows, but were detected and frustrated
in their design.

Many of the men wore a pair of wild boar’s tusks fastened together in the form of
a crescent, and passed through a hole in the septum of the nose, so that the two tusks
projected up over their dark cheeks as far as their eyes. Most of them had short

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

685

pointed beards, apparently cut to that shape ; the old ones had whiskers. One old man
who was bald, wore a. complete but small wig. None of the men were tattooed, but they
had large cicatrised marks on the outer sides of the upper arms, and smaller ones on
the shoulders.

The fungoid skin disease was common here as at the Arrou and Ki Islands, but only
on the adults ; the boys and many of the younger men were free from it.

The men attracted attention to barter by the cries of “ urh, urh ” ! ; to express astonish-
ment they struck the top of the. outer sides of their thighs with their extended palms.
Refusal of barter or negation was combined with an expression of disgust, or rather the
two ideas are not apparently separated ; the refusal was expressed by an extreme pouting
of the lips, accompanied by an expiratory sniff from the nostrils. The forehead muscles
wrere very little used in expression, though they were slightly knitted in astonishment.
In laughing, the corners of the mouth were excessively drawn back, so that four or five
deep folds were formed round the angles of the mouth, the head was lolled back, the
mouth opened wide, and the whole of the upper teeth uncovered ; the whole expression
was most ape-like.

The bows of the Humboldt Bay natives are cut out of solid palm-wood, and require a
very hard pull. They taper to a fine point at either end, and in stringing and unstring-
ing them a loop at the end of the string is slipped on and off this point and rests in the
extended bow on a boss raised with wicker-work, at some distance from the bow-tip.
The bows are strung quickly by their lower ends being placed between the supports of
the canoe outriggers as a fulcrum. If an attempt be made to string a bow, by resting
one end on the ground, the tapering end snaps off directly pressure is applied. The
bowstring is a thick flat band of rattan, and the arrows, like all New Guinea arrows, have
no notch, but are flat at the ends, and are also without feathers. The natives have
never learnt the improvement of the notch and feather. The men of Api Island, New
Hebrides, have most carefully worked notches to their arrows, but still no feather. The
Arrou Islanders have both notch and feather.1 The Humboldt Bay arrows further are
excessively long, far too long for the bows, being 5 feet in length, so that not more than
half of their length can be drawn, they are rather small spears thrown by a clumsy bow
for short distances than arrows. They go with immense force for a certain distance,
but only fly straight for ten or a dozen yards, wobbling and turning over after that
length of flight.

In the Humboldt Bay stone choppers, the stone blade is mounted in the end of a
long wooden socket piece which is fitted into a round hole at the end of the club-like
handle. The socket piece can thus be turned round so that the blade can be set to be
used like that of either an axe or an adze. The handle and socket piece form nearly a

1 For the distribution and various forms of bows and arrows, see General Lane Fox, F.R S., On Primitive Warfa
Journ. Boy, United Service Inst., 1867-69.

686

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGES.

right angle with one another, and the socket piece is so long that the whole seems a most
clumsy arrangement, and it is most difficult to strike a blow with it with any precision.
The shorter the socket piece the easier it is to direct the blade with certainty in a blow.
In Polynesia generally the stone blades are thus fixed close up to the ends of the handles,
but in New Guinea this curious long-legged angular handle is in vogue. It is difficult
to understand the reason , unless these natives began with a chisel and mallet ; and havino-
got so far in improvement as to join them together, have not yet discovered the
advantage to be gained by shortening up the socket piece.

Fro. 232.— stone-bladed

Chopper and Stone-headed Hammer in use at Humboldt Bay, also a larger view of the stone hammer-
head removed from its socket.

A curious stone implement, similarly mounted to the chopper, was common in most of
the Humboldt Bay canoes. The stone head is cylindrical in form, tapering to fit the
socket at one end, and hollowed slightly on the striking face. It is used for pounding
sago. The awkwardness of its method of mounting is at once felt on trying to drive a
nail with it.

The ethnographical details of the people of Humboldt Bay are, thanks to the

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

687

investigations of the Dutch commission on board the ship “ Etna/’ better known than
those of most savages.1

Directly the ship was anchored, the boats were hoisted out and preparations made to
survey the bay and explore the country, but although the natives allowed the officers sent
to obtain astronomical observations to land on a small uninhabited island, they used threaten-
ing gestures towards the other boats, pointing their arrows against the breasts of the natural-
ists and officers ; consequently the exploring and surveying parties returned for orders.

This unwillingness on the part of the natives to allow the parties to land and explore
the country rendered it necessary either to pay respect to their wishes, or to proceed in
the investigations at the risk of an embroilment with them. Much as it was wished to
explore a part of the world so little known as is the district of New Guinea around
Humboldt Bay, it was considered unjustifiable to use force for the purpose, or even to
land any explorers where a momentary impulse on the part of a savage might possibly
lead to the sacrifice of .many lives. Conciliation was thus the only resource left, and the
boats were kept on board whilst endeavours were made to make friends with the people
in the canoes surrounding the ship. All the efforts, however, failed to induce even one
of the men to come on board, and the conclusion was reluctantly come to that it would
require some days’ intercourse with them before they could be taught that the object of
the Expedition in visiting their settlement was a friendly one. There was no doubt that
by sacrificing a week or ten days in conciliation almost anything might have been done
with these people, but devoting so much time to this purpose was out of the question, so
it was resolved to leave Humboldt Bay and proceed to the Admiralty Islands, where it
was hoped that the intercourse with the natives might be more fortunate.

Before hoisting in the boats the pinnace proceeded towards one of the villages with
Captain Thomson, Professor Thomson, Mr. Murray, and Mr. Wild, in order to allow
Mr. Wild to make a sketch of the village (see fig. 233).' As the pinnace approached the
platform on which the houses were built, four or five natives presented themselves with
bows and arrows in hand. One of them drew his bow and pointed his arrow towards the
pinnace, but offered, both immediately for “ sigor.” When the bow of the pinnace was
placed alongside the scaffolding on which the pile-dwellings stand one of the bluejackets
got on to it. This was, however, strongly objected to by the natives, who motioned
him back to the boat. After a short time one of the natives was induced to take
Mr. Murray on shore in his canoe, and Professor Thomson and Captain Thomson
followed shortly after in a second canoe. The rock at the point where the party landed
was a limestone weathered at the surface into sharp, jagged points, round which the
roots of the trees were twined in a most extraordinary manner. Two birds ( Tricho -

1 Nieu Guinea Ethnogr. en Natuururkundig ouderzoocht in 1858 dooreen Nederl. Ind. Commissie, Bijdragen totde
Taal Land en Volkerikunde van Nederlandisch Indie, Deel v., Amsterdam, 1862. For Von Rosenberg’s account of the
visit, see Nat. Tydsch. voor. Nederl., Indie, Deel xxiv. p. 333 et seq., Batavia, 1862.

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

87

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

688

glossus cyanogrammus and Arses insularis) were shot, and a number of Gonra pigeons,
cockatoos, and several other birds were noticed. The natives were quite friendly, and
took a great interest in pointing out the birds and in watching the result of each shot.
They did not seem to be greatly astonished at the report of the gun. As the pinnace
returned to the ship a few women with short kilts were observed standing at the door of
one of the pile-dwellings.

Humboldt Bay, shaped somewhat like a crescent, is from 4 to 5 miles wide at its
entrance between Points Caillie and Bonpland (the extreme points of the crescent), and
perhaps 7 miles wide at its broadest part by about 4 or 5 miles deep. The bay

Fig. 233.— The Village of Ungrau. in Humboldt Bay, New Guinea.

is open to the northeast, and a heavy swell rolls in, which, whilst the Expedition was
there, was breaking on the shores all round, with the exception of a small portion
sheltered by Point Caillie. Point Caillie is a promontory about 500 feet high, jutting
out to the S.S.E. from the mainland, to which it is joined by a low neck, and forming
between it and a point 1-| miles to the southeastward a sheltered cove which was named
Challenger Cove. In the southwestern part of Challenger Cove are two small islets ;
the outer, uninhabited, was named Observation Islet, and the inner, on which is a
settlement, Village Islet. Southwestward of these islets are some coral rocks with deep
water between them. At the northeast end of Challenger Cove, on Point Caillie, is
another village, off which the anchorage, appeared to be free from danger. One mile

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

689

S. by W. from Observation Islet is another small islet, and on the mainland between
them there are a few huts on the beach. At the head of Humboldt Bay is a sharp peak
just inside the coast line, from whence to Point Bonpland the coast is low. Point
Bonpland is the western extremity of a ridge of hills, about 4 miles long and from
800 to 1000 feet high, which stretches from that point towards Mount Bougainville, ending
with a sharp fall over Point Bonpland, off which there are two small islets. Mount
Bougainville is wrongly placed on the chart ; it bears S. 68° E. (true) 17 '5 miles from
Point Caillie, and is a sloping mountain 4500 feet above the level of the sea. The
Cyclops Mountains consist of a long range with one peak considerably higher than the
others, the position and height of which could not be determined.

The deposit at 37 fathoms in Humboldt Bay was a greenish mud, containing a few
Pteropod and Foraminifera shells. The surface organisms did not indicate the presence
of any large body of river water, being rather pelagic than estuarine.

Humboldt Bay to the Admiralty Islands.

The first two days after leaving Humboldt Bay for the Admiralty Islands, light
westerly winds and fine weather were experienced, after which the wind became variable,
with squalls, and approaching the Admiralty Islands there was almost continuous rain.
Matty Island, the Schouten group, and the Hermit Islands were sighted on the passage, and
one sounding of 1070 fathoms was obtained in lat. 2° 33' S., long. 144° 4' E.; a trawling
and temperatures (see Sheet 31) were also obtained in this position. The deposit was
a blue mud with a reddish surface layer, and contained 17 per cent, of carbonate of lime.
The trawl brought up a large quantity of mud, large pieces of pumice, fragifients of wood
and fruits, and nearly two hundred specimens of deep-sea animals. The net was covered
with a branching Rliizopod.

The A lcyonaria.—T\\c Pennatulida have been noticed on page 49. The other
Alcyonarian collections were sent to Professor E. Perceval Wright, who is engaged in
preparing a Report on them; he writes as follows: — “The species of the suborder
Alcyonacea, being for the most part inhabitants of shallow water, were not well repre-
sented in the collections. Still some interesting species of the genera Xenia , Clavularia ,
and Nephtliya occur, and a few forms of the genus Spoggodes were dredged in depths of
from 100 to 150 fathoms. A species of Sarcophyton found on the reefs off the shores of
the Admiralty Islands supplied Professor Moseley1 with the material for an important
memoir on the structure of this form, the heteromorphism of which had already been
discovered by Professor Kolliker. Only a few fragments of Tubipora musica were col-
lected, and no simple non-colonial forms.

1 On the Structure of Sarcophyton, Phil, Trans,, part i. p. 109, 1876.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

690

“The great mass of the specimens collected belong to the suborder Gorgonacea,
the mere enumeration of the names of which would be without interest. Several species
of the genus Primnoa were dredged in great quantities, ,A fine specimen of the

Fig. 234. — Cattozostron mirabile, n. gen. et sp.; natural size ; from 1675 fathoms.

rare Calytrophova japonica, in nearly perfect condition, was dredged from a depth of
610 fathoms off the Fiji Islands, while another and smaller species of more rigid growth,

and with the verticels of polyps reversed on
the stem (Calytrophova wyvillii, n. sp.), was
taken off the Kermadec Islands from a
depth of 600 fathoms. There are numerous
species of Primnoella. In a new species
( Primnoella murrayi ) from Station 320, at
a depth of 600 fathoms, the verticels of
polyps resemble minute cycad cones, from
the peculiar imbrication of the large external
scale-like spicules.

“The most remarkable form of Alcyo-
narian collected, which shows certain affinities
to the Primnoads, is the one whose general
appearance will be best understood from the
accompanying illustration (fig. 234). It
Fig. 235 .—Callozostron mirabile, n. gen. et sp.; single polyps. was dredged at Station 153, ill the Southern

Ocean, from a depth of 1675 fathoms. The
stem or main axis is flexible and only partially calcareous ; around about five-sixths of its
surface the large polyps are tightly packed, while the -remaining one-sixth is free from

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

691

polyps, and apparently trailed along the ground. As the basal portion of the main axis
or stolon is imperfect, it must remain a matter for conjecture whether, as seems probable,
it was attached or remained free and was only anchored in the mud. In either case it
seems likely that by the contraction of the polyps, an irregular vermiform movement may
have been given to the colony. To this strange form the name Callozostron mirabile
has been given. Fig. 235 shows two of the polyps, enlarged.

“Next in interest come a number of deep-sea forms, which will necessitate the
emendation of Yerrill’s recently established family Chrysogorgidse. The species
are noted for the elegance of their form, which varies from that of an elongated
unbranched axis not thicker than a horse hair to a spirally branched axis forming quite

a shrub-like mass. The axes when denuded are of a most brilliant metallic hue, and
markedly iridescent. All the hitherto recorded species have been taken in deep water
off the Atlantic shores of the West Indies or North America. Among the new forms in
the Challenger collection may be mentioned Strophogorgia challengeri, n. gen. and sp. ,
600 fathoms (off Cape St. Vincent), and Strophogorgia verrilli, n. sp., from Station 235
(Japan), at a depth of 565 fathoms. Other species have been taken at Station 70
(Azores), depth 1675 fathoms, and Station 237 (Japan), depth 1875 fathoms. A form
(Bathygorgia profunda ) in which the axis was too feeble to hold the polyps in an erect
position is shown in fig. 236 ; it was dredged at Station 241, from a depth of 2300 fathoms.
The spicules are very massive, and are club-shaped. A number of new and interesting

692

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

forms belonging to the families Muricidse and Gorgonidse were taken, and numerous species
belonging to the genera Accinella, Ceratoisis, Sclerisis, and Lepidisis of the family Isidse.

“ But few species of the suborders Briareacea and Melithseacea were collected.

“ Coralleacea — No living species of the genus Corallium was discovered, but some
worn specimens were found at Banda and the Ki Islands,1 which Mr. S. 0. Ridley
describes as follows : —

“ ‘ One specimen was a large well-branched example, 9 inches high by 5 inches in
greatest diameter above, greatest diameter at base 22 mm. The branching is essentially
in one plane, while its fundamental plan appears to be dichotomous, it is not strictly
adhered to, and the larger branches are more or less regularly pinnate, with marginal twigs
of small size. The stem and larger branches have their antero-posterior diameter decidedly
larger than the lateral diameter. The longitudinal striae of the hard axis are delicate and
numerous, viz. , about 4 to 1 mm. on an average in the larger axes. A transverse section
of one of the small pinnae exhibited the structure characteristic of the axes of members
of this family. The section, like the exterior of the corallum itself as seen with the
naked eye, is devoid of positive colour ; with the exception of a few pale red points in
the centre of the section which are evidently embedded spicules, and appear to have the
stellate form characteristic of the family, no free spicules could be found. The specimen,
which had evidently been dead for some time, as the longitudinal striae are obliterated
in places, and besides being encrusted with Polyzoa, a delicate Sponge, &c., is much ex-
cavated, apparently by Worms and boring Sponges, was obtained on the 26th September
1874, in 129 fathoms, off the Ki Islands. The second specimen, which measures only
2^ inches in height and diameter, the greatest diameter of the stem being 10 mm., agrees
so closely in all its external characters with the first, that it is unnecessary to describe
it further, except by saying that all the clean broken surfaces of the branches exhibit a
pure white colour, whereas the first specimen shows a faint pink coloration on the broken
surfaces of five small branches. It was obtained off Banda, in 200 fathoms. With
regard to the genus and species to which these specimens should be referred, it must be
stated that, in the absence of the cortex, a final decision is impossible. In the general
external characters (with the exception of the colour) they resemble very closely the
only known species to which on distributional grounds it is likely that they would
belong, viz., Corallium (Pleurocorallium) secundum, Dana, which is known to inhabit
Japanese seas. This species (as shown by the series of specimens exhibited in the
Japanese Court at the International Fisheries Exhibition, 1883) varies very greatly
in its external coloration, being apparently in some cases wholly white externally,
like the present specimens ; if therefore it is remembered that their maceration in sea
wTater would probably destroy or alter a bright red surface colour, and that in parts the
corallum still retains a red tint, the improbability, founded on colour, of the identifica-
1 Another specimen of Corallium has recently been found by Prof. Moseley in the dredgings off Prince Edward Island.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

693

tion becomes much less. The chief interest of the specimens lies in the fact that no
Coralliidse have ever been recorded from the Malay Archipelago, and that the only
localities in the Indo-Pacific area from which species of the family are known are
Mauritius ( Corallium stylasteroides) and Japan ( Pleurocorallium secundum). Dana’s
locality of Sandwich Islands for the latter is very uncertain. The fragments (in the
fossil state) described by Professor Duncan from New Zealand do not appear to throw
light on the present specimens.’ ”

The Nudibranckiata. — Dr. Rudolph Bergh of Copenhagen, who has prepared the
Report 1 on the Nudibranchiate Molluscs collected by the Expedition, has supplied the
following note : — The so-called Nudibranchiate Gasteropoda are distributed over all

Pig. 237. — Inferior surface of anterior extremity of Bathydoris abyssorum, Bergh (natural size), showing the mouth, the
two rhinophoria projecting from their sheaths, the two genital openings (from the anterior of which projects the large
glans penis), and the anterior margin of the foot.

seas. Judging by the discoveries made by the Polar Expeditions they appear to be
least common towards the Poles, while they are most abundant in the tropical and
subtropical seas, in which latter there occur species of unusual size and most beautiful
colour.

I Report on the Nudibrancliiata, by Dr Rudolph Bergh, Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxvi., 1884;

694

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

“ Most of the families belonging to this group are found in all seas ; some, however
(■ e.g ., the Phyllidiadse), occur only in the tropics. The largest group, the Dorididse, is
represented by a large number of generic forms especially in tropical regions, whilst the
iEolidiadse, on the other hand, are more conspicuous in more northern seas.

“ Most Nudibranchiata live on algse and coral reefs in the neighbourhood of coasts or
on the surface of the open seas ; it was therefore not to be expected that the Challenger

Fig. 238. — Back view of Batliydoris abyssorum, Bergli (natural size), showing the five branchial tufts, one having been
probably accidentally lost from the right side ; close to the branchiae on the right side is the renal pore, and below
in the middle line the anal papilla ; at the bottom is the expanded foot.

Expedition, which was chiefly concerned with deep-sea investigation, should bring back
a large collection of these animals, nor many new species.

“ In fact, only twenty-four (or twenty-five) forms altogether were obtained, of which,
however, twelve or thirteen were new species, which give rise to the constitution of
four new genera.

“ The most remarkable form was dredged from the great depth of 2425 fathoms ; the
Nudibranchiata called ‘ deep-sea ’ by M. Sars came from much shallower water, This

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

695

form, to which the name Bathydoris abyssorum (figs. 237, 238) has been given, is perhaps
the largest Nudibranchiate Mollusc hitherto known, measuring 12 cm. in length, after long
immersion in spirit. When alive it was transparent and gelatinous in consistency ; the
rhinophoria were brown, the gills and protruding external genital organ orange, and the
foot dark purple. In shape it is subglobular, somewhat resembling the genus Kalinga
of Alder and Hancock. The gigantic bulbus pharyngeus resembles rather that of Bornella
and other Tritoniadse ; the labial disk is thus unarmed and the powerful mandibles are
covered by a thick muscular mass. The radula is not unlike that of the Tritoniadse, pos-
sessing as it does a median tooth and a series of lateral teeth, but the first lateral tooth is
quite similar to the rest, whereas in the Tritoniadse it is different. On the whole Bathydoris
appears to form a remarkable connecting link between the Tritoniadse and the Dorididse.
It was taken at Station 271 in the middle of the Pacific from a depth of 2425 fathoms.

“ A second form obtained by Mr. Murray in the ‘ Triton ’ from 608 fathoms, in the
Fseroe Channel, has been made the type of a new genus, and has been named Cuthonella
abyssicola. This novel form, for which I have established the generic name Cuthonella,
somewhat resembles Cratena and Cuthona, but differs in some comparatively essential
points. The anus, instead of being situated upon the side of the body, is dorsal and
slightly lateral. The dorsal papillae are not inflated ; they are set in transverse or oblique
rows, which are crowded together so as to form a few larger groups. In the specimen
examined the cnidophorous bags were absent. The foot is not very broad, its anterior
margin is truncated. The mandibles are somewhat short, the masticatory edge provided
with several series of strong denticles. The radula has a single series of rather large
teeth, with a denticulate cutting edge. The penis is unarmed.”

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

88

696

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

CHAPTER XVII.

The Admiralty Islands— History of their Discovery — Description of Nares Harbour — General Appearance of the Islands
and Botany — Natives — Their Houses, Habits, Customs, Ornaments, Weapons, and Implements — Zoology —
Polynesian Races.

On the 3rd March the weather was so thick and rainy that, being close to the land
without seeing it, it was necessary to “ lay to ” for a short time. After noon the weather
cleared somewhat, and at 2 p.m., the three northwest islets of the Admiralty group
(Buchanan, Murray, and Moseley Islands) were sighted and the ship steered to the east-
ward towards D’Entrecasteaux and Suhm Islands, after passing which a course was kept
along the edge of the D’Entrecasteaux Reef, rounding its eastern extremity at dusk and
anchoring in 18 fathoms.

D’Entrecasteaux’s sketch of the north side of the Admiralty Islands was found very
correct for a running survey, and no difficulty was found in distinguishing the points
and islands laid down on it.

As the ship approached the anchorage several canoes came off, under sail, from
D’Entrecasteaux and Wild Islands, through openings in the reef, though a stiff breeze
was blowing. The natives were evidently in great excitement, and eager to reach the
vessel ; paddles were waved to show friendship, and various articles of barter exhibited.
The constant cry was “ laban, laban,” which was found, like the “ sigor ” of Humboldt
Bay, to mean iron, the form of wealth which they also coveted most.

After the ship anchored on the evening of the 3rd March, the chief ordered all the
canoes away, and the vessel was left alone till the morning. On the 4th, at 7 A.M.,
several canoes came off from Wild Island, and, as the natives appeared well disposed and
the weather favourable, a party landed on a small coral island (Observatory Islet) to obtain
astronomical observations. After breakfast Captain Thomson landed on Wild Island,
and found the inhabitants very friendly, so the boom boats were got out, the Naturalists
went away exploring, and every, preparation was made for surveying the anchorage,
which was called, in compliment to the late captain, “Nares Harbour” (see Sheet 34).

The Expedition remained at Nares Harbour for seven days, until the 10th March,
surveying the harbour and exploring the country, but the work was much impeded by
rain, which fell on five days out of the seven, the total fall being 2 ’81 inches, the
greatest in any one day being T ’21 inches. The wind, the direction of which was recorded
bi-hourly, prevailed from the northward, its* average velocity being 7\ miles per hour.
The sky was cloudy and the atmosphere damp and oppressive, the mean temperature
being 81°, and the relative humidity 97. The mean pressure of the air at a temperature
of 32° was 29 *8 3, and the mean temperature of the sea surface 8 3° ’8.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

697

The existence of the Admiralty group of islands 1 was first made known to Europeans
by Le Maire and Schouten, who sailed along their southern side on the 4th July 1616,
and named them the “ Twenty-four Islands,” but did not anchor or attempt to com-
municate with the shore ; in fact they mistook the largest of the islands for Ceram, so
uncertain was the method of obtaining the longitude in those days.

The next account of the group is from the voyage of Captain Philip Carteret in
H.M.S. “Swallow,” 1767, who sighted the southern side of these islands on the 14th
September, and gave them the name by which they have since been distinguished.
Twelve or fourteen canoes came off to Carteret’s vessel, and the natives at once attacked
him by throwing their lances into the midst of his crew, whereupon Carteret replied
by firing some muskets and a swivel gun at the canoes, which caused them to disperse.
One of the boats was afterwards captured and found to contain six fine fish, a turtle,
some yams, and a coeoanut. This canoe, which was rudely made out of a tree and
furnished with outriggers, was 50 feet in length.

Bougainville, in August 1768, passed northward of the Admiralty Islands without
-seeing them, but sighted the Anchorite and l’Echiquier groups.

Francisco Maurelle, -captain of the Spanish frigate “ Princessa,” was the next to sight the
Admiralty Islands, on his passage from Manila to San Bias. He appears to have been
well acquainted with Bougainville’s discovery, but knew nothing of Carteret’s, and
thought he was the first European to see this group. Having first observed the Hermit
Islands on the 8th January 17-81, he passed between them and Anchorite Island, and on
the 10th, saw the main Admiralty Island, which he named “ Bosco.” On the 11th some
natives came off to his vessel, who, according to his account, were in a most miserable
condition, and fought for some biscuits and cocoanuts which he threw amongst them.
Steering along the northern shore of the main island, Maurelle gave the name of “ Los
Negros ” to the islets lying off the northeast point, and the names of “ San Gabriel,” “ San
Rafael,” “ Los Reges,” “ Jesu Maria,” and “ San Miguel ” to those to the east and southeast.

A little confusion of names appears to have arisen regarding these various islands,
that at present named “ Commerson Island” is in all probability the Anchorite Island of
Maurelle, seen by Bougainville from the masthead, whilst the present Anchorite Islands
are those which he named “ Los Monjos.” Again, it is probable that the isle marked
Low Island, southeast of Admiralty Island, was the one seen and named “ San Miguel ”
by Maurelle, for the present San Miguel Islands are said to be only 15 feet high, whilst
Low Island is marked as being 700 feet high. An account of Maurelle’s voyage is given
by Espinosa and La Perouse.

The Admiralty Islands appear to have been next sighted by Captain John Hunter of
H.M.S. Sirius,” who, having lost his vessel at Norfolk Island in March 1790, took passage

1 Burney’s Voyages, Hawkesworth’s Voyages, Bougainville’s Voyage, La Perouse’s Voyage, Espinosa’s Memoires
Astronomique.

698

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

to England, via Batavia, in the hired transport “ Waaksamheyd.” Starting from Port
Jackson at the end of March 1791, he passed through St. George’s Channel (separating
New Britain from New Ireland) in May, and after stopping a short time at Port Hunter,
Duke of York Island, made the Admiralty Islands on the 31st of that month, and sailed
along their northern coasts to the westward. Five large canoes came off to the
“ Waaksamheyd,” with eleven natives in each canoe, who, although anxious to barter,
refused to come alongside the ship. One of them made various motions for shaving by
holding up something in his hand, with which he frequently scraped his cheek and chin,
causing Captain Hunter to infer that they had been visited by La Perouse on his way
northward from Botany Bay, in which port Captain Hunter met the French Discovery
ships, “La Boussole” and “Astrolabe,” in March 1788.1

Early in the year 1791 the Parisian Society of Natural History called the attention
of the Constituent Assembly to the fact that no information of La Perouse had been
received for nearly three years. The hope of recovering at least some wreck of this
expedition induced the Assembly to despatch two vessels, the “Recherche” and “Esperance,”
under the command of Bruny D’Entrecasteaux, to search for intelligence of La Perouse.
Arriving at the Cape of Good Hope in January 1792, D’Entrecasteaux received an
exaggerated account of the report of Captain Huu ter, one statement of which went so
far as to say that the crew of the “ Waaksamheyd” had distinguished, in the Admiralty
Island canoes, Europeans clothed in the uniform of the French Marine, who displayed
a white flag as a signal for the English to approach.

This information, evidently incorrect from Captain Hunter’s own narrative, induced
D’Entrecasteaux to visit the Admiralty group, where he arrived at the end of July 1792.
He first proceeded to J$su Maria Island, which is described as being surrounded by a
reef and with apparently but few inhabitants. From Jesu Maria Island he proceeded
to Yandola, where he communicated with the natives, but did not land owing to the
surf which breaks on the reef surrounding the island. Thence he proceeded towards the
Negros Islands on the northeast coast of the main Admiralty Island, and sailing along
the north coast, communicated with the natives and made the first running survey
of the group, but gained no intelligence of La Perouse, and finally left the islands on the
1st August, without landing on any of them.

In 1843 the islands were visited by the American clipper- “ Margaret Oakly,” whose
crew landed at many points on the coast of the main island, which, according to
Jacobs’ account, was called “ Marso ” by the natives ; they also visited many of the small
outlying islands. Jacobs’ account 2 is full of interesting details, but evidently not entirely
trustworthy ; such portions of it as are important will be referred to in the sequel.

From 1843 there is no published account of the visit of any vessel to the Admiralty

1 Hunter’s Journals.

2 Scenes, Incidents, and Adventures in the Pacific Ocean, &c., by J. T. Jacobs, pp. 164-182, New York, 1844.

Engraved by Malby & Sor

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

699

Islands till the year 1874, although it is known that whaling vessels cruised occasionally
in their vicinity, for Captain Abraham Bristow of the “ Sir Andrew Hammond ” was
there in February, March, and April 1871, and specimens of Admiralty Island lances and
gourds are to be seen in the Christy and British Museum collections, which had been
obtained from Cape York, having doubtless been taken there by tortoiseshell and pearl shell
traders, and by the whaling vessels. In 1874 H.M. Schooner “ Alacrity,” Lieutenant
Commander Saunders, visited the south and east coasts of the main Admiralty Island and
J esu Maria Island, and found the inhabitants friendly and well disposed.

Since the visit of the Challenger in March 1875, the Admiralty Islands have been
several times visited by the far famed Melanesian explorer Baron N. de Miklucho-Maclay,
viz., in 1876, 1879, and January 1883.

The Admiralty group, which may be considered as confined between the parallels of
1° 40' and 3° 30' south latitude, and the- meridians of 145° 30' and 148° 30' east longitude,
consists of one large and numerous small islands, amongst which are interspersed many
coral reefs.

The main Admiralty Island (named “ Bosco ” by Maurelle, but which is merely
designated Admiralty on the Admiralty charts) is about 60 miles in length by 10 in
width, and occupies an area of upwards of 500 square- miles. The next largest island
in the group is that of Jesu Maria, which is about 12 miles in length by 5 in breadth,
with an area of 50 square miles. The remaining islets of the group are small.

Admiralty or Bosco Island consists for the most part of undulating land, which
attains a considerable elevation, nearly 3000 feet, in its central parts. The coast is for
the most part low, and here and there indented by deep bays and occasionally fringed
with mangrove bushes. Off the coast, at varying distances, are a series of coral reefs
forming natural breakwaters, and as the water is of a convenient depth between these reefs
and the shore, well protected anchorage may be obtained at almost any part of the island.
These off-lying reefs do not form a connected .barrier such as may be seen off the north-
eastern coast of Australia, but are detached from each other, in some cases, by considerable
intervals; they are however, in all probability, elevations’ of the same submarine plateau
the extent of which requires to be traced by the lead line.

Besides Admiralty or Bosco Island, four others of the group attain an elevation of from
600 to 800 feet, while the remaining islets are low and more like what in the West Indies
are denominated “ cays ” than islands, and are situated on coral reefs.

The investigations of the Challenger were confined to the northwest corner of the
main island, in the immediate neighbourhood of the anchorages.

Nar.es Harlour, at the western extremity of the north coast of Admiralty Island, is a well
sheltered and convenient anchorage, easy of access, but destitute of supplies. It is nearly 8 miles in
length from east to west, has an average breadth of 3 miles, and is protected by a reef which, joining

700

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

some outlying islands lying nearly parallel to Admiralty Island, forms a natural breakwater
completely sheltering the space enclosed between it and the coast of that island. This reef has been
named after D’Entrecasteaux, who made a running survey of the northern portion of the Admiralty
group in 1792, and whose positions and sketch of the land are apparently correct.

The whole of the space enclosed between D’Entrecasteaux Reef and Admiralty Island is not
available for anchorage, part of it being occupied by several small islands and shoals ; there is, how-
ever, sufficient room to afford shelter to several vessels, and if the whole of the harbour were sounded
it would probably be found quite large enough for all requirements of trade at this group for
many years.

If Entrecasteaux Reef is 7 miles long W.N.W. and E.S.E., and 6 cables in width at its broadest
part. On it are three low, flat, sandy islands (named D’Entrecasteaux, Suhm, and Wild), all of which
are thickly wooded, two of them, D’Entrecasteaux and Wild Islands, being inhabited; and close to
its eastern extremity is a small sandy cay with a few trees on it, named Observatory Islet, being the
observation spot of the Challenger in 1875.1 The northern or outer edge of the reef is well defined,
and has apparently no outlying dangers, none having been seen from the masthead when sailing along
it in the Challenger, nor any found by the boats •when sounding close to the breakers, which in March
are very heavy. At a distance from its edge of 1^ miles, one sounding of 150 fathoms was obtained.
The southern or inner edge of the reef is not well defined ; it has, as is usual with coral reefs,
several mushroom-shaped rocks cropping up close to it, with deep water around, and must therefore
be approached with caution. In the centre of the reef is a shallow lagoon, and 2\ miles from its
western extremity there is an opening, through which apparently a boat or even a small vessel might
pass into smooth water under favourable circumstances, but the sea breaks at times across it.

D'Entrecasteaux Island is the westernmost of the three on the reef of that name, and lies 3 cables
from its edge. It is nearly half a mile in length and 2 cables in breadth, low and flat, but covered
with trees, which, rising from 80 to 100 feet, can be seen at some distance. The natives live in a
village on its north side, which is guarded by a rough stockade. The landing place is on the south
side. There is no good water to be found there, nor in fact on any of the small outlying islands
visited ; the natives use the sea water which filters through the sand into wells dug near their
habitations, and is very brackish even in the rainy season.

Suhm Island, a little over a mile to the eastward of D’Entrecasteaux Island, is - of nearly
the same size and height as that island, but is uninhabited. Four cables to the eastward of it is the
break in the reef before mentioned.

The space to the westward of Suhm Island appeared from the masthead of the Challenger, when
outside the reef, to be free from danger,, and good anchorage will most likely be found there. The
west point of D’Entrecasteaux Reef may probably be rounded at a distance of a quarter to half a mile,
and anchorage found between the two islands to the southward of the reef ; but it must be borne in
mind, in entering the harbour by the western passage, that no soundings have as yet been obtained
there, and therefore it is imperatively necessary that a good lookout should be kept from aloft for any
shoal heads that may exist.

Wild Island lies nearly 4 miles E.S.E. of Suhm Island, is three quarters of a mile in length,
and 250 yards in breadth at its widest part, and is low, flat, and covered with trees, like Suhm and
D’Entrecasteaux Islands. Wild Island is inhabited, the village being on the south coast, near its

The native names not being procurable, it was considered justifiable to give names to the various islets, &c.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

701

centre. On the -two inhabited islands there are numerous cocoanut trees, whereas neither of the
other small islands, nor the coast of the larger island in the immediate neighbourhood of the harbour,
have any.

Observatory Islet, in lat. 1° 55' 0" S., long. 146° 38' 40" E., lies E. by H 8 cables from the east
point of Wild Island, and about a quarter of a mile inside the eastern extremity of D’Entrecasteaux
Reef, which here comes to a point. It is small and stony, but has a few trees growing on it.

Challenger Shoal, over the west end of which the Challenger passed, lies E. by S. § S. P4 miles from
Observatory Islet. On it are 3-|- fathoms, with shallower water apparently to the eastward. When
passing over the shoal, Observatory Islet was in line with the north extremity of Suhm Island.

Eastern Channel is a safe and deep channel one mile broad, between Challenger Shoal and the east
extremity of D’Entrecasteaux Reef, leading into Hares Harbour.

Wyville Point , the northwest extremity of Admiralty Island and the southwest extremity of
Hares Harbour, lies S. \ W. nearly 5 miles from D’Entrecasteaux Island. The point itself is rocky,
and has a ooral reef stretching off it a short distance from all parts ; from it the coast to the westward
trends nearly south to the west point of Admiralty Island, while to the eastward is a large but
shallow bay, formed between it and the next point (Moseley Pointy which lies HE. by E. J E. a
little over 4 miles from it. This bay, named Shallow Bay, was mistaken by D’Entrecasteaux for a
strait separating a considerable tract of land from the main island.

Shallow Bay, which is 4 miles wide from Wyville Point to Moseley Point at its entrance, is about 3
miles deep. It has not been sounded, but as the Challenger’s pinnace, with an exploring party, grounded
several times, ships should not at present attempt to make use of it. There are no inhabitants in the
locality, nor could any stream of fresh water be found in or near it. In the centre of the bay are three
small islands named Higham, Button, and Ferguson, all of which are low, flat, and thickly wooded.

Erom Wyville Point the land rises in a gradual slope to a saddle-shaped hill, 500 feet high, S. by E.
2-J miles from the point. This is the highest hill in the vicinity of the harbour, but there is higher
land some miles to the eastward of it.

Maclear Island. — Between Wyville Point and D’Entrecasteaux Island is Maclear Island, the
summit of which, 200 feet high, lies H’by E. E. nearly 2 miles from Wyville Point. It is thickly
wooded, nearly circular in shape, 900 yards long, 750 yards in breadth, and is surrounded by a coral
reef, on the western edge of which are two small rocks about 20 feet high, named the Twin Rocks.

Between the coral reefs of Maclear Island and Wyville Point there is apparently a deep passage
one mile in width, but it has not been sounded.

Moseley Point, at the eastern entrance of Shallow Bay, is 4 miles HE. by E. § E. from Wyville
Point, 5 miles S.E. from D’Entrecasteaux Island, and 3£ miles S.W'. by S. from Observatory Islet.
Eastward of it the coast trends to the E.S.E. for nearly 3 miles, when it juts out slightly, forming
a small promontory, which has a “ boat cove ” on its western side, and a small islet (Richards Islet) to
the eastward of it. Erom this promontory the coast of Admiralty Island trends more to the south-
eastward for a short distance.

Between Moseley Point and D’Entrecasteaux Island are three islands, named Carpenter, Browne,
and Tracey, and nearly one mile E. by S. from Moseley Point is a small island, named Pigeon Island
from the large number of those birds which frequent it.

The whole of that part of the coast of Admiralty Island which was explored to the eastward of
Moseley Point is fringed with a coral reef, extending from 2 to 4 cables from the shore.

Failure Bodes are two small bare rocks about 5 or 6 feet high, on the edge of the reef which

702

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

fringes the coast of Admiralty Island. They lie S.S.E. a little over 3 miles from Observatory Islet
and E. by S. \ S. nearly 4 miles from Moseley Point, and form a good mark for entering through the
east channel into Nares Harbour, as they lead, when bearing S. f E., midway between the east
extremity of D’Entrecasteaux Eeef and Challenger Shoal.

To the northward of these rocks, at a distance of half a mile, there is a narrow shoal with
4 fathoms on it, and 20 to 28 fathoms just outside.

Carpenter, Browne, and Tracey Islands are connected by a reef. They lie in a N.W. by W.
direction from Moseley Point, and between that point and D’Entrecasteaux Island. There is a
channel 9 cables in width between the reef surrounding them and the reef off Moseley Point, which
appears, so far as explored, to be safe and deep, and there is probably also deep water between D’Entre-
casteaux Island and this reef, as well as between it and Maclear Island, where one sounding of 19
fathoms was -obtained. The space between these three islands and Maclear Island appears an
excellent position to anchor in if the water should be found of a suitable depth, but this has not yet
been ascertained. The three islands are all uninhabited, and like most others in the vicinity of the
harbour are low, flat, and thickly wooded.

Anchorage. — In that part of Nares Harbour sounded by the Challenger, viz., from Suhm Island
eastward to the Challenger Shoal, a distance of 6 miles, and from the inner edge of D’Entrecasteaux
Eeef to the reef fringing Tracey, Browne, and Carpenter Islands and the coast of Admiralty Island, the
depth varies from 10 to 30 fathoms, with patches having less water near the edge of the reefs ; and
the depth in the channel entering the harbour between D’Entrecasteaux Eeef and Challenger Shoal
varies from 20 to 40 fathoms. The centre of the harbour is much encumbered by a chain of coral
knolls extending from the middle of Carpenter Island northeastward to the edge of D’Entrecas-
teaux Eeef. These knolls have from 1 to 2 fathoms over them, but are separated by channels of
deep water 1 £ to 3 cables in width, either of which may be used if required ; but as there are no good
marks for leading through, it is requisite either to buoy the knolls between which it is intended to
pass, or to pilot the ship from aloft, when these patches are distinctly visible. To the eastward of
these shoal patches is the anchorage, 3 miles long by 1J miles in width, and the only dangers in it
with the exception of Havergal Shoal, are close to the edges of the reef.

Havergal Shoal, a small patch of 4 fathoms, lies on the western side of the eastern channel into
Nares Harbour. From it, Observatory Islet bears N.W. by N. 6J cables, and the east point of Wild
Island W. by N. § N. 1J miles, and between it and Challenger Shoal the channel is 9 cables in width.
Vessels should on no account attempt to pass between Havergal Shoal and D’Entrecasteaux Eeef, as
some shoal heads may exist there which have not been examined. -

Directions for the Eastern Channel. — If bound from the westward, steer along the edge of D’Entre-
casteaux Eeef at a distance of a mile until Observatory Islet bears south, when haul to the southward
and bring Failure Eocks, which may be easily distinguished, to bear S. f E., and steer in with them on
that bearing, which will lead mid-way between Challenger Shoal on the east side of the channel, and
the point of D’Entrecasteaux Eeef and Havergal Shoal on the west side. When the whole of Suhm
Island is open to the southward of Wild Island, the ship will be inside Havergal Shoal and should
haul to the westward, steering towards Browne Island, until the west point of Wild Island bears from
N. to N.N.W. ; then steer in slowly towards Wild Island, and anchor as convenient in 18 to 20
fathoms about half a mile from the shore.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

703

If from the northward, steer to make Observatory Islet, and when that is sighted, proceed as'
before directed.

If from the eastward, steer to make Observatory Islet, which should on no account be brought to
the westward of S.W. until Failure Rocks bear S. f E., in order to clear the Challenger Shoal.

Buchan wL Moseley, and Murray Islands. — Five miles west of Maclear Island are three small
islets, Buchanan, Moseley, and Murray, connected by a reef which extends some little distance from
them. Between this reef and D’Entrecasteaux Island there is a wide and apparently deep channel
into Hares Harbour. On Buchanan Island, the southernmost of the three islets, is a conspicuous tree,
considerably higher than those surrounding it, and nearly in the centre of the island.

Boudeuse Bay is a small indentation in the north coast of Admiralty Island, 4 miles to the east-
ward of Nares Harbour. In it is a small village and several streams of fresh water, from which
vessels may obtain a supply, but there is no anchorage off it in the northwest monsoon, so that they
must despatch their boats from Nares Harbour.

The land surface in the vicinity of Nares Harbour consists of a series of low irregular
ridges rising one above another, with wide flat expanses at the heads of bays on the
coast, which are scarcely, or not at all, raised above sea level, and thus are in a swampy
condition. The mountains appear, from their form, to be volcanic ; and it is probable
that the obsidian used by the natives for their spear heads is procured from them. A
trachytic lava was found to compose one of the outlying islands, and a similar rock was
observed on the mainland where it commenced to rise. A platform of coral sand rock
forms the coast line of the main island in many places ; and a similar rock is the only
component of most of the small outlying islands.

From the position of the Admiralty Islands with regard to the Equator, their climate
is necessarily damp. Dense clouds of watery vapour hung about the forest-clad ranges,
keeping the mountains most frequently concealed ; and in the evening mist hung about
the lower land, looking like smoke rising from between the densely-packed trees. In
a bay some miles to the eastward of the anchorage of the Challenger, the mouth of a
small river, apparently the outlet of the drainage of the mountains on this side, was found,
and also a very small brook; but running water was not elsewhere observed, and the rain
probably drains to a large extent into the swamps.

The main island, as viewed from seawards, is seen to be densely wooded everywhere.
Along the summits of the ridges cocoanut palms show out against the sky, accompanied
by Areca palms, as can be made out on a nearer view. The general dark green mass of
vegetation on the hillside is festooned with creepers, and the smaller outlying islands
dotted about in front of the main island are all thickly wooded. Those which are
inhabited may be distinguished at once by the large number of cocoanut trees growing
upon them, and forming the main feature of their vegetation.

Upon the mainland where the shore is not swampy, the trees overhang the sea with
immense horizontal branches. The bases of many of their trunks are constantly washed

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. x. — 1885.) 89

704

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

by the waves, but they nevertheless have large woody fungi growing upon them, some-
times attached so low down that they are frequently immersed in salt water. The
overhanging branches are loaded with a thick growth of epiphytes ; and it was necessary
to wade up to the middle in order to collect specimens of orchids and ferns which hung
often only a couple of feet above the water.

In other places the shore is swampy, and is either covered with mangroves or with a
dense growth of high trees with tall straight trunks, so closely set that it was very
sensibly dark beneath them. In such a grove near Pigeon Island, a small outlier near
the anchorage, whilst the ground beneath is bare and muddy and beset with bare roots,
the trunks of the trees and fallen logs are covered with a most luxuriant growth of feathery
mosses and Jungermannias.

On one of these trunks was found a very curious and rare Fern ( Trichomanes
peltatum), known before only from Samoa and New Caledonia, the fronds of which are
circular in form, and, connected by a slender rhizome, adhere in rows to the bark. They
are pressed absolutely flat against the bark, so as to look like an adherent crust, and have
all the appearance of a Riccia or some such liverwort, for which indeed they were
mistaken, when gathered by shaving off the bark. A species of Adder’s-tongue Fern
( Ophioglossum pendulum), unlike the humble little English form, grows in abundance
attached to tree stems with long pendulous fronds a yard in length.

Before the visit of the Challenger the botany of the Admiralty group was entirely
unknown. Amongst the plants collected was a new tree-fern, and an orchid forming a
new section of the genus Dendrobium.1

The morning after the Expedition arrived trade went on briskly, the canoes crowding
round the ship, and the natives handing their weapons and ornaments through the main
deck ports. The barter given in exchange was principally ordinary hoop iron broken up
into pieces about 6 inches in length ; but a great quantity of so-called “ trade-gear ”
was also disposed of.

Trade-gear is regularly manufactured for Polynesian trading, and sold by merchants in
Sydney and elsewhere. A stock of about £300 worth had been bought for the ship’s use.
It consisted of a cask of small axes, rather worthless articles with soft iron blades, butcher’s
knives of all sizes, some with blades 12 to 14 inches in length, Turkey red and navy blue
cotton cloth, beads, trade tobacco and pipes, and other similar articles.

The islanders had possibly traded with Europeans shortly before the Challenger’s
visit, for they brought off their tortoiseshell ready done up in bundles, and knew the
relative value of various qualities. The chief had a large European axe, apparently not
procured from the ship, and many natives had hoop iron adzes. Nevertheless they must
have had very little experience indeed, otherwise they would not have taken old German

1 Bot. Chall. Exp., part iii., 1885.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

705

newspapers in trade freely as they did at the first, thinking them to be fine cloth, until
rain had fallen. They soon took to making trade goods, shell hatchets, and models of
canoes, to sell to the Expedition, and these were as badly made as the trade-gear given
in exchange. They understood the rules of barter well, and, as in Labillardiere’s time,
seemed anxious to pay their debts. They must trade with one another regularly. They
pretended, with many expressive grimaces, to be unable to bend pieces of tortoiseshell
which they offered for sale,, and of the thickness (i.e., fine quality) of which they wished
to impress the purchaser. They often thus pretended to try ineffectually to bend very
thin pieces, and fully entered into the joke when the buyers did the same with thin bits
of hoop iron. They always required to see the hoop iron tested by bending before
accepting it. They made signs that the ore of manganese which they use came in
canoes from a distance eastwards. The native canoes are so seaworthy, and the natives
so enterprising and fearless, that possibly articles may pass by barter from island to island
over wide distances, even to New Hanover and New Britain.

The natives took all the hoop iron they could get from the ship, evidently receiving
more than they could use, no doubt intending it for future barter. They were anxious
to trade to the very last, and followed the ship to sea from the anchorage with that
intent. They were in a highly excited state, especially at first, and the man from whom
some of the first obsidian headed spears were procured fairly trembled with excitement as
two pieces of hoop iron were handed to him. The natives have no metals of their own.
They blacken their bodies with the ore of manganese, which they call “ laban,” and they
have adopted the same term for iron. They appear unable to work iron at all, since they
refused any pieces not of a form immediately applicable for use. They preferred a small
piece of hoop iron to a conical mass of iron weighing several pounds.

The natives are quieter than the Humboldt Bay men, and there was comparatively
little noise and no combined shouting when their canoes were alongside. They are
rapacious and greedy, and very jealous of one another, the chief showing all these traits
in the highest degree. They were ready enough to thieve, but not so constantly on the
lookout for plunder as the Humboldt Bay Papuans.

The native guides who accompanied parties of explorers always went armed, and
were much frightened and astonished at first at the sound of a gun. One of the
guides, when birds were being shot, stopped his ears at first, and bent down trembling
every time the gun went off. The natives were not, however, much scared when on one
occasion the ships’ guns and some rockets were fired at night, but came off next day to
the ship to trade as if nothing had happened.

The natives showed no great astonishment at matches or a burning glass, apparently
uaderstanding the latter, and motioning that the operator should wait until the sun
came from behind a cloud. Looking glasses were not at all understood ; they were tried
in all positions, for example, as ornaments on the head and breast, but the men seemed

706

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

to recognise no advantage in seeing their faces in them; in Labillardiere’s time, however,
they broke them to look for the picture, or man, inside. Tobacco and pipes were not
understood. Biscuit was eagerly taken and eaten. G-reat wonder was expressed at the
whiteness of European legs and chests by the natives, and the women at D’Entrecasteaux
Island crowded with great curiosity and astonishment to look at a white arm or chest.
The natives possibly thought that the hands and faces were only painted white, and
took the negroes on board the ship for men who had not got the paint on.

The Humboldt Bay and Admiralty Island natives’ probably believed that their weapons
were purchased in order that they might be used as such, for they frequently, when
offering spears and bows, showed by signs how well they would kill.

The following account of the natives of the Admiralty Islands is largely taken from a
paper on the subject published in 1877 by Mr. Moseley,1 to which the reader is referred
for further details as to the language and other matters. It must be remembered
that the stay of the Challenger at the islands lasted only a week, and that the period
during which the natives- and their customs could be studied was very short. A most
important and full account of the anthropology of the group is to be expected when
Baron de Miklucho-Maclay publishes in full the results of his prolonged researches on
Melanesian races. Some corrections of erroneous impressions formed at the time of the
visit of the ship have been made in the following account from information which has
been derived from that illustrious naturalist in conversation.

Nearly all the ornaments, weapons, and utensils figured in the text and plates are
deposited in the Christy Collection at the British Museum.

About fifty-five words and the numerals of the islands were obtained, and the results
are published in Mr. Moseley’s paper above referred to. The numerals are interesting
because those for 8 and 9 are expressed as 10. minus 2, and 10 minus l.2 In the process
of learning the art of counting, a term for the numeral 10 has been reached by the
natives, before 8 and 9 have been named. This method of forming the numerals 8 and
9 is known amongst other distant races, such as the Ainos and some North American
peoples, but apparently does not occur amongst either Polynesians or other Melanesians.
It is, however, found in the language of one Micronesian Island, Yap, in the Caroline
group. In counting objects, the natives clap their hands, held with the fingers pointed
forwards and closed side by side, once when 10 is reached, twice when 20 is pronounced,
thrice for 30, and so on. Up to 10 counting is done on the fingers, and after that,
11, 12, &c., are reckoned on the toes.

1 Jour. Anthrop. Inst., vol. vi. pp. 379-425, 1877.

2 Admiralty Island Numerals : — 1, Sip. 2, Huap. 3, Taro. 4, Vavu. 5, Lima. 6, Wono. 7, Hetarop. 8, Anda Huap.
9, Anda Sip. 10, Sangop. Jacobs, loc,. cit., p. 172 gives See, Maruer, Tollo, Ear, Leme, Ouno, Andru-tollo, Andru-ruer,
Andru-see, Songule. Thus, according to him, the numeral for 7 is formed in the same manner as that for 8 and 9. His
numerals are no doubt from a different part of the Admiralty group, and the method of spelling adopted by him is very
different, still they correspond closely with those obtained.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

707

To express affirmation, the natives jerk the head up, as at Fiji. Negation is expressed
by a most extraordinary and peculiar method : the nose is struck on its side by the
extended forefinger of the right hand, the motion being as if the tip of the nose were to be
cut or knocked off. This sign was invariably used to express refusal of proffered barter, or
.that a native had not got some article asked for. It is capable of various modifications :
the quick decided negative is given by a smart quick stroke on the nose ; in the doubtful,
hesitating negative, the finger dwells on its way, and is rubbed slowly across the nose.

The men average about 5 feet 5 inches in height, and the women about 5 feet 1 inch.
They contrast at once with the natives of Humboldt Bay, in being far thinner and lankier.
Three men who were weighed, averaged only nine stone (127 lbs.) in weight. Only one
native was observed that was at all fleshy, although such were not uncommon at Humboldt
Bay. Food is perhaps not so abundant here as on the New Guinea coast, and the natives
have not, like the natives there, the advantage of bows and arrows to kill game with.

Measurements in inches of Natives of the Admiralty Islands, taken by the late
R. von Willemoes Suhm, being of Natives of Wild Island, except those of
Nos. 6, 7, 8, 9, which were taken on board the ship by R. von Willemoes Suhm
and H. N. Moseley.

Height.

Breadth. n

Arm

Length.

Leg

Length.

Foot

Length

Hand

Length.

Nose

Length,

Forehead

Length.

Ear

Length

Breasts
. Length.

1

f 1. Old woman ; 40 years (circa)., .

60

15

28

10

7

7

1

Young girl ; 15 years (circa), .

61 A

15

25

33

94

15

24

! 3.

i W oman of mean size, older than 2,

60

12

25

9

65

2

3

64

4.

Old woman,

63

10

8

1

Mean,

61

14

26

33

94

74

2

3

24

6|

Mouth

Width.

Weight
in lbs.

fl.

Young man,

67

16

29

37

94

7

2

2

n

2|

2.

Adult,

63

18

28

35

104

7

25

3

2 1

3.

Adult,

63

174

274

34

94

2

24

H

...

4.

Adult, . .

66

174

284

...

5.

Oto,1 . . . . |

67

174

6.

Adult,

64|

7.

Adult, ....

63

9|

122

8.

Adult (photographed),

624

17i

274

33|

10*

8

15

3

3

3

133

9.

Young, . .

66f

16

27

34

10

74

2

3§

126

Mean,

64|

17f

28

34f

H

2

3

3

3

127

1 The Chief of Wild Island.

708

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The usual colour of the natives is a black-brown, often very dark, and darker than
that of the natives of Humboldt Bay. As is usually the case with dark races, the young
girls and boys appear much lighter as a rule than the adults. Some one or two of
the young women were of a quite light yellowish brown, as was also one young man,
who came from a distance to the ship to trade. No doubt there is a mixture of blood,
and the light coloured natives observed belonged to the light coloured race described by
Jacobs as inhabiting the eastern part of the main island, and as constantly being made
war upon by the dominant black race.1

The hair of the head, which is worn long only by the younger adult males, formed in
them a dense mop, projecting in all directions 6 to 8 inches from the head, but appeared
less luxuriant in growth than that of the natives of Humboldt Bay. The hair is crisp,
glossy, and extremely elastic, and every hair rolls itself up into a spiral of small
diameter, thus in general appearance it is fine curly, like that of Fijians. On com-
paring it with a very small sample of hair of the natives of Humboldt Bay taken from
several native combs, the hair of the latter proves to be somewhat coarser, but in other
respects the two hairs are closely alike, the diameters of the spirals of the curls being the
same. Some hair from a native of Api, New Hebrides, is of about the same coarseness
as the Admiralty Island hair, but the curls are of much smaller diameter ; the hair of
the Api Islanders seems to be remarkable for the fineness of its curls. The fineness of the
curl of the hair in various Melanesian races seems to be pretty constant in each race and
characteristic. It might be estimated by measuring the diameter of the circles formed
by the separate spirally twisted hairs, and taking the average of several measurements.
No doubt a certain curve of the hair follicles corresponds with and produces the curl
in the hairs, as in the case of the hair follicles of the negro as discovered by Mr. Stewart,2
but the amount of curve will be peculiar to each race. The hair of both head and body
of the Admiralty Islanders is naturally black, that of the head being of a glossy black.
The hair of the men’s bodies was not at all abundant, nor by any means so plentiful
as it is often seen to be on the bodies of Europeans, the hairiness of whom is apt to be
underrated. Eyebrows were generally absent in the Admiralty Islanders, having very
probably been shaved off ; the natives made signs when offered razors that they used
obsidian knives for shaving.

It was not noticed that the natives seen at Nares Harbour had excessively large
front teeth. This fact was observed by Baron de Miklucho-Maclay 3 on his first visit,
and he has since examined most interesting cases of macrodontism on subsequent excur-
sions to the islands.

The septum of the nose in all the adult males is perforated, and the lower margin of

1 Jacobs, loc. cit., p. 176.

2 Charles Stewart, F.L.S., Note on the Scalp of a Negro, Microscopical Journal, vol. ix. p. 64, 1873.

3 Yerhandl. der Berlin Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Zeitschr. f. Ethnol., Bd. viii., 1876.

uVW^

jPlate XXIX.

Horsburgh, Edinburgh.

Permanent Phototype.

Native, Admiralty Islands.

NARRATIVE OE THE CRUISE.

709

the perforation usually dragged down by the suspension of ornaments, so that in a profile
view of the face the large aperture in the septum is looked through by the observer.

Some of the natives (about one in every fifteen or twenty) have most remarkable
long Jewish noses, as at Humboldt Bay. It was at first imagined that this form of nose
was produced to1 some extent by long action of excessively heavy nose ornaments, but
one youth of only sixteen or seventeen was seen with such a nose very fully developed,
and more than one woman with a well-marked arched nose with dependent tip, and the
women appear to wear no nose ornaments.

The earlobes of all the men were enlarged, being slit and dragged down into long
loops by the weight of suspended ornaments.

The women wear as their only covering two bunches of grass, one in front, the other
behind. The dress of the men, besides a white cowry shell ( Ovulum ovum), consists
occasionally of a narrow strip of bark cloth about 5 feet long and 6 or 8 inches in
breadth, which is- almost white when new and clean, (see PL XXIX.). The cloth is in
the form of a long natural sac, open at both ends, being evidently loosened from the cut
limb of the tree from which it is made by beating, and then drawn off entire. This cloth
is sometimes reddened by being rubbed with a red earth also used by the natives for
smearing their bodies. No better native cloth was seen ; and the natives apparently do
not know the method of fusing the fibrous material from several pieces of bark together,
so as to form tappa, like that of Fiji or Tonga.

The hair in the women, young and old, is cut short all over the head, and worn in
this simple fashion, without decoration of any kind. In the boys the hair is short,
probably cut short, as in the women, and in the older men the hair is always short.
Only the young men of apparently from eighteen to thirty or so wear the hair long and
combed out into a mop or bush. The mop of hair in the young men, possibly the
warriors (though numbers of adults still in full vigour, had their hair short), is carefully
combed out, often reddened, and greased. A triangular comb is usually worn in it
(see PL I. fig. 4), also cocks’ feathers or plumes of the Nicobar Pigeon or the Night
Heron, bound together in tufts and fastened on to the ends of short sticks of wood, are
worn as hairpins.

It must be remembered that the native ornaments of the Pacific Islands are all made
to show on a dark skin. White shell or tusk ornaments look exceedingly wTell against
the dark skins of natives, although when removed and handled by whites they show to
little advantage. The young girls at the Admiralty Islands sometimes wear a necklace or
two, but they are never decorated to the same extent as are the men, who seem averse to
part with any of their finery to the women. The old women have no ornaments. One
girl was seen with only a necklace of the beads procured from the ship ; and another
had one of small unshaped lumps of wood, worn apparently rather as a charm than an
ornament.

710

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The men wear armlets (often seven or eight on each arm) of Trochus niloticus shell,
like those of Fiji, the Carolines, and elsewhere. The rings are neatly engraved with
lines forming patterns composed of lozenges, triangles, and transverse bars, the raised
lines being blackened so as to form a dark background against which the lozenges show

Fig. 239. — Four Armlets, consisting of horizontal sections of Trochus niloticus shells, engraved with various patterns, from

the Admiralty Islands.

out in strong relief (see fig. 239). The Ovulum shells worn by the men are usually taste-
fully decorated in a similar manner, and form very effective ornaments indeed.

Long styles of Tridacna shell are worn dependent from the nose. They are very
like those which, in the Solomon Islands, are worn stuck transversely through the septum

A

3

Fig. 240. — Pendent Nose Ornaments from the Admiralty Islands, made of ground Tridacna shell, with loops of twine for
suspension. One specimen ornamented with engraved rings.

nasi, but are here always worn hanging by loops of plaited twine sometimes ornamented
with teeth (see fig. 240). Ear and nose ornaments are also made of the teeth of the Cuscus
of the islands or of crocodiles’ teeth. The ears and nasal septa are always perforated.
Pieces of rolled-up leaf are sometimes worn in the ear (perhaps those of Chavica betel).

A.T Hollick. d.el eb 2r&..

HetrQiarb imp.

ADMIRALTY ISLANDS.

I & 2. UNUSUALLY LARGE & HIGHLY DECORATED OBSIDIAN B LAD ED SPEAR. 3&4 OBSIDIAN BLADE D SPEARS OF OLD PATTERN HEADS.
5. SPEAR HEAD WITH BLADE'OE HARD WOOD PAINTED TO RESEMBLE OBSIDIAN.

Tie Voyage of HMSTChallenger”

Narrative Pl.G.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

711

Necklaces of native beads of shell or cocoannt wood are also worn. Rings of tortoise-
shell are commonly worn in the ears as at Humboldt Bay. Both waistbelts and armlets
of fine plaited work, with patterns in yellow and black, are common, resembling those
of the Arrou Islands and Humboldt Bay (see. PI. H. figs. 2, 3).

The body is seldom decorated with green leaves, as at Humboldt Bay, but leaves are
occasionally worn, both hanging down the shoulders and on the arms. Flowers, also,
are seldom worn, but a single Hibiscus rosa-sinensis flower is sometimes carried in
the hair.

The full-grown men are mostly marked with cicatrizations, in the form of circular
spots about the size of half a crown, which are sparsely disposed over the upper part of
the chest and shoulders in front, and sometimes continued down the back in two lines
leading obliquely downwards from the shoulders to meet one another in the middle of
the back. One full-grown young man of twenty years or so had the spots fresh and
raw ; they had apparently been raised by burning.

Tattooing is almost entirely confined to the women, with whom it is universal. Two
males, however, were tattooed : one, a small boy, had a simple ring-mark round one eye,
the other, an adult, had rings round both eyes ; these were, however, exceptional cases.
The tattooing is not made up of fine dots or pricks, but of a series of short lines or cuts ; 1
the colour is an indigo blue. The women are tattooed with rings round the eyes and
all over the face, and in diagonal lines over the upper part of the front of the body, the
lines crossing one another so as -to form a series of lozenge-shaped spaces. The tattooing
is sparse and scarcely visible at a short distance, and nowhere are the marks placed so
close to one another as to form coloured patches on the body, as in Fijian women or
Samoan men.

The male natives occasionally have their chests and faces coloured with a burnt red
clay. Sometimes only one lateral half of the face is reddened. When vermilion was
given to the natives they put it on cleverly and symmetrically in curved lines, leading
from the nose under each eye, showing that they understood how to use it with effect,
but magenta was found useless as an article of trade, for it is too transparent to show
on a dark brown skin, and the natives rejected it directly they tried it. No doubt the
reason why they do not tattoo themselves is because the tattooing would show so little ;
perhaps also it is on account of their dark colour that Melanesians generally have so
largely adopted cicatrization as a substitute.

It is probable that the natives paint themselves elaborately on festive occasions and
in time of war. They were fond of being painted, and two natives who were painted
on board all over with engine-room oil-paint, yellow and green, in stripes and various
facetious designs, were delighted. They were also often -coloured black over the faces

1 Probably made with obsidian flakes. It is said that the Solomon Islanders are tattooed with short outs
made in this way.

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

90

712

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

and chests, the colouring matter used being an ore of manganese, which gives their
bodies a metallic lustre, like that produced by plumbago or boot-blacking. This mode of
decoration was often observed in the old women, and especially in a group engaged
in singing an incantation. One man, who was possibly a priest, was always thus
smeared over the face, arms, and chest, so that perhaps blackening has a religious
signification.

The natives almost universally chew betel, using the pepper leaf, . areca nut, and
lime together as usual. Some one or two men were observed who did not chew at all
and had no lime gourds. The lime is 'carried in gourds of a different form from those
used at Humboldt Bay, but perforated in the same manner at one end with a small hole
through which the long spoon-stick is inserted. The lime is conveyed to the mouth
by means of the stick.

Most of these spoon-sticks were plain (PI. K. fig. 2, b), but some few were carved at
the handle end, the finest obtained having belonged to the chief (see fig. 241), and being
adorned with a perforated carved handle of considerable artistic merit cut out of the
same piece as the stick. These instruments are all narrow in the blade, and show no
tendency to broaden out into the spoon shape of the more highly developed corresponding

5

Fig. 241. — Lime Spoon-stick with carved handle, from the Admiralty Islands.

implements of some other Melanesian races. The majority of them are in the most
primitive form of the simple stick only. At Humboldt Bay the lime gourds are seldom
decorated, and are of a simple cucumber-like shape. At the Admiralty Islands they are
all decorated, and are of a peculiar form, somewhat like an hourglass, being constricted
in the middle (see PI. K. figs. 2, 2a, 3). All have a pattern burnt in on their surfaces,
which is very peculiar, and almost exactly alike on all. It has no doubt had its origin
in the representation of some natural objects, but it appears impossible to make out the
nature of this from the pattern in its present condition. One gourd obtained bears a
drawing of a lizard ; some bear a series of short parallel lines near the middle, possibly
marks of ownership (see PI. K. figs. 2, 2a).

The use of kaava and of tobacco is entirely unknown to the natives, kaava being
unknown to all other Melanesians except the Fijians, who probably learnt it from
Polynesians.

The principal vegetable foods of the islanders are cocoanuts and sago. This last is
prepared into a farina, and preserved in hard cylindrical blocks about a foot in height
and 6 or 8 inches in diameter. Specimens of the preparation have been placed in the
Kew Museum. Taro ( Caladium esculentum) is also eaten, and is cultivated in small

The Voyage of H.M.S. "Challenger"

Narrative PI. H

A.T.Holliclt del.et' lith. Hanharb imp .

ADMIRALTY ISLANDS.

I. THE HEAD AND SHAFT OF A SPEAR WITH THE BINDING TWINE CUT OFF TO SHOW THE CONSTRUCTION
d. CO. FRO NT & BACK OF THE SOCKET, b. U . THE BLADE (BROKEN AT THE POINT.) 2. 3 . TWO BELTS OF PLAITED WORK

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE,

713

enclosures adjoining the houses, but to a limited extent, and there are no large clearings nor
indeed any kind of cultivation leaving its mark on the general features of the vegetation
of the islands as viewed from the sea, as at Humboldt Bay, Api, or Fiji. Plantains ard
grown sparingly round the houses ; and a bread-fruit tree also about the villages. Several
wTild fruits, a Hog-plum ( Spohdias ), a small fig, and the fertile fronds of a fern are eaten
by the natives, and they have a sugar cane of better quality than that used at Humboldt
Bay. Young cocoanut trees are planted about the houses, and carefully protected
from injury by means of neatly- woven cylindrical fences ; they are also planted with
care on the uninhabited islands. The natives have no Yams ( Dioscorea ) nor sweet
potatoes.

The flesh of pigs is roasted by the natives, and served for eating, placed on
a quantity of the prepared sago in large wooden bowls, which are often elaborately
carved (see Plate M). The Phalanger of the islands ( Cuscus ) is also roasted whole, and is
carried about cold, with head, tail, and legs intact, ready to be torn with the teeth and
eaten at any moment.

i

Fig. 242. — Earthenware pot with two handles, and
supported on four feet, from the Admiralty
Islands.

The natives possess pottery, although apparently in small quantity only; it is neither
glazed nor ornamented. An earthen pot was obtained from them, represented in the
accompanying woodcut (see fig. 242). ' Like the bowls it is supported on four feet and like
them has a pair of lateral inwardly curved handles. Although no proof that this was
of their own manufacture was obtained, it is probable that it was made by them,
since Melanesians are mostly potters, and the pattern is obviously copied from that of
their wooden bowls. The natives have also large, nearly spherical, cooking pots of thin
black earthenware with narrow necks (see fig. 243).

There are wells on the inhabited islands at some little distance from the houses ;
they are shallow holes dug in the coral ground, and are kept covered in with sheets of
bark. Cocoanut shell cups are hung up for drinking at each well.

5

Fig. 243. — Spherical earthenware pot, from the
Admiralty Islands.

714

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The houses of the natives are built on the ground,1 and always close to the shore.
On Wild Island they are built of a continuous wall and thatch of grass and cocoanut
leaves or similar material. They are all of an elongate beehive shape, occupying an oval
area of ground, and thus look somewhat like long haycocks (see PL XXX.).

In D’Entrecasteaux Island many of the houses have their walls built up neatly of wood
cut into billets and piled as firewood s in Europe, and the roofs are similar to those in
Wild Island. They are supported on two stout posfis. rising from the foci of the oval
floor of each house, and by a regular framework of rafters. Shorter posts, placed along
the walls at intervals, support the roofs at their periphery and the walls. Very often the
ground is excavated to the depth of a foot or so beneath the house, so that the wall is
partly of earth, and one has to step down to get into the house.

The dwelling houses are mostly about 20 to 25 feet long, 10 to 15 feet in height, and
about 10 feet in breadth. They have a low opening at one or both ends. To the main
supporting posts of the roof are secured a series of wide horizontal shelves placed one
above another, and on these food, implements, and weapons are kept ; similar shelves
are present in the women’s houses. In some of the houses are also bed-places, consisting
of rough boards fastened against the side posts of the walls on one side, and supported
by short special posts on the other. Arms and implements are suspended from the posts
and rafters. The dwelling houses have no further furniture. The posts are sometimes
carved and painted, and occasionally a human skull is fastened to one, or placed under
the thatch. Everything about the houses is rough, and there is no neatness as in Fijian
buildings.

Besides the dwelling houses there are larger ones, supposed at the time to be temples,
but in reality, as explained by Baron de Miklucho-Maclay, club houses used for meeting
and feasting purposes by certain select and exclusive associations of the natives who
construct them in common for the purpose. These club houses are constructed exactly
like the dwellings, but larger ; some have carved entrance posts of wood, representing
male and female figure, and the entrances are closed, by a kind of hurdle. The club
houses will be further described in the sequel. About the houses in the villages, bright-
red Dracaena plants are commonly planted as ornaments, representing the flower garden
in its most primitive stage.

The canoes have their bows and sterns low, and simply pointed, and not turned up
and built so as to form figure-heads, as at Humboldt Bay. Their hulls are formed each
of the hollowed trunk of a tree, with a single plank built on above it, and a gunwale-
piece as a finish. The hollowed-out portion has slightly and equally rounded sides, and
is not flat on one side and rounded on -the other, as in the Caroline Islands. The
mast is stepped in the bottom of the canoe, just in front of the horizontal outrigger

1 Jacobs, loc. cit., p. 182, describes as seen by him “several large villages built on piles over the water” on the
east coast of the main island. Lieut. Saunders, R.N., also saw some pile-dwellings at the islands.

JP£d>te XXX

Native' Hut, Admiralty Island,

NARRATIVE OE THE CRUISE.

715

platform. A pole of about similar length, with a natural fork at the top, is stepped
against the foremost end of the cross-bar of the horizontal outrigger, and it and the
mast being inclined towards one another, the mast is fitted into the fork at the top of
the pole, and roused down with a rope-stay so as to remain firm in that position. The
bow and stern are ornamented with a simple carved ridge or two and with Ovulum ovum
shells, a single row of about a dozen being fastened on either side. A horizontal out-
rigger extends from the middle of the canoe on one side, and is connected with a long
canoe-shaped float, and opposite to it is an inclined shelf or deck supported on two or
three stout projecting beams. A platform is formed with planks on the horizontal out-
rigger, and on the outer part of this a large store of spears and the mast and sails are
kept. On the "inner part the natives sit when not paddling, and stow on it some of their
gear, food, and articles for barter, but most of these are kept on the inclined platform,
where also some of the crew often sit. These canoes are from 30 to 40 feet in length.

16

Fig. 244. — Hand Fishing Net supported on an elbow-shaped frame of wood, Admiralty Islands.

The sail is nearly square in form ; it is hoisted to the top of the mast and set so
that one corner is uppermost. The opposite corner does not nearly reach down to the
canoe, hence- the square sail, being high above the water, has a very peculiar look when
seen over the sea at a distance. . As at all Pacific Islands, the outrigger platform is
apparently the place of honour, and the seat of the head-man or chief. Oto, the chief of
Wild Island, never occupied any other position, and never touched a paddle. Small
canoes with single outriggers, holding one or two persons, are used for paddling about the
reefs round the islands. The large canoes are manned by from ten to fifteen men.

The natives swim hand over hand; they never -take a header in diving, but jump in
upright after any object, sinking feet first with the body inclined forwards.

Long seine-like nets are used for fishing. These are probably the property of a club,
for they are kept hung up in the club houses. One was seen about a fathom in depth
and of very considerable length. Hand-nets fixed on elbow-shaped frames of wood are

716

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

also used (see fig. 244), and stake nets, lines of stakes for which, are conspicuous objects
just -off the shore near the villages.

The fish-hooks are made of Trochus shell, all in one piece, and
are of a simple hooked form without a barb (see fig. 245). The
natives did not seem to care for steel fish-hooks, and apparently did
not, at first at least, understand their use. It is possible that they
have never found out the plan of using bait on a hook. Apparently
all Polynesian and Melanesian fish-hooks are of the nature of artificial
baits of bright nacre, imitating small fry in the water. If the

pig. 2i5 —Admiralty island natives did not understand the use of baits, it is no wonder that
Fish-hook made oi Trochus ^ degpiged European fish-hooks.

The tool in most constant use by the natives is a small adze,
consisting of a natural crook of wood on which is bound a Terebra maculata shell ground
down until only one lateral half of it remains. Such small shell adzes were abundant
enough even at this time, but in most cases the shell had been replaced on the handle

Fig 246. — Admiralty Island Adze, with, blade of
Terebra maculata shell.

Fig. 247. — Admiralty Island Adze in which
the blade of Terebra shell has been
replaced by one of hoop iron.

by a piece of hoop iron. Almost every man carried one of these small adzes hung on
his left shoulder. From the houses large adze blades made of Tridaona and Hippopus
shells were obtained somewhat resembling those from the Caroline Islands, but very
roughly made indeed, only the actual edge being ground (see fig. 248). None were .seen

The Voyage of H.M.S.lNialknger!’

Narrative PI. I

A.T.Holliclc del.et Hth, Hanhart imp.

ADMIRALTY ISLANDS.

I. OBSIDIAN KNIFE MADE BY BREAKING OFF THE HEAD OF A SPEAR. 2. KNIFE MADE FOR THAT PURPOSE ONLY.
3. SHEATH OF BANANA LEAF FOR KNIFE OR SPEAR. 4-. COMB. 5. BAG.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

717

mounted, and they appeared to have gone out of use. Axes made of hard volcanic
rock were also obtained from the houses. They have ground surfaces and are triangular
in form, and resemble the stone adzes of the Solomon Islands, but are mounted in an
entirely different and very primitive way, as axes, being merely jammed in a slot cut in
a club-like billet of hard wood near its end. Only one specimen was obtained thus
mounted (see fig. 249).. These stone implements did not seem plentiful, and the natives

Fig. 248. — Large Adze Blades of Tridacna and Hippopus shells, only partly ground, Admiralty Islands.

valued them highly and required a high price for them ; and when a Humboldt Bay
stone axe was shown to them to try and explain that it was desired to buy such from
them, they were immediately anxious to purchase it themselves. The chief had a very
fine large one, with which he would not part.

The heads of the obsidian bladed spears, the principal weapon of the natives, serve as
knives, being cut off just below the ornamented mounting which acts as a handle.1 Long

flakes of obsidian are, however, also mounted specially as knives in short handles (see
PI. I. figs. 1, 2). They are exceedingly sharp, and are used even for shaving, but are of
course very brittle. Pieces of pearl oyster shell, usually semicircular in shape, ground down

1 This is an interesting instance of the same instruments serving different purposes in a rude condition of the
arts, other cases of which have been dwelt on by General Lane Fox, F.R.S., Lectures on Primitive Warfare,
Journ. Boy. United Service Inst., 1867-69.

71.8

THE YOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

thin to an edge on the rounded border, are used constantly as knives to cut cordage, and
for similar purposes (see fig. 250). Knives are also made of the spine of a Sting Bay
{Try gov), and large pearl oyster shells ground smooth are used to dig with. Excellent
oblong bags made of finely woven grass, and kept open by means of sticks placed inside

are ornamented by long fringes and pendant strings,
and have a handle and small mouth-opening (see
PI. I. fig. 5).

The Admiralty Islanders have no bows, slings,
throwing sticks, ulas (Fiji), nor clubs. Their only
weapons are lances or spears of several kinds, wdiich
shell, Admiralty islands. are thrown with the unaided hand, not even with

a cord, as in New Caledonia. They have no spears
like the Humboldt Bay men, Fijians, and others, to be used at close quarters, and no
shields, though Jacobs mentions shields as in use at other parts of the group.

The principal weapon is a lance, formed of a small, usually flexible, shaft of tough
wood, often a natural stem, with the bark trimmed off, to the thicker end of which is
attached a heavy head of obsidian, which in size appears out of proportion to the light
shaft. The obsidian lance heads are usually triangular in outline, but some often irre-
gular (see PI. G.). They are shaped by bold wide flaking. The points and edges are-
often slightly rechipped in order to sharpen them, but the original faces and angles are
never worked up for the sake of symmetry or balance, but remain rough. Many lances
have their edges and points sharp and perfect, though formed entirely by the original
flaking. The hinder borders of the lance heads are simply rounded, and secured in a
socket of wood attached to the end of the shaft by means of a cement, and by being
bound round with fine twine. The socket is hollowed out in a separate piece of wood,
and in order to facilitate the scooping-out process two slots are usually cut in its two
opposite faces (see PI. H. fig. 1, a, a', b, b'). The shaft of the lance is spliced into _ a
Y-shaped slot in the lower part of the socket-piece. A rounded strengthening piece is
retained in the socket-piece, between the actual socket and the narrowed part of it, in
which the slot for the shaft is cut. A very hard and solid gum is used to bed the lance
head and the shaft in their respective positions, and to mass together the turns of fine
twine which secure the whole. In some lances the entire socket-piece and the turns of
binding twine are concealed by a thick even layer of the gum, whilst in others the gum
is used more sparingly, and the turns of twine and wood of the socket piece are exposed
to view. In the former class of lances ornamentation is effected by patterns being
incised in the layer of gum, and these have no Coix lachryma seeds attached to them
(see PI. I. fig. 1). Lance heads ornamented in this fashion were possibly the only ones
made at some former period by the islanders, all the older specimens of Admiralty Island
lances in the various continental and British collections obtained before the Challenger’s

The Voyage of H.M.S. "Challenger

.Narrative

A T.Holliak. del.et lith.. Hmvharfc imp.

ADMIRALTY ISLANDS.

I. DECORATED SKULL OF TURTLE HUNG UP IN CLUB HOUSES AS A MEMENTO OF THE FEAST .

VIEWS OF A LIME GOURD FOR CARRYING LIME TO BE CHEWED WITH BETEL. 2b STICK FOR SPOONING OUT THE LIME . 3. A SMALLER GOURD.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

719

visit being of that type. In the other forms, probably of modern make only, the upper
turns of twine are arranged in diagonals, separating the areas of different ornamental
colours, and the actual wood of the socket-pieces is carved and coloured (see PI. G.).
The gum employed is the same as that used by the islanders for caulking their canoe
seams, and is obtained by pounding the brown ovoid fruit of Parinarium laurinum,
which is about the size of a goose’s egg. The efficiency of the fixation of the stone head
of the lance evidently depends mainly on this gum, which is excessively hard and firm
when set, and is in use for similar purposes in various parts of Polynesia. The wood of
which the socket-pieces are made is hard when dry and old, but probably much softer
when cut in the fresh condition. Some of the lance heads, owing to the method of
manufacture, are extraordinarily long, some curved, and others of various forms. They
are most formidable weapons, especially to a naked skin. The shaft is merely an-
instrument for throwing point first a very heavy, excessively sharp-pointed, stone,
which cuts its way through almost anything. The socket-pieces of the lance heads are
elaborately decorated. Some lances have a lozenge-shaped perforation in the socket-piece
beneath the head (PL G. fig. 1) ; others have small tufts of Cuscus hair fastened on to
them in the same position. Two obtained had these tufts wet with some oily substance,
but apparently not poison. The heads of the lances are kept covered with a conical
sheath of dried banana leaf made to fit (PI. I. fig. 3). The natives possess an enormous
store of these weapons, and they have piles of them lying on the outriggers of the canoes.
On shore the men commonly carried two or three in their hands. In a dispute alongside
the ship one of the lances was instantly snatched up and made ready. They are used
for hunting wild pigs as well as for fighting. The natives pointed to the mountains of
the mainland as the source of the obsidian. They parted with the lances readily, so that
the material must be abundant. They are thrown in the usual manner, grasped by the
naked hand, being first poised and made to quiver by a shaking motion of the hand
for some seconds. Some of the shafts are made of a light but rigid reed ; others have
large carefully-cut sharp-pointed heads of hard wood, which is painted of the same
colour as the obsidian, and at a short distance looks exactly like it. Some of the
wooden heads are longer and larger than any of the stone ones, and these were
several times bought under the impression formed at a distance that they were very
fine obsidian weapons.

Besides the larger lances, small darts are used, having pliant, very light stems about
a yard long, and heads of small sharp chips of obsidian, often of a very irregular form,
apparently the refuse chips from the larger weapons. These darts are carried about
done up in bundles of a dozen or so. A guide engaged on Wild Island carried such a
bundle on his shoulder all the way.

Another kind of dart has the stem made of reed and the head of hard wood of a
somewhat conical form, with a knot at the base of the cone. These darts are of the

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 91

720

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

same length as the others, and are likewise carried in bundles. They are thrown over-
hand, being held by the hinder extremity, and swung round vertically (see fig. 251).
The natives have no defensive weapons, such as shields..

Though there is an enormous abundance of wild pigeons on the
islands the natives have invented no means of shooting them ; they
can only climb the trees and catch them roosting, or knock them off
the nest.

The natives are extremely expert in wood carving, and show most
remarkable taste in their designs. The lance heads are often carved,
the carving taking the form mostly of incised patterns, the effect being
heightened and beautified by the use of black, white, and red
pigments ; the white being Coral lime, the red burnt clay, and the
black possibly charcoal of some kind. The human images carved on
the door-posts of the club houses, and the posts of some of the
dwelling houses, are also ornamented in the same style (see fig. 257.)
These patterns are all modifications of the lozenge or diamond, and
without curves. The ornamental patterns woven in the belts are also
composed of longitudinal and diagonal elements. They are very
tasteful, and approach somewhat in beauty of execution the similar
fabrics of the Caroline Islands (see PI. H. figs. 2, 3).

An entirely different class of carving is that of the large wooden
bowls which are used by the natives for eating out of. They
resemble those of the Solomon Islanders, although never ornamented
fig. 25i.— short Darts by inlaying, but are most remarkable for their graceful forms and

with reed shafts and J J ° °

heads of hard wood, delicately carved handles. The bowls are worked with wonderful

Admiralty Islands. J

precision to the circular form, considering the tools available, appearing
as true as if turned. They are widely open, and provided with a pair of curved handles,
which rise above the level of the brims, and are usually cut in a delicate spiral. The
handles are always ornamented with perforated carving, and may include a pair of
crocodiles, or roughly executed human figures ; sometimes they have no handles (see fig.
252). The bowls stand always on four short legs, like the Fijian kaava bowls. They
never have a circular bottom, no doubt because there are no level surfaces for them to rest
upon, and because the idea is derived from a four legged stool. Sometimes the perforated
handles are further ornamented by pendants of seeds strung on twine (see fig. 253).
Their workmanship is of astonishing excellence and great beauty. The finest sjDecimens
here figured are in the collection of Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, the others are deposited in the
Christy Collection in the British Museum.

Some of the bowls are like some of those made at the Solomon Islands and elsewhere
in the form of birds (see Plate M. fig. 2), and a double one was obtained, composed of

arrain

Die Voyage of II.M.S "Ciallsnger

\ fl
\ /

1/

/

{

y

L //,

* h

| U»

HanLart imp

ADMIRALTY ISLANDS.

I. !«-' L 2. BADGES OF DISTINCTION CONSISTING OF A HUMAN HUMERUS DECORATED WITH FEATHERS CARRIED BY WARRIORS
I. I* FRONT AND BACK VIEWS OF SAME. 3. A SIMILAR BADGE BUT WITHOUT FEATHERS.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

721

two birds joined tail to tail and suspended by strings attached to the bars representing
the bases of the wings at their opposite extremities (see fig. 254). The bird bowls
retain the four stout feet each ; and this is even the case in the double bird bowls,
where two pairs might have been dispensed with without the combination becoming
unstable. Another bowl is in the form of a crocodile, an animal of which the natives are
in dread. Here again the four supporting feet are present, and it has not struck the

Pig. 252.— Large carved wooden Food Bowl without handles, Admiralty Islands.

artist to make these coincide with the legs of the animal, which are represented
separately (see fig. 255).

Some of the bowls are blackened all over, others are of a bright and handsome burnt
sienna colour. In some the effect of the carving and fretwork is enhanced by colouring
with the usual red and white pigments (see Plate M.).

A remarkable appreciation of symmetry and fertility in design is shown in the patterns

■ *

Fig. 253. — Food Bowl, with spiral, carved, and perforated handles, carved from a single block of wood, Admiralty Islands.

which are cut upon the circular plates worn sometimes on the forehead, oftener on the
breast. These consist of circular white plates ground down out of Tridacna shells, with
a hole in the centre for suspension. On the front of this white ground is fastened a thin
plate of tortoiseshell, which is ornamented with fretwork, so that the white ground shows
through the apertures. The patterns are of endless variety, no two being alike , and show
all kinds of combinations of circles, triangles, toothing, and radiate patterns. The shell

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

722

background is often graved also at its margin. Symmetry is evidently striven after, but
with the appliances available the execution falls short here and there of the design,
but these ornaments are very beautiful nevertheless. Closely similar ones are worn in
the Solomon Islands, and also in New Hanover, and curiously enough in the far-off
Marquesas Islands.

Fig. 254. — Admiralty Island Double Bird Bowls carved in wood, the property of J. Y. Buchanan, Esq.

A regular style of ornamentation is preserved for each class of ornaments, weapons,
and implements. Thus no Ovulum shells were seen with curved patterns like those on the
lime gourds. Both these and the bracelets bore simple patterns of diagonal lines graved
and blacked. The spears, moreover, never bore curves.

The skulls of turtles suspended in the club houses are ornamented with patterns
painted in the three usual colours (PI. Iv. fig. 1). The human skulls are likewise decorated,
and some have eyes of pearl or Cardium shell inserted into the orbits on a background
of black clay.1

1 Report on the Human Crania, Zool, Chall. Exp., part xxix., pi. iii., 1884,

Tie Voyage of H.M.S. ” Challenger" ' • ~ Ifoxratnra Pill

J Robertson, del ADMIRALTY ISLANDS.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

723

Pig. 256. — Admiralty Island Pan-pipes.

The musical instruments used are the Conch shells {Triton), perforated on the side as
usual, a very simple Jew’s-harp made of bamboo, of the usual Melanesian pattern, Pan-
pipes, of three to five pipes of different lengths (the New Hebrides natives have Pan-pipes
with three pipes), and lastly, drums. These latter are hollowed out cylinders of wood
with only a narrow longitudinal slit opening to the
exterior. Some of them are small, a foot and a half
or so in length, and are sometimes carried in the
canoes. The larger drums, seen only in the club
houses, are cylinders, four feet in height and a foot
and a half in diameter, and are fixed upright at the
entrances of these houses. There were four such at
the four corners of one club house. The slit in these
is not more than four or five inches broad, and it is
difficult to understand how the cylinders are hollowed
out by the natives. Very similar drums exist at
the New Hebrides, for example at Efate, where they
are stuck upright in the ground in circles.1

The natives seemed to have no idea of tune, they
blew the notes on the Pan-pipes at hap-hazard. The chief of Wild Island blew with
evident satisfaction a child’s tin trumpet, which he appropriated from one of his
subjects, to whom it had been given, and came off to the ship standing on his canoe
platform and blowing it with all his might, with three bright coloured cricket belts
which he had purchased, put on one above the other round his middle. The drums
were frequently sounded on Wild Island, often in the afternoon. Such drums are used
in New Guinea as signals.

The women, both old and young, dance, moving round in a ring with a quick step.
The men signified that they danced too, but w*ere not seen to do so. Some old women
were seen performing a kind of incantation ; four of them sat on the ground in the yard
of one of the houses, facing one another in a circle, whilst two sat outside the circle ;
as before mentioned all had their faces and bodies blackened, and uttered at regular
intervals a chant, “ ai aiai aiai aiai aiai umm.” The commencement was shrill, in a high
key, and the terminal “ umm ” was sounded low, with the peculiar humming lingering
sound, just as in Fijian chants.

The village at D’Entrecasteaux Island is fortified, a palisade about 10 feet high
stretching right across the corner of the island, where the village lies, shutting it off from
the landing place. The path to the village led through a gate-like opening in the
palisade, which did not seem in very good repair, and was without ditch or embank-
ment. The village itself was surrounded by a second wall, low and crossed by stiles,
1 F. A. Campbell, A Year in the New Hebrides, p. Ill, figure Fili Id Efate, Melbourne, 1873.

724

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

whilst at Wild Island there was no fortification. The natives inhabit the small outlying
islands, probably for protection from attack. Very few natives were seen living on
the mainland, and these few at one spot only, near the mouth of the small river,
where there was an apparently temporary hut. Former dwelling places on the mainland
appear to have been abandoned. No actual fighting was seen, but in a quarrel about
some barter alongside the ship Oto, the chief attempted to strike a native in another
canoe from a distant small inland, but was prevented by his own men, who held
him back. The opposite party at once got their spears ready, and threatened him
with them.

There are several club houses in Wild Island ; they have already been partially
described. One such had as door-posts a male and female figure roughly carved in wood,
but elaborately ornamented with incised patterns and colour (see fig. 257). Between the
legs of the female figure a fish was represented. There are in the same figure black patches
with white spots, which appear to mark out the breasts. The hair in both figures is
represented as cut short, the mop of hair of the warrior not being represented in the
male figure. No clothes, i.e., T-bandage of bark-cloth, bulla shell, nor ornaments, such
as ear-rings, nose ornaments, and breastplates, are indicated on the figures, and the
male figure has no weapons. The ears of both figures are, however, slit for ear-rings,
and it is possible that a zone of diagonal ornament passing round the body of the male
figure represents the plaited waistbelt commonly worn. On the upper part of the chest
of the male figure are a series of circular white ring-marks on a black ground, wdiich
evidently denote the cicatrizations present in all the male natives. In the female
figure the tattooing is possibly indicated by a wide patch of diagonal ornamentation
upon the abdomen, as also by lines drawn round the eyes, and not present in the male
figure. In the male figure one lateral half of the face is painted white, and the other
red. The arrangement of paint in this way is in vogue amongst the natives here as at
Fiji. One Admiralty Islander was seen with one side only of his face reddened, and
in Fiji at dances it is common to see natives with one lateral half of the face blue, and
the other red or black (see Plate E. fig. 4). All the ornamentation on the figures is of
the common zig-zag pattern, and formed of a series of lozenge and triangular shaped
spaces. The patterns are incised, and stained of three colours, black, red, and white.
The parts coloured white and red are cut in, whilst the patches of original surface left
in relief are blackened. Careful coloured drawings of the figures were made by
Mr. J. J. Wild, artist of the Expedition, and facsimiles of them have been published by
him in his work 1 already referred to.

Another club house had no figures, but the four large drums already mentioned. To
the rafters and supports of the roofs of these club houses inside are fixed up quantities of
skulls of pigs and turtles, all arranged regularly, with the snouts downward ; these skulls
1 Dr. J. J. Wild, At Anchor, p, 138, London, 1878.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

725

were decorated with colours (see Plate K. fig. 1). With them were suspended large
quantities of balls of human hair, some evidently old, others of recent date, which
were sometimes suspended in networks of string, sometimes in small receptacles of a
very open basket-work (see figs. 258 and 259). Both the bunches of hair and the

Fig. 257. — Entrance to a Club House, Wild Island, Admiralty Islands, with carved and decorated door-posts.

skulls appeared often to have regular owners, though set up in the club house ; the
natives parted with both freely for barter.

Skulls of a Dugong and a Porpoise were also produced for barter. As appears from
what is published of Baron de Miklucho-Maclay’s researches on the Maclay coast of New
Guinea and other sources, the club houses, as already stated, belong to certain associa-

726

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

tions of natives who build them for their common and exclusive use. The skulls with
which the roof is decorated inside are mementos of successive feasts, a bone or the skull
or some other relic of every animal feasted on being thus preserved and set up. The
collection thus formed serves as a kind of chronicle and record of
the flight of time, which is thus divided into feasts and intervals of
low diet between them. The human skulls and the bunches of hair
are equally relics of cannibal feasts, and it is possible, as suggested by
Mr. Wilfred Powell,, that the male and female carved wooden figures
described above as forming the door-posts of one of the club houses
represent a man and woman eaten at the inauguration feast of the
club house itself. If so, the absence of the mop of hair in the male
figure may be accounted for by supposing him to be represented as
ready for the feast with his hair already removed for suspension in a
net. The absence of ornaments and weapons from the figures may
be similarly explained. The fish may represent part of the banquet.
The club houses were considered more private than the dwellings.
The one with the images for door-posts was frequently closed, and the
natives objected to its being entered, though sometimes it was left
freely open. When one of the naturalists of the Expedition began
sounding the big drums in the other club house, the guides hastily
drew him out in terror, and made signs that the consequences
would be serious. Human skulls are kept stuck up in the thatch
of the houses. At D’Entrecasteaux Island, one having an ornament in the nose was
suspended to the front of a house over the doorway by means of a stick thrust through
holes in the squamous parts of the temporal bones. This skull the owner could not be
induced to part with, but usually skulls were sold pretty freely, and
were in considerable abundance about the houses, but often much
shattered ; about a dozen only were purchased, and their characters
have been described and figured by Professor W. Turner.1 They are
all distinctly dolichocephalic. As with the crania of other Melanesians
the height of the skull is almost always greater than the breadth,
though the hypsistenocephalic character is not so strongly marked as
in the mountaineers of Fiji or in the Loyalty Islanders.

The natives are very apprehensive, for when a group was being
photographed, the old women put up two long poles transversely ■
between themselves and the apparatus in order to protect themselves
from its evil influence, and they could not be persuaded to sit until Captain Thomson
seated himself in the centre of the group, and was taken with them.

1 Report on the Human Crania, Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxix., 1884.

Fig. 258. — Human hair sup-
ported in a rough haniboo
basket from a club house,
Admiralty Islands. A me-
mento of a cannibal feast.

Fig. 259. — Human hair in
a net of string, sus-
pended from the roof
of a club house at the
Admiralty Islands.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

727

A very peculiar ornament carried by some of the islanders consists usually of a
human humerus bound round with an investment of the wing feathers of a large bird,
the vanes of which are notched to heighten their appearance. The whole is bound
round with great care with fine twine in an ornamental manner, and sometimes decorated
with colour and shell bead-work (PL L.). In one instance the humerus was replaced
by four human ulnar and radial bones, and in another by the long bones of some large
bird, probably the Eagle ( Pandion lialiaetus) ; and curiously enough in one specimen the
apparent human humerus was found to be an imitation carved in wood. One decorated
humerus bound round and reddened, and with pendants of shell beads and seeds (PI. L.
fig. 3), was without any feather dress, but seemed to be of the same significance as
the others. From Baron de Miklucho-Maclay it has been ascertained in conversation
that these curious objects are badges of hereditary distinction which pass from father
to son, corresponding somewhat to crests and coats of arms. It was noticed that
one of the foremost men at D’Entrecasteaux Island, when he possibly wished to incite
the natives to attack one of the ship’s boats or to try and capture a much coveted bag
of trade-gear' in it, took this badge, usually worn hung round the neck, in his hand
and flourished it about, dashed it on the ground and gesticulated with it during a
violent harangue to his fellow islanders. Interesting details as to the meaning and
use of the badge may be expected when Baron de Miklucho-Maclay’s promised book
appears.

The dead are buried in the ground. Two different natives, one on D’Entrecasteaux
Island, and the other on Wild Island, explained in an unmistakable way that the skulls
put up about the houses were obtained by burying4 bodies in the earth, and afterwards
digging them up again. The value set upon the skulls and bones as ornaments, and
probably also superstitious motives, are no doubt the reasons why no marks of burial were
seen ; no mark is made, probably for fear of the bones being stolen. Professor Turner
regards four at least of the skulls procured as females.

The fact that some of the men restrain themselves and abstain from the use of betel,
seems to be a proof of considerable strength of character. A hatchet was given to a
guide at D’Entrecasteaux Island as pay, according to promise ; he seemed grateful,
presented his own shell adze unasked in return, and made signs that the others had got
enough, and that more should not be given away.

The natives delighted in being towed along in their canoes by the steam pinnace, and
clapped their hands with delight, but of course did not understand how the boat moved,
nor apparently see in the fire the cause of motion. They came up to the cutter when
sailing to get a tow for their canoes, and apparently expected to see the boat go off, head
to wind, in the same style.

The inhabitants of each small island appeared to be quite independent of each
other, and more or less under a chief, whose power seemed to depend on his fighting

(narr. chall. exp, — vol, x. — 1885.) ' 92

728

THE YOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

qualities. The chief of Wild Island had considerable power ; he took articles away
from men to whom they were given, and made arrangements for each man of a party
getting a hatchet. He never paddled himself, and he pushed canoes out of the way
when approaching the ship. He, however, clamoured with the rest for presents and
trade. No ceremonious respect was paid to him at all, and he here is termed chief
merely because he evidently took the lead whenever present.

The natives seemed friendly enough, but they were of course greatly excited
at our presence and probably were afraid of us. When a party, which landed with
Captain Thomson on D’Entrecasteaux Island, was putting olf from shore in a small boat
to reach the pinnace, the inhabitants seemed possibly to be meditating an attack, for
they suddenly produced their lances and showed intense excitement ; the sight of a
sack full of trade articles in the boat was possibly almost too tempting for them.

The members of the Expedition were usually on very good terms with them. On
one occasion Mr. R. Richards,- Paymaster of the Challenger, accompanied a number of
natives in the chiefs canoe, who were guiding a party to Pigeon Island ; he took down
the names of the whole crew.

The natives were very much frightened at some goats which were offered to them by
Captain Thomson, and refused to let them be landed on the inhabited islands. They
were very much scared also by a wooden jointed toy snake which was shown them
swaying to and fro, and evidently must be acquainted with poisonous snakes, as they
made signs for the thing to be killed lest it should injure some one. A squeaking
doll, which kicked its legs and arms about, frightened the chief Oto very much, and
he and others made signs at once to have it put out of their sight.

With regard to the population of the islands, it was estimated that the population of
Wild Island was about 400 or 500, and that of D’Entrecasteaux Island about 250 or
300.

The Admiralty Islanders, like many other Melanesians, for instance the New Cale-
donians, Loyalty Islanders, and apparently the New Britain and New Ireland races, have
no bows and arrows, and the same is the case with the natives of the southeast of New
Guinea ; bowrs and arrows seeming to commence on the coast only about Humboldt
Bay, but all seem to have slings or other additional means of defence.

The only domestic animals possessed by the natives of the Admiralty Islands in any
abundance are pigs. These are partly kept in enclosures around the houses, and partly run
half wild over the inhabited islands. They are small, lean, and black coloured, and
never appear to develop large tusks.1 No ornaments of large pigs’ tusks were seen in the

1 Four skulls of the Admiralty Island Pigs were sent to Oxford to the late Prof. Rolleston, who refers to them in
his Memoirs on the Domestic Pig of Prehistoric Times in Britain, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Zool.), ser. 2, vol. i., 1876,
reprinted in his collected Scientific Papers and Addresses, edited by Prof. Turner, Oxford, 1884. Dr. Rolleston states
that these skulls had an eminence in the middle frontal line over an area homologous with the human glabella. In
Sus papuensis this eminence is rudimentary.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

729

possession of the natives. If therefore, as is probable, from signs made by the natives,
there are wild pigs on the main island of the group, they must be unlike the
Papuan pigs in this respect, and resemble more the New Hebrides breeds. Two dogs
were seen on Wild Island ; one, a puppy, was white, smooth haired, like a fox terrier
in appearance, and very like a dog that was in the possession of the natives at Humboldt
Bay. These were the only dogs seen amongst the natives. Rats were not observed on
any of the islands. No fowls were seen in the possession of the natives, but a plume of
cock’s feathers worn as a head-dress was obtained from one native. Fowls must therefore
exist in the islands somewhere, but are probably scarce, as only this one plume was
seen.

The Dugong, a Dolphin, and a Phalanger ( Cuscus ) are killed by the natives. Two
species of Fruit Bats ( Pteropus hypomelanus and Harpyia cephalotes) were procured.

Of Reptiles, two species of Turtles are common, Chelone midcis and Chelone
imbricata, the latter being the source of the principal article of barter, tortoiseshell.
In the swamp-pools is a species of Crocodile. There are also, at least, two species of
Snakes (Hydrophidse), one of which is Platurus laticaudatus. A Gecko ( Heteropus )
and two species of blue-tailed Lizards ( Mabouyci cyanura and another), a Skink
(Keneuxia smaragdina), and a large Monitor ( Varanus indicus ) were procured by the
Expedition, the Lizards being very abundant.

Among the birds collected were six new species.1 The most abundant are the Fruit
Pigeons ( Carpophaga rhodinolcema), which feed upon the wild coffee and nutmegs, and
roost in vast numbers upon one of the outlying islands. Small Tree Swifts ( Colloccdia )
fly about among the cocoanut trees, and all day flocks of Terns and Noddies ( Sterna
lunata, Anous) follow, in the still waters within the reefs, the shoals of Skipjacks
(Caranx) as they pursue the smaller fish. The shores are inhabited by several species
of littoral birds. There was seen on the main island a scarlet and black Parrot or
Cockatoo of some kind, which flew out of some high trees on the sea shore, screaming
loudly, like a Cockatoo. It was wary, and could not be .approached within shooting
distance.

Among the fish collected by the Expedition were three new species ; one Lophius and
two Pleuronectids.2 The only Butterfly obtained on Wild Island was a new species
(Sccphara Ursula, Butler), and the only Moth captured was Damalis' alciphron. Of
the twelve species of land and fresh water Mollusca collected nine were previously
undescribed.3

1 Rhipidura semirubra, Scl. ; Philemon albitorques, Scl. ; Monarcha infelix, Scl. ; Myzomela pammelcena, Scl. ;
Carpophaga rhodinolcema, Scl. ; a,nd Ptilopus johannis, Scl.

2 Lophius naresi, Giinth. ; Pseudorhombus ocellatus, Giinth. ; and Nematops microstoma, Giinth.

3 Athoracopliorus virgatus, Smith ; Helix ( Geotrochus ) moseleyi, Smith ; Helix ( Geotrcchus )labillardierei, Smith ; Helix
( Hemiplecta ) infrastriata, Smith ; Helix (Hemiplecta ?) c'artereti, Smith ; Helix ( Chloritis ) dentrecasteauxi, Smith ; Partula
hartmanni , Smith ; Cyclostoma infans, Smith ; Helicina ponsonUji, Smith, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., pp. 263-266, 1884.

730

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

On two occasions the pinnace was engaged in dredging in Nares Harbour in 16 to 25
fathoms, the deposit being usually coral mud and sand. Sponges, Alcyonarians,
Ilydroids, Annelids, Crustaceans, and Echinoderms were abundant, and several of them
have proved to be undescribed species.

The Crania of the Admiralty and other Pacific Islanders collected during the
voyage have been reported on by Professor Turner, and he has supplied the following
resume of the conclusions embodied in his Report: 1 — “ It is generally admitted that at
least two well-defined aboriginal races of men occupy the South Sea Islands. The one,
named Papuan or Melanesian, inhabits New Guinea, the Admiralty Islands, and other
groups to the east, south, north, and west. This race is distinguished by its sooty-brown
or black skin, black frizzly hair, and well developed beard. The other, named
Polynesian or Mahori, inhabits the islands in the more eastern part of the Pacific, from
the Sandwich Islands in the north to New Zealand in the south. This race is
distinguished by its light brown or yellowish skin, straight black hair, and scanty beard.
The so-called Micronesian race, which occupies the Pelew and other islands in the north-
west part of the Pacific, is not a pure race, but apparently a mixture of the Mahoris and
Papuans with offshoots of the brachycephalic Negrito and Malay races, whose present
home is especially in the islands of the Indian Archipelago. The Malay and Negrito races
are also represented in the western parts of New Guinea, on the sea coast of which colonies
of Malays have established themselves, whilst the mountains, in the northwest are
apparently occupied by a Negrito population. If the Australian continent be included
in the Pacific area, then its aboriginal inhabitants constitute another ethnic element in
this region of the globe.

“ New Guinea is the headquarters of the Melanesian race. Their head form is
distinctly dolichocephalic, i.e., the skull is long and relatively narrow, and the length-
breadth or cephalic index is below 75. But the height of the skull in this race of men is
more than the breadth, so that the vertical index is greater than the cephalic. The
Admiralty Island crania collected by the Challenger exhibited this type of skull in a
characteristic form. In the Loyalty Islands, the New Hebrides, and the mountainous
parts of Fiji, the crania of the Melanesian people present in an exaggerated form the
characters of length, narrowness, and relative height, so that the term hypsistenocephalic
was applied by the late Dr. Barnard Davis to these skulls. These characters are fostered
perhaps by tribal interbreeding and hereditary descent amongst people who have little or
no intermixture with other races.

“ The Samoa and Tonga Islands are apparently the central home of the Mahoris or
Polynesians in the Pacific, from which they have diffused themselves in several direc-
tions. Their head form is brachycephalic, i.e., the skull is broad and rounded, and the
1 Report on the Human Skeletons — The Crania, by Professor W. Turner, F.R.S., Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxix., 1884.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

731

length-breadth or cephalic index exceeds 80. In these skulls the height as a rule is
below the breadth, so that the vertical index is less than the cephalic. But in compar-
atively few of the islands of the Pacific are the crania restricted to either a simple
dolichocephalic or brachycephalic standard. , Both forms do, without doubt, occur in a
pure state. Thus all the skulls collected in Wild Island in the Admiralty group were
dolichocephalic. But it is not uncommon to obtain skulls of mixed or mesaticephalic
proportions, i.e., with the cephalic index ranging from 75 to 80, along with in some
islands dolichocephalic, in others brachycephalic, crania. These variations can be
sufficiently accounted for on the theory that the two great Pacific races are in
some islands pure, in others mixed with each other, either in colonies living-
side by side in the same island, or by intermarriage. The crania collected by the
Challenger in the Sandwich Islands furnished an excellent illustration of different types
of skull occurring in one region, for eleven of these skulls were distinctly brachycephalic,
fifteen were dolichocephalic, and eleven were mesaticephalic. Amongst the Maoris in
New Zealand, also, a good deal of variation occurs in the proportion of the length and
breadth of the skull, which points also to a mixture of races in that island. In the
Society and the Marquesas groups, as well as in many of the smaller islands in the
eastern Pacific, a mixture of dolichocephalic, brachycephalic, and mesaticephalic crania
has also been shown to occur by various observers, more especially MM. de Quatrefages
and Hamy, Dr. Barnard Davis, and Professor Flower. From the study of the crania in
the Polynesian region there is good reason to believe that the Melanesian race had at one
time been widely distributed throughout those islands, and that they had been inhabited
by Papuans prior to the Mahori colonisation. But even in those more western islands of
the Pacific, which are the special habitat of the Melanesian race, colonies of Polynesians
have established themselves. The Louisiade Archipelago, the adjacent coast of the main
island of New Guinea, some of the Fiji Islands, Tanna and Efate, or Sandwich Islands,
in the New Hebrides, have all received Polynesian immigrants, and crania of brachy-
cephalic and mesaticephalic proportions have been obtained in them.

“ The Australian race, again, seems to be confined to that great island continent.
The aborigines, although on some parts of the coast line they make rude canoes, are not
'a seafaring people, and have been unable therefore to spread for any great distance
beyond the Australian shores. On the other hand, they do not appear to have been
much modified by mixture with other existing races. For although small colonies of
Polynesians may have settled on the northeast coast, and the Malays are in the habit
of visiting the west and northwest coasts, they seem to have exercised no appreciable
effect upon the people. The Papuans have, however, apparently somewhat modified the
characters of the tribes on the north coast, as it has been stated by Mr. Paul Foelsche
that the hair of the head of the men of those tribes is invariably thick and curly, whilst
the general appearance of the hair of the Australians is straight and smooth. The

732

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Australians are a well-marked dolichocephalic race, the men with strongly projecting
glabella and supraciliary ridges, and with a deep depression at the root of the nose. The
nostrils also are wide, and the index of the nose is platyrhine. From my own measure-
ments, and from an analysis of the measurements of crania recorded by various observers,
it has been shown in my Report that the skulls collected to the north of the latitude of the
southern boundary of Queensland have almost invariably the vertical index greater than
the cephalic, whilst in the skulls from the south of that latitude a large proportion have
the height appreciably less than the breadth. The low vertical index has especially been
observed in the tribes in the Adelaide district, South Australia, and the crania which possess
this character have been called by MM. de Quatrefages and Hamy dolichoplatycephalic. Of
twenty-two skulls from this district which have been measured, seventeen had the vertical
index less than the cephalic. It is not unlikely that in those tribes an intermixture may
at some previous time have taken place with a people in whose crania the height index
was below that of the breadth, and that in proportion to the extent of this intermixture
did the tendency to a diminution in the vertical index show itself. In the crania of the
now extinct Tasmanians the vertical index is much below the cephalic, and it is possible
that they may have occupied, at a remote period, the southern part of Australia and been
displaced by the Australian race, and the two races may have intermingled along the
southern sea board.

“ Various theories have been advanced as to the origin of the Mahoris or Polynesians,
though none of them is perhaps entirely satisfactory. America has been regarded by
some as their original home, from which they diffused themselves over the eastern
Pacific in the course of the trade winds. By others Asia and the Malay race have
been considered as their progenitor, and the term Malayo-Polynesian is on this view a
popular ethnological designation for them. Others again, like Mr. Wallace, have
accounted for both Polynesians and Melanesians on the well known theory of Charles
Darwin that the Pacific is an area of subsidence, that its coral reefs mark out the
position of former continents and islands, and that both races are merely varying ,
forms of one great Oceanic race, the diversities of which are to be accounted for
by the certain effects of the varying physical conditions which have resulted in the
present state of the surface of the land in Oceania. But it is difficult to under-
stand wherein such varying physical conditions could reside in islands subject to such
uniform or closely allied climatic conditions as the tropical islands of the Admiralty,
New Hebrides and Tonga groups, even on the supposition that they had at one time
been the tops of continental mountains, so as to produce, in the two former, a black-
skinned, frizzly haired, dolichocephalic stock, and in the last named a brown-skinned,
straight haired, brachycephalic people. The hypothesis also which accounts for the
origin of the Melanesians on the supposition that, in prehistoric times, a great south
oceanic continent existed which extended from the east of Africa up to the Indian

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

733

Ocean, and from which the black race spread into both Africa and the islands of
the Pacific, is not satisfactory. For the deep-sea investigations of the Challenger have
thrown great doubt upon the possibility of such an extensive continent ever having had
any existence in recent geological times either in the Indian or Pacific Oceans. But
from the superior civilisation and better physical development of the Polynesians there
can be little doubt that they represent a later incursion into the Pacific than either the
Melanesian or Australian races.

“ It is interesting to observe that not only the Tasmanians and Australians, but the
Bush race in South Africa, the Fuegians in the southern part of South America, and the
Andamanese and other Negrito tribes in the islands to the south and east of the Asiatic
continent, are distinguished by the small capacity of their crania, by their low
intellectual development, and, as a rule, by their small stature and feeble physical
configuration. It is not unlikely that these races may, in the early unwritten periods
of human history, have had in their respective continental areas a much wider range of
distribution than at present, and have been gradually pushed southwards into their
present comparatively restricted regions by the advance from the northward of the races,
more powerful in both intellectual and physical development, which are now to be seen
in proximity with and around them.”

734

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

CHAPTER XVIII.

Admiralty Islands to Japan — The Schizopoda, Cumacea, and Phyllocarida — Japan — The Japan Stream — Japan to
the Sandwich Islands — The Hydroida — Honolulu — Hawaii — Sandwich Islands to Tahiti — Dr. Rudolf von
Willemoes Suhm — Tahiti — The Corals — Structure of Coral Reefs.

Admiralty Islands to Japan.

On the 10th March 1875, at 3.30 p.m., the Challenger left the Admiralty Islands for
Japan. In steaming out of Nares Harbour, the ship suddenly came into shoal water,
and before the engines could be stopped, passed over a coral patch of 3f fathoms,
with some very suspicious looking ground to the eastward. When outside the harbour,
a sounding and a productive haul of the trawl were obtained in 150 fathoms.

After leaving the Admiralty group, the regular work of sounding and obtaining
serial temperatures and dredgings again commenced.

In this section— from the Admiralty Islands to Japan — thirteen soundings, twelve
serial temperature soundings, one dredging, and six trawlings were obtained.

During the passage the force of the wind was exceedingly light ; on no occasion did
it exceed a force of 6, the average being from 2 to 3. Its direction for the first few
days after leaving Nares Harbour was variable, shifting gradually from W.N.W. through
N. to N.E. The true trade wind was reached in lat. 1° 15' N., and lasted to the 19th
parallel, shifting more and more east as northing was made. From the 19th parallel to
Japan, variable breezes were experienced which, commencing at N., shifted gradually to
N.E., E., and S.E., finally dying away at S. or S.W.

The currents in the immediate neighbourhood of the Admiralty group, and as far north
as the 5th parallel of north latitude, were very strong, running to the westward at rates
varying from 14 to 37 miles per day, or at a mean rate of 26 miles per day. Between
the 5th and 10th parallels little or no current was experienced, but from thence to the
19th parallel, where the trade wind was lost, an average set of 17 miles per day was
experienced, the direction varying from N.W. to W.S.W. From the 19th parallel the
currents were variable until the Japan Stream was entered.

On the 23rd March, in lat. 11° 24' N., long. 143° 16' E., a sounding of 4475 fathoms
was obtained, — the greatest depth observed during the cruise. Such deep water not
having been expected, only 3 cwt. of sinkers were put on the rod, which being too light
a weight for the depth, the intervals between the 100 fathom marks entering the water
were somewhat long. The line was checked at 3000 fathoms, but the accumulators
showed unmistakably that the weights had not reached the bottom ; at 4575 fathoms

NARK ATI YE OF THE CRUISE.

735

the line was again checked, and this time the accumulators showed that the weights
had become detached, so the line was hove in, and a little red clay was found in the
sounding, tube, and one of the thermometers had been broken by the pressure.
The depth not having been ascertained with sufficient accuracy, another sounding was
taken with 4 cwt. of' sinkers attached, and the line was checked at 3000, 3475, 3800,
and 4000 fathoms, but on each occasion the accumulators indicated that the weights
were still attached; finally the time-intervals increased so rapidly that the moment
the rod reached the bottom was known with considerable accuracy; thus, between 4400
and 4425 fathoms the interval was 36 seconds ; between 4425 and 4450 fathoms,
38 seconds; between 4450 and 4475 fathoms, 37 seconds; and between 4475 and 4500
fathoms, 52 seconds ; showing conclusively that the weights struck the bottom between
4475 and 4500 fathoms.

The two thermometers sent to the bottom the second time were both broken by the
pressure. Mixed with the mud brought up in the tube on this occasion was some
mercury out of these broken thermometers, which, falling faster than the sinkers, reached
the. bottom first, and, owing to the perfect stillness of the sea at this great depth, was
caught by the rod descending exactly on the spot where the quicksilver had fallen.

A curious circumstance about this sounding was that the time-intervals went on in-
creasing from 0 to 3500 fathoms, after which they remained nearly stationary at 35
seconds for each 25 fathoms until the bottom was reached, which apparently indicates
that from 3500 to 4500 fathoms the impetus of the falling sinkers increases in exact
proportion to the friction of each additional fathom of line.

On the passage to Japan, the ship passed over the position of Lindsay Island
reported by Captain Lindsay of the British schooner “Amelia” to be in lat. 19° 20' N.,
long. 141° 15^' E., four miles in length, of a dark brown colour, very barren, and
40 feet high. On the 29th March, a,t 5 a.m., the position of the Challenger by star
observations was lat. 19° 8' N., long. 141° 16' E., and a northward course was shaped
until 8 a.m., when being in lat. 19° 24' N., long. 141° 13' E., by observations of Venus
and the sun, a sounding in 2450 fathoms was taken. The day was fine and clear, and
from the masthead a radius of at least 12 miles was commanded, so that Lindsay Island
would have been seen did it exist anywhere near the locality assigned it. Either it is
much out of position or Captain Lindsay must have mistaken a cloud for land, or, what
seems still more improbable although it has been known to occur, the island has now
disappeared through some volcanic action.

The bed of the ocean, from the Admiralty Islands to Japan, was, with the exception
of the one deep sounding of 4475 fathoms before mentioned, fairly level, the average
depth being about 2450 fathoms. At one sounding, however, 100 miles north of the
Admiralty group, the bed of the ocean rose to 1850 fathoms in the immediate neighbour-
hood of the Carolines, indicating that these islands are situated on a large plateau.

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. x. — 1885. ) 1 93

736

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The temperature of the water at the bottom in this section was generally the same
as that at 1400 fathoms, viz., 35°'3, from which it appears probable that this portion of
the Pacific Ocean is cut off from the general circulation by a ridge joining Japan with
the Admiralty group through the chain of small islands stretching in an almost continuous
line from Japan through the Bonin, Ladrone, and Caroline Islands to the Equator.

The surface temperature, which at the Admiralty Islands was 8 3° '7, continued above
80° for nearly 1000 miles, and even as far north as the 22nd parallel was over 78°.
Between the 22nd and 25th parallel it fell 8°, and continued at an average of 69° '5
to the 30th parallel, after which it varied between 56° and 68° to the coast of Japan,
being 55° in Yokohama Bay.

The serial temperatures showed that from the Admiralty Islands to the 14th parallel
of north latitude, a mass of warm water above the temperature of 80° extended from the
surface to the depth of from 50 to 90 fathoms. Below this warm surface stratum the
temperature decreased very rapidly (on one occasion altering 15° in 11 fathoms), until
at 300 fathoms it appeared to be very nearly constant at 45°. The isotherm of 45°
remained at the depth of 300 fathoms from the Admiralty Islands to the 15th parallel,
northward of which it sank to 400 fathoms. Between the 15th and 26th parallels the
isotherm of 40° was. constant at 500 fathoms; northward of the 26th parallel it rose
towards the surface, as did also the isotherm of 45° (see Diagram 16). The isotherm of
45° was also at the depth of 300 fathoms in the Banda, Celebes, and China Seas ; and
the isotherm of 40° was found at a depth of 500 fathoms in the China Sea in January.

Anemometer observations were taken daily during the passage, from which it appeared
that between the 1st and 6th parallels of north latitude, the mean velocity of the trade
wind was only 6 miles per hour. N orth of the 6th parallel the velocity gradually increased,
until in 10° N. it was 22 miles per hour, which was the maximum attained ; it then
gradually decreased to 8 miles per hour in 17° N., and from that parallel to 20° N. only
averaged 5 miles per hour. After losing the trade, the velocity of the wind varied
considerably, but it never exceeded a rate of 22 miles per hour.

No current observations were taken except the surface set, which was ascertained by
frequent astronomical observations. '

In April, when nearing Japan, the temperature of the surface water fell from 70°
to 64° between 6 p.m. on the 8th and 1 a.m. on the 9th, so the ship having apparently
entered the Japan Stream, a sounding was taken at 5.30 A.M. in 2250 fathoms, but little
or no current was observed, the position at this time being lat. 31° 8; N., long. 137° S' E.

After completing the sounding the vessel proceeded to the northward, the surface
temperature varying from 63° to 64^° until 6 a.m. on the 10th April, when in lat.
32° 35' N., long. 137° 45' E., it rose suddenly to 68°. At noon the ship’s position was
lat. 32° 55' N., long. 138° 25' E., and a current of 42 miles N. 22° E. (true) had been
experienced since noon on the 9th. This position was fixed by meridian altitude,, and

DIAGRAM 16

Mer

£

@) @) (§5)

J-UJJ-U

NARRATIVE OE THE CRUISE.

737

three sets of sights in the forenoon. The afternoon was cloudy, with little or no wind,
and no astronomical observations could be obtained until 9.40 p.m., when, a few stars
shining out for a minute or two, and the horizon being lit up by the moon, both the
latitude and longitude were obtained, and the ship was found to be in lat. 33° 24' N.,
long. 138° 44' E., or 24 miles northeast of the position by D.R. A moderate westerly
breeze having sprung up, the ship was steered due north, this northeasterly set being
expected to continue, but it was found at 8 a.m. on the 11th April that a current of only
11 miles due east had been experienced since the sights at 9.40 p.m. on the 10th, and
the ship had consequently barely cleared the Redfield Rocks. The surface temperature
on the 10th was about 68° from 6 a.m. to 1 p.m. 63° from 1 p.m. to 8 p.m., 68° from 8
to 9 p.m. , after which it fell gradually.

On the 11th April, at daylight, the islands of Kosu Sima and To Sima were seen, and
a course shaped to pass inside Tries Island with a fresh fair wind, the vessel arriving at
Yokohama at 5 p.m.

The deposits between the Admiralty Islands and Japan proved very interesting,
chiefly from the large number of Radiolarians present in them, and also from the
complete absence of carbonate of lime in all the deeper soundings. In depths greater
than 2400 fathoms there was either no carbonate of lime in the deposit or only a
small percentage, as for instance in 2450 fathoms in lat. 2° N., where there was 6 per
cent., due to the presence of a few broken fragments of pelagic Foraminifera shells. On
the other hand, there was 78 per cent, of carbonate of lime in the deposit at 1850
fathoms on the Caroline Islands plateau, which was a Globigerina ooze made up princip-
ally of the shells of pelagic Foraminifera, Coccoliths, and Rhabdoliths. The absence of
the shells of Pteropods, Heteropods, and other pelagic Molluscs from this deposit is
worthy of note, as well as the absence of the Foraminifera shells from all the deeper
deposits, as these organisms were very numerous at the surface throughout the whole
region. As already stated, siliceous shells and skeletons were especially abundant
in all the deposits in this section, more numerous than in any deposits previously met
with during the cruise. Sometimes these beautiful little organisms made up more than
one half of the deposit, which was in consequence called a “ Radiolarian ooze.” This was
the ease in the deepest sounding, viz., 4475 fathoms, the greatest depth from which a
specimen of the bottom has yet been obtained. On this occasion the sounding tube had
sunk about, 3 or 4 inches into the bottom and brought up a section to that extent.
The layer, which formed the upper surface at the bottom of the sea, was of a reddish or
chocolate colour, and contained, besides the Radiolarian and Diatomaeeous remains,
numerous small round pellets of manganese peroxide, fragments of pumice, and clayey
matter. The deeper layers were of a pale straw colour, and resembled both in appear-
ance and touch the Diatom ooze from the Antarctic Ocean. These deeper layers had

738

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

a laminated structure, and were very compact and difficult to break up, being composed
of felted masses of Radiolarians and frustules of Diatoms.

Pumice was very abundant in all the deposits, the trawl frequently bringing up
numerous rounded pieces, many of them partly decomposed and coated with manganese
peroxide. The mineral fragments in the deposits appeared to be chiefly derived from
the pumice, except in the soundings close to the Japan coast. All the deeper- deposits
were brown or chocolate coloured, due to the presence of manganese.

The dredgings and trawlings were not very productive. The dredge brought up
from 1850 fathoms a large quantity of Globigerina ooze, specimens of Bathyactis
symmetrica, Ophioglypha undulata, Ophiomusium corticosum, and Styracaster armatus,
the latter being a new genus and species of Asterids. A specimen of Hyocrinus was
obtained from 2325 fathoms, some fragments of Brisinga from 2300 fathoms, and a
Discina was found on some pumice stones from 2425 fathoms.

The surface fauna and flora were especially rich and abundant throughout. In the
region of the Counter Equatorial Current, between the Equator and the Caroline Islands,
pelagic Foraminifera and Mollusca were caught in great numbers in the surface nets,
surpassing in this respect anything previously observed. The fact is most probably in
relation with another, which may be pointed out. In this region the soundings in 2325
and 2450 fathoms contained respectively 52 and 6 per cent, of carbonate of lime,
whereas at 2300 fathoms, in lat. 14° 44' N., only a few broken fragments of Globigerina
shells could be detected on microscopic examination ; and at 2450 fathoms, in lat.
19° 247 N., there was not a trace of carbonate of lime shells in the ooze. This shows
apparently -that where there are numerous calcareous shells at the surface their remains
may be found at greater depths at the bottom than where relatively less abundant
■at the surface. The pelagic Foraminifera appear to float about in great banks ; one day
immense numbers of Pulvinulina would be taken in the net, the next day Pullenia
would be most abundant, and Pulvinulina nearly or quite absent from the hauls.
The heavier shelled specimens were usually taken when the nets were dragged 100
or 150 fathoms beneath the surface. Between latitudes 10° and 20° N., Oscillatorise
were very numerous at the surface, and Diatoms, especially a large cylindrical
Etmodiscus, were more abundant than in the tropical waters of the Atlantic far from
land. The list of surface animals recorded in the note-book is nearly the same as that
given on pp. 216 and 217, but the relatively much greater abundance of Radiolarians
and Diatoms is specially noteworthy.

Between the Admiralty Islands and the northern tropic very few birds were observed
from the ship. One day, in lat. 5° N., a red-tailed Boatswain Bird (Phaethon jlavirostris)
alighted on the ship, and the following day a Noddy Tern ( Anous melanogenys ) was, pro-
cured in a similar manner. As soon as the ship passed out of the tropics, she was daily
surrounded by large numbers of the northern Albatross ( Diomedea brachyura). When

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

739

about 240 miles westward of the Bonin Islands, five Swallows alighted on the rigging in an
exhausted state and were captured ; these were Hirundo gutturalis, the eastern form of
the familiar Hirundo rustica. Several Finches and a thrush-like bird were observed at
the same time.

Professor G. 0. Sars, of Christiania, who is preparing a Report on the Schizopoda,
Cumacea, and Phyllocarida, gives the following notes on the collections which were placed
in his hands : — -

The Schizopoda.— “ The collection of Schizopoda procured during the Challenger
Expedition is extremely rich and of great interest. The three subdivisions or families
hitherto established — Lophogastridse, Euphausiidse, and Mysidse — are all represented, and
the late Dr. v. Willemoes Suhm has, in addition, founded a new subdivision for the

remarkable genus Eucopia, Dana (or Chalaraspis, Suhm), also procured during the
Expedition.

“Of the Lophogastridse, specimens of the first established species, Lophogaster typicus,
M. Sars, hitherto only known from the Norwegian coast and the Shetland Isles, have
been obtained in a widely remote locality, viz., south of the Cape of Good Hope. A
solitary specimen, representing a new genus, Ceratolepis, was caught north of Australia.
Exceedingly interesting is the discovery of the remarkable deep-sea Lophogastrid genus
Gnathophausia, established by the late Dr. v. Willemoes Suhm. Three species have
been described by that author, one of which, Gnathophausia gigas (see figs. 260, 261),
attained dimensions truly gigantic for a Schizopod. A closer examination of the material
has shown that no less than nine different species of this interesting genus are in

740

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

the collection, one of which somewhat exceeds in size even the Gnatliophausia
gigas, the specimen secured being a full-grown female with enormously developed
marsupium, and exhibiting a rather striking appearance from its thick-set form
and very large, loosely attached carapace. This form, too, has proved to be identical
with a peculiar Crustacean described by Professor Dohrn as Lophogaster ingens- from a
very incomplete specimen sent to him from the museum in Hamburg. The Gnatho-
phausia zooea (see fig. 262) of Sulim, recalls in a most striking manner, by the form of
its carapace, the larva (zooea) of the Brachyura, and seems to be the most widely distri-
buted species, being found on both sides of the Atlantic and also in the Pacific.

“ The remarkable form, Eucopia australis, Dana ( = Chalaraspis unguifer, Suhm),
seems also to be widely distributed in the great depths of the oceans, but, owing to
its remarkably soft integument' and fragile limbs, most of the specimens in the collection
are in a more or less imperfect state.

“The subdivision Euphausiidse, in contrast to the Lophogastridse and Eucopiidse,
seems to consist almost exclusively of true pelagic species, some of them being often found
in great profusion swimming about near the surface of the sea, especially at night. As
was first stated by Vaughan Thompson, these elegant and pellucid Crustacea are highly

Fig. 262’. — Gnathophausia zooea, Sulim..

phosphorescent, the' generic denomination, Noctiluca, given to them by that author
being in fact derived from this peculiarity. The mode by which this phosphorescence is
effected does not seem,, however, to have been fully ascertained hitherto. It is true
several authors have mentioned in these Crustacea a number of peculiar vivid-coloured
globules, occurring both on the sides of the trunk and along the ventral face of the tail
between the bases of the pleopods ; but the structure of these globules generally has
suggested the supposition that they were accessory eyes. The re-examination of the said

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

741

organs in connection with observations made on living
specimens at the Norwegian coast has, on the other hand,
led me to the conviction that these globules, in spite of
their striking similarity to eyes, do not represent visual
organs at' all, but constitute together a highly complicated
luminous apparatus ; the lenticular body of the organs,
generally described as a true eye-lens, acting as a condenser,
which, in connection with the great mobility of the
globules, enables the animal to produce at will a very
bright flash of light in a given direction. The great
majority of the species possess these organs, generally
arranged in a perfectly similar manner ; but in a large,
non-pellucid deep-sea Euphausia (not represented in the
collection), v. Willemoes Suhm could not detect these
globules in their usual place.

“ The extensive use of the surface net during the
Expedition at many different localities, and carried on by
day as well as by night, has brought together a very large
number of these interesting Schizopoda, both adults and
larvae, and of course our knowledge of this family has been
very materially increased. No less than twenty-seven
species are represented in the collection, belonging to six
different genera, of which four are new. One of these
genera, Nematoscelis, G. 0. Sars, is distinguished by the
enormously elongated and slender form of the second pair
of pediform appendages (the modified gnathopoda). In
another genus, Stylocheiron, G. 0. Sars, on the other hand,
the third pair of legs has been peculiarly modified,
being also greatly elongated, the two last joints forming
together a kind of imperfect chela. In accordance with
their pelagic life the geographical distribution of the species
is generally very extensive. By far the most widely
distributed is, however, the Euphausia pellucida, Dana
(fig. 263), ranging from Norway ( Thysanopoda hidentata,
G. 0. Sars) and the Mediterranean ( Euphausia mulleri,
Claus), throughout the Atlantic and Pacific up to the
coast of Japan. The large number of larvae caught with
the help of the surface net has also enabled me to trace
the very interesting and complicated development of

Pig. 263. — Euphausia pellucida, Dana.

742

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

several species from the Nauplius stage through all the many successive stages up to
the adult form.

“ The fourth subdivision of the Schizopoda, the Mysidee, is represented both by deep-
sea forms and pelagic species. Of the first group a very peculiar form, Petalophthalmus
armiger, has been described by v. Willemoes Suhm, distinguished by the rudimentary
leaf-like eyes and more particularly by the very remarkable appearance of the male, in
which the antennules, mandibular palps, maxillipedes, and partly also the legs, are very
peculiarly modified. Another very large and handsome form from the Subantarctic Sea
has been referred by v. Willemoes Suhm to the same genus, but is evidently not
congeneric with Petalophthalmus armiger , although it exhibits a similar reduction of the
visual organs. It has proved to be identical with a form described by Professor Sars
as Boreomysis scyphops from the depths of the Arctic Sea, thus exhibiting another
instance of a very peculiar geographical distribution, the very same species being found
in the corresponding region in both hemispheres, without occurring in the wide inter-
mediate space, comprising both the temperate and the tropical zones. Two more
Mysidians with imperfectly developed lamelliform eyes have been collected in the
southern hemisphere, both of which belong to the boreal genera Amblyops and
Pseudomma, G. 0. Sars, differing only very slightly from Norwegian species.

“ Of pelagic Mysidae, five species are represented in the collection. One of these, which
has been collected off the Cape of Good Hope, belongs to the genus Auchialus of Kroyer,
and is apparently identical with the typical species described by that author. Of the
genus Siriella, Dana (or Cynthia, Thompson), the two species Siriella thompsonii, Edwards,
and Siriella gracilis, Dana, seem to have a very wide geographical distribution, being
found in nearly all parts of the oceans traversed by the Expedition. The two remain-
ing pelagic species of Mysidae belong to a new genus, Euchcetomera, chiefly distinguished
by the strongly plumose setae on the several limbs, as also by the peculiar form of the
telson. Both species were caught in the Pacific.”

The Cumacea. — “ The Cumacea are rather scantily represented in the collection, only
eleven species having been secured, which may perhaps be accounted for by their
generally small size and inconspicuous colours, causing them easily to be overlooked in
the rough examination of the dredged material. Most of the species belong to the genus
Diastylis, some of which were taken in very considerable depths, viz., down to 2025
fathoms. Perhaps the most striking among the Challenger Cumacea is a very slender
form from the coast of Kerguelen Island, Hemilamprops serrato-costata, G. 0. Sars, of
which numerous specimens were collected during the stay of the Expedition at Christmas
Harbour. In examining a parcel of dredged mud from this locality (120 fathoms),
several more specimens have been picked out, showing ' that this form occurs there in
great profusion. The examination of the mud also yielded a great quantity of other

NARRATIVE OF THE CRIJISE.

743

small Crustacea, especially Isopoda and Amphipoda, and the similarity of these species
with northern forms is on the whole very striking. A small Cumacean of the genus
Leucon seems hardly to he distinguishable from the well known northern species, Leucon
nasicus of Kroyer.”

The Pliyllocarida. — “ Of Phyllocarida a new species of Nebalia has been described by
y. Willemoes Suhm from the Bermudas (see p. 1 50). Another large and very interesting
deep-sea Phyllocarid, apparently nearly related to Nebalia, was met "with at two different-
localities. Of one of the specimens only the carapace and a fragment of the anterior
part of the body have been secured. It seems to be this imperfect specimen that the
late Dr. v. Willemoes Suhm mentioned in one of his letters to Professor v. Siebold1 as a
gigantic Ostracode. Fortunately another more perfect, though smaller, specimen was
afterwards collected in the South Pacific when the dredge had been down to the
considerable depth of 2550 fathoms, showing clearly that it is a Phyllocarid, and not,
as first suggested, an Ostracode. The most striking characters of this form are the
distinctly sculptured carapace, the rudimentary eyes, and the remarkably feeble structure
of the branchial legs, distinguishing it from Nebalia as a distinct genus, Nebaliopsis,
G. 0. Sars.”

The phosphorescent light emitted by the species of the Euphausiidse was frequently
under observation during the cruise. If one of these be taken up by a pair of forceps when
newly caught, a pair of bright phosphorescent spots will be observed directly behind the
eyes, two other pairs on the trunk, and four other spots situated along the median line
of the tail. These- can all be quite well seen with the naked eye. The pair close to the
eyes are first and most brilliantly illuminated, and then the light, which is bluish white,
spreads to the other organs on the trunk and tail. After a brilliant flash has been
emitted from the organs they glow for some time with a dull light. The light is given
out at will by the animal, and usually, but not always, when irritated. The most brilliant
flashes occur when freshly taken from the sea. Subsequent flashes become less and less
bright, till the animal appears to lose the power of emitting light. If the organs be
removed with the forceps the points will glow brightly for some time, and when the
animal is dying the whole body is frequently illuminated by a diffused light. These
phosphorescent organs appear under the microscope as pale red spots with a central clear
lenticular body. ' The phosphorescent light comes from the red pigment surrounding
the lenticular space. In August 1880 Mr. Murray observed at night on the surface of
the sea in the Fseroe Channel large patches and long streaks of apparently milky white
water. The tow-nets caught in these immense numbers of Nyctiphanes ( Thysanopoda ■)
norvegica, M. Sars, and the peculiar appearance of the water seemed to be due to the
diffused light emitted from the phosphorescent organs of this species.

1 Brief II., Zeitschr. f. vnss. Zool., Bd. xxiv. p. xiii., 1874.

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

94

744

THE YOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Japan.

On the 13th April the anchor was weighed early in the forenoon, and the vessel
proceeded out of Yokohama Bay for the purpose of swinging ship to ascertain the
errors of the compass. The position of the ship at noon was Treaty Point W.N.W.
one mile. At 8.30 p.m. she returned to the anchorage, and on the 26th April proceeded
to Yokoska Harbour, and the following day was hauled into dock for repairs. On the
3rd May she was hauled out of the dry dock and returned to the former anchorage off
Yokohama.

On the 12th May the Challenger left Yedo Bay for a cruise along the southern coast
of Japan and into the Inland Sea. Proceeding first round Joka Sima, a day was spent
in sounding, dredging, and trawling in the bay next west of Yedo, where the celebrated
Japanese siliceous glass rope Sponges ( Hyal-onema ) are found. A native fisherman
was taken to point out the best spot, which proved to be Double Hill (on the coast on
the east side of Yedo Bay) in line with Tree Hill, and a notch in the coast behind
Ino Sima shut in by that island. The angles were Peaked Rock 28° 10'k Ino Sima
82° 40' Tree Hill </> Double Hill (see Sheet 35). The depth was 345 fathoms, and the
deposit a dark green mud containing a few shells of pelagic and other Foraminifera,
fragments of Molluscs, Echinoderms, Polyzoa, Sponge spicules, Radiolarians, and Diatoms.
There were a good many glauconitic casts of the calcareous shells.

The ship was surrounded by native fishing boats, and Mr. Murray visited a number of
these. They were fishing with long lines on which were attached iron hooks without
barbs, about 6 feet apart. On the lines which were being hauled in were Pennatulids,
Hyalonemas, Astropectens, Hydrozoa, and Macrurids and other deep-sea fish. It is
worthy of remark that while several Hyalonemas were procured from the native lines
none were obtained in the dredgings and trawlings from the ship, although most of the
other species were captured and many others in addition. The whole fauna had a
marked deep-sea character. In the Memoirs already published thirty-two new species
are described from this locality.

Dr. A. Gunther has the following interesting remarks on the Fish from this
Station : —

‘‘A fact to. which I have repeatedly drawn attention, and again quite recently,1 viz.,
that there exists the greatest similarity between the marine fauna of Japan and that of
the Mediterranean, the adjacent parts of the Atlantic, and the West Indies, is fully
Nborne out by the Challenger collections. It is proved not only by a number of species
absolutely identical in the seas named, but also by a large proportion of representative
species. The similarity becomes still more obvious when we take into consideration
species which live at a moderate depth of from 200 to 400 fathoms ; and although I
1 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. i. p. 485, 1878 ; also Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (•Zool.),vol. xii. pp. 100-109, 1874.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

745

have included the descriptions of those fishes in the deep-sea series, it will be useful to
enumerate them here, with an indication of their geographical range. Of the nineteen
species obtained at a depth of 345 fathoms, four are identical with Mediterranean
species, five are representatives of Mediterranean species, eight belong to genera with a
wide range at great depths, and two only must be regarded as peculiar Japanese forms.

“1. Centrophorus squamulosus,

2. Centrophorus foliaceus,

3. Beryx decadactylus,

4. Polymixia japonica,

5. Lepidopus tenuis, .

6. Physiculus dahviglci,

7. Haloporpliyrus lepidion,

8. Macrurus japonicus,

9. Macrurus macrochir, .

IQ. Macrurus parallelus,

11. Coryphcenoides nasutus,

12. Coryphcenoides villosus,

13. Bathythrissa dorsalis, .

14. Xenodermichthys nodulosus,

15. Gonostoma gracile,

16. Synaphobranchus pinnatus,

17. Synaphobranchus ajfjinis,

18. Nettastoma parviceps, .

19. Myxine australis, .

) Eight species of Centrophorus irom the coast of
) Portugal, Madeira, and the Mediterranean.

Madeira and the coast of Portugal.

( One species of this genus from Madeira and St.
{ Helena. One species from Cuba,
r One species from the Mediterranean and the
{ East Atlantic.

Madeira and St. Helena.

Mediterranean, Madeira, and the coast of Portugal.

| The species of Macrurus and Coryphcenoides are
I generally distributed over the deep sea.

Peculiar to the sea off Japan.

Peculiar to the sea off Japan.

, One species from the Mediterranean and Madeira,

) the other from the deep sea, and generally

( distributed.

Madeira, Brazil.

Japan.

One species from the Mediterranean.

Southern coasts of South America.”

At 6 p.m. the ship proceeded for the passage between Tries Island and Nipon,
which was passed at midnight. The light at Joka Sima was not seen farther than
1 0 miles.

The temperature of the surface water off Ino Sima was 3° higher than in Yedo Bay,
and it gradually rose to 68° between Tries Island and the mainland. Here a current was
met with setting northeast at the rate of one mile per hour.

On the 13th at 5 a.m. Rock Island was passed, and the ship was steered to the
westward towards Matoya to keep out of the current. At noon the barometer began to
fall rapidly and a southerly gale was expected, for it was noticed whilst lying in

746

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Yokohama Bay that the winds appeared to follow a definite course, viz. : — With a high
barometer, light southerly winds and fine weather prevailed ; when the barometer fell
the wind increased rapidly, and the weather became thick and dirty ; when the
barometer reached its lowest point the wind suddenly shifted to the westward and
northwestward, and the sky became clear ; the barometer now gradually rose and the
wind which at first blew as hard from the N.W. as it had from the southward
gradually decreased, shifted to the northward and northeastward, and fell light.

At 4 p.m. Matoya fight bore N. 71° W., Kami Sima N. 15° W., Cape Sima, S. 77° W.,
and the ship was steered to the southwestward and southward and shortly after the land
was lost sight of, the weather becoming thick and squally. The wind increased to a
gale by midnight and the sea got up rapidly, so that the vessel with all four boilers
was only steaming 3 knots against it.

On the 14th, at 4 a.m., the sea had increased so considerably that the engines were
eased, and the ship stood off the land on the starboard tack. At 6 a.m. the barometer
reached its lowest point, 29 '62 inches, the weather cleared, and the wind shifted to the
northwestward, the clouds disappearing as if a curtain had been withdrawn from the sky.
After a short interval of calm the wind increased to a single-reefed-topsail breeze from
the northwest, and there being a good deal of sea on the south of Oosima, the ship
made but little headway against the combined influences of sea, wind, and current. At
0.30 p.m. it was considered advisable to bear up for Oosima Harbour, where the vessel
anchored at 3 p.m., with Itsino Sima Rock N. 50° E., Wooded Island S. 40° E., and west
point of Mioga Sima S. 5° W.

A number of the officers landed in the course of the afternoon at Nasingari village,
and proceeded along the beach to the town of Kusimoto, and returned by a beautiful
glen. The water in Oosima Harbour contained many Copepods, Ctenophores, Hydro-
medusae, larvae of Annelids, Diatoms, and immense numbers of Noctiluca miliaris.
These last were very large fine specimens, and in a great many instances they had
swallowed several large Diatoms. One specimen was seen to eject the frustule of a
Diatom through its cell- wall at a point nearly opposite to the point where the flagellum
is inserted. The spot where the frustule was ejected closed immediately, but for a long
time remained marked by star-like radiating lines ; similar star-like spots were noticed in
several specimens, but not in the same position. The animal apparently ejects these
frustules through any part of the surface of the body. The nucleus, which became
coloured with carmine before treatment with spirit, was very minute and circular.

On the 15th, at 5 a.m., the vessel left Oosima Harbour, going out through the south
channel (having previously come in through the east). The day was calm and fine and
the water smooth, and the ship proceeded along the land for Isumi Strait and Kobe.
The Japan Stream was lost at 8 a.m., the surface temperature having decreased from
67° to 65° '5. At 2 P.M. the ship passed through Isumi Strait, where the temperature

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

747

of the surface was 61°'5, and at 5 p.m. anchored off Kobe in 5 fathoms, with Hiogo
Tower S. 22° W., Kawa Saki Tower S. 50° W., Pier End N. 42° W., and Kobe Point
N. 45° E.

The vessel remained at Kobe until the 25th May in order to allow members of the Ex-
pedition time for a visit to Kioto (or Miako), the western capital of Japan, and old resi-
dence of the Mikados, where an exhibition of Japanese workmanship was then being held.

The steam pinnace was engaged several days dredging in shallow water off Kobe.

On the 25th, at 10.30 a.m., the Challenger left Kobe for a cruise in the Inland Sea.
At 1 p.m. Matsu-wo-ga-hana, the north point of Awadji Island, was passed, and a course
shaped as requisite to pass through Akashi Strait, keeping the right extremity of End
Hill in line with the lighthouse, a most excellent mark. After passing Shika-no-se the
ship was steered for the left extremity of Sozu Sima and anchored on the south side
of that island at 7 p.m. off Sakate, with Ukado Point 93° 30' Small Fukube Island
30° 40' Dyizo Hana.

On the 26th, at 6 a.m., the ship proceeded under steam for Miwara, at 9 a.m. passed
Odutsi Island, and at 9.40 a.m. Nabe Sima lighthouse. At 11.20 a.m. a trawling was
taken in 15 fathoms, with the left extremity of Sanagi Sima 58° 40' the right extremity
of Nezumi Sima 120° O' Akeno Misaki. At 11.45 a.m. the vessel' proceeded again
towards Miwara, and at 0.40 p.m. a trawling was obtained with Mutsu Sima N. 63° E.,
Udsi Sima N. 4° W., Ibuki Sima S. 12° E. At 1.30 p.m. the trawl was hove up, and
the ship proceeded for Miwara, anchoring there at 4.15 p.m. in 14 fathoms with the
following anchorage marks : — ■ ,

431 feet hill, Iwaslii Sima, 58° O' apex Sukune Sima in line with Guize Yama, 54° O' right
extremity Ko Saki Sima.

The following leading marks were found useful in passing through the different channels : —

The south point of Kasiva, in line with the north point of Oki Sima, clears the shoal patch
between Oki Sima and Okabula.

Avari Sima, in line with the south point of Kasiva, just clears the Galatea Bank, but a better
mark is the south point of Te Sima, in line with the south point of Kasiva.

The south point of Ko Sima in line with the north point of Oki Sima clears the Maka Se.

After passing Nabd Sima light, Ko Sei Sima kept open north of Sanmen Sima until the 10 feet
rock is in line with the north point of Takami, clears the Three Rocks spit and the rocky knolls north
of Usu Sima. When abreast of the north point of Usu Sima, the 10 feet rock should be kept a little
north of Takami to clear the rocks north of Siyako.

The peaks of Odutsi, Nab4 Sima, and the north point of Usu Sima in line together and kept
in transit, clears the Conqueror Bank, and leads a safe distance south of the 10 feet rock, after passing
which it should be brought in line with the clump on Usu Sima, which mark leads between the banks
east of Takami on the south side and off Sauagi Sima and Ko Sima on the north side of the
channel.

The 27th was spent by the members of the Expedition in visiting the extensive ruins
of a Daimios castle at Miwara, and visiting several points in the picturesque vicinity.

748

THE YOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER

Miwara was the terminus of the cruise in the Inland Sea, which, with its variety of
islands and forelands, deep bays and inlets, hacked by numerous ranges of hills and moun-
tains of every possible shape, justified its reputation for beauty of scenery, which, how-
ever, is somewhat marred by the barren appearance of the hills, especially at a distance.
On closer inspection almost every sheltered nook in this intricate network of seas and
channels is found to be occupied by populous towns and villages, surrounded by well
cultivated fields, which at the time of the visit were all yellow with ripening grain. The
fields were bordered by clumps of fine old trees, which the Japanese — with that delicate
artistic feeling for the beauties of nature which is a striking peculiarity of this remarkable
people — take care to leave standing in the midst of their dwellings and fields.

On the 28th May the vessel left Miwara to returu to Kobe. At noon a trawling and
temperatures were obtained in 12 fathoms, and then the ship proceeded for Sanagi Sima
anchoring off that island at 3 p.m. At 8 a.m. on the 29th the vessel left that anchorage
and arrived at Kobe at 5 p.m.

Several dredgings and trawlings were taken in the Inland Sea in depths of 15 and
11 fathoms. The deposit was a stiff blue mud containing a great variety of mineral
particles and some Foraminifera, fragments of Eehinoderms, Molluscs, &c. There were,
however, no pelagic Foraminifera shells, nor were any of these organisms found in the
surface net gatherings during the cruise in the Inland Sea. In the trawls were Holo-

o o o

thurians, Ophiurids, Asterids, Eehinids, Annelids, Crabs, Shrimps, several Cephalopods
and other Molluscs, and many Teleosteans, some of which have proved to be new species.
On the surface there were many Diatoms, Noctilucce, and other Protozoa, larvae of
Lamellibranchs, Gasteropods, Ophiurids, Starfish, Annelids, and Crustacea, Appendi-
cularia, Copepods, Daphnia, and a small species of Acanthometra.

On the 2nd June, at 10 a.m., the Expedition left Kobdfor Yokohama, passing through
Isumi Strait at 1.40 p.m. At 5 p.m. Miya Saki bore N. 18° E., Hino Misaki E., and
Ilibe Saki S. 55° E., and a S. by E. E. course was shaped for a position 50 miles south
of Oosima in order that a sounding and dredging might be obtained the next morning.
The temperature of the surface water rose gradually from 65° in Isumi Strait to 70°-5
at 10 p.m.

On the 3rd, at 5 a.m., a sounding was taken in 2675 fathoms in lat 32° 3F N.,
long. 135° 39' E. (see Sheet 35), and serial temperatures were obtained to a depth of 300
fathoms, but owing to the dirty looking weather and increasing breeze no attempt was
made to dredge. Whilst sounding no current could be detected. The deposit here was
a blue mud with a reddish surface layer, and did not contain any carbonate of lime. At
9 a.m. sail was made, and the ship stood to the northeastward, the barometer falling
with a fresh S.E. wind and dirty weather which lasted until 8 p.m., when the barometer
reached 29 ’51 inches and the wind shifted to the westward and then to N.N.E., but
the weather still remained thick, and after midnight the barometer again fell slightly,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

749

reaching its minimum at 4 a.m. on the 4th (29 ’48 inches), then rising quickly, with
a freshening wind from the northeastward.

On the 4th, at 7.30 a.m. the mist cleared, the weather became quite bright,
and the land about Matoya was distinguished; astronomical observations were also
obtained by which it was ascertained that no current whatever had been experienced
since passing Hino Misaki. At 4 p.m., the weather being very fine and calm, a sounding
in 565 fathoms, serial temperatures, and a most successful and productive trawling were
taken in lat. 34c 7' N., long. 138° 0' E., and again no current was found running
(see Sheet 35). At 7.30 p.m. the vessel proceeded under steam towards Rock Island.

On the 5th June at 8 a.m. Rock Island lighthouse was passed, and at 1 p.m. a
sounding, trawling, and temperatures were taken in depths varying from 775 to 420
fathoms over rocky uneven ground, with the left extremity of Vries Island S. 9° W.,
the right extremity of Vries Island S. 32° W., and Tree Hill N. 42° W. Considerable
difficulty was experienced in recovering the trawl, owing to the rocky nature of the
bottom, but eventually it was hove to the surface at 5 p.m. much torn and containing a
few stones, after which the ship proceeded for Yokohama, anchoring there at 9 p.m.

The Japan Stream or Kuro Siwo. — The Challenger’s observations show that on
approaching Japan a belt of water which was running to the northeastward at the rate
of three miles per hour was passed through between lat. 32° 30' N. and 33° 30' N., on
the meridian of 138° 25' E. from Greenwich. On the southern edge of this belt the
stream had a more northerly, and on its northern edge a more easterly, tendency than
N.E. When to the northward of this belt of rapidly moving water a set of one mile per
hour was experienced.

When in the current the temperature of the surface water varied from 63° to 68°,
changing suddenly from the one temperature to the other, giving alternate streams of
cold and warm water without any alteration in its rapidity being detected. That this
was the case is readily proved by the observations from 7 a.m. to 10 p.m. on the 10th
April, which, though taken at different times, all agreed in showing a steady set of
three miles per hour, although the temperature of the sea changed suddenly at 1 p.m.
from 68° to 64°, and at 7 p.m. from 63° to 68°.

In the month of May a moderate set to the eastward was experienced close to the
south coast of Nip on Island. In June there was no current at a distance of 30 to 40
miles from that coast, but to the southeastward of Nipon a stream was found running to
the northward at the rate of two miles per hour of the mean temperature of 7 2° '5.

The rapid stream of alternate belts of warm and cold water south of Nipon Island
probably originates in the following manner : — The northern Equatorial Current striking
against the eastern side of the Philippine Islands is, as is well known, diverted to the
northward, along the eastern side of Formosa, after passing which, it appears gradually

750

THE YOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

to lose its distinctive character. During the northeast monsoon a cold surface current
is running to the southward from the Japan and Yellow Seas. It appears therefore
highly probable that the Equatorial Current, instead of losing itself as is supposed,
when it meets with the cold water from the Japan and Yellow Seas, is diverted to the
eastward along with a cold northerly current, the two running together side by side
without intermingling their waters. When the northeast monsoon ceases the current
from the Japan and Yellow Seas also ceases, which causes the slackness of the Kuro
Siwo, south of Nipon Island, in June, as it is then only due to the Equatorial Current.
Later on, in July and August, when it is augmented further by the surface drift from
the China Sea in the southwest monsoon, it runs again with great rapidity, and is
wholly a warm current. These peculiar effects are probably not experienced to the
eastward of the meridian of 140° E. ; there apparently the stream is always a warm one.

While passing through the Japan Stream the tow-net observations also indicated
water from two different sources. When in the colder streams there were very many
more small Diatoms, Notilucce, and Hydromedusse than in the warmer streams, where
the same pelagic animals that were obtained all the way from the Admiralty Islands
prevailed. Many similar instances occurred during the cruise, where the approach to land
or the presence' of shore water was indicated by the contents of the tow-nets.

Japan to the Sandwich, Islands..

On the 16th June the Expedition left Yokohama for the Sandwich Islands, with
the intention of running a section across the Pacific on the 3.5th parallel of north latitude
as far east as the meridian of Hawaii, and then proceeding southwards. At 10 p.m.
Susaki bearing N. ^ E. and No. Sima light E.N.E.., a course was shaped to the south-
eastward for a good position in which to sound (see Sheet 36).,

On the 17th, at 4 a.m., a sounding, trawling, and temperatures were taken in 1875
fathoms in lat. 34° 37; N., long. 140° 32' E. Whilst the vessel was trawling the Japan
Stream was setting to the eastward at the rate of 1^ miles per hour, the temperature
of the surface water being 73°.

The deposit at this Station was a blue mud with a thin reddish surface layer, and
contained 5 per cent, of carbonate of lime, which consisted chiefly of a few pelagic and
other Foraminifera and Coccoliths.

The trawling was a very successful one, for the net contained a large quantity of mud,
several large pieces of pumice, a hardened block of the bottom deposit over a foot in
diameter, some fragments of plants, and a large number of deep-sea animals. In the
washings of a very large quantity of mud one Ianthina shell, three or four Pteropod shells,
the vertebra of a fish, and the beak of a large Cephalopod were found. The hardened frag-
ment of the deposit contained the same mineral particles and organisms as the soft mud

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

Radiolarians and Diatom frustules made up a very large part of
the deposit, probably about one fourth of the whole.

It would take up too much space to give the list of new fishes
and invertebrates from this trawling ; nineteen specimens of the
former and about one hundred specimens of the latter were ob-
tained, most of the species being new ones first discovered by the
Expedition. Among the most remarkable were the four specimens
of Monocaulus, referred to by Professor G. J. Allman, F.R.S., in
the following notes on the Hydroida collected during the cruise,
the first part of whose Report 1 has been published : —

The Hydroida. — “ The only group the investigation of which
has yet been completed is that of the Plumularidse, which contains a
large number of new forms, no fewer than eight being peculiar
types, which have rendered necessary the construction of as many
new genera ; while the number of species now for the first time
determined amounts to thirty-one.

“ Among the new genera Streptocaulus (fig. 264), dredged off
Porto Praya, San Iago, from a depth of 100 fathoms, presents a
form of ramification hitherto unknown among the Hydroida, the
ultimate ramuli or hydrocladia being thrown by the twisting of
the stem into a graceful and beautiful spiral; while in Diploclieilus,
dredged in Bass Strait from a depth of 30 to 40 fathoms, the
curious duplication of the hydrothecal margin is as remarkable as
it is unique. Several new forms, the special interest of which
consists in their presenting transitional characters between certain
well-marked Plumularian groups, have also been obtained.

“A striking feature among the Plumularidse brought home
by the Challenger is the large proportion of species having open
phylactocarps, as seen in the types of Acanthocladium, Lyto-
carpus, and Cladocarpus. These, by the analysis they present of
the more usual form of phylactocarp as shown in the corbula of
Aglaophenia, are of special interest in throwing light on the
morphology of the structures which in the phylactocarpal genera
are adapted to the protection of the gonangia, and in the con-
firmation they afford of the conclusion that the essential parts of
these structures are to be regarded as greatly developed and
peculiarly modified nematophores.

1 Report on the Hydroida — The Plumularidae, Zool. Chall Exp., part xx., 1883.

Fig. 264.
rimus

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

752

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

“ Other Hy droid groups are at present under examination, and have already yielded
some interesting results.

“ The collection is very rich in the species of Cryptolaria, and the specimens it
contains have furnished the means of working out in greater detail than had hitherto been
done the structure of this curious group. Not only has the essential structure of its
trophosome been thus determined and its stem proved to consist of two distinct elements
— an axial, with which alone the hydrothecse are in connexion, and a peripheral, which
forms an enveloping sheath for the axial — but we have been made acquainted with its

Fig. 265. — Monocaulus imsperator, Allman ; one half the natural -size.

gonosome, which had not previously been detected, and which is present in a species
dredged by the Challenger from a depth of 2600 fathoms.

“ A new genus, Perisiphonia, has been constructed for the reception of some very
remarkable species which agree with the Cryptolarice in the presence of an axial and of a
peripheral system of tubes in the trophosome, but which differ from these in the very
different form and relations of the hydrothecse, while they are further characterised by
the presence of a highly developed system of accessory receptacles analogous to the
nematophores of the Plumularidse.

“ The genus- Grammaria is also well represented, and has been found to agree

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

753

with Cryptolaria and Perisiphonia in the essential structure of the hydrocaulus,
which consists, as in those genera, of an axial and a peripheral system, but with
differences which will not allow Gramma, ria to be generically united with Cryptolaria
or Perisiphonia.

“ Among other groups, the Lafoeidse, Haleciidse, and Campanularidse have as yet been
the most completely examined. These are represented by some new genera, and by
many new and beautiful species. Their investigation has in some instances necessitated
the revision of existing definitions, while it has considerably extended our knowledge of
Hy droid morphology.

“ The number of gymnoblastic Hydroids brought home by the Challenger is but
small. Among these, however, has been found an exceedingly interesting form
which must be regarded as the type of a new genus, and which is especially
remarkable from the peculiarity of its habitat, living as it does parasitically beneath
the dorsal plates of an Annelid. It was found in this situation by Professor MTntosh
while engaged in his examination of the Challenger Annelids, and by him sent to me
for determination.

“ Among the results of the Challenger dredgings must, however, be specially recorded
the discovery of a gigantic Tubularian (fig. 2 6 5), which was dredged in the North Pacific from
depths of 1875 and 2900 fathoms. It is referable to the genus Monocaulus, a near ally
of Corymorpha. One of the specimens whose dimensions were noted by Professor Wyville
Thomson and Mr. Moseley immediately after its capture was found to measure 9 inches
from tip to tip of the extended tentacles, which form the proximal tentacular circlet ; while
-its stem rose from its point of attachment to a height of 7 feet 4 inches. This great
Tubularian affords indeed an example of a Hydroid attaining dimensions far exceeding
the maximum which would have been hitherto, thought possible in Hydroid life — a char-
acter to which the vast depth whence it was obtained gives additional significance.”

On the passage across the Pacific on the- 35'th parallel, the ship was, for the
first week after leaving Japan, favoured with fresh southerly and southwesterly
winds, and occasionally, as far as the meridian of 165°,E., with drizzling rain, the
weather being cloudy and foggy. From the meridian of 165° E. to that of 180°,
which was reached on July 3rd, light winds from west round south to east were
experienced, with moderately fine weather, but the atmosphere continued very damp.
After crossing the 180th meridian, light easterly winds necessitated the vessel being
steered north to the 38th parallel, in which moderate westerly breezes were experienced
to the meridian of 160° W., the weather still continuing damp and cloudy. After pass-
ing the 160th meridian in lat. 38° N., wiuds from the southeastward were experienced,
varying from south to east until within a short distance of the Sandwich Islands.

The section across the western portion of the North Pacific, from Japan to Honolulu,

754

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

lias been divided into three parts: — 1st, the section from Japan to the 180th meridian
on the parallel of 35^° north latitude ; 2nd, the section from the 180th meridian to the
meridian of 156° 25' west longitude, on the 38th parallel of north latitude; and
3rd., a meridional section from a position in lat. 38° 9' N., long. 156° 25' W., to Oahu
Island in the Sandwich group (see Diagrams 17, 18, and 19).

In the first part of the section the bed of the ocean shows, as had been expected
from the soundings of the U.S. ship “ Tuscarora,” a remarkable depression in the
immediate neighbourhood of Japan, the depth being nearly 4000 fathoms at a
distance of 200 miles east of Nosima, after which a gradual rise takes place to 2300
fathoms at a distance of 900 miles from that headland, then a gradual increase of
depth to 2900 fathoms 1500 miles from Japan, and another rise to 2050 fathoms
near the end of the section. It is probable that the deepest point of the depression off
the Japanese coast was not hit upon, as the “ Tuscarora ” found depths of 4600 fathoms
farther north. In the second part of the section the depths vary from 2530 to 3125
fathoms, the mean being 2900 fathoms; whilst in the third part, south towards the
Sandwich Islands, the bottom shows a very gradual rise until within 120 miles of the
land, when the gradient becomes steeper.

The temperature at the bottom was remarkably uniform throughout the whole
distance traversed, the highest result being 35° '3, the lowest 3 4° ’8, and the mean
35° T. The mean temperature at a depth of 1500 fathoms was also 35°T.
These results agree with those obtained between the Admiralty Islands and Japan.
It is therefore evident that over a very large area of the North Pacific the water
is at a .uniform temperature from the depth of 1400 or 1500 fathoms to the bottom.

The surface temperature on the parallel of 35-|-° N. varied from 74° to 64°‘5, the
mean being 69°‘5. The comparatively low surface temperature of 64°'5 was exceptional,
this result being obtained at Station 240 on the 21st June, the water remaining
at from 6 4° ‘5 to 65° during the whole of the time sounding and trawling operations
were carried on, although 10 miles on either side of this Station it was 5° higher
(see Diagram 17)..

On the 38th parallel the mean surface temperature was 65°‘3 and the extremes
69° ‘5 and 62° '2. It would therefore appear that in the month of July a difference of
latitude of 150 miles makes a difference of 4°-2 in the surface temperature of the North
Pacific on or about the 36th parallel.

In the third part of the section, from lat. 38° 9' N., long. 156° 25' W., to
the Sandwich Islands, the surface temperature rose gradually from 68° to 78° at
Honolulu.

The serial temperatures show some peculiarities. For instance, the observations
taken at Station 240 on the 21st June, in lat. 35° 20' N., long. 153° 39' E., where
the surface temperature was, as mentioned previously, abnormally low, gave results

DIAGRAM 17

LongitiicLmal Temj

PACIFIC OCEAN

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

755

considerably lower than those obtained at corresponding depths at Stations 239 and
241 on either side of Station 240. Thus, at 100 fathoms the temperature at Station 240
was 15° lower than at Station 239, and 12° lower than at Station 241 ; at 200 fathoms
it was 16° lower than at Station 239 and 10o,3 lower than at 241, &c., down to
1500 fathoms, at which depth the same temperature was obtained as at all the other
Stations. A further peculiarity here was, that from 200 -to 300 fathoms the water was
at a temperature of 40°.

The upper isothermal lines between the coast of Japan and Station 240, 650 miles
from the coast, occupied greater depths than they did between Station 240 and the
180th meridian, being doubtless influenced by the Japan Current. The isotherms were
fairly parallel with the surface (see Diagram 17).

The abnormal condition of the temperature at Station 240 is due in all probabi-
lity to an outset from the Sea of Okhotsk, or the western part of Behring Sea, as
Captain Belknap, in the U.S. ship “ Tuscarora,” found a belt of cold water opposite the
entrance of those seas, which, from the observations of the Challenger, appears to extend
to the 35th parallel. Here however it nearly ceases, as the width of the cold stream
on the surface did not exceed 20 miles.

The serial temperatures taken on the 38th parallel, between the meridian of 180°
and 156° 25' W., gave nearly the same results, so that the isotherms were fairly
parallel with the surface, the isotherm of 40° being at an average depth of 400
fathoms; that of 45°, at an average depth of 250 fathoms; of 50°, at 150 fathoms
(see Diagram 18).

In the third part of the section, from a position in lat. 38° 9' N., long. 156° 25' W.,
to the Sandwich Islands, the upper temperatures increased as the vessel proceeded to
the southward, causing the isotherms above 50° to descend gradually ; the isotherms of
40° and 45°, however, maintained a position nearly parallel with the surface, at depths
of 400 and 250 fathoms (see Diagram 19).

No current observations were taken by mooring a boat to the sounding line or
trawl rope, but whilst sounding or trawling the direction of the surface set was noted,
and its velocity estimated ; and the direction and rate of the current were also calculated
from frequent astronomical observations. The general direction of the current from the
Japanese coast to the meridian of 170° E., was northeast 19 miles per diem, the
greatest set in any one day being 37 miles, and the least 10 miles. From the meridian
of 170° E. to 156° W. the currents were variable and generally insignificant, and on the
southward track to the Sandwich Islands they were variable between the 38th and 30th
parallels, and had a general westerly tendency from the 30th parallel to Oahu, the
velocity being in no case considerable.

Anemometer observations were taken when favourable opportunities offered, whilst
the ship was stationary sounding or trawling ; and it was also noticed that the direction

756

THE YOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

of the wind’ as registered when under sail, differed considerably from the direction
noted when, sail being shortened, the ship was brought head to wind to sound. For
instance, on the 24th June, at Station 242, the direction of the wind was noted as
south when under saily the course of the ship being east, and the speed 9 knots per
hour, but when brought head to wind, the direction was found to be S.S.W. to S.W.
by S. The following table shows the results of the anemometer observations whilst the
ship was stationary -

Date.

1875.

Station..

Yelocity of wind in*
nnle& per hour.

Force of wind "by
Beaufort’s scale, as
noted in log.

June 24-

242'

19'

4 to 5,. mean 4J

„ 26"

243

8-

1- to 2, mean 1-|-

„ 28'

244

8-

1 to 2,. mean 1£

„ 30'

245

10

2'

July 2‘

246

5

1

„ 3'

247

7

2.

„ 5

248

9-

2'

„ 7

249

25'

5 to 6, mean 5J

„ 9'

250

20 •

4 to 5, mean 4^

„ 10

251

9

2

„ 12:

252

7

1 to 2, mean 1|

„ 1*

253-

11

2 to 3, mean 2\

„ 17

254'

6'

1 to 2, mean 1J

,; 19

255

£

I

„ 21

256'

8

1 to- 2, mean 1 \

„ 24

258:

m

2

„ 26

259

1:8

3

The deposits between Japan and the Sandwich Islands were most interesting. In
all the greater depths there was no carbonate of lime in the deposits, but it is instruc-
tive to notice that at two Stations where the depth was less than the average, viz.,
2300 and 2050 fathoms, there was respectively 17 and 56 per cent.' of carbonate of

DIAGRAM 18

PACIFIC OCEAN

Longitudinal Temperature Section

From a Position m Lat.35°49.N.Long.l80°Wto a Position in Lat.38°9! N. Long. 156°25iW

For explanation, of Symbols see. Appendix 1 .

HORIZONTAL SCALE OF NAUTICAL MILES

Engraved T>v Malby& Sons

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

757

lime, consisting chiefly of the shells of pelagic Foraminifera ; this clearly shows, as has
been already pointed out, that the amount of lime deposited is in inverse relation to the
depth, when as in this instance the surface conditions are the same or nearly so. A sound-
ing (Station 247), where the depth was 2530 fathoms, was remarkable. In the upper part
of the section brought up by the sounding tube there was a reddish clay without any
carbonate of lime ; this layer was about -one inch in thickness, and was somewhat sharply
marked off from the lower layers, wdiich were of a much lighter colour, and contained
about 20 per cent, of carbonate of lime in the form of shells of pelagic Foraminifera.
This condition of things might be explained by supposing that after the lower layers
had been laid down, a subsidence of the bottom had taken place to, the extent of .200 or
300 fathoms. All the deposits from, the Japan coast to the ,170th meridian of west
longitude contained a very large number of the remains of siliceous organisms, chiefly
Radiolaria ; in fact, five or six of the soundings might have been as consistently called
Radiolarian oozes as , red clays, for these organisms appeared to. make up nearly one
half of the deposit. As the Sandwich Islands were approached, the siliceous organisms
almost disappeared from the deposits, which were then almost wholly, composed of the
triturated fragments of pumice and. amorphous clayey matter.

There were eleven trawlings.and two dredgings during the trip, but on four, occasions
the line parted and the trawls with a considerable length of line were lost. The others
were fairly successful and productive. On all occasions the bag of the trawl contained
numerous pieces of pumice and many manganese nodules. Some of the rounded
fragments of pumice were quite fresh and unaltered; others had .undergone profound
alteration, and were frequently coated with successive layers of the peroxide of manganese.
These pieces of pumice seem to have formed the -centres of most, of the manganese
nodules taken in the North Pacific, but on several occasions the nuclei -were .teeth of
Sharks — Oxyrhina, Lamna, and Carcharodon- — and in one instance a siliceous Sponge
(Farrea) occupied the centre of the nodule. On the 12th July, from 2740 .fathoms, the
dredge contained more than a bushel of these dark brown - coloured manganese nodules,
which, when rolled out on the deck, somewhat resembled in appearance, a lot, of potatoes,
the largest being about the size of cricket balls.

The trawlings were not very productive so far as specimens of, animals' were concerned.
In the shallower depths where there was carbonate of lime in the deposit, viz., at 2050 and
2300 fathoms, there were respectively about sixty: and twenty specimens of invertebrates,
all belonging to characteristic deep-sea species.

At 2900 fathoms the following were procured : —

Antheomorphe elegans, Hertwig; Bathyactis symmetrica, Mosel. ; Antipathes sp.;
Stephanoscyphus sp., Monocaulus imperator, Allman ; Pourtalesia laguncula, A. Ag. ;
Hymenaster infernalis, Sladen ; Benthaster wyville-thomsoni, Sladen ; Brisinga sp. ;
Oneirophanta mutabilis, Theel ; Comatulse ; Lepas anatifera, Linn. ; Terebratula wyvillii,

758

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Day. ; Gonostoma microdon, Giinth. ; several Annelids, Shrimps, fragments of siliceous
Spongas, and several living Foraminifera. It is of course probable that the Gonostoma
and Shrimps did not come from the bottom.

To the upper surface of a nodule from 3125 fathoms (12 x 8 x 2 inches), the following
were attached : — Bifaxaria abyssicola, Busk ; Cribrilina monoceros, Busk ; Bugula
johnstonice, Gray; Phylactella sp. ?; several Annelids, Stephanoscyphus sp., Actinia (X),
a tubularian Hyclroid, and over the whole surface were many branching tubes of Rhizam-
mina algceformis, H. B. Brady.

The remarkable fall in the temperature of the surface water on the 21st June
(Station 240) has already been referred to, and at the same time there was a marked
change in the character of the surface fauna. The ship on that day passed through. red
and white coloured patches of water. The red colour was due to immense numbers of
Copepods (Calanus propinquus G. S. Brady) and Hyperids, the contents of the tow-nets
resembling very much those taken in the cold water south of Kerguelen and the Crozets.
There were also in the tow-nets immense numbers of dead pale white Copepods, a
species different from the red ones, and the white coloured patches of water appeared
to be due to the presence of these. There were in the tow-nets many other dead animals
besides the Copepods, and it seems probable that immense numbers of animals belonging
to the warm currents had been killed by the streams of cold water flowing southward
and breaking into the warm waters of the Japan Stream. On the second portion
of this cruise, between 180° and 156° west on the 38th parallel, where the average
temperature was 6.5°, the surface fauna was considerably different from what it was
2 degrees farther to the south. The large tropical Etmodiscus rex, Pyrocystis, Pulvinulina
menardii, some of the tropical species of Globigerina and other pelagic Foraminifera
peculiar to the warmer waters, of the ocean were absent. On the other hand, there
were immense numbers of small Diatoms and of Lepas fascicularis and its larvae.
For days the ship passed through floating balls of this barnacle, the development of
which was made the subject of a special study by Dr. v. Willemoes Suhm.1 The balls
appeared to be mostly formed by the larvae becoming attached to dead Ianthinas
and Yelellas, very large numbers of which were found dead floating on the surface,
apparently killed by the cold water. A Nudibranch, an Aphroditacean, a Cymothoa,
and Halobates were found attached to or resting on these floating balls of Lepas,
while very numerous small particles of pumice were taken in the tow-nets, which in
some instances had animals attached to them. The stomachs of the zooeas of the Lepas
fascicularis contained many Coccospheres and Bhabdospheres, and minute Diatoms.

Tow-nets were sent down to 500, 1000, and 2000 fathoms on many occasions in the
trip between Japan and the Sandwich Islands, with the result that many organisms were
procured which had not hitherto been noticed in the tow-net gatherings down to
1 Phil. Trans., part i. pp. 131-154, pis. x.-xv., 1876.

VERTICAL SCALE OF FATHOMS

DIAGRAM 19

Parallel

of 40° S.

EngravoaV MalW& Soi

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

759

100 fathoms from the surface.. The characteristic forms were Eadiolaria belonging to
the legion Phseodaria (see p. 217). It is impossible to say whether or not these organisms
exist all the way from a depth of 100 fathoms to the bottom, but the experiments proved
the existence of an intermediate fauna of considerable variety existing between 100
fathoms and the bottom.

The Sandwich Islands.

On the 27th July at daylight the island of Molokai was observed ahead, and Oahu
on the starboard bow, and a course was shaped for the passage between them. At 8 a.m.
a sounding was taken in 310 fathoms, with the extremities of Molokai Island S. 63° E.
and 1ST. 74° E., the island off the right extremity of Oahu N. 56° W., and the left
extremity of Oahu S. 88° W. ; afterwards serial temperatures and a haul of the trawl
were obtained, but the latter operation was difficult on account of the rocky nature of
the bottom. At 11 a.m. the ship bore up for Honolulu and was anchored outside the
harbour at 2 p.m. At 4 p.m. a pilot was received on board, and the vessel proceeded into
the harbour, and was moored head and stern at 5 p.m.

Honolulu ( Honoruru ). — The islands of Oahu and Molokai are most remarkable for
the extremely barren aspect which they present as viewed from the sea on their leeward
sides. In this respect they differ from all other Pacific Islands which were visited during
the voyage of the Challenger ; trees or shrubs do not form a conspicuous, feature in the
view, but the hillslopes are covered with a scanty clothing of grass and low herbage, which
in the summer season is yellow and parched. Only one scanty grove of cocoanut trees is
to be seen on the shore of Oahu Island, to the east of the town of Honolulu, whilst west-
wards the barren plains and distant bare hills almost equalled St. Vincent, Cape Verde
Islands, in their sterility. There are no thick belts of cocoanut trees fringing the shores
as at Tonga, with littoral vegetation overhanging the very surf ; no dense forests clothing
the mountains from the summits to the shore' as at Fiji or the Admiralty Islands. There
is little more show of vegetation in the general appearance of the islands, as seen from
seawards, than is to be seen on the bleak Marion Island in the Southern Ocean.

The harbour of Honolulu is entered by a narrow channel through a fringing reef
which is not very extensive. The town lies on an almost flat expanse immediately
adjoining the shore, and is not very conspicuous at a distance. It is composed of streets
of very various widths, laid out at right angles to one another, lined on either side by
very irregular rows of houses of all kinds, mostly wooden shanties, the greater part of
them occupied as general stores.

There is a large shop of Chinese and Japanese curiosities, and two photographers’ shops,
where corals, imported mostly from the Marquesas Islands, especially large specimens

(narr.'chall. exp.— vol, i, — 1885.) 96

7(30

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

of Distichopora coccinea, often mistaken by purchasers for Precious Coral ( Corallium
rubrum), and spurious imitations of native implements manufactured for sale, are dis-
posed of, at exorbitant prices, to passengers by the mail steamers. It is said that a
Chinaman is even employed to manufacture facsimiles of the stone gods of the ancient
Hawaiian's for sale as genuine curiosities ; the forged deities being represented as having
been dug up in taro fields.

The business streets are very hot and dusty, but around the hotel and villa dwelling
houses on the east side of the town are pretty gardens, filled with the usual imported
tropical garden plants, shrubs, and trees, which are maintained alive only by constant
irrigation, hoses from the town supply-pipes being kept playing on them day and night.
Thirty years ago, where these gardens now are, there was not a single tree, and now the
gardens form only a small oasis in a dry parched desert, which extends along the coast
east and west, and is soon reached on leaving the town in either of these directions.

On this tract the bare volcanic rock shows out everywhere, and the only conspicuous
vegetation is a Prickly Pear ( Opuntia ) introduced from America, which has spread far
on either side from the town and multiplied exceedingly, so as to form in places a dense
impassable growth, and constitute a most conspicuous feature in the landscape. These
barren parts of Oahu resemble somewhat the rocky tracts of Tenerife with their growth
of Euphorbia canariensis. The Guava, another introduced American plant, has spread
in all directions, in places forming dense thickets from which it is difficult to drive out
the half-wild cattle.

The whole town of Honolulu has a thoroughly American aspect. Americans are
supplanting the rapidly decreasing native population ; American plants are, as has been
said, covering the ground, and American birds have been introduced and bid fair to
spread and oust the native fauna, which has no single land bird in common with any
other Polynesian island group. The only vigorous opponents of the Americans in the
struggle for existence seem to be the Chinese..

Behind Honolulu is the Nuuanu Yalley (see fig. 266), with precipitous walls in its
upper part, which becomes greener and greener as the ascent is made by the road leading
up it. The difference between the rainfall in the valley and in Honolulu is most remarkable.
At Waikiki, near Honolulu, at sea level, the rainfall in 1873 was 37 '85 inches, whilst in
the Nuuanu Yalley, 2§ miles inland, and at an elevation of only 550 feet, the fall in the
same year was 134‘06 inches. Captain Wilkes says that even certain streets in the town
of Honolulu are said to be more rainy than others. The leading native trees in the
valley are the malvaceous Hibiscus tiliaceus, the Acacia Jcoa, and the Candle Nut ( Aleurites
triloba). The Hibiscus forms curiously tangled impassable thickets, while the Acacia grows
only high up on the cliff tops. The Candle Nut trees, by the peculiar glaucous colour
of their foliage, give a characteristic appearance to the vegetation seen in the far distance,
for these bluish green trees appear as rounded bushes, dotted over the high ground above

Engraved "by Malty & S <

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

761

the barren shore region. At the. summit of the valley is the “ pali,” a narrow cleft in the
tops of the mountains, which are precipitous on the other side. A beautiful view of the
windward side of the island is here suddenly encountered, and a refreshing breeze blows
through the gap. The range of cliffs forming the windward side of the mountain range
is an ancient coast line, and against the foot of the cliffs the sea used to beat in past ages.

Mr. W. L. Green, the foreign minister of Hawaii, took a deep interest in the
Expedition, and arranged several excursions to the chalk beds at Diamond Point, and
other places of interest ; he presented numerous rock specimens and some skulls to the
scientific staff.

A visit was paid to the Challenger by Kalakaua, the King of the Sandwich Islands,

Fig. 266. — Honolulu and the Valley of Nuuanu.

who took the liveliest interest in the special work of the Challenger, and recognised
the well-known anchors in the skin of the Holothurian Synapta when shown them
under the microscope, and named them at first glance. These anchors stood the scientific
staff in good stead at all the ports visited, and were described in the colonial news-
papers as belonging to the “ Admiralty worm,” supposed to be the most wonderful of the
deep-sea discoveries of the Expedition.

There is a most excellent musical band at Honolulu, composed almost entirely of
Hawaiians and numbering twenty or thirty performers, who execute complicated
European music with accuracy and most pleasing effect. No one can doubt, after listen-
ing to this band, that the Polynesian ear is as capable of appreciating the details of music
as the European. It will be interesting to observe in the future whether the Chinese

762

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

and Japanese, whose music is so very different from that of Europe, and who profess to
dislike Western music, and now at least much prefer their own, will develop a similar
capacity and changed appreciation in the future.

Whilst the ship was at Honolulu Mr. Moseley visited the northeast side of the
island in order to collect a series of native skulls from a deserted burial-place, on the
estate of Mr. John Cummins at Waimanalo. The graves are amongst dunes of
calcareous sand, lying often on the sides of the gullies between the dunes, and the bones
are exposed by the shifting of the sand by the wind. The graves have probably been
made in this locality because of the ease with which the sand is excavated ; similar
burial-places occur at various spots around the coast of Oahu, and there is scarcely any
place where more abundant material is ready at hand for the study of the skeletal peculi-
arities of a savage race, by the examination of long series of crania and skeletons, than
here. Other burial-places occur in caves inland, where the bodies are found in a dried
mummy -like condition. All those at Waimanalo were buried in a doubled-up posture ;
one which was exhumed with care in situ had been buried with the knees bent up to
the chest and the head bent forwards, and was placed resting horizontally on the back.
Chips and fragments of basalt were found around all the graves, but no implements
of stone. This burying ground has subsequently been visited by Dr. Otto Finsch,1 who
considers that the skeletons found there are pure Hawaiians belonging to a period free
from European influence, as this part of the coast has not been disturbed by white
people. The skulls obtained have been carefully described by Professor Turner,2 who
states that some are of a well marked brachycephalic type, others are equally well marked
dolichocephalic, whilst others again are mesaticephalic in their proportions. His
conclusion is’ that these differences in the cranial characters express the presence in
the Sandwich Islands of more than one race of men, and that they have probably
been inhabited both by Polynesians and Melanesians, who have doubtless to some
extent intermingled with each other.

During the stay of the ship at Honolulu the pinnace was engaged four days in
dredging and trawling operations outside the reefs, with the view of ascertaining the
bathymetrical limits of the reef-building corals and other organisms.

Honolulu Harbour, although very small, is of considerable importance from the fact of
its being the only really well protected port in the Sandwich group. It has a narrow
entrance through the outer part of the reef, the harbour and entrance together being-
somewhat like an ordinary retort in shape. This narrow channel, which originally had a
depth of 20 feet, has since been deepened to 22 or 23 feet, and is kept open in all
probability by the freshwater streams from the hills. The harbour is so small inside that
vessels cannot swing at their anchors but have to moor head and stern, or lie alongside
a commodious wharf which has been constructed on the eastern shore. To facilitate

1 Zeitschr.f. Ethnoloyie , Bd. xi. p. 362, 1879.

2 Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxix.. 1884,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

763

mooring, anchors are buried at suitable distances irom each other on the reef on the
western side of the harbour, and ships moor by letting go their own anchors as holdfasts
in the centre of the anchorage ground, and then secure their sterns by chains to the
anchors on the reef. One chain is sufficient in the summer time, but it is advisable to
have two in the winter, when southerly winds occasionally blow.

The channel into the harbour is buoyed on each side, and there are two lighthouses
which serve as leading marks either by night or day. One of these lighthouses is erected
on a point of the reef on the western side of the harbour, and the other, which is very
difficult to distinguish, at the corner of a ro w of houses facing the harbour. These marks,
together with the buoys, are sufficient to enable vessels whose draught does not exceed
15 or 16 feet to enter without a pilot, but vessels of larger draught should take pilots,
especially if unacquainted with the port, for as the. channel is narrow* and the buoys are
not moored taut, it does not do to keep midway between them, for they may be out in
the channel on one side and over on the reefs on the other side. Of course buoys would
not be required at all if the water were clear, but as it is frequently turbid the channel
cannot be distinctly seen from aloft.

The harbour is said by the local authorities to be silting up slightly. A survey
by the Americans, undertaken shortly before the visit of the Expedition, shows a depth
of 22 feet on the bar. There appears, however, to be some doubt as to the datum
mark to which the soundings have been reduced, for although the rise and fall is very
slight, it appears that there is a difference of a foot or so. in the mean level of the sea at
different seasons of the year ; so that a reduction of a sounding obtained to low water
does not allow of a comparison between surveys of different dates. The Government of
the Sandwich Islands had at the time of the visit established a surveying and land office
at Honolulu and commenced a trigonometrical survey of the group, and doubtless they
will establish permanent marks to which soundings are in future to be referred.

The harbour of Honolulu is almost deserted in the summer time, but in the winter is
much frequented by whaling vessels. At the time of the visit there was- regular com-
munication between the Sandwich and Society Islands, the vessels carrying cattle and
sheep to the Society group, and bringing back oranges. A quarantine hospital has been
established at Honolulu on some reclaimed ground on the western side of the harbour.

Besides Honolulu there are two other harbours on the island of Oahu ; one, the
Pearl Lochs, 5 miles to the westward, a large inlet with ample water in it for heavy
ships, but which is unfortunately barred by shoals having about 12 feet over them ;
the other, a small harbour on the northeast side of the island, used occasionally by the
local schooners, which appears shallow and intricate.

In the Government buildings at Honolulu there is a public library, which is
accessible to all visitors from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m., and as it contains numbers of the original
editions of the works of the old voyagers in the Pacific, it is well worth a visit.

764

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Supplies at Honolulu are plentiful and very moderate in price. Excellent beef can
be procured at 2-|d. per pound ; mutton, 3d. *per pound ; sheep, 10s. each ; fowls, 20s. per
dozen ; potatoes, 1-gd. per pound ; turkeys, 5s. 6d. each ; eggs, 2s. per dozen ; &c., besides
which a large variety of fruit is cultivated, pine-apples, grapes, the avocado pear,
plantains, melons, and oranges.

A meteorological register has been kept at Honolulu by the Harbour Master, from
which the following table has been compiled showing the climate of the town : —

Meteorological Table compiled from observations made in the years 1837-8, by
Hr. T. C. B. Rooke, and during the years 1869, 1870, 1871, and 1872, by the
Harbour Master, Captain Daniel Smith.

Barometer reduced to 32° and sea level. Temperature observations taken at sunrise and at 2 p.m.

1

Barometer.

§>

•si

■"!

Rain.

WIND.

»

.«

MONTH.'

Mean

Height

l

f i

ce

i •§

II

Total

Fall.

No.
o f

||

No. OF

PAYS

FROM.

0. of d£
Gales.

4j

REMARKS.

1

l-s

s4

days.

&

N.

N.E.

7

S.E.

s' 1
1

s.w. I

w. j

N.W.

C’lra

January, . |

in.

29 ‘999

in.

0'55

73-8

127

8°5

5°8

in.

3-66

3

3

15

... |

1

7

7

1

3

1

February,

30-044

0-31

73-9

12-6

84

60

3-42

4

2

17

1

6

i ;

1

2

March,

30-045

0-33

75-3

11-0

84

65

3-34

2

20

1

5

i

4

2

April,

30-071

0-22

76-2

10-9

87

62

2’79

2

1

25

l

1

2

May,

30-071

0-24

78-1

11-5.

87

70

1-57

,1

1

28

June, .

30-054

0-25

79-3

10-8

89

73

1-28

2

26

1

1

July,

30-037

0-22

80-5

11-8

89

73

2-05.

4

28

l

1

1

August,

30-013

0-22

81-0

11-6

90'"

74

1-48

1

28

...

2

1

September,

30-019

0-35

80-8

11-4

89

72

2-26

2

29

i

...

...

1

October, .

30-003

0-32

78-5

12-4

88

70

6-99

4

1

18

2

1

7

2

1

November,

30-017

0-48

76-1

11-3

86

61

6-39

6

1

18

l

1

6

i

2

December,

30-021

0-35

74-4

12-0

85

62

4-02

3

1

17

10

i

1

1

1

Means )
and >
Totals, )

30-033

0-55

77-3

11-7

90

1 58

39-25

34-

|

10

269

8

5

50

5

2

2

14

. 8

n

Hawaii. — On the 11th August the Expedition left Honolulu for Hilo Bay in Hawaii
Island, in order to allow the Naturalists an opportunity of visiting the celebrated volcano
of Kilauea. On leaving, the ship was swung outside Honolulu to ascertain the errors
of the compass and dipping needle. The trade wind was fresh from E. by N., neces-
sitating working to windward under steam and fore and aft sails. One sounding of

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

765

2050 fathoms wds obtained on the passage, in lat. 20° 18' N., long. 157° 14' W. (see
Sheet 37), and at night the light from the volcano of Mauna Loa was seen quite distinctly.
During the passage from Honolulu to Hilo a Petrel, possibly Procellaria rostrata which
occurs at Tahiti, and a Stormy Petrel ( Oceanites ), were seen about the ship. These
birds do not seem to be included in lists of the avi-fauna of the group. The ship' anchored
in Hilo Bay on the 14th in 6 fathoms, with Green Hill in line with Hilo Church
S. 40° W., Red Cliffs N. 16° W., and the left extremity of the rocks off Cocoa Nut
Island N. 84° E.

The Americans possess a much better plan of Hilo Bay than is given on the
Admiralty Charts, for Captain Wilkes made an elaborate survey of the anchorage
when there with the United States Exploring Expedition.

The lighthouse at Hilo is a wooden building 14 feet high on the cliffs. It exhibits
a light of very low power, which cannot always be depended on, as the illuminating
apparatus consists merely of an ordinary paraffin lamp with a metal reflector.

Whilst at the Sandwich Islands the following information was procured from Captain Chaves, of
the brigantine “ W. H. Allen,” relative to the small islands between the Sandwich and Society groups.
At Howland and Baker Islands a severe S.W. gale was experienced in December 1870, which lasted
three days, during which the ship “ Liebig ” of Hamburg was wrecked on Baker Island and another
ship was driven to sea from Howland Island. This gale is said to be the only bad weather experienced
in the vicinity of these islands for ten years. Howland, Baker, Malden, Flint, and Caroline Islands
are frequented by ships wishing to obtain cargoes of guano. At Malden Island there is no anchorage,
but moorings are laid down, for ships whilst embarking guano, one of the mooring anchors being buried
in the reef and the other laid down in a depth of 70 or 80 fathoms off the reef. At Caroline and
Flint Islands, moorings are also laid down for the convenience of guano ships. In these two islands the
guano is worked by an English company, whose agents, Brander & Co., reside at Tahiti. At Penrhyn
Island there is said to be good anchorage, but none has hitherto been found at either Eeirson or
Humphreys Islands. At Suwarrow Island Captain Chaves resided two years, having been cast on
shore there in a whale boat with one native belonging to the Society Islands. They lived on cocoa-
nuts and clams the whole period, and were finally taken off by a passing vessel. Captain Chaves
reports that at this island there exists an excellent harbour inside the lagoon of the reef, to which
there is a deep channel through the reef.

The appearance of the great volcano of Mauna Loa on Hawaii Island is most remark-
able. The slope of the mountain, as seen from the sea, is so gradual that it is difficult
to believe that it rises to a height of nearly 14,000 feet above the sea level.. The
cause of the peculiar form is' the extreme fluidity of the lava, of successive flows of which
the mountain is composed. The other large mountain of the island, Mauna Kea, has a
similar form, as will be seen from the accompanying sketch by Dr. Wild (see fig. 267).

During the stay at Hilo several parties visited the well-known Kilauea, which is a
secondary crater on the side of the Mauna Loa, at a height of about 4000 feet. The
island of Hawaii is much more fully clothed with verdure than Oahu, and has none of

THE VOYAGE OF FT.M.S. CHALLENGER.

706

the desert appearance of the latter. The journey to Kilauea is a tedious and monotonous
ride, the ascent being so gradual that it is hardly perceived. The track leads first through
a fine belt of forest near the shore, and then emerges on a weary expanse of open
country, entirely devoid of any fine trees, and mostly covered with a scanty, low moor-
land-looking growth with Screw Pine trees. The track is scarcely marked on the bare
surfaces of the lava flows, which look almost as fresh as if the lava had only set the day
before. These surfaces are covered in every direction by ropy projections, curved lines
of flow, and. small rounded ledges, showing where one part of the flow has run over
another. The whole looks as if a vast quantity of melted pitch had. been suddenly
turned out of a mighty pot and allowed to run and set hard.

During the ascent a globular cloud was seen hanging in the air in the distance,

Fig. 267. — Manna Kea, Hawaii, as seen from the Half-Way House, on the roacl Jo the Crater of Kilauea.

which, as the guide explained, hung over the summit of Mauna Loa itself. The fact,
however, was not in any way apparent, for the gradient was so slight that there was no
appearance of any mountain at all. As night fell this cloud perpetually re-formed by
condensation, and was lighted up by a brilliant orange glow reflected from the molten
lava in the great terminal crater, and the general effect was just as if a fire were raging
in the forest in the distance.

With the evening appeared an Owl, probably Asio brachyotus, the Short-eared Owl of
England. A Duck also rose from a small marsh, probably Anas wyvilliana, which is
peculiar to the Hawaiian group, and was named by Dr. Sclater after Sir Wyville
Thomson, from specimens collected by the Expedition. Not far from the crater of
Kilauea there are abundant woods of Acacia Jcoa trees, and plenty of herbage ; and no

BlaU XXXI.

Lava Cascade. Kilauea.Mona Loa,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

767

doubt deer, which have been turned out, will thrive there and multiply rapidly. A few
small sandalwood trees remain uncut in the vicinity.

When the crater of Kilauea was reached it appeared in the dark as a wide abyss filled
with gloom, but in the distance were seen three or four glowing spots, reminding one of
the furnaces seen at night in the Black Country, and every now and then a jet of glowing
matter showed itself thrown up from a lava fountain, which happened to be playing at
the time.

In the morning the crater was seen to be bounded by a range of cliffs all round, and
at the bottom was a wide flat expanse of hardened lava which looked as fresh as if it had
only just set (see Frontispiece to Part II.). The crater has evidently been formed by the
sudden falling in of vast masses of rock by the fusion and flowing away of the supporting
rock below. A succession of smaller secondary cliffs round the inner margin of the crater-
bottom mark where this process has been repeated several times, for after the crater has
been filled to certain levels, and the lava has hardened, the support has given way on
successive occasions over the greater part of the area. The smooth surface of the lava
within the crater was very like that traversed on the journey from Hilo ; it was cracked
by contraction on cooling in all directions, and through all the cracks, at a depth of a foot
or so, was seen to be glowing hot.

The well-known molten lake of Kilauea was at the time of the visit rather to be
termed a pond, for a stone could have been thrown across it ; it occupied a small area on
the floor of the main crater. It was possible to stand on a low cliff overhanging it on
the side from which the wind drifted away the stifling vapours exhaled from it, and to
throw stones into the pond of melted rock below. A low cliff bounded the expanse
nearly all round. At the base of this cliff opposite, in three places, a violent surging
was constantly taking place, the melted rock being thrown up high above the cliff by
violent discharges of gas from below. The melted rock was thrown in waves against the
base of the cliff which, as they surged against it, made a noise like that of waves of the
sea beating similarly' against rocks. There seemed to be no tenacity about the melted
lava, it splashed about just like water.. As the waves fell back from the bases of the
cliffs, pendent coagulations of lava were formed for an instant, and hung in the glowing
cavities like icicles, but were re-melted in a moment by the returning waves, which glowed
brightly with heat as they were thrown up. The lake itself was covered with a thin
black scum of coagulated lava with red-hot cracks in it, and the whole moved slowly
round under the influence of the ebullition taking place at one side as above described.

Close by was another but smaller pond, where, however, the churning up of the lava
was more violent ; it occurred here also, as in the other pond, at the bases of the low
bounding cliffs only. The waves dashed against the cliffs, threw their spray high into
the air above them, and the wind carried part of this spray over the edges of the cliffs
so as to fall on the hard lava platform far above.

(NARR. CHALL. EXP. VOL. I. — 1885.)

97

768

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The spray masses cooling as they fell, formed in their track the threads known as
“ Pele’s hair,” like fine-spun green glass. Many of the threads could be picked up, each
with the small mass of hardened lava still attached. These fallen masses are closely like
drops thrown out of a pitch-pot. Some were nearly pear-shaped; others, which had
reached the ground before setting, or when only partially set, had coiled up into various
forms as they fell, but nearly all showed an upright fine point, where a hair had been

Fig. 268.— Falls of Waianuenne, near Hilo.

attached to them. Pele’s hair, thus formed, drifts away with the wind and hangs in
felted masses about the rocks, and the birds sometimes gather it, and make their nests
entirely of it.

Between the two ponds was the lava fountain, which had been seen playing the
night before, but was now quiet. A lava fountain is a tall hollow cone, an extin-
guisher as it were, which is built up of successive jets of lava thrown out of a hole at
the summit, and hardened one over the other. The surface of the cone looks as if built
up of small masses of pitch thrown on to it hap-hazard one over another. As the mouth

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

769

of the cone contracts, the jet is thrown higher and higher, and the spray falling all around,
covers the lava platform around with congealed drops of a lava rain. Each of these
drops forms a Pele’s hair, like the spray from the waves.1

Over one of the ranges of low cliffs in the crater, a cascade of lava had poured, and
cooling and 'setting as it flowed, had been drawn out into long ropes and rounded ridges
which were twisted one over another, and formed a curiously gnarled and contorted
mass. Everywhere complex ripple marks were sharply moulded in the rapidly setting
melted mass (see PI. XXXI.). All over the lava surfaces bubbles were to be met with
blown in the hot lava by the escaping gases, and now set and covered by convex films of
thin transparent lava like thin-blown green bottle glass.2

Not far inland from Hilo are the beautiful falls of the Waianuenne, the basins of which
are much used as a bathing place by the natives (see fig. 268).

Sandwich Islands to Tahiti.

The Challenger left Hilo for Tahiti on the 19th August at 2 p.m. An excellent meri-
dional section was made between the Sandwich and Society groups ; at every Station the
temperature of the water was taken at every 10 fathoms from the surface to 200 fathoms,
and at every 100 fathoms to 1500 fathoms (see Sheet 38).

Dr. R. von Willemoes Suhm. — During the passage, on the 13th September, the
Expedition had the misfortune to lose Dr. Rudolf von Willemoes Suhm, who died after a
short illness from erysipelas. This sad circumstance cast a shade of melancholy over the
ship, which was not entirely thrown off until the departure from Tahiti, for Dr. von
Willemoes Suhm had won the respect of everyone on board by his zealous attention to
work, and by his readiness to put up with the many inconveniences inseparable from life
on board a ship, where the irksomeness of discipline can never be relaxed.

Rudolf von Willemoes Suhm, son of the Kammerherr Landrath von Willemoes
Suhm, a native of Schleswig-Holstein, was born September 11th, 1847. From his
earliest years he showed a special aptitude for the study of all branches of Natural
History, and during his boyhood he was a frequent contributor to the Zoological Garden
Journal of Frankfort.

At eighteen he went to the University of Bonn, where he was a member of the corps
“ Borussia” and studied law. Though he was not remiss in his attendance on the
lectures of the professors of the Legal Faculty, his own study during the three sessions

1 Mr. H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., bad come to the conclusion from the observations on furnace slag that Pele’s hair was
probably formed in this manner with globules attached, Nature , vol. xvi. p. 23, 1877.

2 For a detailed account of the volcanos from a geological point of view, see W. T. Brigham, Notes on the
Volcanic Phenomena of the Hawaiian Islands, Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. i. pp. 341 and 564.

770

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

which he spent at Bonn was devoted to Anatomy and Natural History. At the end
of this time he went to Munich to devote himself entirely to the study of zoology under
Professor von Siebold, who was always the warm friend and judicious adviser of the
young zoologist, and received from him in return a sincere veneration which ended only
with his life.

His letters at this period express much contentment ; he felt very happy, and
worked with ardour to distinguish himself ; but although so occupied that he once
playfully wrote to his sister— “ Alles was ich treibe interessirt mich lebhaft, nur
habe ich so unglaublich viel zu thun, dass sich abends, Bindegewebe, Fische, Ammoniten,
Krebse, Frosche in wiistem Cancan mir im Kopfe drehen,” he yet found leisure to
frequent society, which furnished him with a salutary change amidst his incessant
studies.

The year 1868 was marked by a visit to Venice, which he afterwards styled his
“ erste Vernunftreise,” and a sojourn at Berchtesgaden in the Bavarian Highlands
with the von Siebolds, which furnished him with an opportunity of studying wasps.

At Easter 1869 he left Munich for Gottingen, where he found the same friendly
reception as elsewhere. After having continued his studies under Professors Henle,
Meissner, Seebach, and Grenacher, he obtained his doctor’s degree in February 1870.
Before his examination, however, he went during the summer vacation in 1869 for two
months to Spezzia and Genoa ; a visit which gave him much enjoyment, and rich
material for his scientific researches.^ In Spezzia he made the acquaintance of the
Marchese Andreas Doria, known by his travels to Borneo, Sumatra, and Persia. The
Marchese was then building a splendid museum at Genoa, and during v. Willemoes Suhm’s
stay there behaved very kindly towards him, showing him his treasures, and giving him
much useful information.

During a temporary residence at Kiel in 1870 he was introduced to Professor
Kupffer (now in Munich), for whom Willemoes Suhm always professed the warmest
regard and friendship ; their intercourse was never interrupted till hip death. In October
1871 Willemoes Suhm returned to Munich by the advice of Professor von Siebold, and
on the 18th December he was accepted as “ Privat Docent,” after having pronounced a
thesis upon “ Die rudimentarischen Organe und deren Bedeutung in der Thierwelt.”
He then began his lectures, and enjoyed the friendly support of both, professors and
students. During his sojourn in Munich, though always devoted to science, he spent
many happy days in Possenhofen at the house of the Duke Carl Theodor, who then
took great interest in zoology.

It was about this period that he felt an earnest longing to quit Europe and travel
through foreign countries in order to enlarge his knowledge, and this wish constantly
haunted him. In July 1871, he wrote to his mother:- — Ich luhle dass ich hinaus in
die Welt muss; eine Museums Existenz ware auf die Lange fur mich unertraglich. Ich

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

771

muss Bewegung, Veranderung haben ; jetzt docire und studire ich nur. eine trockne
Beschaftigung die mir auf die Lange ein schlimmeres Nervenfieber zuziehen wlirde als
wie je Indien mir bereiten konnte. Ich hatte viel in mich aufgenommen, dass trug
gute Friichte, aber jetzt muss flir neue Nahrung gesorgt werden.” Yon Willemoes
Suhm having learned that a museum was to be built in Ceylon, and a curator would be
required, applied to Professor Huxley, through the mediation of Professor von Siebold,
for advice, but the application came to nothing.

In the summer of 1872 he accompanied a Danish Expedition to the North Sea and
the Fseroe Islands. On his return the ship put into Leith, and he visited Professor
Wyville Thomson in Edinburgh, on whose invitation he agreed to join the Civilian
Scientific Staff of the Challenger Expedition.

While engaged on board the Challenger he was an indefatigable worker and a

o o o o

cheerful companion. A few days after leaving the Sandwich Islands he said that as
he was now homeward bound he intended to devote several hours every day to the
collection and arrangement of the observations which he had made. A few clays later
he was seized by the deadly disease which removed him on the 13th September 1875.

Professor Wyville Thomson writing from Tahiti, October 1st, says of him —

“ Altogether I looked upon R. von Willemoes Suhm as a young man of the very highest
promise, perfectly certain, had he lived, to have achieved a distinguished position in
his profession, and I regard his untimely death as a serious loss, not only to the
Expedition in which he took so important a part, but also to the younger generation of
scientific men, among whom he was steadily preparing himself to become a leader.”

A tablet to the memory of R. von Willemoes Suhm has been erected in his native
place by his colleagues in the Challenger. A list of his contributions to the Zoology of
the Expedition will be found in the Bibliography which accompanies this volume.

From Hawaii Island to the parallel of 11° N., the mean direction of the wind was
E. by N., gradually decreasing from a force of 4 at Hilo to a calm at that parallel.
Light winds were then experienced, varying from south to east to the parallel of 6° N.,
when the southeast trade was fallen in with, which gradually shifted east as the ship
proceeded to the southward, its mean direction at the Equator being S.E. by E., on the
parallel of 5° S., east, and of 9° E.N.E. from the 13th parallel to Tahiti little or no
wind was experienced. The northeast trade was squally, with passing showers ; the belt
from 11° to 6° N. was cloudy, squally, and rainy; the southeast trade was steady and
the weather fine.

The bed of the ocean between Hawaii and Tahiti undulates somewhat, the depth
varying from 2300 to 3000 fathoms, the mean depth being about 2650 fathoms.

The bottom temperature varied 0°‘7, viz., from 35° ‘2 to 34°‘5, the mean being 35°‘0.
or only 0°T lower than the mean north of the Sandwich Islands.

772

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The mean surface temperature north of the 13th parallel was 77°‘5, after which it
gradually increased to 80° at 10° N., and continued at 80° to 81° to the 6th parallel of
north latitude; it then decreased to 77° near the Equator, where the current was running
at the rate of 3 miles per hour to the westward, rose to 79° in 6° S., and then gradually
decreased to 77° at Tahiti.

The serial temperature soundings show that the isothermal lines above 55° all rise
slightly from the Sandwich Islands to the parallel of 9° N., but afterwards all descend
steadily to Tahiti. The rise of these isotherms in 9° N. is very remarkable, as they
are there considerably higher than either to the north or south. This is probably
due to excessive rainfall, for it is known that at this season of the year (August)
the northeast trade only extends to 10° N. ; from thence to 6° N., where the southeast
trade commences, light winds with cloudy weather and much rain are experienced.
These heavy rains, combined with the cloudy weather, affect1 the specific gravity of the
surface water to a considerable extent, so that at 9° N. it is only i'025, whilst on each
side of that parallel it is 1-026, hence the surface water does not sink and consequently
does not impart its heat to the water beneath. The isotherm of 40°, which is at a depth
of 500 fathoms at' Hilo, descends to 650 fathoms at 2° N., and then varies from 500
to 600 fathoms to Tahiti. The isotherms of 45° and 50° follow, but not very closely,
the curve of that of 40° (see Diagram 19).

The currents between the Sandwich and the Society Islands ran with consider-
able force. From Hawaii Island to the 10th parallel the direction of the current
was N. 60° W., and its average velocity 18 miles per day, ranging from 10 to 23 miles.
From the 10th to the 6th parallel its direction was easterly, and its average velocity -31
miles per day, ranging from “7 to 54 miles. From the 6th parallel of north latitude to
the 10th parallel of south latitude, the direction was again westerly, and the average
velocity 35 miles per day, ranging from 17 to 70 miles per day. From thence to Tahiti
the general tendency of the current was westerly, but its velocity was variable. The axis
of greatest velocity of the Counter Equatorial Current was between the 7th and 8th
parallels of north latitude (see Sheet 38).

The axis of greatest velocity of the Equatorial Current was on the parallel of 2° N.,
where its speed amounted to 3 miles per hour. Such an exceptional velocity has, so far
as is known, only been recorded once before, viz., by the French corvette “ Eurydice” in
August 1857. The astronomical observations taken at frequent intervals showed even
a greater velocity than 3 miles per hour. By those observations it appeared that the
vessel was in the still water between the Equatorial and Counter Currents on the 2nd
September in lat. 5° 54' N., long. 147° 2' W. From this position to lat. 4° 32' N., long.
147° 38' W., the velocity of the Equatorial Current was § mile per hour S. 53° W.; from
thence to lat. 3° 55' N., long. 148° 10' W., its velocity was 1^ miles per hour; thence
to lat. 3° 32' N. its velocity was If miles per hour ; thence to lat. 2° 34' N., long.

VALPARAISO

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

773

149' 9' W., its velocity was 3 miles per hour S. 76c W.; thence to lat. 2C 10' N.,
long. 149° 34' W., its velocity was 4 miles per hour; thence to lat. 1° 0' N., long.
150° 30' W., its velocity was 3 miles per hour S. 85° W.; thence to lat. 0° 25' N., long.
151° W., its velocity was 2^ miles per hour ; thence to lat. 0° 33' S., long. 151° 32' W.,
its velocity was If miles per hour S. 81° W.; and then it gradually decreased.

Anemometer observations were taken whenever sounding or trawling operations were
in progress, and the following table shows the results obtained : —

Date.

1875.

Station.

Velocity of wind in
miles per hour.

Force of wind by
Beaufort’s scale, as
noted in log.

August 20

262

15

2 to 3, mean 2J

„ 21

263

16

2 to 3, mean 2J

„ 23

264

18

3

„ 25

265

6

1 to 2, mean 1|

„ 26

266

10

2 to 3, mean 2£

„ 28 '

267

5

1

„ 28

267

9

0 to 1, mean -|-

., 30

268

12

3 to 4, mean 31,

September 2

269

17

2 to 3, mean 2 J-

„ 4

270

_ 20

4 to 5, mean 41,

6

271

11

2 to 3, mean 21

1 |gm 8 1

272

17

2 to 3, mean

9

273

11

2

„ 11

274

15

3

„ 14

275

11

1 to 2, mean 1 1

„ 17

.277

0

0

During the passage from Hawaii to Tahiti the ship was close hauled nearly the whole
time; in fact the winds and currents experienced generally between the two groups
appear to render it advisable to keep to the wind for the best part of the voyage,
notwithstanding an occasional favourable slant, for such a slant is almost certain to be
followed by an unfavourable breeze for a time. The master of the brigantine trading

774

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

between the Sandwich and Society Islands said that he sometimes failed to fetch his port
when bound either the one way or the other. Should a doubt of this kind be felt when
making the passage, it should be borne in mind that the Counter Equatorial Current
affords an opportunity of making easting.

The deposits between Honolulu and Tahiti presented many points of interest. The
mineral particles consisted of minute fragments of felspars, augite, hornblende, magnetite,
and vitreous particles ; magnetic (cosmic) spherules, and crystals of philipsite, together
with many pumice stones, palagonite, and manganese nodules. At each Station these
minerals varied much as to their relative abundance. Between Hawaii and the 7th
parallel of north latitude the depths ranged between 2650 and 3000 fathoms, and
the deposits consisted very largely of the remains of Radiolarians and Diatoms, these
organisms becoming more numerous as the distance from Hawaii increased. There was
hardly a trace of carbonate of lime in these deposits. The next three soundings were
between the 6tli parallel north and 1st parallel south latitude, the depths being 2550,
2925, and 2425 fathoms, and the deposits contained respectively 21, 71, and 81 per
cent, of carbonate of lime, chiefly in the form of the shells of pelagic Foraminifera.
The reason why such a relatively high percentage of lime was found in these depths is
probably explained by the fact that the pelagic Foraminifera and Molluscs were exceed-
ingly abundant in the Equatorial and Counter Equatorial Currents which occupy the
surface' at these Stations. In these deposits the Radiolarians and Diatoms were likewise
very numerous. The next three soundings, between 3° and 8° S., ranged between 2350
and 2750 fathoms, and were made up largely of Radiolarians and Diatoms, but contained
in the surface layers a considerable number of pelagic Foraminifera shells. When
the tube penetrated over a- foot into the deposit the deeper layers did not show any
traces of carbonate of lime. The deposit in lat. 11° 20' S., long. 150° 30' W., 2610
fathoms, was a dark chocolate-coloured clay containing an immense number of crystals
of philipsite, and together with these many fragments of palagonite and small nodules
of manganese peroxide. The crystals of philipsite made up the principal part of the
deposit ; these had been present in many of the previous deposits, but never in such
abundance as in this instance. There was no carbonate of lime ; and Radiolarians, which
had been so abundant in previous deposits on this section, were only represented by a few
specimens. The same remarks as to the nature of the deposits apply to the next two
Stations, where the depths were 2350 and 2325 fathoms respectively, with the exception
that there was 22 and 10 per. cent, of carbonate of lime, which was due to the presence
of calcareous Foraminifera. The deposit in 1525 fathoms was a volcanic mud containing
20 per cent, of carbonate of lime.

In every instance the dredgings and trawlings yielded some manganese nodules and
pumice, but on two or three occasions the manganese nodules were in extraordinary

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

775

abundance. Over a peck of heavy very compact oval nodules was obtained from 2750
fathoms on the 11th September. The largest were 4 inches in diameter and 2 inches
thick, the upper surface was smooth while the under one was rough and irregular.
Although differing in size, most of them had the same shape, indeed it may be
remarked that there is generally a close resemblance both in composition and shape and
sometimes in size among the nodules from any single dredging. Along with the nodules
were sixteen Sharks’ teeth of considerable size, two being those of Carcharodon, nine
of Oxyrhina, and four of Lamna; some of these were deeply imbedded in deposits of
manganese. There were in addition to the above eight earbones of Cetaceans belonging
to the genera Globiocephalus, Mesoplodon, and species of Delphinidse.

On the 16th September, from 2350 fathoms, the trawl brought up more than
half a ton of manganese nodules which filled two small casks. The great majority
were small and nearly round, resembling a number of marbles with a mean diameter
of three quarters of an inch. Their nuclei were generally palagonite or other
volcanic material, but very frequently small Sharks’ teeth or fragments of bone.
Among the nodules were counted two hundred and fifty Sharks’ teeth, without taking
into account those less than half an inch in length. Three of the teeth belonged to
Carcharodon, being from 2 to 2^ inches across at the base of the dentine. Ten resembled
those of Carcharias, and the remainder were referred to the genera Lamna and
Oxyrhinci. The Cetacean bones among the nodules consisted of two tympano-periotic
bones of Mesoplodon, eight separate petrous bones, and six tympanic bullae belonging
to Globiocephalus, Delphinus, and Kogia (T).

The dredgings and trawlings in this section did not yield a very large number of deep-
sea animals. From 3000 fathoms there were fragments of Euplectella and another siliceous
Sponge, and a large specimen of a hydroid ( Stephanoscyphus ). From 2750 fathoms
there were five specimens of Holothurians belonging to two new genera ( Psycheotrephes
exigua, Theel, and Benthodytes selenkiana, Theel), a Starfish belonging to a new genus
(Hyphalaster hyalinus, Sladen), a Pennatulid, fragments of siliceous Sponges, and two
small Actiniae adhering to the manganese nodules. From 2600 fathoms several
siliceous Sponges, two Annelids, and the following Echinoderms : — Phormosoma tenue,
A. Ag., Pourtalesia rosea, A. Ag., and Aceste bellidifera, A. Ag., were obtained.
The trawling in 2425 fathoms gave three deep-sea fish and twenty-seven deep-sea
invertebrates, among which were the following Piscina atlantica, King; Cory-
phcenoides variabilis, Gunth.; Scopelus macrostoma, Giinth.; Ilomolampas fulva,
A. Ag.; Culeolus moseleyi, Herdman; Peniagone wyvillii, Theel; Benthodytes papilli-
fera, Theel; Bathydoris abyssorum, Bergh; and Area corpulenta, Smith. From 2350
fathoms there were an Ophiurid ( Ophiochytra epigrus, Lyman), several Shrimps, and a
Stephanoscyphus attached to the manganese nodules. It should of course be
remembered that the fish and shrimps above mentioned are probably not from the

)narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885J 98

776

THE YOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

bottom, but from intermediate depths. The tow-net gatherings were very productive
throughout the trip, the abundance of life in the Equatorial and Counter Equatorial
Currents being very remarkable, both for the number of species and individuals. Nets
were frequently sent down to depths greater than 100 fathoms, and in every case yielded
forms not met with in the surface waters.

The Society Islands.

On the 18th September, at daylight, Eimeo Island was seen ahead, and Tahiti on the
port bow, and at 6 a.m. the Tetuaroa Islands. At 10 a.m. the ship was stopped and
a sounding taken in 1525 fathoms (see Sheet 38), with the extremities of Tahiti
S. 52° E. and S. 18° E., and the summit S. 34° E., the extremities of Tetuaroa Islands
N. 18° E. and N. 33° E., the extremities of Eimeo S. 7° W. and S. 31° W., and the apex
S. 14° W. Shortly after noon, having obtained temperatures to 1000 fathoms, the vessel
proceeded towards Papiete Harbour, and having received a pilot at the entrance,
anchored at 4.30 p.m. in 11 fathoms, with Point Fareute N. 5° W. and Motu-Uta Island
N. 82° W.

Tahiti. — The Expedition remained at Tahiti until the 3rd October, completing with
coal, obtaining observations, and preparing for the voyage to Valparaiso, and it is
hardly necessary to say received every attention both from the French authorities
and the natives.

The French authorities compel the payment of pilotage into the harbour ; if a pilot be
employed, the full amount is charged, if he be not employed, then half the amount. An
excellent chart of Papiete Harbour is published at Paris, and also two good sheets of the
coasts of the island ; one extending from Papiete Harbour to Punaavia on the west
coast, and the other from Point Venus to the Artemise Bank on the north coast. The
survey of the island has, it is understood, been completed and will doubtless soon be
engraved.

The leading marks into Papiete Harbour are excellent, but as the channel is very
narrow and the water on the bar frequently turbid, strangers may with advantage
employ a local pilot the first time they enter, but will probably prefer afterwards to
dispense with his services. The leading marks into Toanoa Harbour have been removed,
but the passage into it, and from it to Papiete, is now well beaconed, and as it is deep and
the water clear, the reefs may readily be distinguished, provided the sun be not ahead.
The beacons are white on the south side of the channel and red on the north side, and
by their aid and a lookout from the foreyard, no difficulty should be experienced in
using this passage.

The little island of Motu-Uta is now used as a quarantine ground, and a quarantine

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

777

and lepers’ hospital has been built there ; consequently, observations could not be taken
on it; this was regretted, as the Austrian frigate “Novara” obtained magnetic observa-
tions there in 1859.

The French have established a dep6t of coals on Point Fareute and constructed a
slight embankment on the eastern side of the point, and as the water is deep, vessels are
enabled to haul close enough to the shore to allow a landing brow to be hauled on
board. There are plenty of conveniences on shore to which hawsers or chains may be
attached, but vessels must use their own anchors as off-fasts, and must keep a good
strain on the off-cables, as the trade wind has a tendency to force them against the
point.

The island of Eimeo is badly depicted on the Admiralty Chart (Sheet 1382). It
is triangular in shape, the base to the northward, the apex to the southward, and has
several small harbours inside the barrier reef encircling it, the principal of which
are those of Taloo and Avootai. This island has also been surveyed by the French.

Pig. 269. — Slope of the outer face of the Barrier Reef at Tahiti, from the edge of the reef to two miles seawards.

Foreign vessels are not permitted to trade with any of the islands under the French
protectorate, except Tahiti. The master of a British brigantine had some time
before the Challenger’s visit been imprisoned for twelve months for trading with the
inhabitants of the Low Archipelago for pearl shells.

The mails to Tahiti are brought by a fast sailing schooner from San Francisco ; there
is no steam communication.

Supplies at Tahiti were, at the time of the Expedition’s visit, scarce and high in price.
Beef, which was brought from the Sandwich Islands, was lOd. per lb. ; pork, 6|d.
per lb. ; sheep, which were occasionally brought from the Sandwich Islands or Easter
■ Island, and which after the voyage weighed when killed and dressed only from 10 to 20
lbs., and were almost uneatable, cost 24s. each; fowls, 2s. 6d. each; and eggs, 2s. per
dozen. Vegetables were plentiful and moderate in price ; potatoes 16s. per bushel. Fruit
was plentiful and cheap, but there was not much variety ; the oranges were excellent.

778

THE YOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

During the stay at Tahiti a careful
examination was made of the coral reefs,
and a survey was specially conducted to
ascertain the seaward slope of the barrier, by
Lieutenant H. Swire, who writes as follows : —

“ I gladly entered into co-operation with
Mr. Murray, under whose guidance and
general superintendance the examination was
conducted, and by his desire made a survey
of the seaward face of the reef, carrying the
soundings from the water’s edge to a depth
of 1 80 fathoms by boat, the lines of soundings
being afterwards extended by the ship when
under steam, to a depth of 680 fathoms
(see fig. 269).

“ By sounding to seaward on lines 200
yards apart, and perpendicular to the direc-
tion of the reef, taking the depth at equal
intervals and carefully fixing each position
by angles ; and in addition, by fixing the
position on each line of certain given depths
— as for instance 5, 10, 15, 20, &c., fathoms —
it was considered that a good insight into
the configuration of the reef would be
obtained, whilst by ‘ arming ' the sounding
lead with the usual mixture of white lead
and tallow in order to ascertain the nature
of the bottom at each cast, and by making
free use of drag nets, a dredge fitted with
tangles, a water telescope, &c., the investiga-
tion into the other conditions of the reef
could be simultaneously carried on.

“The portion of the reef selected was
1120 yards in length, the greater part being
in general direction a straight line, which cir-
cumstance somewhat simplified the matter,
as a single base line sufficed for the greater
portion of the reef.

“ In order to obtain, soundings at given

SHEET 39

,2791 680

V_c J volcanic mud.

SOUNDINGS AND STATIONS

in the vicinity of

TAHITI ISLAND

Motu.-nta I .

I Iat.l7?3i:30:s.
\ long.149. 33. 35 W.

For explanation of abbreviations &c. see Appendix J.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

779

distances apart, previously calculated angles were used, whereas to fix the position of
previously agreed upon depths, it became necessary to observe independent angles. In
this manner all the lines of soundings were run to such a depth as was possible in a boat,
the coast line of the reef was sketched in, and the ship afterwards extended the lines to
a distance of 2055 fathoms from the reef.”

The results of these observations are given in the diagrams and following table (see
Sheet 39 and figs. 269-271).

Comparative. Table of the Six Sections of the Outer Edge of the Barrier Reef at Tahiti.

| Distance
from Edge
of Reef in
Fathoms.

No. 1 Section.

No. 2 Section.

No. 3 Section.

No. 4 Section.

No. 5 Section.

No. 6 Section.

Depth in
Faths.

Angle of
Slope.

Depth in
Faths.

Angle of
Slope.

Depth in
Faths.

Angle of
Slope.

Depth in
Faths.

Angle of
Slope.

Depth in
Faths.

Angle of
Slope.

Depth in
Faths.

Angle of
Slope.

0

10 12

2 17

°5 2

°5 15

°2 17

3 26

25

4-5

12 24

1-0

2 45

2-2

11 58

2-3

7 58

1-0

2 45

1-5

4 7

50

10-0

12 51

2-2

21 24

7-5

17 45

5-8

15 0

2-2

23 22

3-3

15 0

75

15-7

16 54

12-0

17 45

15-5

16 42

12-5

26 34

13-0-

15 38

10-0

15 38

100

23-0

17 45

20-0

25 38

22-0

27 28

25-0

54 28

20-0

37 14

17-0

13 30

125

31-0

43 14

32-0

68 40

35-0

66 19

60 0

59 14

39-0

69 15

23-0

4 34

150

5.4-5

66 8

96-0

37 14

92-0

38 39

102-0

15 38

105-0

38 39

25-0

72 39

175

111-0

51 44

115-0

30 58

112-0

35 45

95-0

60 57

125-0

45 0

105-0

38 39

200

142-7

130-0

37 14

130-0

41 21

140-0

55 13

150-0

30 58

125-0

50 12

225

149-0

32 37

152-0

6 50

176-0

13 30

165-0

30 58

155-0

45 0

250

165-0

155-0

170-0

180-0

180-0

An examination of these sections shows that a depth of 25 to 35 fathoms is met with
at 100 to 150 fathoms from the edge of the reef. At about this distance from the reef
there is a rapid increase of depth to 160 and 180 fathoms, these latter depths being met
with at a distance of 225 to 250 fathoms from the edge of the reef. Between the depths
of 35 and 100 fathoms the average slope is about 45°. The slope is about 30° to 200
fathoms or thereabouts, and then becomes less and less until a slope of 6° is met with half a
mile from the reef. The whole of the space from the edge of the reef to a depth of 35
fathoms was covered with a most luxuriant growth of corals, with the exception of one or two
small spaces where there was white coral sand. The depths were most irregular, the sound-
ing lead at one time falling on a coral boss, and showing a depth of 5 or 6 fathoms, and
then close alongside it a depth of 16 fathoms. It could be seen with the water glass
that many of these bosses and heads of coral were overhanging and in a most luxuriant

780

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

state of growth. So irregular was the ground out to 35 fathoms that dredging was
almost, if not quite, impossible ; still by means of the swabs and tangles some corals
were obtained. From 35 or 40 fathoms down to 150 fathoms dredging was equally
difficult. Here a number of Sponges, Alcyonarians, Corals, and other invertebrates were
obtained. Beyond 150 fathoms the bottom was a coral sand with volcanic minerals and
pelagic shells. The soundings taken by the ship at depths of 420, 590, 620, and 680
fathoms showed the presence of a volcanic sand or mud, containing coral debris, fragments
of Pteropods, Gasteropods, Coccoliths, with pelagic and other Foraminifera ; the deposits
at the greater depths contained about 1 9 per cent, of carbonate of lime.

Fathoms oso 2 25 200 ns iso 12s 100 7 s so zs v

Mr. Moseley says that in from 20 to 30 fathoms a Mycedium and a Madrepora were
obtained different from those on the reefs and in shallow water. In from 30 to 70
fathoms were found the same Mycedium, a fragment of Madrepora (both probably from
the former depth), and a small solitary Balanophyllia, which from its appearance very
probably came from 50, 60, or 70 fathoms. Also in from 30 to 70 fathoms
Alcyonarians and Sponges were obtained. One of the Alcyonarians is very hard, and
looks like a Coral ( Porites ), but is seen in section not to be one. There were also several
pieces of the Mycedium, a bit of the Madrepora, and several specimens of the
Balanophyllia. There was also another calcareous organism forming large thin

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

781

incrustations, and at first sight presenting a fallacious resemblance to a Coral such as
Millepora.

The margins of the reefs inside the lagoons presented quite a different appearance from
those on the seaward face outside. Here they were fringed with living coral, sloped
.downwards and outwards for a few feet, and then plunged at once to depths of 10 and
16 fathoms. Many of them were overhanging, and in one place a large ledge seemed
recently to have fallen away, and to have rendered the water shallower alongside the
reef. These overhanging or mushroom-shaped reefs inside lagoons or lagoon-channels
have been frequently described by Jukes and others. The deposit in the lagoons was
in some places a coral sand and in others a volcanic mud. The reefs at Tahiti have been
described both by Darwin and Dana as examples of barrier reefs, but for miles the reefs
have quite a fringing character ; in other places there is only a small channel across
which the natives wade to the edge of the barrier, or there is a boat passage ; in other
places, as at Papiete, there is a ship channel, or a commodious harbour, while there are
some portions of the coast where no reefs exist.

The island of Tahiti is surrounded by a belt of fertile land from 3 to 4 miles wide,
and in some places the alluvium rests on portions of the shore reef in such a way as to
indicate that the island had been recently elevated.

According to Mr. Murray the observations of the reefs at Tahiti support the view that
the reefs have been built from the shore seawards, and that the lagoons have been, and
are still being, formed by the removal of the inner and dead portions of the coral reef
by the solvent action of sea water. The islands in the harbour and lagoons are regarded
as portions of the reef which have been left standing, but will ultimately be removed,
and in confirmation of this it is pointed out that on the inner part of the reef there are
large and massive specimens of the coral which are now dead, but which probably
flourished at the time when the outer edge of the reef was at the position in which they
are now found. The steep slope which is found on the outer edge of the reef, between
the depths of 35 and 200 fathoms, is believed to be formed by huge masses and heads of
coral which have been torn away from the ledge between the edge of the reef and 35
fathoms during storms, or by overhanging masses which have fallen by their own weight.
In this way a talus has been formed on which the corals living down to 35 fathoms have
found a foundation on which to build further seawards, for this seaward slope is the great
growing surface of the reef. The food supply for the masses of living coral on the outer
slope of the reef is brought by the oceanic currents sweeping past the islands, a fact in
relation with the more vigorous growth of the reef on the windward sides. It is
maintained by Mr. Murray1 that the whole of the phenomena of the Tahiti reefs may be
fully explained by reference to the processes at present in action, and without calling

1 On the Structure and Origin of Coral Eeefs and Islands, by John Murray, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. x.
pp. 505-518, 1880.

782

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

in the aid of subsidence as is done by Darwin and Dana, and it is argued further that
the. form of atoll and barrier reefs generally can be explained on the same principles,
when taken in conjunction with what is now known of the bathymetrical distribution of
animals, and the mode of formation of deep-sea deposits. The recent discoveries of
Dr. Guppy 1 in the upraised coral islands of the Solomon group confirm the view here
advanced.

Observations were taken at the lighthouse on Point Venus in order to connect the
observing stations with those of Captains Cook, Beechey, Fitzroy, &c.

The following meteorological table shows the climate at Papiete from observations
made by the French during three years.

Meteorological Table compiled from observations made at Papiete, in the
island of Tahiti, during the years 1854, 1855, and 1856.

Barometer reduced to 32° and sea level.

MONTH.

Barometer.

1 Mean Temp,
in shade.

Mean Range
| of Temp.

Max. Temp, in
shade registered.

Min. Temp, in
shade registered.

1 Clouds — 0 to 10
| Mean Amount.

Rain.

WIND.

No. of days
Gales.

&

Relative Humidity
Sat. 100.

Mean

Height.

1 Ext. Range j

To-al

Fall.

No.

of

Av. Hourly 1
| velocity. 1

NO. OP DATS

FROM

N.

N.E.

E.

S.E.

S.

S.W.

w.

N.W.

C’lm

in.

in.

January, .

29789

78°-l

87° 8

69°"8

6-00

13

82-5

February,

29-840

77-8

87-8

69-8

4-12

11

84-3

March,

29-834

78-0

88-7

68-0

3-71

12

81-6

April,

29-843

77-9

88-9

67-5

3-41

10

82-2

May,

29-864

76-4

86-0

66-2

4-08

8

82-8

June,

29-905

75-1

84-2

61-7

0 90

7

79-0

No information.

July,

29-922

74-4

84-2

60-8

0-65

5

79-7

August,

29-965

73-8

84-2

60-3

0-61

4

80-0

September,

29-968

73-9

86-4

62-6

3 37

5

81-2

October,

29-931

75-3

86-0

66-2

1-68

5

82-9

November,

29-876

76-5

85-3

66-2

5-03

8

86-7

December,

29-858

76-2

87-8

70-0

4-67

11

85-4

Means )

and >

29-883

761

88-9

60-3

38-23

99

82-4

Totals, )

The beauty of Tahiti as seen from the sea cannot be overrated ; it forms a most striking
contrast to the barren looking Oahu (see fig. 272). During the stay of the ship an excursion
to the mountains in search of plants was made by Mr. Moseley, accompanied by Lieutenant

1 Nature, vol, xxix. pp. 214, 215, 1884.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

783

A. Channer and Mr. F. Pearcey, the birdskinner and naturalists’ assistant. Mr. Miller,
English Consul at Tahiti, kindly procured the guides and otherwise assisted the party.

Some of the mountains of Tahiti rise to a height of over 7000 feet, and it was hoped
to be able to reach a considerable altitude in the search of mountain plants. It was
settled that at all events the head of a valley in the interior called Papeno should be
reached. The party was provided with native guides ; one, an old man, supposed to be
thoroughly acquainted with the mountains.

The men carried the little baggage on the ends of poles resting on their shoulders

Fig. 272.— Tahiti.

like Chinese coolies. The practice of this method of carrying has been remarked upon
as one of the many evidences of the Polynesian affinities of the New Zealanders. The
beautiful valley of Fataua, closed at its head by the irregularly peaked outline of the
mountain, termed by the French, from its form, the “ Diadem,” wras first traversed.

At some distance from its mouth the valley is barred, across by a high cliff
over which the stream traversing it falls in a very beautiful waterfall. In the cliff
beneath the falling water is a wide hollow, overhung by the rock above, and in this
the Tropic Birds ( Phaethon ) nest, and two or three were constantly to be seen flying
about the cliff and across the deep chasm of the valley, conspicuous against the dense
(narr. chall, exp. — vol, i, — 1885.) 99

784

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

green foliage and dark rocks. Excellent strawberries were growing in a garden just
above the fall, and the plants were mostly in blossom, only a few fruits being ripe. The
Mango trees in the same way were mostly in blossom, or with young green fruit. The
orange season was just at its end.

The stream is full of small fish {Dales malo), one of the Perch family which have
adapted themselves entirely to a fresh water life, and rise to a fly like trout. Captain
Thomson and other officers of the Expedition who were anglers, got out their fly
rods and whipped the stream, catching a few dozen. The stream falls over the rocks
and stones in small runs and stickles just like a trout stream, and the fish thrive in the
rapid water.

The first camp of the excursion party was made in the head of Fataua Valley, at a height
of about 1600 feet, amongst the “Fei” or Wild Plantain ( Musa troglodytarum, Linn),
a species which occurs also in Fiji and elsewhere in Polynesia according to Seemann, though
it is possible that the fruit of the wild plant in other places is not equal in quality to that
of Tahiti. The plant is closely similar in appearance to an ordinary large banana tree, but
the large bunches of fruit, instead of hanging down, stand up erect from the summit of
the stem and are bright yellow when ripe. When a bunch of these is thrown into a
fire, the outer skin of the fruits becomes blackened and charred, but when it is peeled off'
with a pointed stick, a yellow floury interior is reached, which resembles a mealy potato,
and is most excellent eating. This is one of the very few plants which, growing spontane-
ously, and in abundance, affords a really good and sufficient source of food to man.
Hardly any improvement could be wished for in the fruits by cultivation. It could not
but be most advantageous that the plant should be introduced into many other tropical
countries. On the way up the valley numerous natives were met going down to Papiete
with loads of “ Fei.”

Rats live in the mountains, and climb up and devour the ripe , plantains, and the
groves of the trees are traversed in all directions by the tracks of wild pigs, which like-
wise feed on the fruit. It is strange that the pig should run wild and thrive, under such
widely different conditions as it does, and should be able to exist equally well on wild
plantains in the warm Tahiti, and on penguins and petrels in the chilly Crozets. In
this power of adaptation it approaches man.

It had been raining heavily during the first day’s walk, and was still pouring when
the halt was made,' and the members of the party were all wet through. The guides soon
built a small waterproof hut, with sticks and the huge wild plantain leaves. Then they
put up another small roof of leaves, and finding dry dead plantain leaves under the
shelter of the freshly fallen ones, soon lighted a fire under the roof, and the clothes of
the party were dried in the smoke before nightfall, in the midst of the heavy rain. The
banana leaves afforded further excellent waterproof covers for clothes and botanical
drying paper. No blankets had been taken by the party, because it was wished to make

uPlate

Native House, Tahiti.

NARRATIVE OE THE CRUISE.

785

the utmost attempt to scale the mountains as far as possible, and the baggage had there-
fore been reduced to a minimum, it not being expected that suffering from cold would be
experienced. The thermometer showed, at about half an hour before sunset, 75° F., about
an hour later, 68°'5, at midnight 63°‘0, at daybreak 60o,5, and in about half an hour after
daybreak it rose to 61° ’5. The main stream of the valley running past the huts had a
temperature at daybreak of 65°‘0, having retained throughout the night the heat of the
former day, which the air had so rapidly lost. The effect of the stream on the climate
here, is thus just the opposite of that of the streams of such an island as Tristan da Cunha.

From this camp, the way led over several steep minor ridges in the head of the valley,
and then up to an elevation of 3000 feet, which was reached on one of the extremely
narrow ridges, characteristic of Tahiti, situated just to the west of the “ Diadem.” From
the ridge, a descent was made into the Punaru Valley by the aid of ropes fastened to the
trees. The precipitous side of the valley which was thus descended, was covered at this
elevation, from about' 3000 to 2000 feet altitude, with a dense vegetation, composed
almost entirely of ferns. A Tree Fern (Alsophila tahitiensis) formed a sort of forest
almost to the exclusion of other trees, and with this were associated huge clumps of the
Giant Fern (Angiopteris evecta ) and masses of the Birds-nest Fern ( Asplenium nidus).
With these grew a trailing Screw Pine and a Draccena, but the three ferns together
formed a remarkably large proportion of the entire vegetation.1

The second camp was made at an elevation of about 1800 feet, at a native hut in the
upper part of Punaru Valley. The natives have not forgotten their religion since the
time of Darwin’s visit ;2 the guides said their prayers every evening before sleeping,
even when huddled together out of the rain, all repeating the words together, and the
native family at the hut did the same. The temperature at the hut sank at daybreak
to 59° F. Much suffering from cold was experienced in the night, and still more from
mosquitos. An okl piece of canvas was lent to the party to lay on the ground to sleep
on, but was used as a coverlet for warmth.

In the morning the attempt was made to cross over a high ridge at the head of
Punaru Valley, and so to reach the proposed destination, the Papeno Valley, but the
attempt failed, for it was found after toiling up to an elevation of about 3000 feet that
the guides did not know the way at all. One of them had been over the pass many
years before, but all he seemed to know was, that he had been up a stream, so the day
was spent in wading through pools and clambering over slippery boulders in its bed,
creeping along under the overhanging branches. Attempts were made time after time
in various impracticable places, and at last a hurried descent was made in the evening
into the valley, and a camp had to be prepared almost entirely in the dark, and in heavy
rain, at a height of 2500 feet.

1 On the significance of this, see A. R. Wallace, Tropical Nature, p. 269, 1878.

2 0. Darwin, Journal of Researches during the Voyage of H.M.S. “Beagle,” p. 411, ed. 1879.

786

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

This was above the limit of the growth of the wild plantain in any abundance, so
the shelter for the night was made of the fronds of the Birds-nest Fern [Aspleniurn
nidus). These are tougher and more durable than the leaves of the plantain, and hence
are used for permanent thatching, but from their smaller size require much more time in
arrangement.

The members of the party had to put up with a very small hut, which sheltered
their bodies as they lay down, but would not cover their legs, and they had to feel in the
baggage in the pitch darkness for their food, and eat it by the help of the sense of touch
alone. The unfortunate guides, who had constructed the hut first, could find scarcely
any more fern leaves in the dark, and they squatted out the night together, sheltered
from the rain by a small extinguisher-shaped erection, which looked as if one human
body could not be forced into it, much less two. The temperature here at daybreak
was 60° F., and the morning being cloudy, and the camp lying in a narrow gorge, it
remained the same for an hour and a half after daybreak.

In the morning the party descended again several hundred feet, and sent back to
the hut and procured two young men, supposed to be practised mountaineers, and, as
was thought, certain to know the way about every pass within 4 or 5 miles of their
dwelling. One of them, as a proof of his knowledge, brought with him what appeared to
represent the most primitive form of a map. It was a thick stick of wood about a foot
and a half long, with two short cross pieces on it at some distance from the ends, and on
each of these cross pieces were set up three short uprights of wood. The uprights repre-
sented mountain peaks, and the spaces between, the valleys. The new guide held his
map in his hand and took a long consultation with his brother, and then explained
matters thoroughly to the original guides. He clutched the uprights one after another
and dilated upon them, pointing out the peaks to which they corresponded. There
seemed no doubt that the right man had been got hold of at last.

The guides now lashed the small baggage on their backs, instead of on poles as
before, since this mode of carriage was no longer practicable, owing to the steepness of
the ascent, and a start was made up the face of an extremely steep-sided ridge, a spur
of Orofena, the highest mountain of Tahiti. At the lower part, each pulled himself up
by means of the trailing Screw Pines. These covered the ground with a tangled mass
of long serpentine stems so thickly, that in climbing the ground was a yard or more
beneath.

Near the summit of the spur, the face of the ridge was almost perpendicular, and
one of the men got up by the help of the bushes and let down a rope by which the crest
was reached. In order to collect plants, a knotted handkerchief had to be held in the
teeth and filled, as it was impossible to get at a vasculum. The crest of the ridge was
nowhere more than a yard; wide, often less, and there was an almost sheer fall on
either hand ; if grass and small bushes had not been growing at the edge on each side, it

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

787

would have been very difficult to walk along without becoming giddy. It was as if one
were walking along the top of an immensely high wall.

Here and there small Metrosideros trees grew upon the centre of the crest of the
ridge, and when these were encountered it was necessary to climb between the branches,
often where they overhung a sheer drop below, and once to swing along the steep side of
the crest for a short distance past one of these trees under its overhanging branches.

The crest of the ridge was ascended until an altitude of 4000 feet was reached,
when the guides found the way barred by a precipice and entirely impracticable. The
summit of the ridge was covered with a thick growth of the Fern ( Gleiclienia dichotoma)
and a Climbing Fern (Lyg odium), and amongst the bushes on the ridge a Whortleberry
( Vaccinium) was very abundant, and also two species of Metrosideros. The entire
vegetation was different from that below. .One of the species of Metrosideros was, how-
ever, also seen growing much lower down.

Just as the ridge met the face of the mountain, by which the party was brought to
a halt, its crest widened out, and here there was a damp hollow with mosses and lichens
growing in it in great abundance. Here also grew a tree (Fitchia nutans), 20 feet in
height, and with a trunk 9 inches in diameter, belonging to the Composite, with a
large yellow flower. It is allied to the Composite trees of Juan Fernandez and nearly
related to the Chicory.

Here in the soft loose soil, amongst the moss, were numerous burrows of a Petrel
( Procellaria rostrata). The natives call it the “Night Bird,” just as the inhabitants
of Tristan da Cunha call the Burrowing Petrels there “ Night Birds.” The Tropic Birds
also nest far up in the mountains, and in Hawaii they nest in the cliffs of the crater of
Kilauea at an altitude of 4000 feet. Similarly a Puffin (Puffinus nugax) nests at the
top of the Korovasa Basaga Mountain, in Viti Levu Island, Fiji,1 and in like manner, a'
Procellaria breeds in the high mountains in Jamaica.

It seems possible that these birds may carry Alpine plants as seeds and spores
attached to their feathers from one island to another, for great distances. They make
their holes in the ground where it is densely covered with herbage, and often become
covered with vegetable mould. The Procellaridse, widely wandering as they are, have
probably had a great deal to do with the wide distribution of much of the Antarctic
flora. Grisebach 2 3 lays stress on the range of the Albatross ( Diomedect ) from Cape Horn
to the Kurile Islands, as possibly accounting for the occurrence of northern species of
plants amongst the southern flora, and also the wide range of the Antarctic flora. He
supposes the seeds, however, to be swallowed by the Albatross, with its food, after being
washed down into the sea by rivers, and perhaps swallowed by fish.

1 Finsch u. Hartlaub, Ornithologie der Viti, Samoa und Tonga Inseln ; Einleitung, p. xviii., Halle, 1867.

Peale describes the habit in question of Procellaria rostrata at Tahiti.

3 A Grisebach, Vegetation der Erde, Bd. ii. p. 496.

788

THE VOYAGE OF ILM.S. CHALLENGER.

As the date of the sailing of the ship was uncertain, the party was obliged to give up
the attempt to reach Papeno Valley, and therefore returned to the native hut for the
night. The sky being remarkably clear, the thermometer sank at daybreak to 55° F.
(elevation 1800 feet). The Punaru Valley was followed down to the sea shore, and Papiete
reached along the coast.

The orange, lemon, and lime, which grow wild all over Tahiti, do not appear to
deteriorate at all in quality nor in quantity of the fruit produced in the feral condition,
indeed the fruit almost appears finer and better for running wild. The oranges were
unanimously pronounced the best ever eaten. The limes lay in cartloads upon the
ground, rotting in the woods. It would pay well to make lime juice for export in Tahiti.
Some native insect must have adapted itself completely to the blossoms of the orange
tribe as a fertilizer, so abundant is the fruit. Vanilla, which is cultivated in the island
with success, requires, as everywhere else away from its home, to be fertilized by hand.

A party consisting of Lieutenant Balfour, Mr. Murray, and Mr. Cox visited Lake
Waihirra under the guidance of Mr. Green the English missionary. Lake Waihirra,
situated 1700 feet above the level of the sea, is surrounded by perpendicular cliffs, and
is distant about 45 miles from Papiete. The party reached the lake without much
difficulty as a path had been cut through the wood for the Governor of the island, who had
visited the lake just before ; one night was passed in a hut at the side of the lake. The
lake was said to be unfathomable, but the greatest depth obtained was 10 fathoms. The
large “eared animals” which were said to inhabit the lake turned out to be immense Eels
4 and 5 feet in length ( Anguilla mauritiana, Benn., and Anguilla aneitensis, Gtinth.).

The ground just above the shore near Papiete is everywhere burrowed by large Land
Crabs, which are difficult to catch, for they never, in the daytime at least, go far from
their holes, but watch a passer-by from near the mouths of their retreats, and bolt
in, if suspicious of danger, like rabbits. An old marine, named Leary, who acted as
a constant assistant to the Naturalists whilst collecting on shore, invented a plan
by which he caught some of the largest and oldest of the crabs. He tied a bit of meat
on the end of a string, fastened to a fishing rod, and by dragging the meat slowly
enticed the crabs from their holes, and then made a dash forward, put his foot in
the hole, and so caught them. The larger crabs were- far more difficult to catch than the
younger ones.

The Corals. — Mr. Moseley writes as follows : — “ A Mushroom Coral ( Fungia ) is very
common all over the reefs at Tahiti. After much search, I found one of the nurse-stocks
from which the disk-shaped free corals are thrown off as buds, as was originally shown by
Stutchbury,1 and confirmed by Semper, who considers the case to be an instance of

1 G. Stutchbury, An Account of the Mode of Growth of Young Corals of the Genus Fungia, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond.,
vol. xvii. p. 493, 1830.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

789

alternation of generations.1 Though the free corals were so extremely numerous, I found
only one mass hearing nurse-stocks. It consisted, as in Stutchbury’s specimen, of a portion
of a very large dead Fungia, to which numerous nurse-stocks in various stages of growth
were attached all over. Some of them had only just developed from the attached larva,
and had as yet thrown off no buds. A small cup-like coral is formed, and as it grows the
mouth of the cup widens and assumes somewhat the form of the adult disk-shaped free
coral, but is still distinctly cup-shaped. A line of separation is formed in the stem,
and the bud falls off ; a fresh bud then starts from the centre of the scar left by it on
the stock, and the process is repeated. The fresh bud in its growth does not spread its
attachment over the whole surface of the old scar, the margins of which persist only
as a dead zone around its base. The line of separation of the successive buds does
not correspond with that of the first, but is a short distance beyond it, hence the
nurse stem which has thrown off several buds is transversely jointed in appearance.
Some of the stems showed thus three rings (see fig. 273). Stutchbury imagined that

each mother-stock threw off only one bud, and then died ; Semper showed that
this was not the case, he speaks of three or four generations' only being produced by
each stock. Apparently the number produced is very limited. None of the stocks in my
specimens were branched like Semper’s specimen. A young coral bud just ripe, 1^-th inches
in diameter, dropped off one of the stocks as I lifted the specimen from the water.
Beneath it on the scar, another very small young Fungia had begun to bud out before its
predecessor was quite free. The somewhat cup-shaped buds when set free, become by
the direction in which future growth takes place, flat and disk-shaped and develop eggs,
whence spring free-swimming larvae, which start fresh stocks. The mass of nurse-
stocks which I found was surrounded on the reef by a group of fully-formed Fungias of
all sizes ; I counted twenty in all. Some of these were small, and still showed the
scar of attachment which disappears in the process of subsequent growth.

“ A species of Millepora ( Millepora nodosa, Esper) is a very common coral upon the
Tahitian reefs. It forms irregular nodular masses usually of small size, and often encrusts
1 Semper, Ueber Generationswechsel bei Steinkorallen, Zeitschr. f. mss. Zool.j Bel. xxii. p. 271, 1872.

788

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

dead corals of other species. The tips of the lobes of the living coral are of a bright
gamboge-yellow colour, which shades off into a yellowish brown on either side of the
lobes. Mr. Murray succeeded in getting the polyps of the coral to expand under the
microscope, and handed them over to me for examination. I found them, as Agassiz
had discovered long before, to be Hydroids allied to the Medusae, and not Actinozoa
allied to sea anemones, like the majority of modern stony corals ; I studied the structure
of the coral minutely.1

“ The hard part of the coral or calcareous skeleton is finely porous throughout, being
excavated by a complex reticulation of fine and tortuous canals which are in the freest
possible communication with one another. Within this porous mass at its surface are
excavated cylindrical holes or pores of two sizes. The canal spaces in the skeleton are,
when the coral is living, filled by a network of living tissue made up of a meshwork of
branching and communicating tubes, which form a canal system, by means of which a
free circulation can pass from one part of the coral to another.

“ Two kinds of polyps inhabit the pores described as existing on the surface of the
coral. The larger pores are occupied by short stout cylindrical polyps which have each four
tentacles and a mouth and stomach, and which are hence termed ‘ Gastrozooids/ whilst
their pores are termed ‘ Gastropores.’ The smaller pores shelter each a very different
kind of polyp, which has a long and slender sinuous body provided with numerous
tentacles, and devoid of any mouth or stomach; this latter form of polyp, because its
function is merely to catch food, is called a ‘Dactylozooid/ and its pore a ‘Dactylopore.’

“ The dactylozooids catch food for the colony and deliver it to the gastrozooids, which
alone are able to swallow and digest it. All the polyps of the colony are in communica-
tion at their bases with the canal system already described, and by means of these canals
the nutritive fluids derived by the gastrozooids from the food are distributed to the entire
colony and nourish it ; there is thus a very complete division of labour in the colony.

“ In all species of Mill&pora the mouth-bearing polyps are much less numerous than
the mouthless ones. In some species the gastropores and dactylopores are scattered
irregularly over the surface of the colonies. In the Tahitian species, however, they are
for the most part gathered into definite groups or systems, each consisting of a centrally
placed gastropore surrounded by a ring of five, six, or seven dactylopores, as shown in
the accompanying figure (see fig. 274), where the circular groups of minute pores are
seen scattered over the coral surface.

“Fig. 275 shows, much enlarged, a single system of polyps belonging to one of the
pore systems, as it appears when the polyps are fully protruded from their pores and
expanded. Beneath is seen shaded dark, part of the canal meshwork, which maintains
the general circulation of the colony. From this stands up in the centre, the short

1 For further details see H. N. Moseley, On the Structure of a Species of Millepora occurring at Tahiti, Society
Islands, Phil. Trans., vol. clxvii. pp. 117-135, 1877.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

791

and stout gastrozooid with its four tentacles, dark stomach cavity seen through the
walls of its body and its mouth at its summit. Around are grouped five dactylozooids,
each with many tentacles, but without any mouth or stomach. One of the dactylozooids
is seen bending over to feed the gastrozooid of the system.

“ By far the most valuable discoveries, from a zoological point of view, with regard
to the heterogeneous group which commonly goes under the name of ‘ corals,’ made
during the Expedition, were those which proved that the curious Heliopora, with its
dark blue skeleton, to be an Alcyonarian allied to the precious coral of commerce, and the
confirmation of the late Professor Louis Agassiz’s results as to the Hydroid nature of
Millepora. Not only were Agassiz’s conclusions amply confirmed, but another family of
Hydroid corals was discovered in the Stylasteridae, until then believed to be allied to the

Fio. 274. — Portion of the hard coral skeleton of
Millepora nodosa; twice natural size; %

Fig. 275. — System of zooids of Millepora noclosa in the expanded
condition. Single short gastrozooid in the centre surrounded
ky five elongate dactylozooids.

Oculinidse, the members of which exhibit in their structure even more remarkable com-
plexity than the Milleporidae. Heliopora, the blue coral, was, until the voyage of the
Challenger, always believed to be essentially similar in structure to ordinary Madrepo-
rarian corals, to have its tentacles smooth and non-pinnate, and to bear them in multiples
of the number twelve. On examination of the soft tissues, however, it was found that.
Heliopora has eight pinnate tentacles only, and that all its structure conforms through-
out with that of other Alcyonarians. Heliopora thus proves to be the sole modern
survivor of a large series of massive Alcyonarian corals which flourished in the Palaeozoic
epoch, and its minute structure is of the greatest value,1 blow that it is properly understood,
as a guide to the elucidation of complications which occur in its ancestral allies.

“With regard to Millepora, some account has just been given of its structure and of
(narr. chall. exp, — vol, i. — 1885.) 100

792

THE VOYAGE OF II.M.S. CHALLENGER.

the wide differences which separate it as a member of the Hydrozoa from the Actinozoa.
In a dredging off the mouth of the Rio de la Plata in 600 fathoms, six genera of the
family Stylasteridse, which, together with the Milleporidse, form the group Hydro-
corallinse, were brought up at once in good condition, and all but one with fully developed
generative organs. An examination of this material soon showed that the Stylasteridse,
which had until then been placed amongst the Oculinidse, are, like the Milleporidse,
Hydroids. In all of them there is an elaborate system of division of labour amongst the
members composing the colonies. Some devoid of stomach catch the food and hand it to

Pig. 276. — Cryptohelia pudica, M.-Edw. and Haime ; twice the natural size.

others, the sole function of which is digestion for the general good, others again are gene-
rative zooids. The accompanying figure shows a stem of one these corals, Cryptohelia
pudica, so called because, as will be seen in the drawing (fig. 276), it has a shield or lid in
front of each of the cups in which the polyps live concealed. The mouths of the cups
are all turned to one face of the stock. Each of the small cups is notched all round its
margin, and in each notch is a grasping zooid (dactylozooid), whilst in the centre of each
ring of dactylozooids is a stomachzooid or gastrozooid which digests the food and
distributes the products all over the colony by means of an elaborate system of canals.
The generative or nursezooids lie embedded in the walls of the cups. In some Stylasteridse
the division of labour is even more complex than here.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

793

“ To return again to the Anthozoa, and amongst them to the Madreporaria .
A great many beautiful corals new to science were dredged or trawled from great
depths during the voyage, but as compared with the yield in the cases of many other
animals, the result was but poor. The trawl net is not so well adapted as the dredge for
bringing up solitary corals such as occur in the deep sea, and during the greater part of
the voyage the trawl was used almost exclusively, because it was found to yield far better
results on the whole.

Pig. 277. — Ddtocyatlius italicus, Pourtalfes ; x 4.

“ One of the most markedly beautiful of the deep-sea Madreporaria obtained is a
Turbinolid, Ddtocyatlius italicus; it is rather small, and is shown in fig. 277 magnified.
It is of special interest as being found as a Tertiary fossil in Italy. It was at first
considered by the late Count Pourtales to be distinct from the fossil form, but the
access of abundance of material broke down the distinction relied on. A very curious

Pig. 278.— Ddtocyatlius italicus. Stellate variety of Pourtalfes.

stellate or horned variety with a series of prominent spokes (fig. 278) is not uncommon
amongst West Indian specimens, but the Challenger procured one only at Bermuda.

“ Ddtocyatlius magnificus (fig. 279) is probably the most perfectly symmetrical Madre-
porarian existing ; the interspaces between its radiating septa are almost absolutely equal,
and the whole appears as if plotted out with a scale and compasses. It was dredged off
the Ki Islands in 129 fathoms. Odontocyathus coronatus (fig. 280) is remarkable for hav-
ing a saucer-shaped base formed by the springing out of root-like prominences below so

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

794

as to form a support, a contrivance, no doubt for preventing the animal being upset in
the deep-sea mud ; it has three well developed crowns of pali.

“ Stephanotrochus is another new genus necessitated by the Challenger’s discoveries.

Fig. 279. — Deltocyathus magwificus, Moseley ; x 2. From Fig. 280. — Odontocyathus coronatus, Moseley ;

129 fatlioms, off the Ki Islands. x 2.

Several species were obtained of which two are here figured (figs. 281, 282). It was found
to range from near Sydney, New South Wales, all over the Atlantic. Mr. John Murray
has dredged it lately off the Scotch coast. Stephanotrochus diadema has the most widely
patent calicle of the species of the genus, whilst Stephanotrochus nobilis has its calicular

Fig. 281. — Stephanotrochus diadema, Moseley. Off Pernambuco, Brazil,
675 fathoms.

Fig. 282. — Stephanotrochus nobilis, Moseley.
Off the Azores, 1000 fathoms.

wall most completely folded inwards round the mouth, but the two species are obviously
closely connected.

“ A great many species of Flabellum, a very widely spread genus, were obtained. The
most remarkable amongst these', and the finest example of the genus, is Flabellum

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

705

alabastrum (fig. 283), dredged off the Azores from 1000 fathoms. It measures when adult
65 mm. in breadth and 50 mm. in height. The coral skeleton is of a beautiful light
pink colour, and is very thin and fragile. Two of the adult specimens obtained were
alive when brought up, and expanded themselves in sea water, notwithstanding the
depth from which they came. They have ninety-six tentacles disposed in cycles with

Pig. 283. — Flabellwn alabastrum, Moseley ; slightly enlarged. Off the Azores, 1000 fathoms.

perfect regularity. The colouring is remarkably bright for deep-sea animals : the
tentacles are light red, and between their bases are stripes of yellowish red and pale
greyish, the inner margin of the disk is of a dark madder colour, and the remainder of the
disk pale pink. The madder colouring matter is a peculiar substance, “ polyperythrin,”
which yields three distinct absorption bands in the spectrum, and which is widely

distributed amongst Ccelenterates, being found in many deep-sea Actinias and also in
surface-swimming Scyphomedusse. It is this colouring matter which gives the madder
tint to the skeletons of all the Flabellums.

“ Flabellwn angulare (fig. 284) is a remarkable form nearly approaching Desmo-
phyllum. It was dredged off Nova Scotia in 1250 fathoms. The specimen figured is
obviously abnormal in its arrangement in fives. A specimen with the normal six

796 THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

systems has been dredged by the U.S.S. ‘ Blake.’ Flctbellum apertum (fig. 285) is
interesting because it was dredged at two very distant localities, viz., off* Portugal in
900 fathoms, and off Prince Edward Island in 310 fathoms.

Pis. 286. — Lophohelia prolifera, M.-Echv. and Haime ; three-fourtlis the natural size.

Fig. 285 Flctbellum apertum, Moseley ; natural size. Off Prince Edward Island, 310 fathoms.

“ The most abundant of the very few compound Madreporarian corals which inhabit
deep waters is Lophohelia prolifera (fig. 286). It varies very much in form and mode of
growth, and sometimes forms bushes of considerable size. It occurs in the Mediterranean

with Precious Coral ( Cor allium rubrum), off the English and Norwegian coasts in 100
fathoms or so, and all over the Atlantic, off Tristan da Cunha in the south, off

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

797

St. Paul’s Rocks, off the West Indies in abundance ; it is represented in the East Indian
region by other allied species. One of the most remarkable instances known of world-
wide geographical distribution in a deep-sea animal is the case of Bathyactis symmetrica
(fig. 287), a solitary discoid coral provisionally placed with the Fungiadse. This coral
varies in the most remarkable manner in size and also greatly in structure. It was
obtained of all intermediate sizes from a diameter of 3 mm. only to one of 40 mm., yet
the series obtained was so large and complete that there can be no doubt that all the
specimens belong to one species. It was further obtained from all depths intermediate
between 30 fathoms, off Bermuda, and 2900 fathoms, in the East Pacific Ocean. From the
latter locality some of the finest specimens were obtained, and these were crowded with
ova and embryos in early stages of development. No relation could be established

Fig. 287. — Bathyactis symmetrica, Moseley ; three times the natural size. Dredged west of Tristan da Cunha Island, from 1900 fathoms.

between the temperature, nature of the bottom, or other physical conditions, and the
size of the specimens. The coral was obtained frequently in both the North and South
Atlantic, the South Indian Ocean, in the Malay Archipelago, in the West and East
Pacific, off Japan, and off Juan Fernandez.

“ A very interesting form from a palaeontological point of view is Stephanophyllia
complicdta (fig. 288), which was dredged off the Ki Islands from 129 fathoms only. This
coral is the close ally of the Stephanophyllia of the Chalk and Tertiary deposits. It
apparently most nearly approaches Stephanophyllia discoides of the London Clay. The
septa, which are nearly free and straight in the young coral, become most remarkably
fused together at intervals laterally in the adult, giving the coral a curious honeycombed
appearance. As far as is yet known, the genus Stephanophyllia survives only in this
remote spot in the East Indies, its present locality being in no way connected with its
former one in Europe.

798

THE VOYAGE OF TI.M.S. CHALLENGER.

“Probably the most beautiful of. all Madreporarian skeletons is that of Leptopenus
hypoccelus (figs. 289, 290), which was trawled not far from the island of Juan Fernandez

Fig. 288 , — Stephanophyllia complicata, Moseley ; x 3, From 129 fathoms off the Ki Islands.

from 2160 fathoms. The coral, together with another referred to the same genus, Lcpto-

Fig. 289. — Leptopenus hypoccelus, Moseley. Off Valparaiso, 2160 fathoms. View from the side.

penus discus, has no living ally nearer than Stephanophyllia, and no extinct ally of it is
known at all. Very possibly this may be due to the fact that the representatives of

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

799

the genus Leptopenus are so extremely fragile, that only under the most favourable com-
bination of circumstances could they become fossilized. The base of Leptopenus hypoccelus
is bent upwards below so as to form a hollow cup, and thus rests only on its margin. It
is perforated throughout like lace-work by a series of apertures arranged in radiating
rows with perfect symmetry. From the margins of the septa a series of septal spines
project which probably bore the tentacles in the recent condition of the animal. This,

Fig 280 —Leptopenus hypoccelus, Moseley. Off Valparaiso, 2160 fathoms. View from above.

however, was not observed to be the case, as only a single specimen of the bare skeleton
was obtained. It is most extraordinary that a skeleton of such extreme delicacy should
have reached the surface unbroken. It was necessary to secure the coral in a glass
box at once to protect iteven during scientific examination.

“ In some respects the results as to deep-sea corals have been disappointing. No forms
of Madreporaria have been obtained which have exhibited any very important peculiari-
(narr. chall. exp. — VOL. I, — 1885.) 101

800

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

ties in their anatomy or thrown any important light on their classification. Results
seem to show that ancestral forms such as the Helioporicke are to be sought rather In
shallow water than in the abyssal zones. There are no representatives of the most
characteristic of the Palaeozoic Corals such as Zaphrentis, Cystiphyllum, Stciuria, or
Goniophyllum in the deep sea. Possible representatives of the Cyathonaxidse have
indeed been obtained in Guynia, described by Professor Martin Duncan, and Haplo-
pliyllia and Duncania, described by the late Count Pourtales, but the Cyathonaxidse
are the least aberrant and characteristic members of the so-called Rugosa. Pourtales
justly felt doubtful whether the arrangement of the septa in four systems instead of
six could in itself be considered as a criterion of the Rugosa, and in the cases of
Haplopliyllia and Duncania the septa may be described rather as devoid of any
definite numerical arrangement than as exhibiting any tetrameral symmetry. Further,
Mr. Moseley has lately examined, by means of sections, the structure of the soft parts
of Duncania in a specimen provided by Mr. A. Agassiz for the purpose, and finds that
with regard to the peculiar arrangement of the longitudinal septal muscles and the
demarcation of the directive septa, the coral agrees essentially with the Hexactiniaria
such as Caryopliyllia, and all other modern Madreporaria, the anatomy of which has
been adequately investigated.”

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

801

CHAPTER XIX.

Tahiti to Juan Fernandez — Manganese Nodules, Sharks’ Teeth, Zeolites, and Cosmic Spherules in the Deposits of the
Central South Pacific— The Stomatopoda — Historical Account of Juan Fernandez — Physical Features — Botany
and Zoology — The Nemertea — Juan Fernandez to Valparaiso — The Foraminifera — Valparaiso — The Copepoda
and Ostracoda.

Tahiti to Juan Fernandez.

On the 3rd October the anchor was weighed and the ship steamed out of Papiete
Harbour, the band playing the Tahitian National Air, a quick and lively jig which is
characteristic of the place, and sets the Tahitians dancing at once ; it is popular with
the French also, and as the Challenger entered Valparaiso Harbour the band on board
a French man-of-war struck up this tune as a greeting to recall the gaiety of the beautiful
island left behind.

When outside Papiete Harbour the ship was swung to ascertain the errors of the com-
pass and dipping needle, after which a southerly course was shaped to clear the baffling
winds between Tahiti and Eimeo Islands, before sail was made. The ship stood to the
southward until the trade wind was lost on the parallel of 22° S., when, picking up a fresh
S.W. wind for four days, the vessel was steered to the S.E., and on the 10th October
lat. 27° 39' S., long. 142° 47' W. was reached. The wind then shifted to the westward
and northward, and the S.E. course was continued until the 14th, when the ship was
in lat. 32° 36' S., long. 137° 43' W., from which position light southerly to easterly
winds were experienced until the 40th parallel was crossed on the meridian of 133° W.
The wind then varied from S.S.E. to S.W. and W. until the 29th October, and the ship
stood to the eastward, keeping on the 39th parallel to the meridian of 113° W., when
the wind shifted to W. and N.W. and then N.N.E. on the meridian of 100° W, Light
easterly winds were then experienced for four days, after which northerly and north-
easterly breezes prevailed until the ship arrived at Valparaiso (see Sheet 38). These
northerly winds off the coast of South America were quite unexpected and were very
unusual, the prevailing wind in the month of November being southerly.

The sounding and temperature observations were uniformly successful. The section
has been divided into two parts : — 1st, from Tahiti to the parallel of 40° S., and 2nd,
from a position in lat. 40° 3' S., long. 132° 58' W., towards Mocha Island on the coast
of Chili (see Diagrams 19 and 20).

The bed of the ocean from Tahiti to the parallel of 40° S. shows a descent to 2450
fathoms at a distance, of 375 miles from Tahiti, then a rise to 2000 fathoms, and

802

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

afterwards a gradual descent to 2600 fathoms, the mean depth being 2275 fathoms.
From a position in lat. 40° 3' S., long. 133° W., towards the coast of South America
the bottom is undulating, varying from 2600 to 1500 fathoms, the mean depth being
2070 fathoms; these soundings seem to indicate the existence of a ridge along the
bed of the ocean, stretching away from the South American coast on or about the
40th parallel of south latitude, but whether such a ridge does exist or not can only be
ascertained by the slow process of deep-sea sounding.

The bottom temperature on the section from Tahiti to the 40th parallel varied from
34°'7 to 35°'4, the mean being 35°'0 or nearly the same result as between Tahiti and
Japan, but from the position in lat. 40° 3' S., long. 133° W., towards Mocha Island the
range in the bottom temperature was 1°‘2, notwithstanding which the mean result
was 35°'0, or precisely the same as before. The results in the last section appear to
confirm the existence of a ridge in this part of the Pacific, for it will be noticed that the
temperatures obtained after the shoal cast of 1500 fathoms (see Diagram 20) agree
remarkably well (35°-4), whilst between the two shoal casts of 1600 and 1500 fathoms
they fall to 34° ’5, being again warmer west of the 1600 fathoms sounding, where the
temperature was 35°'2, indicating probably that the ship was south of the ridge between
the two casts of 1600 and 1500 fathoms, and north of it during the remainder of the
section.

In the section from Tahiti to the parallel of 40° S., the surface temperature changed
gradually from 78° to 54D,5, and in the section towards Mocha Island remained at. a
temperature of 54°'5 from the meridian of 133° to that of 101° W., after which it gradually
rose to 58°, and was 58° at Juan Fernandez and 59° at Valparaiso.

The serial temperatures show that in the section south from Tahiti, notwithstanding
the change in the surface temperature from 78° to 54°‘5, the isotherm of 40° remains at
about the same depth (550 fathoms), but slightly deeper in the south than in the north.
Above the isotherm of 40° the isotherms gradually rise as the surface temperature
becomes lower. In the section from a position in lat. 40° 3' S., long. 133° W., towards
Mocha Island the isotherms are nearly parallel with the surface. The surface and
consequently the upper temperatures are slightly higher in the eastern than in the
western part of this section, but this difference is readily accounted for, not only by the
advance of summer, but from the fact that polar winds with a northerly current were
experienced in the western, and equatorial winds with a southerly current, in the eastern
part.

The currents on the passage were moderate, in no case exceeding 24 miles per day,
the average rate being 11 miles per day, the direction of the current depending almost
invariably on the direction of the wind.

Anemometer observations were taken on any favourable opportunity when the ship
was stationary, sounding or dredging. The following table shows the results recorded

DIAGRAM 20

PACIFIC

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

803

Date.

1875.

Station.

Velocity of wind
in miles per hour.

Force of wind by
Beaufort’s scale, as
noted in log.

October 6

281

13

2

9

283

25

5

„ 11

284

7

1 to 2, mean 1|-

„ 14

285

14

3

„ 19

287"

14

2 to 3, mean 2|-

„ 21

288

9

1 to 2, mean 11

„ 25

290

17

3 to 4, mean 3 J

„ 27

291

19

6 to 4, mean 5

November 1

293

24

5

1

293

21

4 to 5, mean 4 J

,, 5

295

9

1 to 2, mean 1J

„ 5

295

6

1

„ 9

296

22

5 to 6, mean 5|-

„ 9

296

24

5

„ 11

297

3

0 to 1, mean 0-^

„ 17

• 298

15

.

2 to 3, mean 2J |

As might be expected from the undulating nature of the bottom, and the varying
distance from land, the deposits presented considerable variety during the trip between
Tahiti and Valparaiso. In all depths less than 2000 fathoms the deposit was a Globigerina
ooze with over 50 per cent, of carbonate of lime, the highest percentage being 84
in 1600 fathoms. As the 40th parallel south was approached the purely tropical
species of pelagic Foraminifera — such as Globigerina conglobata, Sphceroidina dehiscens,
Pulvinulina menardii, var. tumida, Pullenia obliquiloculata — disappeared both from the
surface waters and from the deposits at the bottom. At the depth of 1600 fathoms
above referred to the deposit was chiefly composed of the following species, which were
mostly dwarfed : — Globigerina bulloides, Globigerina inflaia, Globigerina dubia,
Globigerina cequilateralis, Orbulina universa, Pulvinulina canariensis, Pulvinulina
micheliniana, and Pulvinulina menardii. There were a few fragments of Pteropods in
one or two of the deposits from the shallower depths, but with this exception the shells
of pelagic Mollusca were entirely removed from the bottom.

804

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGE®.

In depths greater than 2000 fathoms there was less than 50 per cent, of carbonate of
lime, viz., 46 per cent, at 2075 fathoms, 26 per cent, at 2375 fathoms, still less in 2400
fathoms, and scarcely a trace in 2600 fathoms, thus showing a gradual diminution in the
number of calcareous shells with increasing depth.

At several Stations the sounding tube had penetrated over a foot into the deposit,
and on two occasions, viz., at 2025 and 2275 fathoms, there was much less carbonate
of lime in the lower layers than in the upper ones, but on another occasion, in 2335
fathoms, the arrangement was the reverse of this, a red clay with only a few calcareous
shells occupying the surface, and a Globigerina ooze with very many calcareous
shells forming the deeper layers. There were very few remains of siliceous organisms in
all these deposits, in which respect they are in marked contrast to the deposits of the
Central and West Pacific.

The various dredgings and trawlings were successful with one exception, when the
line parted and a trawl with 1600 fathoms of line were lost. The number of animals was
not large. From 2550 fathoms there were several siliceous Sponges and Annelids, and
two specimens of Brisinga, along with some Shrimps and a Scopelid Fish (Bathypterozs
longicauda, Giinth.), which probably did not come from the bottom. In several trawlings
in depths between 2000 and 2385 fathoms there were again several siliceous Sponges, a
Holothurian (Oneirophanta mutabilis, Theel), Hymenaster echinulatus, Sladen, several
Annelids and Hy droids, together with a few Fish and Crustaceans which probably came
from intermediate depths. In depths less than 2000 fathoms animals were not much
more abundant. The best haul was in 1825 fathoms, when seven specimens of larger
animals were taken, including the following : — Ophiomusium lymani, Wyv. Thoms. ;
Ophiotholia supplicans, Lyman ; Cystechinus wyvillii, A. Ag. ; and Polystomidium patens ,
Hertwig. In addition to the animals here mentioned there were of course at all the
Stations many Foraminif era living on the bottom — some attached to the nodules, some
living in the mud, with either arenaceous or calcareous tests. There were many surface
animals taken in the tow-nets during each day of the cruise, but the number of forms
was much less than in the tropical waters.

By far the most interesting result of these trawlings and dredgings was the great
number and variety of Sharks’ teeth, bones of Cetaceans, manganese nodules, volcanic
lapilli, and zeolitic minerals procured in all the greater depths. In these respects they
resemble the trawlings between the Equator and Tahiti (see pp. 774,- 775).

On the 6th October, from 2385 fathoms, there were over two bushels of manganese
nodules, which were of two kinds, the one round with a concentric arrangement of
layers, the other large slabs containing in the centre a volcanic tufa. There would
appear to have been at this locality an old sea bottom of red clay, in which round
manganese nodules had been formed, and then at a later date a fall of volcanic ashes,
covering the bottom in some places to a depth of two inches. This fall of ashes, which

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

805

was composed of layers made up of different sized particles, the larger particles forming
the lower layer, seemed to have consolidated, to have undergone decomposition, and to
have been subsequently broken up by some disturbance, after which a deposit of manganese
peroxide was formed in the cracks and fissures and on the upper surface. Mixed up with
these nodules were one hundred and sixteen Sharks’ teeth, eleven referable to the genus
Carcharodon and the remainder to Carcharias, Oxyrhina, and Lamna. One of the
Carcharodon teeth was the largest taken during the cruise, and is represented in fig. 291.
This tooth is hollow, and has a slight coating' of peroxide of manganese on the outer and

Fig. 291 .—Carcharodon megalodon. 6th October 1875 ; 2386 fathoms.

inner surface of the hard dentine, which is indeed all that remains of the tooth. Mr.
Murray compared this tooth with many fossil specimens in British and Continental
Museums, and could detect no difference of importance between it and specimens of
the Carcharodon megalodon found in the Tertiary deposits of many parts of the world ;
it is as large as, if not larger than, any of the fossil specimens preserved in collections.
It is to be observed, however, that there is no large base to this tooth, as is usually the
case with the fossil specimens. The tooth was covered on one of its surfaces by the
branching Rhizopod, Rhizammina algceformis, Brady. The bones of Cetaceans consisted
of six tympanic bones and three petrous bones, all belonging to the family of Dolphins.

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

806

On the 14th October, from 2375 fathoms, there were again over two bushels of
manganese nodules, the great majority of which were in form like marbles, from one-
fourth of an inch to one inch in diameter. The nuclei of the nodules were either frag-
ments of sharks’ teeth or fragments of bones, of palagonite, pumice, or other volcanic
fragments. Fifteen hundred specimens of Sharks’ teeth were counted from this haul,
and in addition to these there were great numbers of small teeth and their fragments
in the washings of the trawl and in the substance of the nodules themselves. In all these
teeth the hard enamel-like dentine alone remained, the vaso-dentine and osteo-dentine
having been removed and their place occupied by depositions of the oxides of manganese
and iron mixed with clay. There were also forty-two petrous and tympanic bones,
determined by Professor Turner as belonging to Balcenoptera, Balcena, Megaptera,
Mesoplodon, Delpliinus, and Globiocephalus, together with ten or twelve fragments of
bones without any definite shape, but apparently belonging to Cetaceans.1

On the 16th October, in 2335 fathoms, there was over a bushel of manganese
nodules, Sharks’ teeth, and bones of Cetaceans. Three hundred and forty Sharks’ teeth,
over half an inch in length, were counted, some of the largest Carcharodon teeth from

this haul being over three inches in length. There
were about ninety tympanic bullae, and in addition
to these many fragments, coated by, and imbedded in ,
peroxide of manganese ; forty-two detached petrous
bones were also obtained. Forty-two specimens also
occurred which consisted not only of the petrous, but
of a portion of the elongated mastoid element con-
tinuous with it. There were also two portions of
beaks of a Zipliioid Whale, one being over eight
inches in length. A number of fragments of flat
bones, most of which were portions of the brain-case,
though one or two might have been bits of the shaft of
a rib, occurred. An irregular mass of spongy bone,
4 by 8 by 3 inches, consisted apparently of a portion of the expanded wing of a superior
maxilla. There were also present many undeterminable fragments of bone, all apparently
belonging to Cetaceans.

On the 23rd October, in 2550 fathoms, there was again a large haul of manganese
nodules with nuclei of palagonite, Sharks’ teeth, and earbones of Whales. Of three large
tympanic bones obtained here, one was 4 inches, another 3^ inches, and the third 3
inches in length. These were all thickly covered with nodulated depositions of peroxide
of manganese ; sufficient of this was removed to show that they were all bullae of Whales
of the genus Balcenoptera. A large number of the nodules had bony nuclei, but the
1 Zool. Ghall. Exp., part iv. p. 40, 1880,

Fig. 292. — Petrous and tympanic bone of Ziplvius
cavirostris. 16tb October 1875 ; 2335 fathoms.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

807

original characters of the bone had been completely obliterated. The Sharks’ teeth in
this haul were also deeply imbedded in manganese depositions.

On the 1st November, where the depth was 2025 fathoms and the deposit a
Globigerina ooze, there were about a dozen nodules, two small Sharks’ teeth, and in one
of the nodules a fragment of bone.

On the 11th November, in Globigerina ooze, obtained from 1775 fathoms, there was
over a gallon of rounded manganese nodules, the largest being about the size of a hen’s
egg; but there were no Sharks’ teeth nor fragments of Cetacean bones, either separate
or occurring as the nuclei of the nodules, which at this Station were formed around
hardened portions of the ooze, or around volcanic fragments.

The association of Sharks’ teeth, earbones of Cetaceans, manganese nodules, highly
altered fragments of . volcanic rocks, and cosmic spherules, all in relatively great
abundance in the deposits from the greater depths of the Central South Pacific, is a
matter of considerable interest, and some of the chief points connected with these
materials may be referred to in some detail.

With respect to the earbones or fragments of other Cetacean bones, none were
obtained in any of the dredgings north of the Equator either in the Atlantic or Pacific
Oceans. In those south of the Equator, only one earbone was found in the blue muds
surrounding continental shores, and this was in a depth of 2160 fathoms, over 100
miles from the coast of South America. These Cetacean bones are almost equally rare in
the Globigerina oozes: from these deposits one bulla of Ziphius was dredged from 2275
fathoms in the South Atlantic ; this was the only Cetacean bone procured in the Atlantic.
A fragment was also dredged in 1900 fathoms 100 miles off
the Cape df Good Hope, and another fragment from 2025
fathoms in the South Pacific.

All the other bones of Cetaceans procured during the
Expedition were dredged from red clay or Radiolarian ooze
in very deep water far removed from land. If Station 160,
in the Indian Ocean, 488 miles southwest of Australia,
where there was a depth of 2600 fathoms, and where six
earbones were procured, be excepted, all the Stations where
these Cetacean remains were found are situated in the South
Pacific, in a region the farthest removed from continental
land on the surface of the globe, of which Tahiti may be
taken as the centre (see Sheet l).

It may be assumed that Whales are not more numerous in the regions where these
remains have been dredged from the bottom, than in others where no bones of these animals
were obtained by means of the dredge. Mr. Murray has pointed- out that the abundance
of the bones in some localities and rarity in others is most probably connected with the

(narr. ohall. yxp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 102

Fig. 293'. — Section of a Manganese
Nodule, showing a tympanic bone of
Mesoplodon in the centre. 13th
March 1874 ; 2600 fathoms.

808

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

rate of accumulation of oceanic deposits. In deposits in more or less close proximity to
continents and islands, they become covered over and imbedded in the detritus brought
down from the land, and hence the chance of taking them in the dredge is small. The
same is the case in the regions occupied by Pteropod and Globigerina oozes, where they
become covered over and masked by the shells of pelagic Molluscs and Foraminifera.
But in those red clay regions far removed from land, where the depth is too great for
the calcareous surface shells to reach the bottom, they are not at all, or but slightly,
covered up by, or mixed up with, other matters, and hence the dredge takes them in
great numbers.

Some of the bones were in a much better state of preservation than others ; in some
the coating of manganese was very thin, and the Haversian canals and lacunae were but
little impregnated by that substance, so that a fractured surface was greyish white ; in
others, not only were the bones thickly encrusted, but the canals and lacunae were nearly
all infiltrated with the manganese, so that the fractured surface was brown or black, and the
bones very brittle. The great majority of the large cancellated bones of the Whales
appeared to have been removed from the deposits through the chemical action of the
sea water. The chemical composition of those which remained was entirely altered, and
this was more especially the case with the fragments of flat bones and others of a more
porous texture (see Appendix V.).

The preservation of the earbones and of the fragments of the beaks of Ziphioid
Whales is accounted for by the great density of these portions of the skeleton, and the
consequent small amount of surface presented to the action of the sea water when
compared with the cancellated bones. Professor Turner points
out that he could not identify any of the bones as' belonging
to the Great Sperm Whale ( Physeter macrocephalus), although
the track of the Challenger, where such hauls of Cetacean
bones were made, was through the part of the Pacific
frequented by that huge Cetacean.

The Sharks’ teeth, several hundreds of which, as stated
above, were taken in a single dredging, have a distribution in
the deposits similar to that of the bones of Cetaceans,
although they were dredged more frequently. They are
most abundant in the red clay areas far removed from land,
and especially in those of the Central South Pacific ; they
were less frequently taken in the organic oozes of the deep
September sea, and only in one or two instances in the blue muds, green
muds, and volcanic muds surrounding continental land or
oceanic islands. As in the case of the bones of Cetaceans, the occurrence of these teeth
in greatest abundance in the red clay areas of the abysmal regions, and their rarity in

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

809

terrigenous deposits, is obviously connected with the more rapid accumulation of the
latter, by which the teeth are covered up and the chance of the dredge bringing them up
greatly lessened.

The cosmic spherules discovered by Mr. Murray in deep-sea deposits are likewise
more numerous in the deposits of the Central Pacific than elsewhere, and their relative
abundance in the deposits brought up in the various dredgings and trawlings is the same
as in the case of the Cetacean bones and Sharks’ teeth, and is to be explained in the same
manner. These spherules have been recently more minutely examined by Messrs. Murray
and Renard, who write : —

“It is known that the atmosphere holds in suspension an immense number of
microscopic particles which are of organic and inorganic origin, and are either dust taken
up by aerial currents from the ground or are extra-terrestrial bodies. A large number
of scientific men, headed by Ehrenberg, Daubree, Reichenbach, Nordenskiold, and
Tissandier, have studied this interesting problem, and have brought forward many facts
in support of the cosmic origin of some of the metallic particles found in atmospheric
precipitations.

“ It is certain that serious objections may be raised against the origin of a large number
of so-called cosmic dusts. In a great many cases it can be shown that these dusts are
composed of the same minerals as the terrestrial rocks which are to be met with at short
distances from the spot where the dust had been collected, and a cosmic origin can be
attributed only to the metallic iron. It is somewhat astonishing, however, that no trace is
ever found in these dusts of meteoric silicates, although in a great many meteorites it might
be said that the iron is only accidentally present, while the silicates predominate. On
the other hand, having regard to the mineralogical composition of meteorites, it appears
strange that the so-called cosmic dusts should present characters so variable, from the
point of view of their mineralogical composition, in the different regions where they have
been collected. It might also be objected that even the iron, nickel, and cobalt could
come from decomposing volcanic rocks in which these bodies are sometimes present,
and this objection would seem quite natural, especially in this particular case, where
there are numerous volcanic fragments in decomposition on the bottom of the sea.
Again, according to numerous researches, native iron is found, although rarely, in various
rocks and sedimentary layers of the globe. A reduction of the oxide of iron into metal
might also be admitted under the influence of organic substances. It might still further
be objected in opposition to the cosmic origin of the fine particles of native iron that they
might be carried by aerial currents from furnaces, locomotives, the ashes of grates, and, in
the case of the ocean, from steamers. All the materials of combustion furnish consider-
able quantities of iron dust, and it would not be astonishing to find that this, after having
been transported .by the winds, should again fall on the surface of the earth at great*
distances from its source.

810

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

“ Such are the objections which present themselves when it is proposed to pronounce
upon the origin of particles which are regarded as cosmic, and of which a short description
will be here given. Many of these doubts will be at once removed by a statement of the
circumstances under which cosmic spherules are found in deep-sea deposits, and it will
be found also that all the objections are disposed of by showing the association of metallic
spherules with the most characteristic bodies of undoubted meteorites.

“ In the first place, the considerable distance from land at which cosmic particles are
found in greatest abundance in deep-sea deposits, eliminates at once objections which
might be raised with respect to metallic particles found in the neighbourhood of inhabited
countries. On the other hand, the form and character of the spherules of extra-terrestrial
origin are essentially different from those collected near manufacturing centres. These
magnetic spherules have never elongated necks or a cracked surface like those derived
from furnaces with which they have been carefully compared. Neither are the magnetic
spherules with a metallic centre comparable either in their form or structure to those
particles of native iron which have been described in the eruptive rocks, especially in the
basaltic rocks of the north of Ireland, of Iceland, &c.

“ Having referred to the objections, what can now be said in support of the hypothesis
that many of the magnetic particles from the bottom of the sea, which are especially abun-
dant in those regions where the rate of accumulation of the deposit is exceedingly slow,
are of cosmic origin ? If a magnet be plunged into an oceanic deposit, specially a red
clay from the central parts of the Pacific, particles are extracted, some of which are
magnetite from volcanic rocks, and to which vitreous matters are often attached ; others
again are quite isolated, and differ in most of their properties from the former. The
latter are generally round, measuring hardly 0-2 mm., generally they are smaller, their
surface is entirely covered with a brilliant black coating having all the properties of mag-
netic oxide of iron, often there may be noticed upon them cup-like depressions clearly
marked. If these spherules are broken down in an agate mortar, the brilliant black
coating easily falls away and reveals white or grey metallic malleable nuclei, which may
be beaten out by the pestle into thin lamellae. This metallic centre, when treated with
an acidulated solution of sulphate of copper, immediately assumes a coppery coat, thus
showing that it consists of native iron. But there are some malleable metallic nuclei
extracted from the spherules which do not give this reaction. Chemical reaction
shows that they contain cobalt and nickel ; very probably they constitute an alloy of
iron and these two metals, such as is often found in meteorites, and the presence of which
in large quantities hinders the production of the' coppery coating on the iron. G. Bose has
shown that this coating of black oxide of iron is found on the periphery of meteorites
of native iron, and its presence is readily understood whep their cosmic origin is
admitted. Indeed, these meteoric particles of native iron in their transit through the
air must undergo combustion, and, like small portions of iron from a smith’s anvil,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

811

be transformed either entirely or at the surface only into magnetic oxide, and in this
latter case the nucleus is protected from further oxidation by the coating which thus
covers it.

“ One may suppose that meteorites in their passage through the atmosphere break
into numerous fragments, that incandescent particles of iron are thrown off all round
them, and that these eventually fall to the surface of the globe as almost impalpable
dust, in the form of magnetic oxide of iron more or less completely fused. The luminous
trains of falling stars are probably due to the combustion of these innumerable particles,
resembling the sparks which fly from a ribbon of iron burnt in oxygen, or the particles of
the same metal thrown off when striking a flint. It is easy to show that these particles
in burning take a spherical form, and are surrounded by a layer of black magnetic oxide.

“ Among the magnetic grains found in the same conditions as those just described
are other spherules, which are referred to the chondres, so that if the interpretation of a

Pig. 295. — Black Spherule
with Metallic Nucleus (j).
This spherule, covered with
a coating of black shining
magnetite, represents the
most frequent shape. The
depression here shown is
often found at the surface
of these spherules. Prom
2375 fathoms, South Pacific.

Pig. 296.— Black Spheral,
with Metallic Nucleus (§”) ■
The black external coatin
of magnetic oxide has been
broken away to show the
metallic nucleus, represented
by the clear part at the.
centre. Prom 3150 fathoms,
Atlantic.

cosmic origin for the magnetic spherules with a metallic centre were not established in a
manner absolutely beyond question, it almost becomes so when their association with
the silicate spherules is taken into account. It will be seen by the microscopic details
that these spherules have quite the constitution and structure of chondres so frequent in
meteorites of the most ordinary type, and on the other hand they have never been found,
as far as is known, in rocks of a terrestrial origin ; in short, the presence of these
spherules in the deep-sea deposits, and their association with the metallic spherules, is a
matter of prime importance.

“ Among the fragments attracted by the magnet in deep-sea deposits granules are
distinguished slightly larger than the spherules with the shining black coating above
described. These are yellowish brown, with a bronze-like lustre, and under the
microscope, it is noticed that the surface, instead of being quite smooth, is grooved by
thin lamellae. In size they never exceed a millimetre, generally they are about 0‘5 mm.

812

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

in diameter ; they are never perfect spheres, as in the case of the black spherules with a
metallic centre ■ and sometimes a depression more or less marked is to be observed an
the periphery. When examined by the microscope it is seen that the lamellae which
compose them are applied the one against the other, and have a radial eccentric disposi-
tion. It is the leafy radial (‘ radialblattrig ’) structure, like that of the eliondres of
bronzite, which predominates in the preparations. The granular structure of the chondres
of olivine is observed much less rarely, and indeed there is some doubt about the indi-
cations of thisl ast type of structure. Fig. 297 shows the characters and texture of one
of these spherules magnified 25 diameters. On account of their small dimensions, as
well as of their friability due to their lamellar structure, it is difficult to polish one of
these spherules, and it has been necessary to study them with reflected light, or to limit
the observations to the study of the broken fragments.

“ These spherules break up along the lamellae, which are seen to be extremely fine

enstatitel Prom 3500 fathoms Central represented in fig. 297, highly magnified.

South Pacific.

and perfectly transparent. In rotating ' between crossed nicols they have the extinctions
of the rhombic system, and in making use of the condenser it is seen that they have one
optic axis. It is observed also that when several of these lamellae are attached, they
extinguish exactly at the same time, so that everything seems to indicate that they form
a single individual.

“ In studying these transparent and very thin fragments with the aid of a high
magnifying power, it is observed that they are dotted with brown-black inclusions, dis-
posed with a certain symmetry, and showing somewhat regular contours ; these inclusions
are referred to magnetic iron, and their presence explains how these spherules of bronzite
are extracted by the magnet. It is to be observed, however, that they are not so strongly
magnetic as those with a metallic nucleus.

“They are designated bronzite rather than enstatite,' because of the somewhat deep
tint which they present ; they are insoluble in hydrochloric acid. Owing to the small

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

813

quantity of substance available, only a qualitative analysis could be made, which showed
the presence in them of silica, magnesia, and iron.

“ These remarks have been limited to these succinct details, but it is believed
that enough has been said to show that these spherules in their essential characters
are related to the chonclres of meteorites, and have the same mode of formation.
In conclusion, it may be stated that when the coating of manganese depositions, which
surround Sharks’ teeth, earbones of Cetaceans, and other nuclei, is broken off and pounded
in a mortar to fine dust, and the magnetic particles then extracted by means of a magnet,
these latter are found to be composed of silicate spherules, spherules with a metallic
centre, and magnetic iron, in all respects similar to those found in the deposits in which
the nodules were embedded.”

Mr. Murray 1 has pointed out the large part played by volcanic debris and the products
arising from its decomposition in the formation of deep-sea deposits, and the microscopic
characters of these materials have been described by Messrs. Murray and Renard in more
recent papers.2 Since these volcanic materials were especially abundant in the deep
water of the Central Pacific, and as they, owing to the slow accumulation of the deposits,
have been long subjected to hydrochemical action, the chief peculiarities of the rocks and
minerals brought up by the dredge in this region may be pointed out. At two Stations
near the 38th parallel of south latitude, one or two fragments of granite, gneiss, and
arkose were obtained, which fact seems to show that a stray iceberg may occasionally reach
this low latitude. With the above exception all the. rocks and minerals dredged from
the Central Pacific were of volcanic origin. Pumice was present in all the dredgings, but
the most abundant fragments belonged to the family of the basalts, and the majority of
these belonged to the vitreous series of those basic rocks. Rarely some specimens
contained hornblende and sanidine. The basaltic, generally vitreous, rocks are represented
by fragments rarely exceeding a few centimetres in maximum diameter. From their
form, their association with volcanic ash, and their lithological constitution, they cannot
be considered as derived from lava flows spread over the sea bottom, but rather as frag-
mentary materials such as lapilli and volcanic ash, the accumulation of which at some
spots on the floor of the Pacific appears to constitute submarine tuffs, which by their
mode of origin probably resemble in many respects that attributed by Murchison and
Ramsay to certain igneous beds regularly intercalated among the Palaeozoic formations of
the British Islands.

The fragments, are usually incrusted with and infiltrated by peroxide of manganese,

1 On the Distribution of Volcanic Debris over the Floor of the Ocean, &c., Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. ix.
pp. 247-261, 1877.

2 On the Nomenclature, Origin, and Distribution of Deep-Sea Deposits, Ibid., vol. xii. pp. 495-529, 1884 ; On
the Microscopical Characters of Volcanic Ashes and Cosmic Dust, and their Distribution in Deep-Sea Deposits, Ibid.,
pp. 474-495, 1884.

814

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

and frequently form the nuclei of manganese nodules. From the closeness of their grain,
and the minute dimensions of their constituent elements, it is hardly possible to identify
the fragments with the naked eye ; a large proportion of the constituent minerals occur
also in an advanced state of decomposition. By microscopic examination it is found
that the fragments are usually referable to felspathic basalts and kindred rocks ; in
some olivine is quite absent or a little hornblende is present, or they pass into augite-
andesites ; in others intercalation of a vitreous base may be observed, these fragments
forming a transition to rocks in which such a base is abundantly developed. In all these,
two varieties of structure may be distinguished, the one compact, the other porous.
Generally the plagioclases are the constituents which' have most energetically resisted
decomposition ; the infiltrated manganese, the altered olivine, and the vitreous base trans-
formed into red spots, render conspicuous the crystals of felspar which stand out glassy
and colourless from the matrix in which they are imbedded. The felspars are usually in the
form in which they occur in basalts, but sometimes are in the form of rhombic lamellse.1
Some sections of the bisilicate are augite, others are. seen whose extinctions indicate
a pleochroic rhombic pyroxene. The magnetic iron has the same features as this mineral
assumes in the basalts. The olivine is the mineral in which the decomposition is most
advanced ; in some instances the mineral would not be recognisable except for the
crystallographic outlines of its sections ; generally they are transformed into a reddish
brown matter in which the cleavage lines may still be observed, but these sections have
lost their optical properties. The vitreous base, when present, is altered to yellowish red
irregular spots enclosed between the felspars and augites.

The great majority of the vitreous fragments must be considered as lapilli which have
undergone submarine hydrochemical alteration, such as Sartorius von Walterhausen has
observed in the palagonitic tuffs of Sicily. These lapilli rarely consist of a homogeneous
glass without interposition of crystalline constituents (see PI. 0, fig. 8). The dredged
specimens are sometimes composed of single fragments, sometimes of several cemented
together by chemical action after their deposition. The aspect of these fragments,
when not transformed into palagonite, is a blackish brilliant iridescent homogeneous
glass. Thin slices under the microscope show crystallites and crystals of olivine,
lamellse and rhombic plates of plagioclase, crystals of augite, and rarely magnetic iron.
The vitreous substance has seldom preserved its original characters ; it is almost always
transformed into a brownish red matter at the edges. The grains which have under-
gone this modification are the same as those described by Darwin, Yon Walterhausen
and Bunsen as forming the incoherent volcanic masses designated palagonitic tuffs.
The fracture is resinoid with greasy lustre, and when the specimens were taken from the
sea, the palagonitic matter could be cut away with a knife like new cheese. The dif-
ferent phases of decomposition show themselves from the circumference to the centre
1 Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xii. p. 482, 1884.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

815

-as concentric zones of different colours frequently giving the fragment the aspect of
certain agates. The hydrochemical change has in some instances proceeded so far that
the vitreous matter has totally disappeared, but frequently the glass still occupies the centre
of the lapilli. The decomposition and disintegration of these vitreous matters result in an
argillaceous residue which forms a large part of deep-sea deposits. Wichmann has pointed
out that a similar reddish clayey matter results from the decomposition of the vitreous
basic rocks of the island of Futuna, one of the Tongu Islands. The hydrochemical action
which results in the formation of zeolites at the bottom of the sea is probably the most
interesting of all. A very large number of the volcanic fragments present under the
microscope remarkable examples of the development of zeolitic minerals. Between the
granules of vitreous and basaltic rocks in most of the nodules are colourless bands
composed of small prismatic crystals. These cement the lapilli, are attached at one
end and arranged in tufts ; they protrude to meet those which advance from the next
.fragment, and at the point of union the heads of the crystals become interlaced,
forming a serrated line often distinctly marked by infiltration of manganese. When
these crystals fill the vesicular pores of a rock fragment the terminal faces are always
turned towards the inside of the cavities ; frequently the crystals are not fixed directly to
the wall of the pore or fissure, but are separated from it by one or two zones of reddish
brown or yellow-green matter (see Plate 0, fig. 12).

In addition to the zeolitic crystals found in the fragments of altered rock, there are
microscopic crystals and zeolitic spherules in the clay itself. The spherules are fibro-
radiated, appear to the naked eye like whitish vitreous granules covered with manganese
and iron oxides ; their diameter is about 0'5 mm., under the microscope their surfaces
are seen by reflected light to be crowded with the extremities of the crystals, the faces
of which are exactly the same as those of philipsite, faces of a rectangular prism
terminating in a summit with four lozenge-shaped faces which rest on the edges of the
prism. Chemical analysis shows that these spherules have the composition of philipsite.
Although the greater number of the crystal spherules are formed by the irregular group-
ing of prisms diverging from a centre, they are sometimes composed of a smaller number
of crystals which cross each other with such regularity that they must be looked upon as
twin-crossed crystals, so common in the case of philipsite. Associated with the spherules
and cross-twinned crystals are smaller crystals of the same species ; some are so small
that even with the highest magnifying power they appear as small lines ; the crystals
are often obscured by particles of manganiferous clay, but when these are removed by
hydrochloric acid the form of the crystal becomes more apparent since a siliceous skeleton
remains. At a few Stations these crystals and crystal balls make up nearly a third of the
deposit.

It may be stated generally, that the manganese-iron nodules, which have been so
frequently referred to in the course of this Narrative, occur more frequently and

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 103

816

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

abundantly in the deep deposits of the Central South Pacific than elsewhere, a fact,
which appears to be associated with the larger quantity of volcanic debris belonging to
the basic series of rocks, which is in this region spread out on the floor of the ocean, and

Explanation of Plate 0.

Fig. 1. Crystals of philipsite seen by reflected light (P). These spherules are the most frequent form in
which zeolites are formed in the deep-sea clays of the Central Pacific. The crystals are irregularly
grouped, and have a fibro-radiate arrangement. At the periphery the four faces of the octahedron
surmounting the prism are seen ; this is more clearly shown in fig. 3. South Pacific, 2350 fathoms.

Fig. 2. Section of pumice showing the infiltration of manganese in all the pores of the rock ; at the lower
part of the figure sections of augite and plagioclase are seen. South Pacific, 1350 fathoms.

Fig. 3. Twinned crystal of philipsite (p), frequently found in the deposits, and characteristic of this species
of zeolite, as seen by reflected light. South Pacific, 2350 fathoms.

Fig. 4. Volcanic ashes, composed of fragments of hornblende, plagioclase, grains- of magnetite, vitreous
particles, cemented by infiltration of manganese (~). The mass formed the centre of a manganese
nodule. South Pacific, 2385 fathoms.

Fig. 5. Nodule of manganese formed on the tooth of a Shark ( Carcharodon ), half natural size. South Pacific,
2750 fathoms.

Fig. 6. Section of a zeolitic spherule resembling that represented in fig. 1, showing the fibro-radiate disposition
and termination of the heads of the crystals, as well as the zones of increase (~-3). The reddish
matter which colours the spherule at the periphery is due to the oxides of iron and manganese.
The spherule is surrounded by argillaceous matter.

Fig. 7. Section of a lapillus of sideromelan (—)■ The brown portion is a volcanic glass with numerous
crystals of felspar, augite, and hornblende, which is not yet decomposed. The reddish, brown
portions which contain the same crystals as the brown glass are decomposed and present the
resinous characters of palagonite. The sideromelan is perfectly isotropic, while the palagonite
affects the light between crossed Nicols. South Indian Ocean, 2600 fathoms.

Fig. 8. Microscopic section of a nodule of manganese (P). The figure shows several concretionary centres ;

in the upper part the’ iron-manganiferous matter is seen disposed in irregular zones around a fish
tooth ; a second centre is a decomposed fragment of basaltic rock. The figure also shows the usual
concretionary zones present in the nodules. South Pacific, 2375 fathoms.

Fig. 9. Fragment of rounded pumice such as is usually present in the deposits, cut so as to show the zone of
decomposition which surrounds the specimen ; the vitreous matter at the periphery becomes very
friable and impregnated with peroxide of manganese. South Pacific, 2050 fathoms.

Fig. 10. Section of alapilli of augite-andesite, composed of lamellae of plagioclase, augite, and magnetic iron (-/-).
The external zone is covered with a coating of manganese. South Pacific, 2350 fathoms.

Fig. 11. Nodule of manganese formed round a Shark’s tooth; the upper part is removed to show the situation
of the tooth, one-half natural size. South Pacific, 2385 fathoms.

Fig. 12. Section of palagonitic lapilli cemented by bands of crystals of philipsite and manganese-iron
infiltration (^P). South Pacific, 2350 fathoms.

Fig. 13. The figure shows the two halves of a manganese nodule. The one to the right has been treated with
hydrochloric acid to eliminate the oxides of iron and manganese, and shows the framework of the
nodule, consisting chiefly of clayey matter; the one to the left shows the ordinary appearance of
the nodule in section. South Pacific, 2900 fathoms,

The Voyage of H.l. S." Challenger’.’

Narrative. PI. 0.

A.RenarcL flel.

P. HutTi.lithTEdin*

Deep Sea Deposits.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

817

has undergone profound alteration- from the long time it has been exposed to the hydro-
chemical action of sea water. For analyses of these manganese nodules see Appendix Y.

It appears then that Shark’s teeth, bone's of Cetaceans, cosmic metallic spherules and
cliondres, highly altered volcanic -fragments, manganese nodules, and zeolites occur in
greatest abundance in the abysmal red clay regions of the Central South Pacific, at that
part of the earth’s surface farthest removed from continental land. AH these substances
occur in the other deposits, but owing to the abundance of other materials present in the
more rapidly forming deposits, they are covered up and masked, and the chance of obtain-
ing them in the dredge is greatly reduced ; they are probably also in some degree pro-
tected in these latter deposits, from the hydrochemical action of sea water. They are less
abundant in the Radiolarian oozes than in the red clays, are still less so in Globigerina,
Diatom, and Pteropod oozes, and have been dredged in only a few instances ’ in the terri-
genous deposits which surround the shores of continents and islands. A few analyses of
the bones, teeth, nodules, and deposits referred to above, are given in Appendix V., and
fuller details will be given in the forthcoming Report on Deep-Sea Deposits.

The Stomatopoda. — Professor W. K. Brooks of Baltimore, who is engaged in the
preparation of a Report on the Stomatopoda collected by the Expedition, contributes the
following note : — “ The general collection of adult specimens is of very little interest, as it
contains nothing except well known species, but the surface collections of larvae are of great
value, and they are sufficiently complete to furnish the material for a very exhaustive
account of the metamorphoses, although it is impossible to give an intelligible description
of them without illustrations.

“ The group Stomatopoda is a very compact one, and the adults are almost exactly
alike in general structure, differing from each other only in minor points. Contrary to
the general rule, however, the larvae are much more different from each other than the
adults. Instead of closely resembling each other at first and gradually changing as
they approach maturity, the various species hatched from the egg as larvae differ from
each other in many important features, and become more and more alike as they develop.

“All the Stomatopod larvae are pelagic animals, and many of them have been
collected by explorers, and have received distinct generic names, as adults.

“ The Challenger surface collections contain hundreds of specimens of these larvae, at
all stages of growth, and thus furnish the material for a thorough revision of this subject,
showing that there are four quite distinct types of larval development, each of which is
represented by several hundred specimens.

“ I have at present been able to make a thorough study of only one of these, the
Erichthus type. This is very fully represented in the collections, from a stage younger
than the youngest figured by Claus and Faxon, up to a free-swimming animal with
very nearly the structure of the adult. The youngest larva is a little Nauplius-like form,

818

THE VOYAGE OF H.1M.S. CHALLENGER.

with sessile eyes, and a rounded body, but with rostrum _ and spines and five pairs of
schizopod feet, in addition to the mouth parts and antennae. This passes into a form like
the youngest Erichthus figured by Faxon, and from this point onwards there are two
quite distinct lines of development, each of which is represented in the collections by
larvae of two or more species. One line leads through the Erichthus, Erichthoidina, and
Squil 1 erichthus stages to the adult, and is, in all probability, the primitive or ancestral
mode of development, while the other line presents a much more accelerated history, and
leads from the Erichthus stage to a Squilla-like form, very similar to the Alima larva,.

“ The Alima type of development is also represented by two series, each of which is
represented in the collections by the larvae of several species. I have not yet been able
to study this type thoroughly, Jbut one series is much more accelerated, and less like
the Erichthus type than the other.; and the collections seem to show that the abridged
metamorphosis has been produced by' modification of the more primitive and ancestral
Erichthus series.

“ I think too that the collections prove that the Squilla larva is a modified Protozocea,
and that the Stomatopods and Decapods have had a common origin. They also furnish
several examples of the disappearance and subsequent re-development of appendages in
the course of the metamorphosis.”

Juan Fernandez.

On the 13th November, at 9 a.m., the island of Juan Fernandez was sighted ahead,
and the vessel passed round its east point at 4.30 p.m., anchoring in Cumberland Bay
at 6 p.m. in 30 fathoms, with the point on the N.W. side of the bay N. 36° W., Fort
Flag S. 70° W., and the left extremity of the land N. 80° E.

The island of Juan Fernandez,1 sometimes called “Mas-a-tierra” by the Spaniards, was
discovered by a Spanish pilot of that name in 1563, as was also the island of Mas-a-fuera,
90 miles to the westward. The discoverer obtained from his Government a grant of the
island, on which he resided some time importing goats and pigs, but he afterwards
abandoned his possession. It was however frequented by Spanish -fishermen from the
coast of Peru shortly after its discovery, as the sea in its neighbourhood was found to be
well stocked with fish of all kinds.

In 1616 Le Maire and Schouten called at Juan Fernandez on their voyage round the
world, and laying to off its west side, watered their ships and caught numerous fish,
principally Bream. At this time there were both goats and pigs on the island.

On April 4th, 1624, the Nassau fleet, under the command of Admiral Jacob

1 Burney's Voyages, vol. i. p. 274, London, 1803 ; Proc. Geogr. Soc.; Naut. Mag. ; Voyage of Capts. Edward Cooke
and Wood.es Rogers ; Ulloa’s Voyage to South America ; Noticia Secretas de America ; Morrell's Voyage ; History of
Chili, by Ignatius Molina, &c.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

819

l’Heremite, anchored in a bay on the northeast side of Juan Fernandez, probably in
Cumberland Bay. The anchorage was on a steep bank of rock and sand, and the depth
Was so great that it was necessary to approach the shore within half musket shot to
obtain soundings of 30 to 34 fathoms. Some of the vessels anchored first in 80 to 90
fathoms, and then warped closer in. The valleys adjacent to the anchorage were covered
with herbage, and the fresh water was excellent. Fish, Fur Seals, and Elephant Seals
( Morunga elephantina), the latter being called “ Sea Lions ” by all the voyagers, including
Anson, who figures them, were abundant, and many were killed. The flesh of the Elephant
Seals when roasted and with the fat cut off was considered by some of the men equal
to mutton, but others would not eat it. Goats were seen, but were difficult to approach.
Sandalwood was growing in great quantity, and near the anchorage were some wild
quince trees. Three soldiers and three gunners of the Vice-Admiral’s ship remained
behind when the fleet left on April 13th. What became of them is not known, as from
1624 to 1680 little or nothing is known of the island.

On Christmas day 1680, the buccaneer Sharp anchored in a bay on the south
side of Juan Fernandez Island, but finding that the winds at that season of the year
prevailed from the southward, he shifted round to a bay on the north side of the island,
where he moored his vessel with one anchor in 14 fathoms and a hawser fast to the trees
on shore, the land extending from E.S.E. round by S. and W. to N. by W. Sharp must
therefore have anchored in Cumberland Bay. Owing to the strong gusts from the hills
the vessel parted from her moorings twice and was forced to sea, but each time recovered
the anchorage without difficulty. At the time of Sharp’s visit the island was much
frequented by Fur Seals and Elephant Seals, whose noise and company were troublesome to
the men employed in watering. Fish were plentiful, and innumerable Sea Birds had their
nests on shore. Cray -fish (a large Paliriurus ) were abundant, and Wild Goats so numerous
that a hundred were salted down in addition to those killed for present use. Whilst
employed refitting his ship, Sharp was surprised by three armed Spanish vessels approach-
ing the -island, upon which, all the men employed on shore were recalled, the cable
slipped, and they put to sea, but in the hurry of quitting the island one of the Mosquito
Indians, named William, was left on shore, and circumstances prevented his being
rescued. William remained on the island until March 1684, when another buccaneer
named Cook called in for refreshments, in whose vessel were several men who had
formerly served with Sharp. Anxious to discover whether their old shipmate yet
survived, a boat was quickly despatched to the shore, in which were Dampier and a
countryman of William’s named Robin, and as they drew near the land they had the
satisfaction of seeing William standing on the beach. The interview between the two
Indians was very affectionate, and his old shipmates were glad to welcome William
again after his long residence in solitude, for although in the interval several Spanish
vessels had visited Juan Fernandez, William had always concealed himself. When first

820

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

left on the island, William had a musket, a knife, a small horn of powder, and a few
shot. When his ammunition was expended, he contrived by notching his knife to
saw the barrel of his gun into small pieces, which he made into harpoons, lances, hooks,
and a long knife by heating the iron and hammering it out with stones. His clothes
were soon worn out, and he clad himself with a skin about the waist. From the skins
of Seals he manufactured fishing lines, and built himself a hut half a mile from the shore
which he lined with goat skins.

At the time of Cook’s visit in 1684, the buccaneers found a good supply of
provisions, consisting of wild vegetables, Goats, Fur Seals, Elephant Seals, and Fish.
Pigs are not mentioned.

At the end of 1687 five men voluntarily remained at Juan Fernandez from another
buccaneer ship commanded by Captain Edward Davis. A canoe, arms, ammunition, and
various implements were furnished them, together with a stock of maize, and each
buccaneer had a negro attendant landed with him. They remained on the island until
October 1690, when the English ship “Welfare,” Captain John Strong, anchored there
and took them off. Nothing is said of the manner in which they employed themselves,
except that they lived in subterranean places and had tamed a large number of goats.
When they landed first, dogs are reported to have been placed on the island by the
Spaniards with a view of destroying the goats, but as mention is made by Dampier in
1704 that there were then no dogs, it is probable that these five buccaneers had managed
to exterminate them.

In February 1704 Dampier called at Juan Fernandez, and whilst there, Captain
Stradling of the “ Cinque Ports Galley” quarrelled with his men, forty-two of whom
deserted, but were afterwards reconciled by Dampier ; five seamen however remained
on shore. In October 1704 the “ Cinque Ports Galley” returned to Juan Fernandez and
found two of these men, the others having apparently been captured by the French.

During this visit, Captain Stradling had some " disagreement with the master of
his ship, Alexander Selkirk, who in the first heat of his dissatisfaction demanded to be
landed, preferring to be left on a desert 'island rather than remain any longer under the
command of Stradling. His desire was complied with and he was sent' on shore with his
clothes, bedding, a firelock, one pound of gunpowder, a hatchet, cooking utensils, some
tobacco, and his books. Before the ship departed Selkirk changed his mind and desired
to return on board, but was refused admittance into the ship. Selkirk remained at
Juan Fernandez until February 1709, when Captain Woodes Rogers in the ship
“Duke” called at the island and found him. there. Captain Rogers was accompanied
bv another vessel named the “ Duchess,” commanded by Captain Edward Cook, and
they both wrote accounts of their voyage, and gave a description of Selkirk’s residence
on shore.

During Selkirk’s stay of four years and four months, several ships passed by the

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

821

island but only two anchored, and these being Spanish, their crews shot at him and
pursued him into the woods, where he managed to conceal himself in a tree. When first
left on shore by Straclling, Selkirk was successful in providing food and lodging for himself,
and built two huts which he covered with long grass and lined with goat skins, one of
which was used as a kitchen, and the other to sleep in. When his gunpowder failed, he
was obliged to catch the goats by speed of foot, and this he was soon enabled to do, for
his mode of living and continual exercise in running and walking, kept him in such an
excellent state of health that he could outstrip the goat in swiftness, and was quite as
surefooted. His agility in this pursuit once nearly cost him his life, as he ran with so
much eagerness that he caught hold of the animal on the brink of a precipice, which was
hidden by bushes, and fell with the goat from a great height, being so stunned and bruised
with the fall that he lay prostrate twenty-four hours before he could crawl back to his
hut, and probably would have been killed outright had he not fallen on the goat. Besides
goats, he had in the season plenty of good turnips, which were sown there by Captain
Dampier, and cabbage from the Cabbage Tree. His meat he seasoned with the fruit of
the Pimento1 and with a black pepper called “ malagueta,” which he found an excellent
stomachic.

At first Selkirk was much distressed by the want of bread and salt, but at length
grew accustomed to do without them. Salt he might easily have procured had he wished,
for the buccaneers in 1687 supplied themselves with that condiment by making salt
pans near the seaside, and it is surprising that Selkirk did not follow their example.
He soon wore out his shoes and clothes, and after a time, by being accustomed to shift
without the former, his feet became so hard that he felt no inconvenience from their
absence. Goat skins furnished him with clothes, the pimento wood with fire by
friction, and taming some kids with amusement. He describes the climate as excellent.
The winter lasts but two months (June and July), and the trees and grass are verdant
throughout the year. The residence of Selkirk on the island, together with the accounts
of the Mosquito Indians and buccaneers, furnished Daniel Defoe with materials for the
construction of his celebrated tale of Robinson Crusoe, the scene of which was, however,
transferred to the West Indies.

In 1712 it appears that some Frenchmen, under the direction of a person named
Apreanat, established a fishery at Juan Fernandez, and that a Spanish ship, the
“ St. Charles,” going there for a cargo of salt fish, was wrecked on the island, but all the
crew were saved.

In 1718 Clipperton called at Juan Fernandez. In January 1719 Shelvocke in the
“Speedwell” visited the island, remaining four days on this occasion, but he returned
in May 1720, and having only one anchor left, foolishly anchored, and was caught in
a gale on a lee shore when, his cable parting, he was obliged to beach his vessel;

1 The true Pimento is not found in Juan Fernandez ; it was probably one of the species of Myrtus.

822

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEK.

fortunately the whole crew, seventy-one persons in all, were saved. The shipwrecked
people built huts, which they thatched or covered with the skins of Elephant Seals and
Fur Seals, on the flesh of which, and on fish, they , were obliged chiefly to subsist, as
notwithstanding the plenteousness of the goats, they were difficult to procure, and they
had little powder or shot to spare for this purpose; cats, however, were plentiful, and
they varied their diet with these animals, which were thought good food. Their
vegetable diet consisted of turnips, the cabbage palm, water cresses, and wild sorrel.
This crew remained on the island until October, during which time they managed to
construct, from the remains of the wreck of their ship, a schooner of about 20 tons
burthen, in which forty-seven of them embarked and left the island, eleven English -

Fig. 299. — Cumberland Bay, Juan Fernandez.

men and thirteen Indians remaining. In this schooner they captured a ship at Pisco
and abandoned their crazy vessel to the crew of their prize, but did not return for
the rest of their shipmates on Juan Fernandez.,, These, however, were apparently
soon after taken off, for when Roggewein called at the island in March 1722, he makes
no mention of any people being there, but merely says that they salted down a number
of fish, and that one of the officers fell over a precipice and was killed.

The next account of Juan Fernandez Island is from the voyage of Commodore Anson,
who touched there in 1741 and landed his crew, then suffering dreadfully from the
scurvy. He anchored in Cumberland Bay in June in the “ Centurion,” and was joined there
by the “Trial,” the “ Gloucester,” and the “Anna,” At this time the productions of the

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

823

island were much as formerly, the vegetables consisting of the cabbage palm, celery, water
cresses, sorrel, parsley, turnips, and radishes. Commodore Anson added to these produc-
tions by sowing garden seeds and fruit stones, viz. , lettuces, carrots, plums, and peaches,
some of which prospered well. Some goats were captured whose ears had been slit by
Selkirk thirty years previously. Anson remained at anchor in Cumberland Bay until
September, when the health of the people having been restored, he continued his
voyage. During their stay at Juan Fernandez the “Trial” visited Mas-a-fuera Island,
and found there numerous goats, for, the anchorage being more exposed than at Juan
Fernandez, the Spaniards had not landed dogs on that island with a view of destroying
the goats.

In 1743, two Spanish frigates commanded by Don George Juan and Don Antonio
Ulloa visited Juan Fernandez, and Ulloa has given a description of the island. During
their stay they visited the valley where Anson had erected his tents, to search for any
instructions that might have been left behind, but found only some tent poles and
small wooden bridges for crossing the ravine, Ulloa gives an account of a fish caught
here, possessing a spur or bone which is an infallible remedy for toothache. This fish, he
says, “ resembles the Tollo in shape ; from the fore part of each of the two fins on its back
grows a kind of triangular spur a little bent, but round near the back and terminating
in a point. It has a fine gloss and the hardness of a bone. At the root of it is a soft
spongy substance.” Ulloa asserts that he himself and several of his friends tried this
remedy with complete success, and that soon after the application of this spur or
bone to the tooth, a drowsiness succeeded and the patient awoke free from pain.
The dogs on Juan Fernandez in Ulloa’s time were a species of greyhound sent thither
by the Viceroy of Peru to exterminate the goats, so that the island might no longer
furnish supplies to piratical vessels. The goats, however, being more nimble and
surefooted than the dogs, the latter fed on the Fur Seals and Elephant Seals.

On a second visit to the island in the same year, Ulloa saw on the top of one of the
mountains a bright light, which was at first very small, but increased so as to form a
flame like that of a flambeau ; the full vigour of the light lasted three or four minutes,
when it diminished, and was not seen afterwards. Subsequently it was discovered that
the ground in the vicinity of the spot where this flame was seen was full of fissures
still hot, and much burnt, from which Ulloa concluded that he had seen a small volcanic
outburst.

After the return of Anson, a question arose as to the advantage of forming a colony
on Juan Fernandez, but the Spanish Government, obtaining intelligence that this project
was under consideration in England, sent orders at once to take possession of all the
outlying islands off the coast of South America, and in conformity with these orders a
settlement was established at Juan Fernandez in 1750, consisting of a company of
infantry and the necessary staff, with 22 prisoners. In all, 171 persons of both sexes were

(narr. ohall. esp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 104

824

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

safely landed, with cattle, mules, sheep, and a variety of poultry, as well as a suitable
supply of seed and agricultural implements. A fort mounting 18 guns was also
constructed. But this little colony had not been long settled when it was almost totally
destroyed by the same dreadful earthquake which in 1751 overthrew the city of
Concepcion in Chili. With this earthquake the sea rose and overwhelmed the houses,
part of which were built on the seashore ; 85 persons perished, amongst whom
were the Governor with his wife and family. The settlement was afterwards rebuilt
in a safer position farther inshore. The expenses of this settlement in 1753 were
12,640 dollars.

Carteret was the first English navigator who noticed this settlement. He sighted
Juan Fernandez in May 1767, and was greatly surprised to see a considerable number of
men about the beach, with a house and four pieces of cannon near the water side, and a
fort 300 yards inland on the brow of a hill with Spanish colours flying. Twenty-five or
thirty houses were scattered round the fort, and many cattle were seen feeding, and the
land also appeared to be cultivated. Carteret hoisted no colours but stood on for Mas-a-
fuera Island. It may appear strange that Carteret, whose crew were much in want of
water and refreshment, should leave an island on which he saw a settlement, cattle, &c.,
and prefer to proceed towards an uninhabited island, where the anchorage was bad, and
the water could only be procured at considerable risk ; but it must be borne in mind
that the Spaniards in those days were most inhospitable, and it is related in Captain Basil
Hall’s “South America” that when (between the years 1784 and 1790) an American
vessel from Boston touched at Juan Fernandez, having lost one of her masts, sprung
her rudder, and being short of water and wood, the Viceroy of Peru and Chili repri-
manded the Governor of the island for permitting the ship to repair damages and
leave the port, instead of taking possession both of her and the crew, and giving an
account of his having done so to his immediate superior the President of Chili. The
Viceroy expressed his surprise that the Governor of an island should not know that every
strange vessel which anchored in these seas, without a license from Spanish authorities,
ought to be treated as an enemy, even though the nation to which she belonged should
be an ally of Spain, and gave orders, should the distressed vessel appear again, that she
was to be seized immediately and her crew imprisoned. Such conduct fully explains
the reluctance exhibited by the old voyagers to placing themselves in the power or
under the guns of a Spanish fortress, and also accounts for the meagre knowledge of the
island available from the date of its first settlement by the Spaniards in 1750. In
1792 Lieutenant John Boss, B.N., then in command of a whaling vessel called the
“ William,” visited Juan Fernandez and found forty settlers and six soldiers on the
island, occupying a village in Cumberland Bay, every house having a garden attached,
with arbours of vines. Figs, cherries, plums, and almonds were abundant, as also were
potatoes, cabbages, onions, and other vegetables.

WARE ATI YE OF THE CRUISE.

825

In 1814, daring the revolutionary wars on the South American continent, the
Spaniards withdrew the garrison from Juan Fernandez, destroying, when they left, all the
valuable trees, such as sandalwood,1 &c. In a moment of victory during these wars, the
Spanish royalist Osorio banished to the island a number of Chilian patriots, who were
afterwards, when fortune favoured their side, brought back to Chili with much triumph
and exultation.

Shortly after 1818 Juan Fernandez was utilised as a state prison, and the Chilian
Government sent such convicts there as were condemned to hard labour. In 1824 there
appear to have been three hundred convicts on the island, guarded by one hundred
regular troops. In that year the valleys of the island were swarming with wild cattle,
horses, hogs, sheep, and goats, and vegetables and . fruit were abundant, consisting of
radishes, water cresses, parsley, turnips, purslain, apples, pears, peaches, plums, apricots,
figs, cherries, and strawberries ; but the Fur Seals and the Elephant Seals found formerly
in such abundance had almost wholly disappeared. Fish was, however, as plentiful
as ever.

In 1830, when Juan Fernandez was visited by H.M.S. “Adventure,” Captain P. P.
King, there were no convicts, but the island was rented from the Chilian Government by
Don Joachim Larrain for fishing purposes. His establishment consisted of forty persons,
who caught and dried the fish for the Chilian market, particularly the rock lobsters, the
tails of which when cured are much esteemed and fetch a high price in Chili. At the
time of Captain King’s visit no supplies could be procured except wild goats, wild
peaches, figs, and fish, the cattle so abundant in 1824 having entirely disappeared, but in
what manner does not appear to be known. As vessels frequently touched at the island,
particularly whalers, the establishment of forty persons might naturally have been expected
to cultivate the land, grow vegetables and fruit, &c. , but their first effort to raise potatoes
having been defeated by the destructive ravages of a worm, they discontinued their
agricultural pursuits.

In 1833 Juan Fernandez was again utilised as a convict station by the Chilian
Government, and in that year a number of prisoners took possession, during the night, of
a French brig that had called at the island for supplies, and compelled the crew to take
them to Chiloe.

In 1835 the island appears to have been governed by a Mr. T. Sutcliffe, an Englishman
in the Chilian service. He was present when the earthquake took place on the 20th
February of that year, of which he gives the following account: — “At 11.30 a.m. the sea
rose over the mole and afterwards retired, leaving the greater part of Cumberland Bay
dry, so much so that old anchors on the bottom became visible ; the earth then began
to shake violently, and a tremendous explosion was heard, the sea still receding in
immense rollers, which afterwards returned violently, rising to such a height that the
1 See Bot. Chall. Exp., part iii. pp. 11 et seq., 1885.

826

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER, .

settlement was literally covered and washed away, when the sea again receded. This
phenomenon occurred four times, causing much destruction, uprooting trees and drowning
cattle. Shortly after the explosion, a. large column somewhat resembling a water-spout
was seen ascending from the sea off Point Bacalao, which proved to be smoke, but at
7 p.m. volcanic flames were visible through the smoke, which lasted until 2 a.m. on the
21st. The depth of water on the spot where these eruptions took place was from 50 to
80 fathoms, and no alteration in the depth was detected the day after the eruption had
subsided.”

In this year there appear to have been 200 persons on the island altogether, including
a detachment of sixty-eight soldiers. In August of the same year an insurrection amongst
the convicts took place, and the Governor was deposed by the Commandant of troops.
At this time there were again both cattle and pigs on the island, and portions of land
were distributed amongst the convicts for cultivation. In November 1835 a Captain
Masters called in at Cumberland Bay on a voyage to Mazatlan, and purchased sheep
for four dollars each, and bullocks for fourteen dollars. In this month there were seventy
soldiers and 319 prisoners on the island, a small number of the latter being women.
Shortly after 1835 Juan Fernandez was abandoned as a convict settlement, and since
that time has been rented by the Chilian Government to such persons as cared to occupy
it for the benefit of fishing and supplying the whalers (about twenty-five annually) that
call in with fresh provisions.

In 1866, when H.M.S. “Topaze” called at the island, there were only ten inhabitants,
and the Challenger found about forty or fifty under the control of a Chilian who paid
£200 a year rent to the Chilian Government, and who had a few men also at Mas-a-fuera
Island ; he was engaged principally with the hunting of the Fur Seals.

The island of Juan Fernandez is thirteen miles in length and four in breadth,
with a total area of 28 square miles, and has off its southwest point an islet named
“ Santa Clara,” or “ Goat,” one mile and a half in length by one mile in breadth, between
which and Juan Fernandez is a channel one mile across, with a depth of 19 fathoms in
its centre. It is rugged and mountainous, the highest mountain, named “ El Yunque,”
or “the Anvil,” being 3000 feet above the level of the- sea. This mountain is almost if
not quite inaccessible, and appears never to have been ascended, although a reward was at
one time offered to the convict who should succeed in arriving at its summit, but the steep
nature of the narrow spurs that descend from it has hitherto rendered them impassable,
notwithstanding the trees that abound. The trees in Juan Fernandez are in fact no aid
to the explorer, for the soil is so light and shallow, that large trees soon perish for want
of root and are easily overturned,- several people having lost their lives by trusting to
them for support ; it should therefore be impressed on all explorers that they should here
carefully abstain from trusting to the foliage in dangerous places. There is a beaten path

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

827

from Cumberland Bay to Mount Portezuela, 1800 feet high, west of El Yunque, and this
ridge was visited several times by the officers of H.M.S. “Adventure.” It was here that
Alexander Selkirk had his lookout, as from this point both sides of the island can be seen,
and in its vicinity Commodore Powell of H.M.S. “ Topaze ” has placed a tablet with the
following inscription : — •

In Memory of

Alexander Selkirk, Mariner,

A native of Largo in the County of Fife, Scotland,

Who was on this island in complete solitude
for four years and four months.

He was landed from the Cinque ports Galley, 96 tons,

16 guns, a.d. 1704, and was taken off in the
“Duke” privateer, 12 February 1709.

He died Lieutenant of the “ Weymouth,” a.d. 1723,

Aged 47 years.

This tablet is erected near Selkirk’s look-out by
Commodore Powell and officers of
H.M.S. “Topaze,” a.d. 1868.

On the coast of Juan Fernandez are some small indentations, and vessels have anchored
on all sides of the island ; but Cumberland Bay on the north shore is the only good place,
and even here the great depth of water and the squalls from the hills render it sometimes
insecure, for the interval of calm between the squalls renders a ship liable, by surging
ahead after having had a taut cable, to overrun her anchor and foul it so that eventually
she drifts off the bank. To guard against such an accident it is advisable to lay out
a small anchor to the northward.

In the valleys the soil is of some depth, and fit for the production of any vegetable,
and wheat might possibly be grown, but the hillsides, as before mentioned, are very Steep,
and the soil there is shallow and soon washed away by the rains. The tops of the hills
are frequently capped, and from this circumstance there is never any want of fresh water
on the island, every valley apparently possessing a small stream or rivulet, by the sides
of which the early navigators planted water cresses, which still flourish. There are
upwards of twenty-four species of ferns growing in this small island of Juan Fernandez,
and in any general view the ferns form a large proportion of the main mass of vegeta-
tion. Amongst them are two tree ferns, of which only one was seen amongst the rocks
in the distance, but could not be reached. The preponderance of ferns, especially the
tree ferns, gives a pleasant yellow tinge to the general foliage. Curiously enough the
almost cosmopolitan common Brake Fern ( Pteris aquilina ) does not occur in the island.
Four species of the ferns out of the twenty-four present are peculiar to the island, and
one ( Thyrsopteris elegans) belongs to a genus which occurs only here ; its appearance is

828

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

very remarkable, for the cup-shaped sori hang down from the fronds in masses, looking
just like bunches of millet seed.

Everywhere for the first few hundred feet trees are absent, the wood having been all
felled. In 1830 a large quantity of dry old sandalwood still remained in the valleys;
but even then there were no growing sandalwood trees remaining.1 2 No doubt the
general appearance of the vegetation is very different now from what it was when the
island was first visited. In ascending the steep path leading directly from Cumberland
Bay to Selkirk’s Monument, the first tree was met with at about 700 feet altitude, all
below had been cut down. The way led through a hollow overgrown by a dense growth
of the gigantic rhubarb-like Gunnera 'peltata 2 (see PI. XXXIII. ). Darwin remarked on
the large size of the leaves of this plant and height of its stalks as seen by him in
Chili.3 The stalks of the plants he saw were not much more than 3 feet in height,
whilst in this hollow the stalks must have been 7 feet in height. The size attained by
the Gunnera varies with its situation. A narrow passage was cut in a thicket of them,
and the huge circular leaves were elevated far above a man’s head. The leaves catch
and hold a large quantity of rain water; in many places the leaves are very conspicuous
on the hillslopes, crowding closely as an undergrowth, and not rising high above the
ground.

The Challenger’s visit was in spring, when most excellent strawberries were growing
wild about the lower slopes of the island, and especially well on banks beneath the cliffs
close to the seashore. The strawberries are large and fine, but white in colour, being a
cultivated variety; they have not at all reverted to the parent wild form, either in colour
or size ; a few only were just beginning to ripen.

At this time of the year the foliage of the Myrtles, though evergreen, looks half
dead, and these trees thus' show out conspicuously amongst the rest. Here and there
the Magnoliaceous trees “ Winter’s Bark” ( Drimys confertifolia ), common in the Strait
of Magellan, were covered with showy white flowers, and large patches of a small species
of Dock ( Rumex ) in full flower showed out red amongst the general green, whilst a white-
flowered Libertia ( Libertia formosa), growing socially, formed well-marked patches of
white. A tall Verbenaceous Shrub ( Rhaphithamnus longiflorus), which was very common,
was covered with dark blue tubular flowers.

The common Sow-thistle ( Sonchus oleraceus ), the ubiquitous weed, has climbed up the
pass, and grows by the monument. The endemic Palm ( Juania australis) has been almost
exterminated, except in almost inaccessible places, as on a rock above the monument, where
a group of the trees can be seen, but not reached. The terminal shoot, especially when

1 Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of H.M.S. “Adventure” and “Beagle,” vol. i. p. 302, London, 1839. Visit
of Capt. King, H.M.S. “Adventure,” accompanied by Signor Bertero, the Botanist, February 1833.

2 Gunnera bracteata and Gunnera insularis also occur in the island.

3 C. Darwin, Journal of Researches during the Voyage of H.M.S. “ Beagle,” p. 279, ed. 1879.

JPteCe XKXm

Vegetation, Juan Fe rnande z, (G-imnera peltatcL)

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

829

cut just before the tree flowers, is excellent to eat ; the developing leaf buds being quite
white, and tasting somewhat like a fresh filbert. It seemed more delicate than the shoot
of the Cocoanut. The guide knew where there was a tree remaining in the woods not
far above sea level, and it was at once inspected in the hopes that it might be found
in flower. As it was not, it was cut down for eating, for the guide was only waiting
to let it develop further before felling it for that purpose himself. A few seedling
Palms grew near by. Palms of the same genus occur in the tropical Andes.

Most remarkable in appearance amongst composite endemic trees are the species
of the genus Dendroseris, allied to the Chicory. The specimens seen in flower were
large straggling shrubs rather than trees, but with thick woody stems and branches
from 10 to 15 feet in height. The leaves are very like those of a dandelion in
appearance, and the stem, which, when split open, has a curiously jointed pith, has just
the smell of a dandelion-root, and would, no doubt, yield chicory. It pours out, like
the dandelion and allied plants, a milky juice when cut.

Hovering over the flowering bushes and trees, were everywhere to be seen two species
of Humming Bird, one of which ( Eustephanus fernandensis) is peculiar to the island,
whilst the other ( Eustephanus galeritus), belonging to the same genus, occurs also on the
mainland. A further closely allied but peculiar species occurs in Mas-a-fuera. In the
species peculiar to the island of Juan Fernandez the male is very different in plumage
from the female, being of a chocolate colour, with an iridescent golden-brown patch
on the head, whilst the female is green. So different are the two sexes that they
were formerly supposed to represent two distinct species, as has happened in the case
of so many other birds. This endemic humming bird seemed more abundant than the
continental one.

In skinning some of the birds killed, it was noticed that the feathers at the base of
the bill and on the front of the head were clogged and coloured yellow with pollen. The
birds, no doubt, in common with other species of humming birds, and other flower-
frequenting birds, such as the Myzomelidse, are active agents in the fertilization of plants.
Pollen was noticed attached in a similar manner to the head of a bird at Cape York.
Mr. Wallace concludes that the presence of these birds, as fertilizers, accounts for the
abundance of conspicuous flowers in Juan Fernandez.1 Ten species of land and fresh-
water Mollusca were found by the Expedition, of which only one, Helix ( Stepsanoda )
selkirki, is new to science.2

The flesh of the wild goats of the island is most excellent eating, no doubt because of
the abundance of food ; in some parts of the island, especially to the southwest, there
are open stretches covered with long grass. Pigeons ( Columba cenas), which are said to
have been imported into the island, are common, and feed on the hillsides in flocks.

1 A. R. Wallace, Tropical Nature, pp. 270, 271, London, 1878.

2 E. A. Smith, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 279, 1884.

830

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Fish are very abundant and easily caught, as are also Rock Lobsters ( Palinurus
frontalis), called “ Cray-fish ” by the early navigators, which are very large, and very
good to eat. More than sixty were taken by means of a baited hoop-net put over the
ship’s side at the anchorage, and hauled up at short intervals.

Juan Fernandez is so small that from Selkirk’s Monument nearly the entire area of
the island can be overlooked. Yet this tiny spot of land contains birds, land shells,
trees, and ferns which occur nowhere else in the vast expanse of the universe, but here or
in the neighbouring Mas-a-fuera. One could almost count the number of trees of the
endemic Palm and estimate the number of pairs of the endemic Humming Bird existent
at a bird for every bush. Two of the species of land birds, and all the twenty species
of land shells of the island are endemic.1 A small bat, possibly disturbed by the sound
of the guns, was seen to fly past.

The 'temperature at the monument at 11 a.m. was 65° F. Close to the farmhouse
at the bay still remains a row of old caves dug out in the hillside by the buccaneers. All
the rocks collected at Juan Fernandez were typical felspathic basalts.

The Nemertea. — Professor Hubrecht of Utrecht, who is engaged on a Report on the
Anatomy and Histology of the Nemertea, has supplied the following notes : — “ The Nemer-
tea of the collection, although in several respects highly interesting, are very defective in
outward appearance. The immersion in spirit has not only destroyed the natural colours —
sometimes so beautiful — of all the specimens, but has at the same time reduced the size
and altered the shape of the several individuals to a very uniform cylindrical or flattened
pattern. Moreover, the habit of the Nemertea of often breaking themselves into pieces
on being placed in any preserving fluid has reduced several other specimens to fragments.
Fortunately the state of preservation of all these fragments is most satisfactory, and by
applying the modern methods of staining and section cutting they can be successfully
transferred into the more useful state of microscopic preparations, the whole animal being
in this way both durably preserved and yet fit for delicate histological and anatomical
investigations. Not one section need be lost, and the entire reconstruction of all the
internal parts thus remains possible at any time.

“ This method has already brought to light the presence amongst the Challenger
Nemertea of a new genus, represented by two fragments, which fortunately contained
all the more important organs. I propose to call it Carinina, because it is most nearly
allied to the most important and primitively organized genus Carinella; it differs from
this in certain important points, which will be treated at length in the forthcoming
Memoir. Further, it is an unmistakable representative of the interesting group of the
Palseonemertea. Both the specimens were dredged between Bermuda and Halifax
(Stations 45 and 47), at depths of 1240 and 1340 fathoms. They measure only

1 For an account of the land birds of Juan Fernandez, see an article by Dr. P. L. Sclater, Ibis, p. 178, 1871.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

831

a few millimetres in length. The accompanying woodcuts (figs. 300 and 301) repre-
sent these fragments, about four times enlarged ; these figures have very few
points of interest, giving only the general
shape together with the rounded anterior por-
tion of the body, and the openings of the mouth
and the proboscis, but there is sufficient reason
for their insertion in this place, since they bring
vividly before the mind of collectors of marine
zoological specimens the desirability of care-
fully preserving even the smallest and most
unpromising fragments that come up in the
dredge. As in this case it may often prove
possible to distinguish such fragments, speci-
fically and generically, and to obtain most valuable anatomical information by cutting
them up into sections.

“ Nemertines were obtained at more than twenty different Stations, some of them
yielding more than one species. The most striking capture was that of the beautiful
pelagic species ( Pelagonemertes rollestoni), already so carefully described by Mr. Moseley1
shortly after he had discovered and examined the specimens in the fresh state. They
were taken on two occasions; one, an apparently adult specimen, near the southern
verge of the South Australian Current, the other off Japan. This animal is most beauti-
fully transparent, the different internal organs standing out very clearly, especially
the digestive system, which is of a deep burnt-sienna colour. The lateral caeca of
the intestine are branched in the adult. The lateral nerve-cords are united by a
commissure which is situated above the posterior part of the rectum, the mouth being
also situated below the brain. Mr. Moseley suggests that the animal, although essentially
pelagic in all its characters, occurs only in deep water, and does not often come to the
surface.

“ The woodcut (fig. 302) is taken from Mr. Moseley’s figure, representing the young
specimen, which was better preserved when captured, but which has since perished.
The larger specimen, although incomplete, has been preserved in spirit, and will allow
of being cut into sections. In this way it may be possible to decide whether I am right
in supposing that although Mr. Moseley found the proboscis to be unarmed, it must
nevertheless find its place in that group of Nemertea in which the more specialized
genera, those having an armature in the proboscis, are arranged. Its position there
would not be altogether exceptional, the parasitic Malacobdella probably finding its
place there also, although in this genus the proboscis is unarmed as in Pelagonemertes.

“ Mr. Moseley has little doubt that the Pterosoma plana, described and figured by

1 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. xv. pp. 166-168, pi. xv., 1875; Ibid., vol. xvi. pp. 377-383, pi. xi., 1875.

(NARK. CHALL. EXP. -—VOL. I. — 1885.) 105

Figs. 300, 301. — Carinina, n. gen. ; four times the natural
size, o, mouth ; pr, opening for the proboscis : tr,
shallow transverse furrow, strongly ciliated.

832

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

Lesson in his Voyage de la ‘ Coquille’ as a Mollusc,1 and captured in great abundance
between the Moluccas and New Guinea, was another species of Pelagonemertes. The
genus appearing thus to have a wide distribution, and often to ‘ occur in considerable
numbers, we may look forward with interest to further specimens being captured and more
closely investigated by naturalists residing in that part of the world.

Fig. 302. — Pelagonemertes rullestoni, Moseley, enlarged, viewed from tlie dorsal surface ;
tlie proboscis is partly extruded.

P, proboscis ; PrS, sac of proboscis j. IP, invaginated portion of proboscis within the proboscis-sac ; G, superior nerve-
ganglion ; NC, nerve-cords; V, vascular trunk (the upper V points to an enlargement of the vessel lying just
posteriorly to the superior nerve-ganglion) ; I, intestine ; D, diverticula of intestine ; 0,0. ovaries ; CM, circular
muscles ; LM, longitudinal muscles.

£: In looking at the map for the Stations where Nemertea, with the exception of Pela-
gonemertes, were taken by the Challenger, it immediately strikes one that they are all in
close proximity to the land. Not one Nemertine was taken at uny of the numerous Stations
in the open ocean. Even the deep-sea forms above alluded to were found at a compara-

1 Lesson, M., Voyage de la “ Coquille,” Zoologie, p. 254, pjl iii. fig. 3, Paris, 1830.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

833

tively short distance from the North American continent. This apparently strict limitation
of the Nemertea to the: coast dredgings and at the same time their presence in this zone
all over the globe is not without importance when attempts are made to estimate the
ultimate phylogenetic significance of the group.”

Juan Fernandez to Valparaiso.

The Expedition left Juan Fernandez on the 15th November, but the wind persistently
hanging to the northward, the American coast was made at Topocalma Point, 70 miles
south of Valparaiso, and the ship steamed to the northward along the land. The
weather was thick between Juan Fernandez and the coast of Chili, and the swell
was from the westward. One sounding, temperatures, and a haul of the trawl were
obtained between the two places in lat. 34° 7' S., long. 73° 56r W., in 2225 fathoms
(see Sheet 38).

The deposit at this Station was a blue mud, with a thin surface layer of a reddish
colour, and contained 6 per cent, of carbonate of lime, which consisted chiefly of the
shells of Globigerinas, and Orbulinas, and Coccoliths. The mineral particles consisted
of quartz, mica, felspars, augite, hornblende, and glauconite. It is worthy of note
that this was the first deposit in which glauconite was noticed since leaving the coast
of Japan.

In the trawl there were about fifty specimens of deep-sea animals, among which were
the following, all of them new species, and five belonging to genera first discovered by the
Expedition : — Ophiacantlia sentosci, Lyman ; Ophiacantha cosmica v Lyman ; Pourtalesici .
carincita, A. Ag. ; Pourtalesici ceratopyga, A. Ag. ; Cystechinus vesica, A. Ag. ; Aspido - .
diadema microtuber culatum, A. Ag. ; Nymphon longicollum, Hoek ; Colossendeis media,
Hoek ; Parelpidia cylindrica, Theel ; Psychropotes longicctuda, Theel ; Benthoclytes
mamillifera, Theel ; Benthodytes sordida, Theel ; Benthodytes sanguinolenta, Theel ;
Benthodytes abyssicola, Theel ; Porcellcmaster gracilis, Sladen.

It was noticed that between Juan Fernandez and Valparaiso the water was of a
greenish colour as the continent was approached, contrasting strongly with the deep
blue colour which had been constant since leaving the coast of Japan. There was a
corresponding change in the general character of the surface animals, Diatoms, Infusoria,
and Hydromedusse becoming very abundant, and the pelagic Foraminifera disappearing
from the surface gatherings.

The Foraminifera, — The reader is referred to the Eeport on the Foraminifera, by
Mr. H. B. Brady, F.R.S.,1 for details concerning these organisms, some species of which
are so abundant on the surface, and play so large a part in the formation of deep-sea
1 Report on the Foraminifera, by H. B. Brady, F.R.K., Zool, Chall. Exp., part, xxii., 1884,

834 THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

deposits. Mr. Brady remarks — “Notwithstanding the wide geographical range of most
of the recent species, a large number of new forms have been brought to light by the
examination of the material collected by means of the dredge and tow-net ; and the
results, taken in conjunction with those of the ‘Porcupine’ expedition of 1869, have
furnished a basis for the systematic treatment of one extensive group of forms, previously
but little understood, namely, those which construct composite or arenaceous tests in

Fig. 303. — Keramosphcera murrayi, Brady.
a. Natural size ; 6, magnified 25 diameters.

c. Portion of a nearly central section of tlie same specimen, magnified 50 diameters.

cl. A smaller portion of the same, magnified 100 diameters, showing 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, the orifices communicating
between the chamberlets of the successive layers ; 2, 2, 2, 2, lateral orifices communicating between
the chamberlets of the same layer.

place of the more usual calcareous skeleton. Much light has also been thrown on the
range of morphological variation dependent upon local conditions ; and the extent of the
area over which the collections were made has furnished data for a large reduction in the
number of ‘ species ’ or of the varieties which amongst the Foraminifera are accepted
as species.

“ The relation of the pelagic Khizopod-fauna of the ocean to that of the sea bottom,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

835

foreshadowed by the researches of Major Owen and others, has been placed on a broader
and more intelligible footing by the discovery of numerous species in the surface water
which, were previously supposed to inhabit exclusively the bottom ooze. Furthermore,
the whole subject of recent oceanic deposits and the organisms concerned in their pro-
duction, of which the Foraminifera are amongst the most important, may almost be said
to owe its initiation to data collected during the Challenger cruise.

“All the larger groups of Foraminifera have been enriched to a greater or less degree
by the results of the Expedition. Amongst the Porcellaneci, or those forms which are
provided with an imperforate calcareous skeleton, the most noteworthy acquisitions,
so far as the simpler types are concerned, are certain species referrible to Seguenza’s
genus Planispirina. This genus, which was first fully described by Steinmann under
the name Nummoloculina, is characterised by the laminated structure of the shell,
caused by the extension of the umbilical margins of the chamber- walls over the lateral

Fig.- 304. — Cymbolopom ( Tretomphalus ) bulloides (d’Orbigny).
a, Large surface-specimen ; b, small (young ?) specimens from the same gathering ; c, distal face of the balloon-like
chamber, showing the entosolenian orifice, seated in a slight depression. All magnified 60 diameters.

faces of the test, a feature which it possesses in common with the much more highly
organised type, Nummulites. The specimens of the genus Orbitolites, collected chiefly
on the reefs of the Fiji and the Friendly Islands, have afforded ample groundwork
for the revision of the structural and geological relations of that somewhat complex
generic group.1

“ Of even greater interest and importance is the discovery of the new porcellanous
type Keramosplicera, in a Diatom ooze obtained from deep water in the Southern Ocean.
This organism, the structure and position of which have been made the subject of a
special ‘Note’ by Mr. Brady,2 is closely allied to Orbitolites, and, in a less marked
degree, to Alveolina. The shell is spherical and composed of a multitude of chamberlets

1 Report on the specimens of the genus Orbitolites, by W. B. Carpenter, C.B., F.R.S., Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxi.,
1883.

2 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. x. p. 242, pi. xiii., 1882.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

836

arranged in more or less distinct layers ; but the individual chamberlets are irregular
both as to size and shape, and the layers in which they are combined lack the evenness
and symmetry which is an invariable feature of the kindred porcellanous forms.

“ But little was known of the arenaceous Rhizopoda constituting the families
Astrorhizidse and Lituolidse before the ‘ Porcupine ’ expedition of 1869, and the
variety of form which they exhibit, their diversity of structure, and the extent of their

Fig. 305. — Eastigerina peJagica (d’Orli.) (murvayi, Wyv. Thoms.), with floating apparatus and pseudopodia extended,
as found floating on the surface. ,

geographical distribution, were previously not so much as suspected. The fine series of
Arenacea obtained by the £ Porcupine ’ has been enriched at every point by the Challenger
dredgings. To the ‘ Porcupine ’ genera Botellina, Marsipella, Pilulina, and Cyclam-
mina; the Challenger has added the curiously fashioned Aschemonetta, the flexible weed-
like Rhizammina, and the adherent branching Sagenella, together with a long array of
fresh species of previously known genera,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

837

“ Of the Lagenidse, apart from some of the minute varieties of Lagena found in the
red clay deposits of abyssal depths, displaying superficial ornament of extraordinary
delicacy and beauty, the most interesting of the new forms are certain modifications .of
Lagena and Nodosaria, in which a cellulated wall takes the place of the usual solid or
porous calcareous film. Such forms have their origin doubtless in costate and reticulate
varieties, and the cellulated structure is due to the. closing in of the furrows or angular
depressions by a thin external wall.

“ The singular type Ramidina, only known before by the small fragments not
uncommon in the Chalk, was found for the first time as a recent organism amongst the

Fig. 306. — Hastigerina peldgicci (d’Orb.) [inurrayi, Wyv. Thoms. ), from the surface.

coral sands of the Pacific. The shell is rarely obtained even approximately complete,
owing to its branching habit and the slenderness of its stoloniferous connections. It
consists of a number of spheres connected by narrow tubes of greater or less length,
several tubes issuing from a single chamber, and each producing a fresh sphere, usually
of smaller size. The chambers, though normally spherical, sometimes take less regular
forms.

“Of the Globigerinidae, the genus (Llobigerina has been found to possess a far
wider range of morphological variation than was previously supposed ; and the Challenger

838

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

collections, in addition to a number of new forms, have furnished material for a complete
revision of the species and varieties. Splicer oidina. Pullenia, and Candeina, aforetime
believed, under all circumstances, to inhabit the bottom ooze alone, are now known
to have pelagic representatives.

“ There is but little that calls for remark in connection with the Rotalidse and
Nummulinidse. One or two species of Pidvinulina have been added to the pelagic
list ; and Cymbalopora bulloides, with its large balloon-like final segment, has also been
taken at the surface. But in connection with these families, the gain to science has been
chiefly in the direction of new species and varieties, and in facts illustrative of the
geographical distribution of forms already known.”

Fig. 307. — Pulvinulina menardii (d’Orbigny), from the tropical deposits.

The pelagic Foraminifera were under almost daily observation during the cruise,
and have been frequently referred to in the preceding chapters. Among the species
recognised by Mr. Brady in his Report, the following have a pelagic habitat: —

Gloibigerina bulloides , d’Orb.

,, „ var. triloba , Reuss.

„ dubia, Egger.

„ mflata, d’Orb.

„ rubra , d’Orb.

„ saccidifera, Brady.

„ conglobata, Brady.

„ cequilateralis, Brady.

Orbulina universa, d’Orb.

Hastigerina pelagica (d’Orb.).

Pullenia obliquilocidata, P. & J.
Sphceroidina dehiscens, P. & J.

Candeina nitida, d’Orb.

Pidvinulina menardii (d’Orb.).

„ „ var. tumida, Brady.

„ canariensis (d’Orb. ).

„ crassa (d’Orb.).

„ ' micheliniana (d’Orb.).

„ patagonica? (d’Orb.).

Cymbalopora bulloides (d’Orb.).

The last mentioned species {Cymbalopora bidloides) was only found when in the
neighbourhood of coral reefs, when it was sometimes very abundant in the surface
gatherings. There were usually two sizes, as represented in fig. 304, the smaller ones
being united into groups of four by a gelatinous matter. Another peculiarity of this
species is that these surface specimens did not contain sarcode like that usually found in

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

839

pelagic species, but were always filled with minute swarm spores about 0‘005 mm. in
diameter. When a specimen was placed on a slide and crushed with a cover glass, then
examined by a high power, a cloud of these minute bodies, with a flagellum at one end
and a pellucid spot at the other, spread over the field of the microscope ; there was a
bubble of air or gas in each shell. A similar condition was observed once in Globigerina
sacculifera and once in Pullenia obliquiloculata.

The colour of the sarcode in the pelagic Foraminifera is sometimes bright red,
as in Hastigerina and Pullenia; in Globigerina it is yellow, orange, or of a delicate
rose colour; in Pulvinulina micheliniana it has occasionally a decidedly greenish
tinge.

When observed floating on the surface, the larger part of the sarcode is usually
outside the shell, so that the latter may not be noticed owing to the dense mass of

Fig. 308. — Globigerina bulloides (d’Orbigny), from the deposits. Tropical regions of the Atlantic.

protoplasmic matter with which it is enveloped. The pseudopodia ramify to a great
distance from the shell, and balloon-like expansions of the sarcode are thrown out
between the spines of a shell like Hastigerina; over these and along the spines, the
pseudopodia move freely and rapidly (fig. 305). In the species without spines, this float-
like arrangement was never observed fully expanded ; the contact of the tow-net having
evidently caused a collapse and a contraction of the sarcode close about the shell. On one
or two occasions, however, the floats of Pulvinulina and Pullenia were seen partially
expanded.

In Orbulina there are almost always a great number of yellow cells similar to those
found in the Radiolaria ; they are oval and about O'Ol mm. in the longest diameter,
and have a nucleus which colours quickly with carmine, before treatment with spirit.
On several occasions they were seen to flow out from the interior of the shell with the

(NAUR. CHALL. EXP. VOL. J. — 1885.) 106

840

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,.

pseudopodia through the pores, and mount a considerable distance up the spines ; when
expanded in this way an Orbulina or Globigerina looks exceedingly like many of the
Radiolaria. The yellow cells appeared to have an independent motion, as they

were frequently observed turning about in the sarcode. Yellow cells are also present
in Globigerina bulloides, var. triloba, Globigerina sacculifera, and Globigerina conglobata,
but were not observed in Hastigerina, Pullenia, nor Pulvinulina.

In all the pelagic Foraminifera there is a large nucleus which colours with carmine,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

841

both before and after being treated with spirit or glycerin. It appears to occupy no
definite position in the chambers, being sometimes found in the larger and sometimes in
the smaller ones. Cells about 0'05 mm. in diameter, having in the interior minute
vibrating particles, were frequently observed, but whether these were connected with the
reproduction of the animal or not it is impossible to say.

Pelagic Foraminifera swarm in the surface and subsurface waters of the tropics,
where the greatest number of species and largest and thickest shelled specimens are
found ; in the colder waters north and south,
the specimens become smaller, till in the Arctic
and Antarctic only dwarfed specimens of Globi-
gerina bulloides are met with. The distribution
of the dead shells on the bottom of the ocean
corresponds with the distribution of the living
ones on the surface, and is governed by surface
temperature ; on the other hand those species of
Foraminifera which live on the bottom attached
to Zoophytes and other animals or substances
have a distribution quite independent of surface
temperature. Independently of the evidence
afforded by the distribution of the shells above
referred to, it is most unlikely that the same
animals should live on the bright sunny surface
waters at a temperature of from 60° to 80° and
also at the bottom at a temperature of from 32° Fig. 310. — Orbulina universa (d’Orbigny), from the deposits,
to 40°, where there is a pressure of two or three

miles of water and an absence of sunlight, and no living specimen of these pelagic species
was taken on the bottom.

These Foraminifera appear to be truly pelagic animals, and to flourish in the open sea
far from land. It is a remarkable fact that they generally disappeared from the tow-net
gatherings as land was approached and where river water entered the sea. They were
very rarely taken in any of the bays or estuaries. About the British coasts, or even in the
North Sea, they are very rarely observed, yet they are taken in great numbers on the
surface 100 miles west of the Outer Hebrides.

The same species inhabit the tropical waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian
Oceans, but some species are relatively more abundant in one ocean than in another. For
instance, Pullenia obliquiloculata is much more abundant in the Pacific than in the
Atlantic, while Pulvinulina menardii and Sphceroidina dehiscens predominate in the
latter ocean.

The sarcode of the bottom-living Foraminifera was frequently examined ; that in the

842

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

arenaceous forms, such as Reophcix, Hypercimmina, Haplophragmium, had always a dark
brown-coloured pigment, similar to the pine odium of the Phseodaria.

Fig. 311. — Orbulina universa (d’Orbigny), from the surface.

The sarcode of Biloculina, Truncatiilina, and Discorbina was yellowish in colour, and
resembled that of the pelagic species.

Valparaiso.

On the 19th November, at 6.45 a.m., Curamilla Point was sighted, and steering to
the northeastward the ship was anchored in Valparaiso Bay at 10.30 a.m.

Merchant ships at Valparaiso are moored head and stern in regular lines or tiers
with two anchors ahead and one astern. In the summer months they are placed with

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

843

tlieir heads to the southward and in the winter months with their heads to the
northward. A steam tug is always ready to tow them into their proper berths and lay
out their anchors for them, weighing them again when they are ready to proceed to sea.
On all ships calling here a hospital charge of ten cents per ton is levied, and should
they remain to receive or discharge cargo a charge of ten cents per ton is levied as light
dues.

Fort San Antonio, the observing station of Fitzroy, no longer exists, and as a road
runs over its former site, observations could not be taken there, so the observations
were taken at the battery immediately over the custom house, about 200 yards N.W. of
Fitzroy’s station.

Supplies of every description are plentiful in this port, and it possesses two floating
docks capable of lifting almost any vessel ; they are moored at the head of the west
side of the bay close to the landing place.

The ship remained at Valparaiso from the 19th November until the 11th December,
the crew being occupied in refitting the ship, fitting a new set of sails, and making
other repairs ; and during this time the members of the Expedition visited Santiago
and other places of interest in Chili. During the stay the' temperature of the air
varied from 53° to 78°, but the sea surface was from 54° to 60°‘5, the coldest tempera-
ture being registered after a strong southerly wind. The general temperature of the
surface water was from 56° to 59°.

The Reports on the Copepoda1 and Ostracoda,2 by Dr. George S. Brady, F.R.S.,
have already been published, and' from them the following notes have been prepared : —

The Copepoda. — The Copepoda are almost universal in their distribution, and
include both free-swimming and parasitic forms. The sea, from the Equator to the
Poles, supports such vast numbers of them, that it is often coloured by wide bands for
distances of many miles. But the appearance of these minute creatures at the surface
depends upon conditions, the nature of which is scarcely at all understood. In confirma-
tion of this; the Naturalists of the Expedition noted an extraordinary profusion of Cory-
cceus pellucidus for two days in the surface water, but after that no more could be seen.
Night on the whole seems more favourable than daytime for their approach to the
surface, but it would appear that there is no very great difference between the nocturnal
and diurnal species in this group. In the Polar Seas some species, especially Calanus
jinmarchicus, are present at times in such great abundance as to constitute an important
item in the food of Penguins and Whales. As regards number and size of individuals,
the cold water of the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans is even more favourable to the growth
of the Copepoda than the warmer seas of the tropics. In the cold Polar Seas, Calanus

1 Report on the Copepoda, by Geo. S. Brady, F.R.S., Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxiii., 1883.

2 Report on the Ostracoda, by Geo. S. Brady, F.R.S., Zool. Chall. Exp., part iii., 1880.

844

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

ftnmarchicus, and nearly allied forms, are the most characteristic members of the surface
fauna ; while, judging by the results of the Challenger Exjdedition, the warm equatorial
and subtropical areas present a much greater variety of species. Undina darwinii and
Euchceta prestcindrece may be regarded as holding the same position in the tropical and
warm temperate seas as Calanus finmarchicus in the cold zones ; but there are several
other species which follow close upon these.

A, female, seen from the left side ; B, male, seen from the left side ; C, female, seen from the dorsal surface, pr, ocular
process ; ov, ova ; sjp, spermatophores ; mxp, posterior foot-jaw ; i, intestine ; m, dorsal muscles.

As in the case of many purely pelagic or aquatic animals, the range of distribu-
tion of many of the marine Copepoda is extremety wide ; and one point of paramount
interest is the relation of natatory forms of extremely wide distribution, and as an
interesting illustration may be mentioned Zaus spinatus and Harpacticus fulvus these
two species inhabiting precisely the same kind of places respectively in Northern

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

845

Europe and the far-off Kerguelen Island. Again, it is a rare exception to find a free-
swimming species ranging over a very small district, and the probability is that where
this appears to be the case, further research will usually reveal its presence throughout a
larger area ; as illustrative of this fact, Copilia mirabilis was captured in two widely
distant areas, viz., Polynesia and the Malay Archipelago, and the North Atlantic, off the
west coast of Africa, Only one free-swimming species ( Euchceta prestandrece) was found
in all the areas explored by the Challenger, although not a few occurred very frequently.
The largest numbers of species, leaving out of consideration the fish-parasites, were
obtained from the North Atlantic, South Atlantic, Eastern Asiatic, and Australasian Seas,
the numbers from these areas being forty-eight, forty-eight, forty-five, and forty-two
respectively.

The only undoubted deep-sea species, and on the whole the most remarkable Copepod
known, is Pontostratiotes abyssicola, the single specimen of which was picked from the
dried mud, dredged from a depth of 2200 fathoms, having unfortunately lost many of its
characters in the drying process ; however, it has been minutely described and carefully
figured,1 and is represented in the annexed woodcut (fig. 313). Not only is it peculiar
in being an abyssal form, but also in its extraordinary spinous armature, a feature
quite unprecedented in the group. Possibly Hemicalanus aculeatus, Phyllopus
bidentatus, and one or two species of Euchceta might be reckoned as abyssal species,

1 Zool. Cliall. Exp., part xxiii. pp. 105, 106, pi. xliv. figs. 1-11, 1883.

846

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

but it is by no means certain that these specimens came from the bottom. It was
frequently noticed that some of the Copepods in the tow-nets sent down to great
depths were of a bright red colour, similar to the Shrimps brought
up in the trawlings in deep water.

Remarkably few fish-parasites were brought home by the
Expedition. One of the most remarkable of these is Lerncea
abyssicola, an undoubted deep-sea form, seeing that it was attached
to a specimen of the curious abyssal Lophioid genus Ceratias.
The peculiarity in which it differs from all other parasitic Copepoda
is its transparency, its colour during life being of a reddish brown.
It is represented in fig. 314.

Altogether one hundred and six species have been enumerated
in the Report, forty-three of which are new, and for their reception
thirteen new genera have been constituted. This number is
inconsiderable relatively to the large number of genera and specie's
previously known, but nevertheless the collection has enabled
Dr. Brady to make valuable additions to the knowledge of this
group.

The Ostrctcoda. — The Ostracoda are small laterally compressed
Crustaceans whose bodies are completely enclosed in a bivalve
shell. They exist, although in very limited numbers, in the most
profound depths of the sea, and the number, of abyssal genera and
species has been greatly increased by the Challenger Expedition.

In those large abyssal areas where, as commonly happens,
the ocean-bed consists of pure Globigerina ooze or of red clay, one
usually finds a small number of Ostracoda ; the specimens con-
sisting of detached valves, frequently much worn and broken,
or, more rarely, of perfect though empty shells. These shells
evidently belong to animals which lived at the depths where
they were found.

A peculiar interest attaches to the Ostracoda from the fact that they alone of all
the higher Microzoa are found in fossil strata in sufficient numbers to afford grounds
for an exact comparison between the fauna of the present and those of bygone geological
epochs. However, as a whole, the results of the Challenger’s work in this department
are not very important or novel. Very few new and remarkable variations of
structural type were found. The Ostracode shells of the present age present different
features according as they are found in salt, estuarine, or fresh water, so that the
specialist in coming upon a geological stratum containing these shells can at once

Pig. 314. — Lerncea abyssicola, G.
S. Brady, parasitic on Cem-
tias (from a drawing by tbe
late B. v. Willemoes Suhm).
oe, oesophagus ; st, stomach ;
i, intestine ; m, muscular por-
tion of intestine ; ov, ovary ;
v, vulva ; a, anus ; os, ovisac.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

847

infer from an examination of them whether it was of marine, estuarine, or inland
origin.

The marine Ostracoda of the British Islands consist of at least thirty genera,
of which twenty-eight are represented in the Challenger collection; but it must be
remembered that during the cruise of the Challenger very few collections were made in
the neighbourhood of the shore, which region usually swarms with these small animals.
The genus Paradoxostoma in British seas, is almost exclusively a littoral one, and it is in
this zone that many members of other genera attain their highest development, and
there is no doubt that shore-collecting in the tropical and subtropical seas would yield
rich results to a student of Ostracoda.

Only two natatory pelagic species have been found by the Challenger to exist
in all the areas explored, viz., HcdocypriS atlantica and Halocypris brevirostris.
These were sometimes captured in great numbers when the tow-net was dragged about

A C

Pig. -315. — Cy there dictyon, G. S. Brady.

Male ; A, from the side ; B, from the front ; C, from helow.

A

Pig. 316. — Krithe producta, G. S. Brady.

A, male, left side ; B, female, from the front; C, male,
from helow.

50 fathoms beneath the surface. The reason of this wide distribution is sufficiently clear
if it be remembered that as regards animals living for the most part near the surface of
the sea, and dependent, probably, upon no restricted or specially localised supplies of
food,' the only impediments to universal distribution are conditions of temperature. So
far as yet appears, the limit of endurance -in these species is reached at about 50° S.
and 35° N. latitude.

The species which are most nearly cosmopolitan in their distribution are Cytliere
dictyon (see fig. 315), Cytliere dasy derma, and Cytliere acanthoderma. This statement,
however, by no means expresses their ubiquitous distribution in the deep sea, a fact
which only becomes apparent when it is observed that amongst the forty-five dredgings
exceeding 100 fathoms at which Ostracoda were taken, Cytliere dictyon is noted
twenty-three times, Cytliere dasyderma nineteen times, and Cytliere acanthoderma
seven times.

One of the most common of deep-sea Ostracoda is Kritlie producta (see fig. 31 G),
(nakr. charl. exp, — vol. i. — 1885.) 107

848

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

which occurred in most of the regions explored, but the greater number of the examples
grouped under this name consisted only of separate valves, varying largely in form
and size. The difficulty of dealing with imperfect specimens of shells which possess
no distinctive character of sculpture or surface ornament is insuperable.

It may be noted that the affinity of the Kerguelen Ostracoda with the European
fauna is much closer than that of any other locality investigated by the Challenger.

CHAPTER XX.

Valparaiso to Cape Tres Montes — The Cirripedia and Pycnogonida — Through the Messier Channel, Sarniiento Channel,
and the Strait of Magellan to the Falkland Islands — The Isopoda — The Falkland Islands — Fossils — The Scapho-
poda and Gasteropoda — The Anomura.

Valparaiso to Cape Tres Montes.

On the 11th December, at daylight, the Challenger proceeded outside the ships
at anchor in Valparaiso Harbour, and was swung to ascertain the errors of the
compass and dipping needle. At 1.30 p.m. this operation was completed and all sail
was made on the port tack to a fresh southerly breeze. The day was fine and the
' atmosphere so remarkably clear, that Mount Aconcagua was seen at sunset quite
distinctly.

During the whole passage from Valparaiso to the Gulf of Penas steady southerly
winds were experienced, never exceeding a force of 5, with fine although somewhat
cloudy wTeatlier, and a smooth sea. This necessitated beating down the coast to Cape
Tres Montes, which occupied twenty days (see Sheet 40). On the passage Juan Fernandez
Island was sighted, but the vessel did not touch there ; four soundings, five serial
temperature soundings, and three trawlings were obtained.

The soundings obtained were made into a meridional section in order to show the
temperatures, but as they were taken at varying distances from the coast, no conclusion
as to the contour of the bottom can be formed (see Diagram 21).

The surface temperature was 62c at Valparaiso and 59° at Juan Fernandez, from
whence it gradually decreased to 55° in the Gulf of Penas.

The serial temperatures show that the isotherm of 40° is almost parallel with
the surface, and that the higher isotherms gradually rise as the surface temperature
cools.

The surface current experienced always had a northerly tendency, although the
daily calculations showed its direction to be sometimes east and sometimes west of
north. The total current experienced was north 8 miles per day, the easterly and
westerly deflections almost counterbalancing each other ; the last three days, however,
when close to the Peninsula of Tres Montes, little or no set was felt, the true rate of the
northerly current along the coast by the observations being about 9 miles per day.

The following anemometer observations were taken : —

850

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Date.

1875.

. Station.

[

Velocity of wind in
miles per hour.

Force of wind by Beau-
fort’s scale, as noted
in log.

December 14

299

12

2

17

300

12

2

28

,

302

16

3

,, 30

303

14

3 to 4, mean 3^

The deposit at 2160 fathoms off Valparaiso contained 16 per cent, of carbonate of
lime, and was a bine mud, in all essential respects similar to that in 2225 fathoms at
the Station before entering Valparaiso on the 17th November. The trawling was even
more productive than on that occasion, for besides some pumice stones and a few
manganese nodules, over one hundred specimens of invertebrates and a few fish were
obtained. In the special Reports already published, forty-two new species of deep-sea
animals are recorded from this Station.

As far as can be judged at present, the trawlings and dredgings on the blue muds
near continental coasts are much more productive than those at similar depths on other
kinds of deposits far removed from continents. For instance, although many dredgings
and trawlings were taken during the cruise between Japan and Chili in depths of about
2000 fathoms or less, none of them can be compared in productiveness either with
respect to number of individuals or species with the hauls in 1875 and 2300 fathoms
off Japan, or 2225 and 2160 fathoms off the coast of Chili. This fact was noted so often
during the cruise that it is difficult to believe it to be a mere accident. It is probably
connected with the fact that food is more abundant near continental shores where
large rivers enter the sea, and possibly also with proximity to the shallow waters of
continental land, whence it may be supposed deep-sea forms have been originally derived.
Whether or not animals from trawlings farther removed from shallow water are on
the whole more abnormal than those from similar depths near shore, cannot with any
certainty be stated until the whole of the .groups have been fully worked out, but there
are indications that such is the case.

The deposit at 1375 fathoms, 20 miles to the eastward of Juan Fernandez, was a
Globigerina ooze containing 54 per cent, of carbonate of lime, which consisted of the
shells of Foraminifera, a few fragments of Pteropods, Echinoderms, and Polyzoa. The
mineral particles were chiefly of volcanic origin, and among them were very many
fragments of palagonite.

The trawl contained over one hundred deep-sea animals and fragments of palagonite,
pumice, and tufa. The trawl appeared to have caught in something at the bottom, for

SHEET 40

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

851

the accumulators were stretched to their utmost before it was finally got free. When it
came to the surface the net was not torn, but the beam was scored and marked with
streaks of black manganese peroxide. The fragments of tufa in the trawl were coated
with manganese on one side, and appeared to have been torn away from larger masses, so
that here as well as at several other Stations there were indications that the bed of* the
ocean was uneven, probably from volcanic disturbance-.

At 1450 fathoms, 330 miles westward from Chiloe Island, the deposit was again a
Globigerina ooze containing 82 per cent, of carbonate of lime. The mineral particles
were chiefly minute fragments of sideromelan and palagonite, and peroxide of man-
ganese. The pelagic Foraminifera in the deposit were chiefly Globigerina with a few
Orbulina and Pulvinulina, and all these were very small and dwarfed, in this respect
agreeing with those taken on the surface by means of the tow-nets.

The trawl again brought up a large number of animals and some manganese
nodules. Some of these latter appeared to have been fragments torn from larger
masses, and some had nuclei which seemed originally to have been portions of the
ooze itself. This association of manganese nodules with altered volcanic fragments in a
Globigerina ooze was frequently observed during the Expedition.

The deposit in 1325 fathoms was a blue mud containing 25 per cent, of carbonate of
lime made up of pelagic and other Foraminifera, fragments of Polyzoa, Echinoderms,
Ostracode shells, and fragments of other calcareous organisms. The mineral particles con-
sisted chiefly of quartz and fragments of rocks and minerals derived from the continent.

Dr. P. P. C. Hoek’s Reports on the Cirripedia1 and Pycnogonida 2 collected by the
Expedition form parts of the zoological series ; he has prepared the following abstracts
of his Reports : —

The Cirripedia. — “ A very valuable collection of Cirripedia was made during the
cruise of H.M.S. Challenger. It numbers about seventy-five species, eighteen of which
were already known, fifty-seven being described in the Report as new to science. The
great value of the collection, however, does not exclusively consist in the number of
species or of the new ones alone ; the objects themselves are highly important from
different points of view.

“ What a Cirripede Crustacean is, how it develops, grows, and lives, Darwin has
taught us with great skill ; his monographs, moreover, contain such excellent des-
criptions of all the genera and species known to him, that they must necessarily be
considered as the foundation for all future investigators to build upon. To erect a
superstructure on that foundation has, to a certain extent at least, been possible by the
aid of the Challenger collection.

1 Report on the Cirripedia (Systematic Part), by Dr. P. E. C. Hoek, Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxv., 1883. Report on
the Cirripedia (Anatomical Part), by Dr. P. P. C. Hoek, Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxviii., 1884.

2 Report on the Pycnogonida, by Dr. P. P. C. Hoek, Zool. Chall. Exp., part x., 1881.

852

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

“The species have been distributed among thirteen genera, of which only one is new
to science. This is the genus Megalasma ; the only species which represents it has a
very characteristic shape, though it is doubtless nearly related to the genus Pcecilasma,
Darwin, and belongs with the latter genus to that group of pedunculated Cirripedia which
contains also the genera Diehelaspis and Lepas. In all these genera the capitulum has
the same number of valves (five), the structure of the body being also much the same,
and showing only secondary differences. Whereas, however, the species of Lepas live
only at the surface, those of the nearly . related genera were taken at various and some-
times considerable depths. One of the species of Diehelaspis ranges even as far down as
1000 fathoms. The surface animals as well as those attached to rocks and stones within

Fig. 317. — Megalasma striatum, Hoek. Station 204, off the Philippines, 100 and 115 fathoms.

the tide marks live as a rule in numerous assemblies close to one another ; in the deep
sea, however, the Cirripedia seem to live rather solitarily. And this assertion must not
be considered hazardous, for, though the contents of the dredge or trawl do not
necessarily show the exact number of specimens living together at one spot, one naturally
arrives at the conclusion, as it was found that by far the greater part of the deep-sea
species are represented by single or very few specimens only.

“ The genera Conchoderma and Alepas represent a second family of pedunculated
Cirripedia. In this family the capitulum shows rudimentary valves only, or sometimes
even no valves at all. In the Challenger collection the genus Conchoderma is represented
by well-known species which live at the surface ; of Alepas , on the other hand, there

DIAGRAM 21

PACIFIC. OCEAN

Meridional Temperature Section off the West coast
of South. America between the 33rF and 46^ Parallels.

For explanatioiv of Sjinbols see Appendix/ 1 .

(f§D(S>S) (10D @) @D (goa)

Engravea'bjMallay&.Sc

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

853

was a new species taken at a depth of 410 fathoms living attached to the spines of a
deep-sea Echinid, Phormosoma hoplacantha, A. Ag.

“ By far the most remarkable feature is the extension of the family of pedun-
culated Cirripedia containing the genus Scalpellum. As far as I could make out,
only eleven species of that genus were previously known, and the number of new
species which had to be described amounts to forty-three. The same family of Cirripedia
embraces the genus Pollicipes also, seven species of which are known to inhabit
tropical seas all over the world. Of this latter genus, however, the Challenger did not
collect a single representative, so it would seem we must conclude that this genus does
not occur in the deep sea. Yet the hitherto known (shallow water) species of the two
genera live exactly under the same circumstances, and, what
is also of some importance, both genera (Scalpellum as well as
Pollicipes) very commonly occur in fossil deposits, especially
in Secondary strata.

“Thirty-five out of the forty-three species of the genus
Scalpellum dredged during the cruise of the Challenger inhabit
depths of 500 down to 2850 fathoms. Nine of these corres-
pond with the fossil Scalpellum maximum in the shape of the
valves of the capitulum, and especially of the carinal latus ;
twenty-six, on the other hand, have this valve of the same
shape as the recent forms known to Darwin. We see, there-
fore, that in the case of the genus Scalpellum the abyssal
fauna consists partly of forms resembling fossil species, but
contains many more species of a true shallow-water type.

“ A remarkable observation from a biological point of view
was made in one of the specimens of Scalpellum stroemii,

Sars. It contained rather large eggs, and these had passed „ 0 „ , „ . . ,T ,

the Nauplius-stage and had arrived at the Cypris-stage ; so static iss, off Tristan da Ipiw,
it is quite clear that at least some of the species of the genus

Scalpellum, for it is highly improbable that Scalpellum stroemii should stand alone in this
respect, have lost the Nauplius as a free-swimming larval stage. Nor are the results of
the study of the ‘ complemental ’ males of Scalpellum, discovered by Darwin more than
thirty years ago, devoid of importance. It was not only possible to prove that their
organisation is highly degenerated, but also to demonstrate in what this degeneration
consists, and how much it affects some of the organs, whilst others suffer less, or not at
all from it. Though very common in the genus Scalpellum, the occurrence of little males
does not seem to be a rule without exceptions ; there are species which probably are
hermaphrodite as other Cirripedia are, and in which no complemental males have been
observed ; there are other hermaphrodite species to which little complemental males are

854

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

found attached, and, finally, there are true unisexual species, in which small males live
attached to very large females.

“ Six genera of sessile Cirripedia have representatives in the collection made during
the cruise of the Challenger. Acasta and Coronula are represented by one species
each, Tetraclita and Chthamalus by two each, and one of the species of the latter genus
has been described as new ; far more interesting, however, are the species of Verruca
and Balanus brought home by the Challenger.

“ Verruca was collected at six different Stations, and, though not without hesitation,
the specimens from each Station have been considered as representing a different species,
although perhaps it will hereafter be possible to show that two or more of them belong

to one and the same species. These species
are especially interesting, because they form
together a very distinct and characteristic
division of the genus, showing affinity to
Verruca nexa as far as regards the perpen-
dicularity of the walls and the presence of a
distinct third articular ridge on the outer
surface of the scutum, a peculiarity which is
also observed in the fossil Verruca prisca,
Bosquet. At the same time these new forms
have shown that the genus has a truly world-
wide range, and that in the case of Verruca, as in that of Scalpellum, there is coincidence
of great antiquity with the occurrence at a considerable depth. For, whereas the greatest
depth from which Darwin got specimens of Verruca was only 90 fathoms, the range in
depth of the Challenger species is from 500 to 1900 fathoms.

“ The genus Balanus has twelve representatives among the Challenger species. Of
these five are new ; three of them, however, are probably nearly related to species des-
cribed by Darwin ; the remaining two, Balanus corolliformis and Balanus hirsutus, on
the other hand, representing two closely allied species, scarcely admit of comparison
with any species Darwin knew. They belong to the deep-sea fauna, one being found
at a depth of 180 fathoms, the other of even 516 fathoms, and some of the peculiarities
of their structure must be regarded as standing in near relation to their living at
so considerable a depth. These peculiarities are the absence of radii and the solidity
of the parietes ; the former causes the compartments to adhere so feebly as almost
to separate on being • manipulated. For an animal living near the surface the violent
beating of the waves would soon prove fatal, if its walls showed the structure of
the present species. As, moreover, the compartments are solid (not permeated by
pores), they have by no means the strength of those of other species of the genus.
“ So we see that though the genus Scalpellum is by far the most remarkable of the

Fig. 319. — Verruca sulcata, Hoek. Station 170, off the
Kermadecs, 520 and 630 fathoms.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

855

collection, the representatives of some of the other genera are not devoid of importance
either.

The study of the material from a morphological point of view has also yielded some
results, and these have been brought together in a supplementary Report. A detailed
description of the .little male of Scalpellum regium, and a comparison of its structure
with that of the other species of Scalpellum, form the first chapter of this supplement.
Some of the more general results of the investigations in this department have been given
already. The second chapter is devoted. to the description of those problematic organs

Fig. 320. — Scalpellum darwinii, Hoek, attached to
a manganese nodule. Station 299, 2160 fathoms.
Natural size.

Fig. 321. — Scalpellum regium (Wyv. Thoms.),
Hoek. a, the male. Stations 61 and 63,
2850 and 2750 fathoms. Natural size.

of Cirripeclia which Darwin observed in the outer maxillae, and .to which he ascribed an olfac-
tory function. They were found to constitute an open communication of the body-cavity
with the exterior, and shown to be comparable with the segmental organs of the Annelida.

“ A rather detailed description of the cement-apparatus is given in the third chapter.
The structural deferences in the various genera do not lack importance; however, their
importance would no doubt be much greater still, if the question of the morphological
significance of the apparatus were more decided.

(narr. ohall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

108

856

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

“ Darwin’s ‘true ovaria,’ which Cuvier thought to be salivary glands, were also subjected
to a close inspection, and were shown to be digestive glands pouring their secretions
into the alimentary canal. The body of these glands is composed of one kind of cell
only, belonging apparently rather to the pancreatic than to the hepatic cells, which are
found in the digestive glands of the higher Crustaceans (Weber). To the same category
of problematic organs, in which Cirripedia always were very rich, no doubt belongs
the small organ of vision discovered by Leidy ; it is attached to the surface of the
stomach and covered by the ligament between the two scuta, and by the muscles placed
between this ligament and the widened stomach. Leidy ’s observation is quite in accord-
ance with the facts, and these beautifully illustrate the persistence of an old larval
structure which can hardly be considered to be of any use to the animal.

“ Though in general Krohn and Kossmann had a correct notion of the structure
of the’ female genital apparatus, our knowledge, as far as details are concerned, has
been considerably augmented by the investigation of the Challenger material. The
results of the researches with respect to this apparatus have been published in
the last chapter of the Supplementary Report. The discovery of the occurrence
of the segmental organ communicating with the exterior by means of the openings
in the outer maxillae, perhaps casts light on the peculiar place of the female genital
openings of Cirripedia. These would appear to be nothing but the openings of a second
pair of segmental organs ; thus the first pair of segmental ■ organs furnishes a direct
communication of the body-cavity with the surrounding medium, whereas the second
serves for the evacuation of the female genital products.”

The Pycnogonida. — “ The Pycnogonids form together a little group of Arthropodous
animals. Though they are often met with by zoologists studying the marine fauna,
they have hitherto, with a few exceptions only, been but superficially investigated. The
naturalists who paid more special attention to the group had but few specimens at their
disposal, and these belonged to a couple of species only ; thus it happened that though
the number of papers treating of these animals had grown rather large, and though a
considerable number of new species had from time to time been described, our know-
ledge of the group was but little increased. By far the greater number of the species
were described so inaccurately as not to admit of comparison with one another, and so
far as the morphology of the group is concerned, we have till recently been almost
entirely in the dark. The papers of Dolirn (1869) and Semper (1874) are among the
first that tried to shed light on this question, and it is well known that they have
arrived at very different conclusions. Dohrn’s conclusion was that the Pycnogonids,
though not Crustaceans, appear by the presence of a Nauplius-lar.va in their ontogene-
tical development to be nearly related to Crustaceans ; Semper, on the contrary, tried
to demonstrate the truly Arachnid nature of these animals.

narrative of the cruise.

857

“ Species were recorded from different coasts and seas, but the incompleteness of
the descriptions made it almost impossible to arrive by their aid at 'any general result
as far as geographical distribution was concerned. With a few exceptions only, the
species were all littoral, and these few were chiefly those dredged in the North
Atlantic, and investigated by G. 0. Sars,1 and those taken off New England and
described by E. B. Wilson.2

“The study of the material collected during the cruise of H.M.S. Challenger has
added to our knowledge t of the group in many respects. On twenty-six occasions out
of two hundred and eighty-two on which the dredge or trawl was let down during the

Fig. 322. — Nymphon robustum, Bell. 375 and 540 fathoms.

cruise, Pycnogonids were taken; a collection was made numbering about one hundred
and twenty specimens, belonging to thirty-six species, thirty-three of which had to be
described as new to science. These thirty -three species belong to nine 3 genera, three of
which are new. Five of these nine genera contain species which may truly be called
inhabitants of the deep sea. They are the genera Nymplion , Ascorhynchus, Oorhynchus,
Colossendeis, and Pallenopsis. However, with one exception only ( Oorhynchus ), these

1 Archiv f. Math, og Naturvid., Bd. ii., 1877, and Bd. iv., 1879.

2 Report U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, part vi. for 1878, Appendix xv., 1880.

3 In the Report only eight genera are recorded as represented ; the ninth is the genus Pallenopsis, Wilson. The
species which belong to this genus were considered in the Report as belonging to Phoxichilidium. ( Vide Hoek, Pycno-
gonids of the “Triton” Cruise, Tram. Eoy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxii. p. 9, 1883.)

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

858

genera contain also species which are true littoral or shallow-water forms. Nymphon
is represented by fifteen species, ten of which belong to the deep sea. Of the three
species of Ascorhynchus, one was taken in shallow water and two in deep water ;
Colossendeis has eight deep-sea species and one shallow-water form-; Pcdlenopsis is
represented by five species, three of which are true deep-sea animals. The new genus
Oorhynchus, which I have been obliged to introduce into science, is the only one which,
as far as our present knowledge goes, contains no shallow- water but only deep-sea
species. As the single species it contains is represented by one specimen only, we can
hardly call it an exception, and we arrive at the conclusion that, though there are
numerous deep-sea species, there exist no true deep-sea genera. At the same time it is
worthy of note that, though some of the genera of Pycnogonids have a very great range
in depth, this is only in a slight degree the case with the species. The most striking
instances of species ranging through different depths are those of Nymphon grossipes, Oth.
Fabr. (taken at 83 and also at 540 fathoms), Colossendeis leptorhynchus, Hoek (from 400
and 1600 fathoms), and Pcdlenopsis patagonica (Hoek), taken at 45 and 175 fathoms.

“ With regard to the geographical distribution, no general results of any particular
importance or novelty have been arrived at by the study of the Challenger Pycnogonida,
The deep-sea genera are world-wide in their distribution in this group of animals as well
as' in most others that have been studied of late in this respect. The shallow water in
the neighbourhood of the coasts is much richer in different forms of Pycnogonids than
seems to be the case in the deep sea. Very interesting in this respect is a comparison
between the results of the study of the Challenger Pycnogonida and those arrived at by
Dohrn from the study of the Pycnogonida of the Gulf of Naples. As I mentioned
above, of the thirty-three new species collected by the Challenger thirty belong to genera
already described and only three belong each to a new genus. Two of these ( Hannonia
and Discoarachne ) were taken on the shore (at Sea Point near Cape Town) ; so only one
can be added to the genera known as deep-sea inhabitants. Dohrn, on the contrary,
enumerates twenty-five species as inhabiting the shores of the Gulf of Naples ; these he
divides into ten genera, five of which are described as new to science. So the study
of the Pycnogonids of a range so very limited as the Gulf of Naples brought to light
more new forms, in the real sense of the word, than that of the Challenger dredgings in
various parts of the world.1

“Deep sea conditions of life have not dwarfed the Pycnogonids ; on the contrary,
many of them there attained such proportions as they never do in the shallow water
near the coast. The size of Colossendeis gigas, Hoek, and Colossendeis robusta, Hoek,
is indeed gigantic (the body of Colossendeis gigas has a length of 80 mm., the leg of

1 “ When Dohrn’s elaborate monograph was published, the Challenger Report on the Pycnogonida was printed and
ready to appear, as it did a few weeks later. For a comparison of Dohrn’s results with mine I beg to refer the reader to
a paper which I published in the Archives de Zool. expfr., t. ix. pp. 525-539, 1881.”

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

859

301 mm.), and the deep-sea species Ascorhynchus glaber, Hoek, Pallenopsis mollissima,
(Hoek), and Nymphon hamatum, Hoek, are also remarkable for their dimensions, especially
■when they are compared with species of the same genera inhabiting shallow water.

“ It has not been possible to demonstrate by the aid of the deep-sea material any
relationship of the Pycnogonida either with the Arachnida or with the Crustacea. It is
necessary, therefore, to consider them, provisionally at least, as a distinct group (Class)

Fig. 323. — Colossendeis proboscidea, (Sabine). 540 fathoms. Natural size.

of Arthropodous animals. Their body consists of a ceplialon, a thorax, and a rudi-
mentary abdomen. The cephalon is united with the first segment of the thorax, and
three free thoracic segments follow behind this coalesced segment. When comparing
different genera of Pycnogonida a great diversity is shown with regard to the number
of cephalic appendages ; sometimes there are three pairs of them, sometimes only two,
sometimes one, and occasionally they are all wanting. This last circumstance, however,

860

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S CHALLENGER.

is never met with in the full-grown animals of both sexes ; the third pair of appendages
at least, the so-called ‘ ovigerous legs,’ are always developed in the full-grown males.
The other two pairs may each or both of them be either represented or wanting in the
full-grown animals ; however, there is not a genus and not even a single species of
Pycnogonids in which the three pairs of cephalic appendages, or only one of them, have
totally disappeared ; they always show themselVes during at least one of the first stages
of the ontogenetical development.

“ I therefore believe that these three pairs of cephalic appendages are an inheritance
from the common progenitor of all living Pycnogonids; and so are probably the four
■pairs of long eight-jointed legs which in all full-grown Pycnogonids are attached to the
four thoracic segments. As the rudimentary abdomen never shows traces of appendages,
it is best, I think, to admit that the body of the hypothetical ancestor of this group was
composed of the above mentioned seven segments.

“ The study of the nervous system tended in general to confirm this suggestion ; with
regard to its structure, special attention was paid to the innervation of the proboscis. A
complex nervous apparatus serving for the innervation of the muscles of the proboscis was
discovered and described ; it probably is not of any primary morphological significance,
yet its structure seems highly important, as it beautifully illustrates the great amount
of complication which even the nervous system may undergo, when it serves for an organ
fulfilling a special and rather important function.

“ Except the organs of touch, which are spread all over the body, the eyes are the
only organs of sense certainly known to exist in the Pycnogonids. With regard to their
occurrence in the specimens inhabiting great depths, I found as a rule that they had either
no eyes at all or rudimentary ones without pigment. However, even those which must
be called rudimentary, from their want of pigment, often show distinct lenses as rounded
spots conspicuous by their brightness. Nor is the want of pigment in the eyes of the
deep-sea species a rule without exceptions : Nymphon macronyx, G. 0. Sars, from 840
fathoms, has distinctly pigmented eyes ; Oorhynchus aucJclandice, Hoek, from 700 fathoms,
has them with pigment also ; and even Nymphon meridioncile, Hoek, from 1675 fathoms,
has distinctly pigmented eyes. In the case of Pycnogonids we have no reason to doubt
that the animal really lived at the depth from which the net in which it was found was
drawn up. The fact is also quite in accordance with the occurrence of eyes in deep-sea
Crustaceans, fishes, and other animals. Though we do not understand the nature of the
light present in the deep sea, it is hardly possible to accept any longer the supposition
of the absolute darkness of the abysses.1

1 The result of the earliest deep-sea dredgings carried on in H.M.S. “Lightning” in 1869 was to convince Dr
Carpenter, Mr Gwyn Jeffreys, and Prof. Wyville Thomson, who conducted them, of the existence of light in the ocean
abysses. They write in their Report : “ That there is light there can be no doubt ( Proc . Boy. Soc. Lond., vol. xviii. p. 431,
1870), and every extension of deep-sea exploration since that time has confirmed the truth of this assumption. — J. M.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

861

“A very characteristic feature in the life-history of the Pycnogonids is afforded by
the circumstance that the males fulfil the duty of bearing the eggs on the so-called
ovigerous legs. However, I have been able to ascertain that this rule, which was
discovered by G. Cavanna about 1874, admits of an exception in the case of Nymphon
brevicciudatum, Miers. A specimen with egg-masses on the ovigerous legs had con-
siderably swollen thighs and large genital pores such as are characteristic of the females.
On investigating the thighs of this specimen, I found them filled up with well- developed
ovaries. Moreover, from the great resemblance of the ovigerous legs of the males and
females, I hazarded the supposition that the Pycnogonids of the genus Colossendeis would
deal with their eggs in a way differing from that of the species of other genera.

“ Finally, a few words on the metamorphosis of the Pycnogonids. As a rule the

Fig. 32 L—Oorhynchus aucklandice, Hoek. Station 169, off New Zealand, 700 fathoms.

A. Magnified 7£ times. B. Magnified 15 times.

larva creeping out of the egg is a little creature with only three pairs of appendages
(which become later on the cephalic ones) ; still in some cases the degree of develop-
ment which the larva has reached, when leaving the egg, is different even for two
Pycnogonids belonging to the same genus. For example, the larva of Nymphon
gallicum,. Hoek, from the French coast, is a true Protonymphon with three pairs of
appendages only ; the young Nymphon macrum, Wilson, as well as the young Nymphon
brevicaudatum, Miers, when hatching, is furnished not only with the three pairs of
cephalic, but also with one or two pairs of thoracic appendages. The cephalic appendages
in these latter larvae, moreover, have grown rather weak ; their bodies are much more
elongate than is the case in the other larvae,”

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

S62

Through the Messier Channel, Sarmiento Channel, and Strait oe
Magellan to the Falkland Islands.

The Messier and Sarmiento Channels. — On the 31st December, at 9.15 a.m., the
Peninsula of Tres Montes was seen through the mist, and at 10.45 a.m. .Cape Raper
was "observed ahead. A fine westerly breeze was blowing, but the weather was cloudy
and misty, with passing showers of drizzle until noon, at which time Cape Gallegos bore
north and Cape Raper N.E. by E. ^ E. The afternoon was fine, especially after Cape
Tres Montes was passed at 2 p.m., and there was a remarkably fine view of this iron-
bound coast, off which, fortunately, there is no outlying danger, or it would probably
have been the scene of many a shipwreck besides that of H.M.S. “Wager” in 1741.
At 3 p.m. Cape Stokes was rounded, and shortly afterwards a sounding and dredging
obtained in 40 fathoms, with the rock off the left extremity of the Peninsula of Tres
Montes 17° 20' Cape Stokes 75° 20' right extremity of Entrance Isles. At 5 p.m. the
ship proceeded towards Port Otway, anchoring there at 6.30 p.m. A party from the
ship landed for a short time ; the rock at the landing place was. a dolomitic limestone.

On the 1st January 1876,- at 5 a.m., the Expedition left Port Otway, and proceeded
across the Gulf of Penas towards the Messier Channel, in order to pass through the Inner
Straits from the Gulf of Penas to the Strait of Magellan. The morning was bright and
fine, though misty. At 6 a.m. Cape Stokes was passed and a S.E. ^ S. course shaped for
the Ayantau Islands. The rock off Cape Stokes is about 3 feet high and flat, but that
off the point next west of Cape Stokes is about 60 feet high. At 10 a.m. the Ayantau
Islands were seen and they were passed shortly after noon. By a good meridian altitude
the peak of the largest island of this group was found to be in lat. 47° 35' 30" S. instead
of lat. 47° 38' S., as marked in the chart supplied. At 2 p.m. a sounding was obtained
in 165 fathoms, blue mud, with Sombrero Peak S. 82° E., Ayantau Peak N. 12° W., Mount
Anson west, Southeast Hill S. 67° W., the left extremity of Penguin Island S. 27^° E.,
and Mount Baker S. 59° E. Proceeding towards Penguin Island, the ship was stopped
at 2.45 p.m., and exploring parties were sent on shore, together with an officer to obtain
a few angles, but the weather becoming cloudy with a drizzling rain, no angles could
be taken. In the. meantime the ship sounded and trawled in 125 fathoms, with
Sombrero Island Peak N. 65° E., Ayantau Peak N. 12° W., Pedro Island N. 57° W.,
and Mount Baker N. 69° E., and afterwards in 160 fathoms, with Ayantau Island
N. 14° W. and Sombrero Island N. 72° E. On Penguin Island the rocks were an
altered diabase and amphibolic granite. At 4 p.m. the exploring and surveying
parties returned, the trawl was hove up, and at 4.30 p.m. the ship proceeded for Hale
Cove, the weather still rainy and thick. At 5 p.m., however, the rain ceased, and at 6 p.m.
the weather was again bright and clear. The vessel passed close along the west sides of
Baker, Scout, Scylla, and Alert Islands, and the kelp reported by the “Alert” was

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

863

carefully looked for, but was not seen. At 6.15 p.m. the ship rounded the south extremity
of Alert Island and was steered for Hale Cove, anchoring there at 6.45 p.m., with the right
extremity of Billard Island S.S.W. § W., Point Boulard S.E., and Point Pillot W.N.W.

Hale Cove is a very good anchorage for vessels entering the Messier Channel and
being nearer the Gulf of Penas, will probably be preferred also by vessels bound north-
ward. Island Harbour, 10 miles farther south, is smaller and much more confined.

In making the Messier Channel, the bearings taken from the ship to the various
conspicuous points on shore were found not to agree, and there can be no; doubt that the
chart is somewhat incorrect. However, with the fine weather experienced, there was
no difficulty in distinguishing the land or in steering towards the port it was
intended to anchor in for the night ; it might have been otherwise had the hills been
capped, or only visible at intervals through the rain. The great difficulty of pilotage
is in first making out the land ; when the various objects on a coast have been once
distinguished, and the vessel’s position assured, then little difficulty is experienced
in proceeding along the coast or into the port of destination, for as the vessel proceeds,
the various objects which from time to time are sighted may readily be recognised by
an occasional judicious angle from previously known points. If however the chart be
incorrect, considerable difficulty is experienced in recognising the various objects delineated,
more especially if a continuous view of the land cannot be obtained owing to rain or
thick weather ; and as this appears to be the general condition of things in the Gulf of
Penas, there can be no doubt that a correct survey of its southern coasts is a great
desideratum. When once in the Messier Channel the water is so deep and the coast so
steep that little danger need be apprehended ; besides which, vessels are well protected
from the gales which prevail in the Pacific on this parallel.

On the 2nd January the ship left Hale Cove and proceeded to the southward
through the Messier Channel for Gray Harbour at the northern end of the English
Narrows. At 9 a.m. a sounding was obtained in 565 fathoms, with Scout Peak N. 30^° W.,
Mount Millar N. 39^° W., Mount Black N. 49^° W., Middle Island Summit S. 39° E.,
and Cock’s Head N. 16^° W. Black Island Peak is the easternmost of the two marked
on the chart, and is higher than the one delineated, being 2000 feet above the level
of the sea. At 9.20 a.m. the vessel again proceeded to the southward, and at 11.10 a.m.
stopped off Middle Island, to land surveying and exploring parties. Here a latitude
was obtained on the west extremity of the island, and a rough true bearing and a few
angles taken. The latitude was 48° 28' 3" S., the true bearing of Scout Peak N. 1 1° 22' W.,
and of the summit of Thornton Island S. 8° 25' E. Whilst the exploring parties were on
shore the ship sounded, trawled, and took temperatures in 345 fathoms, Middle Island
Peak bearing N. 85° E. and Thornton Island Peak S. 31° 40' E. The temperature at
the surface was 57°‘5, and from 100 fathoms to the bottom was 46°. At 2 p.m. the
ship again proceeded to the southward towards Gray Harbour. At 4 p.m., when off

(XARR. CHALL. EXP. VOL. I.— 1885.) 109

864

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER

the Direction Islands and abreast of Iceberg Sound, several small pieces of ice were passed
and it was found that the surface temperature had decreased from 57° to 44°, and the
specific gravity to 1 '004. Soon after passing Iceberg Sound, the temperature again
increased, to 56°. .At 6.30 p.m. the ship anchored in Gray Harbour in 17 fathoms; in
entering, a cast of 7 fathoms was obtained on the 9 fathom patch in the centre. The
day was very fine throughout, with an almost perfect calm, and the scenery as the
vessel steamed through the Messier Channel was magnificent.

The ship remained at anchor in Gray Harbour until 10.30 a.m. on the 4th,
parties exploring the neighbourhood and obtaining observations. The shooting parties
were not very successful, but at the head of the harbour is a large lake where plenty
of small fish having the general appearance of a Trout (Ha/plochiton zebra), and belong-
ing to a family representing the Sal monoids in the Southern Hemisphere, were caught.
The weather being remarkably fine on the 3rd, — the black bulb thermometer exposed to
the sun recorded 111 °, — the ship’s company were landed to wash their clothes and have
a run on shore, but they lit fires all over the harbour, which spreading, set fire to the
woods. Unfortunately, Dr Wild, one of the civilian staff, did not return with the boats
at 6 p.m., and as it was feared that he would get lost or burned, searching parties were
sent after him ; however, he turned up all right at 8 p.m.

On the 4th January, at 10.30 a.m., the ship left Gray Harbour and proceeded through
the English Narrows to the southward for Port Grappler. The vessel took the channel
west of Mid-channel Island, rounding that island just before noon, being abreast of Zealous
Island at noon. No difficulty was experienced in twisting the Challenger through the
narrow part, it being slack tide, but there is no doubt the mail steamers, some of which
are 400 feet in length, would find it difficult even at slack water, and almost impossible
with the stream against them. At 1 p.m. the ship passed Olland Island, and at 1.30 p.m.
the Gorgon Rock, which was then showing about three feet above water. At 2 p.m. Toro
Island was passed, and at 2.20 p.m. Crossover Island; there were numerous Fur Seals
round the ship, and also on the rocks south of the Covadonga Islets. At 3 p.m. the
vessel stopped in the fork at the north end of Saumarez Island, and a sounding and
trawling were obtained in 147 fathoms, with the left extremity of Foot Island N. 5° W.,
the left extremity of Broome Island N. 33° W., the left extremity of Escape Reach S. 2° E.,
the left extremity of Stony Bill Point S. 66° E., and Hayman Point S. 76° E. From these
bearings it appears that the chart is considerably in error, although of course there is no
difficulty in determining which route to take or in fixing roughly the position of the
ship. At 4.30 p.m. the trawl was hove up and the ship proceeded for Port Grappler,
anchoring there at 5.40 p.m. The first part of the day was fine, but the afternoon was
cloudy and the evening rainy, the wind being light.

The steam pinnace left Gray Harbour at 4 a.m. with several naturalists and officers,
and joined the ship in the evening at Port Grappler. . On the way landing was effected

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

865

at several spots and a number of birds were procured ; a very large number of Fur Seals
Arctoce'plialus were seen and six were shot, the skins and skeletons of which were
preserved.

In Port Grappler a derelict German steamer was found in possession of four Englishmen,
part of the crew of a Chilian steamer. It appears that the German vessel was bound from
Valparaiso to Hamburg, and that in passing through Indian Reach she struck on the
Vaudreuil Rock and knocked a hole in her bottom, so her Captain took her into Port
Grappler and abandoned her, taking passage to Sandy Point in a passing vessel. The
derelict vessel’s name was the “ Karnach,” and being laden with silver ore, copper, hides,
and sugar, doubtless proved a valuable prize for the salvors.

In passing Eden Harbour the kelp patch reported by H.M.S. “ Zealous” was carefully
looked for, but nothing was seen of it. Several patches of detached kelp were, however,
passed ; had there been a rock off Eden Harbour marked by kelp, it could hardly have
escaped the notice of the surveyors in the “ Nassau.”

On the 5th January, at 4.30 a.m., the ship left Port Grappler for Tom Bay, at 6.25 a.m.
rounded Bold Point, and at 7.30 a.m. Hamilton Shoulder. At this time a fresh breeze
sprang up from the southward, making it necessary to use the third boiler. At 2 p.m.
the vessel stopped off the northeast end of Madre Island, and a sounding was taken in
175 fathoms, with the right extremity of Clanricarde Point S. 58° E., the right extremity
of Topar Island N: 19° E., and the left extremity N. 26° W. Afterwards the trawl was put
over, and a boat sent in shore to look for an anchorage close to the Trinidad Channel, but
although there was a good inlet, the water was too deep for anchoring, so that at
4 p.m. the ship proceeded for Tom Bay, in order to lay there whilst repairing a steam-
pipe which had become damaged, and anchored at 5.45 p.m. in 17 fathoms, with Centre
Island S. 60° W., East David Island S. 45° E., and Robert Point N. 61° E. There
was a fresh southerly wind all day, with passing rain squalls, between which the
weather was bright and pleasant.

On the 6th January, at 4 a.m., the survey of Tom Bay was commenced, and the
weather being fine, equal altitudes, circummeridian altitudes, and a true bearing were
obtained, and several trigonometrical stations taken up, the boats sounding the outer part
of the bay. Towards evening the sky became overcast and gloomy, and shortly
after midnight the wind freshened and blew in squalls from the northward, so the cable
was veered to five shackles, when finding the stern close to a rock awash between Centre
and One Tree Islands, steam was got up in three boilers. At 8 a.m. on the 7th, the wind
still continuing from the northward with dirty squally weather, the vessel was shifted to
the northeast side of the bay, and brought up in 28 fathoms, with 90 fathoms of cable.
In the afternoon the wind shifted to the northwestward and the squalls became lighter, but
the weather was so thick and rainy all day that the survey could not be proceeded with.

On the 8th January, at 4 a.m., the breeze having moderated and the weather become

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

86(5

line, the anchor was weighed and the ship steamed towards Trinidad Channel, with
the intention of looking for an anchorage in the vicinity of Cape Candelaria, but after
rounding Brazo Ancho Point at 6 a.m. the wind increased rapidly from the westward, and
the weather became so thick and dirty that at 8 a.m. the ship bore up, it being considered
unadvisable to pursue surveying investigations in such weather, and then proceeded for
Puerto Bueno. The rock marked by kelp was seen between Medio and Topar Islands. At
8.48 a.m. the ship again rounded Brazo Ancho Point and was steered for Inocentes
Island, the rain squalls very heavy, completely obscuring the land at times. At 11 a.m.
Inocentes Island was passed and the ship steered for the Guia Narrows, and at 11.30 a.m.
a very heavy squall of wind was experienced, which cleared off the rain for a time. At
noon the ship was abreast of Juan Island, at 0.30 p.m. the Guia Narrows were passed, and
shortly after another deluge of rain experienced, so that one could not see more than half
a mile in any direction ; however, by keeping the east coast on board, the ship passed Cape
Charles all right, and shortly afterwards there was another break in the weather which
allowed a sounding and trawling to be taken in 1 40 fathoms off the south end of Bonduca
Island. The first trawling was in 40 fathoms, with the south end of Bonduca Island
W. by N. distant two cables, the second in 140 fathoms with the north point of Bonduca
Island N.W. by W. \ W., and Cape San Antonio N.N.E. At 3.45 p.m. the trawl was
hove up, and at 4.30 p.m. the ship anchored at Puerto Bueno, with the left extremity of
Hoskyn Island W. by S., the centre of Pounds Island S.S.E., and the right extremity of
Paynter Island E.N.E.

The vessel remained at anchor at Puerto Bueno on the 9th to allow a chance of the
country in the neighbourhood of the port being explored. The day was squally and
rainy. Some of the Trout-like fish already mentioned ( Haplochiton zebra) were caught
in the lake at the head of the harbour, and a few birds and an Otter shot."

On the 10th, at 4.30 a.m., the Expedition left Puerto Bueno.- At 8.30 a.m. the ship
stopped in the opening from Sarmiento Channel into Nelson Strait, and sounded and
trawled in 400 fathoms, with the left peak of Double Island N. 37° E., the left extremity
of Evans Island N. 34° W., Cape Kendall S. 86° W., High Lobos Island S. 43° W., the
right extremity of Carrington Island S. 40° E., and the left extremity of the islands north
of Piazzi Island S. 26° W. These bearings would place Double Island considerably to
the southward of the position it now occupies on the charts ; there can be no doubt that
here the survey has been very loosely made. Cape St. Vincente is about 900 feet high;
the islands north of Piazzi Island are all low. At 10.45 a.m. the trawl was hove up and
the ship then proceeded through the Sarmiento Channel for Farquhar Pass, which was
cleared at 1.30 p.m. From here the vessel was steered for the Victory Pass, which was
cleared at 3.45 p.m., and then for Isthmus Bay, anchoring there at 4.40 p.m., with Harlow
Island N. by W. and Selpo Point S.W., in 25 fathoms. The rocks collected at Isthmus
Bay, where a party landed, were decomposed diabase and micaceous quartzite.

NARK ATI YE OF THE CRUISE.

86*7

The day was cloudy and drizzly, not much wind in the inner passage, but apparently
a fresh breeze outside in Nelson Strait. The rain was never sufficiently heavy to hide
the land for any distance, but it was enough to prevent surveying operations.

On the 11th January, at 4 a.m., the vessel left Isthmus Bay for Port Churruca.
No difficulty was experienced in proceeding through Smyth Channel and Mayne
Passage. Bradbury Rock, the height of which is not given on the chart, is low, about
6 feet above the level of the sea. At 10.30 a.m., having cleared Smyth Channel, a
sounding and trawling were obtained in 245 fathoms, with the left extremity of
Fairway Island north, St. Agnes Peak N. 15° W., St. Anne’s Peak N. 33° W., the left
extremity of the islands in Parker Bay N. 71° W., and the right extremity of Tamar
Island S. 30° E. The temperature at the surface was 50°, and at the bottom 46°. At
0.30 p.m. the trawl was hove up, and the ship proceeded for Port Churruca, anchoring
in Nassau Bay at 2.45 p.m., with Digby Point N. 10° E., Holland Point N. 34° W.,
ancl the entrance- of Lobo Arm N.E. by E. \ E. The early part of the day was rainy
and thick, but this cleared off about 9 a.m., and the rest of the day was line, with a
moderate breeze. The Challenger had then steamed 300 miles through the Inner
Channels from the Gulf of Penas to the Strait of Magellan, thus avoiding the chances of
bad weather on the tempestuous coast of Western Patagonia.

The existence of these channels was first made known by Pedro Sarmiento. He
entered the Gulf of Trinidad in November 1579, and anchored in 20 fathoms, rocky
bottom, near the south shore, 15 miles within the outer capes, but being there exposed
to northwest winds, afterwards anchored in 5 fathoms in a narrow port, which he
named “ Rosario,” just west of Cape Candelaria. The first anchorage was named
“ Puerto Peligroso ” by Sarmiento, but by the seamen “ Cache Diablo.” From Port
Rosario the ships proceeded to the eastward into Concepcion Channel, and then anchored
in Port Bermejo at the southeast extremity of Madre Island. Leaving his ships at
anchor in Port Bermejo, Sarmiento proceeded in boats first along the western coast of
Hanover Island, which he traced as far south as Cape Santa Lucia, and rejoined his vessel
again on December 24th. Leaving Port Bermejo again on the 29th, Sarmiento pro-
ceeded in his boats to the southeastward, past Inocentes Island and through the
Guia Narrows into the channel now bearing his name, which he traced to the south-
ward to the parallel of 52° 15' S., but missing the passage by which he might have
entered the Strait of Magellan, returned to his ship January 12th, 1580. Giving up
hopes of being able to enter Magellan Strait by the inner channels, Sarmiento took his
ships outside through the Concepcion Channel. It is worthy of note that by observations
made at Port Bermejo, there was in 1580 no variation of the needle.

From the time of Sarmiento no account was given by any Europeans of the Gulf of
of Trinidad or the. inner passages, until the two surveying ships “ Adventure ” and

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

868

“ Beagle ” left England in 1826 to survey the Strait of Magellan, although it was known
that the whalers employed in the south- sea fishery visited the outer coast of Patagonia,
and anchored in a port in lat. 51° 30' S., for Mr. Arrowsmith in 1806 had a plan of this
port which he had received from a vessel employed in this fishery.

The “Adventure” and “Beagle,” with the schooner “Adelaide,” between the years
1826-30, traced the Inner Channels from the Strait of Magellan to the Gulf of Penas, and
a most interesting narrative of their proceedings was published by the late Admiral
Robert Fitz Roy, the officer who commanded the “ Beagle ; ” but it was not until 1848 that
these channels were used, the first vessel to pass through them being H.M.S. “ Gorgon”
in September of that year. She left Sholl Bay at the southern end of Smyth Channel
on the 28th August, and reached the Gulf of Penas on the 12th September. A few of
H.M. ships, and also an occasional Chilian steamer took the inner passages after the
successful trip of the “Gorgon,” and H.M.S. “Nassau” surveyed on a large scale their
narrowest parts, viz., Smyth Channel and the English Narrows in 1868. The Peninsular
Steam Navigation Company sent their vessels by this route in 1870, but discontinued
doing so in 1872 owing to numerous accidents, as their ships, being 380 feet in length on
the keel, were very unhandy to turn in the narrow harbours or the English Narrows. Since
1872 the mail steamers pass into the Pacific from .Sea Reach, unless circumstances make
it unadvisable to face a gale, when they use Smyth Channel and enter the Pacific by
the Gulf of Trinidad.

The chief difficulty in using the Inner Channels from the Strait of Magellan to the
Gulf of Penas is the want of anchorages suitable for large vessels. The first anchorage
after passing through Smyth Channel is Isthmus Bay, at its northern end, but even here
the largest swinging scope is but one and a half cables. From Isthmus Bay to Puerto
Bueno (a harbour rather larger and better than Isthmus Bay), a distance of 75 miles, no
place is at present known where a large vessel could find shelter, although there are a
few anchorages fit for small craft, viz., Columbine Cove, Mayne Harbour, &c. Again,
from Puerto Bueno to Port Grappler, a distance of 115 miles, the knowledge of
the channels does not permit at present of positive assertion as to whether there*
are suitable anchorages for large vessels or not, although it appears probable that
there may be some good harbours in Madre Island ; Port Grappler itself is but two cables
in width. From Port Grappler to the English Narrows the distance is 35 miles, but on
each side of the Narrows is a fair anchorage. From the Narrows to the Gulf of Penas
the distance is 80 miles, and here again the anchorages are deficient, although either of
the three known, viz., Connor Cove, Island Harbour, and Hale Cove may be used if
necessary; Hale Cove, however, is probably the best.

Although the chief difficulty in using the Inner Channels is the want of harbours,
there is another and very serious difficulty in two parts of these otherwise safe
passages, viz., the sharp turn a vessel has to take both in Smyth Channel and in the

NARRATIVE OE THE CRUISE.

869

English Narrows. In Smyth Channel this difficulty can be much more readily over-
come than in the English Narrows, for the depth of water at the turning point there
being equal to the depth on each side, the tidal stream is never very violent. In the
English Narrows the depth of water north and south of the turning point exceeds 100
fathoms, whilst at the turning point it shoals to less than a third of that depth ; conse-
quently the tidal undulation produces here a rapid stream of from 3 to 6 knots per hour,
and it would be the height of folly to attempt passing this spot in a vessel over 300 feet
in length, except at slack tide, for the stream catching the ship at the moment of
turning would in all probability put her on shore. Fortunately, as previously mentioned,
there is a fair harbour on each side of these Narrows in which a ship may drop her anchor
whilst waiting for the turn of the stream.

A glance at the published sheets of these various channels will show conclusively
how much they are indented, and how very little is known of these indentations, which
have merely been sketched in by the “Adelaide” or “Nassau” as they passed from the
Gulf of Penas to the Strait of Magellan, and it may therefore be hoped that a full
exploration will add to the anchorages, even if it do not, by opening up the Eallos and
other channels, enable long vessels to escape the English Narrows.

So far as the mail steamers are concerned, it is improbable they will ever again
use the Inner Channels north of the Gulf of Trinidad, but between that Gulf and the
entrance of the Strait of Magellan the knowledge is so imperfect that little more is
known about some parts than was known in Sarmiento’s time in 1580, and a full explo-
ration would doubtless not only be of advantage to ships in general and the mail
steamers in particular, but would add considerably to the scientific knowledge of the
maze of islands lying off the western coast of Patagonia, besides probably opening up
new Seal and other fisheries.

To explore these numerous channels and to venture outside along the weather coasts
of the islands would require a small vessel with good steam power, and an officer
in command of indomitable energy combined with perfect patience, the latter quality
being probably more called into play than the former whilst waiting for perhaps days
together in some little harbour for the weather to clear up sufficiently to enable him
to proceed with his surveying work. Since the Challenger’s visit regular surveying
operations have been in progress in these localities in H.M. Ships “ Alert” and “ Sylvia,”
commanded by Captains Sir George Nares, K.C.B., Maclear, and Wharton.

Strait of Magellan. — The Expedition remained at Port Churruca on the 12tli January
to give the Naturalists an opportunity of exploring in its vicinity. Early in the morning
of that day, during a slight squall off the land, it was found that the ship was drifting
and the second anchor was immediately let ; go. By the time the ship was brought up
the shore was so close that steam was got up in two boilers to shift berth. When the first

870

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

anchor was weighed the shank was found broken two feet below the stock. This probably
took place when the anchor was let go, as the ground was rocky, and it was fortunate that
there was little or no wind during the night, or the ship might have been drifted on shore.
After weighing both anchors the berth was shifted to Oldfield Anchorage, and the vessel
came to in 18 fathoms, veering 50 fathoms, but keeping the fires banked. The wind
inside was from the northward all day, and kept the ship swung across the anchorage,
but outside the port a westerly gale was blowing, as indicated by the movements of the
clouds. The force of the wind was not felt much at Oldfield Anchorage, and the squalls
were not nearly so severe there as in other parts of Port Churruca, still, lying across
the Oldfield arm, with the anchor in the centre and 50 fathoms of cable out, the stern
was unpleasantly close to the shore, and had the anchor dragged or the cable parted,
the ship would probably have grounded ; steam was however kept in readiness to guard
against such a contingency. The anchorage in Port Churruca was decidedly the worst
experienced -since entering the Messier Channel, being confined as to space, with rocky
bottom and deep water (see PI. XXXIV.).

On the 13th January, at 4 a.m., the anchor was weighed and the ship left Port
Churruca. Outside, in Sea Reach, a westerly gale was found blowing, with a considerable
sea and thick dirty weather, so that the ship had to be steered along the land by patent
log. From the entrance to Port Churruca the vessel was steered N.E. 2 miles, then
E. by N. 1^ miles, and then east, which latter course took the ship about I j? miles north-
ward of a number of islets two-thirds the distance from Port Churruca to Cape Upright.
At 6.30 a.m. Cape Providence was seen N.E. \ N. and Cape Upright S.E. by E., after
which there was no difficulty in running for and through Long Reach, at a speed averag-
ing 10 to 12 knots per hour under double-reefed topsails and foresail aided by steam.
After rounding Cape Monday there was smooth water. In Glacier Bay, Snowy Sound,
and Snowy Channel there were magnificent glaciers extending to the water’s edge.
From Cape Upright to Port Churruca and between Cape Providence and St. Anne
Island the chart appeared to be much in error, but there was no opportunity of correct-
ing it. At 4 p.m. Cape Froward was rounded, and at 6.30 p.m. the ship anchored in
Port Famine with St. Anne Point N.E. by E., Tablet Mound north.

On the 14th, at 4.30 a.m., the vessel left Port Famine and steamed towards the
Chilian settlement at Sandy Point, anchoring there at 8.30 a.m. in 10 fathoms, with
the Cemetery Cross S. 82° W., Block House N. 56° W., and Sandy Point N. 8° E. The
day was fine and clear, with a moderate breeze.

The Chilian settlement at Sandy Point was founded in 1850 after a trial of a few
years of Port Famine. It is built on the summit of a bank about 35 feet high, in front
of which is a large flat formed by the deposit of a river which runs past it on the north
side. A raised road has been constructed from the village to the water’s edge where a pier
runs out. The first pier was washed away in 1867, but another has since been built;

XIaU- XXXIV

G-lacier, Port Churruca.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

871

this also, however, was so rickety that it probably will not last long. From the pier
a tramway runs to the coal mines to facilitate the transport of that mineral, which can
be brought right clown in trucks and discharged into barges alongside the pier. The
price was $6 a ton, but as the coal is of inferior quality and gives but little heat, there
was not; much sale for it.

The Chilians originally established the colony at Port Famine, and afterwards at
Sandy Point as a penal settlement, but in consequence of the increase of steam traffic
through the Strait of Magellan, grants of land and other advantages were promised to
immigrants, and in January 1869 a new Governor arrived in a vessel of war with some
300 settlers. In 1876 the colony appeared to be thriving ; some of the land in the
vicinity of Sandy Point was being cleared, vegetables were being cultivated, and in
Freshwater Bay corn had been successfully grown. Bullocks and sheep were fairly
plentiful, and beef and mutton could be procured at 7 d. per pound. Mushrooms were
plentiful in the vicinity of Sandy Point, and large quantities were gathered and fully
appreciated by all on board, as were also the ducks and snipes brought back by the
shooting parties.

Several members of the Expedition visited the coal mines ; six different seams of coal
were counted in riding up the valley, some of them being 7 feet in thickness. There are
gold mines in the same locality, but they hardly paid the expense of working.

The Governor of the colony, Don Diego Duble Almeida, presented some Fuegian
skulls to the Expedition, and received the officers with great hospitality. Some time
after the visit of the Expedition this little settlement was the scene of a terrible
massacre. On the 11th November 1877 the artillerymen mutinied and liberated the
convicts; a massacre of the inhabitants and destruction of the greater part of the town
followed. The Governor, who behaved with great bravery, barely escaped with his life,
after being severely wounded and suffering great hardships.

On the 18th January the vessel left Sandy Point for Elizabeth Island, anchoring off
that island at 11 a.m. in 5| fathoms, with its west point S. 52° W., Sylvester Point
S. 46° E., Quoin Hill N. 58° W., left extremity Santa Marta S. 72° E., and Sweepstakes
Foreland N. 56° E.

Exploring parties landed on the island, which is without trees but covered with grass,
and since, the Expedition’s visit has been occupied as a sheep and cattle run. The island
is the breeding place of large numbers of wild Geese ( Chloephaga patagonica), which
were very abundant. Wild-goose shooting in Elizabeth Island is a very different matter
from what it is at home, for when the sportsman has shot nine geese he finds that
he has no light task before him in carrying them to the . boat at the end of the island,
over the soft and yielding soil. In the Falkland Islands similarly the sportsman finds
himself early in the day with a heavier bag than he can stagger under. The geese
at Elizabeth Island showed some wariness, and some little trouble had to . be

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 110

872

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S, CHALLENGES,.

taken in order to get within shot of them, unless they were met with in long grass.
When on the alert they settled on the summits of the hillocks and ridges, in order to
have a wide view of the enemy. One had to creep up under cover of the hillslopes, and
make a final rush towards the flock ; the birds are startled by this, and it is some time
before they make up their minds to fly. Doubtless the wariness of these geese is
due to their progenitors having been hunted for generations by natives in old times.
The geese at the Falkland Islands are far tamer than those at Elizabeth Island, and
do not seem to understand a gun, though they have been shot at now for a long period.
The Falkland Islands, however, were never inhabited by any savage race, and the birds
have not had time to learn. The other birds, as for example the Loggerhead Ducks, in
Magellan Strait, which also occur at the Falklands, show the same contrast in their
wildness. The young geese at Elizabeth Island, whilst still covered with black down,
run amongst the grass with astonishing quickness, and are as difficult to shoot as rabbits ;
it is no easy task to catch them by running. A brood when met with separates, every
gosling running off1 in a different direction ; the young birds dodge behind a tuft of
grass, and squatting closely under it are at once safe, for it is quite impossible to find
them, and a brood of ten or twelve goslings, as large almost as full-grown fowls,
disappears as if by magic. It was astonishing to find that even goslings are able to
secure their safety so completely. They can only be caught by the pursuer keeping his
eye on one bird only, and running after it at the utmost possible speed. They are far
better to eat than the full-grown geese. At Sylvester Point there was an immense
rookery of the small Black Headed Tern ( Sterna hirundinacea).

On the southeast shore there were some large kitchen middens resting on a bed
of fine sand, into which the sea had cut and exposed long sections of the middens.
There were bones of Guanacos, of a small Rodent, of Fur Seals, Whales, Porpoises,
Penguins, Rheas, Terns, and Shags. Some of the bones were charred, some were
split, and some fashioned into awls and needles. Arrow and spear heads, and knives
made of chert, were found, also rounded stone sinkers with a groove cut in them for
a string. In some places the middens were covered by over 6 inches of soil, and
appeared to be of great antiquity — possibly prior to the separation of Elizabeth Island
from the mainland. In other places they appeared to be of recent origin ; the island
was inhabited at the time of the early Dutch voyages.

On the 20th January, at 4.50 A.M., the ship left Elizabeth Island for the Falkland
Islands under steam and sail, having a fair tide till noon. The day was fine and clear,
and no difficulty was experienced in fixing the position of the ship so as to ensure passing
in the centre of the channels. The ship had the strength of the ebb stream in the first
narrows, and for half an hour was going at the rate of 1 8 miles per hour over the ground
(11 through the water). At 2 p.m. Mount Dinero was in line with the beacon on
Dungeness Point, and a course was shaped to cross- the Sarmiento Bank, which was

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

87:

cleared at 3 p.m., and then the ship was steered for the West Jason Cay. At 4.40 p.m.
the vessel stopped, and sounded and trawled in 55 fathoms in lat. 55° 20' S., long.
67° 39' W., after which sail was made for the Falkland Islands.

The deposit at 55 fathoms, as well as at two other soundings, 70 and 110 fathoms,
was a coarse sand, the grains about one millimetre in diameter, consisting of quartz,
jasper, felspars, mica, hornblende, augite, glauconite, pumice, and particles of crystalline
and schistose rocks. ■

The deposits in the Messier and Sarmiento Channels and Magellan Strait were in all
cases blue muds containing very little carbonate of lime, and consisting mostly of debris
from the neighbouring mountains. Pelagic Foraminifera were only represented by a few
stray specimens of Globigerina, and on the surface only a few of these shells were noticed,
the deposits and surface gatherings in these enclosed channels thus being in marked con-
trast to those found in the open sea, at some distance from land. The dredgings were
moderately productive, and in depths between 60 and 400 fathoms a good many new
species were procured, including one new genus and five new species of fish. The parties
landed at the various points where the ship anchored made extensive collections of
plants, birds, fish, and other animals.

In passing through the eastern part of the Strait of Magellan, a red beacon, which
had been recently erected by the Chilian Government, was observed on Cape Gregory.
Arrangements had also been made, it was understood, to buoy the Triton Bank. In the
first narrows a buoy was seen adrift, and after passing them, the Chilian vessel of war
“O’Higgins” was observed at anchor on the Nassau Bank, so that the buoy passed was
probably the one off that shoal.

The Strait of Magellan was discovered by Fernao de Magalhaes in October 1520,
during that celebrated voyage when for the first time the globe was circumnavigated.
Entering the Strait from the Atlantic on October 21st, he reached the Pacific on the 27th
November, 37 days after passing Cape Virgins.

Magellan’s great discovery being made known on the return of his ship to
Spain, other navigators turned their attention towards this route, and followed it with
varying fortune. Thus, Don Garcia Jofre de Loyasa, a native of Ciudad Real, passed
through in April and May 1526 in 48 days, having previously failed in January of
that year. Simon de Alcazora attempted it in January 1535, but failed; Alonso de
Camargo succeeded in January 1540 ; Sir Francis Drake, the first Englishman who used
the Strait, passed through it in 17 days in August and September 1578 ; and Sarmiento,
after discovering the Gulf of Trinidad, navigated it from west to east in January and
February 1580, occupying 31 days in the transit from one ocean to the other; a great
part of this time was, however, spent at anchor, waiting for his consort.

Sarmiento, on his arrival in Spain, represented to the King (Philip II.) the advantages

874

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

of fortifying narrow parts of the Strait in order to prevent vessels of any other nation
than their own passing into the Pacific, as at this time it was not known that a passage
existed round Cape Horn. The King approved of Sarmiento’s plans, and despatched a
fleet of twenty- three ships, on board of which were numerous artificers, and large stores of
ammunition and ordnance, to colonize and fortify commanding situations in the Strait.
Owing to various mishaps on the voyage, Sarmiento did not arrive off Cape Virgins
until the 1st February 1584, and then with only five vessels. Directly they anchored,
the men were landed to form a colony, but one of the vessels being wrecked and three
driven off by westerly gales, Sarmiento was left with 400 men and 30 women, with
provisions for only eight months. Leaving 150 men under the command of Andres de
Viedrua to found the City of Jesus, Sarmiento proceeded with the remainder overland to
the bay now known as Port Famine, where he founded the city of San Felipe. The
exact situation of the City of Jesus appears doubtful ; Burney says that in the chart of
Olmedilla it is placed near Cape Possession, but Captain King thinks it was about half
way between the first and second narrows.

On the 25th May, Sarmiento left the town of San Felipe in charge of Juan Suarez
and sailed in the “ Maria,” the only vessel remaining, for the Settlement of Jesus,
off which he anchored ; but a violent tempest drove him out to. sea and forced him
to bear up for Brazil, from whence he endeavoured to despatch supplies to his colony,
but failed owing to a series of misfortunes. Nothing more was heard of either of
the two settlements until January 1587, when Cavendish entered the strait and found
fifteen men and three women remaining of the inhabitants of the town of San Felipe.
Whilst these Spaniards were considering whether they should trust themselves on board
an English ship, a fair wind arose, with which Cavendish proceeded through the strait.

Cavendish gave the name of Port Famine to the bay in which the town of San Felipe
was situated, a name which it bears to this day. He rescued one man, Tome Hernandez,
from starvation, and another was rescued by Merick in 1590 ; these were the only two
survivors of the 400 men and 30 women landed in 1584.

Cavendish passed through the strait in 49 days in January and February 1587.
Merick in January 1590 failed to get far beyond Cape Froward, the southern point of
America, and Cavendish in his second voyage also failed to get farther than that Cape in
April and May 1592; but Captain John Davis, who discovered the Falkland Islands in that
}Tear, succeeded in passing through the Strait of Magellan in September. Westerly gales,
however, forced him back from the Pacific again, and he eventually returned to Port
Desire, being thus the second navigator to pass through from west to east. The next
Englishman to pass was Sir John Hawkins in February and March 1594; he took 39
days in sailing from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In 1599 De Cordes, the first Dutchman
who attempted this route, wintered in the strait, remaining there from April to September,
finally passing into the Pacific on the 3rd of the latter month. On November 4th

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

875

of the same year., Oliver van Nooit, another Dutchman, anchored off Cape Virgins,
and after struggling for 117 days against gales and bad weather, reached the Pacific
on the 29th February 1600. On April 3rd 1615, Joris Spilbergen, also a Dutchman,
entered the strait and reached the Pacific on the 6th May, occupying 33 days in
transit. In this voyage the first good chart of the route taken was constructed by
Cornelius May.

In January 1616 Le Maire and Schouten discovered the passage round Cape Plorn,
and the Strait of Magellan lost its importance directly it was known that another route
existed by which ships could reach the South Sea. Information of this discovery
reaching Spain, the Spanish Government despatched two small vessels to verify it, under
the command of Bartolome Garcia de Nodel and his brother Goncalo. They rounded
Cape Horn and returned to the Atlantic through Magellan Strait in February and March
1619, having circumnavigated Tierra del Fuego.

After 1616, vessels bound to the South Sea appear to have more generally
preferred the route round Cape Horn to that through the Strait of Magellan. Some
adventurous .captains, however, tried the latter route. Sir John Narborough took
25 days to make the passage in October and November 1670. He constructed a
very good plan of the channels, and after visiting the coast of Chili, returned through
the strait in January 1671. Captain John Strong in 1690 took 100 days to reach the
Pacific in the months February to May. M. de Gennes failed to get through in 1696.
M. de Beauchesne in 1699 passed Cape Virgins on June 24th, but did not succeed in
reaching the South Sea until January 21st 1700, being thus 211 days in the strait.
Commodore Byron in 1765 took 58 days, sailing through in February to April, and
Captain Wallis in 1767 occupied 116 days in transit from December 1 766 to April 1767.
Cook did not use this route, preferring the passage round Cape Horn, nor is there much
other information respecting it until H.M. ships “ Adventure ” and “ Beagle ” were
despatched to explore it in 1826. They traced all the channels in the vicinity of the
strait, ascertained the position and extent of the anchorages described by the older
navigators, and constructed an excellent chart of the whole southern part of America.
It would however be a mistake to suppose that in the six years occupied by these
surveying ships on this work, the various channels had been surveyed with that
minuteness which is characteristic of the present style ; such accuracy could not possibly
have been attained in five times the number of years occupied by Captains King and
Fitz Roy on these inclement coasts. Theirs was essentially a preliminary work, which
requires to be followed by detailed surveys, such as that of H.M.S. “Nassau” in 1866-69
of the eastern half of the strait ; but considered only as preliminary, it deserves great
praise, and their chart has enabled navigators to steer with the utmost confidence from
the Atlantic to the Pacific, as, although in many parts capable of much improvement
in detail, the general run of the channels is laid down with accuracy.

876

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The first large sailing vessel which used Magellan Strait after the survey of the
“Adventure” and “Beagle” was H.M.S. “Fisgard” in 1842. She occupied 17 days in
the transit from east to west in October, and was followed in 1 8 5 1 by a Swedish frigate,
and in the same year H.M.S. “ Havannah,” homeward bound, passed through from west
to east, as also did H.M.S. “Calypso” in 1862. The first steamer that adopted this
route was the “ Peru,” commanded by Captain George Peacock, formerly a Master in
H.M. Navy. She was followed by H.M. steamships “ Salamander,” “ Cormorant,”
“Gorgon,” “Vixen,” “Virago,” &c., and it is now the practice for all steamers to take
this passage in preference to the route round Cape Horn, a practice which is likely
to continue, unless in the course of time a canal is cut through the Isthmus of
Panama.

From this it appears that the shortest time taken by sailing vessels to pass through
the Strait of Magellan is 17 days, and that two men have performed this feat, viz., Sir
Francis Drake in 1578, and Captain Duntze of the “Fisgard” in 1842.

The navigation of the Strait of Magellan is difficult owing to a variety of causes : in
the eastern part there are numerous shoals and rapid tides, but the weather is fairly clear
and little rain falls, whereas in the western part the depths are so great that although
there are few dangers and but little tide, there are few places where large vessels can
anchor, and the rainfall is abundant. The weather is boisterous in all parts of the
strait and at all seasons of the year, and the rain which is so abundant on the Pacific
seaboard, gradually decreases in copiousness from the western to the eastern end.

The scenery of the western Patagonian fjords is very beautiful. The successive
ranges of mountains are capped here and there by snow, and glaciers, the dwindled repre-
sentatives of those that scooped out the main features of the region, fill some of
the valleys. The fjords remind one somewhat of those in Norway ; they branch
and send offsets on either hand. Thus, as these long sounds are traversed constant
glimpses are obtained down the communicating channels bounded by successions of
mountain ridges, fading gradually out of sight one behind the other. In some parts of
the Messier Channel the mountains are covered by a dense forest of small trees, and one
peculiarity of the scenery is due to the fact that these forests come down to the seashore
and overhang the beds of mussels growing on the rocks. In some harbours it is impos-
sible to get away from the shore, so dense is the barrier of forest undergrowth every-
where. On the eastern side, about Sandy Point, the country is more open, and there are
wide stretches of grass-land.

From a register kept for a period of nearly ten years at Sandy Point, it appears that
the mean temperature there in July is 3 5° '4, or 2° ‘9 colder than the mean temperature
for January at Greenwich, whilst the mean temperature at Sandy Point in January is
54°'8, or 7°'4 colder than the mean temperature at Greenwich in July. The following
table will enable an opinion to be formed of the climate.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

877

Table of the Mean Monthly Temperature at Greenwich and Sandy Point.

Month.

Greenwich.

Corresponding Month.

Sandy Point.

J anuary

38-3

July

35-4

February

39-3

August

37-4

March

41-6

September

42-4

April

47-1

October

47-3

May

52-9

November

50-7

June

59-0

December

53-2

July

62-2

January

54-8

August

61-4

February

54-4

September

57-2

March

48-0

October

50-2

April

44-1

November

43-6

May

40-4

December

40-3

June

35-4

From this table it will be seen that the winter is very little colder than the winter at
Greenwich, but that the summer months are considerably colder, and that the range
of mean monthly temperature which at Greenwich is 23°'9 is at Sandy Point 190,4.
The climate of Sandy Point is, like that . of the whole southern oceanic region, therefore
a very equable one, of uniformly low temperature, and this is doubtless due to the
uniform temperature of the sea water, the mean range of which does not exceed 10°,
or from 42°#5 in winter to 520,5 in summer. The mean annual temperature of Sandy
Point is 45°‘3, and as the temperature of the deep water in the strait is 46°, there
appears to be some connection between them, as this deep water is cut off both from
the Atlantic and Pacific by ridges not exceeding 50 fathoms in depth. What the
extreme depression of the bed of the channels in Magellan Strait and the inner passages
may be, has not as yet been determined. One sounding of 565 fathoms was obtained
in the Messier Channel, one of 400 fathoms in Sarmiento Channel, and one of 240 fathoms
in Sea Reach ; and Sir John Narborough did not obtain bottom anywhere at 200
fathoms in the main strait, which is sufficient to show that the lower waters here form
an inland sea the temperature of which in all probability depends on the temperature
of the Pacific in this latitude at the depth of the ridge separating that ocean from the
basin, or basins, of the strait ; and this again, there is reason to think, renders the climate

878

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

so equable, and lielps to keep the surface temperature in winter so much higher than the
temperature of the air.

The route through the Strait of Magellan has been much facilitated by the excellent
survey of the eastern portion by H.M.S. “Nassau,” and by the beacons which have
been erected by the Chilian Government, but the charts of its western entrance are
capable of much improvement; a great part of the coast line there is still unexplored,
and it is possible that harbours may exist of which nothing is now known ; besides which
a vessel employed on this service would, by keeping a careful meteorological register,
enable the condition of the climate of the western side of Patagonia to be ascertained,
which there is every reason to believe differs greatly from the climate of Sandy Point
and the eastern coast.1

The Isopoda. — Mr. F. E. Beddard, the first part of whose Report on the Challenger
collection of Isopoda is published,2 writes : — “ Among the specimens of Isopoda collected
by the Expedition, those belonging to the genus Serolis are the most noteworthy. This
genus, originally founded by Leach for the reception of Oniscus paradoxus, Fabricius,
is chiefly interesting on account of its peculiar geographical distribution. For a long
time it was only known to occur on the shores of Patagonia and the South Shetland
Islands ; the Challenger, however, discovered many species in other parts of the southern
hemisphere. During the Transit of Yenus Expedition and the voyage of the German ship
‘ Gazelle ’ several of these species were dredged off the coasts of Kerguelen subsequently
to the Challenger’s visit, and have already been described. New Zealand appears to be
another locality of the genus, since the British Museum contains a single specimen each of
the Patagonian Serolis schythei and Serolis paradoxa from that locality ; and Sei'olis
latifrons, a characteristic Kerguelen species, was obtained during the voyage of the ‘Erebus’
and ‘Terror ’at the Auckland Islands, south of New Zealand. The genus is therefore
more particularly characteristic of the southern hemisphere, and, until quite recently, was
believed to be entirely confined to. that portion of the globe ; within the last few years,
however, a single species, Serolis carinata, has been met with as far north as San Diego
in California. During the Challenger Expedition a large number of examples of several
Patagonian species and of all the known Kerguelen species were dredged, but none of
these were obtained from any new localities except in so far as regards the Crozets and
Marion Island. These islands, as might be expected, are inhabited by species identical
with those found at Kerguelen. On the shores of Southern and Eastern Australia six
species were obtained, of which five prove to be new ; it is an interesting fact that these
Australian species form a well marked section of the genus, agreeing with each other and
differing from their Patagonian and Kergu elen. representatives in a number of small but

1 H.M.S. “ Sylvia,” under Captain Wharton, was employed surveying here in 1882 and 1883.

2 Report on the7 Isopoda — The Genus Serolis, by F. E. Beddard, Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxxiii., 1884.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

879

quite definite characters ; on the other hand, it is quite impossible to detect any such
differences between the species of the genus which range from Patagonia through
Kerguelen to New Zealand, and in some cases, as already pointed out, there is an absolute
identity. It would be rather premature to draw any wide conclusions from the distribu-
tion of a single genus, but the facts recorded here seem to favour the division of the
southern hemisphere into two regions — (1) an Australian, (2) an Antarctic extending from
Patagonia to New Zealand. Other observers have commented on the close relationship
that subsists between the littoral faunas of Patagonia and New Zealand.

“ The most/ interesting species of the genus Serolis that were dredged by the Challenger
are four from deep water, all of which are new to science. The genus was not known
to range into deep water until the publication of Dr. v. Willemoes Sulim’s notes on the
Crustacea observed during the voyage.1

“It is a remarkable fact that none of these deep-sea species were dredged north of
the Equator ; it will be interesting to note whether further dredgings show that, in
common with the majority of deep-sea animals, they are comparatively unrestricted in
their range.

“ Serolis bromleyanct, the largest of the deep-sea species, is figured, natural size, in
the accompanying woodcut (fig. 3 25); the drawing represents the male specimen dredged
at Station 156, near the Antarctic Ice Barrier, in 1975 fathoms. This species was
met with again considerably to the north, off the east and west coasts of New
Zealand, in 400, 700, and 1100 fathoms; it lias already been pointed out by Dr.
G-erstaecker 2 that this species, as well as Serolis antarctica, which ranges from off the
coast of South America just under the Equator (400 fathoms) to the neighbourhood of
the Crozets (1600 fathoms) appears to inhabit deeper water in the more southern latitudes;
and there are other instances adduced to show that certain species which are widely
distributed are found in shallower water towards the Equator, and in deeper water towards
the poles.

“ It is worthy of note that in the two instances just mentioned the examples from
deeper water and more southern latitudes are larger than those from shallower water
and nearer the Equator.

“The third deep-sea species, Serolis necera, was dredged at Stations 320 and 318 ; at
the latter from a depth of 2040 fathoms, the greatest which the genus is known to
inhabit. The remaining deep-sea species, Serolis gracilis, was dredged at Station 120
in 675 fathoms. None of the deep-sea species were found to inhabit shallow water also,
nor do any of the shallow- water species of the genus pass the 300 fathom limit ; the
/Serous-faunas of deep and shallow water are quite distinct, but it is impossible to
distinguish the former by any definite characters which would serve to unite them into

1 Suhm, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., vol. xxiv. p. 590, 1876.

2 Gerstaecker, Bronn’s Klassen ti. Orel. cl. Thierreichs, Bel. v. Abtli. 2, p. 247, 1883.

(naiib. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

Ill

880

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

a special subgenus ; they all present considerable differences from the shallow- water
species, but these appear to be due to modifications produced by some unknown causes
which affect the inhabitants of the deep sea, and not to be a mark of near affinity ; for
example, the epimera of Serolis bromleyana, Serolis near a, and to a less degree of
Serolis gracilis, are enormously elongated, and terminate in sharp spine-like points ;

this, however, is not necessarily an indication
of near affinity, because the same thing is met
with in other deep-sea Isopoda ; moreover,
Serolis necera, in the disposition of the spines
and carinse of the caudal shield, most nearly
resembles Serolis schythei among the shallow-
water species, while Serolis bromleyana is unlike
this or any other shallow-water species that has
been yet described. Serolis antarctica is con-
spicuous for the extensive sculpturing of the
dorsal surface of the body, and eyes are quite
absent — a condition obviously correlated with
the great depth at which it exists ; in the other
species the eyes are large but whitish in colour
from the partial or entire absence of pigment,
as in many deep-sea fishes, Pycnogonids and
Crustacea.

“ The large size of Serolis necera and Serolis
bromleyana is all the more remarkable since it
does not appear to be a general rule that the
deep-sea Isopoda are conspicuously larger than
their shallow-water allies, though there are certain exceptions, such as Bathynomus
giganteus of Milne-Edwards, which is no less than 9 inches in length. ,

“ Nearly all the families of the Isopoda are represented by deep-sea forms, but in very
different proportions ; the most characteristic are the Munnopsidse and the Arcturidse,
and of both these a great number of new species were obtained during the voyage. The
Munnopsidse are indeed typical inhabitants of the deep sea, as has been already made
known by the results of Professor Sars’ dredgings off the coast of Norway; very few of the
forms described by him were got in water shallower than 120 fathoms, and the majority
range beyond the 300 fathom limit. The Munnopsidse collected by the Challenger
were invariably dredged in very deep water, one species having been obtained from
2600 fathoms. At Station 68, in 2175 fathoms, a very remarkable example of the
Munnopsidse was dredged ; this specimen is of considerable size, upwards of an inch in
length (the majority of the group do not exceed half an inch or so), and the integument.

Fig. 025. — Serolis bromleyana , Sulim. Antarctic
Ocean, 1975 fatlioms.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

881

instead of being firm and opaque like other Crustacea, appeared to be almost entirely
uncalcified ; indeed the only parts of the body at all hard and resistant are the mouth
appendages and, though to a considerably less extent, the ambulatory limbs ; the
integument is naturally extremely transparent ; it might perhaps be imagined that this
specimen has but just shed its skin, but the presence of a colony of well developed
Hydroids attached to the body seems to negative this possibility ; the floor of the ocean
at the locality where this specimen was dredged is composed of Globigerina ooze, and
there is therefore no lack of calcareous salts which might otherwise explain the anomalous
condition of the integument in this Isopod. At another Station in the Antarctic a
somewhat similar Munnopsid was dredged, but in this species it is the abdomen only that
is clear and transparent, and but little calcified ; the rest of the body is comparatively
hard and opaque.

“ Several species are remarkable for the great development of spines, and one example
dredged at Station 157 (1950 fathoms) especially so ; the anterior part of the body (the
abdomen is unfortunately lost) is furnished with a ring of long slender spines upon each
segment a quarter of an inch or so in length. The excessive development of spines
appears to be commonly met with among the deep-sea Isopoda ; the long spine-like
epimera of the deep-sea Serolis have been already referred to, and in many of the
Arcturids the tubercles on the surface of the body are prolonged into sharp spiniform
processes, attaining in many cases a considerable length, while one species at least,
allied to the Munnopsidse, has comparatively long and spiniform epimera analogous to those
of Serolis. None of the Munnopsidse possess eyes, but the deep-sea Arcturidee in every
case have well-developed eyes, strongly pigmented.

“ Of the Cymothoadse one example was dredged in deep water (Station 218, 1070
fathoms) which is of some interest ; this Isopod is remarkable for the fact that all the
abdominal appendages are modified into foliaceous gill lamellae ; the terminal pair are in
no way different from the five preceding pairs, whereas in other Isopoda. it is the general
rule that this pair of appendages does not form branchial organs but swimming feet.
Eyes are quite absent ; the anterior antennae are short and broad, consisting of two
joints only ; the second pair of antennae have four joints and a terminal filament, and are
much more slender; the first pair of thoracic appendages are clawed. The specimen
measures about 70 mm. in length. The Challenger collection contains only one other
species belonging to this family from deep water.

“ The Sphaeromidae, judging from what is known at present, are but poorly represented
in deep water ; only two examples, apparently a male and a female of the same species,
were dredged at Station 218, 1070 fathoms. This species is evidently closely allied to
the genus Ncesa, but is probably distinct ; the most noticeable peculiarity is that the .eyes
are nearly abortive ; there is no pigment present, and the cornea is not clearly facetted.
Of the Anthuridse one or two specimens were dredged in deep water.

882

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

“ Several species of Tancds were obtained from deep water, one of these at Station 248
in 2900 fathoms ; this is the greatest depth at which any Isopod is known to exist ; all
the deep-sea species of Tctnais, without exception, are entirely blind, but this fact is the
less noteworthy since several species from shallow water are also blind.

“ The long stay of the Challenger at Ker-
guelen naturally resulted in the collection of
a large number of new forms of Isopoda from
this little explored region ; several of these,
however, have been since described from the
collections made during the cruise of the
German ship ‘Gazelle.’1 The Isopoda appear
to form a more important element in the fauna
of this region than anywhere else. According
to Dr. v. Willemoes Suhm about 20 per cent, of
the Kerguelen Crustacea belong to this order.2

“An abundant species is Tanais wille-
moesii, Studer. This Isopod is remarkable
for the fact that the females carry their eggs
in two sacs attached between the fourth
and fifth pairs of legs. Dr. v. Willemoes
Suhm has already referred to this peculiarity ; even in the youngest females the sacs are
present, and with the normal shape and position, so that it is impossible to state whether
the}7 are entirely new and anomalous structures, or whether they result from the modifica-
tion of the ordinary ovigerous lamellae that are met with in other Isopoda.

“ The accompanying woodcut (fig. 326) is a representation of a very curious little
Isopod, of which only a single example was got; the figure is greatly enlarged, since the
specimen itself does not measure more than one-tenth of an inch in length, it is remarkable
for the great lateral elongation of the head, so that the antennae come to be placed quite
at the side of the body instead of being close to the median line. The epimera of all the
segments as well as the fore part of the head and the caudal shield are fringed with a
dense series of leaf-shaped processes ; the eyes are completely aborted. This Isopod
evidently belongs to the family of the Asellina, and I have called it Neasellus
kerguelenensis.

“ Other characteristic Kerguelen Isopoda represented by specimens in the Challenger
collection have been already described by Studer.”

1 Th. Studer, Archiv f. Naturgescli., Jahrg. xlv. Bd. i. p. 19, 1879 ; Abhandl. d. 1c. AJcad. d. TFiss. Berlin, pp. 1-28,
1883.

2 Proc. Boy. Soc. Bond., vol. xxiv. p. 590, 1876,

Fig. 326. — Neasellus kerguelenensis, n. gen. andsp.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

88 £

Falkland Islands.

The ship had a fairly fine passage across from Magellan Strait to .the Falkland
Islands, although the early part of the 22nd January was so thick that the land was not
seen until close to the Jason Cays. The ship rounded the East Jason Cay at 4 p.m. on
that day, and was steered along the north side of the islands, rounding Cape Carysfort,
at 8.30 a.m. on the 23rd, and anchoring in Port Stanley at 3 p.m. the same day.

A question having arisen as to whether the sea level at the Falkland Islands was
not becoming gradually lowered, or, what comes to the same thing, whether the islands
were not being gradually elevated, instructions had been received to investigate the
matter.

On the ship’s arrival at Stanley a tide-pole was set up at once, and a party was
landed to register the tide night and day. Inquiries were then made respecting the

Fig. 327. — Stanley, Falkland Islands.

reasons which had induced the residents to assert that an alteration in the sea level
was in progress. On this point no satisfactory information could be obtained, nor indeed
any precise reason as to why they had come to such a conclusion, — except that -as usual
that mythical personage the oldest inhabitant had stated that the tides now-a-days were
quite different from those he remembered when first he came to the island, just as old
sailors are never tired of asserting that the storms now experienced are by no means so
violent as they were when they first went to sea in that fine old clipper the “ Three
Grandmothers” of Shields. It therefore seemed that the inhabitants of Stanley had
reported an alteration of sea level without having taken any pains to investigate the
matter even in the roughest manner, for they could show no difference in the tidal
marks on the beach, nor any alteration of the sea level with reference to the many rocks
in the neighbourhood of the harbour, some of which being covered at high water, and
others a foot or two above high water, afford excellent standard marks for testing a

884

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

statement which only rests on assertion without corroborative observation. No alteration
could be detected by the eye in the heights of these numerous pinnacles, which appeared
to be in exactly the same state as when this group was surveyed by Captains Fitz Roy
and Sulivan in 1834-39.

The assertion that no alteration could be detected by the eye was of course of no
more value than that of the residents, who said that an alteration had taken place;
fortunately, however, Sir James Clark Ross, during his stay at the group in 1842 to refit
the “Erebus” and “Terror” for another cruise to the southward, had taken tidal
observations and left permanent marks on the rocks immediately adjacent to his
observation spot. These marks, two in number, were made, one by levelling the
top of a rock and the other by cutting a ledge in the face of a cliff, both 5 feet 8 inches
above the mean level of the sea as deduced from five months observations. They are
situated on the coast immediately to the westward of the small stream west of the
entrance to the careenage basin of Port Louis, Berkeley Sound, so that a comparison could
be made, with some degree of accuracy, of the state of the sea level now with that as
determined by Sir James Ross thirty -four years previously.

It was of course known that to make a really accurate comparison of the tidal wave
and mean level of the sea now with the result deduced from the observations of Sir
James Ross, a considerable time would be required ; for the whole question is so complex
that observations extending over only a few tides are but of little value, and had it
been requisite to investigate the point scientifically, arrangements should have been
made for an accurate tidal and barometric register for a period which should embrace
the months devoted by Sir James Ross to these observations at Port Louis. But when it
is only necessary to ascertain within a few inches whether any alteration has taken place,
the mean sea-level deduced from two or three successive tides, when the barometer is near
its normal condition, is all that is requisite, and was all that was found necessary, for
the mean result of two high and two low waters at Port Louis, during which time the
barometer, was steady at an average of OT of an inch above its mean height for the year,
gave the mean level of the sea within an inch of Sir James Ross’s result, and just an inch
less than his, corresponding precisely with the amount which should be allowed for the
extra pressure of O'l of an inch of the mercurial column.

It may therefore be safely asserted that the inhabitants of Stanley were in error in
supposing that they had detected an alteration in the level of the sea, for if any
alteration had taken place it must have been far too slight to be noticed by casual
observers. The fact is, that the observations of Sir James Ross at Port Louis, as well as
those of the Challenger at Port Stanley, show certain irregularities of the tide which
may easily be mistaken for alterations of sea level. Firstly, the diurnal inequality
is considerable ; on one occasion it amounted to 1 5 feet at Port Stanley, that is, a
difference of 3 feet in the range of the two tides, and the inequality disappears at neaps,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

885

for as far as the present observations extend, the maximum inequality occurs from two to
three days after the moon has attained its extreme north or south declination, and
entirely disappears two or three days after the moon crosses the Equator. During the
summer months the day tides are highest and have the greatest range, and during the
winter months the night tides. Secondly, the atmospheric pressure, the range of which
is very considerable in this locality, exerts a great influence on the mean sea level at the
Falkland group, for it was found to rise and fall inversely as the barometric column,
allowing a foot of water to be equivalent to an inch of mercury. It is therefore not at
all improbable that occasionally during the winter months the residents at Stanley might
observe, during the period of spring tides, a high Water that barely reached the ordinary
mean level of the sea ; for if during this time of the year, when the day tides at springs
have but a small range, a high barometer coincide with the period of greatest diurnal
inequality, such a case would doubtless arise, and this has in all probability led the in-
habitants to infer that a gradual alteration was taking place in the mean sea level.

During the stay at the Falkland Islands from, January 23rd to February 6th, the
mean temperature of the sea was 51° and of the air 48° '8. During Ross’s stay, from
April to December 1842, the mean temperature of the sea was also invariably higher than
that of the air, as the following table will show : — ■

Comparative Temperature of the Air and Sea for 1842.

Month.

Mean Temp, of Air.

Mean Temp, of Sea. ,

Difference,

May

40-8

43-5

2° 7

June

34-1

38/9

4-8

July

33-8

38-7

4-9

August

344

384

4-0

September

38-9

41-8

2-9

October

November

45-9

47-4

1'5

In March 1833, Captain Fitz Roy in H.M.S. “ Beagle ” made the mean temperature of
the air for the month 46°’7 and of the sea 48°‘7, and in March 1834, 460,9 and 48°‘2,
but in both these cases the temperature of the air is only given, as a rule, for noon of
each day, so that this mean is higher than it should be.1

1 See Voyages of the “Adventure” and “ Beagle,” Appendix, London, 1839.

886

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

It appears, tlien, that at the Falkland Islands the temperature of the sea is, as a rule,
higher than the temperature of the air, and this seems the more extraordinary, because it
is well known that the current in the vicinity comes from the southward, for on all parts
of the southern shores of this group the beaches or rocks are covered with trees which
have drifted from Staten Island or Tierra del Fuego ; and at sea, northward of the
Falklands, great quantities of drift-kelp are seen, besides water- worn trunks and branches
of trees, near which there are generally fish and numbers of birds.

The fact appears to be that on the western coast of South America the surface drift,
impelled by the westerly winds, strikes against the shore and there accumulating some-
what, runs off along the coast, or, in short, bifurcates somewhere between Chiloe Island
and Valparaiso, one part running into warm latitudes and consequently cooling the
temperature of the air along the whole seaboard of Chili and Peru, whilst the other part
running southwards into colder latitudes warms the seaboard of Patagonia, and rounding
Cape Horn, affects the climate of Tierra del Fuego and extends its influence even as far
north as the Falkland Islands.

That such a current exists, and that it is warmer than the sea in its neighbourhood,
is evident from the temperatures obtained in the vicinity of Cape Horn, for a comparison
of the results registered in the Appendix to the voyages of the “Adventure” and “Beagle,”
with the temperatures published in pamphlet No. 1 1 of the Meteorological Committee, shows
first, that in the vicinity of the western coast of Patagonia the mean temperature of the
sea is almost invariably warmer than that of the air throughout the year ; and secondly,
that the temperature of the sea is decidedly warmer in the immediate vicinity of Cape
Horn in the months of January, February, and March than it is a few miles south of it ;
for a reference to Fitz Roy’s observations shows that in St. Martin’s Cove,, in December
1832, the mean temperature of the surface water was about 47°, and that this temperature
extended to the Diego Ramirez Islands, whereas 30 miles to the southward in the same
month it was 42°. Again, in January and February 1833, whilst the “Beagle” was
employed surveying the anchorages surrounding Nassau Bay, the temperature of the sea
surface ranged from 48°'5 to 550,5, whilst in those months, in the square in which Cape
Horn is situated, the mean temperature is 43° to 450.1

Unfortunately, comparisons cannot be drawn between the temperature of the sea in
the immediate neighbourhood of the south coast of Tierra del Fuego and at a distance of
from 40 to 50 miles southward in any other season of the year, for so far as is known
there have been no observations taken except those of the “ Chanticleer ” at correspond-
ing times. The one observation of the “ Chanticleer ” in March 1829 agrees with the
theory of a warm current inshore, for on approaching Cape Horn the temperature of the
sea increased 4° in 43 miles. The want of observations off Cape Horn is to some extent
compensated by the observations of Sir James Ross at Port Louis, Falkland Islands, in

1 No. 11 pamphlet of the Meteorological Committee.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

887

1842, a reference to which will show, as previously mentioned, that the mean temperature
of the sea is invariably warmer than that of the air during the winter months. Now,
as it is a fact well ascertained that the current in the vicinity of the Falkland group sets
from the southwest towards the northeast, and as this current is warmer than the air,
there can be but one way of accounting for its heat ; that is, by supposing it to derive
this warmth from lower latitudes in the Pacific, and to be carried by the prevailing
winds and configuration of the land round Cape Horn and northeastward to the
Falklands.

That this agrees with the temperatures recorded on the western coast of Patagonia
will be seen by referring to No. 11 pamphlet of the Meteorological Committee, as the
mean temperature of the sea in the squares adjacent to the coast is from 2° to 4°
higher than that of the air during the months of May, June, and July. On leaving the
Falkland Islands and standing to the eastward, vessels generally obtain colder surface
temperatures than those at the group. In the Challenger a decrease of 3° was registered
to the northeastward of Port Stanley.

What the width of this warm portion of the Cape Horn Current is, remains to be
determined, and also whether its speed is greater than that of the drift current farther
south. The available evidence points to a considerable velocity at times, for the
“ Chanticleer ” registered a speed of 54 miles in 23 hours between Cape Horn and Staten
Island in May. During the “ Beagle’s ” stay in the vicinity of Tierra del Fuego, sur-
veying, the current was always found running to the eastward, but its velocity varied
with the tidal wave, being at its maximum with a rising and at its minimum with a
falling tide.

A series of charts, showing the surface temperatures of the Atlantic, Indian, and
Pacific Oceans, has recently been published by the authority of the Meteorological
Council, in which many more observations are given off Cape Horn.1 These observations
confirm this conclusion, but observations closer to the shore than those on the charts
would probably show a still higher temperature of the surface waters. As there is very
considerable interest attached to this current around Cape Horn, it is to be hoped that
further observations will soon be made.

The following table will give a fair idea of the climate of the settlement at Port
Stanley, but as the observations extend over one year only, the means will be subject to
modification from future observations. The barometer used in taking the observations
was a standard, and its indications agreed precisely with those of the instruments on
board the Challenger, which were verified at Kew at the termination as well as at the
commencement of the voyage.

1 Charts showing the Surface Temperature of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. London, 1884.
(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 112

888

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Stanley, Falkland Islands.

Meteorological Table compiled from Observations taken at 9 a.m. daily by Mr.
Cobb during the year 1875.

Barometer reduced to 32° and sea level. Position of Observatory lat. 51° 41' S., long. 57° 51' W.; Height of
Barometric Cistern 21 -5 feet. The mean temperature is the mean of the maximum and minimum Self
Registering Thermometers read at 9 a.m.

Barometer.

Pi

8) .

c|:

Rain.

WIND.

;

«

fo

MONTH.

Mean

Height.

§

cl

E-S

H £

§'!
H S

Total

No.

of

No. OF

DAYS

FROM

). of da;
Gales.

O. of d£
Fogs.

a?

REMARKS.

w

S'"

If

5^

Fall.

days.

< >

N. .

N.E.

E.

S.E.

s.

s.w.

W.

N.W.

C’lm

&

a

«

in.

in.

°

°

°

in.

January, .

29-514

0-99

49-0

12-9

64-0

36-0

7-4

3-27

21

2

6

8

10

5

4

67

February, .

29-543

1-02

48-6

13-4

64-1

37-1

7-6

3-32

18

3

6

3

9

7

3

i

77

March,

29-654

1-01

49-3

12-2

67-0

32-8

5-6

1-76

17

3

1

7

13

7

5

2

79

April, .

29-458

1-28

43-4

10-2

58-0

32-9

5-1

2-40

24

2

1

2

4

17

2

2

5

2

82

May,

29-551

0-82

42-3

8-4

51-0

24-0

6-6

1-45

15

5

2

6

14

4

1

5

91

June,

29-756

0-95

38-4

6-0

45-7

29-1

7-4

1-43

18

2

3

2

5

14

3

1

2

2

89

Max. — Black

bulb in

July,

29-581

1-34

37-0

8-3

48-1

27-2

6-9

1-18

17

4

1

5

4

14

1

2

2

90

Sun 150° '5.
Min. — On

August,

29-653

1-16

38-5

9-9

51-9

23-7

6-3

0-91

16

2

4

1

16

5

3

6

2

88

Grass 19° -7.

September,

29-762

1-15

41-6

11-1

53-8

28-7

4-9

0-84

14

2

2

1

4

17

3

1

5

2

75

October, .

29-708

1-30

421

14-8

58-9

29'7

7-4

1-07

20

3

7

8

11

1

1

1

1

81

November,

29-750

1-13

46-2

11-8

68-2

33-0

6-9

1-24

14

1

1

1

1

12

5

9

3

1

72

December,

29-486

0-70

45-8

12-1

64-4

30-5

7-2

2-92

25

4

3

3

3

5

4

8

1

3

2

76

Means, )
Totals, and 1
Extremes, )

29-618

43-5

10-8

68-2

24-0

6-6

21-79

219

3£

6

15

9

53

48

152

39

10

38

22

80

The Falklands are a treeless expanse of moorland and bog, and bare and barren rock.
Though it was summer at the time of the visit, and the islands are in about a corre-
sponding latitude to London, a bitterly cold hail storm was pelting down as the first
boat was rowed to the shore. The islands are occupied as sheep and cattle runs, and
since sheep are found to pay best, they are to a large extent supplanting the cattle,
formerly so numerous. The mutton is most excellent, but the supply is so far in excess
of the small demand that the Falkland Island Company have a large establishment where
their sheep are boiled down for tallow.

At the request of the Governor, Mr. Moseley rode with Lieutenant Channer 60 miles
across the large island, on which the town of Stanley is situated, to Port Darwin, in order

Plate XXXV

Balsam Bog (Bolax gXl/an'a) Falkland Islands.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

889

to examine some reported coal beds. The route lay over the dreary moorland, and wound
and turned about in order to avoid the treacherous bogs. A “ pass ” in the Falkland
Islands means not a practicable cleft in the mountains but a track by which it is possible
to ride across a bog. The horses born and bred in the island know full well when they
are approaching dangerous ground, and tremble all over when forced to step on it. A
most interesting plant, the Bog Balsam ( Bolax glebaria), occurs all over the moors, closely
simulating in appearance the Azorella selago described in Chapter IX. as covering the sur-
face of the ground in Kerguelen Island with elastic cushions. The Bolax forms closely
similar springy compact rounded lumps of dark green on the Falkland soil (see PI. XXXV.).

At every 10 miles or so a shepherd’s cottage was met with, otherwise the entire route
was uninhabited. Usually the shepherd was a Scotchman in the employ of the Falkland
Company ; some of the shepherds are married, and seem well off and were very hospi-
table. These Scotchmen have almost entirely supplanted the “ gauchos ” from the
mainland, who did all the cattle work at the time of Darwin’s visit to the islands ; they
come out from home usually entirely unaccustomed to riding, but very soon become most
expert with the lasso and bolas, and can ride and break in the wildest horses. There
were only two Spanish gauchos in the employ of the Company at the time of the ship’s
visit. The Company’s shepherds are allowed each eight horses, a fresh one for every day
of the week and a pack horse, which feed together on the moorland near the shepherd’s
cottage, and keep together in a band though quite free. An old broken down mare which
cannot roam far is usually kept with each band, and is generally one in which the hoofs,
as occurs quite commonly in the Falklands from the softness of the soil, are grown out
and turned up somewhat like rams’ horns. Though the gauchos themselves are matters
of the past in the Falklands, their Spanish terms for all things connected with cattle and
horses survive and are in full use among the Scotch shepherds. Such a maimed animal
as above described is accordingly called a “ chapina ” {chapina, a woman’s clog) ; the
band of horses, which is called a “ tropija,” never deserts its chapina.

A man after riding 30 or 40 miles and about to change horses merely takes the
saddle off his horse, gives the animal’s back a rub with his fingers, to set the hair free
where the saddle cloth pressed, and lets the horse go, when it never fails to return to
its tropija and feeding ground. Horses were changed several times on the route, since
the party were the guests of the Company, and were treated most hospitably ; the tired
horses were always simply turned loose, to find their own way back for 20 miles or so

The progress on the trip was mostly slow, because of the bogginess of the ground, and
it was dark by the time the party reached the end of the 60 miles’ ride.

An experienced guide is required in order to traverse the Falkland Island wastes
and find the passes. To a stranger every hill and mountain appears alike, and many
persons have lost their way and their lives on the moors. The most experienced “ camp ”
men (Spanish, campo ) lose themselves sometimes, especially when a thick fog comes

890

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

on, and .then they trust entirely to their horses, which when left to themselves make their
way back to their accustomed feeding ground.

Mr. Fell, the head man of the Company at Darwin Harbour, said that a band of
horses will always stay with a mare that has a foal. Mr. Darwin has described a degen-
eration in the size and strength of the horses which have run wild in the Falkland
Islands,1 ascribing the degeneration to the action of the climate on successive generations.
Mr. Fell, and other persons brought into constant relation with the horses, hold the
opinion that it is only the wild horses, occupying a particular district in the neighbourhood
of Port Stanley, which are small and pony-like ; further, they believe that the reason why
these particular wild horses are small is that they are sprung from a stock originally
inferior in size when imported. The wild horses, which are abundant in the large
peninsula known as Lafonia, were said to be , of full size and vigour, and to show no
signs of degeneration, and to be preferred for all purposes to those bred in domestication.
Several of these horses which had been wild were seen, and one was ridden by a member
of the party ; they were not at all undersized. The guide rode a sturdy pony, which
he said was one of the smaller wild breed.

Mr. Fell has watched the habits of the wild horses in Lafonia closely. The strong
and active horses each guard a herd of mares ; they keep the closest watch over them,
and if one strays at all, drive her back into the herd by kicking her. The young horses
live in herds apart, but the more vigorous ones are always on the lookout to pick up a
mare from the herds of the older ones, and drive her off with them, and they sometimes
gather a few mares and hold them for a short time, till they are recaptured from them.
When they think they are strong enough, they try the strength of the old horses in
battle, and eventually each old horse is beaten by some rival and displaced; the
fighting is done mainly with the tusks, front to front, and not with the heels. Thus the
most active and strongest males are naturally selected for the continuation of the herds.

The wild horses, as well as others, are often broken in by tying them with a raw hide
halter to a post, and leaving them for several days without food or water. After long
ineffectual struggles to break loose, the animals become convinced of the absolute power
of the halter over them, and in future become cowed and docile directly a halter or lasso
is over their heads. The wild horses when broken in are very tame and quiet to ride,
and obey the rein with astonishing facility. There is no necessity, as a rule, to make
them feel the bit at all in order to turn them ; merely laying the part of the reins close
to the hand against that side of the neck from which they are wanted to turn is sufficient;
well-broken horses can be turned round and round in a circle by this means, by a gentle
touch on the neck only.

The wild cattle in Lafonia will probably all be killed off in order that sheep may be

1 Journal of Researches during the voyage of H.M.S. “Beagle, p. 192, ed. 1879 ; Animals and Plants under
Domestication, vol. i. p. 52, 1868.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

891

substituted. At present the Company pays men to kill the wild cattle for their hides.
They are thrown with the lasso or bolas, ham-strung, or “cut down” as the term is,
and then killed and skinned at leisure. Two thousand had been thus killed in Lafonia
in the year of the visit.

The boys at the Falkland Islands have invented a small bolas in which the large
knuckle-bones of cattle are used as the larger balls, and a smaller bone from the foreleg
as the small ball for the hand ; they use the bone bolas for catching wild geese, creeping
up to a flock and throwing the bolas at the birds on the wing as they rise. They con-
stantly succeed in thus entangling them, and bringing them to the ground, and their
mothers always send out their boys when they want a goose, so that the birds are
seldom shot at around Darwin Harbour. The bone bolas comes curiously near that of the
Esquimaux in structure, the latter, used also for catching birds, has however more than
three balls, and these are made of ivory. Flocks of the geese were to be seen feeding on
the grass close to the houses, looking just like farmyard geese. The birds take no notice
of a gun, but are very quick at seeing a bolas brought near them, well knowing that they
are going to be molested.

Near Darwin Harbour Mr. Moseley found some Dipterous insects with rudimentary
wings, of which specimens have been sent to Mr. W. F. Kirby of the British Museum,
who writes as follows One is a Gnat allied to Limnobia (Tipulidse). Another species
has considerable resemblance to some of the subapterous Kerguelen insects, with one of
which some dipterologists of my acquaintance regard it as identical ; my own view is
that it is totally distinct, but I should not like to express any opinion as to its affinities
in the absence of better preserved specimens.”

The Wingless Flies of Kerguelen have hitherto been found nowhere else but there
and in Marion Island, and it would be of great interest to find further connections
between Fuegia and the distant Kerguelen .Island, the connections between the floras of
which were so long ago demonstrated by Sir Joseph Hooker.

The Gnat cannot fly, having even smaller rudiments of wings than the other insect.
It was found crawling on rocks, on the shore in sheltered places, and also on the sunny
sheltered face of a peat-bank, which formed the cattle fence across the narrow neck of
the promontory of Lafonia. It runs quickly, and when in danger draws up its legs and
drops amongst the grass in order to escape. A Gnat with rudimentary wings occurs
also in Kerguelen Island. Some species of Flies and Gnats with rudimentary wings are
known in Europe and elsewhere, and an Apterous Fly ( Borborus ajoterus) occurs in
England. A Wingless Beetle, and another with perfect wings, were also found near
Darwin Harbour.

The other species was found near Darwin Harbour, only on the sea coast, in hollows
under overhanging slabs of the sandstone rocks, and sheltering in crevices. It springs
nimbly like a Flea or small Grasshopper, and is a little difficult to catch, but cannot

892

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

fly at all. According to the Rev. H. C. Lory, late Colonial Chaplain in the Falkland
Islands, these insects inhabit in immense numbers dried matted seaweed which is to be
found on the beaches. He says that they escape in hundreds from the seaweed masses
when they are broken up, and that the masses are full of the pupae.

One new land Mollusc ( Succinea falklandica, E. A. Smith) was obtained from a hill
near the lighthouse, Pembroke Point.1

From the head of Port Sussex, not far off, was obtained the skeleton of a Ziphioid
Whale, measuring exactly 14 feet in length, complete except the paddles, which had been
dragged away tied to the ends of lassos in order to get the oil out of them. It was given
to the Expedition by Mr. John Bonner, a farmer in the neighbourhood. Professor Turner,
who has described this skeleton, regards it as a young example of Mesoplodon layardi2
The skeleton was lashed on a pack-horse, by no means an easy matter in the case
of so unusual a load. The party rode at a good pace, but during the long ride the
lashings were constantly getting loose, and the party almost lost the way near the end
of the journey, night having overtaken it before it reached Stanley with the skeleton.

Mr. Murray visited, with Mr. Mansel, the manager of one of the large estates on the
island, Fitzroy Island Harbour and Fox Point, places distant about 40 miles from
Stanley. At Fitzroy Island Harbour there are several hills of blown calcareous sand,
composed chiefly of broken fragments of Molluscs, at other places the sand was of
very pure quartz. All along the coast there were many bones of Seals and Whales.
The clastic sedimentary rocks of the island are volcanic grit, arkose, graphitic and other
shales. Where the shales are inclined at a high angle the ground is much drier than
at other places, and is known as “dry camp.” The well known “stone rivers” have
been described and their origin discussed by Sir Wyville Thomson.3 A large block
brought home from one of these rivers is a diorite containing some crystals of augite.

Mr. Robert Etheridge, jun., who has examined the fossils collected by the Expedition,
has supplied the following notes : — “ Mr. Darwin remarked upon the general close resem-
blance the organic remains bore to those of the Silurian rocks of Murchison, with, at the
same time, a tendency towards a Devonian facies.

“'Sir Wyville Thomson, in his account of the Falkland Islands, noticed the similarity
between the lithological character of the Falkland fossiliferous sandstones and the
ferruginous sandstones of May Hill and Girvan. He regarded the fossils as indicating a
horizon near the base of the Devonian formation.

“ The only publication bearing directly on the purely palaeontological aspect of the
Falkland group is that by Professor J. Morris and the late Mr. D. Sharpe.4 They

1 Proc. Zool, Soc. Load., p. 280, 1884.

2 Report on tlie Bones of Cetacea, Zool. Chalk Exp., part iv., 1880. 3 The Atlantic, vol. ii. p. 245, 1877.

4 Description of Eight Species of Brachiopodous Shells from the Palaeozoic Rocks of the Falkland Islands, Quart.

Journ. Geol. Soc., vol, ii. pp. 274-278, pis. x. and xi., 1846,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

893

described the following eight new forms : — Chonetes falklandica, Orthis sulivani, Orthis
tenuis, Orthis concinna, Atrypa palmata, Spirifera hawkinsii, Spirifera antaretica, and
Spirifera orbignii, with an Orbicula, which is figured but not specifically named,
numerous traces of Crinoid stems, an Avicula, and fragments of a Trilobite.

“ The individuals of the genus Spirifera were few in number, those of Orthis, Chonetes,
and Atrypa abundant. The alseform outline and paucity of ribs of the Spirifers allied
them to those of the Palaeozoic rocks of New South Wales, and some Devonian forms
of the Gifel. The Orthidse they considered to be more nearly allied to some Lower
Silurian species of the northern hemisphere.

“Messrs. Morris and Sharpe say: — ‘We cannot attempt to place the beds in the
Falkland Islands, which have supplied these specimens, on the level of any particular
portion of the European scale of formations, but must be contented with saying that they
belong to a part of the Palaeozoic series of- which the position is still undetermined.’

“ The fossiliferous specimens brought by the Challenger Expedition from Port Louis
in the Falkland Islands consist of medium sized blocks and hand specimeDs of a fine liver-
coloured micaceous sandstone. These are traversed by thin layers of internal casts and
external impressions of shells, chiefly Brachiopoda, and fragments of Crinoid stems. The
only other recognisable fossil is a broken internal cast of a Gasteropod. Pieces of buff-
coloured mudstone, apparently quite a different deposit to the fossiliferous sandstone,
contained a few body rings (also casts) of a Trilobite, but quite past all recognition.
Another block of the same material contains the internal cast of a large Spirifera, in all
probability Spirifera antaretica, M. and S. No trace of the Orbicula figured by Morris
and Sharpe was observed.” 1

1 Notes on the Species. — “Numerous examples exist of a very large Spirifera, possessing a series of simple broad ribs,
crossed by numerous prominent lamellae, which may be referred to the Spirifera antaretica, M. and S. It bears strong
resemblance to the Spirifera cultrijugata, F. A. Homer, found in the Devonian beds of the Gifel and Ardennes.

“ Several other examples of a second species of Spirifera recall the Spirifera orbignii, M. and S., hut the radiating
ribs of the shell are smaller, more numerous, and more closely set. They are however in all probability only a variety
of this species. A third species is present in some of the blocks, having a long hinge line, a simple fold, with on each
side some nine ribs, crossed by fine concentric wavy laminae. Near the extremities of the wings there are indications of
spaces devoid of ribs, as in Spirifera speciosa, Schlotheim, of the European Devonian, and of which it may probably be
only a variety. It might have been referred to the Spirifera hawlcinsii, M. and S., had it not been for the increased
number of ribs.

“ There are a few examples of a small cast with the general form and area of Gyrtina heteroclyta (a well known
Devonian Brachiopod), but without the sinus of the ventral valve, and an ill-defined fissure. It may be only a Spirifera
with a large area, but it certainly possesses a very Gyrtina- like appearance. It is quite different from any of the figures
given by Messrs. Morris and Sharpe.

“ Large numbers of the Atrypa palmata, M. and S., are scattered about the fossiliferous layers of the blocks from Port
Louis, and the mass from Macbride’s Head, East Falklands. This species is about the best marked of the Falkland
fossils, and is easily recognisable. The whole internal characters are well shown, and they appear to indicate that the
species is not an Atrypa, but should more properly he referred to Prof. James Hall’s genus Leptoccelia. The description
of the parts, and lengthy arguments for this change, cannot be entered on here, but the whole structure of this shell
would well repay detailed study. Messrs. Morris and Sharpe alluded to the resemblance between their Atrypa palmata
and the well known shell Atrypa hemispherica, which it is quite possible may itself be a Leptoccelia.

“ The genus Orthis is represented by fragments of a very finely striated shell which may perhaps be referred to the

894

THE YOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Many of the seamen living at Stanley constantly visit the Strait of Magellan, and
very often bring back with them Fuegian bows and arrows for their children to play
with. The boys shoot at a mark with the stone-tipped arrows, and the tips are soon
broken off and lost. The stone arrow-heads thus become scattered about the moor
anywhere near a habitation, and before long they are sure to be picked up, being
indestructible. It must then be remembered that they are not proofs that the Falkland
Islands were once inhabited by a savage race. Difficulties of this kind are constantly
occurring ; for example, part of a New Zealand mere of nephrite has been found in York-
shire, and ancient Chinese seals have been turned up in the ground in Ireland.

Not far from Stanley Harbour there are rookeries of the Magellan Jackass Penguin
(Spheniscus demersus, var. magellanicus). The birds make large and deep burrows in
the peat-banks on the seashore in such numbers that the ground is hollowed out in all
directions. The edges of the birds’ bills are excessively sharp, and can cut a strip out of
a man’s finger as cleanly as a razor. Pound the mouths of their burrows and on the
even surface of the banks, between the holes, the birds lay out pebbles which they
must carry up from the seashore for the purpose. The pebbles are of various colours,
and the birds seem to collect them from curiosity, at least there appears to be no other
explanation of the fact.

Many stones, pebbles, and fish bones were found in the stomachs of some of these
birds. The sealers said that they vomited up the stones and shells found at the mouths
of their burrows when they came up from the sea, and in going to sea again take in the
very same stones as “ ballast.” Fur Seals were said to take in “ballast” in the same
way as Penguins.

The Scaphopoda and Gasteropoda. — The Rev. R. B. Watson, on the return of the
Expedition, undertook the description of the Mollusca at the request of the late Sir C.
Wyville Thomson. However, after separating out the different species, and labelling
the known species of the greater part of the collection, Mr. Watson decided to limit
his investigations to the Scaphopoda and Gasteropoda. Mr. Watson says : — “ The
Challenger collected belonging to these groups between 940 and 1000 recognisable

Orthis tenuis, M. and S. More and better preserved specimens of this, however, are requisite before a definite opinion
can be passed.

“ Ortliis sulivani, M. and S., is present on almost every block of sandstone, and is by far the commonest species repre-
sented in tbe Challenger collection. It occurs in every state of preservation but one, viz., with the shell on. The
fringed internal edge of the shell is a particularly well marked and typical character in Orthis sulivani. The depres-
sions between the ribs on the surface of the valves were intersected by concentric striae, . which in all probability
likewise passed ' over the ribs. The latter appear also to have been ornamented with small scattered spines. This
species should with greater propriety be referred to the genus Streptorhynchus, King (or more properly Orthotetes,
Fischer). An elongated mesial septum existed, and short strong brachial processes, more in accord with the structure
of Streptorhynchus than Orthis. Accompanying Orthis sulivani are smaller casts which may represent the Orthis
concinna, M. and S. The chief point of separation between the two species appears to be the width of the hinge area,
and the internal edge-striation of Orthis sulivani. It is possible likewise, that a few faint impressions visible on some
of the blocks may represent Ohonetes falklandica, M. and S., but their state of preservation forbids a positive opinion.”

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

895

species new and old, with some 400 more indistinguishable forms, that is 1300 to
1400 in all.

“ At thirty-nine places not reckoned as Stations, but where gatherings were made on
the shore, in harbour, or in quite shallow water outside, 338 old species, 91 new, and 155
indistinguishable forms were found, or 584 in all, on an average 15 forms from each place.

“At fifty-seven Stations from 0 to 400 fathoms, 314 old species, 309 new species,
and 196 indistinguishable forms were found, or 819 in all, an average of 14 forms from
each Station.

“At thirty-seven Stations from 400 down to 2650 fathoms there were found 81 old
species, 127 new, and 39 indistinguishable forms, or in all 247, rather less than 7 from
each Station. The greatest depth from which any Gasteropod was obtained was 2650
fathoms, in the South Atlantic. The solitary specimen of Stylifer brychius, Watson,
dredged at that depth was preserved in spirit, but I failed to extract the animal, owing
to the shell being so delicate that no force could be used. The colour is that pale
uniform buff so common in deep-sea Mollusca. With nearly, though not absolutely,
uniform constancy the deeper the water the rarer were the specimens.

“ The absolute number of species is thus obviously considerable, but as a representation
of the whole sea bottom reached by the Expedition the result is very small.

“ The cause of this fact is of course deserving of careful inquiry. The Mediterranean
depths and the Sargasso Sea bottom are certainly poor in all life, but the ‘ Blake ’ dredg-
ings by the United States Government in the Gulf of Mexico and up the course of the Gulf
Stream seem to indicate an immense wealth of Molluscan life at very considerable depths,
and the French Government dredgings in the North Atlantic, and especially along the
west coast of Africa, point on the whole in the same direction, though there are indications
of individual spots of great poverty; but to what the poverty of these spots is due —
whether to stagnation of the water, nature of the ground, volcanic agencies, or currents
— is not obvious.

“ As regards the shells themselves, some forms of singular beauty have been found.
Such are Cassis _ loyvillei from the Philippines in 115 fathoms (like, but quite distinct
from, a very rare West Indian species), Fusus pagodoides from 410 fathoms off Sydney,
Provocator pulcher, a new Volute from Kerguelen, and Guivillea alabastrina,1 the latter,
a pure white alabaster Volute of exceptional form, from a depth of 1600 fathoms in the
Southern Ocean. Of all the Molluscs got by the Expedition, Guivillea alabastrina (see
fig. 328) is certainly the most valuable. It is large; the shell is singularly beautiful in
form and colour ; it comes from a great depth, and its generic features are very peculiar.
It is unfortunate that it is somewhat broken. In the act of its capture, or in the extraction
of the animal, the shell must have been slightly crushed, and the fragments lost. To
me it came most carefully packed in cotton- wadding ; but one or two small pieces of

1 Originally described under the generic name “ JVyvillea,” which was afterwards found to be preoccupied.

(narr chall. exp.— von i. — 1885.) 113

896

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

shell were found loose in the box, and these I could replace. Under my care, how-
ever, in spite of the most extreme solicitude, it met with sore disaster. The breaking

Fig. 32 8.—Guivillea alabastrina, Watson; natural size. From the Southern Ocean, depth 1600 fathoms.

was so bad that the shell looked like a wreck ; the bits, however, were got into their
places and fixed with cement, and some professional restorer may finish the work

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

897

more delicately than I could do. In any case this unique treasure is not lost.
From the same neighbourhood there were some very beautiful Trochuses of the Mar-
garita group, such as Trochus ( Margarita ) brychius from 1260 fathoms, far to
the southeast of Kerguelen. Full-grown shells of Voluta ( Volutilithes) abyssicola, H.
and A. Ad., a species that has long been an object of interest from its connection with
Eocene forms, but which was hitherto known only in one very young specimen, have been
brought from near the Cape of Good Hope. Turbo transenna, a remarkable new
form, comes from 565 fathoms near Japan. Gaza dcedala, a new and very beautiful
Trochus, was got in 610 fathoms off Fiji. The great group of the Pleurotomas is
largely represented in species, and coming, as many do, from very deep water, they are of
great interest, but in the main the specimens are few and poor.

“The presence of the fossil genus Acteonina, though in its least characteristic form,
and distinguishable indeed from Actceon only by the absence of pillar teeth, is not with-
out interest. Two of the Scaphanders, Scaphander mundus and Scaphander niveus,
from the neighbourhood of the Philippines in 800 and 500 fathoms respectively, are
very fine.

“ That no addition either of species or of specimens should have accrued to the very
limited number of living Pleurotomarias — distinctively a deep-water and very ancient
genus — is a disappointment.

“ As regards distribution, the habitat, hitherto unknown, of some littoral species has
been determined. One or two almost forgotten species, such as Trochus (Diloma)
porciter, A. Ad., have been recovered in their own home ; but what is probably of highest
interest is the proof obtained, though hardly for the first time, (1) of the existence of
species such as Puncturella noachina, Linn., Dentalium entalis, Linn., Scissurella
crispata, Flem., and Homalogyra atomus, Phil., in both Arctic and Antarctic waters;
and (2) of the wide extension in the ocean of still surviving fossil species such as
Dentalium dentalis, Linn., Puncturella noachina, Puncturella ( Granopsis ) granulata,
Seg., and Puncturella ( Fissurisepta ) rostrata, Seg., Italian Miocene fossils with others
from the Pliocene.

“ In a general way the facies of the deep-sea Molluscan fauna may be said to be pale-
ness and fragility. If the number of new species and genera is larger proportionally in
the deep than in the shallow water Stations, the fact can only be taken as indicating that
a hitherto unexplored field has been entered on.”

The Anomura. — Mr. J. R. Henderson, M.B., C.M., who has undertaken the prepara-
tion of a Report on those families of Crustacea frequently grouped under this name,
writes: — “The Challenger collection of Anomura has only recently been placed in my
hands, and I have not yet had time to make a detailed examination of all the
specimens. The collection, which is an extensive one, contains many new forms of

898

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

great interest, and it is also of value for the additional light it throws on the geographical
and bathymetrical distribution of these Crustaceans. The Anomura are represented at
great depths in the ocean, specimens having been, taken by the Challenger beyond 2000
fathoms; in this respect as in general organisation they apparently occupy an inter-
• mediate position between the Brachyura and the Macrura. At more than half of the
Stations where Anomura occurred, the depth exceeded 300 fathoms, and the groivps
containing the largest number of new species (Paguridea and Galatheadea) appear
to have the greatest vertical distribution.

“ The Dromidea are represented by nine species taken at various Stations, from
shallow water to 150 fathoms; at the latter depth (Station 142, Agulhas Bank) were
taken specimens of Droinidia bicornis, Studer, and another species apparently new.
Several of the Dromids are protected by Sponges, or Asciclians, which partly envelop
them, and to which they appear to be firmly fixed.

“Few species of Homoladea occur in the collection, but at Station 196 a curious
form, allied to Homola (perhaps referable to Homolopsis, A. M.-E.), was dredged at
a depth of 825 fathoms. The single specimen taken is characterised by a prominent
rostral spine, well-marked supra-orbital spines, and long slender limbs. Examples
of the genus Latreillia occurred off Zebu, and at two Stations on the Australian
coast at depths varying from 30 to 150 fathoms.

“ The Raninidea and Hippidea are represented by numerous species taken principally
in shallow water. In the former group occur several rare or little known species. The
Japanese Lyreidus tridentatus, De Haan, was taken off Port Jackson, Sydney (30 to 35
fathoms), also off Kandavu, Fiji (210 fathoms); in the latter locality only a single speci-
men was obtained, remarkable in having the spine on the fourth abdominal segment very
pronounced. An interesting form, allied to Lyreidus, was taken off Bahia (7 to 20
fathoms), in which the carapace has a peculiar eroded appearance in the anterior half,
due to the presence of numerous pits and depressions; there is a prominent tridentate
front, projecting considerably beyond the eyes, which are very minute, and the ambula-
tory limbs are furnished with uncinate dactyli.

“ Of the five species of Lithodidea taken by the Expedition, the best known is
Parcilomis verrucosus, Dana, which occurred at several shallow water Stations in the
Strait of Magellan. Two fine and distinct species of Lithodes were obtained at Station
145 (310 fathoms), between the Cape and Kerguelen Island; the larger of these is allied
to Lithodes maia, but has the carapace furnished with several large spines. Very few
Anomuran Crustacea appear to have been taken by the Challenger in the North Atlantic,
but the collection contains two young specimens of Lithodes cigassizi, Smith, from
Station 78, near the Azores (1000 fathoms).

“ The great majority of the Porcellanidea, of which there are numerous examples,
belong to species already described and well known, and it is of interest to note that,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

899

with a single exception, none were obtained beyond a depth of 30 fathoms. The excep-
tion referred to is a species of Porcellana, apparently very closely allied to the common
European Porcellana platycheles, Pennant, from Station 24 (390 fathoms). Numerous
specimens of Polyonyx obesulus, Miers, were taken in the interior of a Sponge ( Hippo -
spongia cmomcda, Polejaefi), at Station 186 (8 fathoms), and the same species appears
also to have occurred in a free condition at this Station.

“ The Paguridea are well represented in the collection, and a number of new species
are present, especially from deep water. As indicating one feature of this group, it

Fig. ■i'29.—'l]jlas2Jis cmomala, n. gen. et sp. ; twice natural size. South Pacific Ocean, 2375 i'athonis.

may be stated that Pagurids were taken at twelve Stations, where the depth registered
was over 1000 fathoms, and two species occurred at depths beyond 2000 fathoms. The
majority of these deep-water species are characterised by long and slender limbs, but the
eyes — organs in the higher Crustacea perhaps most subject to variation at great depths —
appear to have undergone very slight modification. It is 'also to be noted that, almost
without exception, the species taken at great depths inhabit shells to which one or more
Actiniae are attached. Some of the shells bore on them the well known colonial
Epizoanthus parasiticus, which had as usual removed all their calcareous matter. Some

900

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

of the Paguridea appear to have a very wide geographical range ; thus, a species apparently
identical with the well-known Pagurus striatus, Latr., of the Mediterranean, was taken at
two Stations off the Philippines, and Petrochirus granulatus, Olivi, a native of the West
Indies, was dredged at Simon’s Bay, Cape of Good Hope. The collection contains several
specimens of an interesting species, with a regularly segmented and calcified abdomen, show-
ing a transition between the Paguridea and the Thalassinidea, trawled at Station 163a,

Fig. 330 .—Ptychogaster milne-edivardsi, n. sp. ; natural size. Magellan Strait, 400 fathoms.

off Twofold Bay, Australia (120 fathoms). In many respects this singular Crustacean
agrees with the description of A. Milne-Edwards’ recently established genus Pylocheles,
from the ‘ Blake ’ expedition, but differs strikingly in habit, as all the Challenger
specimens occurred in a free condition. At Station 285, in the South Pacific, at a
depth of 2375 fathoms, one of the most interesting forms in the collection was taken.
The single specimen, type of a new genus and species ( Tylaspis cinomala ) is essentially

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

901

a Paguricl with a completely calcified cephalo-thorax; the short abdomen exhibits
only traces of segmentation, and the ultimate appendages are symmetrical and well
developed (see fig. 329).

“ The Galatheadea form a large and interesting portion of the collection, and several
species extended to great depths. Examples of the genus Munida, many of which
are new to science, were taken at various depths from shallow water to 600 fathoms,
in all the great oceans explored; the occurrence of a species at Station 113*a, off the
Brazilian coast (7 to 20 fathoms), with the rostral spine distinctly serrated, is of
interest. The genus Galathea appears to be confined to comparatively shallow water,
reaching its limit at 100 fathoms, hut specimens of the allied Diptychus, apparently a
deep-sea representative of Galathea, were got from considerable depths down to 600
fathoms. The deep-water forms present many points of interest, and several of them
belong to genera lately described by the naturalists of the recent American and French
deep-sea expeditions. The eyes are almost invariably devoid of pigment, and are
apparently functionless; in some cases the ocular peduncle is prolonged into a spine,
while the convex cornea still remains on its outer surface. In a single specimen from
Station 196 (825 fathoms), the eyes are represented only by a single spine on either
side, in front of the peduncle of the external antenna. The beautiful Galatheid
figured ( Ptychogaster milne-edwardsi, fig. 330) was dredged at Station 310 (400
fathoms); it differs from the only other known species, Ptychogaster spinifer, A. M.-E.,
and Ptychogaster formosus, A. M.-E., in having all the abdominal segments furnished
with spines on the dorsal aspect.”

-

902 THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

CHAPTER XXL

Falkland Islands to Monte Video — The Deep-Sea Fislies — Monte Video — The Gephyrea — Monte Video to Ascension —
Description of the Deposits — On Deep-Sea Deposits in General — Ascension — Ascension to Porto Praya — Pelagic
Diatoms — Infusoria — Pyrocystis — Coccospheres and Rhabdospheres — Bathybius — Cape Verde Islands to England
— Synoptical Table of the Voyage — The Botany of the Expedition — Challenger Collections and Publications.

The Falkland Islands to Monte Video.

On the 6th February, at 4 p.m., the ship left Port Stanley for Monte Video, arriving
there on the 15th at 4 p.m.

The wind, as the vessel left the Falkland Islands, was blowing fresh with a falling
barometer, but no bad weather ensued. On the 8th a strong breeze was experienced
from the northward for four hours ; a gale from the westward lasted from 10 p.m. on the
9th until 4 a.m. on the 11th ; and on the 12th a strong breeze from the northwest-
ward lasted ten hours. The weather was, on the whole, fine and dry.

In making the Rio de la Plata, it was noticed that the hill named Pan Azucar only
looked like a sugar loaf when viewed from the southwest or northeast, for from the
northwest or southeast it appears rounded.

In entering the estuary of the river several casts of 1 0 fathoms were obtained over a
muddy bottom, with Maldonado Island N. 6° E., Lobos Island N. 46° E., and Cerro
Chico N. 51° W.

In the section from the Falkland Islands to Lobos Island, four soundings, four serial
temperature soundings, and three trawlings were obtained (see Sheet 42).

The bottom showed a descent to 2400 fathoms in the centre of the section, and a
gradual rise on the one side to the Falkland Islands and on the other side to the River
Plate.

The temperature at the bottom varied with the depth, falling to 320,7 at the 2400
fathom sounding.

The- surface, temperature, which at the Falkland Islands was about 50°, fell to 46° just
outside that group, after which it rose gradually, * as the ship proceeded north, to 71° at
Monte Video.

The serial temperature soundings showed a considerable change in the depth occupied
by the upper isothermal lines, for whereas on the western side of the South American
continent, between the same parallels, the isotherm of 40° maintained an average depth
of 380 fathoms, only varying from 320 to 420 fathoms, it was found that between the
Falkland Islands and Monte Video if varied from 50 to 430 fathoms in depth.

DIAGRAM 22

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Meridional Temperature Section
Falkland. Islands to die Parallel of 35°40. S.

For explanalioTu of Synibols see, AppencbLca 1.

'

-est. . t ;,i "

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

903

The surface currents, as ascertained by the difference between the position of the ship
deduced from astronomical observations and the ship’s reckoning, were N. 79° E. (true)
8 miles per day.

The following anemometer observations were taken when the ship was sounding or
trawling : —

Date.

1876.

Station.

Velocity of Wind in Miles
per Hour.

Force of Wind by
Beaufort’s Scale, as noted
in Log.

February 8

317

22

4-5

„ 11

318

18

3

„ 12

319

36

7

The deposit in 1035 fathoms in this section was a sandy gravel. The trawl line carried
away and the trawl was lost, but the tow-net attached to the line at the weights con-
tained some of the gravel. The larger particles were from 1 to 2 cm. in diameter, brown
coloured, flattened, ellipsoidal, derived from ancient continental formations, such as
schist, gneiss, arkose, and sandstone, together with milky and hyaline quartz, felspar,
augite, magnetite, microclin, hornblende,, and glauconite. The glauconite was globular,
ovoid, elongated, or vaguely triangular, with rounded angles ; many of the particles were
not so homogeneous as true glauconite, and appeared as aggregates of minerals cemented
by a green matter. Sometimes they showed a schistoid structure, and often it was difficult
to say whether the fragments were glauconite or pieces of rocks strongly impregnated with
a chloritic substance. Mixed up with the above mentioned sandy particles were cal-
careous Foraminifera, fragments of Molluscs, Brachiopods, Echinoderms, and Polyzoans.

In 2040 fathoms the deposit was a blue mud containing 33 per cent, of carbonate of
lime. The trawl was put over at this Station, and although it was over for seven hours,
it never seemed to have touched the bottom. Two tow-nets were attached to the beam
of the trawl, and one at the weights in front of the trawl, and it seems almost impossible
that the trawl could have touched on the mud without these fine nets bringing up some
traces of it. The trawl, howTever, contained a specimen of a new genus of Salmonid
Fish ( Batliylagus atlanticus, Gtinth.), several large Medusae ( Atolla wyvillei, Haeckel),
and several bright scarlet Shrimps. In the tow-nets attached to the weights and trawl
there were also eighteen species of Phaeoclaria, identical with those obtained in the
deep water of the Pacific, several bright red Copepods, and red Scigittce over 2 inches
in length. It is impossible to say how near the trawl may have been to the bottom,
but Mr. Murray considers it quite certain that most, if not all, of the animals above
(narr. cjhall. exp, — vojj, i, — 1885.) 114

904

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

mentioned were captured in the intermediate water, between a depth of 100 fathoms
from the surface and a short distance from the bottom.

At 2425 fathoms there was a blue mud containing about 75 per cent, of mineral
particles, the remainder of the deposit being composed of the remains of siliceous
organisms and clayey matter ; there was no trace of calcareous organisms.

In 600 fathoms the deposit was a green sand, containing 3 per cent, of carbonate of
lime. In the sounding tube and in the trawl there were several small concretions, from
1 to 3 cm. in diameter, nodular, more or less elliptical, and varying in colour from grey-
green to yellow-green. They were agglutinations of the clastic materials forming the
deposit, and cemented together by a clayey matter united with a chloritic mineral, but were
not very coherent. Cut into thin sections, they were seen to be formed of angular frag-
ments of quartz (l’O to 0'5 mm. in diameter), of felspars, some of which were triclinic, of
hornblende,' of glauconite, and of garnet. The argillaceous matter cementing this sand
was finely granular, and impregnated with a green or yellowish chloritic substance, with
vague outlines and non-birefringent, the same as that observed upon the isolated grains
of the mud. With these sandy agglutinations were associated rounded elliptical fragments
with a diameter of from 1 to 2 cm. ; they were green, fine grained, could be scratched
with steel, and at first sight appeared to have the grain and structure of glauconite.
Examined with the microscope, they presented a greenish fundamental mass, with scattered
colourless and irregular particles (0‘05 mm. in diameter), and black and brown points
which appeared to be organic. With polarized light the colourless particles with vague
contours were seen to be crystalline, and were probably felspar or quartz. Other frag-
ments with a coarser grain were seen under the microscope to be composed of felspar and
quartz perfectly discernible, cemented and surrounded by chlorite.

The trawling on this occasion was one of the most productive of the whole cruise,
there being in the net four fish and over two hundred specimens of invertebrates, chiefly
belonging to the new genera and species first discovered by the Expedition.

The Deep-Sea Fishes. — Dr. A. Gunther, F.R.S., is engaged in the preparation of a
Report on these fishes, and the following general observations on their characteristic
features are extracted chiefly from his recent Introduction to the Study of Fishes d —

Nothing was positively known as to the exact depths inhabited by deep-sea fishes until
observations were made during the voyage of the Challenger. The results obtained by
the Expedition afford a surer and more extended basis for the knowledge of deep-sea fishes.

The most striking characteristic found in many deep-sea fishes is in relation to the
tremendous pressure under which they live. Their osseous and muscular systems are, as
compared with the same parts of surface fishes, very feebly developed. The bones have
a fibrous, fissured, and cavernous texture, are light, with scarcely any calcareous matter,

1 An Introduction to the Study of Fishes, Edinburgh, 1880.

"14(322)600

Gulf of Si George

1035

i.g (gra-vel)

ijn.76

' Port Stanley

Staten I.

0°Long West from GreenwicK

SHEET 42

MAGELLAN STRAIT

TO

FALKLAND ISLANDS

AND

MONTEVIDEO

JamT , FeW, 1876.

For explanation, of abbreviations &c. see Appendix 1 ■

Engraved Ly Malty & Sons.

'

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

905

so that the point of a needle will readily penetrate them without breaking. The bones,
especially the vertebrae, appear to be most loosely connected with one another, and it
requires the most careful handling to prevent the breaking of the connective ligaments.
The muscles, especially the great lateral muscles of the trunk and tail, are thin, the
fascicles being readily separated from one another or torn, the connective tissue being
extremely loose, feeble, or apparently absent. Some of the deep-sea fishes -being most
rapacious creatures, must be able to execute rapid and powerful movements in catching
and overpowering their prey; and for that object their muscular system, thin as its
layers may be, must be as firm, and the chain of the segments of their vertebral column
as firmly linked together as in surface fishes. Therefore, it is evident that the change
which the body of these fishes has undergone on their withdrawal from the pressure
under which they live is a much aggravated form of the affection experienced by persons
reaching great altitudes in their ascent of a mountain or in a balloon.

In fishes inhabiting depths of 1000 fathoms or more, the whole muciferous system
is dilated, and it is especially the surface of the skull which is occupied by large cavities,
while the whole body seems to be covered* with a layer of mucus. The physiological use
of this secretion is unknown; it has been observed to have phosphorescent properties in
perfectly fresh specimens.

The organ of sight is the first to be affected by a sojourn in deep water. In the
greatest depths blind fishes occur with rudimentary eyes and without special organs of
touch. A very remarkable modification of the eye is found in Ipnops murrayi (see
p. 239). Whenever a fish has long delicate filaments, developed in connection with the
fins or the extremity of the tail, it may be concluded that it is an inhabitant of still
water and of quiet habits. Many deep-sea fishes are provided with such filamentous
prolongations, the development of which is perfectly in accordance with their sojourn in
the absolutely quiet waters of abyssal depths (see Bathypterois longipes, p. 217).

Many fishes of the deep sea are provided with more or less numerous, round, shining
mother-of-pearl-coloured bodies imbedded in the skin. These so-called phosphorescent or
luminous organs are either larger bodies of an oval or irregularly elliptical shape placed
on the head, in the vicinity of the eye, or smaller round globular bodies arranged
symmetrically in series along the side of the body and tail, especially near the abdominal
profile, less frequently along the back (see Echiostoma micripnus, p. 412). These
organs are all supposed to be producers of light, and they have been observed to be
phosphorescent in two species of Sternoptychidae.

Some of the raptatorial deep-sea fishes have a stomach so distensible and capacious
that it can receive, a fish of twice or thrice the bulk of the destroyer, as for example
Chiasmodus niger. Deglutition is performed in them not by means of the muscles of
the pharnyx, as in other fishes, but by the independent and alternate action of the jaws.

Before the voyage of H.M.S. Challenger, scarcely thirty deep-sea fishes were known ;

906

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

this number is now much increased by the discovery of many new species and genera.
Modifications of certain organs, perfectly novel, and of the greatest interest were found,
but the most important results of this voyage are, that the general character of the
abyssal fish-fauna, the abundance of fishes, and the exact depths to which they may
descend, have been ascertained. The depths at which the fishes collected by the
Challenger were taken cannot be received without some critical examination of each
individual species ; seeing that no precaution was taken to keep the mouth of the dredge
or trawl closed during its descent or ascent, the fishes may have been captured in various
strata between the surface and bottom. The Naturalists have simply recorded the
greatest depth reached by the dredge or trawl on each occasion, therefore before
anything like a division into bathymetrical zones can be attempted, the observations
of the Challenger Expedition must be confirmed and supplemented by other series of
similar systematic observations. One of the most startling conclusions that would have
to be drawn from the Challenger observations, if the greatest depths be taken as those
at which the fishes lived, is, that some of the species of deep-sea fishes would range from
a depth of some 300 fathoms down to one of 2000 fathoms, or, in other words, that a
fish which has once attained that modification of its organisation which will enable it to
exist under the pressure of half a ton, can easily accommodate itself to a pressure of two
tons or more, a conclusion which requires to be confirmed by other observations.

The greatest depth reached hitherto by a dredge in which fishes were collected is
2900 fathoms. But the specimens thus obtained belong to a species ( Gonostoma
microdon ) which seems to be extremely abundant in the upper strata of the Atlantic and
Pacific, and were therefore most likely caught by the dredge in its ascent. The next
greatest depth, viz., 2750 fathoms, must be accepted as one at which fishes undoubtedly
do live ; the fish obtained from this depth in the Atlantic, Bathyophi s ferox, showing by
its whole habit that it is a form living on the bottom of the ocean.

The fish fauna of the deep sea is composed chiefly of forms or modifications of forms
which are found represented at the surface in the cold and temperate zones, or which
appear as nocturnal pelagic forms.

The Chondropterygians are few in number, not descending to a depth of more than
600 fathoms. The Acanthopterygians, which form a majority of the coast and surface
faunas, are also scantily represented ; genera identical with surface types are confined to
the same inconsiderable depths as the Chondropterygians, whilst those Acanthopterygians
which are so specialised for the life in the deep sea as to deserve generic separation, range
from 200 to 2400 fathoms. Three distinct families of Acanthopterygians belong to
the deep-sea fauna, viz., Tracliypteridse, Lophotidae, and Notacanthidae. They consist
respectively of three, one, and two genera only.

Gadidse, Ophidiidoe, and Macruridse are very numerous, ranging through all depths;
they constitute about one-fourth of the whole deep-sea fauna.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

907

Of Physostomi, the families of Sternoptychidse, Scopelidse, Stomiatidse, Salmonidse,
Bathythrissidse, Alepocephalidse, Halosauridse, and Mursenidae are represented. Of
these the Scopeloids are the most numerous, constituting nearly another fourth of the
fauna. Salmonidse are scarce, with three small genera only. Bathythrissidse include
one species only, which is probably confined in its vertical as well as horizontal range; it
occurs at a depth of about 350 fathoms in the Sea of Japan. The Alepocephalidse and
Halosauridse, known before the Challenger Expedition from isolated examples only, prove
to be true, widely-spread, deep-sea types ; Eels are well represented, and seem to descend
to the greatest depths. Myxine has been obtained from a depth of 345 fathoms.

Monte Video.

The Expedition remained at Monte Video ten days, refitting the ship and obtaining
the necessary magnetic and other observations, and during this time several members of
the Expedition visited Buenos Ayres.

Fitz-Roy’s observing station could not be used, as Rat Island was appropriated for
quarantine purposes. The surveyors therefore took observations on Point Lobos by the
chimney of the pumping engine of the graving dock, and, as the ground thereabouts was
rock, they found it to be a very convenient place.

At Point Lobos a fine graving dock was in course of construction, 425 feet in length,
56 feet in breadth, and with 20 feet over the sill at high water (16 at low), which
will be sufficiently large for all the Monte Video traffic and trade up the river for
some years.

Supplies at this port were plentiful and cheap, beef 2d. to 3d. per lb., sheep 8s. each,
potatoes Id. per lb., coals £2, 10s. per ton. Fruit (especially pears) was also cheap and
of excellent quality.

There was at the time of the visit of the Expedition no settled coinage in the
Uruguay Republic. The nominal standard was a fictitious dollar with which the coins of
other countries are compared. Thus an English sovereign was valued as $4 70 cents, an
English florin as only 36 cents, a Peruvian dollar as 80 cents, a French five franc piece 96
cents, and an American eagle $9 66 cents, &c. It was therefore necessary to be acquainted
with the value allotted to the different coins here, especially in receiving change.

The Gephyrea. — Professor Emil Selenka, who is engaged in the preparation of a
Report on the Gephyrea collected during the Expedition, has forwarded the following
note:—

“ The number of Gephyrea collected and observed during the Challenger Expedition
(ineluding a few from the ‘ Porcupine ; expedition) amounts to about thirty species, which
may all be referred to known genera as follows : —

908

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

- “ A new species of Sterncispis, Echiurus unicinctus, v. Drasche, two species of Thcdas-
sema, one new, a new Bonellia, four new and four previously known species of Phascolo-
soma, Dendrostoma blandum, Selenka and de Man, two previously known and three new
species of Phciscolion, two species of the genus Aspidosiphon, one of which is new,
only two known species of Phymosoma and two of the genus Sipunculus. There were
several forms which it was impossible to determine with certainty, and which will there-
fore not be described, for they had been much damaged by the dredge ; and another
form, described as a new genus in the notes of the late Dr. v. Willemoes Sulim, must also
be excluded from the descriptions, since the single specimen was quite torn to pieces.

“ The Gephyrea of the Challenger Expedition form an interesting contribution to
our knowledge of the geographical distribution of this group ; a variety of Phascolosoma
vulgare, Blv., hitherto known only from the Mediterranean and the west coast
of France, was discovered by H.M.S. ‘Porcupine’ to the north of Scotland (I have
named it Phascolosoma vulgare , var. astutum ) ; and the Challenger found a similarly
varying form near Kerguelen Island at a depth of 120 fathoms. A new species of
this genus ( Phascolosoma Jlagriferum ) was dredged in the Pacific Ocean and also off the
east coast of North America ; while several Sipunculids, which have hitherto been
known) only from shallow water, were obtained from great depths ; such was the case,
for instance, with Sipunculus nudus, Linn.”

Monte Video to Ascension.

On the 25th February, at 5 a.m., the vessel left Monte Video for the island of Ascension.
A course was shaped first of all for the Tristan da Cunha group, as it was desirable to run a
section from Monte Video along the 36th or 37th parallel to those islands to join
the section from them to the Cape of Good Hope, after which a meridional section from
Tristan da Cunha to Ascension was obtained. In leaving the Rio de la Plata two hauls
of the trawl were obtained in 13 and 21 fathoms. The deposits were a blue tenacious
mud containing large fragments of Molluscs and plants, and many sandy particles. The
trawls contained a large number of Renilla mulleri , with Crustaceans, Nemerteans,
Annelids, Cephalopods, Molluscs, and a large number of fish, among which were five
hitherto undescribed species.

During the passage the wind was at first light and variable to the meridian of 42° W.,
with the exception of one day -when for a few hours a strong S.W. wind was experienced,
after which moderately fresh winds from N. to W. were encountered to the meridian of
15° W. Turning up north towards Ascension, a fresh westerly breeze was experienced,
which shifted round S. to S.E. and ran the ship into the trade wind, the direction of
which was E. to E. by S. The weather on the whole was fine though somewhat cloudy ;
lightning was common until the vessel was east of the 42nd meridian.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

909

The soundings &c. obtained were divided into two sections — 1st, from Monte Video
to Tristan da Cunha ; 2nd, from Tristan da Cunha to Ascension (see Diagrams 6 and 7).

Between Monte Video and Tristan da Cunha twelve soundings, eleven temperature
soundings, and seven trawlings were obtained.

In the western part of the Monte Video-Tristan da Cunha section, the depth
varied from 2900 to 2440 fathoms, and in the eastern part from 1715 to 2200 fathoms.

The temperature at the bottom in this section was peculiar. In the western part
temperatures of from 320,3 to 33°T were registered, a colder result than any previously
obtained except in the immediate neighbourhood of the Antarctic regions. In the eastern
or shallower part of the section the bottom temperature varied from 34° to 35c,8.
In order to ascertain the exact thickness of this cold stratum, five or six ther-
mometers were on each occasion attached to the sounding line at intervals of 200
fathoms from each other and from the bottom thermometer. From their readings it
appears that there is, in the western or deeper part of the section, a stratum of water
below the temperature of 33°, the average thickness, or height above the bottom, of
which is 400 fathoms. Above 400. fathoms the temperature increases until the
isotherm of 35° is reached at an average depth of 600 fathoms from the bottom,
an increase of 2° in 200 fathoms. Between the isotherms of 35° and 40° the
average distance is 1500 fathoms across the whole section; that is, only a change of
5° per 1500 fathoms.

The surface temperature varied from 73° to 64° across the section.

The Serial temperature soundings showed that the isotherm of 40° was on an average
400 fathoms from, and fairly parallel with, the surface, except in the neighbourhood
of the coast of South America. The isotherms above 40° were parallel with that
isotherm. At Station 333 temperature observations were obtained within a few miles
of those previously obtained on the voyage from Bahia to the Cape of Good Hope, in
October 1873, at Station 133, and the results at 75 and 100 fathoms were found to
be identical on both occasions, notwithstanding a difference of 10° in the temperature
of the surface owing to the different seasons in which the observations were made.
Below 100 fathoms a good comparison could not be made, as in October 1873 serial
temperatures were only obtained to that depth at Station 133, but from a comparison
made with the results then registered on each side of that Station, it appears that the
calculated results agree fairly well with those actually obtained.

The general direction of the surface current was southeasterly.

In the section from Tristan da Cunha to Ascension, nine soundings, nine serial
temperature observations, and four dredgings were obtained.

The soundings in this section show that a ridge extends between Tristan and
Ascension Islands separating the deep water of the western part of the South Atlantic
from that of the eastern part. The shallowest sounding obtained on this ridge was 1240

910

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

fathoms, but it s quite possible that less depths may be found in other places. The
deepest cast, 2050 fathoms, was obtained in October 1873, 50 miles north of Tristan Island.

The bottom temperature in this section varied with the depth from 36° at 2050
fathoms to 40° '3 at 425 fathoms. The surface temperature increased from 64° on the
38th parallel to 80° at Ascension.

The serial temperatures showed that the isotherm of 40° occupied a mean depth of
450 fathoms, whilst those of 45°, 50°, and 55° were all lower 200 to 300 miles north of
Tristan Island than they were at Ascension.

The general direction of the surface current was W.S.W. 14 miles per day.

The following anemometer observations were taken between Monte Video and
Ascension : —

Date.

1876.

Station.

Velocity of Wind in Miles
per Hour.

Force of Wind by
Beaufort’s Scale, as noted
in Log.

March 9

331

23

4-5

„ 16

335

20

4'5

„ 24

340

16-5

3-4

The albatross and other southern birds followed the ship till the 16th March when in
lat. 32° 24' S., after which they were not again seen.1

In 1900 fathoms, off the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, the deposit was a blue mud
containing about 5 per cent, of carbonate of lime, which consisted chiefly of a few shells of
pelagic Foraminifera, The six following soundings showed depths ranging between 2650
and 2900 fathoms. In none of these did the deposit contain any carbonate of lime, and
no remains of calcareous organisms were observed. The remains of siliceous organisms
made up from 15 to 20 per cent, of the deposits. The mineral particles had a mean
diameter of 0'1 mm. or less, and consisted of fragments of quartz, plagioclase, augite,
grains of magnetite, mica, and a very large number of fragments of pumice and volcanic
scoriae. The fragments making up these deposits appear to have been mostly derived
from the Rio de la Plata, whose influence on the deposits could be distinctly traced
several hundred miles seawards.

When the depth diminished as the Tristan plateau was reached, the character of

1 A number of external parasites obtained from Diomeclea exulans in the South Atlantic and South Pacific Oceans
were sent to Mr. W. F. Kirby of the British Museum for determination ; he found the following species among them : —
Docopliorus dentatus, Gieb., Atlantic and Pacific ; Docophoroides brevis, Burm., Atlantic and Pacific (a very widely ranging
species, and one of the largest of the Mallophaga) ; Lipeurus clypeatus, Gieb., Atlantic ; Nirmus angidicottis, Gieb., Pacific
Golpocepihalum sp. (?), Atlantic,

NAB II ATI VE OF THE CRUISE,

911

the deposits likewise changed. A sounding in 2440 fathoms gave 10 per cent, of
carbonate of lime. All the other soundings were on the plateau surrounding Tristan da
Cunha, and extending north to the Island of Ascension, and ranged from 2200 to 1240
fathoms. The percentage of carbonate of lime ranged from 66 to 95 per cent., the
proportion being greater the less the depth. In depths less than 1500 fathoms the
deposits appeared to be very largely, if not mainly, made up of the dead shells of pelagic
Molluscs, such as Pteropods, Heteropods, and pelagic Gasteropods, and these deposits
have in consequence been called “Pteropod ooze.” In depths of 2000 fathoms these shells
were almost completely removed from the deposits, which then consisted chiefly of
pelagic Foraminifera.

It is not improbable that very much shallower depths occur on this plateau, cones
probably rising nearly to the surface, similar to those recently discovered by the telegraph
ship “ Dacia ” off the west coast of Africa. It would have been very interesting had
the Expedition had time to take a series of soundings close to the places where the
shallowest depths were obtained, as much interest is attached to the deposits forming in
shallower water far removed from coasts.

The various trawlings and dredgings were on the whole productive and successful.
Those in 1900 and 2650 fathoms off the River Plate yielded a greater number of
individuals and species than those in the shallower water in the centre of the Atlantic.

A detailed description is here given of the deposit from 1990 fathoms on this
plateau :■ —

Station 338, 21st March 1876; lat. 21° 15' S., long. 14° 2' W, ; 1990 fathoms; surface tem-
perature 760,5, bottom temperature 360,3.

GLOBIGERINA OOZE, with a reddish tinge when wet, and a slight rose colour when dry,
granular, pulverulent.

Carbonate of Calcium, 90‘38 per cent., consists of Coccoliths and Rhabdoliths, pelagic and
other Foraminifera, Ostracodes, fragments of Eehinoderms and Pteropods.

Residue, 9-62 per cent., colour reddish brown, consists of —

Mineral particles [2-00 percent.], m. di. 0'Q5 mm., fragments of felspar, hornblende, magnetic
particles, and a few small grains of manganese.

Siliceous Organisms [2'00 per cent.], Radiolarians, a few Diatoms, and one or two imperfect
casts of Foraminifera.

Fine Washings [5‘62 per cent.], argillaceous matter with minute mineral particles and
small fragments of Diatoms and Radiolarians.

Remarks. — A dredge was used. The tow-net at the weights did not seem to have
touched the bottom, as there was no ooze or undoubted bottom-living organisms in it.
The tow-nets attached to the dredge itself each contained a little of the ooze, or rather a
large number of pelagic Foraminifera, all dead. These shells were all quite empty and
transparent, containing neither sarcode nor clayey matter ; Hastigerina and Orbvlina

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i.— 1885.) 115

912

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

were very numerous, much more so than in the sounding tube or dredge. The dredge
contained a very large quantity of a light brown or red coloured ooze, which when dried
became white, with a delicate rose tinge. A quantity of this ooze was passed through fine
sieves, and the remainder was placed in bottles and brought home for further and more
careful examination than could be made on board ship. There remained from the quantity
passed through the sieves on board three small pieces of pumice and a few fragments of
a Gasteropod shell. The pieces of pumice were about 5 mm. in diameter, rounded, white,
areolar, and containing small crystals of sanidine, hornblende, and magnetite. During
the cruise it frequently happened that no particles of pumice, of sufficient size to be
perfectly determinable, were found in the specimen of a Globigerina ooze brought up in
the sounding tube, yet when a large quantity of the ooze was obtained by the dredge or
trawl at the same place, and passed through sieves, a few pieces of pumice were obtained,
as in this instance. It is important to bear this fact in mind when judging of the role
played by pumice in the formation of deep-sea deposits.

In the examination of the large quantity of this ooze brought home the following
organisms were observed : —

Fragments of Echinoderms, Ostracodes ( Cy there dictyon and Cythere dasyderma),
a small Lamellibranch, a fragment of a Polyzoon, otoliths and small teeth of fish, fragments
of Lepas valves, fragments of Pteropods and Heteropods ( Hyalea , Cleodora, Cuvieria, and
Atlanta), Rhabdoliths and Coccoliths, a few Radiolarians, a few Sponge spicules, one or
two fragments of Diatoms (?), and the following Foraminifera ,

Biloculina depressa.
Spiroloculina tenuis.
Miliolina seminulum.
Hyperammina vagans.
Reophax scorpiurus.
Thurammina papillata.
Cyclammina cancellata.
Verneuilina pygmcea.
Virgulina schreibersiana .
Lagena globosa.

Lagena gracilis.

Lagena Icevigata.

Lagena Ice vis.

Lagena \ lagenoides.
Lagena lagenoides var.

tenuistriata.

Lagena lucida.

Lagena seminiformis.
Lagena squamosa.
Lagena striata.
Nodosaria calomorpha.
Cristellaria obtusata.
Cristellaria rotulata.
Polymorphina angusta.
Polymorphina lactea.
Polymorphina longicollis.
Globigerina cequilate ralis.
Globigerina bulloides.
Globigerina conglobata.
Globigerina digitata.
Globigerina dubia.
Globigerina helicina.
Globigerina injlata.

Globigerina rubra.
Globigerina sacculifera.
Orbulina universa.
Hastigerina pelagica.
Pullenia obliquiloculata.
Sphceroidina dehiscens.
Candeina nitida.
Truncatulina haidingerii.
Truncatulina wuellerstorf..
Pulvinulina menardii.
Pulvinulina micheliniana.
Pulvinulina patagonica.
Pulvinulina pauperata.
Pulvinulina tumidg.
Rotalia soldanii.
Nonionina umbilicatula.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

913

This deposit is one of the purest Globigerina oozes obtained during the cruise, and is
almost wholly composed of the dead shells of surface organisms. The carbonate of lime
present is estimated to be made up as follows ; — ?

Pelagic Foraminifera, . , , , , . 65-00 per cent.

Pelagic Mollusca, . . . . . . 2'00 „

Coccoliths and Rhabdoliths, , . . , . 15-00 „

Fragments of Echinids, Ostracodes, Polyzoa, otoliths, teeth, valves of Lepas,

fragments of bottom-living Mollusca and bottom-living Foraminifera, 8'38 „

90 ‘38 per cent.

The bottom-living Foraminifera do not appear to make up more than 1 per cent, of
this deposit. The great majority of the finest portions are made up of Coccoliths,
Ehabdoliths, primordial chambers and very young specimens of pelagic Foraminifera.

On comparing this deposit with one nearer the Equator it is noticed that the majority
of the shells of pelagic Foraminifera are much smaller and thinner shelled in the former
than in the latter, the younger specimens are much more numerous, and the predominat-
ing species are also different. The same remarks hold good for the specimens taken on
the surface.

More than two litres of this ooze were dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and in this way
a relatively large quantity of the residue was obtained. The magnetic particles were in
the first place extracted by means of a magnet ; the larger mineral particles and siliceous
organisms were afterwards separated by decantation. The mineral particles and siliceous
organisms thus obtained formed but a small portion of the residue, the greater part of
which consisted of what are denominated “ fine washings ” (see PI. N, fig. 5).

These fine washings are deep brown or maroon in colour, greasy, and do not contain
particles sensible to the touch. The material is but slightly plastic, when dried it
becomes yellowish brown, forming lumps which break easily and absorb water quickly
without breaking up ; the streak is lustrous. It reddens with heat, and melts easily
before the blow-pipe into shining beads, which are black and magnetic. These globules
examined by the microscope appear as a brownish glass, filled with gas cavities. Some
of these characters apply to what is usually called a clay, but some of the properties,
especially the pyrognostic properties, show that it is not a pure clay, but a mixture of
different materials. An examination of the wet preparations of these fine washings with a
power of 450 diameters shows that they are composed of an amorphous matter, fragments
of minerals and. rocks, the remains of siliceous organisms, and of colouring substances.

The amorphous matter, which may be considered as properly the argillaceous matter,
presents characters essentially vague. It appears as a colloid substance without definite
contours, generally colourless, perfectly isotropic, and forms a mass which agglutinates
and connects the other particles of the washings. As these physical characters are

914

THE YOYAGrE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

very indefinite it is difficult to estimate, even approximately, the quantity present
in a deposit. However, it augments in proportion as the deposit becomes more clayey,
but only a small quantity of this substance is necessary to give a clayey character
to a deposit,.. That which predominates in this fundamental base, are irregular frag-
ments of minerals, vitreous rocks, and remains of siliceous organisms. These particles
probably make up about 50 per cent, of the whole mass, and this large percentage of
foreign matters must necessarily mask the character of the clayey matter in which they
are imbedded.

The mineral particles are seldom larger than 0*01 mm. in diameter, but descend
from this size to the merest specks. It is impossible on account of their size to say
to what mineral species they belong, their thickness not being sufficient to be distin-
guished by polarised light, their outlines too irregular, and all special coloration having
likewise disappeared. All that can reasonably be said is that .these minute mineral
particles probably belong to the same species as the larger particles in the same deposit,
such as felspar, hornblende, magnetite. In the case of the pumice and siliceous
organisms the fragments can be recognised when of a much less size than in the case of
the above minerals. Here the structure and fracture of the pumice, and form and
markings of the organisms, enable very minute particles to be detected. However,
some particles of pumice are so small as to have lost entirely their fibrous structure, the
bulbs of air, and the peculiar fracture with frequent semicircular contours, and are
therefore indistinguishable from the minute fragments of minerals which are likewise
isotropic. In the same way extremely minute fragments of siliceous organisms cannot
be distinguished from minerals and pumice fragments of about the same size.

The colouring substances are the hydrated oxides of iron and manganese. The former
is scattered through all the mass in a state of very fine division. In some points,
however, it is more localised, the argillaceous matter appearing with a brown tinge, but
these spots are noticed gradually to disappear in the surrounding mass. The coloration
given by the manganese is much more distinct. There are small, rounded, brown-
coloured spots, with a diameter of less than 0*01 mm., which disappear under the action
of hydrochloric acid with disengagement of chlorine. Among the magnetic particles,
which consisted of small fragments of magnetite and small spherules, there was one
spherule of bronzite (see p. 8 1 2).

The mineral particles collected after dissolving away a very large quantity of the ooze
were the same as to size and species as those indicated in the description of the deposit.
A quantity of the ooze was taken from the dredge, and divided into three portions by
decantations. The finest portion gave 88T5 per cent, of carbonate of lime, the second
gave 98 ’84 per cent., and the third 98*56 per cent. The finest portion consisted chiefly
of Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths, primordial chambers of Foraminifera, and amorphous clayey
and calcareous particles, thus showing that most of the clayey matter passed away with

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

915

the finest matter. The second contained the smaller and the third the larger Fora-
minifera. This difference in the quantity of carbonate of lime in the decantations shows
how two samples of the same ooze may vary when it is allowed to settle after being
shaken by carriage in bottles or by the action of the dredge or trawl during collection.
For these reasons an avera'ge sample of the deposit was generally carefully selected
for analysis, and this has usually been taken from the specimen obtained in the sounding
tube, where this sorting is much less likely to have taken place.

The following analysis by Professor Brazier is from an average sample from the
dredge : —

Loss on ignition after washing and drying at 230° F., . , . . . 1‘40

Alumina, 0-65

Ferric Oxide, . . . 060

Calcium Phosphate, . . .0-90

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric ) _ , Manganese Oxide, . . . trace

Acid = 97T1, J ~ 1 Calcium Sulphate, . . . 0'19

Calcium Carbonate, . . . 92-54

Magnesium Carbonate, . . 0-87

Silica, P36

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric ) _ J Consisting of Alumina and ) , . q

Acid = 1'49, /. — ( Ferric Oxide, with Silica, J

100-00

It will be seen that this deposit has aL high percentage of carbonate of calcium,
and a small .residue. The slightly higher percentage of the carbonate of lime in this
analysis than that given above (90‘38) may be owing partly to the sorting of the
materials of the ooze, and partly to the prolonged action of the hydrochloric acid in
the complete analysis.

On Deejp-Sea Deposits in General. — The foregoing example will serve to show the
method adopted by Messrs. Murray and Renard in the examination of the deep-sea
deposits. The description commences by indicating the kind of deposit (red clay, blue
mud, Globigerina ooze, &c.), with the macroscopic characters when wet or dry. When a
complete chemical analysis has not been made the amount of carbonate of calcium has
always been determined.

This determination was generally made by estimating the carbonic acid ; a gramme
of a mean sample of the substance was taken for this purpose, using dilute and cold
hydrochloric acid. However, as the deposits often contain carbonates of magnesia and
iron as well, the results calculated by associating the carbonic acid with the lime are not
perfectly exact, but these carbonates of magnesia and iron are almost always in very small
proportion, and the process is sufficiently accurate, for, owing to the sorting of the
elements which goes on during collection and carriage, no two samples from the same
Station give exactly the same percentage. The number which follows the words

916

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

“ carbonate of calcium ” indicates the percentage of CaC03 ; the general designations of
the principal calcareous organisms in the deposit are then given.

The part insoluble in the hydrochloric acid, after the determination of the carbonic
acid, is designated “ residue.” The number placed after this word indicates its percentage
in the deposit ; then follow the colour and principal physical properties. This residue is
washed and submitted to decantations, which separate the several constituents according
to their density into three groups — (1) Minerals, (2) Siliceous Organisms, (3) Fine
Washings.

1. Minerals. — The number within brackets indicates the percentage of particular
minerals and fragments of rocks, and is the result of an approximate evaluation. As
it is important to know the dimensions of the grains of minerals which constitute
the deposit, their mean diameter in millimetres is given after the contraction m. di. ;
then the species of minerals and rocks are enumerated. In this enumeration the minerals
are placed in the order of the importance of the role which they play in the deposit. The
specific determinations have been made with the mineralogical microscope in parallel or
convergent polarised light.

2. Siliceous Organisms. — The number between brackets indicates the percentage of
siliceous organic remains which, as in the case of the minerals, is an approximate evaluation.
Under this heading the glauconitic casts of the Foraminifera and other calcareous
organisms are also placed.

3. Fine Washings. — The particles which, resting in suspension, pass with the first
decantation, are thus designated. The number within brackets which follows the words
“fine washings” is obtained in the same manner as those placed after “minerals” and
“ siliceous organisms.” The “ fine washings ” are fully described above (see pp. 913, 914).

The various kinds of deposits referred to in the descriptions of the deposits throughout
this volume have been arranged as follows by Messrs. Murray and Eenard : —

Terrigenous deposits.

Shore formations,

Blue mud,

Green mud and sand,
Red mud,

Volcanic mud and sand,
Coral mud and sand,
Coralline mud and sand,

f Found in inland seas and along the shores of
f continents.

) Found around oceanic islands and along the shores
( of continents.

f Globigerina ooze,
| Pteropod ooze,

Abysmal deposits. \ Diatom ooze,

Radiolarian ooze,
[ Red clay,

1

J- Found in the abysmal regions of the ocean basins.

The shore formations which are being laid down on the coast or in very shallow water
need not be here referred to, as they were somewhat carefully described prior to the

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

917

recent deep-sea explorations, but very little attention had' been paid to deposits of the
same order, and largely of the same origin, which differ from the sands and gravels of
the shores and shallow waters only by a lesser size of the grains, and by the fact that
they are laid down in deeper water and at a greater distance from the land. These are
termed terrigenous deposits, and their chief characteristics may be pointed out.

Blue Mud is the most extensive deposit now forming around the great continents and
continental islands, and in all enclosed or partially enclosed seas. It is characterised by
a slaty colour which passes in most cases into a thin layer of a reddish colour at the
upper surface. These deposits are coloured blue by organic matter in a state of decom-
position, or by iron pyrites finely divided, and frequently give off an odour of
sulphuretted hydrogen. When dried, a blue mud is greyish in colour, and rarely or
never has the plasticity and compactness of a true clay. It is finely granular, and
occasionally contains fragments of rocks 2 centimetres in diameter ; generally, however,
the minerals, which are derived from the continents and are found mixed up with
the muddy matter in these deposits, have a diameter of 0'5 mm. and less. Quartz
particles, often rounded, play the principal part, next come mica, felspar, augite,
hornblende, and all the mineral species derived from the disintegration of the
neighbouring lands, or the lands traversed by rivers which enter the sea near the
place where the specimens have been collected. These minerals make up the
principal and characteristic portion of blue muds, sometimes forming 80 per cent,
of the whole deposit. Glauconite, though generally present, is never abundant in blue
mud. The remains of calcareous organisms are at times quite absent, but occasionally
they form over 50 per cent. ; the latter is the case when the specimen is taken at a
considerable distance from the coast and at a moderate depth, less than 1500 fathoms.
These calcareous fragments consist of bottom-living and pelagic Foraminifera, Molluscs,
Polyzoa, Serpulce, Echinoderms, Alcyonarian spicules, Corals, &c. The remains of
Diatoms and Radiolarians are usually present. Generally speaking, as the land is
approached the pelagic organisms disappear, and on the contrary, proceeding seawards the
size of the mineral grains diminishes, and the remains of shore and coast organisms give
place to pelagic ones, till finally a blue mud passes into a true deep-sea deposit. In
those regions of the ocean affected by floating ice the colour of these deposits becomes
grey rather than blue at great distances from land, and is further modified by the
presence of a greater or less abundance of glaciated blocks and fragments of quartz.

Green Muds and Sands. — As regards their origin, composition, and distribution near
the shores of continental land, these muds and sands resemble the blue muds, and are
largely composed of argillaceous matter and mineral particles of the same size and nature.
Their chief characteristic is the presence of a considerable quantity of glauconitic grains,
either isolated or united into concretions, which last are very frequently phosphatic. In
the latter case the grains are cemented together by a brown argillaceous matter, and

918

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S, CHALLENGER.

include besides quartz, felspars, phosphate of lime, and other minerals, more or less
altered. The Foraminifera and fragments of Echinoderms and other organisms in these
muds are frequently filled with glauconitic substance, and beautiful casts of these
organisms remain after treatment with dilute acid. At times there are few calcareous
organisms in these deposits, and at other times the remains of Diatoms and Radiolarians
are abundant. When dried these muds become earthy and of a grey-green colour,
and they frequently give out a sulphuretted hydrogen odour. The green sands differ
from the muds only in the comparative absence of the argillaceous and other amorphous
matter, and by the more important part played by the grains of glauconite, to which the
green colour is chiefly due, although it appears sometimes to be due to the presence of
organic matter, probably of vegetable origin, and to the reduction of peroxide of iron to
protoxide under its influence.

Red Muds. — In some localities, as for instance off the Brazilian coast of America, .the
deposits differ from blue muds by the large quantity of ochreous matter brought down
by the rivers and deposited along the coast ; the ferruginous particles when mixed up
with the argillaceous matter give the whole deposit a reddish colour. These deposits,
which are very rich in limonite, do not appear to contain any traces of glauconite, and
have relatively few remains of siliceous organisms.

Volcanic Muds and Sands. — The muds and sands around volcanic islands are black
or grey ; when dried they are rarely coherent. The mineral particles are generally
fragmentary, and consist of lapilli of the basic and acid series of modern volcanic rocks,
which are scoriaceous or compact, vitreous or crystalline, and usually present traces of
alteration. The minerals are sometimes isolated, sometimes surrounded by their matrix,'
and consist principally of plagioclases, sanidine, amphibole, pyroxene, biotite, olivine, and
magnetic iron ; the size of the particles diminishes with distance from the shore, but the
mean diameter is generally 0‘5 mm. Glauconite does not appear to be present in these
deposits, and quartz is also very rare or absent. The fragments of shells and rocks are
frequently covered with a coating of peroxide of manganese. Shells of calcareous
organisms are often present in great abundance, rendering the deposit of a lighter colour,
and the remains of Diatoms and Radiolarians are usually present.

Coral Muds and Sands. — These muds frequently contain as much as 95 per cent,
of carbonate of lime, which consists of fragments of Corals, calcareous Algse, Foraminifera,
Serpulce , Molluscs, and remains of other lime-secreting organisms. There is a large amount
of amorphous calcareous matter, which gives the deposit a sticky and chalky character.
The particles may be of all sizes according to the distance from the reefs, the mean
diameter being 1 to 2 mm., but occasionally there are large blocks of coral and large
calcareous concretions ; the particles are white and red. Remains of siliceous organisms
seldom make up over 2 or 3 per cent, of a typical coral, mud. The residue consists
usually of a small amount of argillaceous matter, with a few fragments of felspar and other

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

919

volcanic minerals, but off barrier and fringing reefs facing continents there may be a great
variety of rocks and minerals. Beyond a depth of 1000 fathoms off coral islands the
debris of the Teefs begins to diminish, and the remains of pelagic organisms to increase ;
the deposit becomes more argillaceous, of a reddish or rose colour, and gradually passes into
a Glo'bigerina ooze or a red clay. Coral sands contain much less amorphous matter than
coral muds, but in other respects they are similar, the sands being usually found nearer
the reefs and in shallower water than the muds, except inside lagoons. In some regions
the remains of calcareous algae predominate, and in these cases the name coralline mud
or sand is employed to point out the distinction. These deposits have a much greater
resemblance to the White Chalk than bas a Globigerina ooze.

Beyond an average distance of about 200 miles from land, the deposits are characterised
by the great abundance of fragmentary volcanic materials which have usually undergone
great alteration, and by the enormous abundance of the shells and skeletons of minute
pelagic organisms which have fallen to the bottom from the surface waters. These true
deep-sea or abysmal deposits may be divided into those in which the organic elements
predominate, and those in which the mineral constituents play the chief part.

Globigerina Ooze. — Thus are designated all those truly pelagic deposits containing over
40 per cent, of carbonate of lime, which consists principally of the dead shells of pelagic
Foraminifera — Globigerina, Orbulina,' Pulvinulina, Pullenia, Sphceroidina, &c. ; in the
tropics some of the Foraminifera shells are visible to the naked eye. In some localities this
deposit contains 95 percent, of carbonate of lime. The colour is milky white, yellow,
brown, or rose, these variations depending principally on the relative abundance in the
deposit of the oxides of iron and manganese. This ooze is fine grained ; when dried
it is pulverulent. Analysis shows that the sediment contains, in addition to carbonate of
lime, phosphate and sulphate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, oxides of iron and manganese,
and argillaceous matters. The residue is of a reddish brown tinge. Lapilli, pumice, and
glassy fragments, often altered into palagonite, seem always to be present, and are
frequently very abundant. The mineral particles are generally angular, and rarely
exceed 0’08 mm. in diameter ; monoclinic and triclinic felspars, augite, olivine, hornblende,
and magnetite are the most frequent.- When quartz is present, it is in the form of
minute, rounded, probably wind-borne grains, often partially covered with oxide of iron.
More rarely white and black mica, bronzite, actinolite, chromite, glauconite, and
cosmic dust are found. Siliceous organisms are probably never absent, sometimes
forming 20 per cent, of the deposit, at other times they are only recognisable after
careful microscopic examination. In some regions the frustules of Diatoms predominate,
in others the skeletons of Badiolarians.

Pteropod Ooze. — This deposit differs in no way from a Globigerina ooze except in the
presence of a greater number and variety of pelagic organisms, and especially in the
presence of Pteropod and Heteropod shells, such as Diacria , Atlanta, Styliola, Carinaria.

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 116

1)20

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The shells of the more delicate species, and young shells of pelagic Foraminifera,
are also more abundant in these deposits than in a Globigerina ooze. It must be
remembered that the name “ Pteropod ooze” is not intended to indicate that the deposit
is chiefly composed of the shells of these Molluscs, but, as their presence in any great
abundance in a deposit is chara cteristic and has an important bearing on geographical and
bathymetrical distribution, it is desirable to emphasise the fact. It may here be pointed
out that there is a very considerable difference between a Globigerina ooze or a Pteropod
ooze situated near continental shores, and deposits bearing the same names situated
towards the centre of oceanic areas, both with respect to the general character of the
mineral particles and the variety of the remains of organisms.

Diatom Ooze. — This ooze is of a pale straw colour, and is composed principally of the
frustules of Diatoms. When dry it is a dirty white siliceous flour, soft to the touch,
taking the impression of the fingers, and contains gritty particles which can be
recognised by the touch. It contains on an average about 25 per cent, of carbonate of
lime, in the form of small Globigerina shells, fragments of Echinoderms, and other
organisms. The residue is pale white and slightly plastic ; minerals and fragments of
rocks are in some cases abundant ; these are volcanic, or, more frequently, fragments and
minerals coming from continental rocks and transported by glaciers. The fine washings
consist essentially of particles of Diatoms along with argillaceous and other amorphous
matter. It -is estimated that the frustules of Diatoms and skeletons of siliceous organisms
make up more than 50 per cent, of this deposit.

Radiolarian Ooze. — It was stated, when describing a Globigerina ooze, that
Radiolarians were seldom, if ever, quite absent from marine deposits. In some
regions they make up a considerable portion of a Globigerina ooze, and are also found in
Diatom ooze and in the terrigenous deposits of the deeper water surrounding the land.
In some regions of the Pacific, the skeletons of these organisms make up the principal
part of the deposits, and these have been named “ Radiolarian ooze.” The colour is reddish
or deep brown, due to the presence of the oxides of iron and manganese. The mineral
particles consist of fragments of pumice, lapilli, and volcanic minerals, rarely exceeding
0‘07 mm. in diameter. There is not a trace of carbonate of lime in the form of shells in
some samples of Radiolarian ooze, but other specimens contain 20 per cent, derived from
the shells of pelagic Foraminifera. The clayey matter and mineral particles in this ooze
are the same as those found in the red clays.

Red Clay. — Of all the deep-sea deposits this is the one which is distributed over the
largest areas in the modern oceans. It might be said that it exists everywhere in the
abysmal regions of the ocean basins, for the residue in the organic deposits (Globigerina,
Pteropod, and Radiolarian oozes) is neither more nor less than red clay. However, this
deposit only appears in its characteristic form in those areas where the terrigenous
minerals and calcareous and siliceous organisms disappear to a greater or less extent from

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

92

tile bottom. It is in the central regions of the Pacific that the typical examples are
met with. Like other marine deposits, this one passes laterally, according to position
and depth, into the adjacent kinds of deep-sea ooze or mud.

The argillaceous matters are of a more or less deep brown tint from the presence of
the oxides of iron and manganese. In the typical examples no mineralogical species can
be distinguished by the naked eye, for the grains are exceedingly fine and of nearly
uniform dimensions, rarely exceeding 0'05 mm. in diameter. It is plastic and greasy to
the touch ; when dried it coagulates into lumps so coherent that considerable force must
be employed to break them. It gives the brilliant streak of clay, and breaks down in
water. The pyrognostic properties show that it is not a pure clay, for it fuses easily
before the blow-pipe into a magnetic bead.

Under the term red clay are comprised those deposits which do not conspicuously
exhibit the characters of clay, but are mainly composed of minute particles of pumice
and other volcanic materials that have not undergone great alteration owing to their
relatively recent deposition. If the analyses of red clay be calculated, it will be seen,
moreover, that the silicate of alumina present as clay (2Si02,Al203 + 2H20) comprises
only a relatively small portion of the sediment ; the calculation shows always an excess of
free silica, which is attributed chiefly to the presence of siliceous organisms.

Microscopic examination shows that a red clay consists of argillaceous matter, minute
mineral particles, and fragments of siliceous organisms ; in a word, it is in nearly all
respects identical with the residue of the organic oozes. The mineral particles are for
the greater part of volcanic origin, except in those cases where continental matters are
transported by floating ice, or where the sand of deserts has been carried to great
distances by winds. These volcanic minerals are the same constituent minerals of modern
eruptive rocks, enumerated in the description of volcanic muds and sands ; in the great
majority of cases they are accompanied by fragments of lapilli and of pumice more or less
altered. Vitreous volcanic matters * belonging to the acid and basic series of rocks
predominate in the regions where the red clay has its greatest development, and the
most characteristic decompositions which there take place are associated with pyroxenic
lavas.

Calcareous organisms are so generally absent in the red clay that they cannot be
regarded as characteristic ; when present they are chiefly the shells of pelagic Foramini-
fera, and are usually met with in greater numbers in the surface layers of the deposit, to
which they give a lighter colour. On the other hand, the remains of Diatoms, Kadio-
larians, and Sponge spicules are generally present, and are sometimes very abundant.

The description of the fine washings of a Globigerina ooze (pp. 913, 914) applies in all
respects to the finer parts of a typical red clay. The bones of Cetaceans, Sharks’ teeth,
cosmic dust, manganese nodules, and zeolites, associated together in typical red clays, are
referred to on p. 807.

922

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Messrs. Murray and Renard arrive at the following conclusions as the result of their
investigations of the deep-sea deposits : — r Muds and sands are situated at various depths
at no great distance from the land, while the organic oozes and red clays occupy the
abysmal regions of the ocean basins far from land. Leaving out of view the coral and
volcanic muds and sands which are found principally around oceanic islands, blue muds,
green muds and sands, and red muds, together with all the coast and shore formations,
are situated along the margins of the continents and in enclosed and partially enclosed
seas. The chief characteristic of these deposits is the presence in them of continental
debris. The blue muds are found in all the deeper parts of the regions just indicated,
and typically near the embouchures of rivers. Red muds do not differ much from blue
muds except in colour, due to the presence of ferruginous matter in great abundance,
and occur under the same conditions as the blue muds. The green muds and sands
occupy, as a rule, portions of the coast where detrital matter from rivers is not apparently
accumulating at a rapid rate, viz., on such places as the Agulhas Bank, off the east coast
of Australia, off the coast of Spain, and at various points along the coast of America.

“ The region occupied by terrigenous deposits extends from high water mark down, it
may be, to a depth of over four miles, and in a horizontal direction from 60 to perhaps
200 miles seawards, and includes all inland seas, such as the North Sea, Norwegian Sea,
Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, China Sea, Japan Sea, Caribbean Sea, and many others. It
is the region of change and of variety with respect to light, temperature, motion, and
biological conditions. In the surface waters the temperature ranges from 80° in
the tropics to 28° in the polar regions. Below the surface, down to the ice-cold
water found in some places at the lower limits of the region in the deep sea, there is in
the tropics an equally great range of temperature. Plants and animals are abundant
near the shore, and animals extend in relatively great abundance down to the lower'
limits of this region, which is now covered by these terrigenous deposits. The specific
gravity of the water varies much, owing to mixture with river water or great local
evaporation, and this variation in its turn affects the fauna and flora. In the terrigenous
region tides and currents produce their maximum effect, and these influences can in some
instances be traced to a depth of 300 fathoms, or nearly 2000 feet. The upper or
continental margin of the region is clearly defined by the high water mark of the coast
line, which is constantly changing through breaker action, elevation, and subsidence.
The lower or abysmal margin is less clearly marked out ; it passes in most cases
insensibly into the abysmal region, but may be regarded as ending -when the mineral
particles from the neighbouring continents begin to disappear from the deposits, which
then pass into an organic ooze or a red clay,

“A Pteropod ooze is met with in tropical and subtropical regions in depths less than
1500 fathoms and a Globigerina ooze in the same regions between the depths of 500 and
2800 fathoms. These two deposits occupy about 110° of latitude between the two polar

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

923

zones, at depths where the action of the waves is not felt, and in areas to which the ter-
rigenous materials are rarely transported, forming vast accumulations of Globigerina and
other pelagic Foraminifera, Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths, shells of pelagic Molluscs, and remains
of other organisms. These deposits may perhaps be called the sediments of median depths
and of warmer zones, because they diminishin great depths and tend to disappear towards
the poles. This 'fact is evidently in relation with the surface temperature of the ocean,
and shows that pelagic Foraminifera and Molluscs live chiefly in the warm superficial
waters of the sea, whence their dead shells fall to the bottom. Globigerina ooze is not
found in enclosed seas nor in polar latitudes. In the southern hemisphere it has not
been met with beyond the 50th parallel. In the Atlantic it is deposited upon the bottom
at a very high latitude below the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, but is not observed
under the cold descending polar current which runs south in the same latitude. These
facts are readily explained, when it is remembered that this ooze is formed chiefly by the
shells of surface organisms, which require an elevated temperature and a wide expanse
of sea. But as long as the conditions of the surface are the same, one would expect the
deposits at the bottom also to remain the same ; such is not the case. Globigerina ooze
is rarely found in the tropical zone at depths exceeding 2400 fathoms ; when depths
of 3000 fathoms are explored in this zone of the Atlantic and Pacific, there is found an
argillaceous deposit without, in many instances, any trace of calcareous organisms. In
descending from the “submarine plateaux” to depths which exceed 2250 fathoms, the
Globigerina ooze gradually disappears, passing into a greyish marl, and finally is wholly
replaced by an argillaceous material which covers the bottom at all depths greater than
2900 fathoms.

The transition between the calcareous formations and the argillaceous ones takes place
by almost insensible degrees. The thinner and more delicate shells disappear first. The
thicker and larger shells lose little by little the sharpness of their contours, and appear to
undergo a profound alteration ; they assume a brownish colour, and break up in
proportion as the calcareous constituent disappears. The red clay predominates more
and more as the calcareous element diminishes in the deposit.

It has been noted that when the sounding rod brings up a graduated series of
sediments from a declivity descending into deep water, among the calcareous shells those
of the Pteropods and Heteropods disappear first in proportion as the depth increases.
At depths less than 1400 fathoms in the tropics a Pteropod ooze is found with abundant
remains of Heteropods and Pteropods; deeper soundings then give a Globigerina ooze
without these Molluscan remains ; and in still greater depths, as before mentioned, there is
a red clay in which calcareous organisms are nearly, if not quite, absent. At first it would
be expected that the Foraminiferal shells, being smaller, would disappear from a deposit
before the Pteropod shells ; but if it be remembered that the latter are very thin and
delicate, and, for the quantity of carbonate of lime present, offer a larger surface to the

924

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

action of the solvent than the thicker though smaller, Globigerina shells, this apparent
anomaly will be explained. The agent concerned in the removal of these calcareous
shells is believed to be sea water itself, and the carbonic acid dissolved in it. This
question is discussed in Chapter XXII. (see p. 981).

“ The action which suffices to dissolve the calcareous matter has little or no effect
upon the silica, and so the siliceous shells accumulate and form a Radiolarian ooze in the
central portions of the Pacific. A Diatom ooze has been found only in the Southern
Ocean south of lat. 45° S.

“ Red clay may be found anywhere within lats. 45° N. and S., and at depths greater
than 2200 fathoms. It passes at its margins into the organic calcareous or siliceous
oozes, found in the lesser depths of the abysmal regions, or into the terrigenous
deposits. In its typical form the red clay occupies a larger area than any of the other
true deep-sea deposits, covering the bottom in vast regions of the North and South
Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. As above remarked, this clay may be said to be
universally distributed over the floor of the oceanic basins ; but it only appears as a
characteristic deposit at points where the siliceous and calcareous organisms do not
conceal its proper characters.

‘‘The abysmal region in which occur the organic oozes and red clay consists of vast
undulating plains from two to five miles beneath the surface of the sea, the average
being about three miles, here and there interrupted by huge volcanic cones (the oceanic
islands). No sunlight ever reaches these deep cold tracts ; the range of temperature over
them is not more than 7°, viz., from 31° to 38°, and is apparently constant through-
out the whole year in each locality. Plant life is absent, and although animals
belonging to all the great invertebrate types are present, there is no great variety of
form nor abundance of individuals. Change of any kind is exceedingly slow.

“ The abysmal region occupied by the organic oozes and red clay is estimated to
occupy about three-eighths of the earth’s surface, or an area equal to that of the
continents, while the region between the abysmal areas and the continents, — that covered
by the terrigenous deposits, is estimated to occupy the remaining two-eighths of the
surface of the globe.

“ The terrigenous deposits of lakes, shallow seas, enclosed seas, and the shores of the
continents, reveal the equivalents of chalks, green sands, sandstones, conglomerates,
shales, marls, and other sedimentary formations. Such formations as certain Tertiary
deposits of Italy, Radiolarian earth from Barbados, and portions of the Chalk where
pelagic conditions are indicated, must be regarded as having been laid down rather along
the border of a continent than in a true oceanic area. The argillaceous and calcareous
rocks, recently discovered by Dr. Guppy, in the upraised coral islands in the Solomon
group, are nearly identical with the volcanic muds, the Pteropod and Globigerina oozes
of the Pacific are, however, also represented.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

925

“ Regions situated similarly to enclosed and shallow seas and the borders of the present
continents appear to have been, throughout all geological ages, the theatre of the greatest
and most remarkable changes ; in short, all, or nearly, all, the sedimentary rocks of the
continents would seem to have been built up in areas like those now occupied by the
terrigenous deposits. During each era of the earth’s history, the borders of some lands
have sunk beneath the sea and been covered by marine sediments ; while in other parts
the terrigenous deposits have been elevated into dry land, and have carried with them a
record of the organisms which flourished in the sea of the time. In this transitional or
critical area there has been throughout a continuity of geological and biological pheno-
mena.

“ The small extent occupied by littoral formations, especially those of an arenaceous
nature, shown by deep-sea investigations, is important. In the present state of things
there does not appear to be anything to account for the enormous thickness of the clastic
sediments making up certain geological formations, unless the exceptional cases of erosion
which are brought into play when a coast is undergoing constant elevation or subsidence
are taken into consideration. G-reat movements of the land are doubtless necessary
for the formation of thick beds of transported matter like sandstones and con-
lomerates.

“ The debris carried away from the land accumulates at the bottom of the sea before
reaching the abysmal regions of the ocean. It is only in exceptional cases that the
finest terrigenous materials are transported several hundred miles from the shores. In
place of layers formed of pebbles and clastic elements with grains of considerable
dimensions, which play so large a part in the composition of emerged lands, the great
areas of the ocean basins are covered by the microscopic remains of pelagic organisms,
or by the deposits resulting from the alteration of volcanic products. The distinctive
elements that appear in the river and coast sediments are, properly speaking, wanting in
the great depths fair distant from the coasts. To such a degree is this the case that in
a great number of soundings, from the centre of the Pacific for example, mineral particles
on which the mechanical action of water has left its imprint cannot be distinguished, and
quartz is so rare that it may be said to be absent. It is sufficient to indicate these facts
in order to make apparent the profound differences which separate the deposits of
the abysmal areas of the ocean basins from the series of rocks in the geological
formations.

“The continental geological formations, when compared with marine deposits of
modern seas and oceans, appear to present no analogues to the red clays, Radiolarian,
Globigerina, Pteropod, and Diatom oozes. If it do not follow from this that deep and
extended oceans like those of the present day cannot formerly, have occupied the areas
of the present continents, and as a corollary that the great lines of the ocean basins and
continents must have been marked out from the earliest geological ages, it is, never-

926

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

tlieless, a fact, proved by tbe evidence derived from a study of the pelagic sediments,
that these areas are of extreme antiquity. It is indeed almost beyond question that the
red clay regions of the Central Pacific contain accumulations belonging to geological
ages different from the present. In order to account for the accumulation of all these
substances in such relatively great adundance in the areas where they were dredged, it is
necessary to suppose the oceanic basins to have remained the same for a vast period of
time.”

Explanation of Plate N.

Fig. 1. Diatom ooze seen by transmitted light. Lat. 53° 55' S., long. 108° 35' E.; 1950 fathoms; ^-°.

Fig. 2. Radiolarian ooze seen by transmitted' light. Lat. 11° 24' dST., long. 143° 16' E. ; 4475 fathoms;

Fig. 3. The finer portions of a Globigerina ooze, showing Coccospheres, Coccoliths, and Ehabdoliths.
Lat. 38° 50' S., long. 169° 20' E. ; 275 fathoms ; 6J°.

Fig. 4. The finer portions of a Globigerina ooze; showing Coccoliths and Rhabdoliths. Lat. 21° 15' S.,
long. 14° 2' W. ; 1990 fathoms;

Fig. 5. “Fine washings” of a Globigerina ooze after ^removal of the carbonate of lime by dilute hydrochloric
acid, formed of exceedingly minute particles of argillaceous matter, along with fragments of
organisms and minerals, coloured brown by oxide of iron and manganese. The drawing shows the
ordinary characters of the “ fine washings," which are nearly identical with the great mass of the
red clay. Lat. 21° 15' S., long. 14° 2' W. ; 1990 fathoms;

Fig. 6. Ordinary characters of the minerals in a deep-sea deposit. All are of volcanic origin, being volcanic
ashes, microscopic fragments of pumice, and vitreous fragments transformed into palagonite.
Associated with these are fragments of felspars and augite. Lat. 27° 54' S., long. 13° 13' W. ;
1890 fathoms; 220.

Fig. 7. Glauconitic casts of Foraminifera and other organisms from a green mud seen by reflected light, after
removal of the carbonate of lime in the deposit by dilute hydrochloric aeid. East coast of Australia ;
410 fathoms ; p.

Fig. 8. The ordinary characters of the mineral particles of a terrigenous deposit ; rounded fragments of
quartz predominate, being sometimes coated with limonite ; there are besides fragments of
glauconite, felspars, and other minerals. Compared with fig. 6, the differences between the mineral
particles in a deep-sea and a terrigenous deposit will be observed. Blue mud, coast of Scotland;
540 fathoms ; p.

Fig. 9. Pteropod ooze seen by reflected light. Lat. 18° 24' FT., long. 63° 28' W. ; 450 fathoms; f.

Fig. 10. Globigerina ooze seen by reflected light. Lat. 21° 38' N., long. 44° 39' W. ; 1900 fathoms ;

Ascension.

On tbe 27th March, at 5 p.m. the ship anchored at Ascension. Early in the morning
of that day, at 10 a.m., the wind suddenly shifted to the westward in a heavy rain squall,
with quite a tropical downpour, lasting an hour and a half, during which it was necessary
to “ lay to.” The rain did considerable damage on shore, washing away some of the roads,
&c., and the sea was quite discoloured for at least a mile to the northwest of the island.

Tke Voyage of H.M. S. "Challenger

Deep Sea Depc

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

927

- The sea is usually so rough around Ascension that a sort of crane is provided at the
landing steps with a hanging rope, by which those wishing to land can swing themselves
on shore from a boat when it is too rough for the boat to come close to the steps.

Land Crabs swarm all over this barren and parched volcanic islet. They go down to
the sea in the breeding season ; they climb up to the top of Green Mountain, and the larger
ones steal the young Rabbits from their holes and devour them. It always seems strange
to ah English naturalist to see Crabs walking about at their ease high up in the mountains,
although the occurrence is common enough and not confined to the tropics : in J apan a
Crab is to be met with walking about on the mountain highroads far inland, at a height
of several thousand feet, as much at home there as a Beetle or a Spider, and Crabs of the
same genus ( Thelphusa ) live inland on the borders of streams in Greece and Italy.

Fig. 331. — The Green Mountain and Extinct Craters, Ascension Island.

Close to the dockyard is the Turtle Pond, in which there were over a hundred Turtles
at the time of the ship’s visit. At the side of the pond an enclosed area of sand is
provided, in which the Turtles dig great holes, large enough to bury themselves in, laying
their eggs at the bottom of them ; some were still laying, but a good many lots of
eggs were beginning to hatch out. The eggs have a flexible leathery shell, and are
rather smaller than a billiard ball, and of the same shape. The fresh-laid egg is never
quite full so that there is always „a slight fold or wrinkle in the yielding shell, and
the seamen sometimes puzzle themselves by trying to squeeze the egg so as to get the
dint out, but it always forms in a fresh place notwithstanding their efforts. When the
eggs are near the time of hatching the depression has quite disappeared from the shell,
which has become tense, no doubt, from the development of small quantities of gas within.
(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 117

928

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The sand in which the eggs are hatched does not feel warm to the hand, but rather,
in the daytime at least, cool, and it is always moist. Several sets of eggs were gathered,
placed in large vessels full of sand, and taken on board the ship, under the impression
that it would be easy to succeed in hatching them artificially, and obtain eggs in all
stages of development. It was found, however, that all the eggs perished within a
couple of days. No doubt a certain definite amount of moisture' must necessarily be
maintained in the sand as well as a certain constant temperature in order to keep the
eggs alive and develop them. The sand, in which the eggs were, was exposed to the
sun in the daytime and covered up at night. Turtles’ eggs are, however, apparently not
hatched by the direct daily heating by the sun of the sand in which they are buried ;
what appears to be the case is, that the eggs are buried at such a depth that the
sand there maintains a constant mean temperature, never hot and never cold. The
eggs of a species of Mound Bird ( Megcipodius ) are hatched under closely similar
conditions in the Philippine Islands (see p. 535).

The young Turtles fresh from the eggs are kept as pets by the seamen at Ascension in
buckets of sea water. They eat chopped-up raw meat ravenously, using their fore-
fins to assist their beak-like jaws in tearing the morsels. Turtle-meat is served out twice
a week as rations to the inhabitants of Ascension, who are all naval employes. A series
of embryo Turtles in various stages of development were removed from the eggs and
carefully preserved, and formed the material, together with a series sent home by Staff-
Surgeon Maclean of the Challenger, who was stationed on the island in 1877, for
the excellent Monograph by Professor W. K. Parker on the Development of the Green
Turtle, which has been published in the Zoological Series of Reports.1

A visit was paid in the small steam vessel which is employed in collecting Turtles
from the various bays of the island to Boatswain Bird Island, a breeding place of various
sea birds. As the vessel steamed along the shore of the main island large flying Gurnets
(Dactylopterus) rose, scared by the vessel, and skimmed rapidly away in front of the
bows. The attempt was made to shoot them on the wing, a novel experiment, but
quite without success. The flight was rapid and the boat was in constant motion,
pitching and rolling ; no doubt in calm weather the thing might be done.

Boatswain Bird Island is a high rock separated from the main island by a narrow
channel. The sides of the rock are precipitous, but a sailor had managed to climb up
and fix a rope at the summit, so that it hung down the cliff. The cliff surface was covered
with guano hanging everywhere upon it in large projecting masses and formations
resembling stalactites. The party clambered up the -cliff by means of the rope, being half
blinded and half choked by the guano dust on the way.

In holes on the sides of the cliff, burrowed in the accumulated guano, nest two kinds of
Tropic Birds ( Phaethon cethereus and Phaethon Jtavirostris). In bracket-like nests, as at St.

1 Zool. Chall. Exp., part y., 1880.

•snog pSAEagu^

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

929

Paul’s .Rocks, fixed against the lower parts of the cliffs, breeds a species of Noddy ( Anous ),
and together with it a beautiful small snow white Tern with black eyes ( Gygis Candida),
called by the seamen the “ White Noddy,” to distinguish it from the “ Black Noddy.”

The summit of the rock is flat, and the plateau is covered with guano ; in hollows
nest the Booby (Sida leucogastra), a Gannet (Sula piscator), and the Frigate Bird
( Tachy petes . aquila). The throat of the Frigate Bird hangs in the form of a sort of
pouch in front, which is bare of feathers and of a brilliant vermilion colour, as if rubbed
over with some bright red powder ; this gives the bird a very handsome appearance.

When the plateau was first reached all the birds allowed themselves to be knocked
over with sticks on their nests or when near them, but they soon became generally alarmed
and took to flight. The Frigate Birds were on the lookout whenever the Gannets were
molested, and snatched up the small fish which they disgorged, thus profiting by the general
disaster. A single “ Wideawake,” the name given to the Tern ( Sterna fuliginosa ), which
breeds in millions gregariously at “ Wideawake Fair” on the main island, was found on
the plateau ; the bird was nesting amongst the Gannets for some reason or other.

It was striking to find breeding thus in the middle of the Atlantic, on the top of a
steep volcanic rock, the same assemblage of birds which had been seen breeding together
on a coral island at sea level off the northeast coast of Australia. At Raine Island there
is a third species of Gannet and a Frigate Bird but no Gygis ; the same Noddy, the same
two Gannets, and the Wideawake breed there together as at Ascension ; and also one
of the species of Tropic Birds of Ascension.

The whole island is a series of extinct volcanic cones (fig. 331) ; the rocks collected
being augite-andesite, basalt, phonolite, trachyte, liparite (?), obsidian, pumice, volcanic
tufa ; one ejected specimen was a granite.

The Expedition remained at Ascension from the 27th March to the 3rd April, coaling
and provisioning the ship, and obtaining astronomical and magnetical observations. During
this time the members of the Expedition visited all the chief points of interest, and received
the greatest attention and assistance from the resident naval authorities.

Ascension to Porto Praya.

At 5 a.m. on the 3rd April the voyage to England was resumed. After sounding
and dredging in 420 fathoms close to the island, a line of soundings was carried north-
wards to the Equator to join a line of soundings which had been obtained in August 1873
from the Cape Verde Islands south to the parallel of 3°N. At a position inlat. 3° 10' N.,
long. 14° 51' W., a dredging was taken in 2450 fathoms on the same spot where a sounding
was obtained on the 21st August 1873. The ship then proceeded northwards aloug the
coast of Africa to Porto Praya, San Iago.

Between Ascension and the Cape Verde Islands the southeast trade only extended to

930

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

the Equator; from thence northwards, light variable winds were experienced to the 10th
parallel, but north of that parallel a fresh N.N.W. breeze was experienced, which obliged
the vessel to stand off on the starboard tack. As the distance from the shore increased,
the direction of the wind altered to the northward and N.N.E., which enabled the ship
to fetch Porto Pray a on the 16 th April. On the 10th a very fine water-spout was
observed some miles from the ship.

On this trip three dredgings, four soundings, and eight serial temperatures were ob-
tained. The depths ranged from 2010 fathoms to 2450 fathoms, and the deposit in each
case was a Globigerina ooze, containing 94 per cent, of carbonate of lime in the former and
65 per cent, in the latter depth. Only one or two small fragments of Pteropod shells were
observed in fliese deposits, in which the carbonate of lime consisted chiefly of the shells of
pelagic Foraminifera, Coccoliths, and Rhabdoliths. The remains of siliceous organisms did
not make up more than 1 per cent, of the whole deposit. The mineral particles were exceed-
ingly minute, and consisted of fragments of felspars, hornblende, augite, and magnetite.

During a few days when the weather was calm there was an extraordinary abundance
of life on the surface. Oscillatorise covered the sea for miles, and vast numbers of
Radiolaria, belonging to the genus Collozoum, which contains all the skeletonless
Eadiolarian colonies, were taken in the nets. The Foraminifera, belonging to the genera
Pulvinulina, Pullenia, Sphceroidina, and Globigerina, were very large and very numerous
on the surface, and their dead shells made up the principal part of the deposit at the bottom.

Pelagic Diatoms. — Conte Abate Francesco Castracane, who is engaged in the pre-
paration of a Report on the pelagic Diatoms collected by the Expedition, writes : —

“ Although the study of the pelagic Diatoms collected by the surface net during
the voyage of the Challenger has not led me to any noteworthy general deductions,
nevertheless I have made a large number of observations which will greatly increase-
our knowledge of the biology and morphology of these interesting forms.

“ I tried to ascertain whether there existed any laws governing the geographical
distribution of Diatoms, but the result was almost nil. I found not a few forms
common to gatherings made in portions of the sea separated by enormous distances
from each other, and these I regard as cosmopolitan ; nor is this to be wondered at when
it is remembered that the different oceans communicate with each other, and that the
action of currents constantly tends to mix the various floras.

“ The Antarctic flora has, however, yielded forms of Diatoms, for which new genera
must be constituted, such as Dactyliosolen, related to Phizosolenia, and Coretron, a new
type of Chcetoceros, which have not been found hitherto either in the Arctic waters or in
any other seas. But do we know the Arctic and Antarctic floras with sufficient accuracy
to be able to speak with authority upon their differences ?

“ The study of the surface collections has established the distinction between the

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

931

pelagic and littoral floras, in the former I have never detected frustules of Achnanthes ,
Rhabdonema, Grammatophora, or of Cocconeis and other genera which resemble these
in being stipitate, adnate, or attached to each other in some other manner.

“ Another observation, made during the examination of these surface gatherings, is
that when the net yielded an abundance of different forms of microscopic animals,
Diatoms were extremely rare ; for this I have been unable to suggest any explanation
other than that the Diatoms serve as food to the animals, so that where the latter are
abundant the former are few in number.

“The dredgings in the Antarctic Ocean, and especially that south of Heard
Island, were very anomalous, showing frustules of freshwater Diatoms, such as Asterionella
formosa and Ceratoneis arcus, along with forms which are entirely marine. This
anomaly is, I believe, to be explained by regarding these terrestrial Diatoms, and
especially Ceratoneis (which grows' only at upwards of 300 feet above sea level), as the
remnants of icebergs, which slowly melted and deposited their delicate load of Diatoms
which grew upon them whilst they formed part of the virgin ice.

“ Although I have been obliged to make large additions to the number of genera and
species, my observations of the surface gatherings have, at the same time, led me
to recognise the variability of certain genera such as Goniothecium, Dicladia, and
by analogy Syndendrium. This is also the case with the sporangia! forms of different
species of Chcetoceros, and also Euodia and Coscinodiscus, in which I have observed
two different valves of the same frustule, one being provided with a ‘ pseudo-
nodulated ’ margin, the other without. In the same way I have noticed marked
differences in the two valves of the same Coscinodiscus, which, if they had been found
apart, would certainly have been referred to two different species.

. “In these collections I have had the pleasure of recognising certain new types,
which I discovered some years ago in the Adriatic, but of which I have hitherto
deferred the publication. One of these is Rhizosolenia (?) jlaccida, which, however, I
hesitate to refer to that genus, not having been able to observe the terminal calyptra ;
the other is the type upon which Grunow founded the genus Thalassiothrix, a name
which I retain out of respect to the author, although I must somewhat alter the account
of it, having observed it several times alive and in different conditions.

“ In conclusion we are indebted to the Naturalists on board the Challenger for the
knowledge of several new discoidal forms remarkable for their size (sometimes as much
as several millimetres in diameter), for the extreme tenuity of their walls and the
delicacy of their sculpturing. The size of the frustules and the tenuity of the walls
interfere with the possibility of recognizing such organisms even though they be of
frequent occurrence ; and in fact in many of the soundings entrusted to me, as well as
in many marine deposits from America, I have recognised large fragments of finely
granulated silica, which I now believe to have belonged to large discoidal Diatoms,

932

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

similar to those which I have seen in preparations made at the moment of capture
(see fig. 333). I have thus been able to determine four specific types of these gigantic
Diatoms, which together with smaller forms, to which, however, they are not so closely
related, constitute a new genus, which it will perhaps be necessary to divide into two.

“ The discovery of forms so remarkable for their size and the tenuity of their walls
may well lead us to wonder what new forms may be discovered in the order of the
Diatomaceae, during the prosecution of researches into the unlimited extent of seas,
in which such a noble example has been set by the British Government.”

For the extremely large and delicately sculptured forms j ust alluded to, Count Castra-
cane has proposed the generic name of Etmodiscus. In addition to the general features
already quoted, this genus is characterised by a well-defined convexity of its valves, and,
in some cases, by a great development of the connecting zone, which may proceed so far
as to cause the axial line of the frustule to exceed the transverse diameter in length.

Delicate radiating striations occur on the valves of several species, such as Etmodiscus
radiatus, Etmodiscus coronatus, Etmodiscus humilis, &c., and a corona of great beauty
and regularity is found in the form of distinct submarginal
points in Etmodiscus punctiger, as radiating small lines in
Etmodiscus japonicus, or as two alternate rows of granules in
Etmodiscus coronatus. Sometimes, as in Etmodiscus punctiger,
the entire surface of the valves present a finely punctated
appearance, but in other cases granules of small size are to be
met with only on subcentral and submarginal regions, the inter-
mediate space being devoid of such markings as in Etmodiscus
periachantinos, or on the submarginal area alone, as in Etmodiscus
coronatus. In Etmodiscus convexus the large discoid al convex
frustule exhibits an almost invisible striation “ seminated with
very minute thorns,” and provided near the margin with a row
of delicate “denticules” which differ from the corresponding
submarginal circle of points found in Etmodiscus punctiger by being at once more
numerous and more minute.

The valves of Etmodiscus radiatus present a sculpturing of singular beauty, and one
which recalls the appearance presented by the medullary rays of an ordinary dicotyledon-
ous tree. Thus its submarginal region forms a belt of small irregularly disposed granules,
from which several rows of different lengths proceed towards the centre. Of these rows
none reach that point however, the shortest being about one-half, and the intermediate
about three-fourths of the length of the longest series. The disposition of these rays on
the surface of the valve is perfectly regular and symmetrical. From the central point
very delicate striae proceed towards the periphery, but run across only about three-
fourths of the diameter of the valve, the border of which is also striated.

Fig. 332. — Frustule of Etmodiscus
wyvilleanm, n. gen. et. sp. ,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

933

The size of the frustules of this genus varies very greatly. Etmodiscus humilis ancl
Etmodiscus obovatus are among the smallest forms hitherto recorded, Etmodiscus convexus
measures 123 p,1 Etmodiscus punctiger 143 ft, while Etmodiscus gigas reaches 1633 ft,
and Etmodiscus spheroidalis 1882 ft.

The general shape of the frustule varies with the development of the connecting zone,
and the degree of convexity of the valves. Four leading forms, however, may he
recognised, namely, the discoid, as in Etmodiscus convexus , Etmodiscus radiatus, &c.; the
oval, as in Etmodiscus obovatus; the cylindrical, as in Etmodiscus wyvillecmus (see
fig. 332) and Etmodiscus tympanum ; and the compressed spheroidal, as in Etmodiscus
spheroidalis. In Etmodiscus tympany/m a noteworthy
superposition of a belt to the two hoops of the valves
occurs, as in the genus Biddulphia, and in Etmo-
discus spheroidalis the belt exhibits a small sutural
line in its middle part, recalling in some measure that
of Melosira and of Podosira.

The geographical range of the genus Etmodiscus
is very extensive. Species occur in the Arafura Sea
{e.g., Etmodiscus convexus) and the Sea of Japan
(e.g., Etmodiscus japonicus). Etmodiscus humilis
was found in mud procured from a sounding of
1950 fathoms near the ice barrier of the Antarctic
Ocean, and Etmodiscus diadema was also obtained
in the same ocean to the south of Heard Island. On the other hand, Etmodiscus gigas,
Etmodiscus luyvilleanus, and Etmodiscus spheroidalis are Atlantic and Pacific species,
and occur everywhere at the surface of the ocean within the tropics.

Infusoria.— Noctiluca miliaris was observed in great numbers in the water of
harbours, but was rarely met with in the open sea far from land. It was abundant
at Vigo in Spain, at the Cape of Good Hope, in several parts of the Philippines, at
Hong Kong, at Japan, and off the coast of South America. On only two occasions were
specimens taken at a great distance from the coast — once in the Japan Stream and once
off the north coast of New Guinea — and in both instances the water was of low specific
gravity and gave other evidences of being coast water ; the specimens were also con-
tracted and shrivelled up.

Species of Carchesium, Vorticella, Acineta, Podophrya, Tintinnus, and Ceratium are
all much more abundant in the waters of harbours, enclosed seas, and coast waters
generally than in the open ocean. Latterly, indeed, when many representatives of these
genera, together with Noctiluca, certain other Infusoria, Hydromedusse, and numerous

1 (ii = 0'001 millimetre.

Fig. 333.— Fragment of frustule of
Etmodiscus sp.

934

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

Diatoms were taken in the tow-nets, this was regarded as indicating the presence of coast
water. A few species of Infusoria belonging to the above-mentioned genera are, however,
constantly met with far from land attached to Diatoms, Radiolaria, Copepods, dead shells
of Spirula, and other organisms.

Ceratium (Peridinium) tripos was very frequently observed in chains, from two to
twenty-one being attached together, as shown in the annexed woodcut (fig. 334). Although

Ceratium tripos occurs in great abundance in shore waters, occasionally filling the tow-
nets with a yellow coloured slime, it was only observed in catena in the open ocean far
from land. Neither flagellum nor cilia were observed in the chains of Ceratium tripos ;
a similar observation is recorded by Pouchet.1 There appear to be good reasons for
regarding these organisms as unicellular Algae rather than Infusoria,2

1 Sur revolution cles Peridiinens, &c., Comptes rendus, t. xcv. p. 794, 1882 ; Contribution a l’Mstoire des Cilio-
flagelles, Journ. de I’anat. et pliys:, t. xix., No. 4, 1883.

2 Mr. J. T. Cunningham, who has recently been making observations on these organisms at the Scottish Marine
Station, writes : — “ The possession of greatly developed horns, or arms, of a flattened triangular body, and of a large
aperture in the case interrupting the equatorial groove, distinguishes the genus Ceratium from other Peridiniidae. The
genus was instituted by F. von Paula Schrank. Ceratium tripos, the most conspicuous species, was first described by
0. F. Muller under the name Gercaria tripos. C. L. Nitsch first gave it its present name.

“Dr. R. S. Bergh* has recently published investigations on the nature and affinities of the Cilio-flagellata, and gives
a complete discussion of the species of Ceratium. He treats the question from a morphological point of view, and believes
* Der Organismus der Cilioflagellaten eine phylogenetisclie Stuclie, Morpliol. Jalirb ., Bd. vii. pp. 177-288, 1882.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

935

Pyrocystis noctiluca. — Mr. Murray says : — “ This organism is always present, and
often in enormous abundance, at the surface of the open ocean in tropical and subtropical

that forms phylogenetically closely allied may live some as plants others - as animals. He proposes the theory that the
Flagellata are a primitive group from which the Noctilucidse, Rhizopoda, and Cilio-flagellata are derived, and that from
the last come the Peritricha, and from these the other Ciliata.

“ Since the appearance of this paper, George Klebs* in 1883 published some observations on the freshwater forms,
and more recently has given an account of the marine Peridiniidse.t

“Claparbde and Lachmann considered Cilio-flagellata, as unicellular animals, intermediate between Ciliata and
Flagellata. Warming, J however, in 1875, expressed the opinion that the Peridiniidse were plants and ought to be
classified as intermediate between the Diatoms and Desmids. Nearly all observers, including Prof. Allman, agree in
ascribing to them a long flagellum and a row or two rows of cilia in the equatorial groove. There seems to be some
reason to doubt the existence of the equatorial cilia, at least in some species. Polykrilcos auricularia, Biitschli, certainly
possesses eight rows of cilia, but according to Klebs it is a true ciliate Infusorian and not a Peridinean at all. As to the
existence of the posterior flagellum in Cemtium there is no doubt, though often it cannot be observed ; it arises from the
protoplasm of the body within the aperture of the case, and I have myself seen it in active motion. I have not been able
to detect any cilia, and Klebs up till a short time ago had been unable to discover any locomotive organ except a single
flagellum. In the account of his recent studies of the marine Peridiniidae, Klebs makes the following statements con-
cerning the locomotive organs. Upon the long flagellum which projects backwards in Ceratium he has nothing new to
communicate ; it is as described by earlier writers. But several times he observed in Ceratium tripos a second flagellum,
arising like the first from the ventral longitudinal cleft, and he believes that in the normal condition this second
flagellum vibrates in the equatorial furrow, like the furrow-flagellum which he observed in freshwater forms. He has
not been able to find the opening by means of which the flagella and internal protoplasm are continuous. With regard
to this point I see no difficulty ; in my own observation referred to above, although I could not make out the actual
junction of the flagellum with the protoplasm, it was perfectly obvious that the flagellum arose within the area on the
ventral surface of the body where the protoplasm was nude. As described and figured by Bergh, the case is wanting over
this area and the protoplasm is uncovered. Klebs also says that he has never seen a specimen of Ceratium tripos in loco-
motion. The-specimen which I was able to observe at my leisure for some time moved across the field of the microscope
with considerable rapidity, so that I had some difficulty in keeping it in view until I fixed it by means of a cover-glass.

“Concerning the internal organisation, Klebs extends what he said of freshwater forms to those of the sea.
Usually the protoplasm is coloured yellow by diatomin, which is not diffused but confined to definite bodies like
chlorophyll corpuscles. He also found starch and colourless oil in the cytoplasm. He observed a process in Ceratium
fusus which seemed like spore formation. Copulation he had never seen. The chain forms, observed first by Mr.
Murray and afterwards by Pouchet, he regards as connected with a pelagic mode of life ; this I do not understand ;
chains of pelagic organisms such as Diatoms, Salpa, &c., are produced by budding or division, and therefore the same is
probably the case in Ceratium tripos.

“ Physiologically the species of Ceratium are certainly plants. The substance of which the case consists is closely
allied to cellulose, and contains no inorganic matter ; unlike cellulose, it is not dissolved by ammoniacal oxide of
copper. The body contains a single oval nucleus, deeply stained by the action of carmine.

“ Although some Flagellata undoubtedly live as animals, it has not yet been absolutely proved that any of the
Peridiniidae digest. Stein and Bergh affirm the fact in Gymnodinium, but Klebs does not accept their conclusion.

“Unless the occurrence of Ceratium tripos in chains be due to a process of division, nothing is known of the
multiplication or reproduction of Ceratium. In allied freshwater forms division has been known to occur for some
time. In Peridinium tabulatum and Glenodinium cinctum, according to Klebs, the old case is burst during division into
two halves at the transverse furrow and thrown off, each of the new cells forming a new case for itself.

“ Klebs decided from his studies of freshwater forms, that the Peridiniidse were a group of unicellular plants to
be classed with the Thallophytes, their immediate affinities being uncertain. From his study of the marine forms he
comes to the conclusion that Exuvicella marina, Cienkowski, is a true Peridinean, and that this organism shows
affinities on the one hand with the yellow cells of Radiolarians, on the other with the Cryptomonads, the central group
of the Flagellata.

“ Ceratium may be therefore considered as a genus of unicellular Algae. Three species of Ceratium ( Ceratium tripos,
Ceratium furca, and Ceratium fusus ) are extremely abundant in the waters of the Firth of Forth and neighbouring seas
at all seasons.”

* Untersucliungen aus dein botanisclien Institut m Tubingen, Bd. i. p. 346, 1883.

| Botanische Zeitung, Nos. 46 and 47, 1884.

J Vidensk. Meddel. f. d. nat. Foren. i Kj.fbenha.vn, Aaret 1875.

(narr. chall. exp.— wol. i. — 1885.)

118

936

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

regions, where the temperature is over 68° or 70°, and the specific gravity of the water is
not lowered by the presence of coast and river water.

“ The shape is spherical, from 0'6 to 0'8 mm. in diameter, the colour of the protoplasmic
matter is brownish, like that of Diatoms and Ceratium. The external capsule is composed

of a resistant organic matter containing cellulose. The
internal ball or protoplasmic body (cytode) is sometimes
separated by a considerable interval from the external
capsule, as shown in figs. 336-337 ; sometimes, however,
it is closely applied, and protoplasmic threads ramify over
the inner surface of the capsule, or through the internal
cavity (fig. 335). In the fresh state the internal ball
colours slightly with osmic acid. The nucleus stains easily
with carmine solution. Very frequently a number of small
pellucid dots are observed over the surface of the external
capsule, generally aggregated toward one portion of the
sphere. If a little magenta solution be added to the sea
water these dots instantly colour, and the organism then
presents a very beautiful appearance. The cytode is very often observed in simple
division beginning with the nucleus. Sometimes the internal ball divides into four ; the
outer capsule eventually bursts. The external capsule will persist for days in cold strong
nitric acid and caustic potash, but disappears by boiling in the former. When treated
with sulphuric acid and iodine solution it becomes blue.

Fig. 335. — Pyroeystis noctiluca, Murray ;
100 times the natural size.

Fig. 326.— Pyrtfcystis noctiluca, Murray ; 100 times the natural size.

“ Pyroeystis is strongly phosphorescent, the light proceeding from the nucleus, and
it is the chief source of the diffused phosphorescence of the sea in equatorial regions. It
is especially abundant in the warmest waters of the tropics, the most brilliant displays
of phosphorescence observed during the cruise being due to its presence in great

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

937

numbers at the surface of the sea after calm weather. It has often been mistaken for
Noctiluca}

Fig. 337 .—Pyrocystis noctiluca, Murray; 100 times the natural si;

“ A second species, Pyrocystis fusiformis, is represented in fig. 338. It is not nearly so
abundant as Pyrocystis noctiluca, but is nearly always present with it, and has the same

Fig. -338 .—Pyrocystis fusiformis, Murray ; 100 times the natural size.

1 Prof. Langerlians says : — “ Pyrocystis noctihica is observed on the surface in the Bay of Funchal all the year
round. From September to December many are in simple division. Having seen your drawings with the interval
between inner ball and external capsule, I do not doubt for a moment the identity of the forms observed by us. In
case you have not finished your Report you will oblige by mentioning its occurrence here, as I do not see the necessity
for writing about it specially. I have never seen Noctiluca itself here.” — Letter to Mr. Murray.

938

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

distribution. On one occasion in the Western Pacific a dozen of each of these species
were separated out by means of pipettes and put into separate globes of pure filtered sea
water. In the evening, when the water was disturbed, about a dozen spots of very
brilliant phosphorescence were observed in each of the globes ; no difference could be
observed in the light from the two species. They ceased to give out light when dis-
turbed three or four times in succession, but after an hour’s rest light was given off as
brilliantly as at first.” 1

Coccospheres and Rliabdospheres. — The nature of these organisms is very obscure,
as from their minute size accurate observations are extremely difficult. They are

abundant in all surface and subsurface waters
of tropical and subtropical regions away from
the influence of coast waters, and are most
frequently observed entangled in the proto-
plasmic matter of pelagic Foraminifera and
Radiolarians, in the stomachs of Salpce, of
Crustaceans, and other pelagic animals ; they
can, however, with difficulty be collected
floating free in the water. They were not
observed in the Southern Ocean south of the
latitude of Kerguelen, nor were their broken
down parts found in the deposits south of
that latitude. Rliabdospheres are almost ex-
clusively met with in water above a tempera-
ture of 65°, while Coccospheres are frequently
found in water as low as 45° ; indeed the Cocco-
spheres are larger and more numerous outside of the tropics. . Rhabdospheres are never

1 Mr. J. T. Cunningham says : — “ The specimens of Pyrocystis noctiluca preserved in glycerin were mostly collapsed,
the membrane or outer capsule being wrinkled, hut on the addition of water they at once became spherical. Addition
of iodine dissolved in potassium iodide on a slide produces no effect either on the membrane or cell contents beyond
tinging them slightly yellow. When a drop of sulphuric acid has been added previously, dilute iodine solution produces
a very marked effect; a number of the cells become a beautiful deep transparent blue, but some become reddish purple.
Occasionally one specimen is partly blue and partly purple. When strong sulphuric acid is added to some specimens
on a slide, they remain unchanged for some time, then gradually the membrane becomes thinner and to a great extent is
dissolved away. Even after twenty-four hours there was left a residue of the membrane very small in quantity,
retaining to a slight extent the shape of the membrane, and consisting of very minute granules. After boiling a large
number of specimens in a watch-glass with nitric acid for some minutes I could find no residue at all of any kind. When
burned on platinum each specimen leaves a circular stain.

“ As compared with the capsule of Ceratium, the membrane behaves under the influence of iodine in exactly the
same way, but it resists to a much greater degree the action of strong sulphuric acid. The capsule of Ceratium in the
acid breaks up into pieces and disappears in less than a minute. The complete disappearance of the membrane of
Pyrocystis in boiling nitric acid makes it improbable that there is any silica present ; if there be any it must be in
very small quantity ; it certainly does not form a continuous skeleton. It is most probable that the membrane is com-
posed of a peculiarly resistant form of cellulose, closely similar to the modification which forms the capsule in Ceratium,n

Fig. 339. — A Coceosphere ; 1000 times the
natural size.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

939

found in the deposits, but tlieir broken down parts, the Rhabdoliths, are very numerous
in all the Globigerina oozes of the tropics ; Coccospheres are found in the deposits of
subtropical regions, even at very great depths, and their broken down parts, the
Goccoliths, frequently make up a considerable percentage of some G-lobigerina oozes.
There is a considerable variety both in the form and size of Coccospheres and Rhabdo-
spheres, some varieties having the component parts (Coccoliths and Rhabdoliths), much

A

Pig. 340. — Rhabdospheres, from tbe surface. A, 500 times ; B, 2000 times, natural size.

more compactly united into a sphere than others. The interior of the spheres is
perfectly clear when examined fresh from the surface, and becomes coloured brown
with iodine solution, but with iodine and sulphuric acid no blue colour was observed.
They were never observed to colour with carmine solution. When the calcareous parts
are removed by dilute acids a small gelatinous sphere remains, in the outer layer
of which the Coccoliths or Rhabdoliths were embedded.

Bathybius. — Mr. Murray writes : — “ During the first two and a half years of the
cruise the muds, oozes, and clays procured by the sounding tube, dredge, and small tow-
nets were carefully examined for Bathybius. The thin watery surface layer of the
deposit was carefully removed as soon as it arrived on board ship, placed under the
microscope, and examined for hours at a time, but no protoplasmic movements were
observed. On treatment with iodine and carmine solutions the appearances described by
Huxley and Haeckel were not observed.

940

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. OH ALLEN GEE .

“ It was noticed, however, after a considerable time, that specimens of the deposits
preserved in bottles with abundance of spirit had (on the upper surface of the mud, as
seen in the bottles) a very mobile jelly-like aspect, while similar specimens kept in sea
water or fresh water had no such appearance. When the spirit preserved specimens
above referred to were treated with the various staining solutions, the appearances so
minutely described by Huxley and figured by Haeckel were at once seen. It was further
observed that when a small quantity of pure sea water was treated with different
quantities of spirit of wine, that precipitates of different characters were obtained ; a
mixture of one ounce of sea water with one of spirits of wine gives a precipitate which
falls to the bottom of the glass and consists of minute crystals, but when three or
four ounces of alcohol are mixed with one-quarter or one-half ounce of sea water there
is a very bulky gelatinous precipitate which retains its jelly-like character for years.
Mr. Buchanan examined these precipitates from pure sea water and found that they
consisted wholly of sulphate of lime. When the soundings were being made for the first
Atlantic telegraph cables, the naturalists, in their anxiety to get the specimens of the ooze
in the best condition for examination, gave instructions that the samples should at once
be placed in bottles, and the bottles then filled up with strong spirit. Since the ooze,
when freshly collected, has always a quantity of sea water associated with it, the sulphate
of lime in it was thrown down as a gelatinous precipitate on the addition of the large
quantity of spirit, and it was this precipitate mixed up with the ooze that was described
under the name Bathybius. Since the analysis of the ooze showed the presence of
organic matter, and as the gelatinous precipitate of the sulphate of lime gives reactions
with colouring solutions resembling those of protoplasm, the conclusion that the
precipitate was protoplasmic in its nature was a very reasonable one.”1

Cape Verde Islands.

On the 17th April the Challenger left Porto Praya, San Iago, and the following
day anchored off Porto Grande, St. Vincent, remaining there till the 26th. While at
Porto Grande the steam pinnace was engaged two days in dredging in depths of 7 to
15 fathoms.

Cape Verde Islands to England.

On leaving Porto Grande the trade wind was found very light and well to the
northward, as far as the 18th parallel, after which it shifted more to the eastward and

1 Preliminary Report, by Mr. John Murray, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., vol. xxiv. p. 530, 1876 ; Preliminary Report,
by Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, Ibid., p. 635, 1876.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

941

freshened somewhat. The trade was finally lost on the 30th parallel, and then a westerly
breeze was experienced for two days, but after that the wind hung persistently to the
northward, so that the coast of Spain was made in the latitude of Vigo on the 20th
May, and the ship put in there to replenish the stock of fuel.

On the 3rd May, in lat. 26° 21' N., long. 33° 37' W., a sounding was obtained in 2965
fathoms, the bottom being a red clay containing in the surface layers 12 per cent, of
carbonate of lime, which consisted of a few shells of the larger pelagic Foraminifera and
their broken fragments. The mineral particles did not exceed 0T mm. in diameter, and
consisted of a few grains of felspar, quartz, hornblende, magnetite, volcanic glass, and
manganese peroxide. The principal part of the deposit consisted of flocculent clayey
matter with exceedingly minute fragments of minerals, Racliolarians and Diatoms.

On the 6th May, in lat. 32° 41' N., long. 36° 6' W., another sounding was obtained in
1675 fathoms, the deposit being a G-lobigerina ooze containing 91 per cent, of carbonate of
lime, which consisted of pelagic Foraminifera, Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths, and a few fragments
of Pteropods and Echinoderms. The residue, after the removal of the carbonate of lime
by weak acid, resembled in most respects the red clay found at greater depths in the same
region of the Atlantic.

The Challenger left Vigo on the 21st May, experiencing N.W. winds across the Bay
of Biscay, and reached Spithead at 9 p.m. on the 24th May. On the 25th the ship
proceeded to Sheerness, was carefully swung to ascertain the errors of the compass and
dipping needle, and the difference between her magnetic character after the voyage and
that recorded previous to starting three and a half years before. Finally the crew was paid
off at Chatham on the 6th June 1876.

Sir C. Wyville Thomson says : — “ Writing now after the Commission has come to a
close, I think I am justified in saying that the objects of the Expedition have been fully
and faithfully carried out. The instructions of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty,
founded upon the recommendations of a committee of the Royal Society, were followed
so far as circumstances would permit. We always kept in view that to explore the
conditions of the deep sea was the primary object of our mission, and throughout the
voyage we took every possible opportunity- of making a deep-sea observation. We
dredged from time to time in shallow water in the most remote regions, and we have in
this way acquired many undescribed animal forms ; and collections of land animals and
plants were likewise made on every available occasion ; but I rather discouraged such
work, which in our case could only be done imperfectly, if it seemed likely to divert our
attention from our special object.

“Between our departure from Sheerness on the 7th December 1872, and our arrival
at Spithead on the 24th May 1876, we traversed a distance of 68,890 nautical miles, and
at intervals as nearly uniform as possible, we established 362 observing Stations.”

The accompanying synoptical table of the voyage may prove useful for reference.

942

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

From

To

Date of

ce sailed in
Miles.

I

t .

|

I|

I’l

” p,

.S'Sb

E'g

g g

5

—

— c

& >ri

E

Leaving Port.

Arrival in Port.

5

c

3

S

{2 !

B *2

gi

£

Tons. cwt.

Sheerness

Portsmouth

Sat. 7th Dec. 1872

Wed. 11th Dec. 1872

200

87

n

H

5

22

Portsmouth

Lisbon

Sat. 21st Dec. ,,

Fri. 3rd Jan. 1873

1091

207

13

10

5

"3

Lisbon

Gibraltar

Sun. 12th Jan. 1873

Sat. 18th Jan. ,,

340

68

134

6

9

13

1

5

i

Gibraltar

Madeira

Sun. 26th Jan. ,,

Mon. 3rd Feb. ,,

655

100

04

8

8

13

1

4

Madeira

Tenerife

Wed. 5th Feb. „

Fri. 7tli Feb. ,,

255

, 15

94

2

2

1

Cruising amongst )

Canary Islands

Mon. 10th Feb. ,,

Thur. 13 th Feb. ,,

230

45

54

3

3

12

2

2

Tenerife

St. Thomas

Fri. 14tli Feb. ,,

Sun. 16th Mar. ,,

2879

122

18

30

1

25

13

15

2

St. Thomas

Bermuda

Mon. 24th Mar. ,,

Fri. 4th April ,,

870

79

184

11

8

18

4

8

Bermuda j

Halifax, 1

via New York \

Mon. 21st April ,,

Fri. 9th May

1261

127

94

18

17

18

8

8

Halifax

Bermuda

Mon. 19th May ,,

Sat. 31st May ,,

796

158

194

-12

10

14

9

6

2

Bermuda

San Miguel Id., )
Azores J

Fri. 13 th June ,,

Fri. 4th July ,,

2031

109

134

21

13

19

13

4

7

San Miguel Id.,
Azores

Madeira

Wed. 9th July „

Wed. 16th July ,,

528

34

104

7

5

6

4

3

Madeira

Porto Grande, )

St. Vincent \

Thur. 17th July ,,

Sun. 27th July ,,

1066

46

14

10

1

12

7

3

1

Porto Grande

Porto Praya
St. Paul’s Rocks

Tues. 5 th Aug. ,,

Thur. 7th Aug. ,,

170

12

154

2

9

5

Porto Praya
St. Paul’s Rocks

Sat. 9th Aug. ,,

Wed. 27 th Aug. ,,

1955

101

10

18

2

12

12

i

"i

Fernando Noronha

Fri. 29th Aug. ,,

Mon. 1st Sept. ,,

342

18

13

3

2

10

2

1

Fernando Noronha

Bahia

Wed. 3rd Sept. ,,

Sun. 14th Sept. ,,

815

87

5

11

2

22

2

"9

Bahia

Cape of Good Hope

Thur. 25th Sept. ,,

Tues. 28th Oct. , ,

3883

173

154

33

11

19

12

16

3

Cape of Good Hope

Melbourne

Wed. 17th Dec. ,,

Tues. 17th Mar. 1874

7637

247

16

90

50

34

14

23

8

Melbourne

Sydney

Wed. 1st April 1874

Mon. 6th April ,,

550

58

184

5

15

4

1

2

1

Sydney

Wellington

Mon. 8th June ,,

Sun. 28th June ,,

1432

177

16

20

63

21

6

4

3

Wellington

Tongatabu

Tues. 7tli July ,,

Sun. 19th July ,,

1547

73

8

12

9

6

4

5

Tongatabu

Ngaloa

Wed. 22nd July ,,

Sat. 25th July ,,

400

13

18

3

3

4

"3

1

Ngaloa

Levuka

Mon. 27th July ,,

Tues. 28th July ,,

120

7

04

1

2

Levuka

Ngaloa

Sat. 1st Aug. ' ,,

Mon. 3rd Aug. ,,

120

33

14

2

4

5

1

"i

2

Ngaloa |

Port Albany, }

Cape York (

Mon. 10th Aug. ,,

Tues. 1st Sept. ,,

2250

71

64

22

7

13

8

4

3

Port Albany

Dobbo, Arrou Ids.

Tues. 8th Sept. ,,

Wed. 16 th Sept. ,,

656

24

6

8

7

5

3

3

Dobbo

Ki Doulan

Wed. 23rd Sept. ,,

Thur. 24th Sept. ,,

100

17

94

' 1

7

2

2

1

Ki Doulan

Banda

Sat. 26th Sept. ,,

Tues: 29th Sept. ,,

_ 200

38

4

3

2

4

1

1

2

Banda

Amboina

Fri. 2nd Oct. ,,

Sun. 4th Oct. ,,

115

17

104

2

3

1

1

Amboina

Ternate

Sat. 10th Oct. ,,

Wed. 14tli Oct. ,,

300

30

24

4

6

2

1

1

I Ternate

Samboangan

Sat. 17th Oct. ,,

Fri. 23d Oct. , ,

511

48

104

6

3

3

2

2

Samboangan

Ilo Ilo

Mon. 26th Oct. ,,

Wed. 28 th Oct. ,,

220

21

124

2

3

2

1

1

Ilo Ilo

Manila

Sat. 31st Oct. ,,

Wed. 4th Nov. ,,

350

38

04

4

3

4

3

Manila

Hong Kong

Wed. 11th Nov. ,,

Mon. 16tli Nov. ,,

650

24

5

5

7

1

i

1

Hong Kong

Manila

Wed. 6th Jan. 1875

Mon. 11th Jan. 1875

650

35

17

5

51

1

1

1

Manila

Zebu

Thur. 14th Jan. ,,

Mon. 18th Jan. ,,

. 380

45

144

4

3

2

1

2

Zebu

Camiguin Island

Sun. 24th Jan. ,,

Tues. 26th Jan. ,,

110

I29

16 |

2

6

3

1

2

2

Camiguin Island

Samboangan

Tues. 26 th Jan. ,,

Fri. 29tli Jan. ,,

250

3

1

1

Samboangan

Humboldt Bay

Fri. 5th Feb.

Tues. 23nl Feb. ,,

1333

108

184

18

7

7

5

1

5

Humboldt Bay

Nares Harbour

Wed. 24th Feb. ,,

Wed. 3rd Mar. „

403

42

2

7

1

l

1

1

Hares Harbour

Yokohama

Wed. 10th Mar. „

Sun. 11th April ,,

2533

106

04

32

7

13

12

1

6

Yokohama

Kobe

Tues. 11th May ,,

Sat. 15th May , ,

350

72

194

4

30

1

1

1

1

Kobe

Miwara

Tues. 25 th May ,,

Wed. 26th May „

120

20

84

1

10

3

2

1

Miwara

Kobe

Fri. 28th May ,,

Sat. 29tli May ,,

120

19

5"

1

2

1

1

1

Kobe

Yokohama

Wed. 2nd June ,,

Sat. 5th June ,,

400

80

13

3

4

4

3

3 1

Y okohama

Honolulu

Wed. 16th June ,,

Tues. 27tli July ,,

4302

279

3

42

11

24

21

2

11 1

Honolulu

Hilo

Wed. 11th Aug. ,,

Sat. 14th Aug. ,,

200

60

4

3

15

1

1

Hilo

Tahiti

Thur. 19 th Aug. ,,

Sat. 18 th Sept. ,,

2630

189

9

30

5

17

17

2

6 j

| Tahiti

Juan Fernandez

Sun. 3rd Oct. ,,

Sat. 13th Nov. ,,

4643

222

19

41

15

22

19

13 1

Juan Fernandez

Valparaiso

Mon. 15th Nov. ,,

Fri. 19th Nov. ,,

400

17

3

4

2

1

1

1

Valparaiso

Messier Channel

Sat. 11th Dec. ,,

Sat. 1st Jan. 1876

2033

88

94

21

22

8

5

i

5 |

j Through the j

1 Strait of j

I

Magellan

Sun. 2nd Jan. 1876

Wed. 19th Jan. ,,

700

76

64

17

1

9

1

1

6

| Magellan Strait ■

I

Port Stanley, [

Falkland Ids. J

Thur. 20tli Jan. ,,

Sun. 23rd Jan. ,,

400

52

11

3

1

3

1

3

| Port Stanley

Monte Video

Sun. 6th Feb. , ,

Tues. 15 th Feb. ,,

' 1173

80

15

9

14

6

4

2

3

i Monte Video

Ascension

Fri. 25th Feb. „

Mon. 27th Mar. ,,

3729

177

134 !

31

10

23

20

4

9 1

| Ascension j

Porto Grande, )

St. Vincent y

Mon. 3rd April ,,

Tues. 18th April ,,

1800

181

154

15

7

4

8

: 3 1

St. Vincent

Vigo Bay

Wed. 26th April,,

Sat. 20th May ,,

2926

141

10

24

8

2

2

| Vigo Bay

Portsmouth

Sun. 21st May ,,

Wed. 24th May „

630

122

1 I

3

1

...

; Portsmouth

Sheerness

Thur. 25tli May ,,

Fri. 26th May ,,

150 |

30

18

1

1 |

|

Totals,

68,890

4823

17 I

727

563

263

133

' 1

151

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

943

Botany of the Expedition. — The notes on the Botanical Observations (see p. 27) issued
to the Naturalists of the Expedition in the instructions of the Circumnavigation Committee
of the Royal Society, were prepared at the Royal Gardens, Kew. During the cruise the
botanical collections . were made by Mr. Moseley, who despatched them direct to Kew
from various ports. Preliminary notices of these collections by various specialists, and
notes by Mr. Moseley on the general aspects of the vegetation of many of the places
visited, have from time to time been published in the Journal of the Linnean Society.1
Setting aside the necessarily fragmentary continental collections, it was decided to
limit the Botanical Reports to a review of Insular floras which came within the range
of the Expedition, combining for this purpose the materials already in existence at
Kew with the new facts brought to light by the Challenger collections. The task
of preparing these Reports was entrusted to Mr. W. B. Hemsley, A.L.S., who had at
all times the assistance of Sir Joseph Hooker, Professor Oliver, and Mr. Thiselton
Dyer.

Mr. Hemsley writes : — “ Each island or group of islands is treated separately, and
complete lists are given of all the indigenous plants known, together with their synonymy,
distribution, and other particulars of interest. The islands whose vegetation is thus
dealt with are : — The Bermudas, St. Paul’s Rocks, Fernando Noronha, Ascension, St.
Helena, South Trinidad, Tristan da Cunha group, Prince Edward and Marion, the Crozets,
Kerguelen, the M‘Donald group, St. Paul, Amsterdam, Juan Fernandez, Mas-a-fuera,
San Ambrosio, San Felix, the Southeastern Moluccas, and the Admiralty Islands. For
purposes of comparison, and to render the work more useful, two or three islands not
visited by the Expedition are included.

“ The results of the investigation of the floras of these oceanic islands are important
and interesting, especially in relation to the means and agencies which have operated to
effect the present geographical distribution of plants. Many facts and theories bearing
upon this subject are touched upon in the foregoing Narrative ; but some of the more
striking features of these Insular floras are brought together here. Beginning with the
flora of the Bermudas, this is evidently of comparatively recent derivation, and is almost
wholly composed of species either inhabiting the opposite coast of North America or the
West Indian Islands, or both. A very small number of the species have not been
absolutely identified with others, but they are so closely allied to others from the regions
named that there can be no doubt as to their origin. Associated with a large number
of undoubtedly introduced plants there are about one hundred and fifty species which
probably reached the islands independently of man, and are hence said to be indigenous.
Of this number upwards of one hundred also inhabit Southeastern North America, and
about as many the West Indies, while between eighty and ninety are found in all three
localities. The only really arboreous species are the Palmetto ( Sobol blacJdmrniana)

1 For a list of these publications, see Bibliography, Appendix VI.

(narr. chall. exp,- — vol. i. — 1885.) 119

944

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

and the Cedar ( Juniperus bermudiana), both of which are tenacious of life, and possess
remarkable reproductive capacity ; neglected ground being soon overrun by seedlings,
especially of the latter.

“ Passing by St. Paul’s Bocks, where neither flowering plants nor ferns exist, the
flora of Fernando Noronha, as far as it is known, exhibits the same affinities to that of
the nearest mainland as the flora of the Bermudas. Fifty-five species of flowering
plants were collected, five of which appear sufficiently different from any described ones
to rank as new ; all the rest are quite common plants. The apparently total absence
of ferns in this flora is remarkable.

“ The indigenous vegetation of Ascension is of the scantiest description imaginable ;
even littoral plants, on account of the nature of the beach, are unable to obtain a
footing on the island. Ferns, of which eleven species have been collected, are in the
ascendant. There are, however, two flowering plants ( Hedyotis cidscensionis and
Euphorbia origanoides), which have not been found elsewhere ; altogether there are not
more than half a dozen indigenous species.

“ The flora of St. Helena is very singular in its composition. There are thirty-eight
certainly indigenous flowering plants, and twenty-five ferns, besides about twenty-five
other species of flowering plants which may have reached the island independently of
direct or indirect human agency. With few exceptions the indigenous flowering plants
are shrubs or small trees, and a considerable proportion of them belong to genera
restricted to the island, whilst some of the species of genera having a wider range are so
very distinct from their congeners as not to be generically recognisable as such at first
sight. Arboreous Composite preponderated, and there is abundant evidence that they
formerly constituted the principal element of the woods which covered the island. Dis-
regarding these Compositse, some of which are resiniferous, like those of Juan Fernandez,
the affinities of the native flora are essentially South African ; and structurally, if not in
habit, the Compositse are as nearly related to South African forms as to any others.

“ The natural history of South Trinidad is still almost unknown. Not a dozen
flowering plants and ferns have been collected in the islands, and the most interesting of
these is a Fern ( Asplenium compressum), previously known only from St. Helena. The
latest accounts of the vegetation of the island describe the whole of the arboreous
plants, except a tree fern, as prostrate and dead, as if all had been killed at one time
by some great volcanic disturbance.

“ Next in order is the Tristan da Cunha group, where the vegetation consists
entirely of types characteristic of temperate regions. In the three islands, Tristan
da Cunha, Inaccessible, and Nightingale, fifty-five species of vascular plants have
been collected by various travellers, and of this number no fewer than twenty-four are
ferns and two club-mosses, leaving twenty-nine flowering plants. There is no endemic
genus of plants, but fifteen of the species of flowering plants appear to be restricted to

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

945

these islands. Several of the plants are quite rare, and the greater bulk of the vegeta-
tion consists of very few species, most prominent among which are Phylicanitida
and Spartina arundinacea. The latter is a stout reed, which covers large areas, and
the former is the only tree, and is oftener shrubby than arboreous in dimensions. The
flora of the islands of Amsterdam and St. Paul, which lie in about the same latitude
as the Tristan da Cunha group, though separated therefrom by nearly ninety degrees of
longitude, is essentially the same as that of Tristan da Cunha ; yet nine of the thirty-
three species of flowering plants are apparently endemic. Pliylica nitida constitutes the
whole of the woody vegetation of Amsterdam Island, but it is wanting in St. Paul ;
and Spartina arundinacea is exceedingly abundant in both islands. Here, as in Tristan
da Cunha, there is no endemic generic element ; and all the genera except Pliylica ,
which is African, are represented both in New Zealand and temperate South America.

“ The vegetation of the remainder of the Southern Islands dealt with, namely,
Marion, the Crozets, Kerguelen, and Heard, is a fragment of a flora characteristic of' the
detached regions, generally, of the coldest southern zone inhabited by flowering plants,
with two endemic monotypic genera. These are : Lyallia, restricted, as far as known, to
Kerguelen Island, and Pringlea, the Kerguelen Cabbage, which is found in all the islands. '
Out of a total of thirty vascular plants, six, or one-fifth, are endemic ; seven are American,
and not found in New Zealand or any of the neighbouring small islands, though two
of them also occur in Amsterdam Island ; two are found in New Zealand or the
neighbouring islands, but not in South America or any of the islands adjacent thereto ;
while fifteen are common to the New Zealand and American regions.

“ Juan Fernandez and Mas-a-fuera, like St. Helena, possess a large generic endemic
element in their flora, associated, however, with a relatively larger number of endemic
species of other genera. There are about one hundred species of flowering plants, probably
indigenous, and between forty and fifty species of ferns. Seventy species, belonging to
forty genera and twenty-six natural orders, are endemic, and they are remarkable for the
large proportion of trees and shrubs they include. Thus, deducting the grasses and
sedges, of which there are nine species, out of the remaining sixty-one species, forty-six,
or more than two-thirds, are shrubby or arboreous. Out of the forty-six genera of
flowering plants represented in Juan Fernandez, twenty are so generally diffused as not
to be specially characteristic of any particular region ; ten are endemic ; seven are other-
wise restricted to South America, or do not extend farther north than Mexico ; five are
represented both in the New Zealand and South American regions ; two are represented
in the New Zealand but not in the South American region; and two have a wide range
in the northern hemisphere, extending southward, however, only in America.

“ The botanical collections from the Southeastern Moluccas and the Admiralty
Islands consist, as far as the flowering plants are concerned, almost entirely of littoral
species of very wide distribution, associated with a small number of endemic species of

946

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Asiatic or Australian genera. But it should be mentioned that the time and means at
the disposal of the Naturalists of the .Expedition were quite inadequate for a full
investigation of the flora of these groups. This part of the botany deals more especially
with facts bearing upon the influence of oceanic currents on the dispersion of plants.
And the drift seeds and seed-vessels collected by Mr. Moseley off the coast 'of New Guinea,
together • with stranded seeds from various parts of the world, are the subject of an
Appendix.” 1

It has been stated (p. 930) that the Diatomaceae, collected in the tow-nets at the
surface of the sea and procured from the deep-sea deposits by means of the dredge and
trawl, will be described by Count Castracane in his Report.

The Challenger Collections and Publications. — When, in 1872, Professor C. Wyville
Thomson was invited by the Government to take the post of Director of the Civilian
Scientific Staff of the Challenger Expedition, the Senatus Academicus and the Court
of the University of Edinburgh granted him leave of absence from the duties of his
chair for three years, and when the Expedition did not return within that time they
extended the leave for another year.

With the consent of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, it was arranged
that the collections sent home during the voyage should be lodged in the University of
Edinburgh till the return of the Expedition. Professor William Turner, F.R.S., under-
took the temporary custody of these collections, and on the arrival of the consignments
from the Cape of Good Hope, Australia, China, and Japan, personally superintended
their examination for breakages. The boxes containing preserved specimens in spirit were
opened, examined, and then replaced in the original boxes according to the catalogues.
The Botanical collections made during the voyage were, however, on their arrival in
England, sent direct to the Royal Gardens, Kew.

On the arrival of the Expedition in England, the collections brought home in the
ship were also transported to Edinburgh, and then the whole of the collections were
unpacked and temporarily arranged in a large house belonging to the University,

These extensive collections arrived in England without any mishap, and, generally
speaking, in an excellent state of preservation. Among the thousands of bottles of all
sizes, only three were broken. There had been very little .evaporation of the spirit, and
not a single specimen was missing according to the catalogues when they were unpacked
in Edinburgh.

After a correspondence between Her Majesty’s Treasury, the Council of the Royal
Society, and the late Sir C. Wyville Thomson, it was arranged early in 1877 that the
incidental or occasional collections made on shore during the Expedition, such as Mammals,
Reptiles, Insects, should be sent at once in globo to the British Museum. The great bulk

1 Appendix on the Dispersal of Plants by Oceanic Currents arid Birds, Bot. Chall. Exp., part iii. p. 277, etseq., 1885.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

947

of the collections, and the observations illustrating the physical and biological conditions
of the ocean basins, it was arranged, should be worked out on a uniform and well
considered plan, with a constant reference to the bearing of the facts upon the objects of
the Expedition. The work was to be carried out under the guidance of the Director
of the Scientific Staff, whose residence in Edinburgh rendered it necessary that the
collections should remain temporarily in that city. Mr. John Murray was at this time
appointed chief assistant on the staff to be employed in the preparation for publication
of the Scientific Results of the Expedition.

In . 1881 Sir C. Wyville Thomson’s health had become very much impaired, and in
January 1882 the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury, in order to give
him relief from the pressure of work, and to enable him to give his undivided attention
to the completion of the Narrative of the Cruise, desired Mr. Murray to undertake the
editorial work connected with the Special Reports. On the death of Sir C. Wyville
Thomson in March of the same year, Mr. Murray was charged with the direction of the
whole of the work connected with the official publications.

The collections have now been for some time in the hands of specialists, and where
Reports have not already been published, the work is well advanced towards completion.
A list of the Reports now published, as ■well as of those in progress, with the names of
the authors, is given in Appendix VII. at the end of this volume. The type specimens
referred to in the published Memoirs have nearly all been placed in the British Museum,
and ultimately all types will be deposited there. It is estimated that the whole of the
Reports will be issued before the end of the year 1887.

948

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

CHAPTER XXII.

Density of Sea Water — Composition of Ocean Water Salts — Geographical and Bathymetrical Distribution of Specific
Gravity — Carbonic Acid, Nitrogen, and Oxygen in Sea Water — Discussion of Meteorological Observations as
bearing on Oceanic Circulation.

During the whole of the voyage very particular attention was. paid to. the determination
of the density of the water and the study of its variations. In a freshwater lake the
variations of density depend only on the temperature and pressure of the water, in
the sea they depend also on the saline matter held in solution. ■ The effects of change
of temperature and of salinity on the density of water have formed the subject of many
investigations, and have been ably and exhaustively reported on by Professor Dittmar
in his Memoir.1 The effect of pressure on sea water had been studied occasionally
by Perkin, Aime, Regnault, and others. A number of experiments on the subject
were made by Mr. Buchanan in the compression apparatus supplied to the ship, and
also in instruments directly attached to the sounding line. Professor Tait has been,
for some time, engaged in determining the compressibility of fresh and sea water at
different temperatures and pressures, and the effect of pressure on the maximum density
point of fresh water. Preliminary results have been published by him from time to time
in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. When these experiments are
completed, as it is hoped they will soon be, when a new form of apparatus expressly
devised for the purpose is delivered by the makers, the application to the Challenger
observations will be made. It is impossible, without such preliminary work, to attack
with any hope of success the problem of oceanic circulation.

If the effect of change, of salinity, of temperature, and of pressure on the density
of the water be known, it is possible from a determination of its density at any
temperature and pressure to deduce its salinity, and further to deduce the density of the
same water at any other temperature and pressure. The method and instruments
employed in the determination of the density of the water have been fully described in
Mr. Buchanan’s Report.2 The instrument used was a glass hydrometer weighing about
160 grammes (see p. 109). Its stem was 100 millimetres long and 3 millimetres
thick, and was divided into millimetres ; the volume of the divided portion of the stem
was 0’85 cubic centimetres. The weight of the instrument could be increased by attaching
small weights to the top of the stem, and the variations in the volume of the instrument
with changes of temperature were very carefully determined. When the hydrometer was

1 Report on Researches into the Composition of Ocean-Water, Phys. Chem. Chall. Exp., part i., 1884.

2 Report on the Specific Gravity of Samples of Ocean-Water, Phys. Chem. Chall. Exp., part ii., 1884,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

949

immersed in a liquid and was found to float freely in it, the surface of the liquid reaching
to any division on the stem, the volume of the instrument thus immersed could be readily
ascertained by reference to the calibration tables of the instrument, regard being had to
the temperature of the liquid. But the volume of the immersed portion of the hydro-
meter is equal to that of the displaced portion of the liquid, and the weight of this
displaced volume of liquid is equal to that of the hydrometer which displaces it. By
dividing this weight by the volume of displaced liquid, the density of the liquid is
obtained. The unit of weight (the gramme) being the weight of the unit volume (cubic
centimetre) of distilled water at the temperature of its maximum density at atmospheric
pressure (4° C.), the density so found is identical with the specific gravity, referred to
that of distilled water at 4° C. as unity.

In using a hydrometer so delicate as that described, it is necessary that the liquid
experimented on should have as nearly as possible the temperature of the atmosphere,
otherwise convection currents are set up which interfere with the accuracy of the
observations. In practice, therefore, all the observations were made at the temperature of
the laboratory, which was that of the atmosphere, and usually very approximately that
of the surface water. Waters brought from the bottom or from intermediate depths were
always stored in stoppered bottles until they had taken the temperature of the air. Two
advantages were gained by this — first, the observations themselves were trustworthy,
disturbing causes being eliminated ; arid second, the variations in the density of waters
from different depths at the same Station could be depended on when all the determinations
were made under exactly the same conditions. This was of the more importance as the
variations in question were comparatively small. The results thus obtained give the
density of the water at the temperature at which it was observed, which necessarily
varied with the locality. In order that the density may furnish an indication of the
salinity of the water, it is advisable to reduce it to its value at one standard temperature.
The only tables which were available for this purpose at the time of the voyage were
those of Professor Hubbard, published in Maury’s Sailing Directions.1 As they were
drawn up with a view to reducing the results to their value at 60° F. ( 1 5°*56 C.), this
temperature was chosen as the constant temperature to which all the densities should be
reduced, in order that they might be comparable as indices of salinity. Later experiments
have shown that Hubbard’s table is not quite accurate when applied in the reduction
of observations made at high temperatures (25° to 30° C.), and the reduced values
have been corrected accordingly. Besides reducing the observed densities to their value
at 15°‘56 C., they have been reduced to their value at the temperature which the water
had when in its place in the ocean. In the case of waters from the bottom or intermediate
depths, a further reduction for pressure due to depth would give the actual density of the
deeper waters as it is in the ocean. In the tables published in Mr. Buchanan’s Report 2
1 Maury’s Sailing Directions, vol. i. p. 237, 1858. 3 Phys. Chein. Cliall. Exp., part ii., 1884.

950

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

this reduction has not been carried out. According to Grassi, the increase of density in
a water of 1 ‘026 at one atmosphere is 0’00079 per 100 fathoms. From Mr. Buchanan’s
observations on the compressibility of distilled water, of sea water, and of glass, it was
found that sea water was compressed approximately in the ratio 0'0009 for every hundred
fathoms of depth in sea water, so that if the density of a water at the surface is 1 '027, at
1000 fathoms it is T036, at 2000 fathoms 1'045, at 3000 fathoms 1’054, and at 4000
fathoms it is F063.

In Table I. the density of sea water of average concentration is given for every whole
centigrade degree from 0° C. to 31° C. It will be observed that its density at 15D,56 C.

Table I.1 — Density of Standard Sea Water (D15.56 = 1’026) at different Temperatures.

Tempera-
ture,
f C.

Density
at f C.,
D(.

d4

1^15’56

1

m

1^15-58

Dt ■

Tempera-
ture,
f C.

Density
at |° C.,

D«.

1

#) =
Dt

W

1

<p(t)

D 15-56

Dt '

0

1-02818

1-0514

0-9511

16

1-02590

0-9989

!

1-0011 1

1

813

468

553

17

567

966

034

2

807

422

595

18

542

944

056

3

799

382

632

19

516

922

079

4

790

343

669

20

490

905

096

5

779

309

700

21

463

884

117

6

768

271

737

22

436

869

132

7

755

238

768

23

408

849

153

8 .

741

205

799

24

380

834

168

9

726

173

830

25

351

815

188

10

710

142

860

26

321

*

. 802

202

11

692

116

885 .

27

290 |

784

221

12

674

086

915

28

259

766

240

13

654

061

940

29

227

749

258

14

634

037

964

30

195

726

282

15

613

013

987 31

163

705

304

1 Abridged from the Report on Researches into the Composition of Ocean-Water, Phys. Chem. Cliall. Exp., part i.
p. VO, 1884.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

951

is 1 ‘026, which approximates to that of average ocean water. In the table, which is
taken from Professor Dittmar’s Report, the first column t° gives the temperature,

the second D( the density at t° C., the third gives the value of the ratio = pyjyg 5

and the fourth column gives the values of the reciprocal of 4>(t). The following
examples will show the method of using this table.

The density of a water is T02734 at 150-56, what is it at 18°‘3 C. ? Answer: At
15° '5 6 the water is heavier than the standard water quoted in the tables by 0 '00 134,
hence at 18°‘3 it is heavier than the latter by 0'00134 x <£(z) = by table to O’OOlSd x

Table II.

Tempera-

ture,

°C.

Density of Water.

Tempera-

ture,

°C.

Density of Water.

A.

B.

C.

A.

B.

C.

0

1-02713

1-02818

1-02923

16

1-02490

1-02590

1-02690

1

708

813

918

17

467

567

667

2

703

807

911

18

443

542

641

3

695

799

903

19

417

516

615

4

687

790

893

20

391

490

589

5

676

779

882

21

364

463

562

6

665

768

871

22

337

436

535

7

653

755

857

23

310

408

506

8

639

741

843

24

282

380

478

9

624

726

828

25

253

351

449

10

609

710

811

26

223

321

419

11

591

692

793

27

192

290

388

12

573

674

775

28

161

259

357

13

555

654

755

29

130

227

324

14

534

634

734

30

098

195

292

15

513

613

713

31

066

163

260

15-56

1-02500

1-02600

1-02700

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. x. — 1885.)

120

952

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

Table III.

Tempera-

ture,

° Fahr.

Density of Water.

Tempera-

ture,

° Fahr.

Density of Water.

A.

B.

c.

A.

B.

C.

32

1-02713

1-02818

1-02923

61

1-02488

1-02588

1-02688

33

710

815

920

62

475

575

675

34

708

813

918

63

462

562

662

35

705

809

913

64

449

548

647

36

701

805

909

65

434

533

632

37

696

800

904

66

420

519

618

38

692

796

900

67

406

505

604

39

688

791

895

68

391

. 490

589

40

682

785

888

69

376

475

574

41

676

779

882

70

362

461

560

42

669

772

875

71

346

445

543

43

663

766

869

72

330

429'

528

44

657

759

862

73

315

414

513

45

650

752

865

74

301

399

497

46

642

744

847

75

285

383

481

47

634

736

838

76

269

367

465

48

626

728

830

77

253

351

449

49

618

720

822

78

236

334

432

50

609

710

811

220

318

416

51

598

699

800

80

202

300

398

52

590

691

792

81

186

284

382

53

579

680

781

82

168

266

364

54

569

670

771

. 83

150

248

346

55

558

659

760

84

133

231

329

56

546

647

748

85

116

213

310

57

536

636

736

86

098

195

292

58

524

624

724

87

080

177

274

59

513

613

713

88

062

159

256

60

500

600

700

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

953

0’9937 = 0'001332 ; but standard water, by table, at 18°'3 has the density 1-02534, and
1‘02534 + 0‘00133 = 1’02667, which is the required density at 180,3.

Second example — Given the density at 18°‘3 C. as 1*02667, find that at 15°"56 C.
Answer: At 18°\3 C. the density of the given water is 1 ‘02667 — 1-02534 = 0-00133
heavier than the standard; hence the corresponding difference at 15° ‘56 C. is

0‘00133+ = by table to 0‘00133 x 1‘0063 = 0‘00134, hence the result sought =

1-02600 + 0‘00134 = 1‘02734.

Making use. of Table I., Table II. has been compiled; it gives the densities of three
waters, A, B, and C, for every whole degree Centigrade. B is the standard water of
Table I., and its density at 150,56 C. is l-026. The density of water A is 1-025 and
that of Cis 1‘027. Table III. is identical with Table II., with this difference that the
values are given for every degree of Fahrenheit’s scale between 32° and 88°.

By means of one or other of these tables a density observed at any temperature can
be reduced to its value at the standard temperature of 60° F. (15°"56 C.).

The following table has been compiled from Professor Dittmar’s Memoir, giving the
percentage of chlorine, or rather of halogen calculated as cldorine, in a kilogramme of
water of different densities, and his coefficient (180 "5 84) for the proportion of total salts
to 100 parts of halogen calculated as chlorine. The results for chlorine have been
reduced to their values in grammes per litre measured at 60° F., and those for the total
salts to grammes per litre and ounces per gallon, both measured at 60° F.

Density at 60° F.
(15“'-56 C.).

Halogen calculated as Chlorine.

Total Salts.

Grammes per
Kilogramme.

Grammes per
Litre at 60° F.

Grammes per
Kilogramme.

Grammes per
Litre at 60° F.’

Ounces per
Gallon at 60° F.

1-02200

16-51

16-87

29-814

30-469

4-865

300

17-23

17-62

31-114

31-829

5-085

400

17-95

18-36

32-414

'33-191

5-305

500

18-67

19-13

33-713

34-555

5-526

600

19-39

19-88

35-015

35-925

5-746

700

20-11

20-65

36-315

37-295

5-966

800

20-83

21-40

37-616

38-668

6-187

One of the most interesting results of the analyses by Professor Dittmar of a very
large number of the samples brought from different localities passed over during

954

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

the cruise was that, however much the proportion of total salts to water might vary, the
composition of the saline mixture was very constant. From his analyses he has
calculated the following numbers for the average composition of ocean water salts.

Table IV. — Average Composition of Ocean Water Salts.

Per 100 parts
of Total Salts.

Per 100 of Halo-
gen calculated
as Chlorine.

Chlorine, .

55-292 |

99-848

Bromine, ........

0-1884)

0-3402

Sulphuric acid (S03), . .

6-410

11-576

Carbonic acid (C02), . . . .

0-152

0-2742

Lime (CaO), . . . .

1-676

3-026

Magnesia (MgO), .......

6-209

11-212

Potash (K20), .......

1-332

2-405

Soda (Na20), . . . . . .

41-234

74-462

Oxygen equivalent of halogen, .....

-12-493

-22-559

Total Salts, . .

100-000

- 180-584

“ Combining acids and bases, we have the following average composition of sea salt : —

Chloride of sodium, . . . . . . . 77 -758

Chloride of magnesium, . . . . . 10 ‘878

Sulphate of magnesium, . . . . . 4'737

Sulphate of lime, ........ 3-600

Sulphate of potash, . . . . . . .2-465

Bromide of magnesium, ....... 0'217

Carbonate of lime, ........ 0-345

100-000 ”

With these tables the results of observations of density can be interpreted so as to
give a very accurate indication of the chemical composition of the water.2

1 Equal conjointly to 55-376 parts of chlorine, -which accordingly is the percentage of “halogen reckoned as
chlorine ” in the real total solids.

2 Prof. Dittmar says : — “From my experiments, hitherto unpublished, on the dissociation of sea water carbonates
I conclude that, supposing at a certain time all oceanic carbonates had been of the general formula R"0.1|C02, it could
not have sunk below this state of saturation anywhere, i.e., it could not, even in the tropics, have arrived at the
composition R"0 .nC02 where n < l-2-; and supposing, secondly, all oceanic carbonates had been of the formula R"0. If C02,
it would not probably have lost carbonic acid, even if the temperature were 32° C. All this rests on the tacit

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

955

The source of the salts existing in sea water is rock-substance which has been dis-
integrated and decomposed by atmospheric influences. The soluble components or
products washed out by the rain, and collected in the streams and rivers, are eventually
carried into the sea. Here the water is subjected to the action of the sun and winds,
which causes it to evaporate, leaving the salts behind. A great quantity of the vapour
so formed is carried inland, and condensed on the mountains, washing out the rock and
taking up a fresh charge of solid matter which it carries down into the sea, which is thus
the great receptacle of degraded land. As it is known that all rivers, at present, hold
more or less solid matter in solution, the sea must be . continually becoming salter, and
must have been always doing so, unless the organic and physical processes by which
salts are removed from the ocean should be so active as to counteract the tendency to

Table V. — Showing the Total Saline Contents of Waters of different Densities.

Density at 60° F.

Total Salts
in Grammes per
Kilogramme.

Density at 60° F.

Total Salts
in Grammes per
Kilogramme.

Density at 60° F.

1

Total Salts
in Grammes per
Kilogramme.

1-02500

33-713

1-02600

35-015

1-02700

36-315

510

■843

610

T45

710

•445

520

■973

620

•275

720

.

•575

530

34-103

630

•405

730

•705

540

■234

640

•535

740

•835

550

•364

650

•665

750

•965

560

•494

660

•795

760

37-096

570

•624

670

•925

770

•226

580

•754

680

36-055

780

•356

590

•884

690

•185

790

■485

assumption that the atmosphere is the only active agent, and has always contained 00003 of its volume of carbonic acid.
From Herschel’s estimate of the total mass of the atmosphere, I calculate that the total carbonic acid of the atmosphere
amounts to 2 '27 7 x 1012 tons (1 ton = 1000 kilogrammes).

“From the oceanometric data of Boguslawski, on the other hand, I calculate that the total loose base is equivalent
to 160 xlO12 tons of carbonate of lime. Hence, assuming (1) the present oceanic carbonate to be on the average
R"0 . lvrC02, the total loose C02 in the ocean amounts to 35'2 x 1012 tons, or to 15-5 times that contained in the atmosphere.
And, assuming (2) the present oceanic carbonates to be on the average R"0.1§C02, its total loose carbonic acid amounts
to 52 -8 x 1012 tons, or to 23‘2 times, that contained in the atmosphere.

“I am, on the whole, inclined to think that of the two numbers, 15 '5 and 23-2, the latter comes nearer to the actual
value, and, pending further experiments and observations, I assume that, taking the carbonic acid of the atmosphere = 1,

that of the ocean is (not far removed from) 5*23 2^ = 19'4.i)

956

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

concentration. Although the ocean is the receptacle of the drainage of all the land, it is
by no means uniform in saltness ; there are variations due to the different meteoro-
logical conditions which obtain in the different regions of the earth.

The causes which are effective in altering the specific gravity of the sea are those which
influence the formation of vapour and of ice ; and as these are found at the surface, it is
there that the greatest variations in saltness are observed. The effect of freezing may be
taken to apply only to the polar regions. Between these the globe may be divided, or
that part of it covered by sea, into five zones, namely — two corresponding to the areas
of prevalence of the northeast and the southeast trade winds, in which evaporation goes
on actively, and a zone , between them corresponding to the equatorial calms, where an
immense amount of rain falls ; and two to the north and the south of the trade wind
districts, where on the whole there is a tolerable balance between rain and evaporation.
At both poles there are areas of concentration due to the formation of ice.

But the salinity of the sea is affected by the removal of dissolved mineral matter as
well as of water, whether in form of vapour or ice, and any agency which removes solid
matter from the water will alter its density. Sea water contains much lime in solution.
Immense numbers of animals living in it secrete calcareous coverings, drawing on the
water for the lime and possibly for the carbonic acid necessary for the formation of
their shells. Let it be assumed that the shell is formed by the direct transference of
carbonate of lime from the water to the animals. When they die, their shells sink to
the bottom, or are dissolved before they get to the bottom, thus returning either the
whole or a part of the carbonate to the water from which it had been taken. Where the
conditions are such that the shells reach the bottom, a deposit will be formed which will
constitute a continual drain on the supply of carbonates in the water. In this way the
composition of the water is altered by precipitation through organic agency. In the same
way siliceous deposits are formed by animals secreting siliceous skeletons. But this
cause, though it produces in the course of time very important effects, does not affect
the composition of the water very sensibly, because the amount of earthy carbonate, or of
silica, which is held in solution at any one time is, although sufficient for the support of
this extensive process of transmigration of mineral matter, comparatively small ; moreover,
these very substances, silica and earthy carbonates, form important solid ingredients in
solution in river water, and the supply is being continuously kept up, consequently
variations in the amount of them would not be expected to produce a marked effect on
the density of the water. It is not improbable that in the case of carbonate of lime the
comparatively high density of bottom water as compared with intermediate water is due
in part to the fact discovered by Professor Dittmar, that the amount of lime in bottom
waters is distinctly though slightly greater than in intermediate waters, although this
surplus in itself would not affect the most exact specific gravity determinations.

At the surface of the sea in all latitudes there is a constant exchange going on between

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

957

the atmosphere and the sea. The sea gives up portions of its water as vapour, and the
atmosphere in its turn gives up portions of its vapour as water ; and climates are dry or
moist according as the balance is in favour of the one or the other side of this exchange.
Were there no currents in the atmosphere or the ocean, there would be a constant
distribution of moisture in the air and concentration in the sea water depending on the
temperature, subject to diurnal and annual oscillations. This stationary state of things,
however, is by no means what is observed : both in the ocean and the atmosphere there
are currents of vast dimensions. The great concentrating agency is the trade winds,
which, by virtue of their dryness, remove water from the surface of the ocean over which
they blow, while, by virtue of their momentum, they mechanically drive the concentrated
water into the equatorial area of dilution.

The same remarks refer in a great measure also to alterations produced by changes
from the liquid to the solid state, and vice versa. Removal of water, whether as ice or
vapour, causes concentration ; restoration of it causes dilution. Whether the removal is
caused by evaporation or congelation, it is to a certain extent localised so as to produce
areas of concentration and of dilution.

The cruise of the Challenger lasted three years and a half, and three years of this time
were spent between lats. 40° N. and 40° S., therefore the majority of the observations
apply to this region. From the surface observations which were made daily when at
sea, and from those of other observers, the accompanying coloured map has been con-
structed. In it the density of the water at 60°F. (15°'56 C. is represented by various
colours, as follows : —

Colour.

Density at 60° F.

Salinity in Grammes per
Kilogramme.

From

To

From

To-

Purple, ....

Below 1-0250

Below 33-713

Light blue,

1-0250

255

33-713

34-364

Dark blue,

255

260

34-364

35-015

Light green, ...

260

265

35-015

35-665

Dark green,

265

270

35-665

36-315

Light red,

270

275

36-315

36-965

Dark red, .

275

280

36-965

37-615

Yellow, ....

Above 280

Above 37-615

958

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The first glance at this Chart shows the coincidence of the regions of concentration
in the sea with those of the trade winds in the atmosphere, which in their turn coincide
closely with the areas of maximum barometric pressure. On both sides of each of these
regions the concentration diminishes and passes into areas of decided dilution, and also
of diminished barometric pressure.

As the concentration of the sea water depends on the climate to which it is exposed,
and as that is subject to certain variations, so the areas occupied by the various colours on
the map will be subject to oscillations ; hence properly there should be similar charts
for every month of the year ; for this purpose, however, many more observations are
required than are at present available. The colours on the Chart will probably not differ
very greatly from the mean positions of the regions which they indicate. To take only
one instance, it is quite certain that the equatorial area of dilution will have a yearly
oscillation corresponding to that of the equatorial calms ; in the eastern seas too, where
for one half of the year a dry trade wind is blowing, and for the other a moist monsoon,
the state of the sea water may be expected to show great variations, and these variations
are shown in a very marked manner in the observations made in the China Sea and
neighbouring seas, which were traversed in one direction at the end of the southwest
monsoon when the water was comparatively fresh, and in the other direction after the
northeast monsoon, or true trade, had been blowing for some time. The average
density observed in the China Sea in the beginning of November was 1 ‘02510, while
in the month of January it was 1 ‘02534.

Taking the surface observations, it will be found that in the. North Atlantic the specific
gravity increases from all sides up to a maximum about lat. 22° N. and long. 40° W.
In this they agree with those of Lenz and the German ship “ Gazelle.” It is an
opinion, expressed by Lenz and by other travellers and navigators, that the specific
gravity of the surface water of the North Atlantic is greater on the west and less
on the east side ; and this opinion is derived from a consideration of the observations
on outward-bound and homeward-bound ships. The former keep close to the eastern
margin of the North Atlantic, whereas the latter keep well out, passing usually to
the westward of the Azores ; and it is true that the water in the centre of the North
Atlantic, between the parallels of 15° and 30°, is denser than on the eastern side, but
it is also denser than on the western side.

East.

Middle.

West.

Buchanan.

Lenz.

Buchanan.

Lenz.

Buchanan.

Maximum, .

1-02755

1-02720

1-02778

1-02776

1-02739

Latitude of Maximum,

24°

31°

23°

20°

27°

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

959

On his outward voyage, Lenz’s course lay farther to the eastward than that of the
Challenger, and, consequently, he did not observe the same high specific gravity. From
the 40th to the 18th parallels his observations show a very constant mean specific
gravity of 1’0270. In the centre the two sets of observations agree very closely, and in
the west there is only the one.

A comparatively high density prevails in the Atlantic up to very high northern
latitudes. The Norwegians in their expeditions of 1876-1878 found the water of the
sea surface to have a very uniform density of 1'0262 to 1'0264 up to latitude 75° N.
Farther to the west this warm salt water is displaced by the cold fresh water coming
down from polar regions and creeping along the American shore as the so-called “ cold
wall” down to comparatively low latitudes. The waters of the Gulf Stream belong
to the warm and salt waters of the Atlantic; consequently, when it is entered from
the west or south, no apparent or marked change is observed in the colour, temperature,
or saltness of the water. When, however, it is approached from the other side, as by
ships leaving American ports, the change is very marked from the green, turbid, cold,
and fresh polar waters of the “ cold wall ” to the transparent deep blue waters of the
warmer ocean. The Gulf Stream was crossed twice by the Challenger, once off Sandy
Hook and the second time off Halifax. The specific gravity on the latter occasion
was l’027l„ which is identical with the mean specific gravity of the water derived
from all the observations made between St. Thomas, Bermuda, and the Azores.

What is most remarkable on approaching or leaving the Atlantic shores of North
America is not the warm blue water in more or less rapid motion in a northeasterly
direction, which does not materially differ from the water of the Atlantic farther to
seaward, but the green cold polar water which intrudes itself down along the coast
and has such a powerful influence on the climate of the eastern States of America. On
the other hand, by following the direction of the green zone on the Chart, it will be seen
that the warm and dense water of the Atlantic penetrates far into Arctic regions in
the direction of Spitzbergen, where it in its turn may be held to be an intruder, but a
beneficent one. It fills the whole of the deep basin of the Norwegian Sea with dense
Atlantic water, thrusting the Arctic water farther into polar regions, from whence it
overflows down the east coast of Greenland and the western side of Davis Strait. It
is the open character of the sea, that is, the freedom from large masses of land, that
enables the water to get away towards the polar regions in the direction of Spitzbergen,
and thus to benefit the countries which, like Great Britain, are situated on the edge of the
stream or drift. On the other hand, the supply of warm water is much increased, as
pointed out by Mr. Croll, by the configuration of the American continent, which diverts
a large portion of the water impelled by the southeast trade winds into the North
Atlantic, so that with an excessive supply of warm water and a ready means of getting
rid of it, the circulation in it is active and far reaching.

(nark, chall. exp. — vol. i.- — 1885)

121

960

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The equatorial minima observed in the Challenger were 1’0259 in 3° N. on the
outward, and 1'0258 on the homeward voyage; by Lenz 1,0251 in 7° 30' N. outward,
and 1 ‘02575 in 2° N. homeward-bound. On the outward voyage he appears to have
crossed two streams or layers of remarkably fresh water, separated by a narrow stratum
of water of the ordinary specific gravity of 1 '0261. It is worthy of remark, that
wherever the Counter Equatorial Currents, including the Guinea Current among them,
are entered, fresher water is found than outside of them. On the outward voyage
the Challenger sailed along the Equator from the meridian of 14° W. to that of
30° W. in the course of the south Equatorial Current ; the density was found to rise
from 1’0259 in the east to 1'0267 in the west, where the dense water of the southeast
trade wind region was crossed as it entered the North Atlantic.

In the South Atlantic, as in the North, the maximum is in the heart of the
trade wind region, but it is situated considerably nearer the Equator than is the case in
the North. It is also lower on the east side than it is on the west, the absolute
maximum on the west- side being 1 ’02775 off the Abrolfios Islands. The very
high specific gravity which was observed on the Brazilian coast from Cape St. Roque
to the Abrolhos Islands is very remarkable, considering the size of the rivers which
empty themselves into the ocean in the neighbourhood. It is no doubt explained by
the potency of the southeast trade driving the water concentrated by its action constantly
against the American coast, part of the stream going into the North Atlantic as the
Equatorial Current, and part running along the Brazilian coast as the Brazilian Current,
carrying its saltness even beyond the mouth of the River Plate.

Immediately to the south of the Cape of Good Hope there is much variation in the
density as well as in the temperature of the surface water. On the Atlantic side both
temperature and density are as a rule lower than on the eastern side, where the Agulhas
Current brings the warm and dense waters of the tropical parts of the Indian Ocean.
In this current the density of the surface water was as high as 1 ’0266, and in
proceeding to the southward it fell rapidly to 1’0260 in 40° S. lat., and 1’0250
in 46° S. From this latitude to the edge of the pack ice this density is maintained with
great uniformity (see p. 422).

Icebergs were not found to affect the density of the Water much, principally because
the temperature of the water was always close to 32° F., and possessed therefore very
little melting power. Amongst pack ice, however, the .melting point of which is
considerably lower than that of freshwater ice, the sea was, as might have been expected,
colder and fresher. In fact, seawater ice is a perfect preservative, and possibly, also, to
some extent a restorative, of freshwater ice. Hence icebergs, as long as they remain in
Antarctic regions, that is, amongst saltwater ice, have little or no tendency to decrease
in size ; what is melted by the direct rays of the sun being probably much more than
made up by the snow falling on the top. It is true that the temperature observations

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE,

901

showed the existence of warmer water below the surface, and icebergs floating with any
part of their mass in this stratum would have a greater tendency to decay than those
less deeply immersed.

In the Pacific the distribution of the salinity differs considerably from that in the
Atlantic. The latter ocean is divided sharply into two basins of concentration corre-
sponding to the North and South Atlantic. In the Pacific only the southern concentra-
tion area is well marked ; in the northern part of the ocean the variations in salinity are
slight, and the mean saltness low. In no part of the North Pacific was the specific
gravity observed above 1 ‘0265, while in the southern part, in the region of the trade
wind, it exceeds 1 '0270, and the mean specific gravity is comparatively high. The
maximum in the North Pacific is 1 ‘02644 in lat. 30° 22' N., and in the south it is
1 ‘02714 in 17° S. The equatorial minimum was 1 ‘02475 in 7° 26' N. lat. in the Counter
Equatorial Current.

If a line be drawn from Plong Kong to the east coast of Australia, and from Madras
one to the west coast of Australia, a region will be enclosed which consists of land and
water in nearly equal proportions. Many of the islands are almost continental in size,
rise to a great height, and bear on their surface the most luxuriant vegetation of the
world. The seas are generally of great depth, and cut off into remarkable separate basins.
The amount of upheaval which would be required to transform what is now a sea studded
with large and lofty islands into a continent enclosing extensive and defrp lakes, would by
the majority of geologists be considered quite insignificant. The physical conditions of
these masked lakes are also peculiar, more especially as regards temperature. The
density of the water, which may be looked on as at one season forming part of the
Pacific, and at another part of the Indian Ocean, is remarkably low ; and the reason
of this is easily found. Lying, as these seas do, on and in the immediate neighbourhood
of the Equator, they receive a large amount of rain falling directly on their surface, and
in addition, the drainage of the islands in their neighbourhood. The air also above them
is always in a state bordering on saturation with moisture, so that notwithstanding the
very high temperature frequently attained by their surface waters, the amount of
concentration possible is very small. The specific gravity of the greater part of this sea
is under 1 *0255 ; and a large area round the islands of Java and Sumatra is under 1‘0250.
Water so fresh as this is never met with elsewhere, except at the mouths of rivers, or in
the neighbourhood of melting ice, although it is of local occurrence in the open sea after
heavy rains in the equatorial regions. The saltness of these seas varies considerably at
different seasons of the- year ; at least in the northern part of the China Sea this is
remarkably the case. During the prevalence of the southwest monsoon, which is a
wetting wind, the water was observed to have a much lower specific gravity than during
the dry northeast monsoon ; and in these seas there is a regular annual flux and reflux
of waters between the Equator and temperate regions — a tide of long period due to the

962

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

winds. The effect of this tide is shown by its effect on the Japan Stream, which varies
much in position, strength, and temperature, and doubtless also in density, according to*
the season of the year.

It is thus easy to see how a variety of circumstances conspire to equalise and keep down
the density of the waters of the Pacific, and especially of the North Pacific. Its form,
that of a huge bay, the length or depth of which is about equal to the width of its mouth
where it communicates with the great Southern Ocean, affords no facilities for the localisa-
tion of the effects of particular climatic conditions. Again, the large amount of fresh
water supplied to the seas around the islands which form its western boundary in equa-
torial regions has been referred to. For half of the year a violent southwest wind blows
through these channels, itself heavily charged with moisture, indeed always supersaturated,
and driving before it the diluted waters from its source far into the North Pacific, and
it is in the North Pacific that the density of the surface water is found to be lowest and
most uniform. Also, unlike the Atlantic, there is no facility for the water to get away,
consequently the Arctic regions receive no benefit from the tropical heat of either the
Pacific or the Indian Oceans. Again, though the eastern shore of Australia resembles
that of South America, the warm water driven by the southeast trade wind is not
accumulated so as to form a head as in the Gulf of Mexico, but leaks into the Indian
Ocean through the numberless channels among the islands. Were there a continuous
land connection between Australia and the Malay Peninsula, and it is probable that there
has been such a connection, the effect on the climate of the northern parts of Asia and
America, and probably also of the Arctic regions, would no doubt be very marked,
especially as the heating area available in the Pacific is many times larger than that in
the Atlantic. On the other hand, however, the much more marked character of the
monsoon on the West Pacific coast than on the corresponding Atlantic one, would to
a great extent counteract the effect of the southeast trade wind as a furnisher of heated
water.

In the Indian Ocean there are few observations with delicate instruments, but to
judge from those of Lenz and the “ Gazelle,” the concentration area due to the southeast
trade is not more pronounced than in the West Pacific, with which ocean its waters
have a double communication. To the north of the Equator the local influence of the
immense continent, which forms its northern boundary, renders the state of its waters
very different from what is found either in the North Pacific or North Atlantic. It
appears from the observations available, that the water is comparatively fresh all over
this area ; and this fact must have an important bearing on the conditions of the Red
Sea, where the rainfall is almost nil and evaporation takes place with such energy that
its waters are the saltest that occur in any sea in free communication with the ocean.

The following diagrams represent in a graphic form the densities of the surface water
as observed in the Atlantic on the voyage home in March and April 1876 from a position

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

903

in lat. 35° S., and long. 13° W., touching at Ascension and the Cape Yercle Islands to a
position in lat. 35° N. and long. 31° W. The light line represents the densities reduced to
the constant temperature 60° F. (1 5°*56 C.). The black line represents the density of the

Pacific Ocean.

same water at the temperature in situ. In the Pacific the figure represents the densities
as observed in August and September 1875 on the voyage from a, position in lat. 35° N.,
long. 156° W., touching at the Sandwich Islands and Tahiti to a position in lat. 35° S.,

964

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

long. 132° W. As in the other figure the light line represents densities at 60° F. and
the black line densities at the temperature in situ.

The course traced by the light line in the Atlantic shows very markedly the great con-
centration in the trade wind regions and the corresponding dilution in equatorial regions.
In the Pacific evidence is seen of materially different conditions. In the South Pacific
the trade wind region is clearly marked, though the concentration produced is not nearly
so great as in the South Atlantic. In the North Pacific the water between lats. 20° and
30° N. is hardly more concentrated than the average of the equatorial water. Between
lats. 7° and 9° N. two very remarkable dips will be observed in the curve. The water
here had the abnormally low density of P02475. It was in the middle of the Counter
Equatorial Current, which was running to the eastward at the rate of 54 miles per day.
In lat. 3° N. the Equatorial Current was crossed running 70 miles per day to the west-
ward, and its waters were comparatively dense.

From these curves the following Table (VI.) has been compiled, showing the mean
densities at 60° F. and corresponding salinities in grammes per kilogramme of the
surface waters in the two oceans as observed along these routes, and computed for every
5 degrees of latitude.

When the densities are reduced to their values at the temperature of the water in situ,
it is found that, excluding regions affected by ice, the density of the water at the surface
decreases with the latitude, and, broadly, the lightest water (1‘022 to 1,023) is found at
the Equator and the heaviest (1 '026 to 1'027) in colder temperate regions. In water
below the surface it is found that the apparent anomaly of denser water overlying less
dense water disappears. Where the concentrated water of the trade wind region overlies
less salt water its higher temperature makes it in situ really less dense than the fresher
water below. So that if a series of waters be taken at any Station from the surface to the
bottom, their densities in situ will be found to increase with the depth. Occasional
exceptions to this rule are found.

The greatest changes of salinity per fathom of depth occur in tropical regions where
vigorous concentration takes place at the surface, and in the first 200 or 300 fathoms
from the surface. Here also the temperature falls sufficiently rapidly to counterbalance
the effect of decreasing salinity. As the depth increases the changes in salinity become
smaller and smaller, and the rate of decrease of temperature with increase of depth
diminishes, and the actual density of the water in situ is affected chiefly by the pressure
of the water above it. The composition, however, of the deeper water of all the oceans
is so nearly identical that it may be assumed that their coefficients of compressibility are
identical ; so that, except for the purpose of actually estimating the weight of a column
of water, for all comparative purposes the effect of pressure may be neglected, as it affects
equally all waters at the same depth. Experiments made with piezometers on the sound-
ing line showed that the compressibility of water decreases slightly but sensibly with

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

965

increase of pressure, and this has since been confirmed by experiments made by Professor
Taft,

Around the Society Islands the saltest water of the Pacific is found ; it is here
only that the density exceeds P0270, and nowhere does it reach P0275. The great
bulk of the water in this Ocean has a density under l-0260. The very low surface
specific gravity observed in lat. 9° N. is purely superficial, and is characteristic of the
Counter Equatorial Current. As in the Atlantic, the minimum specific gravity is found
usually at a depth of about 1000 fathoms, but in the Pacific light water approaches
the Equator from both sides at the bottom, whilst in the Atlantic it comes in a marked
degree only from the south ; and consequently in the^ North Pacific the mean specific

Table YI.

Interval of Latitude.

Atlantic.

Pacific.

From

To

Density at 60° F.
(15°-56 C.).

Salt in Grammes
per Kilogramme.

Density at 60° F.

Salt in Grammes
per Kilogramme.

35 K

3°0 N.

1-02724

36-65

1-02586

34-83

30

25

755

37-03

614

35-20

25

20

766

37T7

589

34-87

20

15

713

36"48

579

34-74

. 15

10

669

53-91

572

34-65

10

5

635

35-47

552

34-39

5

0

585

34-82

612

35-17

0

5 S.

628

35-38

654

35-72

5 S,

1 10

649

35-65

642

35-56

10

15

711

36-46

655

35-73

15

20

765

37-16

679

36-04

20

25

728

36-55

690

36-19

25

30

693

36-22

640

35-54

30

35

674

35-98

629

35-39

35 1ST.

0

1-026924

36-216

1-025863

1 34-836

0

35 S.

6926

36-218

6554

35-735

35 K

35 S.

6925

36-217

6209

35-288

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

966

gravity is lower than in the south, the contrary being the case in the Atlantic, and no
doubt the configuration of these two oceans is the chief cause of their' diverging con-
ditions, the North Pacific being, as already stated, a wide open bay, whereas the North
Atlantic is more like a lake.

Generally speaking, the density diminishes from the surface down to a depth of
800 or 1000 fathoms, and then increases towards the bottom, where, in the Pacific,
the density varies from 1'0254 to 1'0257. In the South Atlantic the bottom density
is 1*0258 to 1*0.260, and increases to as much as 1*0265 in the North Atlantic. Here,
however, is found the greatest collection of dense water to be found in any open
ocean, and the basin of the eastern portion of the North Atlantic receives the overflow of
very dense water from the Mediterranean, which finds its way out along the bottom of
the Strait of Gibraltar. This water having a high temperature (55° F.) and high density
(l '028 to 1'029) affects the temperature as well as the density of the bottom water.

In the trade wind regions, the density decreases from a maximum at the surface to a
minimum about 1000 fathoms, and then slowly increases again. In the regions of the
equatorial calms and rains the specific gravity most commonly increases from a minimum
at the surface to a maximum at a depth of from 50 to 150 fathoms, from which point,
downwards, it follows the same law as in the trade winds. The existence of the sub-
surface maximum is probably due to the fact that the water, concentrated on both
sides of the Equator, is driven by the wind towards the Equator, where there is a
constant supply of fresh water of high temperature, beneath which it is forced to dip.
Starting from the source of the trade wind, it is found that while it is concentrating the
surface water it is always forcing it farther into warmer latitudes, where, owing to the
rise of temperature, the water, though it has become salter, has at the same time become
lighter. As the Equator, however, is approached, the rise of temperature with decreasing
latitude diminishes, and the water thus becomes liable to sink of itself, even although it
were not covered over by the tropical rains. A large quantity of water forced north-
wards towards the Equator passes into the North Atlantic, owing to the preponderating
force of the southeast trade. Here it follows the course of the Equatorial Current into
the Caribbean Sea, reappearing as the Gulf Stream, and ultimately forming part of
the great lake of warm and dense water which occupies the basin of the North
Atlantic. The only outlet for this water is into polar regions, and a portion of the water
is driven in this direction and keeps the sea free from ice far into Arctic latitudes. The
bulk of it, however, remains in the lake-like basin of the ocean, the central portion of
which is known as the Sargasso Sea. In the centre of the northeast trade wind, the
evaporation which goes on is very great, whilst at the same time a not insignificant
yearly oscillation of temperature takes place ; these two causes combined materially assist
the propagation downwards both of heat and saltness, and in point of fact in both these
respects the waters of this region exceed those of any other part of the ocean. This

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

967

is particularly well shown by comparing the North Atlantic with the North Pacific.
The mean specific gravity of the water between the surface and a depth of 1500 fathoms,
at lat. 30° 22' N. and long. 154° 56' W., in the Pacific, as determined from observa-
tions made at nine different depths on the 21st July 1875, was 1 ‘02534, the depth
being 2950 fathoms; at lat. 26° 21' N. and long. 33° 37' W., in the Atlantic, the mean
specific gravity of the same stratum was 1 ‘02659, from observations at nine different
depths on the 3rd May 1876, the depth being 2700 fathoms. The mean temperature
of the water down to 1500 fathoms, for the Pacific Station was 40°‘16, and for the
Atlantic one 45°‘53. From observations made in the “ Porcupine,” in lat. 48° N. a
mean temperature of 43°‘51 was found down to 1500 fathoms, and in lat. 55° 40' N.
a mean temperature of 43°‘ll down to the same depth; 'it is, therefore, in every way
likely that a high specific gravity prevails also down to the bottom. In treating of
the concentration of the North Atlantic, it has already been mentioned that that
ocean is the recipient of all the brine from the Mediterranean, where evaporation
goes on with great vigour. Notwithstanding the great supply of fresh water from
the numerous European rivers and the Nile, which is constantly pouring into it, and
the rain which falls on itself, there is a constant deficiency in the amount of water
present in it's basin. That this is so, is evident from the existence of a constant
inflow through the Strait of Gibraltar at the surface and southern side, and outflow at
the bottom and northern side of very salt water, both streams being, however, modified
by tidal currents. The Mediterranean and Eed Seas furnish instructive examples of
what ocean water tends to become when subjected in the first case to an average climate
similar to what prevails in the trade wind regions of the North Atlantic, and in the case
of the Red Sea to a climate of almost perfect dryness and great heat, both being connected
with the open ocean, so as to admit of interchange of water. The Baltic and Black
Seas afford examples of similar seas in colder and damper climates, while the Dead
Sea and the depression in which it lies show the result of completely isolating a drain-
age area in a very dry climate. The water of the Dead Sea is saturated, containing
as much as 28 per cent, of salt. The water of the Red Sea contains 4 per cent, of
salt, and that of the Mediterranean 3 ‘6 to 3 ‘9 per cent., thus showing the freshening
effect of communication with the ocean.

It is worthy of remark that in the Norwegian Sea, which stretches from the Faeroe
Islands to Spitzbergen, and attains a depth of 2500 fathoms, the deep water was found
to be distinctly of Atlantic origin, both on account of its high salinity and of the small
amount of dissolved nitrogen which it contained. The comparatively very salt water of
the Atlantic is rendered less dense by its high temperature, and is thus able to penetrate
into the Arctic regions, where, on being cooled by the winter climate, it sinks down, raising
the salinity of the Arctic water with which it mixes, and at the same time carrying down
to the bottom approximately the temperature of freezing sea water. The distribution of
(narr. chall, exp,— vol, i. — 1885.) 122

068

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

temperature and salinity in this remarkable basin, which has been so thoroughly studied
by the Norwegians in their yearly expeditions, affords the strongest proof of the efficacy
of high surface salinity, and a considerable difference of winter and summer temperature
in cooling the deeper waters of the sea.

The portion of the Equatorial Current which is diverted southwards on striking the
Brazilian coast carries warm and concentrated water far to the southward, and similarly
from the Indian Ocean the Agulhas Current brings warm and dense water into the colder
regions of the Southern Ocean. The observations made in the South Atlantic on the
28th February 1876, in lat. 35° 39' S., long. 50° 47' W., depth 1900 fathoms, show the
existence of the dense water from tropical regions penetrating to a great depth.
The density (at 60° F.) of the bottom water was found to be 1 '02650, and the trust-
worthiness of this observation is confirmed by the fact that the “ Gazelle,” in a sounding-
close to the spot (lat. 34° 36' N., long. 49° 46' W.), found the density of the bottom water
to be 1 '02654 in 1875 fathoms. In a sounding in 1900 fathoms, just off the Agulhas
Bank, the bottom water had a specific gravity of 1 '02607, which could only have come from
the Indian Ocean. The surface water of this ocean is not remarkable for saltness; indeed,
in the equatorial part it is very much below the average of Pacific equatorial water.
There is, however, one region in the northern part of this ocean, in which concentration
goes on with very great vigour, namely, in the Red Sea ; and just as the evaporation of
the water in the Mediterranean affects the specific gravity of the deep water of the North
Atlantic, so may the Red Sea furnish concentrated water to the depths of the Indian
Ocean. An objection might be raised to this source of the heavy water observed by the
“ Gazelle ” between Mauritius and Australia, from the fact that the temperature of the
bottom water was not above the normal, whereas water coming from the Red Sea must
enter the Indian Ocean with a temperature of 70°. Taking the density of the bottom
Avater of the Antarctic Ocean to be 1'0255, and that of the deep water of the Red Sea to
be 1 '0300, it will be seen that to produce water of the density 1'0261 it is necessary to mix
six volumes of Red Sea water -with thirty-nine volumes of Antarctic water. If the tempera-
ture of the Red Sea water be 70° F., and that of the Antarctic water 33°'5, the tempera-
ture of the mixture would be 38° '3. The bottom temperature in the Agulhas Current as
determined on December 18th, 1874, Avas 36° '4. It is therefore probable that the
overflow from the Red Sea has a considerable influence on the temperature and density
of the deep water of the western Indian Ocean. The effect of concentration in raising
the temperature in the subsurface Avater of this ocean is very evident ; in lat. 24° 41' S.
the mean temperature of the water cloAvn to 1500 fathoms was 46°'4 F.

To compensate for the warm water flowing from tropical to polar regions, there arc
cold currents flowing in the reverse direction. One of the most remarkable is that which
comes doAvn Baffin Bay, and hugging the American coast penetrates as far south as the
latitude of Washington before it is absorbed into the body of the ocean, to the cold of the

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

969

deeper waters of which it very materially contributes. Another equally remarkable
current is that which brings the cold water from the south polar regions up along the
South American coast at the bottom as far as the Equator. The bottom water in the
corresponding situations in the Pacific and Indian Oceans is found to be much warmer j and
it is probable from this fact that the depth between. Cape Horn and the south polar
land is much shallower than that between either Africa or Australia and the same land.
In any case it is certain that facilities must exist here for promoting the flow of cold
water at the bottom from high Antarctic latitudes into the lower latitudes of the South
Atlantic Ocean. The South American continent extends to the parallel of 56° S. The
depth of the sea to the south is unknown, but from the edge of the bank south of the
Falkland Islands to the South Shetland Islands is only 380 miles, so that there is some
reason in dealing with water at depths of 1500 fathoms and upwards, for assuming a
direct connection between the American continent and these islands. Farther to the
eastward there are three groups of islands, namely, South Orkneys in 61° S., the Sand-
wich group in lat. 59° to 56° S., and South Georgia in 54° S. All of these are covered
with eternal snow, and are exposed to a glacial climate. Of Georgia, which lies 2° farther
north than Cape Horn, the bays are terminated by ice cliffs of considerable height,
and according to Cook the country in the very height of summer is in a. manner wholly
covered many fathoms deep with frozen snow, but more especially on the southwest
coast.1 In the ice chart of the Southern Ocean the line “ freezing point in air in
January and February” passes through the Sandwich and South Shetland groups, and the
northern limit of icebergs reaches the very low latitude of 40° S. The dense water of
the tropics, which has been diverted in 1 a southerly direction by the South American
continent, is brought directly into this very cold climate, and by virtue of its great
salinity affords the means of promptly conveying the surface cold to the bottom. If this
cold water have a tendency to flow from the poles, it will in these high latitudes experience
a strong thrust towards the westward, due to the increasing rotational velocity of the
earth’s surface. That this does take place is shown by the low bottom temperatures
observed at every Station along the western side of the South Atlantic almost to the
Equator, and that there is here a sensible current of cold water along the bottom is
shown by the sudden change in the rate of decrease of temperature with increasiug depth
which is observed at depths of from 2000 to 2200 fathoms. It shows that the water
between the bottom and 2000 fathoms is nearly as distinct from the water above it as the
water of the “ cold wall ” on the North American coast is from the Gulf Stream outside
it. The temperature observations on the 28th and 29th February 1876 show that the
surface of this cold stratum is not level, but rises towards the American shores. On the
28th February the Station (323) was in lat. 35° 39' S., long. 50° 47' W., depth 1900
fathoms, and therefore on the continental declivity forming the western containing
1 See Darwin, Journal of Researches during the Voyage of H.M.S, “Beagle,” p. 248, ed. 1879,

970

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

boundary of the ocean; on the 29th, 120 miles to the eastward, the bottom of the
basin had been reached in 2800 fathoms. On the 28th the “ dip ” in the tempera-
ture took place at 1700 to 1900 fathoms, while on the 29th it was found at 2100 to
2300 fathoms.

The temperature of the water from 2400 fathoms to the bottom was uniform, the
mean result of six observations being 32° '43. This water underruns the body of the
Atlantic water, which at 1500 to 2000 fathoms has here a temperature of 37°, producing a
temperature gradient of about 1°‘3 per hundred fathoms at the Steepest. For the pre-
servation of this gradient a considerable supply of cold water is requisite, and it must
be drawn from higher latitudes. But any motion of the water towards the Equator will
be accompanied by a strong deflection to the westward (proportional to the change of
the cosine of the latitude). A measure of this deflecting force is furnished by the rise
of this cold water at the more inshore Station on the 28th, where the maximum gradient
is at about 1750 fathoms, while on the 29th, at a distance of 120 miles, it is at about
2100 fathoms. Hence the average incline produced on the surface of the cold water by.
this tangential force is 350 fathoms in 120 miles, or approximately a gradient of 1 in 350.
Between latitudes 36° and 35° the tangential force increases in the proportion of 81:82.
In the northern hemisphere there is no polar current at the bottom which can be
compared with this one. The North Atlantic water which penetrates into Arctic regions
is cooled, and fills up the whole of the deep basin of the Norwegian Sea with cold but
dense water, but its passage southward is barred by the ridge stretching from Greenland
by Iceland, Faeroe, and the Shetlands to Norway, the greatest depth of water on which
does not exceed 300 fathoms. The northward drift at the surface is largely influenced
by tidal currents which stir up the water to the very bottom, keeping, the summit of the
ridge clear of mud.1 Were it not for this ridge there would doubtless be a similar current
occupying the deep water along the edge of the continental plateaus of Europe and Africa.

A very remarkable current exists in the North Atlantic close to the shores of Morocco,
and extends from Cape Bojador to Cape Spartel and even through the Strait of Gibraltar
along the African coast into the Mediterranean. This current, which flows in a northerly
direction, is confined to the immediate neighbourhood of the coast, not extending more
than 20 miles out to sea. Its waters are characterised by their low density and
temperature as compared with the water immediately outside, and by their deep olive-
green colour. In October 1883 the S.S. “Dacia” found the temperature of the water
out at sea to be very constantly 69° F. ; when the African coast in the neighbourhood of
the town of Mogador was approached the temperature and the density began to fall
perceptibly and close in within a couple of miles of the shore, and in less than 50 fathoms,
the temperature fell to 61° in water of a pure olive-green colour, and the density (at 60° F.),
which had been 1'0268 outside, fell to 1‘0264. When it is remembered that the trade
1 See Encycl. Brit.. Article, Norwegian Sea, vol. xvii. p. 592, 9th ed., 1884.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

971

winds drive the surface water of the Atlantic bodily to the westward, thus drawing the
water away from the eastern side of the ocean, it is evident that while it pushes the
water westward it must drag water from some other direction to supply its place. No
doubt much of it is supplied by surface drift from the southward and eastward, but if the
temperature curves of the water off the coast of Guinea be studied, it will be seen that
much of the water which is brought into the eastern part of the Atlantic to supply that
drained away by the Equatorial Current and other westerly streams is supplied from the
deeper, colder, and less dense strata of southern seas. On the 11th August 1873, in
the Guinea Current the surface temperature was 78 °*7, and at 50 fathoms it was only 54°’2,
the decrease being at the average rate of 0°’5 F. per fathom. The latitude of this Station
was 12° 5' N. If this be accepted as an indication of the deep water of the southern
hemisphere penetrating to the northward of the Equator, it follows necessarily that as it
goes farther north it will experience a thrust to the eastward, and will therefore be
thrown up against the western shores of Africa, and the observed cold current coming
from the south and entering the Strait of Gibraltar would be satisfactorily explained. It
must be remembered that to produce and sustain the observed temperature gradient of
7° F. in less than 20 miles, and a difference of 5° F. between the temperature of the
surface water and that of the air above it, a considerable and active supply of cold water
is absolutely necessary, and it is observed to have a motion from the southward.

It is difficult to make an accurate estimate either of the meau depth or the mean
salinity of the ocean, but taking the one at 2000 fathoms (3660 metres) and the other at
3 5 "5 grammes per litre, there would be an average of 1300 kilogrammes of salt dissolved
per square decimetre of sea surface. Taking the specific gravity of sea salt at 2 '5, this
would give the amount of salt dissolved as equivalent to a layer of it 52 metres, or 170
feet thick over the whole area of the ocean.

It may be pointed out that organisms which secrete silica are much more abundant
in the Pacific, where the specific gravity of the water is relatively low ; and, on the other
hand, organisms which secrete carbonate of lime are relatively more abundant where the
specific gravity of the water is high, as, for instance, in the tropical regions of the Atlantic.

The ratio of total salts to water has been discussed when treating of the
density of the water at constant temperature. During the cruise samples of sea
water from very various depths and localities were collected and preserved in
glass-stoppered bottles, and from time to time sent home. After the return of
the Expedition a large number of these were handed over to Professor Dittmar
for analysis. On his analyses of a portion of these, and his work in connection
with the subject, Professor Dittmar has furnished an exceedingly valuable Report,1

Report on the Composition of Ocean-Water, Phys. Chem. Chall. Exp., part i., 1884.

972

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

which will be quoted liberally. With reference to the composition of the salt mixture
dissolved in sea water, Professor Dittmar says : —

“A priori, , we should say that this composition cannot be subject to any great
variation; because, if there were no chemical changes going on in the ocean, and no
gain or loss of dissolved individual salts, this composition would now, after thousands of
years’ constant intermixture, be absolutely the same everywhere ; and what is going on
in the shape of reactions and importation or exportation of individual salts, really
amounts only to an extremely minute fraction of the whole, even in the course of a
century. This conclusion is confirmed by the analyses of several hundred samples
of surface waters, which were carried out by Forchhammer in connection with a
great research which he published in 1864.1 According to his results, if we
confine ourselves to the open ocean, we find that everywhere the ratios to one
another of the quantities of chlorine, sulphuric acid, lime, magnesia, and total salts
exhibit practically constant values. With the view chiefly of supplementing Forch-
hammer’s work, I have made exact determinations of the chlorine, sulphuric acid, lime,
magnesia, potash, and soda in 77 samples of water collected by the Challenger from very
different parts of the ocean : —

12 from the surface.

10 from depths of 25 to 100 fathoms.

21 from depths of over 100 to 1000 fathoms.

34 from greater depths.

“ The results, while fairly agreeing with Forchhammer’s, were in still closer accordance
with one another, and thus showed that Forchhammer’s proposition may be extended
from surface waters to ocean waters obtained from all depths.

“ The solid matter dissolved in sea water, though strictly speaking, and we may add
necessarily, of a very complex composition, consists substantially of the muriates and
sulphates of soda, magnesia, lime, and potash. Forchhammer, after having satisfied
himself that all the other constituents taken conjointly amount to only a small fraction
of one per cent, of the total solids, in his individual analyses limited himself to exact
determinations of the chlorine, sulphuric acid, lime, and magnesia. The potash he deter-
mined only in a. comparatively small number of samples ; and where he reports the soda
this component is calculated by difference, on the assumption that the acids and bases
present exactly neutralise each other. But this assumption had never been proved to
be correct, and a priori is improbable, because it leaves out of reckoning the carbonate
of lime which many animals need for forming their shells. I therefore in my analyses
made it a special point, in addition to the other bases, to determine also the soda by a
method independent of the assumption quoted ; and on calculating my first set of (21)

1 Phil. Trans., vol. civ. p. 203, 1865,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

973

Challenger water analyses, had the satisfaction of finding that they had all given a small
surplus of base, amounting on an average to 86 equivalents per 10,000 equivalents of acid
present, corresponding (if we assume the excess of base to be present as normal carbonate)
to about O'll gramme of carbonic acid, equivalent to 0'25 gramme of carbonate of lime per
1000 grammes of sea water analysed. While recognising the importance of this result, I
was keenly alive to the possibility of its having been brought about by a constant positive
error in my sum total of base determinations, and accordingly sought for an exact
direct method for the determination of the surplus base in a given sea water.”

That sea water has an alkaline reaction was observed early in the cruise by Mr.
Buchanan. On the 29tli September 1873 it was first remarked, and on that day the
alkalinity in the cold of the surface water was repeatedly determined in samples of
500 c.c. each by means of tenth normal hydrochloric acid, using rosolic acid as an index.
It was found that 3'5 c.c. 0THC1 was required to neutralise 500 c.c. sea water, or that 1
litre of sea water is sufficiently alkaline to neutralise 7 c.c. of tenth normal acid, neutrality
being indicated by rosolic acid. In other words, the alkalinity is equal to what would be
produced by dissolving 28 mgrm. caustic soda (NaHO) in a litre of water. It was found
that the water so neutralised reco vered its alkaline reaction on standing, and that its
alkalinity was increased by boiling.

Mr. Buchanan’s observation of the alkalinity of sea water, though original, was not
new. It had already been observed by v. Bibra. Its true significance was not seized
until the discovery was again made independently by Torn0e on the Norwegian expedi-
tion. By working it out he showed that the whole of the carbonic acid in the sea waters
experimented on by him must be taken as combined with base, and the average of his
experiments gave for carbonic acid forming carbonates 5278 mgrm. per litre and for
carbonic acid forming bicarbonates 43 '64 mgrm. per litre, that is, that in the average of
the waters examined by him there were bicarbonates and neutral carbonates dissolved
in the proportions of 43 : 9. It is evident that in these waters there was no carbonic
acid which could be called “ free,” and the deficiency in the amount required to form
bicarbonate goes to explain the alkaline reaction of freshly drawn sea water in the cold.

Professor Dittmar in his Report treats the subject of the alkalinity of sea water and
its dependance on dissolved carbonates in an elaborate and exhaustive manner.

The average composition of ocean water salts, as the result of 77 complete analyses,
has been given on p. 954. Commenting on these results, Professor Dittmar says d —
“ As a general result of Forchliammer’s and my own analyses, the above numbers
may be taken as holding approximately for any sample of ocean ivater. Of the degree
of approximation we can form an idea by comparing my numbers for the percentages
of chlorine, sulphuric acid, magnesia, and potash, with the corresponding entries in the
77 reports tabulated on pages 23 to 25, and the numbers for the lime there with

1 Phys. Chem. Chall. Exp., part i. p. 204, 1884.

974

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

one another. The percentages of soda being too largely affected by the cumulative
error of the other determinations, had better be left out of consideration. But even if
we do so, we often meet with fluctuations which are too great to be taken as arising
from analytical errors, and consequently must correspond to differences in the actual
composition. I have taken great pains in trying to explain these differences by natural
causes, but have not been very successful. The final results of my inquiries may be
summed up as follows: —

“ From my analyses (which I do not pretend exhaust the subject) it would appear
that the composition of sea water salt is independent of the latitude and longitude
whence the sample is taken. Nor can we trace any influence of the depth from
which the sample comes, if we confine ourselves to the ratio to one another of
chlorine, sulphuric acid, magnesia, potash, and bromine. I emphasise the bromine
because, while present in very small proportion, it is taken up preferably by sea
plants/and consequently must be presumed to be more liable than any of the major
components to at least temporary local diminution. And yet my analyses of the three
mixtures of Challenger waters, and of the Arran water referred to, gave identical values
for the bromine present per 100 of chlorine. But the determinations of the lime in the
'same set of waters make it most highly probable that the proportion of this component
increases with the depth. Referring to 100 parts of halogen calculated as chlorine, we
find for the quantity of lime : —

In deep-sea waters —

Mixture III., .... 3-0307

In surface waters —

Mixture I., . . . . 3-0175

Difference, .... 0-0132

In medium depth waters —

Mixture II., .... 3-0300

In surface waters, .... 3-0175

Difference, . . . 0-0125

and either of the two differences is five to six times as great as even the absolute sum of
the probable errors of the respective two terms. A discussion of the quantities of lime
brought out by the 7 7 analyses had given a similar result, but exaggerated the difference
between deep-sea on the one hand and shallow or medium depth on the other.

“ But there can be no doubt that, if I had applied even as exact a method in the 77
analyses as I did subsequently in the special investigation on the lime, I should have
arrived at a greater difference than 0-013 between certain individual samples.

The result under discussion received a valuable confirmation from the alkalinity

KARR ATI YE OF THE CRUISE.

975

determinations to which I had occasion to refer above. Following the example of the
Norwegian chemists, I measured the surplus base (i.e. the base left unsaturated by the
sulphuric and hydrochloric acid) by the weight of carbonic acid (C02) which it would need
to convert it into normal carbonate, and referred it to 1 litre of water analysed. But
it struck me that in discussing any series of such determinations, they must be referred
to a constant salinity, and I accordingly reduced all my numbers to 100 parts of total
salts or 5 5 ’4 2 of halogen counted as chlorine ; so that with me ‘ alkalinity,’ as designating
a quantity, means ‘the weight of carbonic acid (C02) present as normal carbonate (i.e.,
in forms similar to carbonate of lime) in every 100 parts of total salts,’ which, on an
average of 130 cases, and if the number of parts by weight of carbonic acid be taken in
grammes, corresponds to 2 ‘78 litres. Omitting a number of abnormally high or low values,
and a few suspected analyses, which left 130 cases for discussion, I found the alkalinity
in the whole set to range substantially from 0'140 to 0*164, and then, confining myself to
‘surface’ waters (meaning waters from depths not exceeding 100 fathoms) and bottom
waters, and referring on both sides to 100 samples, I found that alkalinities from 0*140 to
0*148 occur preferably in surface waters, while from 0*148 to 0*160 the bottom waters
were in the majority. From a graphic representation1 showing the frequency of occur-
rence of certain narrow ranges of alkalinity, I concluded that the most frequently
occurring value is

For surface waters, . . . . . . 0T46±0,002

For bottom waters, . . . . . . . 0T52±0-003

which values may be adopted provisionally, for the two kinds, of ocean water. In
fifteen cases I was in a position to compare with one another the alkalinity of a surface
water and the bottom water at the same Station. In two cases the balance was in favour
of the surface water, the numbers being 0'015 and O'OIO respectively; in one case
the difference was nil; in the remaining twelve cases it wras in favour of the bottom
water, the differences ranging from 0*002 to O’OIO. According to the above two averages
the alkalinity of bottom wTater exceeds that of surface water by 0*006, meaning of course
0*006 grammes of carbonic acid per 100 grammes of total salts, or 0*014 grammes of lime
CaO per 100 of chlorine, if we assume the increase in alkalinity to be owing to additional
lime. My determinations of the lime, as stated, had shown the presence of 0*013 grammes
of extra lime in deep-sea as compared with shallow waters. The closeness of the agree-
ment is of course accidental. That the surplus base in a sea water is not owing entirely to
carbonate of lime is too obvious to be specially pointed out. In sea water (as in any
mixed salt solution) each base is combined with each acid, and as there are four acids
and four bases there must be sixteen salts, the individual percentages of which we have
no means of determining. But there are reasons for assuming that the carbonic acid
1 See Diagram, Phys. Chem, Chall, Exp., part i. p. 136, 1884.

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

123

976

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

being a feeble acid, is combined chiefly with the weakest bases, and consequently chiefly
with the magnesia, and in the second instance with the lime. So we should say, if the
arrangement of the bases and acids into salts were a mere matter of tendency to form
simple salts. But magnesium has a characteristic tendency to form double chlorides
with potassium and sodium, and there is superabundance of chloride of sodium in sea
water. Hence, probably, most of the magnesium is not there as carbonate but as
double sodio-chloride, and the lime takes the greater share, of the carbonic acid. The
alkalinity in any case represents the potential, and may fairly be presumed to measure
approximately the actual, carbonate of lime. This is the only answer to that often
raised question about the presence of ready-formed carbonate of lime in sea water,
which some chemists, who at the time must have deliberately shut their eyes to the
established propositions of chemistry, have endeavoured to solve by direct experiment.
Supposing actual carbonate of lime could be extracted from sea water without the co-
operation of external matter (I greatly doubt whether this has ever been done), the
weight of such extracted carbonate of lime could not reasonably be assumed to be equal
to that which was originally present in the water. Sea water is alkaline, all the alkalinity
must be owing to carbonates, and of these carbonate of lime must be one. This is, and
for a time is likely to be, the sum total of our knowledge on this point.”

At the time when the Challenger Expedition was decided on, and the nature of the
work to be done in the different departments was being considered, the chemist’s attention
was principally directed to the gaseous contents of the water, understanding these to mean
the oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid.

Dr. Jacobsen, who had been engaged as chemist on board the German ship
“ Pommerania ” in her cruise in the North Sea, had found that the method boiling in
vacuo, which was sufficient for the extraction of the oxygen and nitrogen, was useless
for extracting the carbonic acid. He found that, to obtain concordant results, it was
necessary to distil the water sample almost to dryness and collect the carbonic acid which
came away with the steam in baryta water or similar absorbent, and determine it thus
directly. The amount of carbonic acid which Jacobsen thus found (about 88 mgrm.
per litre) was enormously in excess of what pure water could hold in solution when
exposed to the atmosphere under similar conditions. At the same time he was unable
to find in the residue when the water was evaporated to dryness an amount of carbonate
in any way sufficient to account for the retention of the carbonic acid as bicarbonate.
Jacobsen was inclined to ascribe to the chloride of magnesium, which is present in
large quantity in sea water, the property of retaining the carbonic acid. When the
“Pommerania” touched at Leith on her homeward voyage in August 1872, Jacobsen
very kindly communicated to Mr. Buchanan all the facts which he had observed, and
his views as to their possible explanation.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

977

Believing that in whatever combination the carbonic acid might be present it would be
liberated by boiling the water with excess of acid, Mr. Buchanan proposed to determine
the total carbonic acid by boiling the acidified water and determining the eliminated car-
bonic acid. This method was met by the sufficient objection that the carbonic acid so
determined would include any that might be present as neutral carbonate, that is, it would
include both the molecules of carbonic acid of any bicarbonate which might be present.
The sufficiency of this objection lies in the fact that in 1872 the object of determining
the carbonic acid in the water was to furnish precise data as to the state of the
atmospheric contents of the water or the amount to which the atmosphere available for
the creatures living in the water was vitiated, and it was felt that the so-called half-
bound carbonic acid of a bicarbonate might be considered as belonging to the atmosphere,
but that this was impossible with the other and more closely combined portion.

This being so, Mr. Buchanan lost no time in making such investigations as the short
time available would admit of into what might be the cause of the retention of the
carbonic acid. It was, of course, well known that if carbonates were present they would
account for some portion of the retained carbonic acid, but in view of the negative
results which had attended the labours of some chemists who had sought for them, it was
evidently important to experiment on other ingredients known to be present in quantity
in sea water, and of these the sulphates of lime and- magnesia and the chlorides of
magnesium and sodium claimed chief attention.

Solutions of these salts were saturated with carbonic acid and distilled either imme-
diately or after an interval of time, and it was found that, as compared with the
behaviour of distilled water when similarly treated, solution of sulphate of magnesium
exhibited the property of retaining carbonic acid in a marked way like sea water. This
being so, Mr. Buchanan drew the practical conclusion that if the carbonic acid is
retained whether in whole or in part by the sulphates it will be more easily extracted
if these are eliminated. For this purpose, in all the determinations made on board
the Challenger, a sufficient quantity (10 c.c.) of a saturated solution of chloride of
barium was added to the sample before boiling. The immediately apparent effect of this
was that the carbonic acid came away easily and abundantly the moment the water
boiled, and passed principally in the first fifth of the distillate ; also the liquid boiled
down to dryness without any bumping.

As has been mentioned above, one great result of Tornpe’s work in connection with
the Norwegian expedition was to show that in the waters examined by him the amount
of carbonic acid present was insufficient to form bicarbonate with the neutral carbonate
which he so easily and accurately estimates by his alkalinity method. It is probable that
this holds in the majority of cases, so that the retention of the carbonic acid is accounted
for by the dissolved carbonate without the necessity of calling in the assistance of the
sulphates.' How was it then that the precipitation of the sulphates as baryta sulphate

978

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

undoubtedly facilitated the liberation of the carbonic acid, and at the same time the
amount of carbonic acid eliminated from sea water by this method was never more than
about one half of what Jacobsen found in water of the North Sea under similar conditions \
These effects were due to the fact that when chloride of barium is added to a solution
containing sulphates and carbonates in suitable proportion, a double salt of carbonate and
sulphate of baryta is precipitated, and this salt, as was observed by Rose, is only very slowly
attacked even by strong acids. The effect then of the addition of the chloride of barium
was, besides removing the sulphates, to remove the carbonate from the carbonic acid with
which it was combined, and in this way facilitate its escape, and to preserve the carbonate
from attack by the saline solution by transforming it into the more refractory double baryta
salt. This result was not foreseen by Mr. Buchanan at the time, but it justifies the
presumption that the amounts of carbonic acid found by him in the numerous samples
of water examined really do give with considerable accuracy the factor which was sought,
namely, the carbonic acid which is present in the water, otherwise than as carbonate.
As Professor Dittmar has found that this can be in a great measure eliminated by simple
shaking with air at ordinary temperatures, this carbonic acid is rightly looked on as
atmospheric.

When the carbonate has been precipitated as double salt by means of chloride of
barium, the half-bound carbonic acid thus set free would, if sea water from which the
carbonates have been removed, behaved like pure water, be completely eliminated on
distilling over about one-eighth of the liquid. Now, although the bulk of it does come
over with the first portions of the distillate, a number of experiments made for the purpose
of testing the matter showed that, even after 70 per cent, of the liquid had passed,
traces of carbonic acid were evolved. This may be due either to the retaining action of
chlorides, as was supposed by Jacobsen, or to a slight decomposition of the precipitated
carbonate by the boiling saline solution. If the former be the case, then the results require
no correction, for they give what was sought, namely, all the carbonic acid not united to base
in the form of normal carbonate (R2C03) ; if the latter supposition be true, then all the
results are in excess of the truth. Considering the absolute uniformity with which
the determinations were made, this error in excess would probably be a constant
very small amount which would fall to be deducted from all the results. The results
then, as copied from Mr. Buchanan’s journal in Professor Dittmar’s Report (p. 119), give a
maximum value for the loose and half-bound carbonic acid. Any correction which may
have to be applied will be subtractive, and probably insignificant.

On looking at the results as tabulated, one is struck at once by their want of
uniformity. The great variations in values under similar conditions are certainly real,
and not to be explained by defects in the method. Confining the attention for a
moment to the quantity found in surface water, and assuming, with Professor Dittmar,
the amount of carbonic acid present as neutral carbonate to be 55 mgrm. per litre, it

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

979

will be seen that, out of seventy-two surface waters examined, only seven contained more
than the amount of carbonic acid eliminable by this method. Of these seven cases, three
were waters at temperatures above 70° F., and three at temperatures below 35° F. On
the whole, less carbonic acid was found in warm than in cold latitudes. Omitting two
abnormally high but not incorrect results obtained in the tropical sea between Fiji and
Torres Strait, the following table shows the mean amount of carbonic acid per litre in. all
the surface waters arranged according to the temperature of the water in situ : —

Number of Cases taken
Account of.

Temperature Interval,
°C.

Carbonic Acid, Milligrammes
per Litre.

20

25°-0 to 28-7

35-88

15

20-0

„ 25-0

37-18

10

15-0

„ 20-0

42-68

!

10-0

„ 15-0

43-50

8

5-0

„ 10-0

47-21

9

-1-4

,, + 3-2

53-31

The observations made on waters from different depths are averaged in the following
Table

Depth in Fathoms.

Carbonic Acid.
Grammes per Litre.

No. of Determina-
tions of C02.

Average Temperature
of Water.

Surface.

0-0426

73

°C.

25

0-0337

2

50

0-0488

10

100

0-0436

5

14-6

200

0-0446

8

13-0

300

00440

4

6-9

400

0-0411

10

N

5-1

800

0-0422

7

2-5

over 800

0-0446

7

1-5

Bottom

0-0474

54

...

980

THE YOYAGrE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Taking 45 mgrm. as a mean amount of carbonic acid, and 2000 fathoms (3660
metres) as the mean depth of the ocean, this corresponds to a layer of carbon 3 '45 cm.
thick over the area of the ocean.1 It is right to observe here in connection with the
determination of lime and of carbonic acid in sea water, that the freshly collected
sample undoubtedly contains in almost all cases a certain amount of carbonate of
lime suspended as living organisms, which, owing to their minuteness and transparency,
flu not produce any apparent turbidity in the water. The distribution of these organisms
is subject to local concentration, so that samples of water taken from neighbouring
localities may, and usually do, contain very different amounts of this suspended matter.
When these organisms consist, as regards mineral constituent, of carbonate of lime, this
carbonate of lime will not be affected by the chloride of barium, but will be subject to the
decomposing influence of the boiling solution of chloride of magnesium during the
distillation of the sea water, and would account, at least in part, for the continued
evolution of carbonic acid during the whole distillation, and for the want of uniformity in
the results. Quantitative experiments made by Mr. Murray with the tow-net have
shown that as much as 16 tons of carbonate of lime may be suspended in this form in a
mass of sea water one mile square by 1 00 fathoms in depth. These organisms die, the

1 In a lecture on his Challenger work delivered to the Glasgow Philosophical Society, Professor Dittmar sub-
mitted a diagram showing the absolute composition of ocean salts.

Unit=i billion tons = 1012x 1000 kilogrammes.

Chloride of sodium, .....

35,990 'i

Chloride of magnesium, ....

5,034 1 From Prof. W.

Sulphates, . . . . .

. 2,192 1 Dittmar’s analyses

Sulphate of zinc, .....

1,666 [> and oceanometric

Sulphate of potash, .....

1,141 data given by

Bromide of magnesium, . . . .

100 | Boguslawski.

Carbonate of lime, . .

160 J

46,283

Total bromine (Dittmar), ....

87-2

Total iodine (Kobbstorffer),

0-03

Total chloride of rubidium (from C. Schmidt’s r

Dialyses, as reported

by Robb, Cliemisehe Geologie), ..... 26 '0

Total mass of the ocean, .......= 1322355 units.

Prof. Dittmar in the same lecture utilised certain data regarding the solids introduced into the ocean by rivers,
which he found in Boguslawski’s Ozeanographie, for forming an estimate, however rough, of the rate at which these add
to the amount of carbonate of lime. According to Boguslawski’s statement of the total water introduced by the thirteen
principal rivers per annum on the one hand, and their average content of solids according to Bischoff on the other, it
appears that these thirteen rivers contribute about L3375 x 109 tons of solids per annum, of which about one half may
be said to be carbonate of lime. Assuming the carbonate of lime contributed by all rivers to amount to just so much,
and comparing this with the 160 x 1012 tons of the same substances which. are contained in the present ocean, it would

take x^io9 = 1 10400 years to bring up the total oceanic carbonate of lime to double its present amount; or

1194 years to increase it by 1 per cent, of its present value.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

981

lime passes into solution in the water, and their bodies use up the oxygen of the water
to form carbonic acid.

One of the most important discoveries made during the voyage was that the
occurrence of carbonate of lime on the bottom depends mainly on the depth of the
sea above it. “ Pteropod ooze” is not found in depths greater than 1500 fathoms, or
Globigerina ooze, as a rule, in greater depths than 2500 fathoms. The animals, the shells
of which, when dead, form these deposits, live almost exclusively at or near the surface ;
when they die they sink to the bottom, and it appears that the time which a Pteropod
takes to sink through 1500 fathoms of average sea water is such that the water is able to
dissolve it completely; the larger and thicker shelled pelagic Foraminifera are able to
last till they reach 2500 fathoms. If, as appears to be generally the case, all the
carbonic acid is already united to base either as neutral carbonate or bicarbonate, it is
evident that it can have no part in assisting the solution of more carbonate of lime.
It has been found, however, that sea water even without excess of carbonic acid has
the power of dissolving carbonate of lime, though the presence of free carbonic acid
renders it a much more energetic solvent. Professor Dittmar thinks the cause of
the disappearance of the surface shells from the deeper deposits is not that deep
water contains any abnormal proportion of loose or free carbonic acid, but the
fact that even alkaline sea water, if given sufficient time, will take up carbonate
of lime in addition to what it already contains.1 It is probable, however, that
carbonic acid does play an important part in the solution of the shells of animals
sinking through the water. The organic matter of the animal on being oxidised pro-
duces carbonic acid, which being itself a liquid at all depths over 200 fathoms, will form
a locally concentrated acid solution inside the shell, whcih it will attack with vigour.

The presence of carbonic acid in sea water was shown in a remarkable way by its pre-
sence in the drinking water. Except during prolonged stay in harbour the fresh water
used on board the ship was supplied entirely by distillation from sea water. The steam was
taken from the ship’s boilers and entered at the bottom of the condenser, forcing by its
pressure the condensed water up into the so-called aerating tank from which it went
to the store tanks in the hold. There was thus no escape for the carbonic acid except
through the distilled water. Freshly distilled water was frequently taken hot from the
condenser and tested immediately. The amounts of carbonic acid per litre are given
in the following table. They were determined by adding excess of baryta water and
titrating with acid.

1 Phys. Chum. Cliull.; Exp., part i. p. 222, 1884.

982

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

Temperature,

°Cl

C02 Milli-
grammes per
Litre.

Remarks.

54-0

63-9

54-0

80-0

Freshly drawn.

26-0

14-5

Allowed to stand till the temperature fell from 54° to 26° C.

22-0

o-o

Allowed to stand two hours outside of port, while temperature fell to 22° C.

31-5

48-5

From hold tank.

22-0 (?)

o-o

The same allowed to stand some time outside of port.

53-0

65-7

Fresh from condenser.

29-2

80-0

Fresh from hold tank.

18-3

o-o

The same allowed to stand outside port.

The amount of carbonic acid in the freshly collected distilled water is thus very large,
notwithstanding the high temperature of the water. The unstable condition of the
mixture is shown by the rapidity and completeness with which the carbonic acid disappears
when exposed to the air. The results show also in a very evident way that in sea water
there can be no appreciable amount of really free carbonic acid. If much more be found
than is required for the formation of bicarbonate, then it is retained by some other agency
than the absorptive power of the water itself.

With regard to the dissociation tension of carbonic acid in sea water, Professor
Dittmar writes : 1 —

“ Considering that at a temperature of 18° to 21° C. the dissociation tension of the
bicarbonates in sea water is 5 ten-thousandths of an atmosphere, at temperatures not
differing by more than one or two degrees from 0° C., such as prevail in the Arctic and
Antarctic Regions, it is far more likely than not to fall below 3 ten-thousandths, which
is about the partial tension of the carbonic acid in the atmosphere. Admitting this,
and assuming that at a given time the ocean everywhere contained its surplus base as
sesqui-carbonate, then the water of the tropics would constantly give out carbonic
acid to the atmosphere, and tend to raise its 0'0003 atmosphere .of carbonic acid
pressure to the dissociation tension corresponding to the temperature. Passing now
from the Equator, either way, to colder and colder latitudes, this carbonic acid emis-
sion becomes less and less intense, until, in a certain belt of temperature which
prescribes to the dissociation tension the value 0'0003, this emission becomes nil,

1 Phys. Ghem. Chall. Exp., part i. p. 212, 1884,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

983

and proceeding towards the pole to colder and colder latitudes, the water will take in
carbonic acid at a greater and greater rate, and tend to convert its surplus base into fully
saturated bicarbonate, which stage of saturation is the more likely to be reached the
nearer we come to either pole. The number of equivalents of carbonic acid present for
every one equivalent of surplus base would, in fact, be a function of the temperature of
the water, or approximately of the latitude. But the actual relations are far more
complicated: the excess of carbonic acid taken up in the polar regions is constantly
being conveyed to warmer latitudes by the polar currents, to make up for loss of carbonic
acid constantly suffered by the water there. It may be pointed out that, assuming (as
we have tacitly done so far) there were no other source of carbonic acid than the
atmosphere, the sea water even in the Arctic’and Antarctic Regions could not contain more
than traces of actually free carbonic acid in addition to fully saturated bicarbonate.
According to Bunsen, one volume of even pure water of 0° C., when shaken with excess
of pure carbonic acid of 760 mms. dry gas pressure, absorbs only 1*8 volumes of the
gas (measured dry at 0° C. and 760 mm.). Even in the polar regions, the temperature
of liquid sea water never sinks by more than 2 or 3 degrees below 0° C., hence the
maximum proportion of carbonic acid which such polar sea water could possibly take
up from the atmosphere may be roughly estimated at 0'0003 x 1800, or to '54 c.c.,
or about 1 milligramme per litre of. water. And supposing at a given place a larger
proportion were produced by an influx of gas from below, this excess of carbonic acid,
over and above the 0'5 c.c., would speedily diffuse out into the atmosphere.”

Besides making determinations of the carbonic acid, Mr. Buchanan boiled out the
atmospheric gases, oxygen and nitrogen, with a portion of the carbonic acid, from a large
number of samples of water, and preserved them till the Expedition came home, when
a certain proportion of them were analysed by himself and the remainder by Professor
Dittmar.

The atmosphere may be taken as consisting of 21 per cent, oxygen and 79 per cent,
nitrogen. Professor Dittmar says 1 : —

“ As the pressure of the atmosphere at the sea level does not differ very greatly from
760 mm., the two gases may be assumed everywhere to press on the ocean, the oxygen
with a force equivalent to 0'21 times (760 —p), the nitrogen with a force equivalent to
079 times (760 —p) millimetres of mercury, where p stands for the tension of the
vapour of water, which of course is very little in the polar regions, while in the tropics
it may assume greater values up to some 33 mm. (the tension of steam saturated at
30° C.). According to the law of gas absorption, a given volume of sea water, when
shaken up with a given volume of air at a given temperature, takes up both gases, the
dissolved quantity of each being proportional to the product of its coefficient of absorption

1 Phys. Clieni. Chall. Exp., part i. p. 223, 1884.

(narr. chall. exp. — vox,, x. — 1885.)

124

984

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

into its partial pressure in the undissolved residue, and as the coefficient of absorption
of oxygen is greater than that of nitrogen, the percentage of oxygen in the dissolved air
is greater, and that in the undissolved residue is less, than that prevailing in the natural
air. The ratio of the two percentages obviously depends on the relative volume of air
used, but we need not trouble ourselves with the somewhat complex general formula,
because for our purpose it is sufficient to consider the special case which applies to the
ocean surface, and which presents itself when the shaking is repeated with constantly
renewed air until the last instalment of air remains unchanged. In this case (which
for us is the general case) the volume of air dissolved at a given temperature t by
one litre of sea water is a quantity X, which is a function only of t and the pressure
of the atmosphere, and every c.c. of dissolved gas contains na c.c. of oxygen and
n2 c.c. of nitrogen, where nx and n2 depend only on t, but change very slowly with the
latter.

“ According to my own determinations, as fully reported in the Memoir,

“ One litre of Sea Water when saturated ivith {constantly renewed ) air at t° and a pressure
of 760 mm. {plus the tension of vapour of water at t°) takes up the following
volumes {measured dry at 0° and 760 mm. pressure) of the two gases : —

Temperature,

Centigrade.

Dissolved Nitrogen and Oxygen in Cubic Centimetres.

Percentage of Oxygen in
dissolved Gas.

Nitrogen.

Oxygen.

0

15-60

8-18

34-40

5

13-86

7-22

34-24

10

12-47

6-45

34-09

15

11-34

5-83

33-93

20

10-41

5-31

33-78

25

9-62,

4-87

33-62

30

8-94

4-50

33-47

35

8-36

4-17

33-31

“ The temperature of the surface water of the ocean never falls very far below 0° C.,
even in the polar regions (the Challenger registered 27° F. in the Antarctic Ocean),
while even in the tropics it rarely rises above 30° C. The corresponding tensions
of aqueous vapour are 4'6 and 33 *2 mm. respectively. Now the sea, as far as

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

985

we know, derives all its absorbed oxygen and nitrogen from the atmosphere, —
neither gas can come in from any other source, apart 'perhaps from a small quantity of
nitrogen produced in the putrefaction of the bodies of marine animals and plants, which
may, however, be safely neglected. Hence, we should say the ocean can nowhere contain
more than 15 '6 c.c. of nitrogen and 8*18 c.c. of oxygen gas per litre, and the quantity of .

nitrogen per litre will never fall below x 8’94 = 8'55 c.c. We cannot make a

similar assertion in regard to the oxygen, and for it put down the minimum at
727

_L- x 4’50 = 4,30 c.c., because it is liable to constant diminution by the processes of

life and putrefaction and processes of oxidation generally.”

The apparatus and methods used for extracting the gases were Jacobsen’s modifica-
tion of those of Bunsen. It may be stated here that the water was run very carefully
into the bottom of the flask through a tube with narrow orifice, so as to produce the
least possible commotion in the water, and consequent contact of it with the air. The
flask was thus filled quite full, and allowed to overflow to a certain extent, so as to
eliminate the water which had entered the flask first.' The gas collecting apparatus
was then immediately inserted. It would, no doubt, be satisfactory to have a water-
bottle which would be available for use on the sounding line and in the laboratory, so
that the sample could be boiled out without the water having been brought into contact
with the air at all, and indeed Mr. Buchanan’s stopcock water-bottle was originally
designed with a view of meeting this requirement, but without success. Stopcocks which
-are quite tight at a uniform temperature cannot be depended on to remain so when
the temperature is varied.

That the method of decantation adopted worked quite satisfactorily is shown by
the analyses of the air-samples so obtained, and notably in the following case. A sample
of water obtained from 2875 fathoms in lat. 30° 22' N., long. 154° 56' W., the depth of
the sea being 2950 fathoms, was decanted as described and boiled. The gas collected.
from it and freed from carbonic acid contained only 3 ‘84 per cent, of oxygen. The
same water if shaken up with air would have furnished a gas containing about 34 per
cent, of oxygen. It is evident then that, if a water so far removed from saturation
can be decanted, and after the short unavoidable exposure to the air is found to furnish
a gas with less than 4 per cent, of oxygen, any error arising from this cause, when the
operation is carried out with the requisite skill and expedition, is negligible. When the
gas collecting apparatus had been attached the bulb containing distilled water was
boiled briskly, keeping up a continuous stream of steam for twelve minutes, when the
open end of the gas tube was closed and sealed. Connection was then re-established
between the flask and the gas tube, and heat was applied to the water-bath in which
the flask was immersed. The water in the water-bath was thus gradually heated to

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEB.

986

boiling, attention being paid to securing as steady and regular an ebullition in the flask
as possible. The flask was heated for about two hours, if possible never less than an
hour and a half, when connection was interrupted between the flask and the gas tube,
the moment of doing so being chosen so as to leave as . little air as possible in the distilled
water bulb. The gas tube was then sealed off at the lower end. Connection was then
re-established between the bulb and the flask, and air admitted into the upper part of the
bulb. The water in the bulb was thus forced back into the flask, and as a rule filled it
up completely and at once, without leaving a trace of air. Occasionally, however, a
minute air-bell remained, but it was never larger than a pin’s head. Although Mr.
Buchanan had no fear that the results would be vitiated by the loss of this minute
quantity, even supposing it to consist entirely of oxygen and nitrogen, he nevertheless on
a number of these occasions attached a second gas tube and repeated the boiling. The
results of the analyses of the contents of these tubes fully bears out the assumption that
no loss of nitrogen or oxygen could have taken place if the residual air-bell had been
neglected. The capacity of the gas tubes was from 35 to 40 cubic centimetres, and the
volume of air extracted from the sample of about 900 c.c. of water varied from 15 to
20 c.c. when reduced to standard pressure of 760 mm. and temperature of 0° C.
The amount of carbonic acid in 'the gas from surface water varied from 1 c.c. to 5 c.c.
When a second tube was used and the boiling repeated, the reduced volume of the gas
so extracted was usually under 1 c.c., and was completely absorbed by caustic potash.
In only one case could it be said that there was any appreciable amount of permanent
gas. In it the total volume of the gas extracted was 2‘89 c.c., and 95-4 per cent,
of it was carbonic acid. These observations prove that the air in the gas tube
is completely eliminated by the steam from the bulb when its contents are kept in
constant ebullition for ten to twelve minutes, and that the gas tubes so freed of air and
having a capacity of not more than 40 c.c., are capable of receiving completely all
the oxygen and nitrogen contained in 940 c.c. of sea water when boiled by Jacobsen’s
method.

The gas tubes were, through the kindness of Dr. Jacobsen, supplied from Germany.
In order to comply with instructions prohibiting the use of straw in packing the apparatus
put on board the ship, they were repacked in sawdust, without however having been
wrapped in paper. The consequence was that particles of sawdust got into the inside
of the tubes and could in no way be got out except by removing one of the drawn out
ends of the tube and sweeping them out with a feather. This operation had to be
performed on every tube that was used, as it was essential that the samples of gas
collected should be preserved in perfectly clean vessels. Even if the tubes had been
perfectly clean, the same operation would have had to be performed in order to remedy
a defect in their construction at the point where they were intended to be sealed up.
Here they were merely thickened instead of being drawn out. The consequence of

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

987

this thickening was that it was almost impossible to seal the tubes up without the danger
that the points might crack on cooling. Amongst the first tubes that were used this
was a constant occurrence, but it was completely obviated by the aid of the blowpipe.
The crack as a rule was confined entirely to the point, and as Mr. Buchanan found that
after some days the contents of one of the cracked tubes were still at a pressure of less
than one-half of that of the atmosphere, the tubes were preserved, and when they came
to be opened years afterwards, their contents were still found at a pressure of from one-
third to one-half of that of the atmosphere, and the analysis of their contents did not
indicate any contamination with atmospheric air.1

In the analyses of the samples Mr. Buchanan used Doyere’s apparatus,2 for which he
was indebted to the kindness of Dr. Edmund Ronalds of Bonnington. Professor Dittmar
used a modification of this method, which he has fully described in his Report.
Although it was unlikely that anything besides carbonic acid, oxygen, and nitrogen
would be found in the gases, both Professor Dittmar and Mr. Buchanan tested the
nitrogen remaining from the gas extracted out of a bottom water for combustible gas,
but with negative results.

That water may be kept even under somewhat difficult circumstances without changing
its atmospheric contents is shown by experiments with water taken from 400 fathoms in
the North Pacific on 5th July 1875. The stopcock water-bottle was sent twice to that
depth. From the first collection a flask was filled immediately and at once boiled and
the gases collected and preserved. The contents of the second water-bottle were run
carefully into a bottle with the same precautions as when running it into the gas flask, and
it was closed with an india-rubber cork, through which a short glass tube with capillary
opening passed. As the water when collected was colder than the atmosphere, it was
able to expand and overflow through the capillary tube, but no circulation could take
place. Next day 900 c.c. of this water were siphoned off into the gas flask and boiled,
the gases being collected and preserved. The gases from the first sample were analysed
by Mr. Buchanan, those from the second by Professor Dittmar.

The values were : —

1 In connection with leakage through cracks, the following observation is of interest. Some years ago I had occasion
to have a flask of about a litre and a half in capacity very perfectly evacuated and hermetically sealed, containing about
50 c.c. of distilled water perfectly freed from air. On going into my laboratory one morning, I was struck by a sound
like the singing of a kettle at some distance, and it was a little time before I traced it to the flask, which I then found
had cracked, the crack taking the form of a star about half an inch in diameter. As the crack was in the bottom of
the flask it was completely covered by the water in it. Through a point in one of the radii of the crack the air
was entering and passing through the water in a continuous stream of minute bubbles, each of them not larger
than a pin’s head. It was this stream of air-bells which caused the noise or note which, though low, was very pene-
trating. As the air was entering in a visible stream, I was somewhat surprised to find that at the end of the day there
was no apparent relaxation, and I was much interested to find it still going on the next morning. For fifteen days I
watched it rushing in without intermission, and being obliged to go from home I opened the flask under water, which
immediately rushed in, and more than half filled it. The amount of air which had passed did not weigh more than
1 gramme, yet it produced a continuous sound for fifteen days. — .T. Y, B,

2 Ann, Chim. Phys., s6r. 3, t. xxviii. p. 1,

988

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

1st Sample.

2nd Sample.

Total gas, . . . . . c.c.

22-74

20-50

Total gas less carbonic acid (C02), . „

16-12

14-70

C02 in total gas, . . . per cent.

29-12

28-29

Oxygen (02) in gas free from carbonic acid (C02), ,,

12-03

14-47

In the process used for extracting the gases from the water the nitrogen and oxygen
are completely extracted, and they are always accompanied by a certain portion of the
carbonic acid. The total volume (reduced to 760 mm. and 0° C.) of gases so removed
from a litre of sea water averaged for surface waters about 18 c.c., 15 per cent, of which,
or about 3 c.c., usually consisted of carbonic acid. As the surface water contains on an
average rather more than 20 c.c. of carbonic acid per litre which is eliminated by boiling
with chloride of barium, it will be seen that only a very small percentage of the carbonic
acid present in the water was so removed. When a second tube was adapted and the
water boiled again, not more than 3 c.c., and rarely as much as 1 c.c., could be extracted,
and it consisted entirely of carbonic acid.

The maximum amount of gas was found at Station 153 in the Antarctic Ocean,
indeed almost on the Antarctic Circle. Excluding carbonic acid, the water contained
23'58 c.c. of nitrogen and oxygen, and 35-01 per cent, of it was oxygen. The minimum
amount of gas was found between Stations 214 and 215, in lat. 4° 33' N.,
long. 127° 6' E., to the southeast of the Philippine Islands. Here the total gas, per litre
of water, was only 13'73 c.c., of which 13-68 per cent, consisted of carbonic acid, leaving
11 '85 c.c. of mixed nitrogen and oxygen, of which 33 ’ll per cent, was oxygen. The
temperature was 27°'2 C. Excluding two values of 30-47 and 29‘87 respectively,
the lowest “oxygen percentage” found was 3 2 ‘2, in lat. 3° 21' N., long. 145° 35' E.,
in the Pacific north of the Admiralty Islands. The temperature of the water was
28° ‘6 C. There were 13 ‘47 c.c. of mixed oxygen and nitrogen. The variations in the
gaseous contents of surface water are due mainly to temperature. It will be seen
from Professor Dittmar’s table that a litre of sea water is capable of taking up at
0° C. 23 ‘78 c.c. of air freed from carbonic acid, and of the mixture so dissolved 34 ‘4
per cent, is oxygen; at 30° C. it absorbs only 13 ’44 c.c., containing 33’47 per cent, of
oxygen. The variations actually observed were greater, especially as to the oxygen
percentage, which varied from 35 '01 to 32'2. The Norwegians in their Arctic explora-
tions found oxygen percentages as high as 36 ‘7. Also there were greater variations
in the absolute amount of gas dissolved than would have been expected from the
table. The chief cause of variation is due to the barometric pressure, which has a range

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

989

amounting to nearly 2 inches, and to the vapour tension in the air, which has a range
of 1 inch. The following examples will illustrate this : in the Antarctic Ocean at the
highest latitudes attained, the barometer stood generally at about 28 ‘8 inches, the tempera-
ture being 29° F. The tension of vapour at this temperature is 0T6 inch, consequently the
pressure of dry air was 28 '64 inches. In equatorial regions the barometric pressure was
usually about 29 '8 inches and the temperature 80° F. At this temperature the tension of
aqueous vapour is 1'023 inch, therefore the pressure of dry air was 28777 inches, or nearly
identical with that in the Antarctic Ocean. Between these two regions is that of the trade
winds, characterised by a high barometer and low humidity. Here the barometer is as high
as 30 '4 inches, the temperature 70° F., and the relative humidity 80 per cent., therefore
the vapour tension is 0'54 inch ; consequently the pressure of dry air is here 29 '86 inches,
or quite 1 inch more than is the case either at the Equator or at the Antarctic Circle.

On the 18th, 20th, and 21st December 1875, when the ship was passing through an
area of high pressure off the west coast of South America, the gases were extracted
from a number of samples of surface water. The mean barometric pressure on these days
averaged 30'2 inches, the temperature was 58° F., and the humidity 85 per cent. The
vapour tension was therefore 0'41 inch, the pressure of dry air 2979 inches. The analyses
of the gases extracted from those waters gave the following results per litre of water : —

Analyses of Gases extracted from Surface Waters of South Pacific.

Date, December 1875.

18 th.

20th.

21st. I

Total gas, . . . . c.c.

V0

19-57

22-08

19-87

Carbonic acid (C02) in total gas, per cent.

12-94

18-59

11-14

Gas freed from carbonic acid (C02), .

Vo

17-04

17-98

17-66

Oxygen, . . . per cent.

33-95

34-36

34-66

Carbonic acid, . . .c.c.

2-53

4-10

2-21

Nitrogen, . . . . „

11-25

11-80

11-54

Oxygen, . . . . „

5-79

6T8

6-12

Nitrogen, . , calculated c.c.

11-05

11-24

11-24

Oxygen, . . . „

5-77

6-06

5-92

Excess of nitrogen, . . .c.c.

0-20

0-56

0-30

Excess of oxygen, . . • »

0-02

0- 12

0-20

990

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

These results are remarkable, because although the pressure of dry air is below the
standard of 760 mm., the volumes both of nitrogen and oxygen dissolved are greater
than would have been the case at 760 mm. according to Professor Dittmar’s tables;
and further, there is more dissolved oxygen as compared with nitrogen than there should
have been. It is only in this region that the excesses are sufficiently pronounced and
constant to justify their being attributed to a natural cause. The few other cases which
occur cannot be considered as other than accidental. It is possible that the excess of
oxygen and nitrogen in the waters off the coast of Chili may be owing to the fact that
there is a strong northerly current in these parts known as the Humboldt Current, which
carries a temperate climate almost up to the Equator. It is possible that those waters
may have been collected before equilibrium had been established between their gaseous
contents and the atmosphere, though this can only be looked on as a very doubtful
explanation. As a rule there is a deficiency of dissolved air, on the assumption that it
had been absorbed at a pressure of 760 mm., and the temperature of the water in situ.
This is . what was to be expected, as the aqueous vapour reduces the effective pressure by
the amount of its tension.

The highest temperature at which water was collected at the surface was 29° ‘4 C.,
and according to Professor Dittmar’s table, the oxygen percentage ought to have been
33'5. In nearly every case where the temperature of the water was above 25° C., the
oxygen percentage was below 33. This would indicate that oxygen disappears faster
than it is absorbed. Towards elucidating this curious phenomenon it may be remembered
that oxidation of organic matter goes on with greatly increased energy at high tempera-
tures, and that these high temperatures occur chiefly in the regions of equatorial calms
and rains. Calm weather is a ore at obstacle to the thorough aeration of the water, and
rain affords an abundant supply of easily oxidised organic matter, the oxidation of
which is much assisted by the sun’s light as well as by its heat, to which the water, owing
to its low density, is constantly exposed.

That rain water does bring from the air to the sea, and also to the land when it falls
on it, much organic and probably organised matter was shown by some experiments made
on rain water collected on several occasions when the . ship was becalmed in the sea to
the north of New Guinea. Here the temperature of the water of the surface was very
constantly 83°'o F., that of the air being slightly less, 810,5. When a rain squall came
on the temperature of the air fell considerably, and tended to assume that of the rain,
which was found to be 73° to 74°. On several occasions the rain water was collected in
stoppered bottles filled perfectly up to the stopper. Samples were then carefully trans-
ferred to the boiling flask, generally the day after collection, and the gases extracted
as usual. All the samples were tested at the time of boiling with hydrate of baryta,
but they remained perfectly clear. The samples of rain were collected on the 15th, 16th,
and 19th February 1875 ; the gases were boiled out from the waters of the 15th and

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

991

16th on the 17th, and from that of the 19th on the 20th February. The first two were
perfectly clear, the last had a peculiar slight opalescence. The composition of the gases
extracted from them is remarkable.

Table VII. — Composition of Air. dissolved in Rain Water.

Date, February 1875.

15 th.

16 th.

19 th.

Carbonic acid, .... c.c. per litre

1-84

1-22

3-95

Oxygen, ......

2-47

3-91

0-06

Oxygen and carbonic acid, . . . „

4-31

5-13

4 -.01

Nitrogen,

10-83

11-70

11-65

Total gas, . . . . . ,,

15-14

16-83

15-66

Oxygen in gas freed from carbonic acid, . per cent.

18-56

25-42

0-52

Carbonic acid, . . . . ,,

12-15

7-26

25-21

Oxygen, .....

16-31

23-24

0-40

Carbonic acid and oxygen, . . . „

28-45

30-50

25-61

Nitrogen, . . . . ,,

71-55

69-50

74-39

100-00

100-00

100-00

Nitrogen theoretical (assumed value), . . per cent.

66-40

66-40

66-40

Oxygen and carbonic acid found, . . ,,

26-40

29-14

22-86

Deficiency, . . . . . ,,

7-20

4-46

10-74

.100-00

100-00

100-00 .

When allowance is made for the moisture in the air and the low barometric pressure
of equatorial regions, the theoretical amount of nitrogen which should have been dissolved
in the water would be 11 ’6 c.c. The waters of the 16th and 19th agree closely with
the theory, that of the 15th contains less nitrogen than would be expected.

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

125

992

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Too much importance, however, should not be attached to the absolute amounts of
gas found. When all the various manipulations to which the water sample is subjected
have been taken intoaccount, there is seen to be considerable room for error, which
in the present case might conceivably be as high as half a cubic centimetre. As regards
the analysis of the sample of gas after it has been isolated, no such errors are to be feared.
The most striking fact shown by the percentage composition of this gas is the deficiency
of oxygen. In the water of the 19th it has almost completely disappeared, there being
only 0'40 per cent., or not more than 0'06 c.c. per litre of water. In the others the
percentage of oxygen was 16'31 per cent, on the 15th, and 23'24 per-cent, on the 16th.
It must be remembered that the waters collected on the 15 th and 16th were both boiled on
the 17th, so that while the water of the 16th had stood for twenty-four hours, that of
the 15th had stood for forty-eight hours at a temperature of 80° F., but entirely out of
contact with the air. Both of these samples were clear. That of the 19th was slightly
opalescent, and was boiled on the 20th. Baryta water produced no turbidity in any of
the waters. They all gave off ammonia on boiling with carbonate of soda, and frequently
the addition of Nessler’s reagent indicated its presence in the freshly collected water
without heating. Solution of permanganate of potash was also reduced. These indica-
tions of the presence of organic matter were confirmed by the appearance of a fungoid
growth in all the bottles after the lapse of a few days. It is not unlikely that the
opalescence of the water of the 19th was due to the presence of this fungoid matter in
greater quantity than in the others. It is certain that some very energetic reducing
agent was present in this water, an agent which was capable of depriving it almost
completely of its oxygen.

Returning to the consideration of the percentage composition of the gases, it is
seen that side by side with the disappearance of oxygen there is production of carbonic
acid. Neglecting the amount of carbonic acid which could be ascribed to absorption
from the atmosphere, if the oxygen had been all used in the production of carbonic
acid the sum of the volumes of the two gases should be equal to that of the oxygen
originally present. According to Professor Dittmar a litre of distilled water at
24° C. absorbs from a dry atmosphere of 760 mm. 18'08 c.c. of air containing 33 ‘6
per cent, oxygen and 66*4 per cent, nitrogen. In the Table (VII.) the results have been
calculated, putting the nitrogen at 66 ‘4 per cent, in each case, and reducing the amount of
oxygen and carbonic acid in the same proportion, the deficiencies which come out are
considerable, and vary from 4 ‘46 to 10 '74. The meaning of this is that from 5 to 10 per
cent, of the air, or from 15 to 30 per cent, of the oxygen, has disappeared without pro-
ducing an equivalent of carbonic acid. In the oxidation of organic matter some of it has
no doubt been used in the formation of water, and it is possible that another part of it
may have been utilised in the production of less perfectly oxidised substances, such as, for
instance, oxalic acid or intermediate bodies of aldehydic nature.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

993

These observations on the rain water of equatorial regions prove that it is highly
charged with organic matter of animal or vegetable origin which is readily oxidised and
absorbs for this purpose the oxygen dissolved in the water. When this water falls upon
land the whole of the organic matter is arrested by the soil and utilised in the support
of the dense vegetation which characterises these regions. Purified by the most efficient
form of filtration, through clean soil, the water joins the stream free from all liability
to putrefaction. When it falls directly on the sea, it remains in the surface layer where
it is exposed to all the power of the sun’s light and heat. In these regions calms prevail,
and oxidation may easily go on too rapidly for the immediate replacement of the
removed oxygen. The greatest, deficiency of oxygen in these regions only amounts to
one per cent. In a liquid in a state so near to complete saturation, renewals are only
effected slowly.

In distilled or rain water it is admissible to compare the carbonic acid with the
oxygen, which is deficient, and to consider them to some extent as mutually inter-
dependent. In sea water no such comparison can be made, because the carbonic acid is
present in it in such abundance, and is retained in it by an affinity much stronger than
that caused by absorption. While the amount which is present in virtue of absorption from
the atmosphere cannot exceed a cubic centimetre and a half, the amount actually present
which can be eliminated by boiling with chloride of barium solution rarely falls below
10 c.c. even in the warmest regions and at the surface, while in the cold water of the
bottom of the oceans it may amount to as much as 40 c.c. per litre. According to
Professor Dittmar’s experiments, sea water of the lowest temperature met with cannot
contain more than 8T8 c.c. of oxygen per litre, hence the maximum amount of carbonic
acid which can be due to the consumption of oxygen by carbon after the water has left the
surface is' 8T8 c.c. It was rare to meet with water which had lost one-half of its oxygen,
while a loss of one-third was not uncommon. Hence not more than from 3 to 4 c.c. of
the carbonic acid present in a water from the bottom or intermediate depths is likely
to have been produced at the expense of the oxygen which it held dissolved. The
carbonic acid eliminated by distillation from such waters varies from 15 to 40 c.c., it is
therefore altogether impossible to trace in it the oxygen which is deficient.

The amount of carbonic acid present in the gas tubes along with the oxygen and nitro-
gen has been extracted by boiling in vacuo, and therefore deserves attention. In the
gases from surface waters it averages about 15 per cent, of the total gas, there being very
few cases even in the coldest waters where it exceeds 20 per cent. In bottom waters it
"averages 27 per cent., in several cases it exceeds 40, and in one case reached 50 per cent.
In intermediate waters from 300 fathoms and greater depths, it averages 25 per cent.,
the maximum being 40 per cent. The amount of carbonic acid extracted in this way
from bottom and intermediate waters is therefore much greater than can be taken from
surface water, although the average amount of loosely bound or free carbonic acid as

994

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

determined by the method of distillation with chloride of barium is not very much
^higher in the one case than in the other. Further, in surface waters the amount of
carbonic acid extracted along with the oxygen and nitrogen is always very small, amount-
ing to from 2 to 4 c.c. per litre, in bottom waters it is almost invariably over 5 c.c., and
reached in one case 13 '5 c.c. in a water from the North Pacific, which gave 32 c.c. of
carbonic acid by the distillation method. Although the absolute amount eliminated in
this case was large, the relative amount or the percentage of what was present was, though
considerable, not specially large. In two cases, again of waters from the North Pacific, the
amount extracted by boiling in vacuo .very nearly equalled that found by the distillation
method. In the one case 15 c.c. were found bjr the distillation method, and 14 c.c. were
extracted by boiling in vacuo; in the other 17 c.c. were found by distillation and 1 5*8 c.c.
by boiling in vacuo. That these differences in the amount of carbonic acid extracted by
boilinof in vacuo are not due to accidental circumstances, of the duration of the boiling
process or of the size of the gas tube, is shown by the fact that in all the cases where
a second tube was attached and the boiling continued, the further amount of gas extracted
was quite insignificant. It would appear therefore that the carbonic acid in sea water
is retained in three different states — first there is a portion which is retained in a similar
way to the nitrogen and oxygen, along with which it is extracted by boiling in vacuo ;
second, there is a portion in the half-bound condition which is eliminated by distillation
at atmospheric pressure; and finally there is the portion present in the form of neutral
combination or completely combined to bases. In surface water the carbonic acid belong-
ing to the first category, which behaves to a great extent like a free gas retained by the
simple absorptive power of the water, is present in comparatively insignificant quantity.
This is only what might have been expected, as contact with the atmosphere would
always tend to remove any excessive amount of it which might be present. This means
of removal is not available to waters at great depths, hence the gases extracted from such
are found to be contaminated with much more carbonic acid than is to be found in the
gases from surface water.

If sea water, so long as it is at the surface, can only contain from 3 to 4 c.c. of car-
bonic acid in this state of solution, and the deep waters are found to contain a much
larger quantity of it in the same state, how does it come to attain this state of freedom ?
It might be naturally expected that carbonic acid which was in the half-bound state at
the surface would continue so when it passed into deeper strata, yet the reverse seems to
be the case. If it be the presence of carbonates in the sea water which is the cause of
the retention of a further amount of carbonic acid so that the two together form
bicarbonate, then it would be expected that waters which give off their carbonic acid
easily and in large quantity when boiled in vacuo would be found deficient in carbonates.
Although Mr. Buchanan made a few experiments in this direction, the results
which he obtained are of no great value, because it has been shown that, in eva-

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

995

porating to dryness sea water containing carbonates, the latter are in great part
decomposed by the chloride of magnesium, which is so large and important a
constituent of sea salt, and the solution of which acts in this respect like an acid.
Mr. Buchanan evaporated the samples of sea water in a platinum basin in the water-
bath, therefore the tendency to decomposition would be less than if it had been directly
boiled down. In many waters thus experimented on, carbonates were found, in
others they were not. It is therefore exceedingly desirable that experiments should
be made on freshly drawn samples of the deep water of the ocean. The experiments of
Professor Dittmar were all made on samples which had been preserved for six or seven
years in glass bottles, and those of the Norwegians on samples similarly preserved for
various lengths of time up to two years. Their results, though correct in themselves,
and of value as corroborative evidence, do not replace investigations on the freshly
collected water which was used for the extraction of the gases and the carbonic acid on
board.

Table VIII. gives the results of the analyses of some of the samples of gas extracted
from waters of various depths. It will convey a more definite idea of the nature of the
gaseous contents of the waters than can be obtained from a general description. In the
part devoted to surface waters the pressure of dry air is given in the column otherwise
devoted to “ Depth,” and the observed volumes of nitrogen and oxygen are reduced' to
their value, supposing the dry air pressure to have been 760 millimetres.

Bottom Waters. — Of the three samples from the Antarctic Ocean, only two (Nos. 383
and 395) belong really to it, the third (No. 414) is rather from the colder temperate zone,
and resembles much more a water from the South Pacific or South Atlantic. In the first
two, from the neighbourhood of the Antarctic Circle, the volume of total gas is large, 29 to
30 c.c., of which about 23 per cent, is carbonic acid. In most of their properties the two
waters agree well with each other, but there is an exception in the amount of carbonic acid
given off during distillation with chloride of barium ; in the case of No. 383 it is 42'2 c.c.
and in that of No. 395 only 29‘32 c.c.; the volumes of carbonic acid extracted by boiling
in vacuo are 6-59 c.c. in the case of No. 383 and 7 ‘03 c.c. in that of No. 395. The oxygen
percentages are high in all three waters, agreeing in this respect with the Arctic waters
examined by the Norwegian chemists. The absolute amount of oxygen is 5 '7 5 c.c. and
6-71 c.c. ; when compared with the amount which would be present along with the
nitrogen observed, there is a deficiency of 2 ’9 2 c.c. and 1'73 c.c. Subtracting these amounts
from the volume of carbonic acid extracted by boiling in vacuo, there remain 3 '6 7 c.c.
and 5 ’33 c.c., which would not be excessive in a surface water.

The amount of nitrogen present in both of these waters is very high, 16-57 and 16 '07
c.c. From an atmosphere of dry air of 760 millimetres pressure these volumes would be
absorbed at temperatures of 20,3 and — 10,2 C. respectively. Although the absolute
volumes of the gases must not be considered as quite accurate, these figures tend to show

996

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

that the bottom water at these high latitudes may have a temperature which is more nearly
that of the surface than that of the intermediate warm layers. No. 414 and the three
samples from the South Atlantic agree in all points very closely with one another ; the
oxygen percentage, however, 2 8 '42, is decidedly higher than the average of the South
Atlantic waters, 25 '8 1, consequently the absolute amount of oxygen is also higher and the
oxygen deficiency less. Judging from the amount of nitrogen, the temperature at which
these waters had been exposed to the atmosphere would be from 2° to 4° C., or probably
lower. In all these bottom waters from the Antarctic and South Atlantic Oceans there is
considerable uniformity in the composition of the gases ; in examining the waters of the
North Pacific more irregularity is found. The oxygen percentage is very low, being
generally under 20. The carbonic acid which is given off on boiling in vacuo is very
high, over 10 c.c., and the amount of carbonic acid eliminable by distillation with chloride
of barium varies much. Except in thfe case of No. 77 1 the amount of nitrogen is
high, and indicates a low temperature of exposure to the atmosphere, while the deficiency
of oxygen and the excess of carbonic acid indicate a prolonged seclusion from its
influence.

Intermediate Waters. — At great depths the gases from intermediate waters resemble
those from bottom waters of the same locality. In the North Pacific the water
No. 1001 has by far the lowest oxygen percentage, ’3 ‘8 4, and the amount of carbonic
acid in the gas tube is actually less than the “ oxygen deficiency.” No. 1009, on
the other hand, is a deep water with abnormally high oxygen percentage, and
No. 1269 a similar one from the South Pacific. Generally, however, in the Pacific
Ocean the water at depths of from 100 to 500 fathoms above the bottom contain from
20 to 22 per cent, of oxygen. No. 1532 is from 1400 fathoms in the South Atlantic,
and No. 1645 from 1500 fathoms under the Equator in the same- ocean. The difference
in the oxygen percentage is very striking. The water from the South Atlantic
contains 27'54, while that from the Equator contains only 13‘24, per cent, of oxygen.
This is a phenomenon which repeats itself at more moderate depths. The water of higher
latitudes contains a greater percentage of oxygen than that of lower latitudes at the
same depth, and it is especially observable in the case of waters from near the Equator.
It is not particularly observable at 800 and 400 fathoms, but at 300, 200, and 100
fathoms it is remarkable. In equatorial latitudes the surface has usually a lower salinity
than the water at 50 or 100 fathoms below it, which impedes vertical circulation;
it is also largely drawn away, forming the Equatorial Currents, and is to a certain extent
replaced by water from greater depths, already to some extent impoverished as regards
oxygen. When this water has risen to within 300 fathoms of the surface it enters a
region where life is more abundant than at greater depths, and where, consequently,
there is an increased consumption of oxygen. In the table there are two equatorial
waters, Nos. 1661 and 1672, from 300 fathoms, and one, No. 1633, from 100 fathoms from

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

997

Table VI IT. — Results of the Analyses of some of the Samples of Gas extracted from Waters from Various Depths.

Number.

Latitude.

Longitude.

Depth.

Temperature.

Tot. Yol- of Gas,
c. c. per Litre.

Carbonic Acid.

Volume of Gas,
less C02,
c.e. per Litre.

Nitrogen,
c.c. per Litre.

Deficiency.

Oxygen.

Observed

°C.

"3

o

Per Cent.

c. c.

per Litre. 1

Extr. by
Distillation,
e. c. per Litre.

Observed.

Calculated.

Per Cent.

C.C.

per Litre.

O*

P

Bottom

Antarcti

Waters.

Ocean.

d

t

T

T0

1°°^

c

C

100ir

Vq

*

T°0-A

0

1

c-q

383

65

42

s.

79

49

E.

1675

2

-2'3

28-91

22-83

6-59

42-20

15-6

22-32

16-57

2574

5-75

2-92

3-67

395

64

37

„

85

49

„

1800

?

-1-2

29-81

23-60

7-03

29-32

24-0

22-78

16-07

29-46

6 71

173

5-30

414

53

55

»

108

35

"

1950

!

+ 3-5

23-45

14-62

3-43

22-55

15-2

20-02

14-33

-28-42

5-69

179

1-64

North Pacific.

771

5

31

N.

145

13

E.

2325

1-9

15 -9

27-03

49-98

13-51

31-51

42-9

13 52

11-17

14-89

372

17-36

2-35

3-38

10-13

964

37

52

,,

160

17

W.

2740

1-8

2'5

27-84

36-53

10-17

21-48

47-3

17-67

14-67

14-92

0-25

16-95

3-00

4-67-

5-50

974

38

9

„

156

25

„

3090

1-7

3-2

15-32

17"72

14-45

14-96

0-51

18-46

3-27

4-27

1096

7

35

"

149

49

2900

1-5

2-9

34T1

46-41

15 '-83

17-46

90-6

18-28

14-55

15-03

0-48

20-40

373

3-87

11-96

South Atlantic.

1496

36

9

S.

48

22

w.

2800

0-3

4-3

25-40

25-23

6-41

26-37

24-3

18-99

14-08

15-45

1-37

25-88

4-91

2-43

3-98

1533

37

29

,,

37

31

„

2200

1-1

47

23-14

19-50

4-55

23-71

19-2

18-59

1395

15-17

1-22

24-98

4-64

2-63

1-92

1544

35

36

"

21

12

;V

2025

1-8

2-2

2472

18-56

4-59

22-70

20-2

20-13

14-76

14-92

0-16

26-57

5-35

2-38

2-21

Intermediate Waters.

1001

30

22

N.

154

56

w.

2875

1-8

1-4

22-46

30-20

6-78

15-68

15-08

14-92

-0-16

3-84

0-60

7-61

-0-83

1009

27

33

N.

154

55

„

2850

1-6

5-8

30-62

37-91

11-61

19-01

13-63

15-00

+ 177

28-31

5-38

171

+ 9-90

1244

40

3

S.

132

58

I,

2125

1-7

4-4

22-45

20-89

4-62

17-83

14-26

14-96

070

21-19

378

3-54

1-08

1209

28

22

„

141

22

„

1975

1-8

4-5

22-52

20-84

4-69

26-06

17-9

17-83

14-23

14-92

0-69

21 -38

3-81

3-50

1-19

1241

36

32

„

132

53

„

1925

1-7

6-8

22-72

21 74

4-94

17 -78

13-33

14-96

1-63

25-01

4-45

2-48

2-46

1296

39

22

„

98

46

I,

1775

17

2-2

25-23

26-07

6-58

18-65

1479

14-96

0-17

20 72

3-86

3-87

371

1269

39

13

"

118

49

"

1775

1-7

7‘3

23-74

22-24

5-30

21-53

24-6

18-44

13-19

14-96

177

28-48

5-25

1-60

3-70

1645

0

15

s.

14

25

w.

1500

3-3

6-6

22-26

3070

6-84

15-42

13-38

14-40

1-02

13-24

2-04

4-91

1-93

1532

37

29

s.

37

31

m

1400

2-9

6-4

22-76

18-55

4-22

18-54

13-43

14-54

1-11

27-54

511

1-87

3-35

1220

32

36

S.

137

43

w.

800

3'2

5-4

21-19

16-90

3-58

17-61

1373

14-37

0-64

22-05

3-88

3-26

0-32

1528

37

47

S. i

l 30

20

w.

800

2-8

41

23-03

20-38

4-69

18-34

14-13

14-51

0-38

22-95

4-21

3-16

1-53

1546

35

45

„

18

31

„

' 800

2-9

-0-5

26-89

23-41

6-29

20-60

15-81

14-54

-1-27

23-25

479

3-51

278

1615

10

6

i,

13

44

„

900

3-5

+ 6-5

23-03

19-21

4-42

18-61

13-40

14-46

+ 1-06

27-99

5-21

1-75

2-67

1655

3

10

N.

14

51

"

800

4'2

12-8

2171

29-98

6-51

15-20

11-80

14-12

2-32

22-22

3-38

271

4-80

1605

12

16

S.

13

44

w.

400

4-6

6-0

21-18

20-99

4-45

16-73

13-57

13-98

0-41

18-90

3-16

3-90

0-55

933

37

41

N.

177-

4

„

400

4-2

3-9

2274

29-12

7-62

19-95

38-2

15-12

13-46

14-12

0-66

12-03

1-66

594

5

24

S.

130

37

E.

400

6:4

10 7

21-39

31-91

6-83

20-36

33-5

14-56

12-31

13-44

1-13

15-44

2-25.

4-ii

272

1661

5

28

N.

14

38

W.

300

6-7

5-4

22-14

30-49

7-25

15-39

1374

13-35

-0-39

1075

1-65

5-60

1-65

1672

9

9

ii

16

41

„

300

6-9

107

20-29

31-20

6-33

13-96

12-29

13-29

+ 1-00

11-98

1-67

4-58

175

823

22

1

"

140

27

E.

300

11-1

13-6

18-92

18-94

3-58

17-40

20-6

15-34

11-65

12-21

0-56

24-06

3-69

2-30

1-28

797

14

44

N.

142

13

E.

200

11-5

18-8

17-60

21 73

3-82

17:15

22-3

1378

10-58

11-11

0-69

23-25

3-20

2-20

1-62

1181

22

21

S.

150

17

W.

200

13-4

17-8

17-86

15-90

2-84

21-95

12-9

15-02

10-80

11-69

0-89

28-10

4-22

1-31

1-53

1205

28

22

„

141

22

„

200

12-5

20-8

16-88

15-61.

2-63

18-20

14-4

14-25

10-28

11-88

1-60

27-84

3-97

1-27

1-36

543

15

58

"

160

50

E.

' 200

13-0

13'0

20-96

26-75

5-61

22-60

24-4

15-35

11-76

1177

0-01

23-40

3-59

2-47

3-14

'1539

35

36

s.

21

12

W.

100

12-8

14'8

18-59

12-08

2-24

18-95

11-9

16-35

11-39

11-81

0-42

30-31

4-96

0-89

1-35

1585

17

26

„

13

52

„

100

15’4

18-5

16-92

11-90

2-01

14-91

10-43

11-26

0-83

30-02

4-48

170

0-91

1633

2

42

„

14

41

„

' 100

12-9

9-0

20-36

23-04

4-69

15-67

1274

1179

-0-95

1870

2-93

3-67

1-02

1704

32

41

N.

36

6

W.

100

17-3

.18-9

17-49

12-99

2-27

15-22

10-61

10-89

+ 0-28

30-29

4-61

0-81

1-46

678

5

47

N.

124

1

E.

50

25-4

30-3

19-82

35-91

7-12

15-20

46-8

1270

8-91

9-56

0-65

29-86

379

0-69

6-43

830

26

29

,,

137

57

„

50

18-9

19-3

18-38

16-26

2-99

16-70

17-9

15-39

10-53

10-60

0-07

31-55

4-86

0-52

2-47

397

63

30

S.

89

6

50

-1-8

1-6

25-11

14-27

3-48

35-94

97

21-53

15-00

16-35

1-35

30-32

6 -5.3

1-32

2-16

Pressure

Surface Waters.

of Dry
Air,

Antarctic Ocean.

millim.

386

66

29

s.

78

0

E.

728

-07

-1-0

28-32

1675-

4-74

28-63

16-5

23-58

15-99*

15-88

-0-11

35-01

8-61*

-0-22

4-95

387

65

10

,,

78

42

M

724

+ 0-7

+ 3-5

25-19

17-15

4-32

26-32

15-2

20-87

14-32*

15-33

+ 1-01

34-86

7-63*

-0-13

4-45

389

64

4

M

83

26

„

728

-1-7

0-25

25 79

12-64

3-26

24-69

13-2

22-53

15-49*

16-30

0-81

34-25

8-04*

+ 0-09

3-17

396

64

1

"

87

41

»

716

+ 0-4

270

23-69

1170

276

24-79

11-1

20-84

14-62*

15-44

0-82

34-17

7-56*

o-io

2 "66

Atlantic Ocean, Tropical.

1590

1 14

33

s. "•!

1 13

42

w.

743

25 T

24-0

16-31

12-66

2-06

17-90

11-5

14-25

9-76*

9-61

-0-15

33-21

4-85*

0-09

1-97

1687

21

33

N.

31

15

,,

740-

|22'8

23 '3

16-67

13-34

2-22

19-00

■ 11-9

14-45

9-87*

9-95

+ 0-12

33-33

4-94*

0-07

2-15

1699

29

50

"

| 35

55

"

758

20-5

20-5

18-70

17-87

3-34

17T8

19-8

15-36

10-28*

10-32

0-04

33-26

5-12*

0-13

3-21

Pacific Ocean, Equatorial.

682

4

33

N.

127

6

E.

733

26-9

1373

13-68

1-88

12-78

147

11-85

8-21*

9-33

1-12

33-11

4-05*

o-io

178

759

3

21

„

145

35

,,

735

28'6

26-2

15-54

13-35

2-07

13-47

9-45*

9-12

-0-33

32-20

4-49*1

0-27

1-80

761

4

21

M

145

18

M

735

28 7

32'9

15-42

20-16

3-11

15-42

20-2

12-31

8-59*

9-11

+ 0-52

32-58

4 15*

018

2-97

* The observed volumes of nitrogen and oxygen in the surface waters are corrected, so as to give the volumes which would have been absorbe l
under a dry air pressure equivalent to 760 millimetres of mercury.

998

THE YOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

the Equatorial Atlantic. At 300 fathoms the oxygen percentage is 10'75 and 11*98, and
at 100 fathoms it is 18 '70. At 200 fathoms there is no example of an equatorial water,
but the examples that there are show a diminution of oxygen percentage as the Equator
is approached. The water from a depth of 300 fathoms below the surface at the Equator
is probably quite free from mixture with surface water from any low latitude,
consequently there can be no renewal of the oxygen removed. Between 100 or 150
fathoms and the surface partial renewal begins to be experienced, but with water at
100 fathoms, containing only 18 '7 per cent, of oxygen, and with the low temperature of
120,9 C., it is evident that the mixture does not extend to any great depth.

Considering the largeness of the subject, the data available are very meagre, and
hardly justify any very confident generalisations, but they seem to point to the following
general conclusions. The surface water contains an amount of nitrogen which corresponds
closely with the theoretical amount for the temperature at which it is exposed to the
atmosphere ; there is, however, usually a small deficiency. The variations .in the amount
of oxygen absorbed along with the nitrogen are much greater than would be expected
from laboratory experiments, and taking the Norwegian observations along with those of
the Challenger, there is reason to believe that the percentage of oxygen in the air, freed
from carbonic acid, dissolved in surface water may vary between arctic and equatorial
regions, from 37 to 32 per cent. In intermediate and bottom waters the nitrogen is
usually deficient .compared with what ought to have been absorbed from the atmosphere
at the temperature of the water, but this deficiency is not generally of any great account ;
the oxygen is, as might have been expected, always deficient, the lowest percentage found
being 3'84. With the exception of the case where the water was from about 50 fathoms
above the bottom, bottom water is more deficient in oxygen than intermediate water of
great depths, which is no doubt due to the fact that some of it is used up in oxidation
of mineral matter as well as of animal matter.

The temperature and other meteorological observations taken during the voyage of
the Challenger are being discussed by Mr. Alexander Buchan as regards their bearing
on oceanic circulation. The following are the more important of the results already
arrived at : — ■

“ The daily range of the temperature of the surface of the North Atlantic has been
determined from observations made on 126 days. from March to August 1873, and
in April and May 1876, the mean latitude of all the Stations being nearly 30° N.
and mean longitude 42° W. The daily minimum, which is 0°‘33 below the mean,
occurs at 4 a.m., and the maximum, 0D,47 above the mean, at 3 p.m. Thus in this
part of the ocean where the sun’s heat is strong, and at the time of the year when
the sun is north of the Equator, the diurnal range of the temperature of the surface of
the sea is only 0°'8. An examination of the temperatures taken in other parts of the

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

999

globe renders it highly probable that nowhere over the ocean does the mean daily
fluctuation of the temperature of the surface amount to 1° F. Hence the atmosphere
over the ocean may be regarded as' resting on or blowing over a surface the temperature
of which is practically uniform at all hours of the day. This small variation is a prime
factor in meteorology, particularly in those discussions which relate to atmospheric
pressure and winds.

“ The temperature of the air over the sea on the same 126 days has been
examined, and the amplitude of the daily variation is seen to be 3°'21, or nearly four
times greater than that of the sea over which it lies. During this time the

Challenger was near land on 76 days, and on these days the diurnal variation
was 4° •38, thus showing a larger range in the temperature of the air when near land
than when out in the open sea. This larger variation in the daily temperature of the
air than in that of the sea over which it lies is a point of no small significance in
atmospheric physics from the important bearings of the subject on the relations of the
atmosphere and its aqueous vapour to solar and terrestrial radiation.

“ With respect to the diurnal variation in the elastic force of the aqueous vapour of
the air, the observations made in the North Atlantic, at a distance from land, from March
to July 1873, give a mean elastic force of 0‘659 inch, falling to the minimum 0‘639 inch
at 4 a.m., and attaining the maximum 0'679 inch at 2 p.m. Thus the phases of the
elastic force of vapour occur at the hours of the maximum and minimum temperatures of
the sea and the air. On approaching land, however, the curve of the elastic force no
longer follows the corresponding phases of the temperature of the sea and the air. The
disturbance caused by proximity to land in the distribution through the day of the
aqueous vapour in the lower stratum of the atmosphere is very striking. Under the
influence of the land breeze, the time of the minimum humidity is delayed from 4 to 6 a.m. ;
and under the influence of the sea breeze and its effects, the amount of the aqueous
vapour shows a secondary minimum from noon to 2 p.m. The latter minimum occurs at
the hours when the surface of the land is most highly heated, when the ascending current
of heated air rising from it is therefore strongest, and the resulting breeze from the sea
towards the land also strongest. This diminution in the amount of the aqueous vapour
observed on board the Challenger near land, points clearly to an intermixture with the
body of air forming the sea breeze of descending thin air-filaments or currents to supply
the place of the masses of air removed by the ascending currents which rise from the
heated surface of the land.

“ From the same observations it is seen that the daily maximum of the relative
humidity occurs from midnight to 4 a.m., or when the temperature of the air is at the
minimum," and the minimum humidity at 2 p.m., when the temperature is at the maximum,
the curve of relative humidity being thus inverse to that of the temperature. This is
substantially the curve of humidity for all climates and seasons.

(narb. chall. exp. — VOL. i. — 1885.)

126

1000

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

“ The consideration that over the open sea the atmosphere rests on a floor or surface
with a diurnal range of temperature so small as to render that temperature practically a
constant both day and night, leads to the all important conclusion that the diurnal
oscillations of the barometer are not caused by the heating and cooling of the earth’s
surface by solar and terrestrial radiation and by the effects that follow these changes in
the temperature of the surface ; but that they are primarily caused by the direct and
immediate heating by solar radiation and cooling by nocturnal radiation to the cold
regions of space, of the molecules of the air and its aqueous vapour through the whole
height of the atmosphere.

“ The phenomena of the double diurnal barometric tide are given in their simplest
form by the observations made in the centre of the Pacific, or in the midst of the largest
water surface of the globe. The following are the variations of pressure from the
observations made from September 1st to 12th, 1875, in mean lat. 1° 8' S. and
long. 150° 40' W., the mean pressure for the time being 29-928 inches : —

inch

2 a.m. - 0‘012
4 „ -0-022
6 „ 0-003

8 „ 0-028
10 „ 0-032

noon 0-006

inch

2 p.m. - 0-043
4 „ -0-055
6 „ -0-028
8 „ 0-004

10 „ 0-013

midnight 0-012

“ The noteworthy features in these oscillations are the amplitude of the range from
the morning maximum to the afternoon minimum, amounting to 0'087 inch, and the
rapidity of the fall from 10 a.m. to 2 p.m., and these features appear in all the means
deduced from the observations made at least 12° on each side of the Equator.

“ On the other hand, from October 12th to 22nd, 1875, in mean lat. 35° 1' S. and
long. 134° 35' W., when the mean pressure was as high as 30 '298 inches, the difference
between the morning maximum and the afternoon minimum was only 0‘036 ; and from
July 12th to 19th, in mean lat. 36° 16' N. and long. 156° 11' W., when the mean pressure
was 30‘328 inches, the difference between the morning maximum and the afternoon
minimum was only 0’025 inch. Thus, with a mean pressure in the Pacific about
lat. 35° to 36° N. and S., much greater than near the Equator, the oscillation is much less,
being, in the North Pacific, less than a third part of what occurs near the Equator.
Similarly this diurnal oscillation is very small in the analogous high pressure regions of
the North and South Atlantic as compared with the same oscillation near the equatorial
belt of that ocean. The following are the mean oscillations in the middle regions of the
two great oceans about lat. 36° from the morning maximum to the afternoon minimum
about the time of the year, in each case, when the sun is highest in the heavens : — South
Pacific 0’036 inch, North' Pacific 0‘025 inch, South Atlantic 0'024 inch, and North

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1001

Atlantic 0'014 inch. Thus it is shown that these amplitudes diminish as the ocean
becomes more land-locked with continents, or as the anticyclonic region, which
characterises these parts of the globe, becomes better defined and currents of air are
poured down more steadily from the higher regions of the atmosphere.

“ In the open ocean the morning minimum of pressure is largest in the equatorial
regions, and it diminishes with latitude ; but the rate of diminution with latitude,
through anticyclonic and other regions, is generally less, and is more uniform than is the
case with the afternoon minimum. Further over the open sea, in high latitudes,
the diurnal barometric tide shows only one maximum and one minimum.

“ During the cruise, observations of the force of the wind were made on 1202 days, at
least twelve times each day, 650 of the days being on the open sea, and 552 near land.
As regards the open sea, the diurnal variation of the force of the wind is exceedingly
small, the difference between the hour of least and greatest velocity being less than a
mile per hour, and the hours of occurrence of the small maxima and minima vary with
the different oceans.

“ Quite different is it with the winds encountered near land, the force of the wind there
giving a curve as pronouncedly marked as the diurnal curves of temperature or pressure.
The minimum force occurs from 2 to 4 a.m. and the maximum from noon to 4 p.m., the
highest velocity being at 2 p.m. The curves for each of the five great oceans give one
and the same result, or a curve closely congruent with the curve of diurnal temperature.
The differences between the hours of least and greatest velocity are : — Southern Ocean
6lr miles, South Pacific 4|> miles, South . Atlantic 3^ miles, North Atlantic and North
Pacific 3 miles per hour.

“As regards each ocean the velocity of the wind on the open sea is very
considerably in excess of that near land, and it is to be specially noted that in no
case does the maximum velocity near land, attained at or shortly after noon, reach
the velocity of the wind on the open sea. The 650 daily observations on the open
sea gave a mean hourly velocity of 17i| miles, whereas the 552 near land give a
velocity of only 12^ miles per hour. The difference is greatest at 4 a.m., when it
amounts to 6 miles per hour, and least at 2 p.m., when it is a little less than 3 miles
per hour.

“ The observations made in the region of the northeast trades in the Atlantic in 1873
show a small diurnal variation in the direction of the wind, the variation being from
E. 47° 5' N. at 2 to 6 a.m. to E. 56° N. at 10 a.m. to 2 p.m., being thus 8° 55' towards
north during the hottest hours of the day in the regions of the northeast trades of the
Atlantic.

“ The variation in the amount of cloud in the sky over the open sea is very small, there
being indicated, however, two maxima, the one about or shortly after sunrise and the
other in the early part of the afternoon ; and two minima, the one at noon and the other

1002

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

from sunset to midnight. The difference between the daily extremes is only 6 per cent,
of the whole sky.

“ The observations show that the diurnal occurrence of rain on the open sea is
inversely as the temperature, 684 days’ observations giving 96 cases in the seven hours
from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m., but 135 in the two hours from midnight to 2 a.m., these being
the periods of minimum and maximum occurrence.

“ The observations on the open sea give the hours of maximum frequency of thunder-
storms from 10 p.m. to 8 a.m., twenty -two having been observed during these ten hours,
and ten only during the. other fourteen hours of the day. The daily curve of variation
is thus precisely the reverse of what is observed everywhere to occur in continental
climates ; and the result suggests that over the ocean terrestrial radiation, or radiation
from the earth with its gaseous envelope, is more powerful than solar radiation in bringing
about vertical disturbances in the equilibrium of the atmosphere. Similarly, by far the
greatest number of the squalls encountered during the cruise occurred during the night
and the least during the day.

“ The whole of the observations of the temperature of the surface of the sea and the air
have been examined and compared together and sorted into 174 groups, according to
geographical position, and the differences entered on the chart of the cruise. In the
Southern Ocean, between lat. 45c and 60° S. the temperature of the sea was lower than
that of the air, the mean difference being 10,4, the air being warmer owing to the pre-
valence of W.N.W. winds, and the sea colder owing to the numerous icebergs. South of
lat. 60° S. the sea was nearly 2o,0 warmer than the air, the result being due to the open
sea maintaining a higher surface temperature, and to a greater prevalence in these
higher latitudes of cold southerly winds.

“ The temperature of the sea exceeded that of the air from June 1874 to March 1875, or
during the part of the cruise from Sydney to New Zealand, through the East Indian Islands
to Hong Kong, and thence to the Admiralty Islands. During these months, except
when passing the north of Australia, the sea was much warmer than the air, the general
excess being from 2° to 3°, even rising near Tongatabu to upwards of 4°. In June, when
the Challenger passed the north of Australia, the climate was very dry, the sunshine
strong, the evaporation large, and consequently the sea there colder than the air ;
whereas in the other parts of the above extensive region the rainfall was comparatively
large, the sky much clouded, the evaporation and sunshine small, and the sea
consequently warmer than the air.

“ On the other hand, in the North Atlantic from lat. 40c to 20° N. the sea was on the
mean half a degree colder than the air. This region is remarkable for its -high pressure,
for the winds and currents flowing out from it in all directions, its generally clear skies,
strong sunshine, and consequently large evaporation, by which the temperature of the
surface of the sea is lowered, while that of the air resting on it is raised, being open to

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1003

the heating influence of the sun. Similarly in the North Pacific from lat. 40° to 30° N.
the temperature of the surface of the sea was half a degree lower than that of the air.

“ These remarks apply only to the observations made strictly on the open sea. Near
land, very large differences were recorded which varied with the season. Thus at Hong
Kong, during the latter half of November 1874, the air was 30,7 colder than the sea,
being occasioned by the low temperature of the land at this season and the prevailing
northerly wind. On the other hand, at Valparaiso in November and December of the
following year the sea was 5° '8 colder than the air during the three weeks the Challenger
was off that coast, the difference being caused by the cold oceanic current which sweeps
northwards past that coast, and the rapid increase in the temperature of the air which
takes place at this time of the year in Chili.”

Voyage_of_

Challenge

INDEX.

t>ve 10280.

•0270

•0265

•0260

1-0250.

TRACK

H.M.S. CHALLENGER

urn

APPENDIX I.

EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE
CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS.

Figures enclosed thus, (37), indicate the position and distinguishing number of a Sounding,
Dredging, or Trawling Station.

Figures in block letter thus, 2650, indicate the depth in Fathoms.

The letters under the depth indicate the nature of the Deposit at the Bottom : —
gl. oz. signifying Globigerina ooze.

di, oz.

, Diatom ooze.

pt. oz. ,,

Pteropod ooze.

rad. oz. ,,

, Radiolarian ooze.

r. cl.

, red clay.

crl. m. ,,

Coral mud.

vole. m. ,,

volcanic mud

r. m. ,,

red mud.

gr. m. ,,

green mud.

bl. m. ,,

blue mud.

s. ,,

sand.

st. ,,

stones.

sh. .,

shells.

g-

gravel.

crl. ,,

Coral.

r. „

rock.

h. g.

hard ground.

Arrows thus, /, indicate the mean direction of the Wind, the number at the base giving the

mean Force (in Beaufort’s Scale). Arrows thus, ^ , indicate the direction of the Surface Current,
the numbers at the base giving the rate in miles per 24 hours.

The position of the Ship each day at Noon is indicated by a black dot. When the position at
noon corresponds with a Sounding Station the black dot is replaced by the number of the Station.
The day of the month is noted in hair line thus, 25, and occasionally the month and year are also
given, the month being shown in Roman figures, thus, i.v.74.

v In the Diagrams the thick Horizontal lines represent lines of equal temperature in Fahrenheit

(37)

qo

CO

Scale. The figures above each Vertical line, thus, 6 , indicate, (37), the number of the Station,

9 > in v >

co

ci

68°, the Surface Temperature, and, 2650, the Depth in fathoms. The figures below each Vertical
line indicate the temperature at the Bottom.

These Diagrams are constructed from the curves published in Plays. Chem. Chall. Exp.,
part iii, 1884.

APPENDIX II.

REVISED TABLE showing the Positions of the Soundings obtained by H.M.S. Chal-
lenger, the Temperature and Specific Gravity of the Surface and Bottom Water, and
the Stations where Serial Temperatures, Trawlings, and Dredgings were procured.

(The Soundings in brackets are only the approximate depths.)

Number of •
Sounding*. |

Distinguishing
Number of
Station.

Date.

1872-73.

Latitude.

Longitude.

Depth in
Fathoms.

Nature of
Bottom.

Temperature
of the Sea- |

|

Specific Gravity of Sea-
water at 60° F.
Distilled Water at 39°= 1.

Trawling

Dredging.

Serial tempera-

obtained at the
stations marked* j

Plans on which
the Station is
shown.

Bottom |

Surface'

Bottom. 1

Surface.

NORTH.

WEST.

. 1

i

I

December 30

41 58

0

9 42 0

1125

Blue mud.

...

Dredged.

2

IA

January 1

40 25

0

9 38 30

325

Hard ground.

52-0

57 ‘0

...

3

3

IB

„ 1

40 24

0

9 45 0

730

Hard ground.

49-0

57 '0

3

4

Ic

1

40 23

0

9 43 0

950

Hard ground.

57-0

Dredged.

3

Id

» 2

39 55

0

10 5 0

1975

Blue mud.

...

57-0

Dredged.

3

V

6

II

., 13

38 10

0

9 14 0

470

Green mud. j

...

57-0

Dredged.

3

7

IIa

,. 13

38 5

0

9 39 0

1270

Blue mud. 1

57 '0

Dredged.

3

8

11b

„ 14

38 31

0

9 31 0

84

Green mud.

57-0

3

9

lie

„ 14

38 28

0

9 35 0

280

Green mnd. |

57-0

3

10

IlD

„ U

38 26

0

9 38 0

560

Green mud.

52-0

57 '5

3

11

IIe

„ 14

38 22

30

9 44 0

1290

Blue mnd.

57’0

12

IIf

14

38 14

25

9 49 42

1475

Blue mud.

37 '5

57-5

3

13

lie

14

38 9

43

9 48 0

1380

Blue mud.

57-5

3

14

IIh

„ 14

37 56

0

10 8 0

1800

Blue mud.

37-0

57-0

3

15

IIj

„ 15

37 1

45

9 23 45

1000

Blue mud.

39-5

59-5

3

16

IlK

„ 15

36 58

50

9 14 20

525

Blue mud.

54’0

60-0

| Dredged.

*

3

17

III

„ 15

37 2

0

9 14 0

900

Blue mud.

60-0

Dredged.

3

18

IV

„ 16

36 25

0

8 12 0

600

Blue mud.

...

60 '0

Both.

2&3

19

V

„ 28

35 47

0

8 23 0

1090

Globigerina ooze.

• 38-5

61-0

Trawled.

*

2

20

Va

„ 29

36 13

0

10 7 0

2500

59-0

2 & 3

21

VI

„ 30

36 23

0

11 18 0

1525

Globigerina ooze.

| 36-0

58-0

Trawled.

22

VII

„ 31

35 20

0

13 4 0

2125

Globigerina ooze.

37-0

60-0

Trawled.

2

23

VIlA

February 1

34 4

0

14 18 0

2250

iGlobigerina ooze.

1 37-0

61 '0

2

24

VIIb

„ 2

32 43-

0

15 52 0

2225

Globigerina ooze.

| 37-0

63-0

2

25

Vile

2

32 21

0

16 24 0

670

Volcanic sand.

I 46-8

63-0

4

26

VIlD

2

32 16

0

16 28 0

1150

Volcanic mud.

64-0

4

27

VIIe

2

32 20

15

16 32 0

930

Volcanic mud.

43 :5

63-5

4

28

VIIf

2

32 27

0

16 40 30

1500

Volcanic mud.

...

63’0

Trawled.

i 4

29

Vila

” 3

32 32

45

16 48 0

1150

Volcanic mud.

1 39-0

63-0

i 4

30

VUh

3

32 35

0

16 51 0

790

Volcanic mud.

! 45-0

62‘8

! 4

31

VIIj

3

32 36

15

16 53 15

490

Volcanic mud.

63-0

4

32

VIlK

6

29 19

0

16 38 0

1975

1 Volcanic mud.

36-2

62-5

2 & 5

33

villi

| 10

28 28

0

16 12 30

278

| Volcanic mud.

64-0

I 5

34

VI IM

„ 10

28 28

0

16 10 0

630

Volcanic mud.

45 :0

64-0

5

35

VIlN

„ 10

28 30

30

16 3 30

975

Volcanic mud.

41-0

64-0

36

VIIo

„ 10

28 33

0

16 4 0

560

Volcanic mud.

45‘5

64.0

37

VIIp

„ 10

28 35

0

16 5 0

78

Volcanic sand.

64-0

Dredged.

5

38

VIIq

„ 10

28 38

0

16 5 0

179

Hard ground.

64-0

1 5

39

VIIb

„ 10

28 41

0

16 6 0

640

j Volcanic mud.

45 '8

64-0

40

VIIs

„ 10

28 45

0

16 7 0

1390

Volcanic mud.

38.5

63:0

I ... , ...

1 6

127

(narr. chall. exp.— vol. i. — 1885.)

1008 THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CH ALLEN GEli.

e 1

fcinguishing
umber of
Station.

Date.

1873.

Latitude.

Longitude.

)eptb in
'athoms.

Nature of
Bottom.

Temperature
of -the Sea-
water.

Specific Gravity of Sea-
water at 60° F.
Distilled Water at 39°=1.

Trawling

Dredging.

1 s J!»
«! S-g jj

ns on which
; Station is
shown.

aA

Bottom

Surface

Bottom.

Surface.

'» S o

£ £

41

VIlT

February 11

NORTH.

28 42 0

WEST.

17 8 0

1750

Volcanic mud.

37-5

63 '0

42

VIIu

H

28 20 0

17 34

0

1340

Volcanic mud.

38‘5

65-0

5

43

VIIv

H

27 58 0

17 39

0

1620

Volcanic mud.

37-5

65 ’0

*

5

44

VIII

12

28 3 15

17 27

0

620

Volcanic mud.

64-5

Dredged.

5

45

1

15

27 24 0

16 55

0

1890

Globigerina ooze.

36-8

64-5

1-02650

1-02730

Dredged.

*

5 & 6

46

2

17

25 52 0

19 22

0

1945

Globigerina ooze.

36-8

67 '0

1-02602

1-02739

Dredged.

*

6

47

3

18

25 45 0

20 14

0

1525

Hard ground.

37-0

65-0

1-02719

Dredged.

6

48

4

19

25 28 0

20 22

0

2220

66-0

1-02720

*

6

49

5

21

24 20 0

24 28

0

2740

Bed clay.

37-0

68-0

1-02744

1-02753

Dredged.

*

6

50

6

23

23 14 0

28 22

0

2950

Bed clay.

37-0

69-2

1-02745

1-02760

6

51

7

24

23 23 0

31 31

0

2750

Bed clay.

36-9

68-0

1-02609

1-02763

6

52

8

25

23 12 0

32 56

0

2700

Bed clay.

37-0

67-0

1-02613

1-02773

Dredged.

*

6

53

9

26

23 23 0

35 11

0

3150

Bed clay.

36-8

69-0

1-02653

1-02778

Dredged.

6

54

10

28

23 10 0

38 42

0

2720

Bed clay.

36-5

71-0

1-02753

1-02774

*

6

55

11

March

1

22 45 0

40 37

0

2575

Globigerina ooze.

36-5

72-2

1-02621

1-02767

Dredged.

*

6

56

12

,,

3

21 57 0

43 29

0

2025

Globigerina ooze.

36-9

73-0

1-02641

1-02761

Dredged.

6

57

13

4

21 38 0

44 39

0

1900

Globigerina ooze.

36-8

72-0

1-02695

1-02777

Dredged.

*

6

58

14

5

21 1 0

46 29

0

1950

Globigerina ooze.

36-8

74-0

1-02756

Trawled.

6

59

15

6

20 49 0

48 45

0

2325

Globigerina ooze.

36-2

72-5

1-02616

1-02768

*

6

60

16

7

20 39 0

50 33

0

2435

Globigerina ooze.

36-2

74-0

1-02751

1-02770

Dredged.

6

61

17

8

20 7 0

52 32

0

2385

Globigerina ooze.

36-5

74-0

1-02766

....

*

6

62

18

,,

10

19 41 0

55 13

0

2650

Bed clay.

36-0

74-0

1-02615

1-02732

Dredged.

*

6

63

19

11

19 15 0

57 47

0

3000

Bed clay.

35-5

75 -0

1-02614

1-02728

6

64

20

'

12

18 56 0

59 35

0

2975

Bed clay.

36 0

75-0

1-02727

1-02727

Dredged.

*

6

65

21

13

18 54 0

61 28

0

3025

Bed clay.

35-5

76-0

1-02688

1-02685

6

66

22

14

18 40 0

62 56

0

1420

Pteropod ooze.

38-4

76-0

1-02698

Trawled.

*

6 & 7

67

23

15

18 24 0

63 28

0

450

Pteropod ooze.

76-0

Dredged.

7

68

23a

15

18 26 0

63 31

15

460

Pteropod ooze.

76-0

Dredged.

7

69

23b

15

18 28 0

63 35

0

590

Pteropod ooze.

76-0

1-02693

Dredged.

7

70

24

25

18 38 30

65 5 30

390

Pteropod ooze.

76-0

Dredged.

7

71

24a

,,

25

18 43 30

65 5

0

625

Pteropod ooze.

76-0

1-02704

Dredged.

7

72

25

3)

26

• 19 41 0

65 7

0

3875

Bed clay.

76-0

1-02631

1-02692

Dredged.

*

6 & 7

73

26

,3

27

21 26 0

65 16

0

2800

Bed clay.

76-0

1-02594

1-02704

6

74

27

J3

28

22 49 0

65 19

0

2960

Bed clay.

36 "2

75-5

1-02601

1-02710

*

6

75

28

3J

29

24 39 0

65 25

0

2850

Bed clay.

36-3

75-0

1-02608

1-02710

Dredged.

*

6

76

29

April

31

27 49 0

64 59

0

2700

Red' clay.

36-4

72-0

1-02607

1-02739

Dredged.

*

6

77

30

1

29 5 0

65 1

0

2600

Bed clay.

36-5

72-0

1-02774

1-02735

6

78

31

3

31 24 0

65 0

0

2475

Globigerina ooze.

36 -5

69-5

1-02651

6

79

32

33

3

31 49 0

64 55

0

2250

Globigerina ooze.

367

68-0

1-02605

6&8

80

32a

,,

3

32 1 0

64 51

0

1820

Globigerina ooze.

68-0

1-02728

6

81

32b

3

32 10 0

64 52

0

950

Coral mud.

68-0

8

82

32c

f9

4

32 17 30

64 39

5

780

Coral mud.

67-0

8

83

32d

33

4

32 19 0

64 40

0

380

Coral mud.

67-0

8

84

32e

33

4

32 19 30

64 40 35

120

Coral mud.

67-5

Dredged.

8

85

32f

33

4

32 20 40

64 38

15

125

Hard ground.

67-5

8

86

32g

33

4

32 21 25

64 37

15

: 265

Hard ground.

68-0

Dredged.

8

87

33

,,

4

32 21 30

64 35 55

' 435

Coral mud.

68-0

Dredged.

8

88

33a

21

32 31 10

64 42

55

175

Coral sand.

67-2

8

89

33b

33

21

32 32 30

64 46

0

640

Coral mud.

67’2

8

90

34

33

21

32 33 55

64 52 18

1370

Coral mud.

67-2

.8

91

35a

,,

22

32 39 0

65 6

0

2450

Globigerina ooze.

36 ‘5

67-8

8

92

35b

33

22

32 26 0

65 9

0

2100

Globigerina ooze.

36-5

68-0

1-02715

8

93

35c

22

32 15 0

' 65 8

0

1950

Globigerina ooze.

68-0

8

94

36

»

22

32 7 25

65 4

0

30

Coral.

67-5

Dredged.

8

95

37

24

32 18 0

65 38

8

2650

Globigerina ooze.

36-5

68'0

Dredged.

*

8 & 9

96

38

,,

25

33 3 0

66 32

0

2600

Globigerina ooze.

36'5

70-0

1-02723

*

9

97

39

33

27

34 3 0

67 32

0

2850

Bed clay.

36-5

65'0

1-02701

*

9

98

40

33

28

34 51 0

68 30

0

2675

Blue mud.

69-5

...

1-02698

Dredged.

9

99

41

33

29

36 5 0

69 54

0

(2500)

65-0

1-02703

*

9

100

42

33

30

35 58 0

70 35

0

2425

Blue mud.

36 -8

65-0

■1-02668

1-02695

*

9

101

43

May

1

36 23 0

71 46

0

(2600)

36-8

75’0

1-02674

*

9

102

44

3J

2

37 25 0

71 40

0

1700

Blue mud.

36-2

56 '5

1-02541

Dredged.

*

9

103

45

33

3

38,34 0

72 10

0

1240

Blue mud.

37-2

49-5

•"

1-02504 Dredged.

*

9

104

46

?>

6

40 17 0

66 48

0

1350

Blue mud.

37-2

40-0

...

1-02403

Dredged.

q

105

47.

33

7

41 14 0

65 45

0

1340

Blue mud.

42-0

1-02419 Dredged.

9

106

48

8

43 4 0

64 5

0

51

Bock.

38-0

j

Dredged.

9

Bermuda to Halifax. Oft’ Bermuda. St. Tliomas to Bermuda. Off Tenerife to Sombrero Island. Off

Som- Canary

brero. Islands.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1009

Number of
Sounding.

Distinguishing
Number of
Station.

Date.

1873.

Latitude.

Longitude.

Depth in
Fathoms.

Nature of
Bottom.

Temperature
of the Sea-
water.

Specific Gravity of Sea-
water at 60° F.
Distilled Water at 39°=1.

Trawling

oi-

Dredging.

Serial tempera-

obtained at the
stations marked*

Plans on which
the Station is
shown.

Bottom

Surface

Bottom.

Surface.

NORTH.

WEST.

107

49

May

20

43

3

0

63

39

0

85

Gravel, stones.

35-0

40-5

1-02400

1-02354

Dredged.

*

9

108

50

21

42

8

0

63

39

0

1250

Blue mud.

38-0

45-0

1-02546

1-02451

Dredged.

*

9

109

51

22

41

19

0

63

12

0

2020

Blue mud.

36-0

59-0

1-02595

1-02625

*

9

110

52

23

39

44

0

63

22

0

2800

Blue mud.

36-2

67-2

1-02701

1-02714

*

9

111

52a

24

38

16

0

63

17

0

73-0

*

9

112

53

26

36

30

0

63

40

0

2650

Bed clay.

36 '3

73-0

1-02700

1-02708

*

9

113

54

27

34

51

0

63

59

0

2650

Bed clay.

70-5

1-02715

Trawled.

*

9

114

55

28

33

20

0

64

37

0

2500

Globigerina ooze.

70-5

1-02711

*

9

115

55a

28

32

46

0

64

39

0

1775

Globigerina ooze.

36 -2

70-5

8 & 9

116

55b

29

32

7 35

64

53

45

1325

Coral mud.

72-0

Dredged.

8

1

117

56

29

32

8 45

64

59

35

1075

Coral mud.

38 -2

72-5

Dredged.

8

118

56a

29

32

10

45

64

58

20

506

72-5

Dredged.

8

1

119

57

30

32

11

7

65

3

20

690

72-5

8

120

57a

30

32

9

30

65

7

35

1250

Coral mud.

73-0

Dredged.

8

121

57b

„

30

32

9 45

65

10

50

1575

Coral mud.

73-0

Trawled.

*

8

l

122

58

June

13

32

37

0

64

21

0

1500

Globigerina ooze.

37-2

73-5

6 & 8

]

123

59

14

32

54

0

63

22

0

2360

Globigerina ooze.

36-3

74-0

1-02650

1-02715

*

6

124

60

16

34

28

0

58

56

0

2575

Bed clay.

36-2

71-5

1-02704

1-02709

Trawled.

*

6

125

61

17

34

54

0

56

38

0

2850

Bed mud.

36-2

71-0

1-02708

Trawled.

*

6

126

62

18

35

7

0

52

32

0

2875

Bed clay.

36-4

70-0

1-02709

1-02716

*

6

127

63

19

35

29-

0

50

53

0

2750

Bed clay.

71-0

1-02613

. 1-02720

Trawled.

6

128

64

v

20'

35

35

0 ■

50

27

0

(2700)

Bed clay.

75-0

Dredged.

*

6

129

65

21

36

33-

0

■ 47

58

0

2700

Bed clay.

36 ’2

72-5

1-02598

1-02721

*

6

130

66

22

37

24

0

44

14

0

2750

Bed clay.

36-5

70-0

1-02621

1-02712

*

6

131

67

}i

23

37

54

0

41

44

0

2700

Globigerina ooze.

36-3

70-0

1-02614

1-02699

*

6

132

68

24

38

3

0

39

19

0

2175

Globigerina ooze.

36-2

70-0

1-02612

1-02688

Trawled.

6

133

69

25

38

23

0

37

21

0

2200

Globigerina ooze.

36-2

71-0

1-02712

Trawled.

*

6

134

70

26

38

25

0

35

50

0

1675

Globigerina ooze.

70-0

1-02708

Trawled.

6

135

71

27

38

18

0

34

48

0

1675

Globigerina ooze.

36 ;8

71-0

1-02668

1-02696

Trawled.

*

g

136

72

9)

28

38

34

0

32

47

0

1240

Globigerina ooze.

37-8

71-0

1-02718

*

6

137

73

.30

38

30

0

31

14

0

1000

Pteropod ooze.

39-4

69 '0

1-02691

Dredged.

*

6&10

138

74

July .

1

38

22

0

29

37

0

1350

Pteropod ooze.

69 '8

6&10

j

139

75

2

38

38

0

28

28

30

450

Volcanic mud.

70 '0

Dredged.

10

I

140

76

3

38

11

0

27

9

0

900

Pteropod ooze.

40-0

70-0

1-02688

1-02699

Dredged.

*

10

'

141

77

4

37

52

0

•26

26

0

750

Hard ground.

69-2

1-02675

1-02686

10

>

142

78

10

37

26

0

25

13

0

1000

Volcanic mud. •

71-0

Dredged.

*

10

)

143

79

11

36

21

0

23

31

0

2025

Globigerina ooze.

35-9

71-5

Dredged.

*

6

1

144

80

12

35

3

0

21

25

0

2660

Globigerina ooze.

36-6

71-0

1-02601

1-02706

*

145

81

13

34

11

0

19

52

0

2675

Globigerina ooze.

37-0

71-0

1-02710

6

146

82

14

33

46

0

19

17

0

2400’

Globigerina ooze.

36-6

70-7

1-02695

1-02715

' *

6

147

83

-

15

33

13

0

18

13

0

1650

Globigerina ooze.

37-0

71-0

1-02626

1-02742

Dredged.

6

J

148

84

18

30

38

0

18

5

0

71 '0

1-02729

*

6

149

85

,,

19

28

42

0

18

6

0

1125

Volcanic mud.

69-2

1-02735

Dredged.

*

6 & 5

150

86

21

25

46

0

20

34

0

2300

Globigerina ooze.

36-6

710

1-02626

6

151

87

21

25

49

0

20

12

0

1675

Bock.

72-0

1-02747

Dredged.

6(st. 3)

152

88

22

23

58

0

21

18

0

2300

Globigerina ooze.

36-4

72 '0

1-02618

1-02755

*

6

153

89

23

22

18

0

22

2

0

2400

Globigerina ooze.

36-6

73-5

1-02719

Trawled.

*

6

154

90

n

24

20

58

0

22

57

0

2400

Globigerina ooze.

36-5

74-0

1-02645

1-02688

*

6

155

91

25

19

4

0

24

6

0

2075

Globigerina ooze.

36-5

74-0

1-02696

1-02710

6

!

156

92

26

17

54

0

24

41

0

1975

Globigerina ooze.

74-7

1-02699

Dredged.

*

6

157

93

27

17

12

45

24

55

45

1070

Volcanic mud.

75-0

11

158

93a

f9

27

17

3 30

24

53

0

1000

Volcanic mud.

75-0

1-02696

11

159

93b

27

16

59 15

24

57

45

465

Volcanic mud.

43-5

75-0

11

160

93c

J5

27

16

57

15

25

1

0

52

Coralline mud.

76-0

11

161

93d

August

5

16

55 45

25

3

45

103

Coralline mud.

78-0

11

162

93e

99

5

16

52

15

25

6

45

85

Coralline mud.

78-0

11

163

93f

5

16

50

0

25

8

0

260

Volcanic mud.

78 ’0

11

164

93g

5

16

46

, 0

25

10

0

675

Volcanic mud.

78-0

11

165

94

5

16

42

0

25

12

0

1150

Volcanic mud.

78-0

11

166

95

99

10

13

36

0

22

49

0

2300

Globigerina ooze.

36-5

79-0

1-02605

1-02680

*

12

167

96

11

12

15

0

22

28

0

78-7

1-02651

*

12

i

168

97

i i>

13

10

25

0

20

30

0

2575

Red clay.

36;6

78-0

1-02604

1-02610

*

12

169

98

14

9

21

0 •

18

28

0

1750

Globigerina ooze.

36-7

78-2

1-02605

1-02605

Dredged.

*

12

i

170

99

1 -

15

7

53

0

17

26

0

1 ■

78-0

1-02600

12

j

St. 'Vincent Off Cape Verde Madeira to Cape Azores to Off the Bermuda to Azores. Off Bermuda. Halifax to

to St. Paul’s Islands. Verde Islands. Madeira. Azores. Bermuda.

Bocks.

1010

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

171 100

172 101

173 102
i 174 103

175 104

17

17

178

17

180

181

182

183

184

109c

109d

111

112

113

113a

113b

113e

114

115

116

117
117a

118
119

199 120

200 121

202 122a
122b

205

206

207

208

209

210
211

|212

213

214

215

216

217

218

220

221

135c

135d

Date.

1873.

August 16
„ 19

, 31

September 1

„ 9

„ 9

,, 10

10

„ 10

„• 10

„ 11

„ 11

12

„ 12

12
13

„ 11

„ 30

October 3
„ 6

,. 10

„ 11

,, 14

„ 15

Latitude.

Longitude.

- 1

Nature of
Bottom.

Temperature
of the Sea-
water.

Specific Gravity of Sea-
water at 60“ F.
Distilled Water at 39°=1.

Trawling

Dredging.

fl|l

ns on which
Station is
shown.

Bottom |!

surface

Bottom. |

Surface.

m

NORTH.

7 1 0

WEST.

15 55 0

2425

79-0

1-02612

12 1

5 48 0

14 20 0

2500 1

Blue mud.

36-4

79-2

1-02635

Trawled.

*

12

3 8 0

14 49 0

2450

Globigerina ooze..

36-4

78-0

1-02595

1-02589

12

2 52 0

17 0 0

2475

Globigerina ooze.

36-0

77 '0

1-02622

*

12

2 25 0

20 1 0

2500

Globigerina ooze.

36'6

78 '0

1-02601

1-02602

Trawled.

*

12

2 6 0

22 53 0

2275

Globigerina ooze.

36-0

78-0

1-02604 .

*

12

1 47 0

24 26 0

1850

Globigerina ooze.

36-6

78-8

1-02615

Trawled.

■*

12

1 22 0

26 36 0

1500

Globigerina ooze.

37'9

78-8

...

1-02613

Trawled.

12 I

1 10 0

28 23 0

1900

Globigerina ooze.

36-8

78 '0

1-02641

12 J

0 55 38

29 22 35

104

Hard ground.

77-7

Dredged.

13 1

0 54 43

29 23 32

475

( Hard ground 1
\ (gravel), j
Hard ground.

78-0

13

0 54 55

29 22 17

510

76'5

...

13 1

0 56 23

29 22 15

780

Pteropod ooze.

76-5

13

0 56 4

29 25 2

1425

Pteropod ooze.

77-0

13. J

0 9 0

30 18 0

2275

Globigerina ooze.

34-8

77-5

1-02602

1-02667

*

12 )

SOUTH.

1 45 0

WEST.

30 58 0

2475

Red clay.

33 -7

78 '0

1-02677

12 1

3 33 0

32 16 0

2200

Globigerina ooze.

34-0

78 ’0

1-02607

1-02669

*

12&14 |

3 40 45

32 22 0

1010

Hard ground.

37-5

78-0

14 J

3 47 0

32 24 30

25

( Volcanicsand )
( and gravel. )

78-0

14

3 50 30

32 30 0

400

Hard ground.

78-0

...

14

'3 54 0

32 36 15

525

Hard ground.

78-0

...

14

3 58 0

32 42 0

820

Hard grorrnd.

78-0

:::

...

14

4 2 0

5 10

32 47 0

33 50 0

2150

2275

Globigerina ooze.
Globigerina ooze.

34 '3

78-0

78-0

1-02609

1-02628

:::

*

14

12

5 56 0 .

34 45 0

1375

Red mud.

78-0

1-02673

12

6 4 0

34 51 0

500

Red mud.

78-0

15

7 28 0

34 2 0

2050

Red mud.

35 ‘2

77 -5

12&15

7 39 0

34 12 0

1650

Red mud.

37-2

77 '5

1-02745

*

1-2&15 J

8 37 0

34 28 0

675

Red mud.

78-0

j 1-02740

Trawled.

12&15 1

8 28 0

34 31 0

500

Red mud.

78-0

Trawled.

15

9 5 0

34 50 0

350

Red mud.

77 -5

;;;

Trawled.

15

9 10 0

34 52 0

120

Red mud.

77 -5

...

Trawled.

15

9 9 0

34 53 0

32

Red mud.

77 '5

Trawled.

15

9 10 0

34 49 0

400

Red mud.

77 '5

1-02669

1-02739

Trawled.

15

10 9 0

35 11 0

1715

Red mud.

37 '0

77 -5

1-02681

12&15

1011 0

35 22 0

1600

Red mud.

77 ‘5

1-02671

1 -

Trawled.

15

10 46 0

36 2 0

1200

Red mud.

...

77-0

1-02730

: 1-02746

15

10 46 0

36 8 0

770

Red mud.

77-0

|

Trawled.

12&15

10 45 0

36 9 0

700

Red mud.

77 ’0

Trawled.

15

11 42 0

37 3 0

1015

Red mud.

38-5

77-0

1-02748

12&15

13 6 0

38 7 0

1275

Red mud.

76'5‘

12&15 ,

20 13 0

35 19 0

2150

Red mud.

34-2

74-0

1-02759

Dredged.

*

16

26 15 0

32 56 0

2350

Red clay.

34-7

69-0

1-02714

1-02710

Trawled.

*■

16

29 35 0

28 9 0

2275

Globigerina ooze.

34-6

65-0

...

1-02663

Trawled.

*

16

35 25 0

23 40 0

2050.

Globigerina ooze.

35-0

58-0

1*02590

1-02619

*

16

35 41 0

20 55 0

| 1900

Globigerina ooze.

35-4

58-0

i 1*02587

1 -02626

Trawled.

16

36 12 0

12 16 0

2025

Globigerina ooze.

36-0

53-5

1*02583

1-02616

Dredged.

*

16

37 1 50

12 19 10

360

Volcanic sand.

53 '5

...

...

17

37 16 50

12 45 15

( Hard ground 1
\ shells, gravel. j
j Hard ground \
( shells, gravel. J

54-0

|

Dredged.

17

37 22 30

12 33 0

465

53 -5

...

17

37 25 30

12 28 30

■ 110

54-0

Dredged.

17

37 25 0
37 21 0

12 30 30
12 22 30

1000

V Hard ground 1
( shells, gravel. J

54-0

53-5

Dredged,

Dredged,

*

17

17

37 14 45

12 20 15

1100

Hard ground.

53-5

...

Dredged,

17

37 10 50

1 12 18 30

550

Hard ground.

54-0

Dredged,

17

36 43 0

7 13 0

2100

35-2

54-0

1-02592

1-02616

Dredged,

16

SOUTH.

35 59 0

EAST.

1 34 0

2550

| Red clay.

34 -5

56-1

1-02585

1-02637

Dredged,

, *

16

Isl

[sll

Tristan
da Cunha to
> Cape of Good
Hope.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1011

■s •

1*

Temperature

Specific Gravity of Sea-

|.S

Date.

s

Nature of

of the Sea-

water at f>0° F.

Trawling

water.

Distilled Water at 39°=1.

- t; j?

g §

1873-4.

Latitude.

Longitude.

Bottom.

Dredging.

fill

.2 Sz;

Bottom 1

Surface

Bottom.

Surface.

If i|

|s

SOUTH.

EAST.

228

138

October

25

36 22

0

8 12

0

2650

Red clay.

35 1

56 '2

1-02580

1-02631

*

229

139

27

35 85

0

16 9

0

2325

Globigerina ooze.

34-1

56 -2

1-02582 |

1-02614

*

16

230

140

28

35 0

0

17 57

0

1250

Globigerina ooze.

59-0

1-02620

16 .

231

141

December 17

34 41

0

18 36

0

98

Green sand.

49-5

66-5

Dredged.

*

18 ’

232

142

18

35 4

0

18 37

0

150

Green sand.

47-0

65-5

1 -62658 1

1-02665

Dredged.

18

233

143

19

36 48

o

19 24

0

1900

Globigerina ooze.

35-6

73-0

1-02607

1-02657

Dredged.

*

18

234

144

»

24

45 57

0

34 39

0

1570 ,

Globigerina ooze.

35'8

43-0

1-02525 |

1-02516

*

18

235

144a

26

46 48

0

37 49 30

69

Volcanic sand. |

41-0

Dredged.

19

236

145

27

46 43

0

38 4 30

140

Volcanic sand.

41-0

Dredged.

19

237

145a

„

27

46 41

0

38 10

0

310

Volcanic sand.

41-5

...

1-02515

.Dredged.

19

238

146

29

46 46

0

45 31

0

1375

Globigerina ooze.

35-6

43-0

1-02555

1-02512

Tra-svled.

*

18

239

147

»

30

46 16

0

48 27

0

1600

Diatom ooze.

34'2

41-0

1-02550

1-02515

Trawled.

*

18

1874.

240

147a

January

1

46 45

0

50 42

0

600

Volcanic mud.

42;°

1-02503

20

241

148

„

3

46 47

0

51 37

0

210

f Hard ground 1
[ gravel, shells. )

...

41-0

Dredged.

20

242

148a

”

3

46 53

0

51 52

0

550

| Hard ground 1
( gravel, shells. j

41-0

1-02504

Dredged.

20

243

149

9

49 8

0

70 12

0

20

Volcanic mud.

Dredged.

21

244

149a

..

14

49 8

0

70 9

0

40

Volcanic mud.

Dredged.

21

245

149b

17

49 28

0

70 30'

0

25

Volcanic mud.

40'-5

Dredged.

21

246

149c

19

49 32

0

70 0

0

60

Volcanic mud.

Dredged.

21

247

149d

20

49 28

0

70 13

0

28

Volcanic .mud.

41 :0

Dredged.

21

248

149e

21

49 37

0

70 16

0

30

Volcanic mud.

Dredged.

21

249

149f

”

27

48 55

0

69 31

0

95

Volcanic mud.

41 '-7

1-02537

Dredged.

21

250

149g

29

48 50

0

69 18

0

110

Volcanic mud.

40-2

Dredged.

21

251

149h

,,

29

48 45

0

69 14

0

127

Volcanic mud.

39-8

Dredged.

21

252

149j

29

48 43

o

69 15

0

105

Volcanic mud.

39 '0

Dredged.

21

253

149k

•29

48 40

0

69 6

0

45

Volcanic mud.

39-0

Dredged.

21

254

150

February

• 2

52 4

0

71 22

0

150

Coarse gravel.

35 -2

37-5

1-02515

Dredged.

*

18

255

151

7

52 59 30

73 33

30

75

Volcanic mud.

36-2

1-02515

Dredged.

22

256

152

11

60 52

0

80 20

0

1260

Diatom ooze.

34-5

1-02561

1-02512

Trawled.

*

23

257

153

14

65 42

O'

79 49

0

1675

Blue mud.

29-5

1-02567

1-02413

Dredged.

*

23

258

154

19

64 37

0

85 49

0

1800

Bluemud.

32-0

1-02529

1-02458

*

23

259

155

..

23

64 18

0

94 47

0

1300

Blue mud.

31-0

Dredged.

23

260

156

26

62 26

0

95 44

0

1975

Diatom ooze.

33-0

1-02515

1 02508

Trawled.

*

23

261

157

March

3

53 55

0

108 35

0

1950

Diatom ooze.

321

1 37-2

1-02561

1-02509

Trawled.

*

24

262

158

7

50 1

0

123 4

0

1800

Globigerina ooze.

33-5

45-0

1-02554

1-02522

Trawled.

*-

24

263

159

J5

10

47 25

0

130 22

0

2150

Globigerina ooze.

34-5

51-5

1-02564

1-02566

Trawled.

*

24

264

160

»

13

42 42

0

134 10

0

2600

Red clay.

33-9

55-0

1-02570

1-02570

Trawled.

*

24

265

161

April

1

38 22 30

144 36 30

33

Sand.

63-5

1-02568

Trawled.

25

266

162

2

39 10 30

146 37

0

38

Sand and shells.

63-2

1-02632

Dredged.

25

267

163

„

4

36 57

0

150 34

0

2200

Green mud.

34-5

72-0

1-02601

j 1-02652

-X-

25

268

163a

4

36 59

o

150 20

0

150

Green mud.

71-0

Dredged.

25

269

163b

June

3

33 51

15

151 22

15

35

Hard ground.

63-0

69-0

Dredged.

26

270

163c'

»

12

33 55

0

151 35

0 -

85

j Hard ground 1
t (shells). (

62 ‘2

67-5

1-02644

1

26

271

163d

,,

12

33 57

30

151 39 15

120

Green sand.

68-0

26

272

163e

12

34 0 15

151 44

15

290

Green sand.

70-2

26

273

163f

..

12

34 3

15

151 51

30

650

Green nrud.

40 -8

70-2

26

274

164

12

34 8

o

152 0

0

950

Green mud.

36 -5

69-5

1-02650

26

275

164a

13

34 9

0

151 55

0

1200

Green mud.

70-2

26

276

164b

13

34 13

0

151 38

0

410

Green mud.

69-0

1-02636

Trawled.

26

277

164c

13

34 19

0

151 31

0

400

Green mud.

40’0

67-0

Dredged.

*

26

278

164d

14

34 3

0

152 20

0

2100

67 '5

26&27

279

164e

16

1 34 27

0

154 57

0

2550

64-0

1-02644

1 *

27

280

165

17

34 50

0

155 28

0

2600

Red clay.

34-5

64-5

1-02613

1-02638

Dredged.

27

281

165a

19

36 41

0

158 29

0

2600

Red clay.

34-4

62-5

1-02637

*

27

282

165b

21

37 53

0

163 18

0

1975

Globigerina ooze.

34-7

59-5

1-02625

1-02616

*

27

283

165c

22

38 36

0

166 39

0

1100

Globigerina ooze.

36-4

58-2

1-02594

1-02614

I *

27

I \ Tristan
I da Cunha to
( Cape of Good
' Hone.

Cape of Good
> Hope to parallel
of 46“ S.

(Off Marion
r Island.

II 4

) Ten

rm in at ion
Land to
v Melbourne.

1012

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

umber of
minding.

anguishing
umber of
Station.

Date.

1874.

Latitude.

Longitude.

Depth in
Fathoms.

Nature of
Bottom.

Temperature
of the Sea-
water.

Specific Gravity of Sea-
water at G0° F.
Distilled Water at 39°=1

Trawling
, or

Dredging.

A ®!

IP!

, •3i.p1

is on which
Station is
shown.

.2fc

Q

Bottom

Surf act

i Bottom.

Surface.

iT1®!

284

166

June

23

SOUTH.

38 50 0

EAST.

169 20 0

275

Globigerina ooze.

50-8

58-5

1-02668

1-02625

Trawled.

27

285

166a

23

38 57 . 0

170 10 45

350

58-5

27

286

166b

,,

23

39 8 0

170 43 0

400

Globigerina ooze.

58-5

27

287

166c

24

39 21 0

171 28 0

400

Globigerina ooze.

58 '0

27

288

167

24

39 32 0

171 48 0

150

Blue mud.

58'5

1-02617

Trawled.

27

289

167a

»

27

41 4 0

174 19 0

10

Mud.

51-5

1-02593

Dredged.

290

168

July

8

40 28 0

177 43 0

1100

Blue mud.

37-2

57 '2

1-02584

1-02622

Trawled.

*

27 .

291

169

10

37 34 0

179 22 0

700

Blue mud.

40-0

58-2

1-02594

1-02636

Trawled.

*

27

292

170

14

SOUTH.

29 55 0

WEST.

178 14 0

520

Volcanic mud.

43-0

65-0

Trawled.

*

27

293

170a

14

29 45 0

178 11 0

630

Volcanic mud.

39-5

65-2

] -02644

Trawled.

27

294

171

15

28 33 0

177 50 0

. 600

Hard ground.

39-5

66-5

1-02685

Trawled.

27

295

171a

>,

17

25 5 0

172 56 0

2900

Red clay.

34-3

72-0

1-12626

1-02642

*

27

296

172

22

20 58 0

175 9 0

18

Coral mud.

75-0

Dredged.

28

297

172a

>>

22

20 56 0

175 11 0

240

Coral mud.

75-0

1-02640

Dredged.

28

298

173

24

SOUTH.

19 9 35

BAST.

179 41 50

315

Coral mud.

76-0

1-02642

Dredged.

29

299

173a

24

19 9 32

179 41 55

310

Coral mud.

77-0

Trawled.

29

300

174

August

3

19 6 0

178 14 20

140

Coral mud.

77-0

30

301

174a

3

19 6 32

178 16 20

' 160

Coral mud.

77-0

30

302

174b

t

3

19 6 45

178 17 0

255

Coral mud.

77-7

Trawled.

30

303

174c

3

19 7 50

178 19 35

610

Coral mud.

39 -0

78-0

Trawled.

■K-.

30

304

174d

3

19 5 50

178 16 20

210

Coral mud.

77-7

Dredged.

30

305

175

12

19 2 0

177 10 0

1350

Globigerina ooze.

36-0

77-5

1-02633

1-02647

Trawled.

*

27

306

176

99

15

18 30 0

173 52 0

1450 Globigerina ooze.

36-2

77-5

1-02621

1-02636

*

27

307

177

18

16 45 0

168 7 0

130

Volcanic sand.

78-7

1-02624

Dredged.!

27

308

178

19

16 47 0

165 20 0

2650

Red clay.

35 -8

79 ’0

1-02621

*

27'

309

179

21

15 58 0

160 48 0

2325

Red clay.

36-0

79-0

1-02594

1-02634

*

27

310

180

24

14 7 0

153 43 0

2450

Red clay.

36-0

80-0

1-02601

1-02611

*

27

311

181

25

13 50 0

151 49 D

2440

Red .clay.

35 -8

80'0

1-02591

1-02649

Trawled.

27

312

182

99

27

13 6 0

148 37 0

2275

Globigerina ooze.

35-8

78 -5

1-02584

1-02619

.*

27

313

183

28

12 42 0

146 46 0

1700

Globigerina ooze.

36-0

78-0

1-02595

1-02630

*

27

314

184

»

29

12 8 0

145 10 0

1400

Globigerina ooze.

36-0

77-5

1-02613

1-02630

Trawled.

*

27

315

185

31

11 35 25 •

144 2 0

135

Coral sand.

77-0

1-02639

Dredged.

27

316

185a

99

31

11 36 20

144 1 50

150

Coral sand.

77'0

Dredged.

27

317

185b

„

31

11 38 15

143 59 38

155

Coral sand.

77-0

Dredged.

27

318

186

September 8

10 30 0

142 18 0

8

Coral mud.

77 *2

Dredged.

31

319

187

,,

9

10 36 0

141 55 0

6

Coral mud.

777

1-02691

Dredged.

31

32"

188

99

10

9 59 0

139 42 0

28

Green mud.

78-5

1-02599

Both.

31

321

189

11

9 36 0

137 50 0

25

Green mud.

79-0

1-02529

1-02550

Trawled.

31

322

190

12

8 56 0

136 5 0

49

Green mud. ■

79-2

1-02545

Trawled.

31

323

191

23

5 41 0

134 4 30

800

Green mud. |

39 "5

82-2

1-02496

Trawled.

*

31&32

324

191a

24

5 26 0

133 19 0

580

Green mud.

40-7

81-5

1-02581

1-02579

*

31&32

325

192

26

5 49 15

132 14 15

140

Blue mud.

82-0

1-02585

Trawled.

32

326

193

28

5 24 0

130 37 15

2800

Blue mud.

38 '0

83-5

1-02558

1-02565

* .

31 '

327

194

9>

29

4 34 0

129 57 30

200

Volcanic mud.

83-0

Dredged.

33

328

194a

>>

29

4 31 0

129 57 20

360

Volcanic mud.

82-5

Trawled.

33

329

195

October

3

4 21 0

129 7 0

1425

Blue mud.

38-0

82-0

1-02568

1-02602

Trawled.

31

330

196

13

0 48 30

126 58 30

825

Hard ground.

36-9

83-0

1-02584

1-02558

Trawled.

3i

331

197

14

. NORTH.

0 41 0

EAST.

126 37 0

1200

Blue mud.

35-9

82-5

1-02593

1-02523

31

332

198

,,

20

2 55 0

124 53 0

2150

Blue mud.

38-9

85-0

1-02586

1-02551

Trawled.

*

31

333

199

,5

22

5 44 0

123 34 0

2600

Blue mud.

38'6

83-0

1-02535

1-02545

*

31

334

200 ''

••

23

6 47 0

122 28 0

250

Green mud.

85-5

1-02536

Trawled.

31

335

201

26

7 3 0

121 48 0

82

Stones, gravel. !

83-0

1-02515

Trawled.

31

336

202

,,

27

8 32 0

121 55 0

2550

Blue mud.

50'5

83-0

1-02555 -

1-02494

*

31

337

203

31

11 6 0

123 9 0

20

Mud.

85-0

Trawled.

31

338

204

November 2

12 28 0

122 15 0

705

Green mud.

84-0

1-02517

31 .

339

204a

)9

2

12 43 0

122 9-0

100

Green mud.

84-0

1-02569

Trawled.

31

340

204b

”

2

12 46 0

122 10 0

115

Green mud. |

...

84-0

1-02521 1

Trawled.

31

Off

Tongatabu.

(Banda to
(Amboina.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1013

B g

Limber of
Station.

Date.

1874-5.

Latitude.

Longitude.

2 !

Nature of
Bottom.

Temperature
of the Sea-
water.

Specific Giavity of Sea-
water at 60° F.
Distilled Water at 39°=1,

Trawling

oi-

Dredging.

ial tempera-

ained at the
ions marked*

ns on which
! Station is
shown.

gw

P

Bottom

Surface

Bottom.

Surface.

r«i

5^

341

205

November 13

NORTH.

16 42 0

EAST

119 22

0

1050

Blue mud.

37-0

82-0

1-02574 '

1-02502

Trawled.

31 )

342

206

1875
J anuarj

8

17 54

0

117 14

0

2100

Blue mud.

36-5

75-2

1/02568

1-02538

Trawled.

*

31 }

343

207

16

12 21

0

122 15

0

700

Blue mud.

51-6

80-0

1-02557

1-02515

Trawled.

*

31 'i

344

208

17

11 37

0

123 31

0

18

Blue mud.

81-0

1-02517

Trawled.

31 1

345

209

22

10 14

0

123 54

0

95

Blue mud.

71-0

81-0

Both.

31 .

346

210

25

9 26

0

123 45

0

375

Blue mud.

54-1

80-2

Both.

*

31 [

347

210a

26

9 15

0

124 38

0

185

Green mud.

57-1

80-7

1-02520

31

348

21]

28

8 0

0

121 42

0

2225

Blue mud.

.50-5

81-0

1-02546

1-02571

*

31

349

212

»

30

6 54

0

122 18

0

10

Sand.

83-0

Both.

31 J

350

213

February

8

5 47

0

124- 1

0

2050

Blue mud.

38 -8

83-0

1-02567

1-02475

Trawled.

*

31 1

351

214

10

4 33

0

127 6

0

500

Blue mud,.

41-8

80-5

1-02562

1-02551

Trawled.

*

31

352

*2

15

12

4 19

0

130 15

0

2550

Bed clay.

35-4

81-8

1-02572

1-02597

Trawled.

*

31

353

216

16

2 46

0

133 58

0

1675

Globigerina ooze.

35-4

82-8

1.-02585

*

31 [

354

216a

,,

16

2 56

0

134 11

0

2000

Globigerina ooze.

35-4

82-8

1-02567

1-02570

Trawled.

31 1

355

217

22

SOUTH.

0 39 0

EAST

138 55

0

2000

Blue mud.

35-2

83-0

1-02595

1-02518

*■

31 J

356

218

March

i

2 33

0

144 4

0

1070

Blue mud.

36-4

84-0

1-02572

1-02564

Trawled.

*

31 |

357

219

10

1 54

0

146 39 40

150

Coral mud.

84-0

1-02571

Trawled.

34

358

220

„

11

. 0 42

0

147 0

0

1100

Globigerina ooze.

36-2

83-8

1-02560

1-02580

Trawled.

*

31

359

221

13

NORTH. |

0 40 0

EAST.

148 41

'.0

2650

Bed clay. .

35-4

83-8

1-02624

*

31

360

222

,

16

2 15

0

146 16

0

2450

Bed clay.
3-lobigerina ooze.

35-2

82-8

1-02560

1-02634

*

31

361

223

99'

19

5 31

O'

145 13

0

2325

35-5

82-0

1-02578

1-02595

Trawled.

*

31

362

224

21

7 45

0

144 20

0

1850

Globigerina ooze.

35-4

81-2

1-02567

1-02585

Dredged.

*

31

363

225

,,

23

11 24

0

143 16

0

4475

Radiolarian ooze.

35-2

80-2

1-02579

1-02568

*

31

364

226

25

14 44

0

142 13

0

2300

Radiolarian ooze.

35-5

79-0

1-02595

Trawled.

*

31

365

227

27

17 29

0

141 21

0

2475

Bed clay.

35-2

79-2

1-02572

*

31

366

228

29

19 24

0

141 13

0

2450

Bed clay. '

35-2

80-2

1-02582

*

31

367

229

April

1

. 22 1

0

140 27

0

2500

Bed clay.

35-2

78-5

1-02613

Trawled.

*

31

368

230

5

26 29

0

137 57

o

2425

Bed clay.

35-5

68-5

1-02606

Trawled.

*

31

369

231

v

9

31 8

0

137 8

0

2250

Blue mud.

35-2

64-0

1-02579

1-02541

*

31 ■ )

370

232

May

12

35 11

0

139 28

0

345

Green mud.

41-1

64-2

1-02539

Both.

*

35

371

233

17

34 39

0

135 14

0

8

Mud.

62-3

Dredged.

35

372

233a

19

34 38

0

135 1.

0

50

Sand.

62-6

Dredged.

35

373

233b

55

26

34 18

0

133 35

0

15

Blue mud.

66-3

1-02361

Trawled.

35

374

233c

28

34 18

0

133 21

0

12

Blue mud.

59: 9

66-8

1-02381

Trawled.

*

35

375

234

June

3

32 31

0.

135 39

0

2675

Blue mud.

35-8

69-5

1-02541

*

35

376

235

99

4

34 7

0

138 0

0

565

Green mud.

381

730

1-02560

1-02557

Trawled.

*

35

377

236

5 '

34 58

0

.139 29

0

775

Green mud.

37-6

66-5

1-02546

1-02560

Trawled.

35

378

236a

5

34 59

0

139 31

0

420

Green mud.

66'5

Trawled.

35 J

379

237

17

34 37

0

140 32

0

1875

Blue mud.

35 -3'

73-0

1-02555

1-02570

Trawled.

*

35&36

380

238

•

18

35 18

0

144 .8

0

3950

Bed clay.

35-0

70-5

1-02558

*

36

381

239

19

35 18

0

147 9

0

3625

Bed clay.

351

70-2

1-02572

1-02577

*

36

382

240

21

35 20

0

153 39

0

2900

Bed clay.

34-9

64-8

1-02556

Trawled.

*

36

383

241

9f

23

35 41

0

157 42

0

2300

Bed clay.

351

69-2

1-02558

1-02574

Trawled.

*

36

384

242

VI

24

35 29

0

161 52

0

2575

Bed clay.

35-1

68-5

1-02560

1-02590

36

385

243

26

35 24

0

166 35

0

2800

Bed clay.

35-0

71-0

1-02562

Trawled.

*

36

386

244

28

35 22

0

169 53

0

2900

Bed clay.

35-3

70-5

1-02571

1-02566

Trawled.

*

36

387

245

July

30

36 23

0

174 31

0

2775

Bed clay.
Globigerina ooze.

34-9

69-0

1-02553

1-02556

*

36

388

246

2

36 10

0

178 0

0

2050

351

73-0

1-02572

1-02567

Trawled.

*

36

389

247

3

NORTH.

35 49 0

WEST.

179 57

0

2530

Bed clay.

35-2

73-0

1-02568

1-02574

*

36

390

248

5

37 41

0

177 4

0

2900

Bed clay.

351

69-2

1-02573

Trawled. [

*

36 y

391

249

7

37 59

0

171 48

0

3000

Bed clay.

35-2

65-2

1-02542

1-02540

*

36 1

392

250

9

37 49

0

166 47

0

3050

Bed clay.

35-0

65-0

1-02568

1-02550

Trawled.

*

36

393

251

10

37 37

0

163 26

0

2950

Bed clay.

351

65-0

1-02572

1-02522

*

36

394

252

'

12

37 52

0

160 17

0

2740

Bed clay.

35-3

65-0

1-02567

1-02535

Trawled.

*

36

395

253

14

38 9

0

156 25

0

3125

Bed clay.

35-1

67-7

1-02569

1-02536

Dredged.

*

36

396

254

17

35 13

0

154 43

0

3025

Bed clay.

35-0

72-0

1-02533

1-02570

Trawled.

*

36

397

255

..

19

32 28

0

154 33

0

2850

Bed clay.

35-0

74-0

1-02569

1-02602

*

36 !

398

256

21

30 22

0

154 56

0

2950

Bed clay.

35-2

74-0

1-02565

1-02636

Dredged.

* ‘

36 .

399

257

23

27 33

0

154 55

0

2875

Bed clay.

34-9

76-5

1-02581

1-02611

*

36

400

258

)}

24

.26 11

0

155 12

0

2775

Bed clay.

35-2

77-0 ■

1-02525

1-02591

*

36

401

259

26

23 3

0

156 6

0

2225

Bed clay.

34-9

77-0

1-02577

1-02574

*

36

402

260

”

27

21 11

0

157 27

0

310

Volcanic mud.

44-0

76-8

1-02542

1-02565

Trawled.

37 J

1014

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

1 Number of 1
| Sounding.

Distinguishing
Number of ^
Station

Date.

1875-6.

Latitude.

Longitude, j

Depth in
Fathoms.

Nature of
Bottom.

Temperature
of the Sea-
water.

Specific Gravity of Sea-
water at 60° F.
Distilled Water at 39°=1.

Trawling

Dredging.

Serial tempera-
stations marked*

Plans on which
the Station is
shown.

Bottom Surface

Bottom.

Surface.

NORTH.

WEST

403

261

August

12

20 18 0

157 14

0

2050

Volcanic mild.

35-2

78-5

1-02577

1-02586

*

37 'I

404

262

20

19 12 0

154 14

0

2875

Bed clay.

35-2

77-5

1-02569

1-02585

38

405

263

21

17 33 0

153 36

0

2650

Red clay.

35T

77'5

1-02544

1-02593

Trawled.

38 ■

406

264

23

14 19 0

152 37

0

3000

Red clay.

35-2

77 '5

1-02594

1-02572

Trawled.

.*

38

407

265

25

12 42 0

152 1

0

2900

Red clay.

35-0

79-2,

1-02551

1-02564

Dredged.

*

38

408

266

26

11 7 0

152 3

0

2750

Radiolarian ooze.

35T

80-0

1-02579

1-02582

*

38

409

267

28

9 28 0

150 49

0

2700

Radiolarian ooze.

35-0

80-0

1-02572

1-02490

*

38

410

268

30

7 35 0

149 49

0

2900

Radiolarian ooze.

34-8

81-0

1-02569

1-02570

*

38

411

269

September 2

5 54 0

147 2

0

2550

Radiolarian ooze.

35-2

81-2

1-02571

1-02591

Dredged.

*

38

412

270

4

2 34 0

149 9

0

2925

Globigerina ooze.

34-6

79-5

1-02578

1-02621

*

38 ■

SOUTH.

WEST.

413

271

6

0 33 0

151 34

0

2425

Globigerina ooze.

35-0

78'7

1-02587

1-02661

Trawled.

*

38

414

272

8

3 48 0

152 56

0

2600

Radiolarian ooze.

35 T

79-0

1-02636

1-02650

Trawled.

*

38

115

273

9

5 11 0

152 56

0

2350

Radiolarian ooze.

34-5

80-7

1-02638

*

38

416

274

11

7 25 0

152 15

0

2750

Radiolarian ooze.

35-1

80-2

1-02656

Trawled.

*

38

117

275

14

11 20 0

150 30

0

2610

Red clay.

35-0

80-0

1-02602

1-02678

*

38

41S

276

16

13 28 0

149 30

0

2350

Red clay.

35-1

80-0

1-02593

1-02628

Trawled. !

*

38

419

277

17

15 51 0

149 41

0

2325

Red clay.

35 T

79-0

1-02581

...

*

38

420

278

„

18

17 12 0

149 43

0

1525

Volcanic mud.

36-5 ,

79-5

1-02565

1-02696

*

38

421

279

October

17 30 26

149 33 45

420

Volcanic mud.

79-0

39

422

279a

17 29 53

149 34

0

590

Volcanic mud.

79 '0

39 1

423

279b

2

17 29 38

149 34

7

620

Volcanic mud.

79'0

::: !

39 (

424

279c

;;

17 29 11

149 34 32

680

Volcanic mud.

79-0

Trawled.

* •

39 )

425

280

4

' 18 40 0

149 52

0

1940

Globigerina ooze.

35-3

77-2

1-02630

1-02707

Trawled.

l *

38 h

426

281

6

22 21 0

150 17

0

2385

Red clay.

34-9

74-5

1-02628

1-02670

Trawled.

*

38

427

282

23 46 0

149 59

0

2450

Red clay.

35T

73-2

1-02582

1-02676

38

428

283

9

26 9 0

145 17

0

2075

Globigerina ooze.

35-4

68-5

1-02583

1-02633

38

429

284

n

28 22 0

141 22

0

1985

Globigerina ooze.

35 T

68-0

1-02615

1-02631

Trawled.

38

430

285

14

32 36 0

137 43

0

2375

Red clay.

35-0

65 ’0

1-02575

1-02621

Trawled.

*

38

431

286

16

33 29 0

133 22

0

2335

Red clay.

34-8

63-0

1-02570

1-02608

Trawled.

*

38

432

287

19

36 32 0

132 52

0

2400

Red clay.

34-7

57-8

1 -02564

1-02586

*

38

433

288

21

40 3 0

132 58

0

2600

Red clay.

34-8

54-5

1-02564

1 -02561

*

38

434

289

23

39 41 0

131 23

0

2550

Red clay.

34-8

54-5

1-02565

1-02533

Trawled.

*

38

435

290

39 16 0

124 7

0

2300

Red clay.

34-9

52-5

1-02546

1-02533

38

436

291

39 13 0

118 49

0

2250

Red clay.

34-6

53-0

’ 1 -02550

1-02548

Trawled.

■ 38

437

292

29

38 43 0

112 31

0

1600

Globigerina ooze.

35-2

53-2

1-02559

1-02532

Trawled.

38

438

1 293

November 1

39 4 0

105 5

0

2025

Globigerina ooze.

34-4

53-7

1-02573

1-02522

Trawled.

*

38

439

294

3

39 22 0

98 46

0

2270

Red clay.

34-6

57-5

1-02519

38

440

295

5

38 7 0

94 4

o,

1500

Globigerina ooze.

35-3

58-5

1-02562

1-02536

Trawled.

* -

38

441

296

9

1 38 6 0

88 2

0

1825

Globigerina ooze.

35-3

59-8

1-02544

1-02536

Trawled.

38

442

297

11

37 29 0

83 7

0

1775

Globigerina ooze.

35 -5

57-0

1-02565

1-02542

Trawled.

*

38

1 11

298

” ‘

17

j 34 7 0

73 56

0

2225

Blue mud.

. 35-6

59-0

1-02533

Trawled.

*

38 J

444

299

December 14

| 33 31 0

74 43

0

2160

Blue mud.

35-2

62-0

1-02567

1-02529

Trawled.

'*

40 1

445

300

j5

17

33 42 0

78 18

0

1375

Globigerina ooze.

35-5

62-5

1-02543

1-02526

Trawled.

*

40 |

446

301

”

22

37 29 0

84 2

0

(1800)

59-5

1-02539

*

40 ;

447,

302

28

42 43 0

S2 11

0

1450

Globigerina ooze.

35-6

55-0

1-02562

1-02531

Trawled.

*

40 j

448

303

»

30

45 31 0

78 9

0

1325

Blue mud.

36-0

54-8

1-02563

1-02504

*

40 J

449

304

31

46 o3 15

75 12

0

45

Green sand.

57-2

1-02295

Dredged.

41 1

450

305

January 1

47 47 0

74 47

0

165

Blue mud.

55-5

1-02519

1-02251

41 1

451

305a

1

47 48 30

74 47

0

125

Blue mud.

55-0

Trawled.

41 1

452

305b

■ ”

1

47 48 0

74 46

0

160

Blue mud.

55-0

Trawled.

41 1

453

306

2

48 17 0

74 33

0

565

Blue mud.

57-0

1-01521

41

454

306a

2

48 27 0

74 30

0

345

Blue mud.

46 ‘0

57-5

1-02515

1-00480

Trawled.

*

4-1

455

307

1 ’7

4

49 24 30

| 74 23

30

140

Blue mud.

53-0

1-02465

1-01508

Trawled.

41

456

308

;

5

50 8 30

1 74 41

0

175

Blue mud.

51-7

1-01401

Trawled.

41

457

309

8

| 50 56 0

74 15

0

40

Blue mud.

47 -0

50-5

1-01896

41

458

309a

8

I 50 56 0

74 14

0

140

Blue mud.

50-5

1-02446

Trawled.

41

459

310

10

51 27 30

74 3

0

400

Blue mud.

46-5

50 -5

1-02451

1-01910

'Trawled.

41

460

311

11

52 45 30

73 46

0

245

Blue mud.

46-0

50-0

1-02454

1-01904

Trawled.

41

461

312

13

53 37 30

70 56

0

9

Blue mud.

47-8

1-02233

Dredged.

462

313

”

20

52 20 0

67 39

0 •

55

Sand.

47-8

48-2

1-02439

1-02437

Trawled.

41&42 ■

463

314

21

51 35 0

65 39

0

70

Sand.

46 ’0

48-0

1-02476

1-02468

Trawled.

42

464

314a

22

51 24 0

61 46

0

110'

Hard ground.

41-8

49-0

1-02504

1-02486

1 Trawled.

*

42

465

315

26

51 40 0

57 50

0

12

Sand, gravel.

50-0

! Dredged,

466

316

1;

Februar

y 3

51 32 0

58 6

0

4

Mud.

51-2

Dredged.

Sandy In various channels leading Valparaiso Tahiti to Valparaiso. Off Sandwich Islands to Tahiti.

Toint to to Magellan Strait. to Gulf of Tahiti.

Falkland . Penas.

Islands.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1015

Number of
Sounding.

Distinguishing
Number of
Station.

Date.

1876.

Latitude.

Longitude.

Depth in
Fathoms.

Nature of
Bottom.

Temperature
of the Sea-

Specific Gravity of Sea-
water at 60“ F.
Distilled Water at 39“=1.

Trawling

oi-

Dredging.

Serial tempera-

obtained at the
stations marked*

Plans on which
the Station is
shown.

Bottom .Surface

Bottom.

Surface.

SOUTH.

WEST.

467

317

February 8

48 37

0

55 17

0

1035

( Hard ground )
| (gravel). j

357

46-7

1-02531

1-02524

Trawled.

*

42

468

318

n

42 32

0

56 29

0

2040

Blue mud.

33-7

57 "5

1-02584

1-02524

Trawled.

*

42

469

319

12

41 54

0

54 48

0

2425

Blue mud.

32-7

59-5

1-02552

1-02555

*

42

470

320

14

37 17

0

53 52

0

600

Green sand.

37 '2

67-5

1-02541

1-02523

Trawled.

*

42

471

321

25

35 2

0

55 15

0

13

Mud.

73-5

Trawled.

472

322

„

26

35 20

0

53 42

0

21

Sand, shells.

71 '5

1-02288

Trawled.

16

473

323

28

35 39

0

50 47

0

1900

Blue mud.

33T

73-5

1-02641

1-02670

Trawled.

*

16

474

324

29

36 9

0

48 22

0

2800

Blue mud.

32 '6

71-5

1-02600

1-02603

Trawled.

*

16

475

325

March

2

36 44

0

46 16

0

2650

Blue mud.

32-7

70-8

1-02583

1-02675

Trawled.

*

16

476

326

3

37 3

0

44 17

0

2775

Blue mud.

32-7

67-8

1-02585

1-02491

*

16

477

327

4

36 48

0

42 45

0

2900

Blue mud.

32 '8

70-2

1-02614

1-02633

*

16

478

328

”

6

37 38

0

39 36

0

2900

Blue mud.

32-9

68-0

1-02571

16

479

329

7

37 31

0

36 7

0

2675

Bed clay.

32'3

64-5

1-02576

1-02606

*

16

180

330

)}

8

37 45

0

33 0

0

2440

Bed clay.

32-7

64-2

1 '02608

1-02620

*

16

481

331

)}

9

37 47

0

30 20

0

1715

Globigerina ooze.

35-4

64-5

1-02588

1-02620

Trawled.

*

16

482

332

10

37 29

0

27 31

0

2200

Globigerina ooze.

34-0

64-0

1-02580

1-02604

Trawled.

*

16

483

333

13

35 36

0

21 12

0

2025

Globigerina ooze.

35-3

67-0

1-02584

1-02612

Trawled.

*

16

484

334

i

14

35 45

0

18 31

0

1915

Globigerina ooze.

35-8

68-5

1-02604

1-02604

Trawled.

*

16

485

335

16

32 24

0

13 5

0

1425

Pteropod ooze.

37'0

73-5

1-02585

1-02666

Dredged.

*

16

486

336

18

27 54

0

13 13

0

1890

Globigerina ooze.

36-5

76 '0

1-02590

1-02693

*

16

487

337

19

24 38

0

13 36

0

1240

Pteropod ooze.

37-2

77-0

1-02639

1-02704

Dredged.

*

16

488

338

21

21 15

0

14 2

0

1990

Globigerina ooze.

36-3

76-5

1-02752

Dredged.

*

16

489

339

•

23

17 26

0

13 52

0

1415

Pteropod ooze.

37-2

76 ’0

1-02568

1-02775

*

16

490

340

24

14 33

0

13 42

0

1500

Pteropod ooze.

37 '6

77 ‘2

1-02598

1-02752

*

16

491

341

25

12 16

0

13 44

0

1475

Pteropod ooze.

38-2

79-0

1-02601

1-02706

*

16

492

342

26

9 43

0

13 51

0

1445

Pteropod ooze.

37'5

80 ’0

1-02600

1-02721

*

16

493

343

’»

27

8 3

0

14 27

0

425

Volcanic sand.

40-3

80-8

1-02612

1-02688

Dredged.

*

43

494

344

April

3

7 54 20

14 28 20

420

Volcanic sand.

82-0

1-02658

Dredged.

43

495

345

4

5 45

0

14 25

0

2010

Globigerina ooze.

86 '8

82 '8

1-02599

1-02627

*

12

1 496

346

6

2 42

0

14 41

0

2350

Globigerina ooze.

34-0

827

1-02622

1-02624

Dredged.

*

12

497

347

„

7

0 15

0

14 25

0

2250

Globigerina ooze.

36-2

82-0

1-02589

1-02639

*

12

NORTH.

WEST.

498

348

„

9

3 10

0

14 51

0

(2450)

84 '0

1-02578

Dredged.

M

1102S)t'

499

349

10

5 28

0

14 38

0

83-5

1-02616

12

500

350

11

7 33

0

15 16

0

84-0

1-02615

*

12

501

351

12

9 9

0

16 41

0

81 '8

1-02653

*

12

502

352

l

13

10 55

0

17 46

0

777

1-02662

*

12

503

353

May

3

26 21,

0

33 37

0

2965

Bed clay.

37-6

70-7

1-02708

1-02768

*

6

504

354

6

3

0

36 6

0

1675

Globigerina ooze.

37-8

70-0

1-02665

1-02729

6

<

St. Vincent
towards
Azores.

(narr, chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

128

APPENDIX III.

REPORT on the Chronometers supplied to, and the Meridian Distances
obtained by, H.M.S. Challenger, between the 1st December 1872 and
the 12th June 1876, by Staff-Commander T. H. Tizard, R.N.

The sixteen chronometers supplied to the Challenger at Sheerness were twelve box
and four pocket watches, and in addition a deck watch for ordinary use on board.

The chronometer room was on the port side of the lower deck just abaft the main-
mast. In it a platform was constructed on which a wooden tray with twelve partitions
rested, and the box chronometers were packed in this tray with horse hair (at Sheerness),
and remained there undisturbed until they were finally returned on the ship’s arrival in
England in 1876. The platform consisted of three wooden stools of elm, 4 inches in
thickness, with legs 4 inches in height and width, constructed in such a manner that
when these stools were placed one upon the other, the legs of the upper stool, rested on the
middle stool immediately over its legs, which again were over the legs of the lower stool,
so that copper bolts could be driven through the stools and their legs into one of the main
beams, and thus securely fasten the platform. The wooden- tray was secured to the top
of the upper stool with brass screws, care being taken to keep all iron away from the
chronometers. Around the platform a wooden screen was constructed, which reached
just above the top of the tray, and on the top of this wooden screen was a glazed lid on
hinges, so that the chronometers might be seen for purposes of comparison at any time, but
neither they nor the platform on which they rested could be touched without lifting this
lid, which was only done once a day for the purpose of winding. The wooden screen
which protected the platform and trays was secured to the deck, and kept perfectly free
from any of the bulkheads, so that its movement, like that of the platform, depended
only on the working of the beam on which it rested, and not on the working of the bulk-
heads, which were secured to beams at top and bottom. Before being packed in the tray
the lids of the boxes which contained the chronometers were unscrewed from the binges,
the screws wrapped in paper and put in their respective boxes, and the lids put on a shelf
overhead in the chronometer room.

1018

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER

The pocket chronometers were kept in a small tray separate from the box chrono-
meters, so that when they were required . for shore observations they might be taken out
of the chronometer room without disturbing the box chronometers. The tray in which
they were placed rested on a solid block of fir secured to a beam.

Of the sixteen chronometers originally supplied at Sheerness one stopped before
leaving England, and was replaced at Portsmouth ; one stopped in August 1873, and was
replaced at the Cape of Good Hope ; and one stopped in December 1875 ; the rest were
brought home in good condition, with the exception of one pocket chronometer which
was injured in consequence of the sight-boat having been capsized in the surf at Fernando
Noronha.

Directly they were received, letters were given to the chronometers, which were after-
wards only known by those letters, so that there could be no prejudice in favour of any
particular maker.

The following table shows the chronometers supplied, and the letters by which they
were distinguished on board, &c. : —

LIST OF CHRONOMETERS IN H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Makers’ Names.

No. of
Chrono-
meter.

When received.

From whom received.

Distin-
guishing
letter
on board.

|

How disposed of.

Molyneux,

2119

Nov. 22d 1872.

Greenwich Observatory.

z

Returned to England, August 1873,
(stopped).

Dent,

1763

Do.

Do.

A

Returned at Sheerness on paying off,
June 1876.

Hewitt,

2553

Do.

Do.

B

Do.

Carter,

197

Do.

Do.

C

Do.

Park & Bouts,

801

Do.

Do.

D

Do.

Pennington,

241

Do.

Do.

E

Do.

Cotterell,

Do.

Do.

F

Do.

Arnold & Dent,

742

Do.

Do.

G

Do.

Pennington,

1512

Do.

Do.

H

Do.

C. Frodsham,

1765

Do.

Do.

J

Do.

M ‘Cabe,

166

Do.

Do.

K

Do.

Mnston,

658

Do.

Do.

L

Returned to Portsmouth Observatory,
Dec. 14, 1872 (stopped).

Returned at Sheerness on paying off,
June 1876.

Lister & Sons,

608

Dec. 14tli 1872.

Portsmouth Observatory.

L

R. & H. Molyneux,

1948

Nov. 20th 1873.

C. of G. Hope Observatory.

M

Do.

/Molyneux,

5778

Nov. 22d 1872.

Greenwich Observatory.

M

Returned to England, Sept. 1873.

-$]

Arnold,

6221

Do.

Do.

N

Returned at Sheerness on paying off,
June 1876.

°

Parkinson and
Frodsham,

701

Do.

Do.

O

Do.

, Molyneux,

706

Do.

Do.

P

Do.

Pennington (Deck),

1299

Do.

Do.

Q

Do.

With these chronometers a regular chain of meridian distances was carried on from
the date of leaving England to the date of the return of the Expedition, the chronometers
being rated at each place of observation, except when the stay was too short to permit of
doing so. For this purpose equal altitudes were in all cases obtained when practicable ;

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1019

occasionally, owing to the short stay or to a run of bad weather, dependence had to be
placed on single sights, but as a rule equal altitudes were successfully obtained.

Owing to the unfavourable state of the weather on leaving England in December
1872, it wTas necessary to rate the chronometers originally by time-ball, observations
not being obtainable ; consequently the meridian distance between Greenwich and Lisbon
is not of so much value as it would have been had the chronometers been rated at each
place by the same observer with the same instrument, as the personal and instrumental
errors are not the same at each end of the meridian distance. In all the other distances
given in the tables, the observer and instrument used by the observer were the same
throughout.

.The meridian distances have been in all cases worked by Dr. Ti arks’ method as
given by him in the voyage of the “ Chanticleer.”

The following tables give all the particulars requisite, viz., the rates of the chrono-
meters as ascertained at the different ports touched at during the voyage, the meridian
distances between the observing stations, and the positions of those observing stations,
as determined by our observations with the meridians upon which those positions are
based.

It will be noticed from these tables that, with the exception of Bermuda, St. Michael’s,
Tristan da Cunba, Levuka, Tongatabu, Dobbo, and Ternate, the positions as determined
by the Expedition agree well with the positions on the published Admiralty Charts.

(NARK. CHALL. EXP.— VOL. X. — 1885.)

129

1020

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

TABLE I, — Abstract of the daily rates of the Chronometers used for calculating Meridian Distances in '

on different days at the same obsei

Places where rated.

Date.

Number
of days

Vfean Temp.

Chronometer

Boom

BATES OF THE CH:

during rating
period.

Z

A

B

C

D

E

F

Portsmouth.

20/12/72

11

53°-0

-3-400

- 0-900

s.

+ 9-610

-3-964

+6-220

+0+00

- 7D10

Lisbon.

12/ 1/73

8

60°-0

-3-008

-4-640

+12-760

-3-770

+6-236

+1-140

-8-940

Gibraltar.

25/ 1/73

7'

60°-5

-2-956

-5-206

+14-760

-3-384

+6-580

. +1-544

-9-077

Tenerife.

14/ 2/73

6

64° -0

-2-973

- 6T40

+17-527

-3-282

+6-427

+2-493

-8-823

St. Thomas.

24/ 3/73

6

77°-5 •

-3-313

- 7T47

+24-112

- 3-972

+4-070 '

+1-203

-10-747

Bermuda.

11/ 4/73

6

72°-5

-3-171

-7-047

+24-487

-3-905

.+4-520

+ 1-903

-9-788

Do.

19/ 4/73

8

69°-5

-2-852

-6-771

+ 24-366

- 3-740

+ 4-366

+2-729

-9-352

Halifax.

19/ 5/73

9

52°-£>

-2-933

-4-617

+23-928

-3-761

+ 4-189

+2-066

-6-717

Bermuda.

12/ 6/73

10

76° -0

-3-342

-7-952

+24-973

- 4-142

+5T13

+1-868

-9-782

St. Vincent.

3/ 8/73

6

78° -0

-17-815

-10-632

+26-510

-4-707

+6-493

+1-618

-10-132

Bahia.

22/ 9/73

6

78°-0

-21T98

+26-952

-5-048

+7-360

+ 1-901

-9-532

Do.

25/ 9/73

9

78°-0

-21-421

+26-951

- 5-104

+7-551

+1-807

-9-549

Cape of Good Hope.

7/11/73

6

64° -0

-20-868

+28-115

-4-101

+8-032

+3-257

-5-676

Do.

21/11/73

14

66° -0

-20-666

+27-187

-4-252

+ 8-055

+3-308

-6-159

Do.

11/12/73

8

65°-0

-20-537

+27-775

-4-263

+7-963

+3-312

- 5-725

Do.

16/12/73

5

66° -0

-20-908

+ 27-462

-4-218

+ 7-802

+3-282

-6-098

Elizabeth Harbour, Kerg. I.

15/ 1/74

5

52° -0

- 19-382

+27-358

-3-942

+7-438

+2-678

-6-242

Christmas H arbour, Kevg.I.

30/ 1/74

23

51° -0

- 19-455

+ 27-499

- 4-026

+7-358

+ 1-238

-6-068

Melbourne.

30/ 3/74

12

64o,0

-20-986

+ 28-431

-3-777

+8-306

+0-589

-7-669

Sydney.

13/ 4/74

6

72° -0

-22-507

+28-718

-4-332

: +8-027

+0-510

-8-765

Do.

11/ 5/74

28

69°-0

-22-132

+ 29-425

-3-989

+8-316

+ 1-486

-8-255

Do.

18/ 5/74

7

64°-0

-22-133

+ 29-710

-3-526

+8-367

' ' +1-588

-7-297

Do.

1/ 6/74

14

62° -0

-21-758

+29-542

- 3-465

+8-374

+ 1-788

-7-212

Do.

8/ 6/74

7

60° -0

-21-100

+29-628

- 3-821

-+8-336

+ 2-074

- 6-636

Wellington.

5/ 7/74

6

58° -0

-19-783

+30-953

-3-417

+ 8-793

+1-110

-5-900

Ngaloa Harbour.

9/ 8/74

13

78°-0

-23-929

+29-863

-4-272

'+8-409

+ 4-352

-8-783

Cape York.

8/ 9/74

5

81° -0

-25-634

+30-426

-5-214

+7-926

+3-086

-10-014

Arrou Islands.

22/ 9/74

5

83° ‘0

-26-234

+30-696

- 5-104

+7-836

+ 3-436

-11-164

Amboina.

I 10/10/74

5

83° -0

-28-116

+30-654

-4-946

+7-934

+4-034

-11-726

Manila.

11/11/74

6

84° -0

-34-113

'+ 30-887

-4-363

+ 8-595

+ 3-720

-11-655

Hong Kong.

24/11/74

7

72°-0

-32-796

+32-193

-3-188

+ 9-147

+ 5-340

-7-846

Do.

5/12/74

11

67° -0

-31-793

+32-057

-2-893

+8-662

+ 3-762

-6-315

Do.

15/12/74

10

69° -0

-31-871

+ 31-139

-3096

+ 8-629

+ 4-689

-6-611

Do.

27/12/74

12

72° -0

-32-189

+ 30-723

-3-202

+ 8-761

+ 6-852

-6-789

Do.

4/ 1/75

8

64°-5

-31-191

+31-009

- 2-529

+ 8-959

+ 1-327

-6-347

Zebu.

24/ 1/75

5

82° -0

-35-236

+ 30-454

-3-596

+8-494

+ 3-054

-9-796

Samboangan.

5/ 2/75

7

82°-5

- 35-110

.+31-226

- 3-438

+8-440

+ 1-793

-9-810

Hares Harb. , Admiralty Is.

10/ 3/75

6

83°-5

-37-345

+31-938

-3-395

+ 7-988

+ 1-205

-11-262

Yokohama.

18/ 4/75 .

4

62°-5

-30-885

+32-715

-1-848

+9-302

+ 1-265

—6-572

Do.

22/ 4/75

4

61°-0

-30-818

+32-482

-1-218

+ 9-220

+ 0-982

-5-842

Do.

4/ 5/75

.12

61°-0

-30-826

+32-362

-0-238

+ 9-074

+ 1-787

-5-592

Do.

7/ 6/75 .

34

69° ‘0 -

-32-794

+31-394

-0-484

+9-082

1 +3-697

-7-237

Do.

14/ 6/75

7

73°-5

-33-941

+ 32-637

- 1-834

+9-258

- --2-687

- 9-027

Honolulu.

4/ 8/75

7

80° -5

-35-416

+31-921

-5-557

+9-350

+ 1-257

-10-807

Do.

10/ 8/75

6

■81°-5

-36-200

+31-866

-5-466

+ 9-017 '

+1-625

-10-457

Tahiti.

1/10/75

9

80o,0

- 34T17

+32-078

-5-139

+ 9-384

+ 1-628

-9-094

Valparaiso.

27/11/75

7

67°-0

-33-011

+33-060

-3-490

+9-060

+ 1-724

-5-740

Do.

4/12/75

7

66° -0

-32-393

+32-844

-2-570

+ 9-287

+2T16

-5-320

Do.

9/12/75

5

66°-0

-32-038

+ 33T52

-2-198

+ 9-512

+ 2-532

-4-878

Sandy Point.

17/ 1/76

3

57°-5

-31-983

+33-242

-2-673

+ 9T27

+1-877

-5-340

Port Stanley, Falkland Is.

31/ 1/76

6

57°-5

-31-556

+ 32-969

-3-096

+ 8-764

+ 1-337

-5-359

Do.

6/ 2/76

6

56°-5

-31-061

+32-218

-1-391

+9-990

+ 1-727

- 4-425

Monte Video.

24/ 2/76

8

71°-0

-33-689

+ 33-217

-3-657

+9-292

+ 2-305

-6-594

Ascension.

2/ 4/76

5

83°-0

-37-088

+ 33-092

- 5-258

+ 8-862

+1-202

-9-698

St. Vincent.

25/ 4/76

5

75° '0

-34-522

+33-088

- 4T82

+11-078

+1-518

-7-542

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1021

. Challenger, deduced from observations made on Shore, the rates being in each case found by observing
station. + Gaining. — Losing.

IOMETER S.

How rated.

Remarks.

G

H>

J

K

L

M

s.

-5*870

+04)20

s.

-1*145

-8780

s.

-0*870

-4-240

Time "ball.

Chronometer Z stopped on August 8th 1873,

-6 '614

+0-249

-0-532

-9-000

-0-460

-4-910

Equal alts.

and was sent to England.

Chronometer M stopped on 2nd September

-6-850

+ 0-337

- 0-506

-9-277

- 0-306

-2-827

Equal alts.

and was sent to England. Afterwards at the

-6-657

-.0-015

-0-498

-8-915

-0-140

-3-223

Equal alts.

Cape of Good Hope another chronometer,
R. & H. Molyneux 1948, was supplied, and
used subsequently for Meridian distances under

-7-263

-0-813

-0-613

• -9-622

+0-937

-4080

Equal alts.

-8-763

- 0-497

-0013

-8761

+0-211

-2-897

Equal alts.

the distinguishing letter M.

-8-871

-0-327

+ 0-179

-8-427

+0-222

-3-134.

Equal alts.

-7-983

- 0-344

-0-039

-5722

+ 0194

-0-333

Equal alts.

Chronometer G stopped on December 9th
1875.

-9-092

-0-587

+0-633

-8-397

+ 0-508

-3-156

Equal alts..

- 10-607

-1-182

+0-560

-9-548

+0-327

-4-548

Equal alts.

- 16-965

-1-206

+0-026

-8-532

+0-943

Equal alts.

- 17-199

- 1-204

+0-051

-8-666

+0-840

Equal alts.

-18-877

+0-248

+ 0-948

-6-468

+1-415

Equal alts.

-18-948

+ 0-294

+ 0-919

-6-488

+1-283

Equal alts.

-18-825

+ 0-400

+0750

-6763

+1-275

-3025

Time ball.

-18-618

+ 0-412

+ 0-902 -

- 6788

+ 1-152

-2-948

Equal alts.

-19-522

+0-688

+ 0-288

-5-222

+2-688

-2-522

Equal alts.

-19-476

+ 0-476

+ 0-117

-5-555

+2-601

- 2029

Equal alts.

-19-261

. +0-581

+ 0-973

-7136

+2-156

-4-336

a.m. sights. ,

-20-373

Bo-ms

+ 0-393

-8-690

+ 1-277

-4-832

Equal alts.

-21-912

+ 0-372

+ 0-942

- 7-359

+ 1-650

-4-230

Equal alts.

-23-583

+0-638

+1-581

-6-633

+2-260

-3-904

Equal alts.

-23-597

+0-545

+ 0-956

-6-186 ,

+ 2-171

-3-933

Equal alts.

-23-828

+0-414

+0-864

-6-378

+1-921

-3778

Equal alts.

- 24-057

+0-800

+1-166 ■

-5-610

+ 2-283

-3-166

a.m. sights.

-25-494

-0083

+ 0-908

-8-129

+ 1-840

-4-814

Equal alts.

-29-314

-1-114

+Q-546

-8-874

+ 0-886

- 4-974

a.m. sights.

-30-034

-1-484

+0716

-8-884

+ 1-216

-4-454

Equal alts.

-30-906

-1-256

+1-054

-8776

+1-324

-4-126

Equal alts.

-33-947

-1-347

+0-737

-9088

+ 1-028

-4-358

a.m. sights.

-33-296

-0067

+ 1-054

-6753

+2-019

-3-246

Equal alts.

-32-934

+0-112

+ 1-066

- 6-179

+1-857

-3-129

Equal alts.

- 32-711

+0-354

+1-464

-6-036

+2099

-3-146

Equal alts.

-32-814

+ 0-402

+ 1-373

-6-310

+2-136

-3-252

Equal alts.

- 32-666

+0-559

+ 1-359

-6-366

+2-227

-3-147

Equal alts.

- 34-526

- 0-626

,+0-974

-8-146

+ 1-874

- 4-526

Equal alts.

-34-881

-0-538

. +1-204

- 8-117

• +1-540

- 4-474

Equal alts.

-36-345

-1012

+ 0-605

-10-128

+1-038

-5012

a.m. sights.

-34-510

-0-752

+ 1-965

-6-447

+2752

-2-810

Equal alts.

- 34-555

+ 0-808

+1-958

-5780

+2-682

-3-692

Equal alts.

-34-947

+ 0-824

+1-587

-6-197

+2712

-3-342

Equal alts.

|

- 35-805

+ 0-470

+1-664

-7-800

+2-531

-3-917

Equal alts.

-36-398

+0-501

+1-930

-8-991

+2-880

-4-277

Equal alts.

-37-200

-0-817

+1-521

-9-686

+1-943

-4-971

Equal alts.

-37-283

-1-075

+1-300

-9-217

+2058

-5-158

Equal alts.

-38-258

-0-450

+1-450

-8-200

+2-211

- 4-689

Equal alts. .

- 31-026

+ 1-081

+ 1-974

-7169

+ 2724

-3704

Equal alts.

-26-606

+ 1-216

+ 2073

-6-620

. +2-987

Equal alts.

+1-452

+2-032

-6-248

+3-452

-4-118

a.m. and p.m. sights.

-+1-577

+2-210

- 6-090

+3-360

-2-873

Equal alts.

+ 1-354

+'1-693

-5-679

H+ 2-928

-3-219

Equal alts.

+ 1-320

+ 1-981

- 5-120

+ 3-252

-2-832

Equal alts.

+ 1-380

+2-230

-7-345

+3-167

- 4-451

Equal alts.

- 0-298

+1-252

-10-158

+1-922

4-398

Equal alts.

+ 0-728

+1-928

-8-492

+2-658

-4-242

Equal alts.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

FABLE T.— Abstract of the daily rates of the Chronometers used for calculating Meridian Distances in H.M.S. Challenger, deduced from observations made on Shore,
on different days at the same observing station. + Gaining. — Losing.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.
ic rates being in each case found by observing

27/12/74
24/ 1,75

1022

THE YOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

TABLE II. — Chain of Meridian Distances round the world, from St. Vincent, East round Cape of Good Hope, returning to St. Vincent

twenty -four liours, as well as the Arithmetical

MERIDIAN DISTANCES

From

To

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

F.

G.

E.

w.

E.

w.

E.

w.

E.

w..

E.

w.

E.

w.

E.

w.

h. m. s.

h. m. s.

h. in. s.

Ji. m. s.

h. in. s.

h. m. s.

h. in. s.

j h.m.s.

Ji. in. s.

h. in. s.

h.m.s.

h. in. s.

h. in. s.

h. m. s.

St. Vincent.

Bahia.

0.54.15.37

...

0.54. 1.7C

...

0.54. 6.95

0.54. 1.87

0.53.45. 2

...

0.53.49.22

...

0.54.14.44

Baliia.

C. Good Hope.

3.47.56.67

3.47.51.15

3.48. 0.78

...

3.48. 6.72

...

3.48.11.03

3.47.31.38

3.48.18.02

C. Good Hope.

Christmas Harb.

3.22. 6.61

3.22.14.92

3.22.12.66

...

3.22.11.76

1

3,22.10.10

3.21.59.26

3.22.17.21

Christmas Harh.

Melbourne.

5. 3.24.28

'

5. 3.28.12

5. 3.51.91

5. 4.14.76

4.59.44.47

5. 3.20.30

5. 3.51.37

Melbourne.

Sydney.

0.25.13.09

...

0.25.17.38

...

0.25.15.63

...

0.25.14.45

...

0.25.16.62

0.25.13.38

j 0.25.14.21

Sydney.

Wellington.

1.34.43.45

1.34.14.56

...

1.34.15.66

...

1.34.17.00

1.34. 5.55

1.34.14.54

1.34.13.60

...

Wellington.

Levuka.

0.16.33.20

0.16. 7.51

0.16.18.24

0.16.23.58

...

0.16.22.92

0.16.12.03

0.16.13.05

Levuka.

Sextant Rock.

2.25. 7.72

...

2.25.35.59

...

2.25.12.20

...

2.25.19.52

2.25.12.54

2.25.37,19

...

1,2.25. 9.85

Sextant Rock.

Dobbo.

0.33.18.34

...

0.33.18.65

0.33.17.94

0.33.20.02

0.33.18.51

0.33.19.14

0.33.14.63

Dobbo.

Amboina.

...

0.24. 9.63

0.24.10.24

0.24.11.18

0.24.11.61

0.24. 3.16

0.24. 1.79

...

0.24.10.471

Amboina.

Manila.

0.28.47.74

0.28.52.28

...

0.28.51.63

...

0.28.53.17

0.28.41.75

0.28.46 39

...

0.28. 43. 73

Manila.

Zebu.

0.11.52.76

0.11.48.00

0.11.47:71

0.11.46.51

...

0.11.49.11

0.11.48.40

...

Zebu.

Samboangan.

...

0. 7.18.02

0. 7.19.96

...

0. 7.18.05

...

0. 7.18.64

0. 7.25.08

...

0. 7.21 44

...

0. 7.19.16

Samboangan.

Humboldt Bay.

1.14.30.67

1.14.36.28

...

1.14.35.16

...

1.14.31.16

...

1.14.21.41

...

1.14.22.68

...

1.14.27.73

Humboldt Bay.

Admiralty Is.

0.23. 52-. 82

...

0.24. 2.94

0.23.55.19

...

0.23.55.22

...

0.23.53.62

0.23.54.65

0.23.55.60

...

Admiralty Is.

Yokohama.

0.27.27.42

...

0.28.15.37

0.27.45.80

...

0.28. 7.70

0.28. 0.31

0.27. 6.66

...

0.27.27.47

Yokohama.

Honolulu.

4. 9.58.89

4. 9.59.97

4.10.35.35

4.10. 1.60

...

4.10.34.10

4. 9.23,82

4.10.11.20

Honolulu.

Tahiti.

0.33.36.8l|

0.33.24.12

...

0.33.47.86

...

0.33.28.59

...

0.33.29.19

0.33.15.17

0.33.13.75

Tahiti.

Valparaiso.

5.10.49.58

5.11.21.23

..

5.11.27.58

...

5.11.11.83

5.11.35.98

5. 9.55.08

...

Valparaiso.

Sandy Point.

0. 2.59.63

0. 3. 4.85

0. 3. 4.44

...

>0. 2.57.42

0. 3.27.38

0. 2.41.28

....

...

Sandy Point.

Port Stanley.

0.52. 5.72

...

0.52. 5.36

...

5.51.57.16

...

0.52. 4.12

0.52. 9.49

0.52. 4.15

...

Port Stanley.

Monte Video.

0. 6.20.63

...

0. 6.21.58

...

0. 6.19.05

0. 6.33.36

0. 6.29.09

0. 6.16.44

Monte Video.

Ascension.

2.47. 1.43

...

2.47.14.18

....

2.46.57.93

...

2.46.46.55

2.47. 8.54

2.46.51.30

Ascension.

St. Vincent.

0.42.12.69

0.42.25.38

0.42.23.03

0.42.28.64

0.42.15.62

0.42.12 41

...

...

Totals.

30. 3. 6.24

6. 2.36.93

30. 3.12.15

6. 3.59.17

30. 4.22.31

6. 3. 6.78

30. 3.44.63

6. 3.41.17

29.59. 4.57

6. 2.14.24

Deduct Westerly Mer. Dist.

6. 2.36.93

6. 3.59.17

6. 3. 6.78

6. 3.41.17

Only partially used.

6. 2.14.24

Only partially used,

as it stoppe

;d betwe en

Tahiti and

Valparaiso.

Result.

24. 0.29.31

23.59.12.9Sj

24. 1.15.53

24. 0. 3.46

23.56.50.33

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1023

ma Magellan Strait. Table showing the results obtained by each Chronometer, and the errors of the Chronometers in the whole chain of
Mean of the Chronometers and the selected mean.

BY CHRONOMETERS.

3

'o £
S.®

Mean

of

I

Meridian Distance
by selection of

1

ol

|!

H.

J.

I

1.

L.

M.

!§

ij

all Cnroi

Qometers.

t

Chronometers.

Chronometers

selected.

IS

w. *

w

1°

E.

!.

w.

J-i

I

E.

|

1

tit m. s.

h. m. s.
0.53.57.10

li. m. s.
...

h. m. s. \ h. rn. s.
0.53.53.47

h. m. s.

0.53.55.37

li. m. s.

h. in. s.
0.54. 4.07

h. m. s.
...

1 h. m. s.

s.

j 30.37

! h. m. s.

1 h. m. s.
0.54. 0.43

: 44

h. m. s.

/(. in. s.
0.54. 0.08

l! BCDHJKL

s.

13.48

3.48. 7.87

3.48. 8.65

3.47.57.68

3.48.14.53

| 46.64

3.48. 2.221

I 37

3.48. 3.06|

A C D H J K

11,98

3.22.18.82

3.22.19.51

3.22. 8.90

3.22. 9.24

3.22. 7.50|

' 20.25

3.22.11.37

22

3.22.12.47

j A B C D E G H J K L M

12.90

.5. 3.58.08

5. 4.13.48

5. 3.43.37

5. 3. 0.82

...

5. 3.17.37

|270.29

5. 3.20.69

| 47

j 5. 3.36.85!

j ABCPCHKI

40.71

0.25.17.31

0.25.12.84

0.25.16.23

...

0.25.16.80

...

0.25.17.56

4.72

0.25.15.46

1 8

0.25.15.46

All

4.72

1.34.17.18

..

1.34.12.38

...

1.34.35-34

1.34.18.87

1.34.25.98

37.90

1.34.19.51

21

1. 34. 15. 47 1

BCDFGHJL

6.49

0.16.15.84

0.16.12.05

0.16.31.58

...

0.16.18.64

0.16.12. 40j

25.69

0.16.18.42

...

31

0.16.14.61

I CFGHJLM

6.61

2.25.16.04

2.25.13.60

2.25.18.24

...'"

2.25.15.03

...

2.25.20.62

29.47

2.25.18.18

37

2.25.15.97

CDEHJKLM

! 8.42

0.33.21.17

6. 33. 19. 94

0.33.16.90

0.33.17.85

0.33.17.06

6.54

0.33.19.18

12

...

0.33.18.26

i ABCEFJKLM

3.04

0.24.12.82

0.24.10.11

0.24. 6.90

0.24. 9.35

0.24. 7:38

11.03

0.24. 8.72

10

i 0.24. 9.65

'j ABCDGJKLM

4.71

0.28.51.70

...

0.28.51.53

0.28.48.86

0.28.52.16

0.28.49.59

11.42

0.28.49.21

26

...

0.28.50.21

ABCFHJK1M

5.89

0.11.48.03

...

0.11.47.61

0.11.49.35

0.11.48.99

0.11.50.76

...

6.25

0.11.48.84

1 7

1 0.11.48.66

BCFGHJKLM

3.15

0. 7.17.96

...

0. 7.17.79

0. 7.18.74

0. 7.17.87

0. 7.17.44

7.64

0. 7.19.18

5

| 0. 7.18.46

ABCD6HJKL

2.17

1.14.32.43

...

1.14.38.60

1.14.29.66

...

1.14.34.91

1.14.34.42

17.19

1.14.31.24

19

1.14.31.99

...

j ACDQHK1M

7.43

0.23-55.87

0.23.54.43

0.23.55.03

...

0.23.56.67

0.23.55.48

10.12

0.23.55.63

...

8

0.23.55.18

1 CDEFGHJKLM

3.05

0.27.50.21

0.27.45.16

0.27.11.26

...

0.27.50.62

0.27.39.38

68.71

0.27.42.28

35

0.27.46.23

C H J L M

| 11.24

4. 9.55.32

...

4.10. 8.88

...

4. 9.55.88

...

4.10. 3.08

...

4. 9.54.21

71.53

4.10. 3.52

45

4.10. 1.00

ABDGHJKLM

16.99

0.33.33.86

0.33.46.05

0.33.45.67

0.33.33.45

0.33.25.08

34.11

0.33.31.63

...

43

0.33.30.16

!

ABDEHLM

I 12.69

5.10.59.63

5.11.43.18

...

5.10.47.28

5.11,14.48

...

5.10.58.08

108.13

5.11. 5.81

...

50

5.11.12.88

i

ABCDEHJKLM

55.90

0. 3. 4.55

...

0. 3.11.80

0. 2.47.21

0. 3.19.86

0. 3. 4.94

46.10

0. 3. 3.94

....

36

0. 3. 2.64

ABCDHM

7.52

0.52. 7.46

0.52. 9.49

0.52. 6.11

0.52. 9.48

...

0.52. 6.78

12.33

0.52. 5.94

8

0.52. 6.82

...

ABDEFHJKLM

5.37

0. 6.25.38

0. 6.33.98

0. 6.21.23

0. 6.25.77

0. 6.24.52

17.54

0. 6.24.64

...

10

0. 6.20.81

ABCEHK1M

10.04

2.47. 7.03

2.47.13.23

2.47.12.65

2.47.17.49

2.47.19.82

33.27

2.47. 6.38

33

2.47.13.28

BEHJK1M

12.79

0.42.11.13

0.42.14.18

0.42.12.65

0.42.16.93

0.42.12.92

17.51

0.42.16.87

18

0.42.13.57

ACFHJKLM

5. 8

30. 3.44.66

6. 2.58.13

30; 5.26.16

6. 2.45.78

30. 3.23.17

6. 2. 8.92

30. 3.43.08

6. 3. 3.88

30. 3. 5.24

6. 2.54.05

30. 3.21.34

6. 2.52.43

6. 2.58.13

6. 2.45.78

6. 2. 8.92

6. 3. 3.88

Only partially used.
Supplied at Cape

6. 2.54.05

6. 2.52.43

24. 0.46.53

24. 2.40.38

24. 1.14.25

24. 0.39.20

l Hope.

24. 0.11.19

24. 0.28.91

(NarR. chall. exp. — Vql. i. — 1885.)

130

j

f 1 g s s 1 § 1 1 « b * 5 1 £i iiJJJJ;

1024

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,,

TABLE III. — Sew

Prom

To

MERIDIAN DISTANCE BY CHRON

z

A.

B

C.

D.

E.

F.

E.

Greenwich.

Lisbon.

Gibraltar.

Lisbon.

Gibraltar.

Madeira.

A. m. s.
0.15.15.53

A. to. s.
0.36.35.79

...

0.46:13.03

h. m. s.

...

0.15.19.54

...

A. to. s.
0.36.41.43

0.46. 4.66

h. m. s.

...

0.15.15.58

...

A. to. s.
0.36. 32. 8C

...

0.46.10.7C

h. m. s.

►

0.15.15.69

>

A. TO. s.
0.36.40.40

...

0.46.12.05

A. m. s.

...

0.15.14.59

A. TO. s.
0.36.41.33

...

0.46.14.78

A. m. s.

...

0.15.16.35

...

7i. TO. s.

0.36.42.18

0.46.14.83

A. TO. s.

...

0.15.16.68

...

[A. TO. S.
0.36.35.29

:

0.46.14.25

h. m. s.

►

0.15.14.47

...

Madeira.

Tenerife.

St. Thomas.
Bermuda.
San Miguel.

Tenerife.

St. Thomas.
Bermuda,

San Miguel.
Madeira.

Mean.

0. 2.43.44

0. 0.24.78
2.35. 9.97
0.34.30.60

3.14.44.82

.

...

0. 2.43.25

...

0. 0.26.87
2.36.46.31
0.35. 2.26

3.14.46.92

...

0. 2.43.62
...

0. 0.25.57
2.36.34.70
0.35. 1.98

...

3.14.30.79

...

...

0. 2.43.50
...

0. 0.23.67
2.36.36.94
0.34.59.67

...

3.14.48.09

...

0. 2.32.74

...

0. 0.27.52
2.36.39.42
0.34.59.49

3.14.55.12

...

0. 2.42.75
...

0. 0.26.46
2.36.27.29
0.34.59.22

3.14.47.71

0. 2.42.83

0. 0.26.13
2.36.34.92
0.35. 3.31

...

3.14.44.37

...

...

0. 2.41.68

0. 0.25.97
2.36.38.51
0.35. 0.87

3.12.48.79

3.14.44.82

3.14.58.69

3.14.46.92

3.14.45.87

3.14.30.79

3.14.43.78*3.14.48.09

1

3.14.39.17

3.14.55.12

3. 14. 35. 72j3. 14. 47. 71

3.14.47.19

3.14.44.37

3.14.47.06

3.14.

3.13.

46.80

3.14.

52.80

3.14.38.33

3.14,

45.93

3.14.47.14

3.14.-

41.71

3.14.

45.78

Bermuda,
i Halifax.

.

Halifax.

Bermuda,

Mean.

0. 4.55.79

...

0. 4.57.18

0. 5. 9.60

0. 4.53.94

0. 4.52.41

0. 5. 3.95

I

0. 4.52.07

...

0. 5. 2.42

0. 4.57.79

0. 4.59.83

0. 4.51.86
...

...

0. 4.58.25

0. 5. 2.16

0. 4.44.57

0. 4.52.85

0.4.56.48

1 ■

0.5.

1.77

0.4.1

18.18

0.4.1

•7.24

0.4.58.81

0.4.5

5.05

0.4.E

>3.36

0.4.1

| Madeira.

St. Vincent.

0.33.22.84

...

0.32.20.02

...

0.32.17.24

0.32.21.70

0.32.23.48

...

0.32.22.78

....

0.32.18.43

...

St. Vincent.

Porto Praya.

St. Paul’s Rocks.

...

0. 5.54.31

0.17.35.25

0. 5.57.43

...

0.17.23.95

0. 5.56.68
...

...

0.17.25.45

0. 5.57.141

...

0.17.23.88

0. 5.58.07
...

...

0.17.17.33

0. 5.54.95

...

0.17.23.55

0. 5.55.00

C. of Good Hope.

Tristan da Cunha.
Marion Island.

1.17.23.38

2. 3. 1.41
...

1.17.19.01

2. 3.14.02

...

1.17.22.13

2. 3.15.21
...

1.17.20.61

2,3.18.71

1.17.21.17

2. 3.19.39

1.17.16.66

2. 2.52.33

...

1.17.23.98

Christmas Harb.

Elizabeth Head.
Hog Island.

0. 4,36.23
0. 4. 3.53

...

...

0. 4.38.82
0. 4. 5.33

...

...

0. 4.38.47
0. 4. 4.96

...

0. 4.39.11
0. 4. 5.55

...

...

0. 4.37.07
0. 3.55.52

...

...

0. 4.38.53
0. 4. 5.35

...

0. 4.40.10
0. 4. 8.46

Levuka,

Levuka.

Tongatabu.
Ngaloa Harbour. !

...

0.23.37.58

...

...

0. 2.40.95

0.23.54.18

...

...

0. 2.38.36

0.23.46.80

...

...

0. 2.39.25

0.23.48:53

...

...

0. 2.38.31

0.23.53.34

...

...

0. 2.39.51

0.23.48.19

...

...

0. 2.38.03

0.23.51.51

Dobbo.

Ki Doulan.

0. 5.53.84

...

0. 5.53.27j

...

0. 5.53.59

...

0. 5.53.96

...

0. 5.51.02

...

0. 5.53.05

Amboina.

Banda,

Ternate.

Ilo Ilo.

...

0. 6.51.77
...

- |

-

0. 3.10.50
0.24.22.14
0.22.22.13

0. 6.51.70

...

...

...

0. 3.11.21
0.24.25.04
0.22.25.33

0. 6.51.97
...

...

...

...

0. 3.11.68
0.24.22.50
0.22.24.02

0. 6.52.55
...

...

...

0. 3.10.981
0.24.23.951
0.22.25.31

0. 6.50.34

...

...

...

0. 3. 7.65
0.24.16.63
0.22.14.75

0. 6.49.94

...

•...

...

...

0. 3.10.20
0.24.22.55
0.22.23.22

0. 6.51.80

Manila.
Hong Kong.

Hong Kong.
Manila.

|

...

0.27.11. 83j

0.27. 1.24
...

...

0.27. 6.26

0.27.12.88

...

...

0.27. 4.99

0.27. 7.00

5.27. 7.28|

0.27. 8.46*

0.26. 58.95|

0.27. 2.68
...

...

0.27. 4.98

0.27. 5.92
...

... hi

0.27. 7.84

0.27.6.53

Hi

0.27.9.57

I

0.27.6.00

1

0.27.7.87

0.27.0.81

0.27.5.45

0.27. 0

Sandy Point.

Tom Bay.

- 1

0.15.35.98

... |

0.15.40.37

~

0.15.45.62J

I

0.15.37.56

... 0.15.47.52

1

- 1

0.15.40.51

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1025

ary Meridian Distances.

ETERS.

j Extreme range of all

Hear

Chront

l of all
imeters.

Day’s running Distance.

Meridian distance
by selection of
Chronometers.

Chronometers
, selected.

Extreme range of
selected Chronometers.

H.

J.

K.

L.

M.

w.

E.

w.

E.

w.

E.

w.

E.

w.

E.

w.

E.

w.

E.

w.

1. s.

h. m. s.

h.m.s.

li. in. s.

h.m.s.

h. m. s.

h. in. s.

h. m. s.

h. in. s.

h. m. s.

h. TO. s.

s.

h. nv. s.

h. m. s.

h.m.s.

h. TO. S.

s.

3.47.27

0.36.35.57

0.36.37.29

0.36.33.58

...

0.36.33.90

...

0.36.35.39

14.47

0.36.37.86

15

0.36.37.47

ZACDERH JKLM

8.60

0.15.18.24

0.15.16.20

...

0.15.16.81

0.15.16.70

...

0.15.15.48

...

5.07

0.15.16.29

6

0.15.16.87

ZBCEFJKLM

1.33

5.11.97

0.46.10.01

0.46.12.34

0.46.13.94

0.46. 9.87

0.46.14.32

10.17

0.46.12.06

10

0.46.12.67

All but A

4.96

...

0. 2.43.17

...

0. 2.43.07

0. 2.43.06

...

0. 2.44.26

...

0. 2.40.73

...

11.52

0. 2 42.16

...

4

0. 2.42.95

All but D

2.58

.43.40

...

3.14.45.46

...

3.14.40.93

3.14.38.54

3.14.28.02

...

3.14.35*52

27.10

3.14-42.28

32

3.14.44.47

ZACEFGH JK

9.55

...

0. 0.29.47

...

0. 0.22.37

...

0. 0.26.98

...

0. 0.29.57

0. 0.24.47

7.20

0. 0.26.14

12

0. 0.26.08

...

ZABDEFGKM

3.05

2.36.40.14

2.36.49.94

2.36.46.76

...

2.36.42.06

...

2.37.17.32

127.35

2.36.35.71

25

2 36.39.88

... ■

ABCDFGHKL

12.06

...

0.35. 0.99

...

0.35. 4.12

...

0.35. 1.26

...

0.34.58.12

...

0.34.54.25

33.52

0.34.58.16

...

9

0.35. 0.72

...

ABCDEFGHKL

5.19

.43.40

3.14.53.77

3.14.45.46

3.14.59.50

3.14.40.93

3.14.58.06

3.14.38.54

3.14.54.01

3.14.28.02

3.15.16.77

3.14.35.52

3.14.42.17

3.14.42.28

3.14.49.63

3.14.44.47

3.14.49.61

3.14.

50.21

3.14.48.30

3.14.

41.01

3.14.:

56.14

3.14.;

12.22

3.14.-

47.05

...

0. 5. 1.89

...

0. 4.55.94

0. 5. 4.12

...

0. 5. ].44

...

0. 5.11.43

...

19.57

0. 4.59.18

...

21

0. 4.57.65

ZBCDFGH JKL

9.75

k 4.71

0. 4.59.95

...

0. 4.56.56

0. 4.46.48

I-

...

0. 4.57.38

...

0. 4.37.69

27.02

...

0. 4.55.61

14

0. 4.58.19

UCDEHJL

8.48

0.5.1

192

0.4.5

>6.25

0.4.5

>5.30

0.4.5

>9.41

0.4.5

>4.56

0.4.5

>7.39

0.4.5

17.92

5.20. 56

...

0.32.23.40

0.32.18.41

...

0.32.23.16

...

0.32.21.46

...

0.32.18.83

65.60

0.32.25.55

12

...

0.32.20.79

All but z

6.24

...

0. 5.56.91

...

0. 5.57.18

...

0. 5.55.10

...

0. 5.55.47

...

0. 5.55.99

3.76

0. 5.56.19

6

0. 5.56.19

All

3.76

'*30.82

...

0.17.21.72

0.17.17.45

...

0J7.26.77

...

0.17.27.60

17.92

0.17.24.89

25

...

0.17.24.72

BCDFHKL

5.88

5.18.95

2. 3.18.99

2. 3.20.69

2. 3. 7.31

2. 3.21.00

28.67

2. 3.13.46

17

2. 3.18.37

BCDEGHJL

6.98

...

1.17.24.65

1.17.24.86

1.17.21.75

1.17.24.60

1.17.21.16

...

8.20

1.17.21.99

10

1.17.22.48

...

ABCDEGHJKLM

5.85

...

0. 4.37.86

0. 4.38.51

...

0. 4.37.16

...

0. 4.36.20

...

0. 4.36.91

3.90

0. 4.37.91

3

0. 4.37.71

All but G

2.91

0. 4. 4.03

...

0. 4. 4.55

...

0. 4. 2.59

...

0. 4. 3.32

...

0. 4. 5.12

12.94

0. 4. 4.03

...

...

0. 4. 4.43

...

ABCDFHJKLM

2.96

...

0.23.50.67

0.23.50.38

...

0.23.44.65

...

0.23.48.2?

...

0.23.45.58

...

16.60

0.23.48.31

10

0.23.48.74

CDFGHJLM

5.93

S.37.21

'...

0. 2.37.82

0. 2.38.16

0. 2.39.56

...

0. 2.38.89

...

0: 2.39.15

3.74

...

0. 2.38.77

3

...

0. 2.38.70

BCDEFH JKLM

1.43

5.53.81

...

0. 5.54.52

0. 5.54.06

0. 5.53.76

...

0. 5.53.61

...

0. 5.54.17

3.50

...

0. 5.53.55

3

...

0. 5.53.79

ABCDFGH JKL M

1.25

0. 6.52.13

0. 6.51.13

...

0. 6.50.18

...

0. 6.51.53

...

0. 6.51.91

2.61

0. 6.51.41

3

0. 6.51.41

All

2.61

5.10.94

...

0. 3.11.30

...

0. 3.11.73

...

0. 3. 9.16

0. 3.10.69

...’

0. 3.10.51

4.08

0. 3.10.55

6

...

0. 3.10.81

All but E.

2.57

t. 25.85

...

0.24.23.86

0.24.24.33

...

0.24.20.78

0.24.23.68

...

0.24.22.91

9.22

0.24.22.85

15

0.24.23.24

ACDFHJLM

2.19

5.19.43

...

0.22.24.44

0.22.24.27

0.22.21.19

0.22.25.39

...

0.22.21.96

10.64

0:22.22.62

19

0.22.23.73

ABCDEGH JKL M

4.20

5p.76

...

0.27. 8.25

0.27. 7.53

...

0.27. 4.36

0.27. 7.54

...

0.27. 6.52

11.64

0.27. 6.59

6

0.27. 7.25

CDFGHJLM

2.54

...

0.27. 9.33

...

0.27. 4.12

...

0.27. 7.61

...

0.27. 7.87

0.27. 5.27

12.98

0.27. 6.36

...

8

0.27. 6.25

BCDFGJKLM

3.75

0.27.8.79

0.27.5.82

1

0.27.5.98

0.27

.7.70

0.27.

.5.89

0.27.

,6.47

0.27.6.75
1 .

0.15.39.11

jO. 15. 41. 46

...

jo. 15. 37. 99

...

0.15.43.96

...

0.15.40.28

11.54

0.15.40.94

0.15. 40.15

BDFHJKLM

6.40

1024

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

TABLE III.— Secondary Meridian Distances.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1025

1026

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.fcS. OHALLENGEK.

TABLE IV. — Abstract of the positions obtained by H.M.S. Challenger, with the Meridians from
which those positions were calculated.

Place.

Exact position of the observing stations.

'

Latitude of .
observation
spot.

|

Longitudes of
observation
spot on Chart.

Longitude of
observation
spot by
Challenger’s
observer.

Meridian based
upon

Lisbon.

Gibraltar.

The landing place at the packet stairs.
The head of the mole in Rosia Bay.

3°8 42 6 n.
36 6 55 n.

9 10 45 w.

5 21 15 w. 1

9 9 28 W.

Greenwich.
Standard A.

Madeira Island.

Port Pontinha, Funchal Bay.

32 37 46 N.

16 55 17 w.

16 54 25 W.

Gibraltar.

Tenerife Island.

Fort San Pedro, Santa Cruz.

28 28 0 n.

16 14 22 w.

16 13 41 w.

Do.

St. Thomas Island.

Fort Christian (Charlotte Amalia).

18 20 27 N.

64 55 40 w.

64 55 27 w.

Do.

Bermuda Island.

Dockyard clock tower.

32 19 4 n.

64 51 36 w.

64 49 24 w.

Gibraltar and Halifax.

Halifax, N.S.

Observatory hill in the Dockyard.

44 39 38 n.

63 35 10 w.

Standard A.

San Miguel Island.

Castillo di Brazo, Ponta Delgada.

37 44 0 N.

25 41 Ow.

25 39 36 w.

Gibraltar.

St. Vincent Island.

Obelisk on the south shore of Porto Grande.

16 55 8 N.

25 0 11 w.

24 59 37 w.

Do.

Porto Praya.

Landing place, west side of Quail Island.

14 54 2 n.

23 30 42 w.

23 30 34 w.

Do.

St. Paul’s Rocks.

Northeast side of the Boat cove.

0 55 36 n.

29 22 32 w.

29 20 48 w.

Do.

Bahia.

Obelisk in the public gardens in front of Fort San Pedro.

12 59 20 s.

38 31 15 w.

38 30 49 w.

Gibraltar & C. Good Hope.

Tristan da Cunlia I.

Herald Point.

37 2 45 s.

12 18 30 w.

12 20 50 w.

Cape of Good Hope obsy.

Cape of Good Hope.

The observatory.

33 56 3 s.

18 28 45 e.

Standard.

Marion Island.

Observation spot.

46 49 30 s.

( 37 49 30 e.

37 49 22 E.

Cape of Good Hope obsy.

Christmas Har. "1 Jj ^

On a bluff point at the north side of the head of tlieharboiuv

48 40 2 s.

69 -1:35 b.

69 1 52 E.

Do.

Elizabeth Head S- gji
Hog Island. ! 4S ^

On the summit of the head.

49 7 43 s.

70 11 15 E.

70 11 18 E.

Do.

On the summit of the island.

49 27 55 s.

70 3 50 e.

70 2 58 £.

Do.

Melbourne.

At the old lighthouse at Point Gellibrand.

37 52 10 s.

144 54 52 e.

144 56 5 E.

Do.

Sydney.

Garden island.

32 51 55 s.

151 14 47 e.

151 14 57 E.

Do.

Wellington.

The protestant cathedral.

41 16 45 s.

174 47 40 e.

174 48 39 E.

Sydney.

Levuka.

The old mission sehoolhouse.

17 40 45 s.

178 49 3 E.

178 52 18 e.

Do.

- Tongatabu. -

The church at Nukalofa.

21 7 51 s.

175 8 7 w.

175 10 31 w.

Do.

Ngaloa Harbour.

The beacon on Ngaloa Island.

19 5 30 s.

178 12 53 e.

178 12 37 e.

Do.

Cape York.

Sextant Rock.

10 41 29 s.

142 33 18 e.

142 33 18 e.

Do.

_ Dobbo

At the end of the sand spit on which the village stands.

5 45 16 s.

134 16 0 E.

134 13 44 E.

Do.

Ki Doulan.

On the pier.

5 34 42 s.

132 44 24 e.

132 45 17 e.

Do.'

Banda.

The flagstaff of the Resident.

4 31 53 s.

129 53 22 E.

129 54 10 E.

Do.

Amboina.

The flagstaff in Fort Victoria.

3 41 30 s.

128 10 0 E.

128 11 19 E.

Do.

Ternate.

The flagstaff of the Resident.

0 47 30 n.

127 20 45 E.

127 23 37 e.

Do.

Samboangan.

The inner end of the pier on which the lighthouse stands.

6 54 50 n.

122 4 10 e.

122 4 53 e.

Sydney and Hong Kong.

Ilo Ho. ,

The fort.

10 42 10 n.

122 34 14 e.

122 35 23 e.

Sydney.

"Manila.

The lighthouse on the end of the mole.

14 36 24 N-.

120 57 18 E.

120 56 43 e.

Hong Kong.

Hong Kong.

Wellington battery.

22 16 23 n.

114 10 2 e.

Standard.

Zebu.

The monument in the gardens by the fort.

10 17 32 N.

123 54 0 E.

123 53 53 E.

Hong Kong.

_ Humboldt Bay.

Observatory Islet.

2 27 0 s.

140 41 10 E.

140 42 53 E.

Samboangan. •

Admiralty Islands.

Observatory Islet, Nares Harbour.

1 55 0 s.

146 38 40 e.

146 41 41 E.

Do.

... Yokohama.

Naval Hospital square.

35 26 30.tr.

139 39 24 e.

139 45 8 e.

Do.

Honolulu.

The flagstaff of the King’s cottage.

21 18 0 N.

157 51 Ow.

157 48 50 w.

Valparaiso.

Tahiti.

The lighthouse on Point Venus.

17 29 15 N.

149 28 45 w.

149 26 18 w.

Do.

Valparaiso.

The fort immediately over the custom house.

35 1 48 s.

71 38 5 w.

Standard.

Tom Bay.

On observatory point.

50 11 26 s.

75 33 7 w.

Valparaiso.

Sandy Point.

The boat house on the beach.

53 10 0 s.

70 53 37 w.

70 52 26 w.

Do. '

.. Port Stanley.

The flagstaff of the saluting battery.

51 41 10 s.

57 51 30 w.

57 50 44 w.

Do.

Monte Video.

The chimney of the pumping engine of the graving dock.

34 54 15 s.

56 14 54 W.

56 15 32 W.

* Do.

| Ascension Island.

1

Fort Thornton.

7 55 20 s.

I

14 25 30 w.

14 27 13 w.

Do.

APPENDIX IV.

REPORT on the Health of the Crew of H.M.S. Challenger during the
Years 1873-76. By Fleet-Surgeon George Maclean, R.N.

The medical history of the Challenger Expedition is, fortunately perhaps, of little
interest. Considering the rapid variations of climate experienced, the large proportion
of time spent at sea, and the trying nature of the seamen’s work, the health of the ship’s
company during the Commission of nearly four years must be regarded as exceptionally
good, and will probably compare favourably with that of an ordinary cruiser on any of
the foreign stations.

Contrasted with most exploring expeditions of former times the medical history
of the ship is chiefly remarkable for the entire absence of disease (such as scurvy)
directly attributable to the nature of the dietary used on board — an immunity which
was partly due to the fact that the duration of the various passages was limited and
capable of being calculated with strict accuracy, owing to the use of steam ; to the
frequent interruptions, -at short intervals, of the sea work by judicious stays in harbour
where articles of fresh food, &c., were obtained and the monotony of the life varied ; to
the uniform and unvarying employment under all circumstances of water condensed on
board ; and, lastly, to the invariable rule observed of issuing a daily supply of lime juice to
all hands when the ship was at sea.

The longest period during which the ship was absent from any inhabited region was
in the passage from the Cape of Good Hope to Australia, when she visited the Crozets,
Kerguelen, Heard Island, &c., and crossed the Antarctic Circle — three months being em-
ployed on this cruise. It is interesting to note that the men were glad to use, for making
soup and as a vegetable, during this time the Kerguelen Cabbage ( Pringlea antiscorbutica),
which grows abundantly in Kerguelen — a vegetable which our wise old navigator, Captain
Cook, compelled his ship’s company to use — and that the health of the men during this
period was exceptionally good.

The ordinary rations of the naval service were used during the commission, viz., salt-
beef and pork, and preserved meat and vegetables at sea, fresh meat and vegetables in
harbour, and the usual half-gill of rum daily. Lime juice, cocoa and tea, biscuit, and soft
bread in harbour, complete the dietary (see Table). The average number of men on board

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.) 131

1028

THE YOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Table showing the Scale of Victualling in Her Majesty’s Navy during the Expedition.

When to be issued.

Articles.

£ £i

Scale of Substitutes.

Daily,

(See Note*)

Weekly,

J l

) Daily, when procur- (
\ able, . . . )

When fresh provi-
sions cannot be
procured : —

i r

W Every other day,

On one alternate day,

On the other alternate
day,

J L

> On two days a week, <

Biscuits,

or

Soft bread,

Biscuit powder or rui
Spirit,

Porter,

Sugar,

Chocolate,

Tea, .

Bice, .

Milkjt
Soup and bouilli
essence of beef, oi
mutton broth, suffi
cient to make J
Oatmeal, §

Oatmeal,

Mustard,

Pepper,

Salt, .

Vinegar,

Pickles (of various
descriptions).

Fresh meat,
Vegetables,

Salt pork. [ |

Split peas,
Compressed mixe
vegetables,

Celery seed, IT .
Salt beef, .

Flour,

Suet,

Currants or raisins,
Sugar,

Preserved potato,
Rice, .

Preserved potato,
Preserved beef, .
with either

(1) Preserved potato,

or

(2) Rice, ...

or

Preserved potato,

sks,

(3)

and

ltice,

( Flour, .

(4) < Suet,

( Currants or raisins,
Soup and bouilli,
Rice, .

pint

pint

pint

oz.

lb.

pint

lb

4

In case it should be necessary to issue
substitutes for any of the articles in this
scale of victualling, the following sub-
stitution is to be adopted, viz. : —

are to be con-
sidered equal to
each other.

do. do.

do.

1 pound
1 pound
1 pound
A pint
| gill
1 pint
1 ounce
1 ounce
1 ounce
j ounce

The following, when issued with meat
rations, are to be considered equal to each
other : —

Troops,

Seamen. Women, and

Biscuits,
Flour,
Rice, .
Wine,
Spirit,
Porter,
Coffee,
Cocoa,
Chocolate,
Tea,

do. do.

r Split peas, . |

j Peas (whole), . |

pound .

Children,
f pound

pint

] Flour, . . I

pound .

b pound
5 pint

] Calavances, . J

pint

Dholl, . . |

pint

b pint
i pound

[Rice, . . |

pound .

f Vegetables,

J pound

J Compressed mixed vege-
) tables, ....

1 ounce

[ Preserved potato,

2 ounces

r

j Oatmeal, .

( b pint
< or

i

^ Split peas,

( 2 ounces
| pound

NOTES.

* Soft bread is to be issued to troops, women, and
children four days in the week, and biscuits.(or oatmeal
for children under five) the remaining three days.

t When fresh milk is not procurable, preserved milk
is to be issued, sufficient to make these quantities of milk.

% These articles are to be provided in equal quantities,
and are to be issued alternately. Soup and bouilli,
5| ounces, cooked with J pint of water; essence of beef,
J of a quarter pint canister, cooked with J pint of water;
and mutton broth, 4 ounces, with a sufficient quantity of
boiling water, will make the half pint required.

§ When troops are on fresh meat victualling, a sufficient
quantity of oatmeal may be issued for thickening their
soup.

|| Salt pork or salt beef are to be issued at the dis-
cretion of the surgeon.

IT Half an ounce to be issued with every eight pounds
of split peas put into the coppers.

Boys of ten and under fourteen years of age to receive
the woman’s ration, but without porter. Boys of four-
teen and under seventeen to receive the man’s ration, •
but without porter.

Girls of ten and under seventeen years of age to
receive the woman’s ration, but without porter.

Boys and girls of seventeen years of age or upwards
are to be considered in all respects as adults.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1029

during the Commission was 240, and the number of cases on the sick-list was 956, giving a
percentage per annum of 113‘8. Seven deaths occurred, giving a percentage of 0-83 per
annum. Only two of these last were due to natural causes, three of them being caused
by violence and two by acute poisoning. Eleven men were invalided (l ‘30 per cent, per
annum), and fifteen were sent to hospital, or at the rate of 1 ‘78 per cent, per annum.
The only other changes, besides those arising from deaths, invaliding, and sending men
to hospital, were due to desertion, for which the attractions of the Australian ports
visited are chiefly responsible.

The following brief enumeration of the principal diseases, &c., which prevailed on
board, the localities in which these occurred, and the causes to which they were attribu-
table, comprises all the information of medical interest that can be recorded in the limits
of this short article :: —

General Diseases.

Enteric Fever. — Two cases of this fever occurred, one at Sidney where, at the time of
the visit, the disease prevailed in the lower and dirtier parts of the town frequented by
blue-jackets when on leave, and where the sewage arrangements were very defective, the
main sewer discharging into the land-locked harbour in the immediate vicinity of the
most crowded part of the town. The second case occurred at Hong Kong, where the
disease was also prevalent at the time.

' Yellow Fever. — A single case occurred on board during the ship’s stay at Bahia.
The medical officers were assured on arrival that the town was quite free from this
formidable disease, but within a few days some merchant seamen in the harbour, died of
it, and six days after arrival an ordinary seaman who had slept on shore four nights
previously was taken ill and was landed at the Brazilian Yellow Fever Hospital, where
he afterwards died. The weather was, at the time of the visit (September), hot and
oppressive, and the sanitary arrangements of the town were very defective. The ship
left Bahia immediately, and proceeded to a higher and cooler latitude. Fortunately
no further case of this fever occurred.

Malarious Fevers. — It might have been expected, owing to the number of places in
the tropics visited where these fevers are endemic, that there would have been a large
amount of sickness among the ship’s company from this cause. Only twenty-eight
cases occurred, however, and these were of a comparatively mild description. This prac-
tical immunity may be ascribed to the care taken to avoid unnecessary exposure of the
men employed in boats, surveying, &c., in malarious places ; compelling men on leave
to be on board by sunset ; and lastly, perhaps, to the prophylactic use of quinine in places
where the malarious poison was supposed to be unusually potent. No death nor invalid-
ing occurred from this cause. The following are the places in which the disease was

1030

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

contracted: — Madeira, St. Thomas (West Indies), Bermuda, Cape Verde Islands, Bahia,
Melbourne, Arrou Islands, Philippine Islands, Yokohama, and Tahiti.

Erysipelas. — A single case of this affection occurred in the person of a member of
the scientific staff, and had a rapidly fatal termination. No special cause could be
traced connecting the disease either with the ship or the last place visited (Honolulu) ;
and it would seem probable that, beginning as a common inflammation of the integu-
ments, the disease afterwards assumed an erysipelatous character, the change being
favoured by the state of the patient’s health, which had for some time previously been
below par.

Syphilis. — Ten cases of constitutional syphilis occurred during the Commission, the
primary disease having been contracted in the following places : — Bahia, Cape Town,
Hong Kong, Yokohama, Valparaiso. They did not give rise to any invaliding.

Phthisis. — Six cases occurred during the period of the Expedition, two of which were
invalided and two sent to hospital. In none of these cases can the disease be said to have
been in any way specially connected with the work of the ship, as in all there was
evidence of its existence in a latent form before leaving England — the frequent and
rapid changes of climate experienced during the Commission bringing it into activity.

Diseases of the Nervous System.

In this subdivision are included one case of disease of the brain (cerebral softening),
which had a suddenly fatal termination and was not preceded by any marked symptoms ;
and two cases of insanity, both of which originated in the ship. They were sent to
hospital ; one, a marine who was left at Hong Kong, subsequently dying in a state of
acute mania.

Diseases of the Circulatory System.

In this subdivision are included three cases of organic disease of the heart, one of
which was invalided, while the other two were sent to hospital.

Diseases of the Eespiratory System.

In this section are included five cases of bronchitis, two of pneumonia, and numerous
cases of catarrh, complaints which were generally ascribable to a more or less sudden
change from a warm to a cold climate. No mortality nor invaliding was due to any of
these diseases.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1031

Diseases of the Digestive System.

In this subdivision are included sixty-nine cases of diarrhoea, generally of a mild
description, which were in nearly every instance due to excessive heat or to “leave”
in places where the sanitary arrangements were bad. Bahia, Bermuda, Manila, Hong
Kong, and Yokohama were the places where the majority of cases occurred. Three cases
of dysentery also occurred, two at Sydney where the exciting cause was probably
contaminated water, and one at Ascension where, notwithstanding the most careful
attention to sanitary measures, the disease is endemic, being probably due to climatic
influence.

Poisoning.

Two deaths arose from this cause, one from alcohol and the other (suicidal) from
chloral hydrate.

Wounds and Accidents.

Two deaths were caused by drowning, and one by fatal injury of the head in a boy
who was caught by the dredging rope, which broke as he was stepping across it and
dashed him violently against the hammock nettings. He sustained a fracture of the
skull and severe injury of the brain, and lived only a few hours afterwards. One
dislocation of the shoulder, one fracture of the fore-arm, and one of the lower jaw complete
the list of more serious injuries that occurred.

Besides the diseases, &c., herein specified there were many cases of a trifling nature
which it is unnecessary to particularise, the foregoing enumeration embracing all cases
of any interest which occurred during the Commission.

APPENDIX V.

CHEMICAL ANALYSES.1

ANALYSES OF A SERIES OE SPECIMENS OF BONES AND TEETH FROM DEEP-SEA
DEPOSITS AND OF FOSSIL AND RECENT BONES.

By Professor W. Dittmar, F.R.S.

Specimens of nine bones of marine animals, which had been dredged up in the course
of the Challenger Expedition, and along with these also three recent bones and one fossil
bone, were placed in my hands to examine chemically, with the view of assisting in
tracing the probable history of the deep-sea specimens.

I have analysed these specimens, some of them completely, the rest partially.
Suffice it here to state, that in every case the reported quantities of the constituents were
determined directly, so as not to lose the valuable check afforded by a comparison of the
sum total of the constituents, with the weight of substance analysed.

In regard to the preparation of the specimens for analysis, I have to state that the
deep-sea specimens (or such portions of them as were intended for investigation) were in
each case powdered, washed with distilled water, until the last washings were free from
chlorides ( i.e ., sea water), then dried at 100° C., and lastly exposed to the air of the
laboratory so that they should not be abnormally hygroscopic.

In this condition they were bottled as material for analysis. The recent bones were
simply powdered and analysed in the air-dry condition.

What is reported as “moisture” is water volatile at 110° C., while “combined
water” means total water eliminated by ignition, less “moisture.” In most cases only a
part of the substance was used for the analysis.

To avoid repetition, I may state that “ Substance ” always means homogeneous
powdered substance prepared as above stated. “ P.” stands for per cent, by weight. “ E.”
for “ equivalent,” that is, for that quantity of acid or base which in the normal salts is
equivalent to “ H20,” the numerical value of “H20” being taken as 9, i.e., H = 0'5;
0 = 8, &c.

1 The analyses given in this Appendix have been selected from a large number which will be published in the
Report on Deep-Sea Deposits, where their bearing on questions of General Oceanography will be discussed in detail. -
John Murray.

1034

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

I. The Recent Bones.

No. 8. Portion of Recent Earbone, Balcena mysticetus.

Phosphoric acid (P205),

Carbonic acid (C02), .

Chlorine 0-038 = (Cl2-0), .

Sulphuric acid (SO,,),

Fluorine (F2),* . .

Lime (CaO), .

Magnesia (MgO),

Potash (K20),

Soda (Na20),

Phosphates of iron and alumina,
Moisture,

Organic matter,

p- E- I

31-66 : 23-67 = 1-3377
4-77 : 22 =0-2168

0-029:27-5 = 0-0011
0-21 : 40 =0-0053

0-005:19 =0-0003

. 41-52 : 28 =4-4828

0-86 : 20 =0-0430

0- 14 : 47 =0-0030

1- 46 : 31 =0-0470

0-20

7-31
. 11-14

99-30

1-5612

1-5758

No. 11. Portion of Recent Mesorostral Pone of Ziphius, Cape of Good Hope.

Partly decayed. The undecayed portion was analysed.

Phosphoric acid (P205), .
Carbonic acid (C02),

Chlorine 0-14 = (Cl2-0),.
Sulphuric acid (S03),

Fluorine (F2),

Lime (CaO),

Magnesia (MgO),

Potash (K20),

Soda (Na20),

Phosphates of iron and alumina,
Moisture,

Organic matter, .

p*

P.

E.‘

34-64

1-4635

6-35

0-2886

0-11

0-0039

0-05

0-0125

0-032

40-51

1-4467

3-59

0-1795

trace

2T3

0-0687

0-36

3-51

7-49

98-77

1-7685

1-6949

* Having found by preliminary experiments that the deep-sea specimens contained appreciable quantities of
fluorine, I devoted particular attention to the exact determination of this element. The method adopted was as
follows : — A sufficient quantity of ignited material (5 to 20 grms.) was heated with a large excess of pure quartz sand
and pure oil of vitriol (previously charged with sulphate of silver to retain the bulk of the chlorine), and the
fluoride of silicon formed, after having been filtered through dry asbestos to retain any sulphuric acid that might
have come over, passed into water and determined titrimetrically by means of pure standard caustic soda. In the
resulting mixture, the chlorine, if present, was determined and allowed for.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1035

From the numbers found for jr it would appear probable that this bone contains a

hydric phosphate such as MgHP04, which I remember having seen reported in other
bone analyses ; but I am more inclined to think that there is an unobserved error some-
where. Taking the deficiency (17685 — 1 ’6949) in bases to mean a loss of magnesia,-
we have for the percentage of that base 3'59 + 1‘47 = 5'06, which would bring up the
total percentage to 100 '21.

No. 12. Brain Case of Globiocephalus, European Seas.

P.

P.

E.

Phosphoric acid (P205), .

22-45

0-9485 1

Carbonic acid (C02),

3-18

0-1446 (

Chlorine 0-085 = (Cl2 - O) or muriatic acid,

0-066

0-0024 f

Sulphuric acid (S03),

0-21

0-0053 J

Fluorine (F2), ....

0-004

Lime (CaO),

. 30-04

1-0727 1

Magnesia (MgO), ....

0-38

0-0190

Potash (K20), ....

trace

Soda (Na20), ....

1-62

0-0623 J

Phosphates of iron and alumina, .

1-25

Moisture, . .

8-93

Organic matter, ....

. 31-79

99-92

The fluorine was determined in 8 grms. of the ash of the substance, and found to
amount to 0'57 mgrms., that is to 0‘007 per cent, of the ash, or (P004 per cent, of the
original substance.

From these analyses it would appear that the percentage of fluorine in recent marine
bones is very minute.

For the sake of comparison, I determined the fluorine in a sample of ordinary bone
ash,' and found it 0‘004 per cent., i.e., almost nil.

As it is stated that teeth contain more fluorine than ordinary bones, I procured a
quantity of horses’ teeth, ignited them, and determined the fluorine in the ash. It was
found equal to 0’084 per cent. , which, though decidedly higher than the number
obtained with the bones, is still very minute.

I have no doubt that the 1 or 2 per cent, of fluoride of calcium, which we find reported
in the older analyses of bones, is based on utterly erroneous determinations. This,
however, only confirms what Nickles gave some years ago as the result of an extensive
investigation on the subject.

For the number of equivalents of carbonate present per equivalent of phosphate, we
have in —

No. 8.

No. 11.

No. 12.

0-162

0-197

0-153

1

1

1

’ 6-2

54

6-6

(NARR. CHALL. EXP. VOL. I.— 1885.)

132

1036

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

II. The Fossil Bone.

No. 13. Portion of Ziphius Beak from Red Crag, Suffolk.

A thin plate cut out of the beak, highly polished on one side. The specimen was
wholly petrified and homogeneous. It was completely soluble in hydrochloric acid.

A complete analysis gave the following results :

—

P.

P.

E.

Moisture, . . . .

1-67

Combined water (H20), ....

2-31

0-2566 ]

Phosphoric acid (P205), ....

. 33-83

1-4294 1

Carbonic acid (C02), ....

7-50

0-3409 }. 1-8647

Fluorine l’50 = (F2-O), ....

0-87

0-0789

Sulphuric acid (S03), ....

0-62

0-0155 J

Chlorine and silica, ....

nil.

Lime (CaO), .....

. 48-81

1-7431

Magnesia (MgO), .....

1-08

0-0540

Ferric oxide (Fe203), ....

2-00

0-0577

Alumina (A1203), ....

0-18

0-0105 )

Potash (K20), .....

0-52

0-0111 V 1-9399

Soda (Na20), .....

1-97

0-0635 j

101-36

Katio of equivalents —

o

o

1 0-239

0-055

In recent Ziphius bone, No. 11, they were —

1 : 0-197

: nil.

III. The Deep-Sea Bones.

No. 1. Portion of a large piece of Whale’s Bone.
Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms, South Pacific.

The specimen was brown in colour, very porous, and readily reducible to a powder.

P.

P.

E.

Moisture, . . . .

3-06

Combined water (H20), ....

3-66

Phosphoric acid (P205), ....

27-49

1-162

Carbonic acid (C02), .

4-14

0-188

Fluorine 0’71 = (F2 - O),

0-41

0-037

Lime (CaO), .....

39-00

1-392

Magnesia (MgO),. .

2-01

Ferrous oxide (FeO),# ....

1-04

Ferric oxide (Fe203),* ....

4-83

Binoxide of manganese (Mn02),*

1-61

Alumina (A1203), .

2-70

Silica and substances insoluble in hydrochloric acid,

9-08

Alkalies and loss, ....

0-97

* Direct result of analysis —

Manganous oxide (MnO),
Ferric oxide (Fe203),
Loose oxygen (0),

100-00

1-31

0-18

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1037

The insoluble residue consisted apparently of amorphous silica.
The part soluble in hydrochloric acid seemed to be a mixture of —

Phosphate of lime (Ca32P04),

60"0 per cent, of the whole substance,

Carbonate of lime (CaC03),

9-4

Fluoride of calcium (CaF2),

1-4 „ „

Binoxide of manganese (Mn02), .

1-6

Ferric oxide (Fe203), .

4-8

and minor constituents.

Ratio of equivalents of phosphoric acid, carbonic acid, and fluorine —

(P>A) (COs) (F2)

1 : 0-162 : 0‘037

In the recent whale’s bone (No. 8) we found : —

1 : 0-162 : nil.

No. 5. Portion of a Whale’s Bone much impregnated with Manganese.

Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms, South Pacific.

The outer portions of this specimen were perfectly black ; most of the inner portion
also was black, but a small portion in the centre had remained untinged with manganese.
This comparatively uncoloured central portion was removed, prepared for analysis, and
used for the following determinations : —

Moisture,

Phosphoric acid (P205),

Fluorine (F2),

Lime (CaO), .

Parts insoluble in hydrochloric acid,

2-87

29-13 1-231

1- 44 0-076

36-05 1-287

2- 91

Ratio of equivalents of phosphoric acid and fluorine —

1 : 0-062.

There was an appreciable quantity of manganese present, and also a trace of cobalt.

The outer manganiferous portion of this specimen was completely analysed, with the
following results : —

1038

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Portion insoluble in hydrochloric acid,

Total water (H20),

Manganous oxide (MnO), .

Loose oxygen (0), ....
Ferric oxide (Fe203),

Alumina (A1203), ....

Lime (CaO), .

Magnesia (MgO), ....
Potash (K20), • •

Soda (Na20), ....

Phosphoric acid (P205),

Carbonic acid (C02), ...

Traces of copper, chlorine, fluorine, and loss,

p.

P.

E.

5-76

9-77

20-22

3-49

6-54

1-66

19-71

0-7039

7-42

0-3710

0-55

1:12

18-59*

0-7860

3-87

0-1759

1-30

100-00

The manganese is probably present mostly as binoxide, combined chemically with
water and part of the protoxides.

No. 3. Half of Earbone of Balcena.

Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms, South Pacific.

One corner of this specimen had a considerable cavity, which was pretty well filled
with a brownish black, friable substance. This substance was scraped out and preserved
as “ 3. (1).” The remainder consisted partly of a black coating (which was separated as
far as possible and kept as “ 3. (2) ”) and partly of a very white siliceous looking core
(which was put aside as “ 3. (3)”). Portions “ 3. (3) ” and “ 3. (l) ” were analysed.

Portion “ 3. (l).” Contents of Cavity.

Note. — The analysis of this substance was all but completed when it was found that
it contained a small admixture of an “ oil,” which had no doubt become mixed with it

accidentally in the cutting of the original specimen. The greater part of the substance
dissolved readily in hydrochloric acid, with evolution of chlorine. Only the solution
was analysed.

Portion insoluble in hydrochloric acid, 4
Total water (H20),

Manganous oxide (MnO),

Loose oxygen (O),

Ferric oxide (Fe203), .

Lime (CaO), ....
Magnesia (MgO), .

Alumina (A1203),

Silica (SiOa), ....
Phosphoric acid (P205),

Potash (K20), . .

Soda (Na20), .

Nickel and copper,

P.

13-66

27-00

27-13 : MnO = 0-764 h- 0-7.64 = 1
3T3: 0 = 0-398-^0-764 = 0-52

8-34
4-34
4-03
6-54

1- 31

2- 39

1- 07

2- 39
traces

101-33

* Equal to 40'90 per cent, tricalcic phosphate,
t Apparently all amorphous silica.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1039

The bulk of the part soluble in acids apparently consists of hydrated sesquioxides of
manganese and iron and decomposible silicates.

Portion “ 3. (3).”

White Siliceous looking Core.

p_

P.

e;

Insoluble in acid, .

0-06

Moisture, ....

2'21

Combined water (H20),

2'22

Phosphates of iron and alumina,* .

0-42

Phosphoric acid (P205),*

. 34-13

1-4420

Carbonic acid (C02),

6-61

0-3042

Fluorine 1-4 = (F2-0), . ’ .

0-81

0-0736

Sulphuric acid (S03),

0-81

Chlorine,

trace

Lime (CaO),

49-85

1-7801

Magnesia (MgO),

0-77

0-0385

Alkalies and loss, .

211

100-00

Ratio of equivalents of phosphoric acid, carbonic acid, and fluorine-

(FA)

1

(C02)

0-211

(F2)

0-051

The following specimens were only partially analysed.

No. 4. Portion of Beak of a Zifhius.

Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms, South Pacific.

The body of the specimen looked pretty much like recent bone, but had veins of
manganese running through it. The outer coating of the specimen was black.

Found in 100 parts of the inner portion—

Moisture,

Combined water (H20),
Carbonic acid (C02),
Phosphoric acid (P205),t
Fluorine (F2),

Ratio of equivalents of phosphoric acid, carbonic acid, and fluorine —
1 : 0-220 : 0-062

1- 14

2- 78
6-81

33-30

1-65

* Total phosphoric acid found = 34-33 per cent. 34-13 phosphoric acid found = 74'5 per cent, tricalcic phosphate,
t Equal to 72'69 per cent, tricalcic phosphate.

1040

THE YOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

No. 6. Portion of a Whale's Bone much impregnated with Manganese.
Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms, South Pacific.

The manganese was pretty well diffused all through the specimen.

Found in 100 parts —
Moisture,

Combined water (H20), .
Phosphoric acid (P205),* .
Fluorine (F2),

5- 49

6- 88
13-05

0-65

Ratio of -equivalents of phosphoric acid and fluorine —

l : 0-062

No. 7. Portion of Earbone (. Ziphius ).
Station 289; 2550 fathoms, South Pacific.

This specimen resembled Nos. 2 and 3, but was smaller, and the cavity, which in
them was filled up with a brownish friable mass, contained in this case a hard black sub-
stance. The inner portion was brownish ; it consisted' of hard vitreous looking matter
with a yellowish soft powder diffused through it.

Found in 100 parts of the inner portion —

Moisture, . . . . . . . . L61

Phosphoric acid (P205),f . . . . . • . 32-73

Fluorine (F2), . . . . . . 161

Ratio of equivalents of phosphoric acid and fluorine —

1 : 0-061

This specimen was very similar to No. 3, having a cavity with a brown incrustation,
a black outer’ coating, and the inside being almost uncoloured by iron or manganese.
Found in 100 parts of the inner portion- —

No. 2. Portion of Earbone of Baloenoptera.
Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms, South Pacific.

Moisture,

Combined water (H20),
Phosphoric acid (P205),f
Fluorine (F2),

1-6

1-34

31-21

1-89

Ratio of equivalents of phosphoric acid and fluorine —

1 : 0-0753.

* Equal to 28"48 per cent, tricalcic phosphate.

t Equal to 7l-44 per cent, tricalcic phosphate.

J Equal to 68-13 per cent, tricalcic phosphate.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1041

No. 10. Three Carcharodon Teeth.

Station 285 ; 2375 fathoms, South Pacific.

The largest of these teeth, weighing 22 grins., was taken for analysis. The outer shell
was readily detached from the inner portion.

1. The outside portion was found to contain 33'66 per cent, of phosphoric acid, equal
to 73 '48 per cent, of triCalcic phosphate, and 2 '28 per cent, of fluorine.

Ratio of equivalents of phosphoric acid and. fluorine —

1 : 0-1

2. The inside portion was completely analysed, with the following results : —

P.

Silica and portion insoluble in hydrochloric acid,

13-34

Moisture, . . . .

8-41

Combined water (H20), ....

6-93

Manganous oxide (MnO),*

35-51

Loose oxygen ( 0 ),* .

6-85

Ferric oxide (Fe2Q3),*

12-47

Alumina (A1203), . . - .

5-09

Lime (CaO), .....

3-72

Magnesia (MgO), . . .

3-74

Potash. (K20), .....

0-56

Soda (Ea20), . . .

1-31

Phosphoric acid (P205), ....

0-83

Carbonic acid (C02),

1-19

Silica (Si02) in solution, . . .

0-30

Chlorine and copper, . .

traces

100-25

No. 9. Eight Oxyrhina Teeth.

Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms, South Pacific.

Colour, brownish black.

The teeth consisted of a tough outer shell filled up with a friable black mass.

Three of the teeth were taken, the inside portion separated from the shell, and the
percentages of phosphoric acid determined, with the following results : —

Inside. Outside.

Per cent, of phosphoric acid (P205), . . . . 7-97 32-58

Equivalent to tricalcic phosphate, . . . . 17-39 71 T 2

* The extra oxygen in the ferric oxide, as the quotients show, is more than sufficient to convert the manganous
oxide into binoxide.

1042

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

From the preceding analyses it appears that deep-sea bones, like fossil ones, contain a
far larger proportion of fluorine than recent bones. This fluorine cannot be assumed
to be the original fluorine of the bones, but must be supposed to owe its origin to a
continuous, though slowly progressing, double decomposition between the phosphate of
the bone and the trace of dissolved fluoride in the sea water.

To test this view I have made the following experiment : — -10 grms. of precipitated
tricalcic phosphate (undried) were digested for six weeks in a solution of 30 grms. of
common salt and 2 grms. of fluoride of sodium, in 1 litre of water ; the precipitate was
then collected on a filter, washed free from chlorides (and dissolved fluorides), dried,,
ignited, and tested quantitatively for fluorine by means of the method used for the
bones. 5 grms. of ignited substance gave 0'120 grms. of fluorine = 2'41 per cent., equi-
valent to 4* 9 5 per cent, of fluoride of calcium. It is quite reasonable to admit that what
the 0'2 per cent, of fluoride of sodium in the solution employed effected in six weeks, the
trace of fluoride in actual sea water (small as it is) may accomplish in thousands of years.1 2

The “manganese oxide” which was found diffused through, or at least as a deposit
on, the surface of all the deep-sea bones examined, no doubt owes its origin to a slow
decomposition of extraneous mineral matter in. which the bones at some stage of their
existence got embedded.?

MANGANESE NODULES.

. These concentrations of ferric and manganic oxides, mixed with argillaceous materials,
whose form and dimensions are extremely variable, belong generally to the earthy
variety or wad, but pass sometimes, though rarely, into varieties of hydrated oxide of
manganese with distinct indications of radially fibrous crystallisation. The interpretation
adopted, in order to explain the formation of these manganese nodules, is the same as that
which is admitted, in explanation of the formation of coatings of this material on the
surface of terrestrial rocks. These salts of manganese and iron, dissolved in water by
carbonic acid, then precipitated in the form of carbonate of the protoxides of iron and
manganese, become oxidised, and give rise in the calm and deep oceanic regions to more
or less pure ferro-manganiferous concretions. The following analyses are of nodules from
two Stations, one in the North and the other in the South Pacific.— John Murray.

1 It may be that, owing to the fluoride of calcium being less soluble than the phosphate, a relatively large quantity
of the former remains in the bones as the latter is dissolved away. In comparing the analyses of the bones and teeth
dredged from the bottom of the sea with those of recent animals, the elimination of gelatinous organic matter from
the former is very striking. These facts added to others support the view of the great antiquity of the deep-sea
specimens. — J. M.

2 On the Distribution of Volcanic Debris over the Floor of . the Ocean, &c., by John Murray, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin.,
yol ix. p. 256, 1877.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1043

Analysis of Manganese Nodules.

By Professor W. Dittmar, F.R.S.

Station 252 ; 2740 fathoms, North Pacific.

These nodules had a brown or brownish black colour, and, in size and shape, were
pretty much like potatoes. They were easily broken by the hammer, and then seen to
consist of a clay-like nucleus enclosed in concentric layers of dark coloured matter, the
degree of blackness increasing with the distance from the centre. In some cases,
however, the whole of a section was found to be almost uniformly black. My work
was limited to exhaustively determining the elementary composition of the nodules,
and to trying to ascertain, as far as possible by chemical methods, the state of combina-
tion of the several elements present. In the latter connection I proposed to direct my
attention more particularly to the manganese, and to ascertain whether this metal were
present altogether as binoxide, or perhaps partly if not wholly in the form of lower oxides.

To obtain a true average sample of the nodules, it would have been necessary to pound
up finely and thoroughly mix the entire stock, but I did not consider myself justified in
taking this course ; I therefore satisfied myself with selecting a few nodules and pounding
up these. The powder was well mixed and preserved as “ substance to be analysed.”
A preliminary trial showed that the substance gave up to boiling water nothing but small
quantities of chlorides and sulphates 1 (which I thought might safely be put down as sea-
water solids), and besides showed that the filtration of the aqueous infusion was a very
tedious process. Hence, in proceeding to the actual analysis (which was executed .with
100 grms. of substance), the turbid liquid obtained in extracting the small portion
of substance soluble in water was simply poured away. The residue was next
digested in the cold in acetic acid of 25 per cent, until the carbonates of lime and
magnesia and substances of a similar nature could be assumed to be dissolved, and the
residue collected on filters and washed with water. This operation was not attended with
any visible evolution of gas, which, however, does not prove the absolute absence of
carbonates in the substance. The acetic acid extract was evaporated to dryness and the
residue (5'23 grms.) analysed. Qualitative tests showed the presence of considerable
quantities of lime, magnesia, and soda, of a little alumina, and of traces of iron, copper,
and chlorine. There was absolutely no manganese, which proves that the original
substance could not have contained any manganous carbonate or hydrate. The
principal bases were determined quantitatively with the following results : —

Alumina (A1203), . . . 0T70 ^

Lime (CaO), .... 0446

0-365

\ per 100 parts of original substance.

Magnesia (MgO),

Soda (Na20),* .... 0-597 ^

1 The aqueous extract contained no 1 ime salts, showing the absence of sulphate of lime.
■ * Including a little potash.

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

133

1044

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER

The residue left undissolved by the acetic acid was exhausted with hot hydrochloric
acid of 20 per cent., the solution filtered, evaporated to dryness, to eliminate the dissolved
silica, the silica filtered off and weighed. It amounted to 073 grms., i.e., 073 per
cent, of the original substance. The de-silicated solution was made up to 400 c.c., and
aliquot portions used for the following experiments. One portion served for a thorough
qualitative analysis, the results of which are included in the statement of quantitative
determinations to be given below; but it is perhaps as well to state explicitly that
lithium, beryllium, and the metals of the arsenic group, although very specially sought
for, could not be detected. A second portion (25 grms. of original substance) was
devoted to the quantitative determination of the cobalt, nickel, copper, and lead. A third
portion was used for the determination of the alkalies.

The residue left undissolved by the hydrochloric acid amounted to 26 -3 grms. (dried
at 100°, but not completely); Of these 26 '3 grms. of matter separate portions were used
for determining the following components : — (a) the water volatile on ignition ; ( b ) the
silica which had been rendered soluble by the treatment with hydrochloric acid — it was
extracted by means of boiling carbonate of soda solution and separated out and weighed
as usual ; ( c ) the part disintegrable by the method customarily used for the analysis of
clays, viz., by treatment in the heat with concentrated sulphuric acid, and evaporation of
the acid from the substance — the silica and alumina thus rendered soluble being deter-
mined by the usuaL methods.

Found in the 26 '3 grms. of matter insoluble in hydrochloric acid —

Water (H20), ......

Silica (Si02), set free by hydrochloric acid,

Alumina (A1203),* rendered soluble by sulphuric acid,
Silica (Si02), rendered soluble by sulphuric acid, .
Ultimate residue, ......

1-99

6-74

1-62

0-83

14-91

Loss, .......

26-09

0-21

26-30

As the hydrochloric acid solution had been nearly all used in the numerous qualitative
trials made,- and the quantitative determinations reported, a special portion of “ original
substance” (identical with the 100 grms. used for making that solution) was employed
for determining the alumina, ferric oxide, manganese, lime, and magnesia extractable by
hot hydrochloric acid. Other portions served for the direct determination of the total
water and of the total carbonic acid.

The results are included in the following : —

* Includes a little oxide of iron.

NARRATIVE OP THE CRUISE.

1045

Summary of Quantitative Determinations .

P.

Total water (H20),*

24-90

Total carbonic acid (C02),

0-38

Total phosphoric acid (P205

) extractable by hydrochloric acid,

0-07

(a) In Acetic Acid Extract.

Lime (CaO),

0-45

Magnesia (MgO),

0-36

Soda (Na20),

0-60

(b) In Hydrochloric Acid Extract from Acetic Acid Residue.

Silica (Si02),

Oxide of lead (PbO),

0-01 \

7-47

Oxide of copper (CuO),

0-272 1

0-93

Oxide of cobalt (CoO),

0-25 [ '

Oxide of nickel (NiO),
Manganous oxide (MnO),

0-40 j

. 19-39

Loose oxygen (0), .

3-95

Lime (CaO),

1-33

Magnesia (MgO),

1-42

Alkalies (R20),

0-34

Alumina (A1203),

3-03

Ferric oxide (Fe203),

16-20

(c) In Sulphuric Acid Extract from Hydrochloric Acid Residue.

Alumina and ferric oxide,

1-62

Silica (SiOg),

(d) Ultimate Residue.

0-83

Silicates and silica, .

. 14-91

98-18

Special Experiments on the State of Oxidation of the Manganese.

The loose oxygen reported above had been determined in two ways, viz., firstly by
Bunsen’s method : distilling with hydrochloric acid, and titrating the iodine equivalent of
the chlorine liberated by means of thiosulphate — chemically pure iodine serving as a
standard ; and secondly, by Fresenius and Will’s method : digestion of the substance with
dilute sulphuric and oxalic acids, collecting the carbonic acid liberated in a tared potash
bulb and soda-lime tube, and determining the increase of weight shown by the absorp-
tion apparatus. In the latter case the carbonic acid of the carbonates was determined in

* Determined directly, by expulsion in a combustion tube and collecting in chloride of calcium.

1046

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

a separate portion of substance, setting it free by means of a mixed solution of ferrous
chloride and hydrochloric acid and weighing it as above. In order to see whether the
second method is affected by the presence in the substance of ferrous oxide (as Bunsen’s
undoubtedly is), a quantity of a pure “peroxide” of manganese was made by heating-
pure nitrate first to about 200° C., then to redness, and the percentage of loose oxygen
in this preparation determined according to Fresenius .and Will ; first in the usual manner
and then after addition to the substance -of a known weight of artificial ferroso-ferric
oxide (Fe304) prepared in the wet way from ferrous sulphate.

The results were as follows : —

Percentage of Loose Oxygen found.

By the oxalic acid method, . . . . . . 7'99 8-13

By the same in presence of ferroso-ferric oxide,* . . . 7'98

Hence' the presence of ferrous oxide does not sensibly affect the oxalic acid method, which
at the same time showed me that the manganese nodule substance analysed could not
have contained much ferrous oxide. In fact the 3 ‘9 5 per cent, of loose oxygen reported
in the summary were deduced from the following determinations : —

Oxygen found by oxalic acid,
Oxygen found by iodine method, .
Difference,

Manganous oxide found, .

4-02 = 0-502 x“0”

. 3-88 = 0-485 x“0”
0-017 x “O”
19-39 = 0-546 xMnO

The difference (0*017 x “ O ”), if not simply due to observational errors, would correspond
to 0*017 x Fe2O3 = 0-0l7 x 72 = 1*22 per cent, of ferrous oxide = 1-36 percent, of ferric
oxide, leaving 16"2 — 1*36 = 14"84 of real ferric oxide. But at any rate there cannot be
much ferrous oxide present, or it would have told more strongly on the iodine result.

Another result which would appear to follow from the reported numbers, is that
the loose oxygen is not sufficient to supplement the manganous oxide into binoxide.
Taking 4 "02 as the correct percentage of loose oxygen, we have for the percentage of —

Manganous oxide (MnO), ...... 0-044 x MnO f

Real manganese oxide (Mn02), ...... 0-502 x Mn02

Now the oxides MnO, FeO (as above calculated) ; CaO, MgO as reported under ( b ),
amount in all to 0 "197 x B/'O.

These may be present in combination with manganese binoxide as components of
psilomelanic compounds, leaving a balance of 0*305 xMn02 of real uncombined (or
hydrated) binoxide of manganese.

* MnO. O =0-6454 grms.; Fe3O4 = 0-18 grins., C02 obtained = 0-2832 = 7 -98 per cent, of oxygen,
t Here, as everywhere, H= 0-5; .-. MnO=35'5.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1047

I know of no test for discriminating between free manganese binoxide and manganese
binoxide combined with oxides of the type Rr/0 ; but what can be done in a case like the
one in hand is to determine the exact ratio of the “ MnO ” present in all to the loose
oxygen present. But a complicated complete analysis like the one reported, however
carefully -done, cannot possibly supply sufficiently exact data for this purpose.

I therefore selected from my stock a nodule which seemed to be exceptionally rich
in manganese, and determined, by a specially devised process, the total manganese, as
manganous oxide, and (by the ordinary methods) the loose oxygen.

To determine the total manganese, a weighed quantity of homogeneous substance;
was disintegrated by hydrochloric acid, the iron and alumina precipitated by means of
acetate of soda and filtered off, and from the filtrate the manganese precipitated by means
of bromine in presence of zinc salt. The precipitate (which contained all the manganese
as binoxide) was dissolved by dilute sulphuric acid in an atmosphere of carbonic acid with
a known weight of standardized ferrous sulphate and the excess of “ ferrosum ” titrated
by permanganate. That this method, which every chemist will recognise as a slight
modification of Kessler’s, gives exact results had been proved by a series of experi-
ments on known weights of manganese given as a solution of pure chloride which had
been standardized by means of nitrate of silver.

In the analysis of the nodule two determinations gave —

I. II. Mean.

16-54 16-30 16-42

per cent, of manganous oxide (present as MnO . Ox).
be as follows : — ■

Iodine method, ......

Oxalic acid method, * . ... .

The loose oxygen was found ter

Mean.

3-775 3-764 3-77

3-85 3-95 3-90

Dividing by the combining weights we have —

16-42 : 35-5 = 0-4626
3-77 : 8-0 = 0-4712
3-90: 8-0 = 0-4874

Here the oxygen found is a' little more than what would be sufficient to convert the
manganous oxide into binoxide. Possibly some of the loose oxygen may have been
present as peroxide of cobalt (Co203) ; but I have had no time yet to inquire further
into the matter experimentally. All I can say is that the determinations were made with
great care at a time when we had become very familiar with all the manipulations
involved, and I think I am safe in asserting that that particular nodule in all probability
contains its manganese in the form of binoxide only.

* 0‘877 grm. of the substance when decomposed by acid (with ferrous chloride) gave less than 1 mgrm. of carbonic acid.

1048

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Analysis of a Manganese Nodule }

By Professor A. Benard.

Station 276 ; 2350 fathoms, South Pacific.

I. 0’827l grm. of substance dried at 100° gave 0’0787 grm. water (H20), 0‘1600
grm. silica (Si02), 0'0264 grm. of lime (CaO), 0‘0526 grm. alumina (A1203), 0‘2208
grm. peroxide of iron (Fe203), 0'0148 grm. magnesia (MgO), 0’2354 grm. manganic
oxide (Mn203) corresponding to 0‘2189 grm. of manganous oxide (MnO), 0‘0119 grm.
nickel (Ni) corresponding to 0'0151 grm. oxide of nickel.

II. 0‘1425 grm. of substance dried at 100° treated with hydrochloric acid and the
resulting gas conducted into a solution of potassium iodide liberated iodine; 12 c.c. of
potassium thiosulphate (1 c.c. = 0'937 c.c. of the standard solution) ; 1 c.c. of the standard

solution = ^ or whence 1 c.c. = 3'55 grms. of chlorine or 0'8 grm. of oxygen —

1000 : 0-8 = 12 x0-9377 : a*.

.-. 1000 : 0-8 = 11-24 : x.

£c = 0,008992 grm. of oxygen capable of liberating chlorine from hydrochloric acid,
i.e., 6'31 per cent, oxygen.

The atomic ratio of 0 '3 84 O is required if Mn be present as Mn02 and Ni as Ni203,
but 0‘394 0 was the ratio observed —

Manganous oxide,
Nickel,

Oxygen,

a

26-46

1-82

6-31

MnO = 71 0-372

Ni =74-8 0-024

O =16 0-394

0-372+^ = 0-384

The formula Mn02 + ^H20 requires 9T8 per cent, water. Consequently 26‘4 6 per-
cent. manganous oxide, which corresponds to 3 2 '42 per cent, manganese binoxide, is
equivalent to 3'28 per cent, water.

267 per cent, ferric oxide require as limonite 4‘50 per cent, water.

Water (H20), .

Silica (Si02),

Lime (CaO),

Alumina (A1203),

Ferric oxide (Fe203),
Magnesia (MgO),
Manganous oxide (MnO),
Nickel oxide (NiO),
Oxygen (02), .

I. IT

9-51

9-51

19-34

19-34

3-19

3-19

6-36

6-36

26-70

26-70

1 79

1-79

26-46

26-46

1-82

1-82

6-31

6-31

101-48

1 In the remainder of this Appendix the symbols are used with their ordinary value, H = 1 and O = 16. — J. M.

NARRATIVE OE THE CRUISE.

1049

ANALYSES OF DEPOSITS.

Analysis of a Blue Mud.

By Dr. Hornung.

Station 323, February 21, 1876; 1900 fathoms, South Atlantic.

I. 0'8069 grm. of substance dried at 110°, fused with carbonates of soda and potash,
gave 0*4804 grm. of silica, 0*1566 grm. of alumina, 0 '05 76 grm. of ferric oxide, 0*0135
grm. of lime, 0*0155 grm. of magnesia, 0*0503 grm. of loss on ignition.

II. 1 '4212 grms. of substance dried at 110° C., treated with hydrofluoric and
sulphuric acids, gave 0'0202 grm. of potash and 0‘0382 grm. of soda.

Silica (Si02), ......... 59‘54

Alumina (A1203), . . . . . . . . .19-42

Ferric oxide (Fe203), ........ 7T5

Lime (CaO), . . . . . . . . 1-68

Magnesia (MgO), . . . . . . . . .1‘93

Potash (K20), ......... 1-35

Soda (Na20), . . . . . . . . 2'68

Loss on ignition, . . . . . . . . 6‘24

Phosphoric and sulphuric acids, ....... traces

Analysis of a Red Clay.

By Dr. Hornung.

Station 9 ; 3150 fathoms, North Atlantic.

I. 1*1459 grms. of substance dried at 110°, fused with carbonates of soda and potash,
gave 0*6519 grm. of silica, 0*2323 grm. of alumina, 0*1148 grm. of ferric oxide, 0*0150
grm. of lime, 0*0293 grm. of magnesia, and 0*0770 grm. of loss on ignition.

II. 1*1162 grms. of substance dried at 110°, treated with sulphuric and hydrofluoric
acids, gave 0*0219 grm. of potash and 0*0092 grm. of soda.

I.

II.

Mean.

Silica (Si02),

. 56-89

56-89

Alumina (A1203),

20-28

20-28

Ferric oxide (Fe203),

. 10-02

10-02

Lime (CaO),

1-31

1-31

Magnesia (MgO), .

2-56

2-56

Potash (K20), .

1-91

1-91

Soda (Na20),

0-81

0-81

Loss on ignition, .

6-72

6-72

Barium, manganese, and phosphoric acid,

traces

100-50

1050

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Analysis of the Residue of a Globigerina Ooze.

By Dr. Klement.

Station 338 ; 1990 fathoms, South Atlantic.

A large quantity of Globigerina ooze was treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, taking
care not to exceed a feeble acid reaction ; after elimination of the carbonates, the sulphates
and the phosphates, the residue was analysed and gave the following results : —

I. 0‘8360 grm. of substance dried at 110° C., fused with carbonates of soda and
potash, gave 0‘4219 grm. of silica, 0'1506 grm. of alumina, 0‘1066 grm. of ferric
oxide, 0'0220 grm. of manganese binoxide (Mn02), 0'0148 grm. of lime, and 0‘0567
grm. of magnesium pyrophosphate.

II. 1’1293 grms. of substance dried at 110° C., gave 0'1235 grm. of loss on ignition,
treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids gave 0‘0123 grm. of potash and 0-0135
grm. of soda.

Silica (Si02), . . . . . . . .50-47

Alumina (A1203), . . . . . . . . .18-01

Ferric oxide (Fe203), . . . . . . .12-75

Lime (CaO), . .* . . . . . L71

Magnesia (MgO), . . . . . . . .2-44

Potash. (K20), . . . . . . . . .1T1

Soda (Na20), . . . . . . . . .1-05

Loss on ignition, . . . . . . . . 10-93

101-47

Analysis of Radiolarian Ooze.

By Dr. Sipocz.

Station 266 ; 2750 fathoms, Mid Pacific.

I. (P6580 grm. of substance dried at 110° C., gave 0'1087 grm. loss on ignition,
treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids gave 0‘3478 grm. of silica, O'OOll grm. of
cupric oxide, 0'0391 grm. of ferric oxide, 0'0529 grm. of alumina, 0'0263 grm. of phos-
phoric acid, 0-01 15 grm. of manganous oxide (MnO), 0-0435 grm. of lime, 0'0318 grm.
of magnesia, and traces of cobalt, potash, and soda.

Silica (Si02),

Copper oxide (CuO),

Ferric oxide (Fe203),
Alumina (A1203), .
Manganous oxide (MnO), .
Lime (CaO),

Magnesia (MgO), .

Loss on ignition, .

Cobalt oxide, potash, soda,

52-85

0-16

5-94

8-22

6-61

4-84

16-52

traces

100-87

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1051

Analysis of Diatomaceo us Ooze.

By Dr. Sipocz.

Station 157 ; 1950 fathoms, Southern Ocean.

I. 0-5618 grm. of substance dried at 120° C. gave 0-0330 grm. loss on ignition,
treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids gave CP5092 grm. of silica, 0'00112 grm. of
barium oxide, 0’00085 grm. of potash and (P00225 grm. soda.

II. 0'6487 grm. of substance dried at 120° C. gave 0‘0379 grm. loss on ignition,
treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids gave 0'5870 grm. of silica, 0'0013 grm. of
barium oxide, O’OO 57 grm. of ferric oxide, 0'0085 grm. of alumina, 0'0022 grm. of lime,
(P00198 grm. of magnesia, and traces of phosphoric acid.

I. II. Mean.

90-63 90-49 90-56

088 0-88

1-31 1-31

0-33 0-33

0-20 ... .0-20

0-30 0-30

0-15 ... 0-15

0-40 ... 0-40

trace . . . trace

5-87 5'84 5-85

99-98

For analysis of glauconitic grains and casts see p. 468 ; and of Globigerina ooze see

p. 915.

Silica (Si02), .

Ferric oxide (Fe203),
Alumina (A1203),

Lime (CaO),

Baryta (BaO), .
Magnesia (MgO),
Potash (K20), .

Soda (Na20), .

Phosphoric acid (P203),
Water (H20), .

Loss on ignition,

134

(nark, chalk, exp.-—' vol. i. — 1885.)

APPENDIX VI.

BIBLIOGRAPHY, giving the Titles of Books, Reports, and Memoirs
referring to the Results of the Challenger Expedition.

Agassiz, Alex., Preliminary Report on the Echini of the Exploring Expedition of H.M.S. Challenger. Sir C.

Wyville Thomson, Chief of Civilian Staff. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Set., vol. xiv. pp. 190-212, 1879.
Letter No. 3 to C. P. Patterson, Superintendent United States Coast Survey, on the . Dredging Opera-
tions of the United States Steamer “Blake.” Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl., vol. v., No. 14, pp. 289-302, 1879.
Report on the Echinoidea. Zool. Chall. Exp., part ix., 1881.

Allman, Prof. G. J., LL.D., F.R.S., Notes from the Challenger. Nature, vol. xii. p. 555, 1875.

Report on the Hydroida. — Part I. The Plumularidse. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xx., 1883.

Archer, W., M.R.I.A., F.R.S., Notes on Collections made from Furnas, Azores, containing Algse. Journ. Linn.
Soc. Lond. (Botany), vol. xiv. pp. 328-340, 1875.

Note on the Freshwater Algae collected hy H. N. Moseley, M.A. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany),

vol. xv. pp. 445, 446, 1876.

Baker, J. G., F.L.S., F.R.S., On the Polynesian Ferns of the Challenger Expedition. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond.
(Botany), vol. xv. pp. 104-112, 1877.

Balfour, F. M., LL.D., F.R.S., On Certain Points in the Anatomy of Peripatus capensis. Quart. Journ.
Micr. Sci., N. S., vol. xix. pp. 431-433, 1879.

The Anatomy and Development of Peripatus capensis, edited hy Moseley and Sedgwick. Quart.

Journ. Micr. Sci, N. S., vol. xxiii; pp. 213-259, pis. xiii.-xx., 1883.

Bate, C. Spence, F.L.S., F.R.S., On the Willemoesia group of Crustacea. Ann. and Mac/. Nat. Hist.,
ser. 5, vol. ii. pp. 273-283, pi. xiii.; Ibid., pp. 484-489, 1878.

On the Penseidea. Ann. and, Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. viii. pp. 169-196, pis. xi. and xii., 1881.

On Eryoneicus, a new genus of Crustaceans allied to Willemoesia. Ann. and, Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5,

vol. x. pp. 456-458, 1882.

On Archseastacus willemoesia, a new gentis and species of Eryonidse in the Lias. Geol. Mag.,

Dec. III., vol. i. p. 307, 1884.

Beddard, F. E., M.A., F.Z.S., Preliminary Notice of the Isopoda collected during the Yoyage of H.M.S.
Challenger. — Part I. The Genus Serolis. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., pp. 330-341, 1884.

Report on the Isopoda. — Part I. The Genus Serolis. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxxiii., 1884.

Belknap, George E., U.S.N., Something about Deep-Sea Sounding. Journ. United Service Instit., vol. i.
pp. 161, 347, 1879.

Bergh, Dr. R., Report on the Nudihranchiata. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxvi., 1884.

— Ueher die Yerwandtschaftsbeziehungen der Oncliidien. Morphol. Jahrb. , Bd. x. pp. 172-181, 1884.

— ‘ Malacologische Untersuchungen, in Reisen im Archip. d. Philipp., Th, II, Brl, ii. Heft xv.

pp. 727-754, 1884,

1054

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Bergh, Dr. R., Beitrage zu einer monographic der Polyceraden, III. Verhandl. d. 1c. Jc. zool. -hot. Gesellsch.
Wien, Bd. xxxiii, pp. 136, 163, 165, 18S4.

Berkeley, Eev. M. J., F.L.S., F.R.S., Enumeration of Fungi collected by H. N. Moseley during the Expedition
of H.M.S. Challenger. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany), vol. xiv. pp. 350-354, 1875; vol. xv.
pp. 48-53, 1876; vol. xvi. pp. 38-54, pi. if., 1877.

Boguslawsici, Prof. Georg von, Handbuch der Ozeanographie, Bd. i., Raumliche physikalische und chemische
Beschaffenheit der Ozean. Stuttgart, 1884.

Brady, G. S., M.D., F.R.S., Report on the Ostracoda. Zool. Chall. Exp., part iii., 1880.

Report on the Copepoda. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxiii., 1883.

Brady, H. B., F.G.S., F.R.S., Notes on some of the Reticularian Rhizopods of the Challenger Expedition.
Part I., Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., N. S., vol. xix. pp. 20-63; Part II., Ibid., pp. 261-299, 1879;
Part III., Ibid., vol. xxi. pp. 31-71, 1881.

On Keramosphsera murrayi, a new Type of Porcellanous Foraminifera. Ann. and Mar). Nat. Hid.,

ser. 5, vol. x. p. 242, pi. xiii., 1882.

Report on the Foraminifera. Zool. Chall. Exp., part, xxii., 1884.

Buchanan, J. Y., M.A., F.R.S.E., Some Observations on Sea-Water lee. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., vol. xxii.

pp. 431-432, 1874.

— On the Absorption of Carbonic Acid by Saline Solutions. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., vol. xxii. pp. 483-

495, 1874.

On the Vertical Distribution of Temperature in the Ocean. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., vol. xxiii. pp. 123-

127, 1875.

Preliminary Report (Chemical and Geological) on Work done on board H.M.S. Challenger. Proc. Roy.

Soc. Lond., vol. xxiv. pp. 593-623, 1876.

Preliminary Note on the Use of the Piezometer in Deep-Sea Sounding. Proc. Roy. Soc. Land.,

vol. xxv. pp. 161-164, 1877.

Note on the Specific Gravity of Ocean Water. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. ix. pp. 283-287, 1877.

On the Distribution of Salt in the Ocean, as indicated by the Specific Gravity of its Waters. Journ.

Roy. Geogr. Soc., vol. xlvii. pp. 72-86, 1877.

Laboratory Experiences on Board the Challenger. Journ. Chem. Soc., p. 445, 1878.

Preliminary Note on the Compressibility of Glass. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxix. pp. 589-598, 1880.

On Manganese Nodules and their Occurrence on the Sea-bottom. Chem. News, vol. xliv. pp. 253, 254, 1881 .

Report on the Specific Gravity of Samples of Ocean-Water, observed on board H.M.S. Challenger.

Phys. Chem. Chall. Exp., part ii., 1884.

Busk, Geo., V.P.L.S., F.R.S., Notes on a Peculiar Form of Polyzoa, closely allied to Bugula (Kinetoslcias).
Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., N. S., vol. xxi. pp. 1-14, pis. i., ii., 1881.

Descriptive Catalogue of the Species of Cellepora collected by the Challenger Expedition. Journ. Linn.

Soc. Lond. (Zool.), vol. xv. pp. 341-356 (with four woodcuts), 1881.

Supplementary Note respecting the use to be made of the Chitinous Organs in the Cheilostomata in tlw;

Diagnosis of Species, and more particularly in the genus Cellepora. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Zool.),
voL xv. pp. 357-36'2, pis. xxvi., xxvii., 1881.

Report on -the Polyzoa. — Part I. The Cheilostomata. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxx., 1884.

Butler, A. G., On Lepidoptera collected during the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger, Part I. Ann. and Mag.

Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. xi. pp. 402-428, 1883. Part II., Ibid., vol. xiii. pp. 183-203, 1884.

Campbell, Lieut. Lord G., R.N., Log-letters from the Challenger. London, 1876.

Carpenter, P. H., D.Se., Preliminary Report upon the Comatuke of the Challenger Expedition. Proc. Roy.
Soc. Lond., vol. xKviii. pp. 383-395, 1879.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1055

Carpenter, P. H., D.Sc., Descriptions of new or little known Comatulse. I. On the Species of Atelecrinus
and Eudiocrinus. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Zool.), vol. xvi. pp. 487-501, 1882.

On a new Crinoid from the Southern Sea. Phil. Trans., part iii. pp. 919-933, pi. lxxi., 1883.

Abstract in Pros. Roy. Soc. Lond., vol. xxxv. p. 138, 1883.

Report on the Crinoidea. — Part I. The Stalked Crinoids. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxxii., 1884.

Carpenter, W. B., C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., On the Temperature of the Atlantic. Proc. Roy. Instit., vol. vii.
pp. 263-279, 1874.

Further Inquiries on Oceanic Circulation. Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc., vol. xviii. pp. 301-407,

1874.

Ocean Currents. Nature, vol. ix. p. 304, 1874.

The Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger. Journ. United Service Instit., vol. xvii. pp. 813-828, 1873 ;

vol. xix. pp. 741-755, 1875.

On Recent Observations on Ocean Temperature made in H.M.S. Challenger. Geogr. Mag., vol. ii. p. 251 ,

1875.

On the Bearings of Recent Observations on the Doctrine of Oceanic Circulation made in H.M.S.

Challenger. Geogr. Mag., vol. ii. p. 320, 1875.

Summary of Recent Observations in Ocean Temperatures. Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc., vol. xix. pp. 493-

514, 1875.

Remarks on Thomson’s Preliminary Note concerning the Nature of the Sea-bottom, &c. Proc. Roy.

Soc. Lond., vol. xxiii. pp. 234-245, 1875.

On the Conditions which Determine the Presence or Absence of Animal Life on the Deep Sea Bottom.

Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. iv. pp. 176-202, 1876.

The Deep Sea and its Contents. Nineteenth Century, vol. vii. pp. 593-618, 1880.

Land and Sea considered in relation to Geological Time. Proc. Roy. Instit., vol. ix. pp. 268-282, 1880.

Researches- on the Foraminifera; — on an Abyssal Type of the Genus Orbitolites. Pint. Tram.,

vol. clxxiv. p. 553, 1883. Abstract, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., vol. xxxv. pp. 276-279, 1883.

Report on the Genus Orbitolites. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxi., 1883.

Croll, J., On the Challenger’s Crucial Test of the Wind and Gravitation Theories of Oceanic Circulation.
Geogr. Mag., vol. ii. p. 319, 1875.

Crombie, Rev. J. M., F.L.S., Lichens of the Challenger Expedition. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany),
vol. xvi. pp. 211-231, 1877.

Cunningham, D. J., M.D., F.R.C.S.I., Nerves of the Forelimb of the Thylacine and Cuscus. Journ. Amt.
and Phys., vol. xii. p. 427, 1878.

The Intrinsic Muscles of the Mammalian Foot. Journ. Anat. and Phys., vol. xiii. p. 1, 1879.

The Intrinsic Muscles of the Manus of the Thylacine, Cuscus, and Phascogale. Journ. Anat. and

Phys., vol. xiii. p. 443, 1879.

Nerves of the Hindlimb of the Thylacine and Cuscus. Journ. Anat. and Phys., vol. xv. p. 265, 1881.

Report on the Marsupialia. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xvi., 1881.

The Relation of Nerve Supply to Muscle Homology. Journ. Anat. and Phys., vol. xvi. p. 1, 1882.

Davidson, Thomas, F.G.S., F.B.S., Report on the Brachiopoda. Zool. Chall. Exp., part i., 1880.

Davis, Capt. J. E., R.N., F.R.G.S., On Deep-Sea Thermometers. Proc. Meteorol. Soc., voh.v. pp. 305-342, 1871.

Voyage of the Challenger. Ocean Highways, vol. i. pp. 241, 275, 311, 1873; vol. i., N. S., pp. 225,

271. Geogr. Mag., vol. i. pp. 183, 225, 286, 1874; vol. ii. pp. 38, 276, 339, 358, 1875'; vol. iii.
pp. 66, 179, 1876.

Dickie, Prof. G., On the Marine Algaj of St. Thomas and the Bermudas, and on Halophila Baillonis, Asch.
Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany), vol. xiv. pp. 311, 312, 1875.

1 056

THE VOYAGE OF, H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

Dickie, Prof. G., Enumeration of Algae, from Fernando do Noronha. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany), vol.
xiv. p. 336, 1875.

— Enumeration of Algae collected at the Cape Verde Islands hy H. N. Moseley, M.A. Journ. Linn.
Soc. Lond. (Botany), vol. xiv. p. 344, 1875.

Enumeration of Algae collected at St. Paul’s Rocks, &c. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany), vol. xiv.

pp. 355-359, 1875.

Enumeration of Algae from 30 fathoms, at Barra Grande near Pernambuco, Brazil. Journ. Linn. Soc.

Lond. (Botany), vol. xiv. pp. 375, 376, 1875.

Enumeration of Algae from Bahia. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany), vol. xiv. p. 377, 1875.

Algae from Tristan d’Acunha. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany), vol. xiv. pp. 384-386, 1875.

Algae from Inaccessible Island. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany), vol. xiv. p. 386, 1875.

Algae collected by Mr. Moseley at Simon’s Bay. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany), vol. xv.

p. 40, 1876.

Algae from Seal Island. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany), vol. xv. pp. 41, 42, 1876.

Algae from Marion Island. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany), vol. xv. p. 42, 1876.

Marine Algae collected by Mr. Moseley at Kerguelen Island. Journ. Linn. Soc, Lond. (Botany),

vol. xv. pp. 43-47, 1876.

Algae collected at Heard Island. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany), vol. xv. p. 47, 1876.

Algae chiefly Polynesian. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany), vol. xv. p. 235, 1876.

Notes on Algae chiefly obtained in Torres Straits, Coasts of Japan, and Juan Fernandez. Journ. Linn.

Soc. Lond.. (Botany), vol. xv. pp. 445, 446, 1876.

— Supplemental Notes on Algae collected by H. N. Moseley, M.A., from Various Localities. Journ. Linn.

Soc. Lond. (Botany), vol. xiv. pp. 486-489, 1875.

Dittmar, Prof. Wm., F.RSS. L. and E., Report on Researches into the Composition of Ocean- Water, collected
by H.M.S. Challenger. Phys. Chem. Chall. Exp., part i., 1884.

Dyer, W. T. Thiselton, F.L.S., F.R.S., Note on Algae in Hot Springs. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany),
vol. xiv. p. 326, 1875.

Evans, Sir F., K.C.B., F.R.G.S., F.R.S., Memorandum on the Magnetical Observations made during the Voyage.
Narr. Chall. Exp., vol. ii., pp. 1-7, 1882.

Finsch, Dr. 0., C.M.Z.S., Birds of Tongatabu, Fiji, Api, and Tahiti. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., pp. 723-742, 1877.

Report on the Birds collected in Tongatabu, the Fiji Islands, Api (New Hebrides), and Tahiti. Zool.

Chall. Exp., part viii., 1880.

Forbes, W. A., F.Z.S., Birds of Cape York, Raine, Wednesday, and Booby Islands. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.,
pp. 120-128, 1878.

Report on the Birds collected at Cape York, Australia, and at the neighbouring Islands (Raine

. Wednesday, and Booby Islands). Zool. Chall. Exp., part viii., 1880.

Report on the Anatomy of the Petrels. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xi., 1882.

Frere, Sir H. Bartle, Address on the Challenger Deep-Sea Exploring Expedition. Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc.,
vol. xviii. p. 540, 1874.

Garrod, A. H., M.A., F.RS., Note on the Gizzard and other Organs of Carpophaga latrans. Zool. Chall.
Exp., part viii., 1880.

Giglioli, Prof. E. H., Un nuovo mondo, Nuovci antologia, Florence, September 1873.

Goldstein, J. R. Y., Challenger Bryozoa from Marion Islands. Trans, and Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. xviii.
pp. 39-46, pis. i. , ii., 1881.

Goode, G. Brown, The Exploring Voyage of the Challenger. Reviews of Reports, &c., in Science, vol. iii,
pp. 576-580, 1884; vol. iv. pp. 116-118, 1884; vol. iv. pp. 176-179, 1884.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1057

Graff, Prof. L. v., Die Challenger-Expedition, Beilage zur Augsburger allgemeinen Zeitung, Nos. 226, 227, 1875 ;
Nos. 94, 95, 96, 1876.

Verzeichniss der von den U.S. Coast Survey steamers “Hassler” und “Blake,” von 1867-1879,

gesammelten Myzostomiden. Bull. Mus. Corny. Zodl., vol. xi. pp. 126-133, 1883.

Report on the Myzostomida. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxvii., 1884.

Ueber neue Myzostomen. Bericht ii. d. 56 Versamml. deutsch. Naturf., p. 109, 1884.

Gumbel, Dr. C. W., Die am Grunde des Meeres vorkommenden Manganknollen. Sitzungsb. d. II. Cl. k. baler.
Akad. d. Wiss., pp. 189-209, 1878.

Gunther, Dr. A. C. L. G., F.R.S., Note on some New Fishes collected in Japan during the Expedition of
H.M.S. Challenger. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. xx. pp. 433-446, 1877.

Notice of Deep-Sea Fishes collected during the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger. Pt. I., Ann. and.

Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. ii. pp. 17-28; Pt. II., Ibid., pp. 179-187 ; Pt. III., Ibid., pp. 248-251, 1878.

Report on the Shore Fishes. Zool. Chall. Exp., part vi., 1880.

An Introduction to the Study of Fishes, pp. 296-311. Edinburgh, 1880.

Haeckel, Prof. Ernst, M.D., Ph.D., Ueber die Phseodarien, eine neue Gruppe kieselschaliger mariner
Rhizopoden. Sitzungsb. med.-nat. Gesellsch. Jena, pp. 151-157, 1879.

Entwurf eines Radiolarien-Systems auf Grand der Studien der Challenger Radiolarien. Jenaische

Zeitsc.hr., Bd. xv., p. 418, 1881; Transl. Nature, vol. xxix. pp. 274-276 and 296-299, 1884.

Ueber die Tiefsee-Medusen der Challenger-Expedition. Sitzungsb. med.-nat. Gesellsch. Jena., p. 29, 1881.

Report on the Deep-Sea Medusae. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xii., 1882.

Ueber die Ordnungen der Tiefsee Radiolarien. ' Sitzungsb. med.-nat. Gesellsch. Jena, pp. 18-36, 1883.

Hector, J., M.D., C.M.Z.S., Descriptions of Five New Species of Fishes obtained in the New Zealand .Seas by
H.M.S. Challenger, July 1874. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. xv. pp. 78-82, 1875.

Hemsley, W. Botting, A.L.S., On the Bermudan Cedar. Gard. Cliron., N. S., vol. xix. p. 656.

On the Vegetation of the Bermudas. Gard. Chron., N. S., vol. xix. pp. 367, 431.

On the Botany of the Challenger Expedition. Nature, vol. xxvii. pp. 462, 463, 1883.

Two New Bermudan Plants. Journ. Bot., p. 104, 1883.

IBermudan Plants in the Sloane Collection, British Museum. Journ. Bot p. 257, 1883.

Sisyrinchium bermudiana. Journ. Bot., p. 108, 1884.

Insular Floras with special reference to the Botanical Collections of the Challenger Expedition.

A Memoir read before the British Association, Montreal, 1884.

Report on the Botany of the Bermudas. Bot. Chall. Exp., part i., 1884.

Report on the Botany of St. Paul’s Rocks, Fernando Noronha, Ascension, St. Helena, South Trinidad,

Tristan da Cunha, Prince Edward and Marion, The Crozets, Kerguelen, McDonald and Heard, St. Paul,
and Amsterdam Islands. Bot. Chall. Exp., part ii., 1884.

Report on the Botany of Juan Fernandez and Masafuera, Southeastern Moluccas, and the Admiralty

Islands. Bot. Chall. Exp., part iii., 1885.

Herdman, Prof. W. A., D.Sc., F.L.S., Preliminary Report on the Tunicata of the Challenger Expedition.
Pt. I., Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. x. pp; 458-472, 1880; Pt. II., Ibid., pp. 714-726, 1880 ; Pt. III.,
Ibid., vol. xi. pp. 52-88, 1881 ; Pt. IV., Ibid., pp. 233-240, 1881.

— On the genus Culeolus (Abstract). Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., vol. xxxiii. pp. 104-106, 1881.

On Individual Variation in the Branchial Sac of simple Ascidians. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Zool.),

vol. xv. pp. 329-332, 1881.

— Report on the Tunicata. — Part I. Ascidise simplices. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xvii., 1883.

The Hypophysis cerebri in Tunicata and Vertebrata. Nature, vol. xxviii. pp. 284-286, 1883.

On the Classification of the Ascidise compositse. Nature, vol. xxix, pp. 429-431, 1884.

1058

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Hertwig, Prof. Richard, Ueber die Tiefsee Actinien des Cballenger. Sitzungsb. mecl.-nat. Gescllsch. Jena ,

p. 10, 1881.

Report on the Actiniaria. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xv., 1883.

IIoek, Dr. P. P. C., Report on tlie Pycnogonida. Zool. Chall. Exp., part x., 1882.

— Report on the Cirripedia — Systematic Part. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxv., 1883.

— Report on the Cirripedia — Anatomical Part. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxviii., 1884.

Hoyle, W. E., M.A., On Loligopsis and allied Genera. Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., December 17, 1884.

Preliminary Report on the Cephalopoda collected by H.M.S. Challenger. — Part I. The Octopoda.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., February 16, 1885.

Diagnoses of new Species of Cephalopoda collected during the Cruise of H.M.S. Challenger. Part

I. The Octopoda. Ann. and May. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. xv. pp. 222-236, 1885.

Huddleston, W. H., M.A., F.G.S., On Deep-Sea Investigation. Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. vii. pp, 245-280, 1883.
Humbert, A., The Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger — Zoology, vol. i. (Review). Archives Set. Phys Nat., t. v.
pp. 189-191, 1881.

Huxley, T. H., P.R.S., LL.D., Notes from the Challenger. Nature, vol. xii. pp. 315, 316, 1875.

On some of the Results of the Expedition of H.M.S. Challenger. Contemp. Review, vol. xxv.

pp. 639-660, 1875.

Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., Deep-Sea Exploration. Nature, vol. xxiii. pp. 300-302 and 324-326, 1881.
Kirby, W. F., On the Hymenoptera collected during the recent Expedition of H.M.S. Challenger. Ann. and
Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. xiii. pp. 402-413, 1884.

— On the Neuroptera collected during the recent Expedition of H.M.S. Challenger. Ann. and Mag. Nat.

Hist., ser 5, vol. xiii. pp. 453-456, 1884.

On the Diptera collected during the recent Expedition of H.M.S. Challenger. Ann. and Mag. Nat.

Hist., ser. 5, vol. xiii. pp. 456-460, 1884.

On the Orthoptera collected during the recent Expedition of H.M.S. Challenger. Ann. and, Mag. Nat.

Hist.j ser. 5, vol. xiii. pp. 476-479, 1884.

Kolliker, Prof. A. v., F.M.R.S.,. Report on the Pennatulida. Zool. Chall. Exp., part ii., 1880.

Lankester, Prof. E. Ray, LL.D., F.E.S., On Procalistes suhmii, a young Cephalopod with pedunculated eyes,
taken by the Challenger Expedition. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., N. S., vol. xxiv. pp. 311-318, figs. 1
and 2, 1884.

Lapparent, Prof. A. de, Le Bathybius, Histoire d’un Protoplasme. Revue des Questions scientifiques, 1878.
Encore le Bathybius. Revue des Questions scientifiques, 1880.

Loven, Prof. Sven, On Pourtalesia, a genus of Echinoidea. K.Svensk. Vetenslc. Alt ad,. Handl., Bd. xix., No. 7,
1883.

Lyman, T., Ophiuridae and Astrophiuridae of the Exploring Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger, Part I. Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool., vol. v. pp. 65-168, 1878-1879.

A Preliminary List of Living Ophiuridse and Astrophiuridae. Cambridge, U.S.A., 1880.

A Structural Feature hitherto unknown among Echinodermata found in Deep-sea Ophiurans. 4km'-

versary Mem. Boston. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1880, 12 pp. and 2 pis.

Report on the Ophiuroidea. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xiv., 1882.

On the Ophiuroidea dredged by TJ.S. Coast Survey steamer “Blake." Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.,

vol. x. pp. 227-287, 1883.

Maclear, Commander, R.N., Notes from the Challenger. Nature, vol. ix. p. 304, 1874.

MTntosh, Prof. W. C,, M.D., F.R.S., On a Remarkably Branched Syllis dredged by H.M.S. Challenger.

Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Zool.), vol. xiv. pp. 720-724, 1879.

Note on a Phoronis dredged in H.M.S. Challenger. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xi. pp.. 211-217, 1881.

— On Cephalodiscus. Ann. and. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. x. pp, 337-348, 1882.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1059

Mitten, W., A.L.S., The Musci and Hepaticae collected by H. N. Moseley, M.A. Journ. Linn . Soc. Lond.
(Botany), vol. xv. pp. 59-73, 1876.

Moseley, Prof. H. N., F.L.S., F.R.S., On the Structure and Development of Peripatus capensis. Phil. Trans.,
vol. clxiv. part ii. pp. 757-782, pis. lxxii.-lxxv., 1874.

Botanical Notes in Letters addressed to Sir J. D. Hooker. Nature, vol. ix. pp. 369, 388, 450, 485,

1874; voL x. p. 165, 1874.

On Pelagonemertes- rollestoni. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. xv. pp. 165-169, pi. xv. b, 1875.

On a Young Specimen of Pelagonemertes rollestoni. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. xvi.

pp. 377-383, pi. xi., 1875.

On the Structure and Relations of the Alcyonarian Heliopora CEerulea, &c. Phil. Trans., part i.

pp. 91-129, 1876.

Preliminary Note on the Structure of the Stylasterid®. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., vol. xxiv. pp. 59-70,

1876.

Preliminary Report on the True Corals dredged by H.M.S. Challenger in Deep Water. Proc. Roy. Soc.

Lond., vol. xxiv. pp. 544-569, 1876.

Botanical Notes in Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany), vols. xiv., xv., 1875-76.

On Peripatus novse zealandise. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. xix. pp. 85-91, 1877.

On Stylochus pelagicus and other Oceanic Planarians. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., N. S., vol. xvii.

pp. 23-34, 1877.

Notes on the Structure of Several Forms of Land Planarians, &c„, with a list of all the species at present

known. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., N. S., vol. xvii. pp. 273-292, 1877.

On the Structure of a Species of Millepora occurring at Tahiti, Society Islands. Phil. Trans.,

vol. clxvii. pp. 117-135, pis. ii., iii., 1877.

On New Forms of Actiniaria dredged in the Deep Sea; with a Description of certain Pelagic Surface-
swimming Species. Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Zool.), ser. 2, vol. i. pp. 295-305, pi. xlv., 1877.

On two New Forms of Deep-Sea Ascidians obtained during the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger. Trans.

Linn. Soc. Lond. (Zool.), ser. 2, vol. i. pp. 287-294, pi. xliv., 1877.

On the Colouring Matters of various Animals, especially of Deep-Sea Forms, dredged by H.M.S. Challenger.

Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., N. S., vol. xvii. pp. 1-23, pis. i. and ii., 1877.

On the Inhabitants of the Admiralty Islands. Journ. Antkrop. Inst., vol. vi. pp. 379-425,

pis. xx.-xxiii., 1877.

On the Structure of the Stylasteridse, a Family of Hydroid Stony Corals. The Croonian Lecture. Phil.

Trans., vol. clxix. pp. 425-503, pis. xxxiv.-xliv., 1878.

Notes by a Naturalist on the Challenger. London, 1879.

Deep-Sea Dredging and Life in the Deep Sea. Nature, vol. xxii. pp. 543-547, 569-572, and 591-593,

1880.

Report on the Corals. Zool. Chall. Exp., part vii., 1882.

Pelagic Life, an Address at the Southampton meeting of the British Association. Nature, vol. xxvi.

p. 559, 1882.

Physiology of the Deep Sea, Presidential Address to the Biological Section of the British Association

at Montreal, 1884. Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1884; and Nature, vol. xxx. p. 425, 1884.

Murray, John, On Oceanic Deposits examined on board H.M.S. Challenger. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., vol. xxiv.
pp. 471-532, .1876.

On Surface Organisms and their Relation to Ocean Deposits. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., vol. xxiv:

pp. 532-537, 1876.

Preliminary Report on Vertebrates. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., vol. xxiv. pp. 537-544, 1876.

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

135

1000

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Murray, John, On the Distribution of Volcanic Debris over the Floor of the Ocean, &c. Proc. Roy. Soc.
Eclin., vol. ix. pp. 247-261, 1877.

— The Cruise of the Challenger (Lectures 1 and 2) — Manchester Science Lectures, 1877.

— On the Structure and Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. x. pp. 505-518, 1880.

Introductory Note to the Report on the Deep-Sea Temperature Observations of Ocean "Water, taken by

the Officers of the Expedition. Phys. Chem. Chall. Exp., part iii., 1884.

Editorial Notes to Zoological Series of Challenger Reports in vols. iv. to xi.

Editorial Note to vol. ii. of Narr. Chall. Exp.

Editorial Note to Phys. Chem. Chall. Exp., vol. i.

Article “Norwegian Sea,” Encyd. Brit., vol. xvii. pp. 592-594, 9th ed. Edinburgh, 1884.

Article “Pacific Ocean,” Encyd. Brit. , vol. xviii. pp. 114-129, 9th ed. Edinburgh, 1885.

Murray, John, and Abbe A. Renard, On the Microscopical Characters of Volcanic Ashes and Cosmic Dust,
and their Distribution in Deep-Sea Deposits. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xii. pp. 474-495, 1884. Bull.
Mus. roy. hist. nat. Belgique, t. iii. pp. 1-23, 1884.

On the Nomenclature, Origin, and Distribution of Deep-Sea Deposits. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xii.

pp. 495-529, 1884. Bull. Mus. roy. hist. nat. Belgique, t. iii. pp. 24-62, 1884.

Nares, Capt. Sir G. S., R.N., K.C.B., Series of Reports to the Hydrographer of the Admiralty, Nos. 1, 2, 3,
1873-74.

Naval Officers of H.M.S. Challenger —

Magnetical Instructions for the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger. Narr. Chall. Exp., vol. ii. pp. 9-22,
1882.

Abstract of Magnetical Observations made during the Voyage. Narr. Chall. Exp., vol. ii. pp. 23-44,
1882.

Abstract of Magnetical Observations made at Land Stations, prefaced with Descriptive References to
the Positions (Observation Spots) of the Instruments. Narr. Chall. Exp., vol. ii. pp. 45-73,1882.
Abstract of Variations of the Compass observed at Sea. Narr. Chall. Exp., vol. ii. pp. 74-99, 1882.
Abstract of Observations with Fox Circles. Narr. Chall. Exp., vol. ii. pp. 100-273, 1882.

Tables of Corrections for Observations made at Sea. Narr. Chall. Exp., vol. ii. pp. 274-299, 1882.
Norman, Rev. A. M., D.C.L., On the Willemoesia Group of Crustacea. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5,
vol. ii. pp. 382-385, 1878.

The Fauna of the Greatest Abysses of all Oceans. Trans. Nat. Plist. Soc. Northcl. and Durham,

vol. viii. part i., 1883.

Oliver, Prof. D., F.L.S., F.R.S., List of Plants collected byH. N. Moseley, M.A., in Kerguelen’s Land, Marion
Island, and Yong Island. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bond. (Botany), vol. xiv. pp. 389, 390, 1875.

O’Meara, Rev. E., M.A., On the Diatomaceous Gatherings made at Kerguelen’s Land by H. N. Moseley, M.A.

Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany), vol. xv. pp. 55-59, pi. i., 1876.

Pagenstecher, Dr. H. A., Ueber die Thiere der Tiefsee. Die Samml. gemeinv&i'stdndl. wissensch. Vortrdge,
Heft 315 und 316, 1879.

Parker, Prof. W. K., F.Z.S., F.R.S., Report on the Development of the Green Turtle. Zool. Chall. Exp.,
part v., 1880.

Pol^jaeff, Dr. N., Report on the Calearea. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxiv., 1883.

Report on the Keratosa. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxxi., 1884.

Poulton, E. B., M.A., The Tongue of Perameles nasuta, with some Suggestions as to the Origin of Taste Bulbs.
Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., N, S., vol. xxiii. pp. 1-20, pi. i., 1883.

On the Tongues of the Marsupialia. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., pp. 599-628, pis. liv., lv., 1883.

Quelch, J. J., B.Sc., Preliminary Notice of new Genera and Species of Challenger Reef-Corals, Part I. Ann,
and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. xiii, pp. 292-297, 1884.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1061

Reichenbach, Prof. H. G., On some Orchidaceae collected by Mr. H. N. Moseley of the Challenger in the
Admiralty Islands, Ternate, and Cape York. J ourn. Linn. Soc. Load. (Botany), vol. xv. p. 112, 1876.
Kenard, Abbe A., Report on the Petrology of St. Paul’s Rocks. Narr. Chall. Exp., vol. ii. App. B, 1882.
Renard, Abbe A., and John Murray (see above).

Richards, Sir G. H., Knt., Vice-Admiral, C.B., E.R.S., Magnetical Instructions for the Voyage of H.M.S.
Challenger. Narr. Chall. Exp., vol. ii. pp. 8, 9, 1882.

Salvadori, Count T., C.M.Z.S., Birds of Ternate, Amboyna, Banda, Ki, and Arrou Islands. Proc. Zool.
Soc. Lond., pp. 78-100, 1878.

Report on the Birds collected in Ternate, Amboyna, Banda, the Ki Islands, and the Arrou Islands.

Zool. Chall. Exp., part viii., 1880.

Salvin, 0., M.A., F.R.S., On the ProGellariidse collected by H.M.S. Challenger. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.
pp. 735-740, 1878.

Report on the Procellariidse. Zool. Chall. Exp., part viii., 1880.

Sars, Prof. G. O., Preliminary Notices of the Schizopoda of H.M.S. Challenger Expedition. Forhandl. Vidensli.
Selsk. Christiania, No. 7, pp. 1-43, 1883.

Saunders, H., F.Z.S., On the Laridse collected by H.M.S. Challenger. Proc. Zool. Sue. Lond., pp. 794—
800, 1877.

Report on the Laridse. Zool Chall. Exp., part viii., 1880.

Sclater, P. L., Ph.D., F.R.S., General Report on Birds collected by H.M.S. Challenger. Proc. Zool. Soc.
Lond., pp. 534-551, 1877.

— Birds of the Admiralty Islands. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., pp. 551-557, 1877.

Birds of the Sandwich Islands. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., pp. 346-351, 1878.

Birds of the Atlantic Islands and Kerguelen Island, and on the Miscellaneous Collections. Proc. Zool.

Soc. Lond., pp. 576-579, 1878.

Sclater, P. L., Ph.D., F.R.S., and O. Salvin, M.A., F.R.S., Birds of Antarctic America. Proc. Zool. Soc.
Loncl., pp. 431-438, 1878.

On the Steganopodes and Impennes. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., pp. 650-655, 1878.

Report on the Birds of the Admiralty Islands. Zool. Chall. Exp., part viii., 1880.

Report on the Birds collected in the Sandwich Islands. Zool. Chall. Exp., part viii., 1880.

List of the Eggs collected during the Expedition. Zool. Chall. Exp., part viii., 1880.

Report on the Birds collected in Antarctic America. Zool. Chall. Exp., part viii., 1880.

Report on the Steganopodes and Impennes. Zool, Chall. Exp., part viii., 1880.

Sladen, W. Percy, F.L.S., Preliminary Report on the Asteroidea of H.M.S. Challenger Expedition. Part I
Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Zool.), vol. xvi. pp. 189-246, 1882; Part II., Ibid., vol. xvii. pp. 214-269,
1883.

Smith, E. A., F.Z.S., Land and Fresh Water Mollusca collected by H.M.S. Challenger. Proc. Zool. Soc
Lond., pp. 258-281, 1884.

Spry, W. J. J., R.N., The Cruise of H.M.S. Challenger. London, 1876. German Translation by
H. v. Wobeser, Leipzig, 1877.

Stirton, Dr. T., Enumeration of Lichens from the Islands of the Atlantic. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Botany)
vol. xiv. pp. 366-375, 1875 ; vol. xvii. pp. 152-157, 1878.

Suhm, R. VON Willemoes, Ph.D., Challenger Briefe an C. Th. E. von Siebold. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool.
vols. xxiii.-xxix., 1873-77. Nach dem Tode des' Verfassers herausgegeben von seiner Mutter. Leipzig,
1877.

On a Land Nemertean found at the Bermudas. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. xiii. pp.

409-411, pi. xvii., 1874.

1 062

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER

Suhm, R. von Willemoes, Ph.D., Note on some Young Stages of Umbellularia and on its Geographical Dis-
tribution. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. xv. pp. 312-315, pi. xviii. a, 1875.

Observations made during the Earlier Part of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger. ■ The Atlantic. —

Surface of the Atlantic. — Islands of the Atlantic. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., vol. xxiv. pp. 569-585, 1876.

— - On Crustacea observed during the Cruise of H.M.S. Challenger in the Southern Sea. Proc. Roy. Soc.

Lond., vol. xxiv. pp. 585-592, 1876.

On the Development of Lepas fascicularis and the Archizoea of Cirripedia. Phil. Trans., vol. elxvi.

pp. 131-154, pis. x. —xv. , 1876.

Preliminary Note on the Development of some Pelagic Decapods. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., vol. xxiv.

pp. 132-134, 1876.

-W On some Atlantic Crustacea from the Challenger Expedition. Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Zool.),

ser. 2, vol. i. pp. 23-59, pis. vi.-xv., 1878.

On a Crustacean Larva, at one time supposed to be the Larva of Limulus. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,

N. S., vol. xxiii. pp. 145-150, pi. vii., 1883.

Tait, Prof. P. G., M.A., Sec. R.S.E., Report on the Pressure Errors of the Challenger Thermometers.

Narr. Chall. Exp., vol. ii., Appendix A, 1882. Abstract in Nature, vol. xxv. pp. 90-93, 127-130, 1882.
On the Crushing of Glass by Pressure. Ibid., p. 204, 1881.

On the Temperature Changes due to Compression. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xi. p. 217, 1881.

On the Lowering of the Maximum Density point of Water by Pressure. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xi.

.p. 813 ; vol. xii. pp. 45, 226, 1882-83.

On the Compressibility of Water, Sea Water, and Alcohol, at High Pressures. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin.,

vol. xii. p. 223, 1883.

Theel, Dr. H., Preliminary Report on the Holothurioidea of the Exploring Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger, Part I.
Biliang till K. Svensk. Vetensk.-Akcid. Handl. Stockholm, Bd. v., pp. 3-20, pis. i., ii., 1879.

Report on the Holothurioidea. — Part I. The Elasipoda. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xiii., 1881.

Thomson, Sir C.'Wyville, LL.D., F.R.S., The Challenger Expedition. Nature, vol. vii. pp. 385-388, 1873.

Notes from the Challenger. Nature, vol. viii. pp. 28, 51, 109, 246, 347, 400, 1873.

Challenger Letters. Good Words, 1873-74.

Xhe Challenger in the South Atlantic. Nature, vol. x. pp. 142-144, 1874.

— Preliminary Notes on the Nature of the Sea-bottom. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., vol. xxiii. p. 32, 1874.
The Challenger Expedition. Nature, vol. xi. pp. 95, 116, 287, 1875.

The Work of the Challenger. Nature, vol. xiii. pp. 70-72, 1876.

— Series of Reports to the Hydrographer of the Admiralty. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., vol. xxiii.
pp. 245-250, 1874; vol. xxiv. pp. 623-636, 1876.

— Notice of New Living Crinoids belonging to the Apiocrinidee. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Zool.),

vol. xiii. pp. 47-55, 1876.

Notes on some Peculiarities in the Mode of Propagation of certain Echinoderms of the Southern Sea.

Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Zool.), vol. xiii. pp. 55-79, 1876.

— : On the Structure and Relations of the Genus Holopus. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. ix. pp. 405-410,

1876-77.

The Voyage of the Challenger, The Atlantic, in 2 vols. London, 1877.

General Introduction to the Zoological Series of Reports of the Voyage of the Challenger, 1880.

Thomson, Capt. E. T., R.N., Continuation of Reports to the Hydrographer of the Admiralty. Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7,
1875-76.

Tizard, Staff-Commander T. II., R.N., Remarks on Deep-Sea Temperatures, &c., embodied in the above
Reports to Hydrographer.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1063

Tizard, Staff-Commander T. IT., R.N., The Challenger Expedition. On the Methods adopted in Sounding
and Dredging. Naval Science, p. 409. London, 1873.

Memorandum on the Meteorological Observations made during the Voyage. Narr. Chall. Exp., vol. ii.

pp. 300-304, 1882.

Abstract of Meteorological Observations. Narr.' Chall. Exp., vol. ii. pp. 305-744, 1882.

Turner, Prof. W., LL.D., E.R.S., Report on the Bones of Cetacea. Zool. Chall. Exp., part, iv., 1880.

On the Crania of the Admiralty Islanders. Abstract in Trans. Interned. Meet. Gongr., vol. i.

p. 146, 1881 ; and Jonrn. Anat. and Pliys., vol. xvi. p. 135, 1882.

Report on the Human Skeletons collected during the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger. — Part I. The Crania.

Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxix., 1884.

Tweeddale, Arthur, Marquis op, F.R.S., Birds of the Philippine Islands. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lend., pp. 535-
551, 1877.

Report on the Birds collected in the Philippine Islands. Zool. Chall. Exp., part viii., 1880.

Waterhouse, C. O., Coleoptera collected during the Expedition of H.M.S. Challenger. Ann. and Mag. Nat.
Hist., ser. 5, vol. xiii. pp. 276-284, 1884.

Watson, Rev. R. Boog, F.R.S.E., Preliminary Report on Mollusea of H.M.S. Challenger Expedition,
Pts. I. -XVIII. Journ. Linn. Soc. Land. (Zool.), vols. xiv.-xvii.', 1877-83.

Watson, Prof. M., M.D., F.R.S., Report on the Anatomy of the Spheniscidae. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xviii.,
1883.

White, F. Buchanan, M.D., F.L.S., Report on the Pelagic Hemiptera. Zool. Chall. Exp., part xix., 1883.
Wild, J. J., Thalassa — An Essay on the Depth, Temperature, and Currents of the Ocean. London, 1877.
At Anchor. London, 1878.

APPENDIX VII

LIST OF EE POETS ON THE SCIENTIFIC EESULTS OF THE EXPEDITION.

PUBLISHED REPORTS.

General Introduction to the Zoological Series of Eeports. Zoology, VoL I., 1880.
By Sir C. Wyville ThOmson, Knt., LL.D., F.E.S., Y.P.E.S.E.

Eeport on the Brachiopoda. Zoology, Vol. I. part i., 1880.

By Thomas Davidson, F.E.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Y.P.P.S.

Eeport on the Pennatulida. Zoology, Vol. I. part ii., 1880.

By Professor Albert v. Kolliker, F.M.E.S., Hon. F.E.S.E.

Eeport on the Gstracoda. Zoology, Vol. I. part iii., 1880.

By G. Stewardson Brady, M.D., F.E.S., F.L.S.

Eeport on the Bones of Cetacea. Zoology, Vol. I. part iv., 1880.

By Professor William Turner, LL.D., M.B., F.E.SS. L. and E.

Eeport on the Development of the Green Turtle. Zoology, Vol. I. part v., 1880,

By Professor William Kitchen Parker, F.E.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S.

Eeport on the Shore Fishes. Zoology, Vol. I. part vi., 1880.

By Albert Gunther, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.E.S., V.P.Z.S., F.L.S,

Eeport on the Corals. Zoology, Vol. II. part, vii., 1880.

By Professor H. N. Moseley, M.A., F.E.S, F.Z.S., F.L.S.

Eeport on the Birds. Zoology, Vol. II. part viii., 1880.

a. On the Birds collected in the Philippine Islands.

By Arthur, Marquis of Tweeddale, F.E.SS. L. and E., P.Z.S., F.L.S.

/3. On the Birds collected in the Admiralty Islands.

By P. L. Sclater M.A. Ph D., F.E.S., Sec. Z.S., F.L.S.

1066

THE VOYAGE OP H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

7. On the Birds collected in Tongatabu, the Fiji Islands, Api (New Hebrides), and Tahiti.
By Dr. 0. Finsch, C.M.Z.S.

5. On the Birds collected in Ternate, Amboyna, Banda, the Ki Islands, and the Arrou

Islands.

By Count Thomaso Salvadori, M.D., C.M.Z.S.

e. On the Birds collected at Cape York, Australia, and at the Neighbouring Islands
(Raine, Wednesday, and Booby Islands).

By W. A. Forbes, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.

£ On the Birds collected in the Sandwich Islands.

By P. L. Sclater, M.A., Ph.D., F.E.S., Sec. Z.S., F.L.S.

1 7. On ti-ie Birds collected in Antarctic America.

By P. L. Sclater, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Sec. Z.S., F.L.S., and Osbert Salvin, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.Z.S., F.L.S.

6. On the Birds collected at the Atlantic Islands, and Kerguelen Island, and on the

Miscellaneous Collections.

By P. L. Sclater, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Sec. Z.S., F.L.S.

1. On the Steganopodes and Impennes.

By P. L. Sclater, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Sec. Z.S., F.L.S., and Osbert Salvin, M.A., F.E.S.
F.Z.S., F.L.S.

k. On the Faridas.

By Howard Saunders, F.Z.S. , F.L.S.

X. On the Procellariidje.

By Osbert Salvin, M.A., F.B.S., F.Z.S., F.L.S.

/x. List of the Eggs collected.

By P. L. Sclater, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Sec. Z.S., F.L.S.

v. Note on the Gizzard and other Organs of Carpophaga latrans.

By A. H. Garrod, M.A., F.E.S., F.Z.S.

Report on the Echinoidea. Zoology, Vol. ITI. part ix., 1881.

By Alexander Agassiz.

Report on the Pycnogonida. Zoology, Vol III. part x., 1881.

By Dr. P. P. C. Hoek, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of the Netherlands.

narrative of the cruise.

1067

Report on the Anatomy of the Petrels. Zoology, Vol. IV. part xi., 1882.

By W. A. Forbes, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.

Report on the Deep-Sea Medusa. Zoology, Vol. IV. part xii., 1881.

By Professor Ernst Haeckel, M.D., Ph.D.

Report on the Holothurioidea. Part I. — The Elasipoda. Zoology, Vol. IV. part xiii., 1881.

By Dr. Hjalmar Theel.

Report on the Ophiuroidea. Zoology, Vol. V. part xiv., 1882.

By Theodore Lyman.

Report on the Marsupialia. Zoology, Vol. V. part xvi., 1881.

By Professor D. J. Cunningham, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.C.S,

Magnetical Results. Narrative, Vol. II., 1882.

By Commander Macleah, R.N. ; Lieutenant Bromley, R.N. ; Staff-Commander Tizard, R.N. ;
and Staff-Commander E. W. Creak, R.N. ; with Instructions and Memorandum prepared
under the Superintendence of the Hydrographer of the Admiralty.

Meteorological Observations. Narrative, Vol. II., 1882.

By Staff-Commander Tizard, R.N., assisted by the other Naval Officers.

Report on the Pressure Errors of the Challenger Thermometers. Narrative, Vol. II.
Appendix A., 1882.

By Professor P. G. Tait, M.A., Sec. R.S.E.

Report on the Petrology of St. Paul’s Rocks. Narrative, Vol. II., Appendix B., 1882.

By Professor A. Renard, LL.D., F.G.S.

Report on the Actiniaria. Zoology, Vol. VI. part xv., 1882.

By Professor Richard Hertwig.

Report on the Tunicata. Part I.— The Ascidle Simplices. Zoology, Vol. VI. part xvii., 1882.
By Professor W. A Herdman, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

Report on the Anatomy of the Sphenischle. Zoology, Vol. VII. part xviii., 1883.

By Professor Morrison Watson, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.Z.S.

Report on the Pelagic Hemiptera. Zoology, Vol. VII. part xix., 1883.

By F. Buchanan White, M.D., F.L.S.

Report on the Hydroida. Part I. — The Plumularidal Zoology, Vol. VII. part xx., 1883.

By Professor G. J. Allman, M.D., LL.D., F.R.SS. L. and E., M.R.I.A., V.P.L.S.

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

136

1068

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Report on the Specimens of the Genus Orbitolites. Zoology, VoL VII. part xxi., 1883.

By W. B. Carpenter, C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., V.P.L.S.

Report on the Copepoda. Zoology, Vol. VIII. part xxiii., 1883.

By G. Stewardson Brady, M.D., F.B.S., F.L.S.

Report on the Calcarea. Zoology, Vol. VIII. part xxiv., 1883.

By Dr. N. Pol£jaeff.

Report on the Cirripedia. Systematic Part. Zoology, Vol. VIII. part xxv., 1883.

By Dr. P. P. C. Hoek, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of the Netherlands.

Report on the Cirripedia. Anatomical Part. Zoology, Vol. X. part, xxviii., 1884.

By Dr. P. P. C. Hoek, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of the Netherlands.

Report on Researches into the Composition of Ocean-Water. Physics and Chemistry, Vol. I.
part i., 1884.

By Professor W. Dittmar, F.R.SS. L. and E.

Report on the Specific Gravity of Samples of Ocean-Water. Physics and Chemistry, Vol. I.
part, ii., 1884.

By J. Y. Buchanan, M.A., F.R.S.E.

Report on the Deep-Sea Temperature Observations of Ocean-Water. Physics and Chemistry,
Vol. I. part iii., 1884.

By the Officers of the Expedition.

Report on the Foraminifera. Zoology, Vol. IX. part xxii., 1884.

By H. B. Brady, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.

Report on the Nudibranchiata. Zoology, Vol. X., part xxvi., 1884.

By Dr. Rudolph Bergh.

Report on the Myzostomida. Zoology, Vol. X. part xxvii., 1884.

By Professor Ludwig von Graff.

Report on the Human Skeletons. Part I. — The Crania. Zoology, Vol. X. part xxix., 1884.

By Professor William Turner, LL.D., M.B., F.R.SS. L. and E.

Report on the Polyzoa. Part I. — The Cheilostomata. Zoology, Vol. X. part xxx., 1884.

By George Busk, F.R.S., V.P.L.S., F.G.S., F.RC.S.

Report on the Keratosa. Zoology, Vol. XI. part xxxi., 1884.
By Dr. N. PolLjaeff.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1069

Report on the Crinoidea. Part I. — General Morphology, with Descriptions of the Stalked
Crinoids. Zoology, Vol. XL part xxxii., 1884.

By P. H. Carpenter, M.A., D.So.

Report on the Isopoda. Part I. — The Genus Serolis. Zoology, Vol. XI. part xxxiii., 1884.

By F. E. Beddard, M.A., F.Z.S., F.R.S.E., M.B.O.U.

The Narrative of the Cruise. Vol. I., 1884-1885.

By Staff-Commander T. H. Tizard, R.N.,' F.R.G.S. ; Professor H. N. Moseley, M.A., F.R.S.,
LL.D., F.Z.S., F.L.S.; J. Y. Buchanan, M.A., F.R.S.E.; and John Murray, Ph.D.,
V.P.R.S.E., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S.

Report on the Botany of the Expedition (except the Diatomaceee). Botany, Vol. I., 1885.

Part I. — Report on The Botany of the Bermudas.

Part II. — Report on the Botany of St. Paul’s Rocks, Fernando Noronha, Ascen-
sion, St. Helena, South Trinidad, Tristan da Cunha, Prince Edward
and Marion Islands, The Crozets, Kerguelen, M'Donald, and Heard
Islands, St. Paul and Amsterdam Islands.

Part III. — Report on the Botany of Juan Fernandez and Masafuera, the South-
eastern Moluccas, and the Admiralty Islands.

By W. Botting Hemsley, A.L.S.

REPORTS IN PROGRESS.

(The years in which it is expected the Reports will be issued from the Press are in
some instances stated after the names of the Reports.)

Report on the Actiniaria (Supplementary Memoir), (in 1886).

By Professor Richard Hertwig.

Report on the Chitonidze (in 1885).

By Professor A. C. Haddon, M.A., F.Z.S.

Report on the Tunicata. Part II. — The Ascidle Composite (in 1885).

By Professor W. A. Herdman, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

Report on the Diatomace^e (in 1885).

By Conte Abate Francesco, C astra cane Degli Antelminelli.

1070

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Report on the Macrura (in 1885).

By C. Spence Bate, F.R.S., F.L.S.

Report on the Tetractinellida (in 1885).

By Professor W. J. Sollas, M.A., F.R.S.E.

Report on the Holothurioidea. Part IT. (in 1885).

By -Dr. Hjalmar Theel.

Report on the Genus Spirula (in 1885).

By Professor Thomas Henry Huxley, P.R.S., LL.D., Ph.D., F.Z.S., F.L.S.

Report on the Annelida (in 1885).

By W. C. MTntosh, M.D., LL.D., F.R.SS. L. and E., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S.

Report on the Asteroidea (in 1885).

By W. Percy Sladen, F.L.S., F.G.S.

Report on the Alcyonaria (except the Pennatulida) (in 1885).

By Professor E. Perceval Wright, A.M., M.D., Sec. R.I.A., F.L.S.

Report on the Radiolaria (in 1885).

By Professor Ernst Haeckel, M.D., Ph.D.

Report on the Deep-Sea Fishes (in 1885).

By Albert GUnther, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.Z.S., F.L.S.

Report on the Lamellibranchiata (in 1885).

By Edgar A. Smith, F.Z.S.

Report on the Marine Mammalia (in 1885).

By Professor William Turner, LL.D., M.B., F.R.SS. L. and E.

Report on the/ Gephyrea (in 1885).

By Professor E. Selenka.

Report on the Schizopoda, Cumacea, and Phyllocarida (in 1885).

By Professor G. 0. Sars.

Report on the Reef Corals (in 1885).

By John J. Quelch, B.Sc.

Report on the Scaphopoda and Gasteropoda (in 1885).

By the Rev. R. Boog Watson, F.R.S.E., F.L.S., F.G.S., and Leopold, Marquis de Folin.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1071

Report on the Hydroida. Part IT. (in 1886).

By Professor G. J. Allman, M.D., LL.D., F.R.SS. L. and E„ M.R.I.A, V.P.L.S.

Report on the Crinoidea. Part II. — The CoMATULiDiE (in 1886).

By P. H. Carpenter, M.A., D.Sc.

Report on the HexactineLlida (in 1886).

By Professor F. E. Schulze.

Report on the Siphonophora (in 1887).

By Professor Ernst Haeckel, M.D., Ph.D.

Report on the Deep-Sea Deposits (in 1886).

By John Murray and Professor A. Renard, L.L.D., F.G.S.

Report on the Meteorological Observations as bearing on Oceanic Circulation.
By Professor P. G. Tait, M.A., Sec. RS.E., and Alexander Buchan, M.A.. F.R.S.E.

Report on the Monaxonida.

By S. 0. Ridley, M.A., F.L.S.

Report on the Brachyura (in 1886).

By E. J. Miers, F.L.S., F.Z.S.

Report on the Amphipoda.

By the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing.

Report on the Stomatopoda.

By Professor W. K. Brooks, Ph.D.

Report on the Tunicata. Part III. — The Pelagic Tunicata.

By Professor W. A. Herdman, D.Sc., F.E.S.E., F.L.S.

Report on the Anomura.

By J. R. Henderson, M.B., C.M.

Report on the Pteropoda and Heteropoda.

By A. E. Craven, F.Z.S., F.L.S., E.G.S.

Report on the Isopoda. Part II. (in 1885).

By F. E. Beddard, M.A., F.Z.S., F.R.S.E., M.B.O.U.

Report on the Cephalopoda (except Spirula ) (in 1885).

By W. E. Hoyle, M.A., M.R.C.S., F.R.S.E

1072

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Report on the Marseniadj5 and Piiilinidhl
By Dr. Rudolph Bergh.

Report on the Nemertea (in 1886).

By Professor A. A. W. Hubrecht.

Report on the Chaetognatha.

By Professor B. Grassi.

Report on the Anatomy of the Deep-Sea Mollusc a.

By

Report on Various Surface Organisms.

By

Concluding Part with Index.

By the Editor of the Reports.

APPENDIX VIII.

LETTERS addressed by the Admiralty to the Captain of H.M.S. Challenger
and the Director of the Civilian Scientific Staff after the arrival of
the Expedition in England.

Admiralty, 8th July 1876.

“ Sir,— The Hydrographer of the Admiralty having reported to their Lordships the result of his examina-
tion of the documents, &c., hearing on the Scientific Investigations made in H.M.S. Challenger during her late
cruise, I am commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to convey to you the expression of
their entire satisfaction at the manner in which the various services in connection with deep-sea exploration,
&c., were carried out on board that vessel, and to the intelligent interest in the ship’s proceedings exhibited by
the officers and men, which so greatly contributed to the complete success of the Expedition.

“ 2. Their Lordships’ highest commendation is due to the patient care and unremitting attention which has
been given to the special points of Scientific Inquiry throughout the late voyage of that vessel, and the expres-
sion of their marked approval will be communicated to the officers concerned, through the Commander-in-Chief
at Sheerness.

“ 3. It is also a source of great satisfaction to their Lordships that the Challenger never once touched the
ground during the whole period of her late Commission, although she passed through many very imperfectly
known parts of the ocean.

“ 4. My Lords regret that, owing to the examination of the Reports and Records received from the
Challenger not having been completed, their approval of the able services of the officers, and the zealous
conduct of the men, could not be conveyed before the ship was paid off.

“ I am, &c.,

“ Robert Hall.

Captain Thomson, R.N.”

14 th June 1876.

“ Sir, — I am commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to acquaint you that they
embrace the opportunity of the Challenger being paid off, and the large collections in Natural History made
under your direction being safely deposited in this country preparatory to their final disposal, to convey to you
their great satisfaction at the success which has attended this novel and interesting Expedition carried on in one
of Her Majesty’s ships for the furtherance of Scientific Knowledge.

“ 2. Their Lordships have noted from time to time throughout the whole of the voyage of the Challenger
the great interest that has been taken in it by Scientific" Men of this and other countries, and now that the con-
nection between the Admiralty and the Expedition from a nautical point of view has ceased, I am desired
by their Lordships to assure you that the development of the labours of yourself and staff during the period of
the voyage will still be watched and appreciated by them with undiminished interest, and their Lordships will
be at all times ready to exert their influence for promoting the ultimate objects of the undertaking.

“ 3. I am further to request you will convey their Lordships’ views to the several gentlemen associated
with you during the voyage.

“ I am, Sir,

“ Your obedient Servant,

“Robert Hall.

“ Professor Wyville Thomson.”

INDEX

Abbott, W. J., 19.

Aborigines, Australian, at Browera Creek,
460 ; at Cape York, account of, 536 ;
camp of, 536 ; clothing of, 537 ; habit
of hiding property, 538 ; ideas of, con-
cerning death, 539 ; implements of,
538 ; language of, 538 ; late rising of,
540 ; savage cooking of, 539 ; short
memory of, 539 ; weapons of, 538.

d’Abreu, Antonio, at Banda, 561.

Abrolhos Island, 237, 960.

Abrolhos Island to Tristan da Cunha, 237.

Abyssascidia, 165.

Acacia, 184, 534 ; A. albida, 184 ; A. Icon,
760, 766.

Accena, 355 ; A. adscendens, 299 ; A. san-
guisorbce, 257.

Acanella, 692.

Acantharia, 222.

Acanthascus, 451.

Acanthocladium, 751.

Acanthocyclus gayi, 591.

Acanthometra, 224, 748.

Acanthophis antarctica, 536.

Acanthophractse, 224.

Acantliopterygians, 906.

Acanthozone tricarinata, 621.

Acasta, 854.

Accessible Bay, 333, 334, 389 ; gale off,
336 ; squall off, 334.

Accumulators, 41, 61.

Aceste, 200 ; A. bellidifera, 174, 775.

Acetes, 527.

Achnanthes, 930.

Acineta, 126, 218, 933.

Acridium, 186, 530.

Acrostichum aureum, 143.

Actceon, 897.

Acteonina, 897

Actinia, 574, 758.

Actiniaria, account of the, 574.

Adinometra, geographical and bathymetri-
cal distribution of, 310 ; parasites on,
541.

Actinometra, 310, 541 ; A. julcesi, 316 ;
A. pulchella, 310 ; A. strata , 316, 541.
(narr. CHALL. EXP. VOL. I. — 18‘

Acura, 219.

Adamastor, 325.

Adansonia digitata, 189.

Adder’s-tongue Fern, 704.

“Adelaide,” the, 868, 869.

Adelie Land, 416, 417.

Admiralty, Letters from, 21, 22, 1073.

Admiralty Islands, 496, 541, 666, 687, 696,
750, 943, 988, 1002.

Admiralty Islands, adzes of, 716; Brachyura
at, 590 ; canoes at, 714 ; climate of,
703 ; club houses at, 724 ; colour of
natives at, 708 ; crania at, 730 ;
description of, 699, 703 ; domestic
animals at, 728 ; dress at, 709 ;
dugong skulls at, 725 ; dwelling
houses at, 714 ; fishing nets and fish
hooks at, 715, 716 ; flora of, 945 ; food
of natives of, 712, 713 ; hair of natives
of, 708 ; history of, 697 ; lances of,
728 ; measurements of natives of, 707 ;
methods of native expression at, 707 ;
musical instruments at, 722 ; natives
at, 705 ; numerals at, 706 ; ornaments
at, 709, 710, 711, 727 ; pigs’ skulls at,
724, 728 ; porpoise skulls at, 725 ;
pottery at, 713 ; spears at, 717, 718 ;
tattooing at, 71 1 ; timidity of natives
at, 726, 728 ; turtle skulls at, 722,
724 ; wood carving at, 720.

Admiralty Islands to Japan, 734.

Admiralty worm, 761.

Adriaanz, Capt., 49.

“Adventure,” H.M.S., 638, 825, 867
875, 886.

Adzes, 483, 500, 716.

AEga spongiophila, 651.

ASgina, 619.

AEgine.lla, 619.

yEolian rocks, 137.

AEolidella occidentals, 136.

Aeipetes, 325.

Aerope, 200.

African coast, depths along, 194 ; deposits
off, 194.

Agajo, 652.

>■)

Agamidse,j489.

Agaricia fragilis, 145, 146, 150.
Agaristidse, 581.

Agassiz, Alexander, liv, 174, 382, 386,
388, 569, 800 ; on the Echinoidea,
197, 1066 ; on Tornaria, 195.

Agassiz, Prof. Louis, xlvi, xlix, 791.
Agelacrinitidaj, 311.

Aglaophenia, 751 ; A. latecarinata, 136.
Agrion, 149, 186.

Agrostis magellanica, 356.

Agulhas Bank, 423 ; Brachyura on, 586 ;
deposits on, 289.

Agulhas Current, the, 275, 290, 423, 968 ;

soundings in, 423.

Aime, 95, 948.

Aime’s thermometers, 88.

Ainos, the, 706.

Air temperatures, see Temperature.

Akashi Strait, 747.

Akeno Misaki, 747.

“Alacrity,” H.M. Schooner, 699.

Alauna rostrata, xliii.

Albany Island, 540.

Albany Pass, 532, 541, 542.

Albatross, 294, 319, 324, 738, 787 ;

parasites on, 910.

Albatross, Sooty, 299 ; White, 294, 299 ;
Yellow Billed, 265.

Albino, at Fiji, 506 ; at St. Vincent, 188.
Alboquerque, Affonso, at Malacca, 561.
Alca impennis, 366.

Alcazora, Simon de, 873.

Alcidis aruus, 581.

Alciope, 170, 219, 436, 628 ; A. antarctica,
629 ; A. quadrioculata, 629.
Alcyonaria, account of the, 689 ; colonies
of, 517.

Alcyonium putridosum, 571.

Aldrich, Lieut. Pelham, 19, 20, 455, 456,
638.

Aldrich Channel, 342.

Alebion, 570, 572.

Alepas, 852.

Alepocephalidse, 907.

Alepocephalus niger, 521.

137

1076

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

“Alert,” H.M.S., 572, 869.

Alert Island, 862.

Aleurites triloba, 760.

Alexander Island, 416.

Algae, 176, 179, 184, 222, 436, 934.

Algae, in hot springs, 563, 654 ; on surface
of sea, 545.

Ali Bandang, 553.

Alima, 818.

Aliquay Island, 655.

Alkaline reaction of sea water, 973.

Allen, A. J., 19.

Alligators, 546.

Allman, Prof. G. J., 676, 934 ; on the
Hydroida, 136, 751, 1067, 1070.
Alloposus mollis, 272.

Alluvium at Tahiti, 781.

Almeida, Don Diego Duble, 871.

Alphceus, 136, 526 ; parasitic on Actino-
metra, 541 ; A. 'avarus, 526.
Alsophila tahitiensis, 785.

Altrices, 328.

Alveolina, 835.

Amalopteryx maritima, 356, 891.

Amathia agassizi, 589 ; A. pulehra, 589 ;

A. rissoana, 589.

Amhlau Island, 578.

Amblyops, 742.

Amblypneustes, 396.

Amhoina, 576, 577, 578, 592, 669 ;

Brachyura at, 588 ; description of,
576, 578 ; discovery of, 577 ; massacre
of, 578 ; rebellion of natives at, 578.
Amhoina to Ternate, 592.

Ambrym Island, 515.

Ameiva, 127.

“Amelia,” the, 735.

America Bay, 319.

Ammocharidse, 634.

Amoeba, 218.

Amorphina megalirrhapMs, 571.
Ampharetidse, 634.

Amphiblastula, 641.

Amphilectus challengeri, 570 ; A. eduiardi,
571.

Amphilepzs, 173.

Amphion, 219.

Amphioxus lanceolatus, 540.

Amphipoda, 743 ; account of the, 618.
Amphistegina, 214; A. lessonii, 186.
Amphithoe pelagica, 136.

Amphitretus pelagicus, 271.

Amphiura, 172 ; A. duplicata, 161 ; A.
verrilli, 161.

Amphoriscus, 570, 642; A. elongatus, 641 ;
A. poculum, 641.

Amsterdam Island, 943 ; flora of, 945.
Amussium pleuronedes, 626 ; A. watsoni,
626.

Amygdaloid, 349.

Analyses, of bones, 1034, 1036 ; of deposits,
1049 ; of glauconitic grains and casts,
468 ; of manganese nodules, 1042 ; of
olivine, 206 ; of red casts, 530 ; see
also Sea Water.

Anamixilla, 642.

Ananchytidse, 200.

Anas superciliosa, 497; A. wyvilliana, 766.

Anauayan Island, 623.

Anchorage, at Amhoina, 577, 580 ; at Ilo
Ilo, 622 ; at Juan Fernandez, 827 ; at
Wares Harbour, 702 ; Oldfield, 870 ; at
Port Churruca, 870 ; at Santa Cruz,
52 ; at Somerset, 533; at Tahiti, 777;
at Valparaiso, 842.

Anchorite Islands, 697.

Andamanese, the, 733.

Andania abyssi, 619 ; A. gigantea, 619 ;
A. nordlandica, 619 ; A. pectinata,
619.

Anemometers, 42.

Anemometer observations, general account
of, 1001 ; in Central Pacific, 773 ; in
Wares Harbour, 696 ; in W. Atlantic,
124 ; in W. Pacific, 734, 736, 755 ;
north of Papua, 679 ; near St. Paul’s
Rocks, 193 ; in S. Atlantic, 210, 216,
238, 276, 903, 910 ; in S. Pacific,
802, 849 ; in Southern Ocean, 290,
397, 409, 411.

Aneroids, 42 ; pocket, 42.

Angau Island, 492.

Angiopteris evecta, '785.

Anguilla, 147 ; A. aneitensis, 788 ; A.
mauritiana, 788.

Anilocra, parasitic on Actinometra, 541.

“Anna,” the, 822.

Annelid, parasitic on Actinometra, 541.

Annelida, account of the, 628.

Anolis, 127.

Anomura, account of the, 897.

Anosia leucogyne, 128.

Anous melanogenys, 204, 738 ; A. stolidus,
204, 529.

Anson, Commodore, 819, 822.

Ants, 128; deformity of plants due to, 580.

Ant-eater, supposed curative properties of
the, 231.

Ant-lion, 186.

“Antarctic,” the, 249, 250.

Antarctic, Circle, 428, 435 ; ice barrier,
deposits along, 435 ; islands, 362 ;
Ocean, 427, 968.

Antarctic region, Brachyura of, 587 ; de-
tailed description of cruise in, 396 ;
density of sea water in, 422 ; dredgings
within, xli, 437 ; table of density,
423 ; discoveries of land in, 416 ; ex-
peditions to, 415 ; iceberg first seen
in, 397 ; icy character of coast of,

Antarctic region —

416 ; limit to the navigable season in,
407 ; previous exploration of, 415 ;
surface density of sea in, 423 ; surface
organisms in, 436 ; table of tempera-
tures obtained in, 422.

Antarctic shores, explorers who have landed
on, 417.

Antarctic temperatures, 417.

Antedon, 306, 310, 669 ; A. anguslicalyx,
316 ; A. basicurva, 316, 317 ; A.
bidentata, 216 ; A. tncequalis, 316, 317 ;
A. incisa, 316 ; A. radiospina, 316 ;
A. rosacea, 315; A. triquetra, 317.
Antedonin, 541.

Antennarius, 136; A. marmoratus, 136;
nest of, 136.

Antheomorphe elegans, 757.

Anthozoa, 574, 793.

Anthuridae, 881.

Antipathes, 180, 757.

Anvil mountain, the, 826.

Aphrocallistes, 451.

Aphrodita, 630.

Aphroditaster, 612, 615.

Aphyonus gelatinosus, 521.

Api Island, 515, 681, 685, 708 ; bows at,
518 ; corals at, 517 ; description of
, natives at, 517 ; landing place at, 518 ;
ornaments at, 518 ; spiders at, 518.
Api to Raine Island and Cape York, 519.
Apiocrinidae, 306, 308.

Apium australe, 253, 257.

Aplin, Capt., 139.

Aplysia, 187.

Aplysilla, 643, 644.

Aplysina, 643, 644.

Apneumona, 280.

Apocremnus septemspinosus, 586.

Apoda, 276, 278, 280, 282; respiratory trees
in, 280.

Apostles Island, 319, 320.

Apparatus, carbonic acid, 15 ; chemical,
44 ; dredging and trawling, 72 ; glass,
43 ; laboratory, 44 ; sounding, 57 ;
Mr. Siemens’ photographic, 26.
Appendicularia, 219, 436, 639, 748.
Appias mindanensis, 666; A. poeyi(l), 128.
Apreanat, 821.

Aptenodytes, 363, 365 ; A. forsteri, 298 ;
A. longirostris, 296, 357, 365, 366 ;
A. taeniatus, 295, 357, 365.

Apterous flies, 892.

Apunan Point, 623.

Aquarium, plate glass, 9.

Arachnida, see Spiders.

Arafura Sea, 545, 588 ; soundings in, 544.
Araneidse, 187.

Arbaciadae, 198.

Area, 625 ; A. corpulenta, 626, 775.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1077

Archaster, 180, 390, 392; A. tenuispinus,
610 ; A. typicus, 610.

Archasteridae, 607, 612.

Archer, W., 179.

“Arcona,” the, 453.

Arctic Circle, 428.

Arctic Expedition, appointment of Captain
Hares to, 638.

Arctic Ocean, 49, 428.

Arctocephalus, 865 ; A. gazella, 355.

Arcturidae, 880.

Areca palm, 534, 535, 626, 703.

Arenga saccharifera, 598.

Ardea sacra, 497.

Ardeidae, 328.

Argiope, 490 ; A. argentata, 214 ; A.
darkvi, 187 ; A. decollata, 132.

“Argus,” H.M.S., 140.

Argyrodes, 490, 518 ; A. epeirce, 55, 56.

“Ariadne,” 139.

Aride Island, 319.

Aristeus, 527.

Aristotle, Lantern of, xxxii ; on Marine
Animals, xxxii ; on the sea, xxxi

Aroids, 517, 534.

Arorai Island, 661.

Arrou Islands, 543, 545, 552, 680, 685,
711 ; excursion to mainland, 549 ;
forests at, 547 ; ornaments at, 547.

Arrou Islands to Ki Islands, 552.

Arrows, 518, 549, 555 ; blunt, for shooting
Birds of Paradise, 549.

Arrowsmith, Mr., 868.

Arses insularis, 688.

Artamus leucopygialis, 535 ; A. melaleu-
cus, 518.

Artaxa simulans, 580.

Artema convexa, 187.

Artemise Bank, 776.

Aru, see Arrou.

Arum, 179.

Arundo donax, 177.

Ascaris, 129.

Ascension Island, 926, 963.

Ascension Island, Brachyura at, 586 ;
flora of, 944 ; land crabs at, 927 ;
method of landing at, 927 ; rocks at,
929 ; turtles at, 927.

Ascent, of mountains at Tahiti, 785 ; see
also Volcano.

Aschemonella, 836.

Ascidia, 165.

Ascidise Composite, 162, 1069 ; Simplices,
163, 1067.

Ascidians, 162, 898 ; account of the,
165 ; bathymetrical range of, 165 ;
geographical distribution of, 165 ;
pelagic, 1071.

Ascidiidae, 165.

Asclepiadaceae, 184, 517.

Ascon, 640.

Asconema, 450.

Asconematidae, 447, 450.

Asconematinse, 450.

Ascones, 639.

Asconidae, 640, 641, 643.

Ascopera, 165.

Ascopodaria, 671.

Ascorhynchus, 857, 858 ; A. glaber, 859.
Ashmore Banks, 531.

Asio brachyotus, 766.

Aspidochirotse, 278.

Aspidodiadema microtuberculatum, 833.
Aspidosiphon, 908.

Aspidura, 173.

Asplenium compressum, 944 ; A. marinum,
253 ; A. nidus, 785, 786 ; A. obtusa-
tum, 253.

Asteracanthion, 382 ; A. violaceus, 390.
Asteriadse, xliii.

Asterionelld formosa, 930.

Asteroidea, account of the, 607 ; characters
of abyssal, 618.

Astrcea, 146, 540, 565 ; A. ananas, 146 ;

A. coardata, 146.

Astraeidae, 540, 544, 564.

“Astrolabe,” the, 698.

Astropeden andromeda, 611.
Astropectinidae, 607.

Astrophiu/ra, 173.

Astrorhizidae, 836.

Astroschema brachiatum, 161.

Astura flitminalis, 490.

Atataa Island, 487.

Atelecrinus, 311, 313; A. balauoides, 311.
Athoracopliorus virgatus, 729.

Atlanta, 171, 219, 912, 919.

Atlantic, birds in the, 125 ; Brachyura of,

' 586 ; deepest part of, 134 ; density of
sea water in, 959 ; density of surface
water in, 962 ; deposits in, see Deposits;
ooze, xliv.

Atlas Cove, 372.

Atolla wyvillii, 603, 903.

Atretia gnomon, 131.

Atrypa, 893 ; A. hemispherica, 893 ; A.

palmata, 893.

Attus, 490.

Atya, 190.

Auchialus, 742.

Auckland Islands, 878.

Aulacantha, 225.

Aulascus, 450.

Aulocalyx, 451.

Auloclionen, 451.

Aulochoninae, 451.

Aulocystid®, 448, 451.

Aulocystis, 451.

Aulosphcera, 225.

Aurora, 403, 411 ; borealis, 158

Australia, 453, 968; Barrier Reef of, 519, 521.
Australian coast, deposits off, 467 ; dredg-
ings along, 469.

Australian aborigines, see Aborigines.
Australian race, 731; cranial characterof, 732.
Autolytus, 632.

Avari Sima, 747.

Avicula, 893.

Ayootai Harbour, 777.

Awadji Island, 747.

Axes at Humboldt Bay, 685.

Axinellidae, 572.

Axolielia dumetosa, 161.

Ayantau, Island, 862 ; Peak, 862.

Azorella, 294, 301, 355, 375; A. selago,
299, 889.

Azores, 175, 959 ; flood tide in vicinity of,
176 ; deposits off, 180.

Azores to Madeira, 179.

Aztecs, xxxvi.

Babi Island, 544.

Badajos, Commission of, 595.

Baffin Bay, xxxviii, 428 ; cold current from,

Baggage, modes of carrying, 783.

Baguala Bay, 578.

Baguey Point, 647.

Bahia, 210, 216, 898.

Bahia, Bay of, 227, 228; Brazilian ironclad
at, 227 ; butterflies off, 216 ; deposits
at, 236; dredgings at, 236; leaf-cutting
ants at, 236 ; sanitary arrangements
of, 227 ; yellow fever at, 227.

Bahia to the Tristan da Cunha group, 237.
Bahia Honda, 153.

Bahia Shoal, 593.

Baillie rod, 60 ; method of using, 61.

Bait, spinning, 43.

Baju, 545.

Baker, Rev. J., 486.

Baker, J. G., on Ferns, 599.

Baker Islands, 765.

Baloena, 806.

Baloenopiera, 806.

Balanoglossus, 105.

Balanoplvyllia, 780.

Balanus, 679, 854 ; B. corolliformis, 854 ;

B. hirsutus, 854.

Balat Island, 667.

Balbagan Island, 623.

Balea tristensis, 269 ; B. ventricosa, 269.
Balfour, Lieut. A. F., 19, 20, 598.

Balfour, Bay, 386 ; Rock, 336.

Bali, monsoon at, 584.

Balicasay Island, 652.

Baliguian Island, 623.

Balistes buniva, 203.

Ball’s dredge, xxxix.

Balleny, 415, 416.

1078

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Balleny Island, 416.

Baltic Sea, 967.

Bamboo Jew’s-harp, 662.

Banana, 654.

Banda Islands, 559, 561, 688, 692 ;

Governor of, 566 ; history of, 562 ;
Javanese music at, 567 ; mode of life
at, 568 ; visited by Portuguese and
Dutch, 562.

Banda to Amboina, 573.

Banda Sea, 736 ; deposit in, 560.

Bandan, 561.

Banka, Island, 605 ; Straits of, 647.
Banksias, 178.

Banton Island, 623.

Bantoncillo, 624.

Baobab tree, 189.

Bara, laurelled, 211.

Barbados, rock from, 227.

Barclay, Sir Henry, 282.

Barentsia bulbosa, 671.

Barnacles, 169, 679.

Barometer, Goldschmid’s, 27 ; marine, 42 ;
mountain, 42.

Barometric pressure, relation of, to lati-
tude, 26.

Barra Grande, 215 ; Brachyura at, 586.
Barra Velha Point, 215.

Barramunda, 456.

Barreta do Arutu, 215.

Barrier Reef of Australia, 519, 521.
Barringtonia, 517, 566, 680.

Barrois, J., 640.

Bartema of Bologna, discovers Banda,
561 ; visits Moluccas, 595.

Basao Island, 697.

Basilan Island, 656 ; Mohammedans at,
658 ; Moro houses at, 659.

Basilan Strait, 605, 618 ; tides in, 657.
Bass Strait, 462, 587, 751.

Bate, C. Spence, on the Macrura, 522, 1069,
Bathyactis symmetrica, 161, 520, 738, 757,
797.

Bathybiaster, 611.

Bathybius, xlv ; history of, 939.
Bathycriaus, 306, 311, 313 ; B. aldrichi-
anus, 308 ; B. campbellianus, 308 ;
B. carpenteri, 308.

Bathydoris abyssorum, 695, 775.
Bathydorus, 451.

Bathygorgia profunda, 691.

Bathylagus atlanticus, 903.

Bathynectes, 586 ; B. gracilis, 521.
Bathyoncus mirabilis, 164.

Bathyophis ferox, 171, 906.

Bathyplax typhlus, 586.

Bathypterois, description of, 217 ; B. longi-
cauda, 804 ; B. longipes, 905.
Bathyteutkis abyssicola, 272.

Bathythrissa dorsalis, 745.

Bathythrissidse, 907.

Batian Islands, 593, 595, 597.

Batrachostomus Septimus, 666.

Bat, curious, 235.

Bats, 536.

Batu Goyang Island, 543.

Bay of Biscay, xlviii, 941.

Bay de l’Oiseau, 345.

Beach Masters, 377.

Beach, siliceous, at Somerset, 540.

Beacon Tower on Raine Island, 528.

“Beagle,” H.M.S., xxxviii, 868, 875, 885,
886.

Bean, 538.

Beauchesne, M. de, 875.

Beddard, F. E., on the Isopoda, 878.

Bee-eater, 535.

Beetles, 148.

Behring Sea, 755.

Bejaren Island, 604.

Belcher, Sir E., 592.

Belenogaster bidentatus, 490.

Belknap, Capt. , 70, 71, 755.

Bellingshausen, 415, 416.

Bench marks, 25.

Bennet, Dr., 455.

Benodet Islands, 344.

Benthaster, 615 ; B. wymlle-thomsoni, 757.

Benthesicymus, 527 ; B. altus, 528.

Benthodytes abyssicola, 833 ; B. mamil-
lifera, 833 ; B. papillifera, 775 ; B.
sanguinolenta, 833 ; B. selcnkiana,
775 ; B. sordida, 833.

Bergh, Dr. R., on the Nudibranchiata, 693.

Bergh, Dr. R. S., 934.

Berkeley Sound, Port Louis, 884.

Bermuda, 136, 431, 483.

Bermuda, diolian rocks at, 137 ; American
plants at, 143 ; birds at, 144, 146 ;
clayey matter found at, 141 ; Chal-
lenger Bank at, 139; Columbine Bank
at, 139 ; corals of, 145 ; not a coral
atoll, 137; crabs at, 148; deposits off,
135, 140; dredgings around, 135, 161;
examination of bank at, 139 ; flora of,
143, 943 ; insects at, 147 ; lagoons at,
138 ; land surface of, 142 ; local sub-
sidence at, 138 ; magnetic condition
of, 140 ; Mollusca of, 148 ; reefs of,
138 : scenery of, 142 ; situation of,
141 ; soil of, 141.

Bermuda to the Azores, 167.

Bermuda to Halifax, 153.

“Berwick,” the, 250.

Beryx decadactylus, 745.

Betceus truncatus, 526.

Betliell, G. R., 19.

Betsy Cove, 334, 338, 341.

Betsy Cove, departure from, 335 ; gale in,
353 ; soil deposits about, 338.

“Bibb,” U.S.S., xlvi.

Bibliography, 1053.

Bibra, v., 973.

Bicellaria infundibulata, 674 ; B. navicu-
laris, 673 ; B. pectogemma, 673,
Bicellariadse, 672.

Bickmore, Mr., on ascent of Gunung Api,
563.

Biddulphia, 933.

Bifaxaria abyssicola, 672, 758 ; B. loevis,
669 ; B. minuta, 674 ; B. reticulata,
673, 674.

Bifaxariadee, 669, 672, 674, 675.

Big Belly Bay, 343.

Big Ben, 370, 374.

Billard Island, 863.

Biloculina, 842 ; B. depressa, 912.
Bipinnaria, 219.

Bird caught in spider’s web, 556.

Bird Island, 184, 185, 532, 559 ; incrusta-
tion on, 184.

Bird Rock (St. Yincent), 183.

Bird Rocks, 333, 342.

Birds, struggle for existence amongst, 360.
Birds, at Cape York, 534 ; at Raine Island,
529 ; at Tahiti, 787 ; at Ternate, 598;
at Tongatabu, 484.

Birds of Paradise, 535, 549 ; Great, 545,
550, 551 ; Papuan, 598 ; Red, 598.
Birgus latro, 663.

Bisayans, 658.

Biscoe, 415, 416, 429.

Blackbird, 365.

Blackburne Shoal, 543.

Black Cockatoo, 534.

Black Headed Tern, 872.

Black Island Peak, 863.

Black Night Hawk, 359.

Black Noddy, 928.

Black Rat, 498.

Black Sea, 967.

Black Witch, 127.

Blacks, see Aborigines.

Blakan Ammara, 546.

“Blake,” U.S.S., liv, 97, 153, 303, 311,
895.

Blatta, 148.

“ Blenden Hall,” wreck of the, 248,
256.

Blennius, 187.

Bligh’s Cap, 330, 333, 345.

Blind, animals from the deep sea, 524; fish,
521 ; Isopoda, 880.

Block House, 870.

Blowpipe apparatus, Plattner’s, 45.

Blue Birds, 146.

Blue Mountains, 459.

Blue mud, description of, 917.

Blue Rock Pigeons, 190.

Bluff Point,. 336.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1079

Boat equipment, 4.

Boats, of Ki Islanders, 553; at Tamandan,
554 ; see also Canoe.

Boatswain Birds, 144, 213, 521, 545, 738.
Boatswain Bird Island, 928.

Bocco do Inferno, 177.

Bog Balsam, 889.

Bog Myrtle, 178.

Boguslawski, 955, 980.

Bohol, 650, 652, 665.

Boisquehennen, M. de, 344.

Bolax glebaria, 299, 889.

Bold Point, 865.

Bolitcena, 272.

Boltenia, 163.

Bombinator igneus, 228.

Bonduca Island, 866.

Bondulan Point, 618.

Bone bolas, 891.

Bones, analyses of, 1034, 1036 ; of Ceta-
ceans, 804, 805, 806 ; in deposits,
structure of, 808.

Bonellia, 908.

Bonin Island, 736, 739.

Bonner, John, 892.

Bonoa Island, 578.

Bonpland Point, 681, 688.

Booby, 204, 205, 213, 529, 928.

Booby Island, 542, 544.

Boot Bock, 291.

Bopyroides latreuticola, 136.

Bopyrus squillarum, 136.

Borborus apterus, 892.

Boreomysis scyphops, 742.

Bornella, 695.

Boscia, 149.

Bosco Island, 699.

Botanist, duties of a travelling, 28.

Botany of the Expedition, 943.

Botany Bay, 462, 484, 698.

Botcllina, 836.

Botryococcus, 179.

Bottles used by Expedition, 8, 9.

Bottles, WoulfFs, 45.

Bottom temperatures, see Temperature.
Bottom waters, see Sea Water
Botys onophasalis, 128.

Boudeuse Bay, 703,

Bougainville, 697.

Bourgueticrinidse, 306.

Bourgueticriwus ellipticus, 306.

Bouro Island, 578, 592.

Bowerbank, Dr., 569.

Bowl, compass, 42.

Bowls at Admiralty Islands, 720.

Bows, 518, 549, 685, 728.

Boxes, collecting, 43.

Boyle on Saltness of Sea, xxxiii.
Brachiopoda, account of the, 131.
Brachygrapsuslcingsleyi, 587; B. Icevis, 587.

Brachyura, 585, 898 ; account of the, 585 ;

affinities of South African, 587.
Bracon stigmaticus, 555 ; B. trisignatus,
666.

Bradbury Bock, 867.

Brady, Dr. G. S., on the Copepoda, 843,
1068 ; on the Ostracoda, 846, 1065.
Brady, H. B. , 530, 574 ; on the Foramini-
fera, 833, 1068.

Brain Coral, 145, 483, 564.

Brake Fern, 827.

Brama rayi, 316.

Brazier, Prof., analysis of Globigerina ooze
by, 915.

Brazil, 874; deposits along the coast of, 216.
Brazilian, fashion of riding, 233 ; Govern-
ment, and Fernando Norouha, 211.
Brazo Ancho Point, 866.

Bread fruit trees, 555.

Break-bones, the, 294.

Breaker’s Bluff, 342.

Briareacea, 692.

Brisbane,” the “City of, 455.

Brisinga, 125, 379, 609, 610, 614, 738,
757, 804.

Brisingidse, 607.

Brissopsis lyrifera, 388.

Brissus lyrifer, xliii.

Bristow, Capt. Abraham, 699
“Britannia,” the, 49.

British Antarctic Expedition, xl
Britto, Antonio de, 577, 595.

Bromley, Lieut. A. C. B., 19, 1067.
Bronehocela cristatella, 580.

Bronzite, spherules of, 812.

Brooke, Lieut., xiv.

Brooks, Prof. W. K., on the Stomatopoda,
817, 1071.

Broome Island, 864.

Brother Island, 558.

Broughton Head, 454.

Browera Creek, 459 ; ancient drawings at,
461 ; deposit at, 460 ; description of,

459 ; geological features of, 459 ; hand
marks at, 461 ; haunt of aborigines,

460 ; vegetation at, 460.

Brown coal, 349.

Browne Island, 701, 702.

Brush-tongued parroquet, 534
Brush Turkeys, 535.

Brussels, maritime conference at, xliv.
Buccaneers at Juan Fernandez, 819.

Buceros mindanensis, 666.

Buchan, Alexander, on the Meteorology of
the Voyage, 998, 1071.

Buchanan Island, 337, 339, 696, 703.
Buchanan, John Young, 19, 22, 95, 105,
109, 206, 372, 425, 427, 653, 720, 940,
948, 973, 976, 978, 983, 985, 986,
995, 1068, 1069.

Buchanan, John Young, combined sound-
ing tube and water-bottle of, 117 ;
observations at St. Paul’s Rocks, 206,
208 ; on sea water ice, 425 ; improved
stop-cock water-bottle by, 115; im-
proved thermometer of, 87.
Buckthorn, 254.

Budding of.corals, 789.

Buenos Ayres, 51, 907.

Bugula bicornis, 674 ; B. johnstonice, 672,
675, 758 ; B. leontodon, 674 ; B. mar-
garitifera, 673, 674 ; B. mirdbilis,
183, 673; B. reticulata, 673, 674, 675.
Bukit Krain, 554.

B ilimustarnerianus, 56 ; B. ventrosus, 148.
“Bull Dog,” H.M.S., xlv.

Bull Frog, 229.

Bulweria , 325, 326.

Bunina Island, 514.

Bureta, 502.

Burettes, 13 ; method of filling, 13.
Burney, 874.

Bursulina muta, 572.

Busch, Dr., 382.

Bushmen, crania of, 283.

Bushy Rocks, 532.

Busk, George, 302; on the Polyzoa, 669,
1068.

Butler, A. G., on Lepidoptera, 148, 216,
357, 548, 555, 580, 600, 729 ; on
mimicry, 581.

Biitsclili Prof , 221.

Butterflies, see Lepidoptera.

Butterfly, Bird-winged, 548.

Button Island, 701.

Byron, Commodore, 875.

Cabalic Point, 618.

Cabbage Tree, 821.

Cabezo de Tablas, Mount, 623.

Cabins of H.M.S. Challenger, 10.

Cacatua galerita, 534.

Cache Diablo, 867.

Cacospongia, 644 ; G. levis, 639.

Cairncross Islands, 532.

Cajeli, 592.

Cajeput oil, 578.

Caladium, 177 ; G. esculentum, 179, 712.
Gdlanus, 534 ; C. finmarchicus, 843, 844 ;

O. propinquus, 758.

Calappa, 188, 590; G. flammea, 587.
Calcarea, account of the, 639 ; subdivision
of, 640.

Calcarella, 472.

Calcareous matter in deposits, 210, 804.
Calcareous seaweeds, 127.

Caldeira des Sette Cidades, 176.

Callidryas sennce, 128.

Calliteuthis reversa, 273.

Callitriche verna, 375.

1080

THE YOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Gallocardia adamsii, 624 ; C. atlaniica,
624 ; 0. guttata, 625 ; G. pacifica, 624.

Calocaris, 524.

Calophyllum inophyllum, 566.

Calomis metalliea, 548, 556.

Calvario, Mount, 627.

Calver, Capt., xlviii ; on tangles, 73.

Calycopteryx moseleyi, 356, 376.

Calymne relicta, 161.

“Calypso,” H.M.S., 876.

Galytrophora japonica, 690 ; (7. wyvillii,
690.

Camargo, Alonzo de, 873.

Cambridge, Rev. 0. P., on Spiders, 55,
187,214, 269, 485.

Cameron, Commander, 661.

Cainiguin Island, 652; mountains at, 654;
volcano at, 652.

Camp, of blacks, 536; at Tenerife, 54, 55, 56.

Campanularidse, 753.

Campbell, Sub-Lieut. Lord 6. G., 19, 20,
52.

Canadas of Tenerife, 55, 598.

Gana/rium commune, 563.

Canary trees, 563.

Cancer, 188 ; G. longipes, 591.

Cancreio, 663.

Cancroidea, 585.

Ganda simplex, 674.

Candeina, 194, 218, 838 ; C. nitidos, 838,
912.

Candle Nut, 760.

Ganna, 555.

Canoe, of Admiralty Islanders, 714; of.
Resident of Banda, 566.

Capaha Mountain, 578.

Cape, Agulhas, 283 ; Anne, 334 ; Bojador,
970; Bourbon, 344; Candelaria, 866,
867 ; Carysfort, 883 ; Challenger, 342,
346 ; Charles, 866 ; Digby, 336, 342,
345 ; Farewell, 466 ; Finisterre, 46 ;
Frangois, '342, 347 ; Froward, 870,
874; Gallegos, 862; George, 339,
340, 342, 345 ; of Good Hope, xxxiv,
282, 739, 742, 897, 908, 933; Gre-
gory, 873; Hangklip, 289; Horn,
416, 873, 875, 886, 969 ; Kendall,
866 ; Laurens, 368, 370 ; Monday,
870 ; North, 429 ; Otway, 413, 421 ;
Palliser, 474 ; Point, 283 ; Possession,
874 ; Providence, 870 ; Raper, 862 ;
St. Louis, 344, 345 ; St. Roque, 960' ;
St. Vincente, 47, 866 ; San Antonio,
866 ; Sandwich, 336, 340, 345 ; Santa
Lucia, 867 ; Sarangani, 667 ; Sima,
746 ; Spartel, 970 ; Stokes, 862; .Tres
Montes, 849, 862; Upright, 870;
Virgins, 873, 874 ; York, 699.

Cape of Good Hope, Brachyura at, 586 ;
surface water off the, 960.

Cape of Good Hope to Prince Edward and
Marion Islands, 289.

Cape Hen, 359.

Cape Pigeon, 398.

Cape Verde Islands, 183, 218, 929, 940,
963.

Cape Verde Islands to England, 940.

Cape Verde Islands to St. Paul’s Rocks,
192.

Cape York to Arrou Islands, 541.

Cape York, Comatulse at, 311 ; dredgings
at, 310 ; an emporium for weapons,
541.

Caprella, 619.

Caprellina, 619.

Caput Medusae, xxxiv.

Caranx, 729 ; G. ascensionis, 203.

Carbonate of lime in deposits, see De-
posits.

Carbonic acid, apparatus for determining,
15; in gas tubes, 993 ; in bottom
waters, 993, 995 ; in intermediate
waters, 996 ; in surface waters, 994 ;
method of extraction from sea water,
14.

Gar charms, 680, 775, 805 ; C. gangsticus,
449.

Carchavodon, teeth of, 757, 775,. 805, 806 ;
G. megalodon, 805.

Carchesium, 933.

Cardinal Bird, 144.

Cardiosoma guanhumi, 150.

Gardium, 460, 493.

Co/rex insularis, 257.

Caribbean Sea, 966.

Caridina sargopoe, 136.

Carimata, Straits of, 647-

Carinaria , 219, 919.

Carinalla, 830.

Carinma, 830.

Carmichael, Capt., 266.

Caroline Islands, 484, 714, 720, 736, 738,
765.

Carpenter, Lieut. A., 20.

Carpenter, Dr. P. H., 313 ; on the- Crin-
oidea, 303, 1069, 1071 ; on Holopus r
153.

Carpenter, Dr. W. B., xlvii, xlviii, 1, 21 ;
on Orbitolites, 485, 1068.

Carpenter Island, 701, 702.

Garpophaga concinna, 555, 566 ; C.

pacifica, 485, 518 ; C. rhodinolaema ,
566, 729.

Carrington Island, 866.

Carter, 639, 641, 643.

Carteret, Capt. Philip, 697.

Carteret Shoal, 678.

GarteriospongrCa , 644, 645.

Garyophyllia, 800 ; G. cylindmcea , 161.

Oaryota , 534.

Cascade Harbour, 335.

Cascade Reach, 341, 353.

Cassava, 211, 235 ; meal made from, 231 ;

method of preparing, 235.

Cassis uryvillei, 895.

Cassowaries’ eggs, 583.

Castle Harbour, 137.

Castracane, Count, on Diatoms, 930, 946,
1069.

Casts of Foraminifera shells, 512 ; see also
Glauconite.

Casuarina, 484, 553.

Catamaran, 211.

Catarman, 652.

Catching land crabs, method of, 788.
Catenaria bicornis, 674.

Catenariadse, 674.

Cathartes perenopterus, 186.

Cathartidse, 328.

Cathedral at Manila, 646.

“Catherine,” the, 320.

Gatochrysops trifracta, 214.

Catometopa, 585.

Cat’s Ears Hill, 337, 350.

Cats Island, 339.

Cattle at Juan Fernandez, 826.

Cauldron of the Seven Cities, 176.
Caulerpa, elavifera, 204.

Caulophacin®, 450.

Gaulophacus, 450.

Caulospongia, 571.

Cautires amabilis, 548.

Cavendish, 874.

Caves at Juan Fernandez, 830.

Cavite light, 646.

Caxoeira, account of excursion to, 228 ;

hotel at, 228.

Cebu, see Zebu.

Cecille, Capt., 292, 318, 320, 322.

Cedar of Bermuda, 142, 943.

Celebes Island, 605 ; Brachyura obtained
off, 589.

Celebes Sea, 736.

Gellepora eatonensis, 675 ; C. solida, 673,
676.

G ellepor aria poly thele, 676.

Celleporidse, 673, 675.

Cellularia cirrnta, 675; C. crater if or mis,
673, 674.

Cellulariadse,- 673.

Cemetery Cross, 870.

Cenchrus, 142.

Central Island, 668.

Centre Island, 865.

Cmtrophorus foliaceus, 745 ; C. sguamu-
losus, 745.

Centropus phasianus, 534.

“ Centurion,” the, 822.

Cephalodiscus dodecalophus, 671 ; descrip-
tion of, 676.

Cephalopoda, 518, 574 ; account of the,
269 ; beak of, 750 ; eggs of, 512.

Ceram Island, 578, 697.

Ceram Laut, 578.

Ceratias holbolli, 183 ; parasite on, 183,
846.

Ceratium, 639, 935 ; G. filrca, 935 ; G.
fums, 935 ; 0. tripos, 933, 934.

Ceratodus, 455, 456.

Ceratoisis, 692.

Ceratolepis, 739.

Cergtoneis arcus, 931.

Cercops, 619.

Ceriantheae, 574.

Gerianthus, description of, 648 ; G. bothy -
metricus, 648.

Cestracion philippi, 462.

Cetacea, 286, 474 ; mode of capture of, 9.

Chcetoceros, 436, 931.

Chaetopterid®, 633.

Ghalaraspis, 739 ; G. unguifer, 740.

Chalinid®, 572.

Challenger, H.M.S., arrangements on
board, 2 ; collections, 946 ; descrip-
tion of, 2 ; chartroom of, 10 ; chemical
laboratory of, 11 ; deck house on board,
3, 282 ; docking of, 462 ; hold of, 18 ;
lower deck of, 18 ; main deck of, 5 ;
naval and scientific staff of, 19 ; official
correspondence in regard to, 21 ; publi-
cations, 946 ; selection and fitting out
of, 1 ; upper deck of, 2 ; zoological
laboratory on board, 5.

Challenger Bank, 139.

Challenger Cove, 688.

Challenger Shoal, 701.

Challengeria, 225 ; G. aldrichi, 226 ; G.
balfouri, 226 ; C. bethelli, 226 ; G.
bromleyi, 226 ; G. campbelli, 226 ; C.
carpenteri, 226 ; 0. channeri, 226 ;
C. harstoni, 226 ; G. havergalli, 226 ;
C. macleari, 226 ; O. naresii, 226 ;
0. swirei, 226 ; C. thomsoni, 226 ;
G. tirnrdi, 226.

Challengerida, 225.

Chaloup Bay, 211.

Channel between Somerset and Albany
Islands, 540.

Channer, Lieut. Arthur, 19, 888

“Chanticleer;” H.M.S., 213, 886

Chapina, 889.

Gharadrius marmoratus, 144.

“Charles Coldgate,” the, 335, 337

Charles Lewis Mountains, 679,

Charlotte Point, 336, 345.

Chartroom, appointments of, 10.

Chatham Islands, 285. ; crania of, 474.

Chaves, Capt., 765.

Chavica betel, 710.

Cheilostomata, 670.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

Chelifer, 205.

Ghelone imbricata, 729 ; C. midas, 729.
Chemical, analyses, 1033 ; apparatus, 44 ;
laboratory observations, 11 ; observa-
tions, instructions for, 27 ; reagents,

• 12.

Chenopodiufn tomentomm, 253.

Chiasmodus niger, 905.

Chica Island, 606.

Chicory, 829.

Chili, 850, 874, 886, 990.

Chilian, Andes, 375; Government and Juan
Fernandez, 825 ; settlement, 870;
Chiloe Island, 851, 886.

Chimney Top Hill, 333.

China Sea, 628, 736, 961.

Ghionis minor, 294, 298, 359.
Clviracanthium, 490 ; C. nutrix, 205.
Ghirodota, 663.

Chiroteuthis lacertosa, 273.

Chiton, 628.

Chitonaster, 614, 615.

Chitonellus fasciatus, 287 ; C. oculatus,
287.

Chitonidse, account of the, 286 ; distribu-
tion of, 287.

Chitons, 286, 287.

Chloephaga patagonica, 871.

Chlorsemidse/ 633.

Chocolate Island, 647.

Chcerocampa tersa, 148.

Chondres, characters of, 811.

Chondrocladia, 570, 572.

Chondropterygians, 906.

Chonelasma, 451.

Chonelasmatid®, 448,' 451.

Ohonetes, 893 ; C. falklandica, 893, 894.
Choristid®, 451.

Christmas Harbour, 331, 332, 340, 342,
345, 348, 356, 742 ; arched rock of,

- 332 ; fossil wood at, 349 ; observations
at, 333 ; rocks at, 348 ; vegetation at,
355.

Chromatropy, 583.

Chronometers, 42 ; list of, 1018 ; Report on,
1017.

Chrysogorgid®, 691.

Chthamalus, 854.

Church Rock, 376.

Cicad, 269.

Cicatrices, as decorations, 518, 711.
Gicindela, 149, 186.

Cicinnurus regius, 551.

Cieoniid®, 328.

Gidaris, 188 ; O. abyssicola, 388; G. affiwis,
388 ; O. hystrix, 388 ; G. nutrix, 385,
386 ; C. papillata, 385, 386.

Cienkowski on the Radiolaria, 220.

Ciliata, 934.

Cilio-flagellata, 934.

1081

Cinehonace®, 580.

“ Cinque Ports Galley,” the, 820.

Circulatory system, diseases of, 1030.

Circumnavigation committee, report of,

22.

Circumnavigator, the first, 648.

Cirripedia, account of the, 851, 855.

Cirro Chico, 902.

Girroteuthis, 270 ; C. magna, 271 ; G.
meangensis, 271, 669 ; G. mulleri, 271 ;
C. pacifica, 271.

“ City of Brisbane,” the, 455.

Ciudad Real, 873.

Civiliap staff, 19.

Cladocarpus, 751.

Gladocora arbuscula, 161.

Cladodactyla crocea, 282, 382 ; description
of, 379.

Cladorrhiza, 570, 572.

Clamping microscopes on board, method
of, 7.

Clanricarde Point, 865.

Claparede, E., 934.

Clarie Land, 417.

Claus, Prof., 150, 462, 817.

Clavularia, 447, 451, 689.

Claodora, 171, 219, 629, 912.

Climate, of Admiralty Islands, 703 ; of the
Crozets, 322 ; of Hong Kong, 636 ; of
Kerguelen, 354 ; of E. and W. Moluc-
cas compared, 584 ; of St. Vincent,
185 ; of Tristan da Cunha, 240.

Clionid Pteropod, description of supposed,
472.

Clionid®, 471.

Clipperton, 821.

Cloete, Capt. Josiah, 244, 245, 247.

Clothing, see Dress.

Cloudy Islands, 331, 333, 345.

Clove cultivation, 578.

Club houses, 724.

Club-moss, 599.

Coal, at Amboina, 579, 546 ; at Ilo Ilo,
622 ; at St. Vincent, 185 ; at San
Iago, 189 ; at Tahiti, 777 ; at Ternate,
597 ; at Zebu, 649.

Coaster, an abandoned, 646.

Cobb, Mount, 888.

Cobrador Island, 623.

Goccinella, 186.

Coccoliths, 69, 194, 511, 573, 780, 833.

Cocconeis, 931.

Coccospheres, 161, 607, 938 ; distribution
of, 938.

Cockatoos, 548, 729 ; Great Black, 534
White Crested, 534.

Cockburn Reef, 532.

Cock fighting, 229.

Cock’s Head, 863.

Cocoa Hut Island, 765.

1082

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Cocoanut, Palms, at Cape York, 534 ;
trees, at Ki Doulan, 555.

Coeoanut-eating Crab, 663.

Cocos Island, 606.

Cnelenterata, 450.

Ccelodendrum, 225.

Ccelopleurus , 201 ; C. maillardi, 198.

Gcenoplana, 473.

Goix lachryma seeds, 718.

Colan, Mount, 623.

Coleoptera, 269, 548, 555.

Collocalia spodiopygia, 485 ; G. uropygia-
lis, 518.

Gollosphoera, 220.

Collozoida, 224.

Gollozostron mirabil'e, 691.

Collozoum, 220.

Golobanthus kerguelensis, 356, 375.

Colonisation of Juan Fernandez by Span-
iards, 823.

Colossendeis, 857, 858 ; C. gigas, 858 ; C.
leptorhynchus, 858 ; G. media, 833 ;
O. robusta, 858.

Colour, of Admiralty Islanders, 708 ; of
butterflies, experiments suggested,
548 ; of sea, 401, 833 ; at Banda, 569 ;
at Bermuda, 137 ; due to Algae, 545 ;
due to Copepoda, 843.

Colouring matter, of Actinometm, 541 ; of
corals, 795; of Holothurian, 541.

Golumba ceiias, 829'; G. livea, 190.

“Columbine,” H.M.S. , 139.

Columbine Bank, 139.

Columbine Cove, 868.

Gomatula mediterranea, 315.

Comatulse, 303, 309, 313 ; at Cape York,
311 ; depths at which found, 310 ;
new genera of, 311 ; number of species
of, 310; Sir \Yyville Thomson on, 311.

Commerson Island, 697.

Common Spurge, 235.

Gomposia sybaris, 128.

Compositse, large, 787.

Concepcion Channel, 867.

Conch shells, 723.

Gonchoderma, 852 ; G. virgatum, 136.

Concretions, 289, 557 ; see also Manganese
nodules.

Connor Cove, 868.

Conqueror Bank, 747.

Continental geological formations, 925.

Contour of sea bed, in Celebes Sea, 606 ;
in China Sea, 628 ; in N. Atlantic,
123 ; in N. Pacific, 771 ; in S. Atlan-
tic, 216 ; in S. Pacific, 801 ; in Sulu
Sea, 618 ; in W. Pacific, 519, 735.

Convict station, at Fernando KToronha, 211 ;
at Juan Fernandez, 825.

Convolvulus, 484.

Cook, Capt. Edward, 820,

Cook, Capt. James, 292, 332, 345, 408,
415, 417, 421, 429, 487, 820, 875, 969.
Cook’s Reef, 515, 542.

Cook Strait, 465, 467, 469.

Cooking parroquets, savage mode of, 539.
Copenhagen Museum, 472.

Copepoda, 758, 903 ; account of the, 843.
Gopilia, 219 ; O. mirabilis, 845.
j Corals, xlii, 517, 544, 564 ; account of the,
788 ; encrusted with manganese, 125,
182; of Bermuda, 145.

Coral Islands, formation of, 781.

Coral mud, description of, 918.

Coral reef, at Banda, 567 ; at Matuku, 487,
488; at Tahiti, 778 ; growth of, 565.
Coral rock at Wokan, 551.

Coralleacea, 692.

Coralliidse, 693 ; localities in Indo-Pacific
area of, 693.

Corallimorphus rigidus, 574.

Corallines, xlii, xliii.

Corallinacete, 127, 184.

Gorallium, 125, 182; description of, 692 ;

manganese peroxide on, 125, 182.
Gorallium rubrum, 760, 796 ; C. secun-
dum, 692; O. stylasteroides, 693.
Cordes, de, 874.

Corella, 165.

Coretron, 930.

Corinthian Bay, 369, 372, 375, 376.
Corinthian Harbour, 383.

Goriphilus fringillaceus, 485.

“Cormorant,” H.M.S., 876.

Cormorant, 144, 294, 360 ; see also Shag.
Coronella, 127.

Goronula, 854.

Corregidor Island, 624, 627.
Correspondence, with Admiralty, 1, 22,
23, 1073 ; with Royal Society, 1,
21, 33.

“Corwin,” U.S.S., xlvi.

Gorycceus, 219 ; C. pellucidus, 843, 844.
Gorymorpha, 753.

Corynascidia, 165 ; O. suhmi, 165.
Gorijpheena, 680.

CorypTwnoides variabilis, 775 ; G. nasutus ,
745 ; Gc. villosus, 745.

Ooscinoderma, 644.

Ooscinodiseus, 218, 931.

Cosmic spherules, 774, 809 ; characters of,
'810.

Cossyphus rufus, 203.

Gotula moseleyi, 267 ; G. plumosa, 355.
Counter Equatorial Current, see Current.
Covadonga Islets, 864.

Cowan Creek, 462.

Cowry shell, 709.

Cox, Richard, 19.

Crozets, discovery of the, 319 ; weather in
the vicinity of, 322.

Crabe blau, 150.

Crabs, at Bermuda, 148 ; at Browera
Creek, 460 ; land, at Tahiti, 788,
927 ; shore, 663 ; soldier, 150.

Crabs, destroyed by wild pigs, 663.

Oranchia, 219, 270.

Crania, 161.

Crania, of Dugong, 725 ; of pigs, 724 ; of
Porpoise, 725 ; of turtles, 724.

Crania, of Admiralty Islanders, 727, 730,
731; of Australians, 732; of Bush-
men, 283 ; of Hawaiians, 762 ; of
Mahoris, 730 ; of Maoris, 731 ; of Mel-
anesians, 730 ; of Papuans, 730 ; of
Polynesian or Mahori race, 730 ; of
Sandwich Islanders, 731 ; of Tasman-
ians, 732.

Crntena, 695.

Crater, of Kilauea, 767 ; of Ternate, de-
scription of, 599.

Cratcromorpha, 451.

Crateromorphinre, 451.

Craven, A. E., 1071.

Crayfish, 830 ; at Juan Fernandez, 819.

Creak, Staff-Commander E. W. , 1067.

Crella navicelligera, 571.

Crew, rations of, 1027.

Cribrella, 610.

Gribrilina monoceros, 672, 675, 758.

Cribrilinidae, 672.

Crinoidea, 152; account of the, 303 ; palaeo-
zoic, 313 ; Myzostomidae parasitic on,
317.

OrinorrMza, 570.

Griseis spinifera, 136.

Crisia delicatissima, 675.

Crisiidse, 675.

Cristellaria, 467 ; O. obtusata, 912 ; C.
rotulata, 912.

Croll, J., 959.

Crosbie, Staff-Surgeon Alexander, 19, 538;
on skin disease at Ki Islands, 553.

Crossover Island, 864.

Crotons, hedges of, 579.

Crotophaga ani, 127.

Crowberry, the, 253.

Crozets, the, 298, 302, 317, 319, 758, 878,
943.

Crozets, the, cataracts at, 321 ; climate of,
322 ; description of, 320 ; difficulties
of navigation near, 322 ; flora of, 945 ;
frequent fogs at, 322 ; geographical
position of, 320 ; history of, 319 ;
vegetation at, 321 ; zoology of, 321.

Crozets to Kerguelen, 330.

Cruise to Mbau, account of, 492.

Crustacea, xliii, 187; see Anomura,
Brachyura, Cirripedia, Copepoda,
Isopoda, Macrura, Ostracoda, Schizo-
poda, &c.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRTJISE.

1083

Gryohydrates, 426.

Cryptodon croulinensis, 625 ; 0. flexuosus,
625.

Gryptohelia pudica, 792.

Cryptolaria, 752.

Oryptomeria japonica, 178.

Oryptoplax striatus, 287.

Cryptosoma, 590 ; 0. orientis, 587.

Crystal Point, 349.

Crystals, zeolitie, 815.

Ctenodiscus, 615.

Ctenostomata, 670.

Cuajiro Indians, 661.

Cucumarioe, 379.

Culeolus, 62; 0. moseleyi,Ti 5 ; C.murrayi,
164 ; O. wyville-thomsoni, 163, 164.

Cumacea, account of the, 742.

Cumberland Bay, 827, 349, 818, 819.

Cummins, John, 762.

Cunningham, Prof. D. J., on the Marsu-
pialia, 456, 1067 ; on Mammalian foot,
457.

Cunningham, J. T., on Oeratium, 934;
on Pyrocystis, 937.

Cup lead, 41, 69.

Curamilla Point, 842.

Current, calculation of, 155.

Current, buoy, 80 ; drag, 79 ; action of, 82.

Current, Equatorial, 772, 960, 966;

971 ; northern, 749 ; Counter Equa-
torial, 738, 744, 960, 961, 965 ;
Guinea, 218, 960, 971 ; Japan (Stream),
734, 746, 749, 750, 755, 933 ; Labra-
dor, 160 ; Luzon, 647 ; strength and
direction of, estimated by astronomical
observations, 154.

Current observations, between Admiralty
Islands and Japan, 734 ; between
Azores and Madeira, 180 ; Bermuda
to Azores, 168 ; Bermuda to Sandy
Hook, 154, 157 ; between Cape of
Good Hope and Prince Edward Island,
290 ; in China Sea, 628 ; between
Falkland Islands and Lobos Island,
903 ; between Fernando Noronha
and Bahia, 21 6 ; Halifax to Bermuda,
157 ; between Hong Kong and Manila,
646 ; near Japan, 749 ; at Ki Islands,
552 ; between Madeira and St. Vincent,
182 ; between Melbourne and Sydney,
454 ; between Monte Video and Tristan
da Cunha, 909 ; off Morocco, 970 ; in
North Pacific, 755 ; off Raine Island,
521 ; near St. Paul’s Rocks, 193, 201 ;
St. Thomas to Bermuda, 135 ; be-
tween St. Vincent and San Antonio,
185 ; in the South Pacific, 772 ;
southeastward of Porto Praya, 192 ;
between Sydney and Wellington, 463 ;
between Tenerife and St. Thomas,

Current observations —

123 ; at Tristan da Cunha, 268 ;
between Tristan da Cunha and Ascen-
sion, 910 ; in Torres Strait, 543 ;
between Valparaiso and Cape Tres
Montes, 849 ; off Watson’s Bay, 463 ;
between Wellington and Kermadec
Islands, 475 ; at Zebu, 650 ; between
Zebu and Bohol Island, 652.

Current observations, method of taking, 80.
Currie, Thomas, 243, 244.

Guscus, 457, 713, 729 ; hair of, 719 ; teeth
of, 710.

Guscus maculatus, 564.

Outhona, 695 ; G. pumilio, 136.

Guthondla abyssicola, description of, 695.
Cuvieria, 912.

Cyathidium, 153.

Cyathonaxidse, 800.

Cyclammina, 836 ; O. cancellata, 912.
Cyclodus, 555.

Cyclometopa, 585.

“Cyclops,” H.M.S., 98, 250, 251.

Cyclops Mountains, 681, 689.

Cyclostoma infans, 729.

Cyclostomata, 67C.

Cymbalopora bulloides, 838, 835.

Cymbium shells used as water vessels, 537.
Cymbulia, 219.

Cymochorea, 324, 325.

Oymothoa, 758.

Cymothoadee, 881.

Cynthia, 742 ; C. complanala, 163 ; O.

pallida, 163 ; O. papietensis, 163.
Cyrtellaria, 225.

Cyrtida, 225.

Cyrtina heteroclyta, 893.

Cyrtomaia murrayi, 588 ; G. suhmi, 589.
Cyrtophora opuntice, 55, 56, 187.
Cystechinus, 200 ; C. clypeatus, 628 ; O.

vesica, 833 ; G. wyvillii, 199, 804.
Cystidea, 153, 311.

Gystiphyllum, -800.

Cystispongia, 451.

Oystosoma neptuni, 622.

Cythere, 219 ; G. acanthoderma 847 ; C.
dasyderma, 847, 912 ; O. dictyon, 847
912.

“ Dacia,” telegraph ship, 911 970
Dactyliosolen, 930.

Dactylis ccespitosa, 258.

Dactylocalycid®, 448, 451.

Badylocalyx, 451.

Dactylopore, 790.

Dactylopterus, 928 ; D. volitans, 136
Badylopterus, 928.

Dactylozooid, 790.

Daimios Castle, 747.

Dali, W. H., 287.

Dalrymple Islanders, tobacco pipe of, 537,

Damalis alciphron, 729.

Dampier, Capt., 666, 819.

Dana, Prof., xl, 483, 493, 497, 693; on reefs
of Tahiti, 781.

Dance, at Admiralty Islands, 723 ; at
Banda, 567 ; at Fiji, 505 ; at Ki Is-
lands, 554 ; of Lutaos at Samboangan,
661 ; of Malays with arms, 568 ; at'
Mbau, 496; at Nakello, 500, 503, 504 ;
development of the drama in, 505.

Danielssen, Prof., 382.

Baphnia, 748.

Baption, 325 ; B. capensis, 436.

Darts, at Admiralty Islands, 719, 720.

Darwin, Charles, xxxviii, 359, 365, 375,
483, 732, 851, 854, 856, 892.

Darwin, on reefs of Tahiti, 781.

Darwin Harbour, 891.

Barwinella, 643, 644, 645.

Basypogon diver sipes, 462.

Basyprocta, 128.

Basyptilus pequeti, 598.

Dauit Point, 655.

Davidson, Thos., on the Brachiopoda, 131,
1066.

Davis, Dr. Barnard, 730, 731.

Davis, Capt. Edward, 820.

Davis, Capt. John, 874.

Davis Strait, 959.

Dayman, Commander, xliv.

Dayman Islands, 345.

Dead Sea, 967.

Deaths, of Dr. v. Willemoes-Sulim, 769 ;
during the voyage, 1029.

Deck house, 3, 282.

Deck, lower, 18 ; main, 5 ; upper, 2.

Declinometer, 42.

Dedap Point, 618.

Deep-sea, Actiniae, modification of, 575 ;
Amphipoda, 620 ; bones, analyses
of, 1036; clamm, xxxvii; Copepoda,
845; deposits, see Deposits ; dredging
see Dredging ; fish, characteristic fea-
tures of, 904 ; phosphorescent pro-
perties of the mucus of, 905 ; Isopoda,
880 ; Medusas, 601 ; Mollusca, 624 ;
Ostracoda, 846; thermometer, Negretti
& Zambra’s, 88 ; improved standard,
93 ; Ferguson’s modification of, 89 ;
method of protecting, 98 ; sources of
error in, 98 ; trawling, invention of, 47,
49; advantages.of, 49; water, variation
of volume with change of temperature,
107.

Deer, atDobbo, 545; shooting at Amboina,
583.

Beiopeia ornatrix, 128.

Delesse’s investigations, xlix.

Belphinus, 775, 806.

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

138

1084

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Beltocyathus magnificus, 793 ; B. italicus,
161, 793.

Bemiegretta sacra, 484.

Bendrilla, 644.

Dendrobium, 704.

Dendrochelidon, 485.

Dendrochirotte, 278.

Dendroseris, 829.

Bendrostoma blandum, 908.

Denge, the god, 493; ancient temple of, 493.

Denham, Capt., 242, 475, 491, 492.

Denham Island, 508.

Density of sea water, see Sea water.

Dentalium, xliii; B. dentalis, 897 ; B. en-
talis, 897.

D’Entrecasteaux, Bruny, 696, 698.

D’Entrecasteaux Island, 696, 700, 702,
706, 727, 728; dwelling houses at, 714 ;
population of, 728 ; village at, 723.

D’Entrecasteaux Reef, 702 ; description of,
700.

Deposits, between the Admiralty Islands
and Japan, 737 ; near the African
coast, 194 ; on Agulhas Bank, 289 ;
near Antarctic Ice Barrier, 435 ;
between Ascension and Cape Verde
Islands, 929 ; off Australian coast,
467 ; off the Azores, 180 ; at Bahia,
236 ; off Banda, 560, 573 ; off
Bermuda, 140 ; between Bermuda
and the Azores, 168 ; between Ber-
muda and Halifax, 161 ; along the
coast of Brazil, 216 ; in Browera Creek,
460 ; off Cape of Good Hope, 289 ; in
Celebes Sea, 606 ; in China Sea, 628 ;
between Falkland Islands and Monte
Video, 903 ; between Fiji Islands and
Hew Hebrides, 512 ; in Humboldt
Bay, 689 ; in the Inland Sea, 748 ;
off Japan, 750 ; off Kerguelen Island,
360, 367 ; off Kermadec Islands, 476 ;
off Ki Islands, 557 ; in Magellan Strait,
873 ; between Mallenoah and Atataa,
487 ; off Mbau, 493 ; off the Meangis
Islands, 669 ; in the Messier and Sar-
miento Channels, 873 ; between Hew
Hebrides and Raine Island, 519 ; off
east coast of Hew Zealand, 476 ; in H.
Atlantic, 161, 182, 941 ; in H. Pacific,
756, 774 ; south of Oosima, 748 ; off
Palma Island, 182; off Papua, 689 ; at
Pico, 175 ; off Porto Grande, 940 ; off
Raine Island, 531; off the Rio de 1a.
Plata, 910; off St. Paul’s Rocks, 206;
off St. Thomas, 135 ; off St. Vincent,
186 ; Samboangan to Humboldt Bay,
678 ; off Sarnjiento Bank, 873 ; off
Shag Island, 379 ; in S. Atlantic, 210,
910 ; in S. Pacific, 476, 519, 803, 833 ;
in Southern Ocean, 289, 302, 434 ;

Deposits —

off' the Tagus, 46 ; between Tonga-
tabu and Fiji Islands, 487 ; in Torres
Strait, 544 ; on the Tristan plateau,
238 ; off Tristan group, 269 ; between
Tristan Island and Cape of Good
Hope, 276 ; off Valparaiso, 850 ; off
Virgin Islands, 135 ; off Zebu, 652.

Deposits, abysmal, 916 ; amorphous matter
in, 913 ; analyses of, 915, 1049 ;
colouring substances in, 914 ; descrip-
tion of various, 917 ; fine washings in,
913, 916 ; in general, 915 ; method
of examination of, 915 ; mineral par-
ticles in, 914, 916; siliceous organisms
in, 916; table of, 916; terrigenous, 916.

Deposits, blue mud, 917 ; coral muds and
sands, 918 ; Diatom ooze, 920 ; Globi-
gerina ooze, 919 ; green muds and
sands, 917 ; Pteropod ooze, 919 ;
Radiolarian ooze, 920 ; red clay, 920 ;
red muds, 918 ; shore formations,
916 ; volcanic muds and sands, 918.

Derelict steamer, 865.

Desmacidinidre, 569.

Besmacidon fistulosa, 571.

Besmopliyllum, 795.

Besmoscyphus pumilus, 136.

Biacria, 171, 919.

Bicea septempunctata, 485.

Diadem mountain, the, 783, 785.

Diamond Point, 761.

Biastylis, 742.

Diatomacea, 218, 225, 544, 607, 737, 738,
746 ; account of the, 930.

Diatom ooze, 434, 435, 737 ; description
of, 920.

Diatoms, pelagic, see Diatomacea.

Dicceum mindanense, 666.

Bichelaspis, 852.

Dickie, Prof., 376.

Bicksonia culcita, 178.

Dicladia, 931.

Bicrurus striatus, 666.

Bidyocalyx, 450.

Dictyonina, 444, 446, 451; suborders of, 447.

Bictyosphcera, 450.

“Dido,” H.M.S. , 483.

Diego Ramirez Islands, 886.

Bielis wallaeei, 555.

Dietary, table of, 1028.

Digby Point, 867.

Biodon, 459.

Biomedea, 324, 787 ; B. brachyura, 738 ;
B. chlororhyncha, 265 ; B. exulans,
294, 319 ; B. fuliginosa, 299, 436.

Diomedeina?, 324 ; differences between,
and Proeellariidse, 325.

Bione vanillce, 128.

Bioscorea, 713.

Biphyes, 170, 218, 639.

Biplax pacificus, 485.

Biplocheilus, 751.

Biploria, 138 ; B. cerebriformis, 145, 146.

Dipnoi, 455.

Bipsas arruensis, 548.

Diptera, 356, 376, 462, 891.

Biptychus, 901.

Direction Islands, 864.

Biscina, 738 ; B. atlantica, 131, 132, 775.

Biscoarachne, 858.

Biscorbina, 186, 360, 379, 467, 842.

“Discovery,” H.M.S., 310.

Disease, of circulatory system, 1030 ; of
digestive system, 1031; general, 1029;
immunity from, during voyage, 359 ;
of nervous system, 1030 ; of respira-
tory system, 1030 ; of skin at Ki
Islands, 553; at Humboldt Bay, 685.

Bistichopora coccinea, 760.

Bistoma, 219 ; B. okeni, 316.

Distressed ship, a, 130.

Distribution, of Actinometra, 310; of Aste-
roidea, 607 ; of Brachyura in shallow
water, 585 ; of Coccospheres, 938 ; of
Copepoda, 844 ; of Etmodiscus, 933 ;
facts in, explained, 564 ; of Mon-
axonida, 572; of moth, 600; of
Hemertea, 832 ; of Ostracoda, 847 ;
of plants by birds, 566, 787 ; of Rhab-
dospheres, 938.

Dittmar, Prof. W., xlvi, 954, 956, 971,
973, 978, 983, 987, 990, 992, 993,
995, 1068 ; chemical analyses by,
1033,; on composition of ocean water
salts, 954, 972, 973 ; on composition
of sea water, 954 ; on dissociation of
sea water carbonates, 954.

Diving Petrel, 359.

Dobbo, description of, 545, 564.

Dobbo Harbour, 544; Dobbo Spit, 544, 552.

Dock, 253, 257, 828.

Dock at Valparaiso, 843.

Bodecas elongata, 619.

Dog Island, 121.

Dogs introduced to destroy goats at Juan
Fernandez, 820, 823.

Dohrn, Prof., 740, 856, 858.

Boliolum, 219.

Dolomedes, 485.

Dolphin, 9, 545, 680, 729.

Bomicella solitaria, 489, 498.

Donati, xxxv.

Dorididse, 694.

Borigona, 617.

Dorippidse, 585.

Boroddaris papillata, 385, 388.

Boto pygmcea, 136.

Double Hill, 744.

Double Island, 866.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1085

Doves, 213.

Dracaena , 517, 714, 785.

Draco volans, 665.

Dragon flies, 149, 186.

Drake, Sir Francis, at Moluccas, 596 ; at
Strait of Magellan, 873, 876.

Dranan Island, 554.

Drassidse, 187.

Drassns, 187.

Dredge, 41 ; description of, 73 ; first use
of, by naturalists, xxxv; for capturing
Eupledella, 650.

Dredgings, Abrolhos Island to Tristan da
Cunba, 237 ; in Accessible Bay, 388 ;
at Amboina, 585 ; in Antarctic
Begions, 437 ; at Api, 518 ; along
Australian coast, 469 ; Azores to
Madeira, 180 ; at Bahia, 236 ; in Bal-
four Bay, 386 ; off Bermuda, 161 ; off
Brazil, 217 ; off Cape Maclear, 390 ;
southwest of Cape Otway, 392; off Cape
York*, 310 ; off Fernando Horonha,

214 ; Fernando Horonha to Bahia,

215 ; off Ferro Island, 125 ; in Inland
Sea, Japan, 748 ; off Kerguelen Island,
360, 367 ; Kerguelen to McDonald
Islands, 367 ; Madeira to St. Vincent.,
181 ; in Magellan Strait, 873 ; off
Matuku Island, 490 ; off Meangis
Islands, 669 ; in Messier and Sar-
miento Channels, 873 ; in Mid At-
lantic, 124 ; off east- coast of Hew
Zealand, 476 ; in Pacific, 775 ; off

• Pico, 175 ; Pico to San Miguel, 176 ;
off Prince of Wales Channel, 542 ; off
Bio de la Plata, 911 ; off St. Thomas,
135 ; off Shag Island, 379 ; in S.
Pacific, 804 ; in Stanley Harbour,
388; Tenerife to St. Thomas, 122 ; in
Torres Strait, 543 ; Tristan Island to
Cape of Good Hope, 274 ; see also
Trawlings.

Dredging, early, xliii ; early Antarctic, xli ;
method of, 76 ; shallow water, xxxvi.

Dredging, engine, 2 ; platform, 2 ; rope,
10, 72 ; wire, 71, 72.

Dress, at Admiralty Islands, 709 ; of Api
Islanders, 517 ; of dancing girls,
Banda, 567 ; at Dobbo, 545 ; at
Hakello, Fiji, 502, 503.

Drift wood, 679.

Drimys confertifolia, 828.

Drink made from palm, 598.

Dromidea, 898.

Dromidia Mcornis, 898.

Drums, at Admiralty Islands, 723 ; at Fiji,
496 ; of Ki Islanders, 553 ; in form of
crocodile, 541.

Drying plants, method of, 8 ; drying
chamber, necessity for, 8.

Ducks, 497, 766 ; Loggerhead, 872.

Du Fresne, M. Marion, 291, 292, 319, 322.
Dugong, 725, 729.

Duke of York Island, 698.

Dules malo, 784.

Duncan, Prof. P. M., 693.

Duncania, 800.

Dungeness Point, 873.

Duntze, Capt., 876.

D’Urville, Capt. Dumont, 415, 416, 417,
247.

Durvillea utilis, 299, 376.

Dutch, at Amboina, 577 ; at Arrou, 546 ;

at Banda, 562 ; at the Moluccas, 595.
Duties at Valparaiso, 843.

Dyer, W. Thiselton, 179, 943.

Dyizo Hana, 747.

Dynamite cartridges, method of catching
fish by, 456. .

Dysdera, 187 ; D. wollastoni, 55.

Dytaster, 608, 612, 615.

Eagle, 727.

Earbones of whales, see Bones of Cetaceans.
Earthquakes, at Amboina, 578 ; at Banda,
562; at Juan Fernandez, 824, 825 ;
without wave, 596.

Earwig, 530.

East David Island, 865.

East Indian Archipelago, Brachyura of,
588.

East India Islands, 1002.

East Island, 318, 321.

East Island, depth of passage between
Possession Island and, 321
East Jason Cay, 883.

East Moncceur Island, 453.

Eastern Channel, 701.

Eaton, Bev. Mr., 390.

Ebalia tuberculosa , 587.

Echinaster, 382 ; E. sarsii, 390
Echinocrepis, 200.

Echinodermata, reproduction of certain
members of, 379 ; direct mode of
development in, 382.

Echinoidea, account of the, 197.
Echinoplax moseleyi, 589.

Echinus, xxxii, 396, 651. .

Echiostoma, 412, 521 ; description of,
412 ; E. micripnus 412, 905 ; E.
microdon, 520.

Echium stenosiphon, 184.

Echiurus unicinctus, 908
Edeinascidia, 165.

Eden Harbour, 865.

Edible birds’ nests, 485
Edward’s Bock, 542.

Edwardsise, 574.

Eel, 485, 498, 788, 907.

Efate, 496, 515, 723, 731

Egyptian vulture, 186.

Ehrenberg, Dr., xxxix, 220.

Eilhardia schulzei, 641.

Eimeo Island, 776, 777, 801.

El Yunque, 826.

Elasipoda, description of the, 276 ; geogra-
phical distribution of, 277.

Electrical thermometer, Siemens’, 95.
Eledone, 272.

Elephant Seal, 294, 321, 354, 373, 377, 819.
Elizabeth Head, 334.

Elizabeth Island, 871.

Ellis, xxxv ; on deep-sea temperatures, 83.
Elpidia glacialis, 277, 278.

Embryonopsis halticella, 357.

“Emma Jane,” the, 377.

Empctrum nigrum, 253.

Enchelycore nigricans, 203.

Encrinos, 49.

End Hill, 747.

Enderby’s Land, 416.

English Harrows, 863, 864, 868.

Enhalus, 540.

Enoploteuthis margarilifera, 574.

Enstatite, 812.

Entada scandens, 538.

'Enteric fever, cases of, 1029.

Entrance Isles, 882.
d’Entrecasteaux, see D’Entrecasteaux.

Eooa Island, 476, 478, 484, 485, 489.

Eos indica, 669.

Epeira, 187 ; E. clavipes, 556 ; E. man-
gareva, 485, 489, 518 ; E. moluccensis,
489, 518 ; E. perplicata, 55.

Epialtus, 588.

Epiphytes, 580, 704.

Equatorial Current, see Current.

“Erebus,” H.M.S., xl, 878, 884.
Eretmochelys imbricata, 169.

Ergasticus cloud, 590 ; E. naresi, 590.
Erica arborea, 54; E. azorica,- 178.

Erich thaidina, 818.

Erichthus, 817, 818.

Eruptions at Banda, 561.

Ervilia castanea, 625.

Eryon, 523 ; E. barrovensis, 524.
Eryoneicus, 524 ; E. coccus, 524.

, Erysipelas, case of, 1030.

Erythrina, 534 ; E. indica, 489.

Escape Beach, 864.

Escharidse, 672, 674, 675.

“Esperance,” the, 698.

Esperia rotalis, 570.

Espinosa, 697.
d’Etehevery, M., 262.

Etheridge, Bobert, jun., on Falkland
Island fossils, 892.

Ethusa microphthalma, 585.

Etmodiscus, 512, 738, 932 ; E. convexus,
932, 933 ; E. coronatus, 932 ; E. dia-

1086

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CH ALLEN GEE.

Etmodiscus —

dema, 933 ; E. gigas, 932, 933 ;
E. humilis, 932, 933 ; E. japonicus,
932, 933 ; E. obovatus, 932 ; E. peria-
chantinos, 932 ; E. pundiger, 932 ; E.
radiatus, 932 ; E. rex, 758 ; E. spher-
oidalis, 932, 933 ; E. tympanum, 933 ;
E, wymlleanus, 932, 933.

“ Etna,” the, 683.

Enaigee Island, 476, 477.

Eucalyptus, 178, 534.

Euchceta, 845 ; E. prestandrece, 844, 845.
Euchoetomera, 742.

Eucopia, 739 ; E. australis, 740.

Eucopiidae, 740.

Eudictyum, 450.

Eudiocrinus, 313 ; E. atlanticus, 310.
Eudyptes, 361, 364 ; E. chrysocome, 258,
296, 358, 362, 363, 364 ; E. chryso-
lophus, 358, 363, 364.

Eulepis, 630.

Eunice magellanica, 632.

Euodia, 931.

Euphausia, 219, 436 ; E. miilleri, 741 ;
E. pellucida, 741.

Euphausiidse, 739, 740 ; phosphorescence
of, 740, 743.

Euphione elisabethce, 630.

Euphorbia, 184 ; E. canariensis, 760 ; E.

origanoides, 944 ; E. tuclceyana, 184.
Euphyllia, 540.

Eupista, 635.

Eupladphora simplex, 288.

Euplectella, 444, 450, 775 ; Syllis com-
mensal in, 630 ; E. aspergillum, 444,
446, 650.

Euplectellidis, 447, 450.

Euplectellinse, 450.

Eupleurodon, 588.

Euprepes maculatus, 214; E. punctatus, 213.
Euprognatha, 590.

Eurete, 451.

Euretid®, 447, 451.

Europa Lighthouse, 48.

Europa Point, 48.

Euryale, 379.

“ Eurydice,” the, 246.

Euryplegma, 451.

Euryplegmatidse, 448, 451.

Eurypodius, 590 ; E. latreillei, 587, 591,
592 ; E. longirostris, 591.

Euspongia, 644.

Eustephanus fernandensis, 829 ; E. galeri-
tus, 829.

Euthelepus, 635.

Evans Island, 866.

Excursion, to Diadem mountain, 783 ; to
Lake Waihirra, 788 ; to Port. Darwin,
888.

‘‘Exile,” the, 376.

Exocodus, 219, 512.

Exogone, 632.

Expedition, object of, 23 ; naval and
scientific staff of, 19.

Expedition, “ Knight Errant,” liii, 277 ;
“Lightning,” xlvii, 1, 99; “Porcu-
pine,” xlviii, 1 ; Triton, liv.

Expedition, TJ.S. Exploring, xl.

Expression, facial, among Admiralty
Islanders, 707 ; among Australians,
540 ; among Malays, 553 ; among
Tongans, 479.

Extraerinus briareus, 303 ; E. subangu-
laris, 303.

j Exuvicella marina, 935.

Eyes, of Annelids, 629; of Serolis, 880.

Eyton, T. C., on classification of petrels,
328.

Faroe, Islands, xl, xlv, 967 ; Channel,
xlvii, 469.

Faffao Island, 477.

Failure Rocks, 701.

Fairway Island, 341, 867.

Falconidee, 328.

Falkland Islands, 383, 862, 871, 872, 883,
888, 902, 969.

Falkland Islands, flies at, 891 ; flora of,
375 ; fossils at, 892 ; gauchos at,
889 ; geological features of, 892 ; gnats
at, 891 ; manner of treating horses at,
889 ; pal <e ontological aspect of, 892 ;
rocks at, 892 ; sea level at, 883 ; shep-
herds at, 889 ; comparative tempera-
ture of the air and sea at, 885 ; wastes
at, 889 ; wild geese at, 872.

Falkland Islands to Monte Video, 902.

Fallos Channel, 869.

False Island, 508.

Fan Palm, 536.

Farciminaria, 676 ; F. cribraria, 674 ;
F. delicatissima, 171, 183, 673, 674 ;
F. gracilis, 674 ; F. hexagona , 675 ;
F. magna, 673, 674 ; F. padfica, 673.

Farciminariadae, 673, 674, 675.

Fareute Point, 777.

Farewell Spit, 466.

Farm Cove, 454.

Farquhar Pass, 866.

Farrea, 441, 451, 757.

Farreidse, 447, 451.

Fataua Valley, 783.

Fauna, abyssal, 616 ; see also Zoology and
Surface Fauna.

Fayal, 167, 168.

Feather-stars, 303, 309.

Fei, 784.

Feira St. Anna, 229 ; cassava at, 235 ;
cattle market at, 232 ; church at,
232 ; fair at, 231 ; German host at,

Feira St. Anna —

235 ; horses at, 233 ; the inn at, 230 ;
mules at, 233 ; rodents at, 231 ; sheep
at, 233 ; village near, 234; wet and
dry seasons at, 229.

Fell, Mr., 890.

Ferguson Island, 701.

Ferguson, James, 19.

Fergusson, Sir James, 474.

Ferns, 143, 178, 460, 564, 599, 704, 944.

Fern, Bird’s-nest, 785, 786; brake, 827;
climbing, 787 ; giant, 785 ; at Juan
Fernandez, 827 ; Stag’s Horn, 547 ;
tree, 459, 785.

Fernando Noronha, 210 ; birds at, 213 ;
Brachyura at, 586 ; flora of, 211, 944 ;
landing at, 211 ; lizards at, 213 ; Peak
of, 211, 213 ; penal settlement at,
211; plantations at, 211 ; seasons at,
213 ; stinging plant at, 213.

Fernando Noronha to Bahia, 214.

Ferro Island, dredging and sounding near,
125.

Fertilisation of flowers by birds, 536, 829.

Festing, Capt., 243, 244; annexation of
Tristan by, 243.

Ficus noronhce, 213.

Fiddle Urchin, 388.

Fieldingia, 451.

Fiji Islands, 475, 476, 483, 484, 487, 489,
534, 690, 709, 730, 731, 978.

Fiji, reception by chief at, 495 ; chiefs
daughter at, 494 ; drum at, 496 ;
houses at, 501 ; kaava bowls at, 720 ;
mountaineers of, 726 ; pony at, 494 ;
puddings at, 501 ; zoology of, 489 ;
see also Kandavu, Matuku, Mbau,
Nakello.

Fiji Islands to New Hebrides, 511.

Finch, 261, 739.

Fine washings, description of, 913.

Finsch, Dr. Otto, 762, 1066.

Fiona marina,. 136.

“Fisgard,” H.M.S., 876.

Fish, deep-sea, 171, 520 ; account of the,
904 ; at Juan Fernandez, 830.

Fish whose spine cures toothache, 823.

Fish globes, 9.

Fishing tackle at Admiralty Islands, 715,
716.

Fitchia nutans, 787.

Fitzmaurice, Lewis, 242.

Fitzroy Island Harbour, 892.

Fitz Roy, Admiral Robert, 868.

Fitz Roy, Capt., 875, 884, 885.

Flabelligera abyssorum, 633.

Flabellum alabastrum, 795 ; F. angular e,
795 ; F. apertum, 796.

Flagellata, 934.

Flat Hill, 543.

Plies, 891 ; wingless, 356, 376.

Flinders Pass, 542.

Flint Islands, 765.

Flora, see Vegetation.

Flores Sea, 632.

Flower, Prof., 731.

Flustra, xlii ; F. biseriata, 673 ; F. mem-
branacea, 136 ; F. peregrina, 136 ; F.
tuberculata, 136.

Flustridse, 673, 675.

“Fly,” H.M.S., 533.

Flying lizards, 665.

Foelsche, Paul, 731.

Food, of Admiralty Islanders, 712, 713 ;
of Australian aborigines, 538 ; of deep-
sea Actiniae, 576.

Foot Island, 864.

Foraminifera, 161; abundance of, offRaine
Island, 530 ; account of the, 833 ;
observations on living, 839, 841 ;
pelagic, 841 ; from Tristan plateau,
912 ; yellow cells in, 839, 840.

Forbes, Prof. E. , xliii ; on the first deep-
water dredging, xxxvi ; on marine
zoology, xxxix.

Forbes, W. A., on the Petrels, 323, 1066,
1067.

Forceps, insect, 43.

Forcbhammer, Prof., on the Composition
of Sea Water, xlvi, 972.

Forests of Patagonia, 876.

Forficula, 530.

Formosa, 647, 749.

Fort Nassau, 560 ; Fort Orange at Ternate,
597 ; Fort San Antonio, 843 ; Fort
Victoria, 578.

Fortune Islands, 344, 624.

Fossil, bone, analysis of, 1036 ; wood, 349.

Foster, 415, 416.

Foveolaria orbicularis, 674.

Fowls nesting in baskets, 555.

Fox dipping needle, 3.

Fox Point, 892.

Fox trap, 43.

Frankland, Dr., 21.

Franklin, Sir John, on Polar Expedition,
xliii.

Fraser Island, 455.

Frayle Tower, 48.

Freewill Island, 678.

Freezing sea water, latent heat of, 427.

Fregata minor, 529.

Fregetta, 324.

French Government dredgings, 895.

Freshwater Bay, 871.

Freshwater Crabs, 149.

Friction of wood, fire by, 482.

Friendly Islands, 476, 480 ; whaling season
at, 477.

Frigate Birds, 213, 521, 529, 545, 929.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

I Fritillaria, 219.

Fruit at Juan Fernandez, 8241
Fruit Bat, 484, 498, 550, 555 729.

Fruit Pigeon, 485, 498, 518, 566, 729;
Great, 485.

Fucus vesiculosus, 135, 169.

Fuegia, 891.

Fuegians, the, 733.

Fuller, Capt., 341, 346.

Fuller Harbour, 341.

Fulmars, 265, 324.

Fulmarus, 325.

Funchal, 181 ; soundings at, 181.

Fungia, 565, 788.

Fungulus, 164.

Fungus, 502.

Funnels, 45.

Furnas valley, 176 ; Sir Wyville Thomson
on, 176.

Furnas village, 176.

Fur Seals, 264, 321, 354, 355, 819, 864, 872.
Fusus, xliii ; F. pagodoides, 895.

Futuna Island, 815.

Gaho Island, 453.

Gadang Island, 556.

Gadidae, 906.

Gaimard,,462.

Galapagos Islands, 362.

“Galatea,” H.M.S., 241, 250.

Galatea Bank, 747.

Galatheg, 188, 901.

Galatheadea, 898, 901.

Galeopithecus, 665 ; G. philippinensis, 665.
Gallinula nesiotis, 262.

Galls on plants due to ants, 580.
Gammarina, 618.

Gammarus, xlii, 269.

Gannet, 518, 521, 529, 928.

. Ganoris cleomes, 128.

Garfowl, 366.

Garrod, Prof. A. H. , 1066 ; on Petrels, 323.
Garrodia, 324.

Gaspar, Straits of, 647.

Gasteropoda, account of the, 894.
Gastropore, 790.

Gastrozooids, 790.

Gato Island, 647.

Gauges, rain, 42.

Gam daedala, 897.

“Gazelle,” the, liii, 346, 347, 475, 878,
962, 968.

Gebia, 524.

Gecarcinus, 148 ; G. lagostoma, 586 ; G.

lateralis, 150.

Gecko, 729.

Geelong, 414.

Geikie, Prof. A. , on St. Paul’s Rocks, 209.
Gellius, 571.

Genetyllis oculata 3 629.

J 087

Gennadas, 527.

Gennes, M. de, 875.

Genoa Peak, 453.

Gentoo Penguin, 295.

Geology of, Api, 516; Bermudas, 137, 141 ;
Fiji, 492 ; Heard Island, 372 ; Hono-
lulu, 762 ; Kerguelen, 347 ; St. Paul’s
Rocks, 206 ; Tahiti, 779 ; Tristan da
Cunha, 252 ; Wokan Island, 551.

Geopelia, 535.

Geophilus, 186.

Geoplana, 473.

Geotelphusa dehaani, 591.

Geotrochus moseleyi, 729.

Gephyrea, account of the, 907.

German farmer, night with a, 233.

German North Sea Expedition, xlix.

Gerstaecker, Prof., on Distribution of Sero-
lis, 879.

Gerydusboisdumlii, 580; G. slygianus, 600.

Gesner’s History of Animals, xxxv.

Giant Penguin, 298.

Giant Petrel, 294.

Gibraltar, anchorage at, 47 ; meridian
distance between Malta and, 47 ;
observing station at, 47, 48.

Gigantes Islands, 623, 647.

Gigantes Island, North, 623.

Gilbert Islanders, 661.

Gillolo Island, 593, 600, 604.

Gin-blocks, 63.

Girvan, ferruginous sandstones of, 892,

Glacier Bay, 870.

Glaciers, at Heard Island, 370 ; at Ker-
guelen, 347 ; of Patagonia, 876.

Glass, blowing, 11 ; compressibility of, 105.

Glass, Corporal Wm., 247, 251, 256.

Glass Rocks, 333.

Glauconite, 161, 468, 560, 918, 919.

Glauconitic grains and casts, analysisof, 468.

Glaucus, 219 ; G. atlanticus, 136.

Gleba, 170.

Gleichenia dichotoma, 599, 787.

Glennie Islands, 453.

Glenodinium cinctum, 935.

Globigerina, 218, 379, 467, 511, 607, 675,
758, 838, 851, 873, 919, 930; G.
cequilaieralis, 803, 838, 912 ; G.

bulloides, 194, 434, 435, 436, 803,
838, 841, 912 ; G. conglobata, 194,
803, 838, 912 ; G. digitata, 912 ; G.
dubia, 194, 435, 803, 838, 912; G.
dutertrei, 434, 436 ; G. helicina, 912 ;
G. inflata, 434, 435, 436, 803, 838,
912; G. rubra, 435, 838, 912; G.
sacculi/era, 194, 838, 839, 912.

Globigerina ooze, 126, 919, 922 ; descrip-
tion of, 919.

Globiocephalus, 775, 806.

G loucester,” the, 822.

1088

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

GlypMdodon saxatilis, 203.

Glyphocrangon, 524, 527.

Glyptaster, 612, 615.

Gnaphosa exornata, 187.

Gnathophausia, 739 ; G. cdlcarata, 669 ;

G. gigas, 739 ; G. zoosa, 740.

Gnats, 357, 891.

Goat Island, 826.

Goats at Juan Fernandez, 819.

Gobies, 489.

Godeffroy Brothers, 478
Golden Plover, 144.

Gomo Gomo, 545.

Gomomo Island, 592.

Goney, 294.

Gongs, 567.

Goniasteridee, 614.

Goniocidaris canaXiculata, 384, 385, 386.
Goniophyllum, 800.

Goniothecium, 931.

Goniuris dorantes, 128 ; G. proteus, 128.
Gonoplax rhomboides, 588 ; G. sinuati-
frons, 588.

Gonostoma gracile, 745 ; G. microdon,
758, 906..

Gcmostomyxus, 499.

Goode, Dr., 483.

Goodridge, Charles, 297, 320, 321, 322 ;

on the breeding of penguins, 298.
Goodsir, Harry, xliii.

Goodsir, Mr., xxxix.

Goonong Api, see Gunung Api.

Gordon Point, 474.

“Gorgon," 868, 876.

Gorgonaeea, 690.

Gorgonidfe, 692.

Gorgon Rock, 864.

Goura Pigeons, 688.

Government of Banda by Dutch, 562.
Governor of Ternate, 595.

Graff, Prof. L, v. , on the Myzostomida,
303, 313, 315, 1068.

Grammaria, 752.

Grammatopkom, 930.

Grampus, 437.

Grantia, 642.

Grappler, Port, 864, 865.

Grapsoidea, 148, 585.

Grapsus, 187 ; G. cruentatus, 148 ; G.

maculatus, 586 ; G. pictus, 150.

Grass Island, 339.

Grassi, 950.

Grassi, Prof. B., on the Chsetognatha, 1072.
Gravity, specific, 26, 108; see also Sea water.
Gray, Mr., xxxix.

Gray Harbour, 863, 864.

Great Auk, 366.

Green, W. L., 761.

Green, Mr., conducts party to Lake Wai-
hirra, 788.

Green-bug, 148.

Green Hill, 765.

Greenland, xlv, 428, 959.

Greenland Harbour, 337, 338, 340, 348,
350, 359 ; grey rocks at, 350

Green Mountain (Ascension), 927 ; (St.
Vincent), 183 ; excursion up, 184 ;
vegetation of the, 184.

Green mud, description of, 917. •

Green Turtle, 507.

Greenwich and Sandy Point, comparison of
temperature at, 877.

Greenwich Island, 667.

Gregccrince, 219.

Grey Mullet, 454, 459.

Grimmia insularis, 375.

Grinnell’s Land, 455.

Grisebach, 375.

Ground Pigeon, 535.

Grube, Prof., 382, 632.

Grunow, 931.

GfryTlus, 148.

Guam, 667.

Guanacos, 872.

Guaricha, 593.

Guava, 760.

Gudang tribe, 536.

Guia Harrows, 866, 867.

Guides, in rain at Arrou, 546 ; at Tahiti,
783 ; at Ternate, 598.

Guilandina bonduc, 129.

Guimaras Island, 622.

Guinea coast, temperature curves off, 971.

Guinea Current, 218, 960, 971

Guivillea alabastrina, 895.

Guize Yama, 747.

Gulf, of Maracaibo, 661 ; of Mexico, 895,
962 ; of Penas, 849, 862, 867, 868 ; of
Trinidad, 867, 869, 873.

Gulf Stream, 154, 157, 895, 923, 959, 966,
969.

Gulf Weed, 125, 135 ; fauna of, 136.

Gulls, 294, 326, 473 ; difference between,
and Petrels, 326.

Gum-trees, 178, 460, 534.

Gunn, Dr. Marcus, on eyes of Genetyllis
oculata, 629.

Gunnera bracteata, 828 ; G. insularis, 828 ;
G. peltata, 828.

Gunung Api, 560, 561, 573 ; ascent of, 563.

Gunung Sodara, 605.

Gunther, Dr. A., 217, 1065, 1070;on Bathy-
pterois, 217 ; on deep-sea fish, 904 ;
on Echiostoma, 412 ; on Ipnops, 239 ;
on Japan fish, 744, 904 ; on fish at St.
Paul’s Rocks, 203; on Stomiatidse, 412.

Gunyas, 461.

Guppy, Dr., 924 ; on coral reefs, 782.

Gurnets, 928.

Guthrie, Prof., 426.

Guynia, 800.

Gygis, 929 ; G. Candida, 928.
Gymnodadylus, 489.

Gymnodinium, 935.

Gympie, 455.

Haastia, 301.

Habrodidyum, 450.

Haddon, Prof. A. C., on the Chitonidae,
286, 1069.

Haeckel, Prof. Ernst, on Bathybius, 939 ;
on Calcarea, 639 ; on the Medusae,
600, 1067 ; on Myxobrachia, 470 ; on
Phaeodaria, 225 ; on the Radiolaria,
219, 1070; on the Siphonophora, 1071.
Hagen, Admiral Van der, 577.

Haidahs, 661.

Hair of Admiralty Islanders, 708.

Halcyon erythrorhyncha, 189 ; H. julicc,
518 ; H. sacra, 485 ; H. sanctus, 473.
Hale Cove, 862, 868.

Haleciidae, 753.

Halfway Island, 532.

Halicarcinus planatus, 587, 592.
Halicnemia patera, 572.

Halifax, Nova Scotia, 158, 959 ; gla’ciated
rocks near, 158.

Halifax to Bermuda, 158.

Halimeda, 127 ; H. opuntia, 127 ; H.
tridens, 127.

Halirytus amphibius, 357.

Hall, Basil, on Spanish policy in Sotitb
Pacific, 824.

Halmahera Island, 600.

Halobates, 219, 512, 758 ; H. wiillerstorffi,,
513.

Halobatodes, 513.

Halocypris, 219 ; H. atlantica, 847 ; H.

brevirostris, 847.

Halocyptena, 323, 324, 325.

Halophila, 497, 540.

I Haloporphyrus lepidion, 745.

Halosauridae, 907.

Halosaurus rostrai/us, 171.

| Hamadryas niveipicta, 555.

| Hamilton Shoulder, 865.

Hammond Island, 542.

Hamy, M., 731.

Hannonia, 858.

Hanover Island, 867.

Haplochiton zebra, 864, 866.
Haplophragmium, 842.

Haplophyllia, 800.

Happy Valley, 636.

Harbour Island, 341.

Hardy Island, 531, 532.

Harlow Island, 866.

Harmattan winds, 126, 183.

Harpadicus fulvus, 844.

Harpoons, 43.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1089

Harpy ia cephalotes, 729.

Harrington Sound, 150.

Harston, Lieut. H. C., 19.

Harston Rocks, 336, 337.

Haruku Island, 577, 578.

‘ ‘ Hassler, ” U. S. S. . xlix.

Hastigerina, 194, 218, 469, 511, 911 ; H.
pelagica, 836, 912.

Haswell’s Catalogue of Australian Crusta-
cea, 587.

“Havannah,” H.M.S., 876.

Havergal, Lieut. Arthur, 19.

Havergal Shoal, 702.

Hawaii, 750, 761, 764.

Hawaiians, crania of, 762.

Hawkesbury River, 459.

Hawkins, Sir John, 874 ; on marine life,
xxxiii.

Hawksbill Turtle, 169.

Haycock Island, 668.

Hayman Point, 864.

Health of crew, medical report on, 1027.

Heard Island, 335, 344, 350, 358, 367,
369, 370, 453, 930.

Heard Island, black sa.nd at, 372 ; danger
from glaciers at, 377 ; depth of water
round, 376 ; description of, 372 ;
Elephant Seal fishery at, 376 ; flora of,.
943 ; geographical position of, 370 ;
glaciers at, 370 ; landing at, 378 ;
meteorological observations at, 378 ;
present condition of, 374; rocks at, 372;
eroded rock at, 373 ; squalls off, 369 ;
vegetation at, 375 ; velocity of wind
■ .at, 378 ; weather in vicinity of, 377.

Heard Island to the Antarctic Circle and
Australia, 396.

Heath, 178.

Hedyotis adscensionis, 944.

Helen Shoal, 678.

Helieidse, 56.

Helicma eonvexa, 148 ; H. ponsoribyi, 729.

Heliconius charithorda, 128 ; H.narceus, 216.

Heliopora, 791 ; H. cceriolea, 664.

Helioporidae, 800.

Heliostat, 42.

Helix adansoni, 56 ; H. advena, 188 ; H.
apicina, 56 ; H. bermudensis, 138,
148 ; It. bollei, 188 ; H.' eartereti, 729 ;
H. eireumfirmata, 148 ; II. circum-
sessa, 56 ; H. dentrecasteauxi, 729 ; H.
exulata, 269 ; H. fortunata, 56 ; H.
infrastriata, 729 ; H. labillardierei,
729; H. lactea, 56; H. lancerottensis,
56 ; H. latimarginata, 489; H. lenti-
cula, 56 ; H. lineata, 56 ; H. malleata,
56 ; H. mierodonta, 148 ; H. moseleyi,
729 ; H. pavida, 56 ; H. phalerata,
56 ; H. selki/rki, 829 ; H. vortex, 148.

Helix, eaten by blacks, 538.

Hellenus- spiniearpus, 586.

Hemiaster, development of, 389 ; H. caver -
nosus, 388, 396 ; H. philippii, 388.

Hemicalanus aculeatus, 845.

Hemidactylus, 489, 555.

Hemilamprops serrato-costata, 742.

Hemiplecta, 729.

Hemiptera, pelagic, 512.

Hemp line, 70.

Hempen tangles, Captain Calver’s intro-
duction of, xlviii.

Hemsley, ~W. B., on the Botany of the
Expedition, 943, 1069.

Henderson, J. R., 585 ; on the Anomura,
897, 1071.

Henry Island, 341.

“Herald,” the, 475. •

Herdman, Prof. "W. A., on the Tunicata,
162, 1067, 1068, 1071.

l’Heremite, Admiral Jacob, 819 ; at Juan-
Fernandez, 819.

Heritiera littoralis, 680.

Hermanos, Dos, 624.

l’Herminier and osteology of the Tubinares,
328.

Hermione, 630.

Hermit Island, flora of, 375.

Hermit Islands, 689, 697.

Hernandez, Tome, 874.

Herodiones, 328.

“ Heroine,” the, 320, 321.

Heroine Breakers, 320, 321.

Herons, 328, 484, 497, 518, 529.

HerpetolitJm Umax, 565.

Herschel, 955.

Hersilia, 187 ; H. caudata, 187.

Hertwig, Prof. R., on Actiniaria, 574,
1067, 1068 ; on Myxobrachia, 470 ;
on Radiolarians, 221.

Hertwigia, 450.

Heteroccela, 640, 641.

Heterocrypta maltzani, 586.

Heteropegma, 642.

Heteropoda, 1071.

Heteropoda, 490.

Heteropus, 555, 729.

Hexaetinellida, account of the, 437; classi-
fication of, 450 ; distribution of, 449 ;
divisions of, 444 ; method of examin-
ing the, 438 ; new species of, 448 ;
principles of modification in, 443; soft
parts of, 443.

Hibiscus, 682 ; H. rosa-sinensis, 711 ; H.
tiliaceus, 482; 760.

Hieri Island, 604.

Higham, Mr., 20.

Higham Island, 701.

High Lobos Island, 866.

Hill, Mr., 455.

“Hillsborough,” the, 346.

Hillsborough Bay, 341, 346.

Hilo Bay, 764 ; lighthouse at, 765.

Hincks, Mr., 671.

Hino Misaki, 748, 749.

Hiogo Tower, 747.

Hippidea, 898.

Hippolyte ensiferus, 136 ; H. tenuirostris,

136.

Hippopus , 716.

Hippospongia, 644 ; H. anomala, 899.

Hirundo gutturalis, 739 ; H. rustica, 739 ;
H. tahitica, 489, 518.

Histiopsis atlantica, 273.

Hitoe Peninsula, 578.

Hobson’s Bay, 414.

Hoek, Dr. P. P. C., on the Cirripedia,
851, 1068 ; on the Pycnogonida, 856,
1066.

Hog Island, 302, 317, 319, 337, 339; astro-
nomical observations from summit of,
337 ; pigs at, 320, 321.

Hog-plum, 713.

Hogolu, 667.

Holascinse, 450.

Holascus, 450.

Holdfast for microscope, 7.

Holland Point, 867.

Holocentrum, 203 ; H. sancti-pauli, 203.

Holopus, 152.

Holothuria tremula, 382.

Holothurioidea, account of . the, 276 ;
colouring matter of, 541 ; fossil forms
of, 282 ; organisation of, 278 ; repro-
duction of certain, 379.

Homalogyra atomus, 897,

Homocoela, 640, 641.

Homola, 898.

Homoladea, 898.

Homolampas fulva, 775.

Homology of muscle, relation of nerve
supply to, 459.

Homolopsis, 898.

Honey Birds, 489, 534.

Hong Kong, 635, 933, 961, 1002 ; build-
ings in, 636 ; climate of, 636 ; gen-
eral appearance of, 635 ; meteorology
of, 637, 638 ; seasons at, 636.

Hong Kong to Manila, 646.

Honolulu, 753, 759 ; Americanism of,
760 ; burial-places at, 762 ; de-
scription of, 759 ; Government build-
ings at, 763; harbour at, 762; meteor-
ology of, 764 ; music at, 761 ; rainfall
at, 760.

Honoruru, see Honolulu.

Hooke’s, method of sounding, xxxiv; water-
bottle, xxxiii.

Hooker, Sir Joseph D., xl, xliii, xliv, 21,
346, 475, 891, 943 ; on flora of Raoul
Island, 475.

1090

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Hopeful Harbour, 341.

Horizons, artificial, 42.

Horn Island, 542.

Hornbill, 665.

Horned Hill, 542.

Horny Sponges, 639.

Hornung, Dr., analyses of deposits by,
1049.

Horses, at Port Stanley, 890.

Horta Bay, 167, 175 ; smallpox at, 175.

Hoskyn Island, 866.

Houses, at Admiralty Islands, 714 ; at Ki
Doulan, 555 ; Malay, 546 ; Moro, at
• Samboangan and Port Isabella, 659 ;
at Wanumbai, 549 ; at Zebu, 649.

Howe Hill, 453.

Howe Island, 333, 341, 345, 346, 349.

Howe’s Foreland, see Howe Island.

Howland Island, 765.

Howlett, W. A., 19.

Hoya , 517.

Hoyle, W. E., on the Cephalopoda, 269,
1071 ; on Procalistes, 472.

Hubbard, Prof., 949.

Hubrecht, Prof. A. A. W., on the Nemer-
tea, 830, 1072.

Human Crania, see Crania.

Human foot, Ruge’s investigations on, 458.

Humboldt, Alex., xxxv; on weather and
plants, 229.

Humboldt Bay, 661, 681, 696, 708, 711,
714, 728, 729.

Humboldt Bay, axes at, 685 ; barter
at, 684 ; bows at, 685 ; deposit in,
689 ; description of, 688 ; fuugoid
skin disease at, 685 ; landing at, 687 ;
ornaments at, 683 ; Papuans of, 705 ;
reception at, 681 ; scenery at, 683 ;
stone choppers at, 685 ; value of iron
at, 684.

Humboldt Bay to the Admiralty Islands,
689.

Humboldt Current, 990.

Humming Birds, 127.

Humpbacked Whale, 477.

Humphreys Islands, 765.

Hungry Bay, 148.

Hunter, Capt. John, 697.

Hunter Island, 668.

Hurricanes at St. Thomas, 129'.

Huts, temporary, at Tahiti, 784.

Hutt Yalley, 473.

Huxley, Prof. T. H., 21, 939 ; on Spheni-
scidse, 363 ; on Spirula, 1070 ; on
Radiolaria, 220 ; on Trigonia, 462 ;
on Tubinares, 328.

Hyalea, 219, 912. .

Hyalinia, 269.

Hyalincecia, 635.

Hyalonema, xlvii, 450, 744.

Hyalonematid®, 444, 447, 450.

Hyalonematin®, 450.

Eyalostylus, 451.

Hyastenus, 588.

Hyatt, Prof. A., 643.

Hydnophytum formicarum, 580.

Hydraulic press, 10.

Hydrocorallin®, 792.

Hydroida, account of the, 751. .

Hydroids, 679.

Hydromedusse, 218.

Hydromedusoid stocks, 218.

Hydrometer, Buchanan’s, 109 ; use of at
sea, 109.

Hydrometers, 42, 45.

Hydrophid®, 729.

Hydrosaurus marmoratus, 665.

Hymenaster, 614, 615 ; H. echinulatus, 804 ;
H. inf emalis, 757 ; H. nobilis, 392 ;
H. pellucidus, 392 ; S. sacculatus, 608.

Eymenophyllum tunbridgense, 300.

Hymenoptera, 186, 236, 485, 490, 555, 666.

Hynes, John, 19.

Hyocrinus, 158, 311, 313, 738 ; H. bethel-
lianus, 308.

Hyperammina, 842 ; H. vagans, 912.

Eyperia, 171, 219.

Hyperids, 758.

Hyperina, 618.

Hyphalaster, 614, 615 ; H. hyalinus, 775.

Sypobythius, 165 ; H. caly codes, 165; H.
moseleyi, 165.

Hypolimnas moseleyi, 485 ; H. mu/rrayi,
490 ; H. naresi, 485 ; 3. thomsoni,
485, 490.

lanthella, 644, 645.

lanthina, 169, 171, 219, 750, 758; I.
rotundata, 136.

Ibuki Sima, 747.

Ice Barrier, 417, 429.

Icebergs, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402,
428 ; characters of, 430 ; colour of,
398, 400, 433 ; density of sea water
among, 960 ; dimensions of, 429 ;
firing at, 402 ; platforms under water
of, 430 ; stratified structure of, 431 ;
surf on, 433.

Ieeberg Souud, 864.

Iceland, xlv.

Ice-pack, description of, 406 ; greater
danger from southern, 405 ; nature of
ice composing, 405 ; Sir James Ross
on, 406 ; temperature of water in, 407.

Icius, 485 ; I. dissimilis, 187.

Ida Island, 541.

Idmonea marionensis, 674.

Idmoneidae, 674.

Idotea baffini, xlii ; I. metallim, 136 ; I.
whymperi, 136.

Iguana, 229.

Ilibe Saki, 748.

Ilo Ilo, 659 ; description of, 622.

Ilo Ilo to Manila, 623.

Sy aster, 611.

Imlay, Mount, 454.

Imported labour at Banda, 562.

Inaccessible Island, 240, 254, 944.

Inaccessible Island, birds on, 256, 262 ;
description of, 254 ; penguins at, 258 ;
rocks at, 262 ; soundings near, 255.

Inaccessible Island to Nightingale Island,
263.

Inclinometers, 42.

Indian left on Juan Fernandez, 819.

Indian Archipelago, 730.

Indian fig, 473.

Indian Ocean, 427, 428, 450, 962, 967, 968.

Indian Reach, 865.

Indians, Cuajiro, 661 ; Pueblo, 462.

Inermia, 447, 448, 451 ; families of, 448.

Infusoria, account of the, 933.

Inland Sea, 744, 747 ; deposits in the, 748.

Inner Channels, 867, 868 ; want of anchor-
ages in, 868.

Ino Sima, 744, 745.

Inocentes Island, 866, 867.

Insects, 147 ; see also Coleoptera, Diptera,
Lepidoptera, &c.

Insects at summit of volcano, 564.

Instruments, of aborigines, 538 ; for Ex-
pedition, 8 ; meteorological, 42 ;
surveying, 42.

loida, 629.

Ipili Reef, 542.

Ipnops, 239 ; I. murrayi, 607, 905 ; eyes
of, 239.

Ipomcea pes-caprce, 517, 680.

Irish Bay, 348.

Irpa abyssicola, 277.

Isid®, 692.

Island Harbour, Kerguelen, 335, 337,
339 ; survey of, 338.

Island Harbour, Sarmiento Channel, 863,
868 ; calcareous sand hills at, 892.

Isophyllia australis, 146 ; I. cylindrica,
146 ; I. dipsaeea. 145, 146 ; I knoxi,
146 ; I. marginata, 146 ; I. rigida,
145 ; I. strigosa, 146.

Isopoda, xliii, 743 ; account of the, 878 ;
distribution of, 879 ; parasitic on
Actinometra, 541.

Isthmus Bay, 866, 868 ; rocks at, 866.

Isumi Strait, 746, 748.

Itsino Sima Rock, 746.

Iwashi Sima, 747.

Jackass Penguin, 259.

Jack-fruit, 598.

Jackson’s Narrative, 499, 500.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1091

Jacobs, J. T., 698, 706, 708, 714.

Jacobsen, Dr., 976, 978, 986 ; water-bottle
of, 117.

Jamaica, xxxiv.

Japan, 655, 666, 693, 735, 744, 753, 850,

933.

Japan, Braehyura at, 591 ; fish at, 741 ;
glass rope Sponges at, 744 ; wooden
drums at, 496.

Japan Stream, 734, 746, 749, 750, 755,

933.

Japan to the Sandwich Islands, 750.

Japetella diaphana, 272 ; J. prismatica,

271.

Jason 'Cays, 883.

Jatropha, 212 ; J. gossypifolia, 212 ; J.

manihot, 235 ; J. wrens, 213.

Java, 961 ; monsoon at, 584.

Jeffreys, Dr. Gwyn, xlviii, 21.

Jenkin, Prof. Pleeming, xlv.

Jervis Bay, 454, 464.

Jesu Maria Islet, 697, 698.

Jesus, City of, 874.

Jew’s-harp, bamboo, 723.

Joannella, 451.

Johnny Penguin, 295, 357.

Johnston, Dr. George, xxxix.

Joka Sima, 744, 745.

Jonston, John, xxxv.

Juan Fernandez Island, 849, 850, 943 ;
colonised by Spaniards, 823 ; descrip-
tion of, 826 ; flora of, 945 ; history
of, 818.

Juan Fernandez to Valparaiso, 833.

Juania australis, 828.

“Julia,” loss of the, 246.

Julus, 269.

Juniper, 142, 143.

Jwniperus lermudiana, 142, 943.

Junks, Chinese, 628.

Juno Shoal, 487.

Junonia ccenia, 128, 148.

Kaguan, 665.

Kaivolos, 496.

Kaka, the, 473, 498.

Kakarutan Island, 668.

Kalakaua, King, 761.

Kalama Island, 605.

Kalamit, Peak of, 554.

•Kalinga, 695.

Kami Sima, 746.

Kanalur Islands, 558. ,

Kandavu, 487, 489, 491, 506, 507, 508, 898.
Kandavu, courtesy of chief at, 507 ; excur-
sion to, 492 ; reefs around, 508 ; rocks
at, 508.

Kapal Island, 561.

Karckelang Island, 668.

“Karnaeh,” the, 865.

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

Iiasiva, 747.]

Kawa Saki Tower, 747.

Kei Islands, see Ki Islands.

Kelang, Island, 578 ; Peak, 592.

Keller, 641.

Kelp, 242, 255, 258,1292, 376, 865.

Keneuxia smaragdina, 580, 729.

Kent Islands, 333, 345.

Kentia, 498 ; K. exorrhim, 488. 1

Keramosphcera, 835.

Keratosa, 643 ; account of the, 639.

Kerguelen, M. de, 344, 345.

Kerguelen Island, 330, 332, 342, 344 347,
374, 453, 472, 484, 742, 758, 878,
889, 895, 891, 898, 908, 943.

Kerguelen Island, Amphipoda at, 619 ;
Cabbage, 299, 300, 321, 355, 375,
1027 ; climate of, 354 ; Capt. Cook at,
345 ; deposits off, 367 ; discovery of,
344; fjords at, 332 ; flora of, 945; geo-
graphical position of, 344 ; geology
of, 348, 349 ; glaciers at; 347 ; ice-
bergs in vicinity of, 367 ; mean pres-
sure at, 354; mountains of, 332 ;
Ostracoda, resemblances to European,
848; Penguins at, 357, 358; rainfall
at, 353 ; rocks at, 348, 350, 352 ; Sir
James Ross on weather of, 352 ;
soundings off, 367 ; Teal of, 319,
357 ; temperature at, 354 ; unexplored
condition of, 347 ; volcano at, 348 ;
watershed at, 347 ; weather at, 352 ;
whalers at, 335, 345 ; winds at, 353.

Kerguelen Island to McDonald and Heard
Islands, 367.

Kermadec Islands, 475, 476, 690 ; deposits
off, 476.

Ki Doulan, 554 ; houses at, 555.

Ki Islands, 449, 685, 692 ; description of,
552; natives of, 553, 661 ; Great Ki
Island, 552

Ki Islands to Banda Islands, 556.

Kilauea, crater of, 764, 767, 787 ; expedi-
tion to, 765 ; molten lake of, 767.

Kinetoslcias cyathus, 673, 674, 675 ; K.
pocillum, 673.

King, Ciapt., 825, 874, 875.

King Crab, 663.

King George of Tonga, 495.

King Kalakaua, 761.

King Penguin, 357 ; rookeries of, 296.

King Philip II., 873.

King Thackombau, 493 ; reception by,
495.

King’s House at Tongatabu, 47 7.

Kingfisher, 189, 473, 485, 518.

Kioto, 747.

Kirby, W. F., on insects, 128, 186, 236,
269, 462, 485, 490, 545, 548, 555,
580, 666, 891 ; see also Lepidoptera.

Kireher, Father, xxxii.

•Kirk, T., 473.

Klebs, George,' 934.

Klement, Dr., analysis of the residue of a
Globigerina ooze by’', 1050.

Klobat, Mount, 605.

“Knight Errant,” H.M.S., liv, 277.

Ko Saki Sima, 747.

Ko Sei Sima, 747.

Ko Sima, 747.

Kobe, 746, 748.

Kobe Point, 747.

Kogia, 775.

Kolga hyalina, 277.

Kolliker, Prof, v., on the Pennatulida,
49, 689, 1067.

Kophobelemnonidse, 51.

Koren, Prof., 382.

Korethraster, 616.

Koro-e-Rangi, 508.

Korovasa Basaga, Mount, 787.

Kosu Sima, 737.

. Kowloon Peninsula, 635.

Kraka Island, 561.

Kreeft, Dr. G., 462.

Krei Island, 543.

Krithe produeta, 847.

Krohn, Prof., 382.

Kula, the, 498.

Kuro Siwo, see Japan Stream.

Kusimoto, 746.

“La Boussole,” 698.

La Perouse, 697, 698.

La Ranee Banks, 476.

Laban, 705.

Laboa, Mount, 593.

Labrador, xlv.

Labrador Current, 160 ; effect of, on Fora-
minifera, 161.

Lacerta galloti, 56 ; L. murnlis, 56.
Laehmann, 935.

Ladrone Islands, 667, 736.

“ Lady Bowen,” the, 455.

Laitmogone violacea, 277, 469.

Lcetmonice, 630.

Lafoeidse, 753.

Lafonia, wild cattle at, 890 ; wild horses
at, 890.

Lagena, 837 ; L. globosa, 912 ; L. gracilis,
912; L. laevigata, 912; L. Items, 912;
L. lagenoides, 912; L. lucida, 192; L.
seminiformis, 912 ; L. squamosa, 912;
L. striata, 912.

Lake, Mohrya, 661 ; Waihirra, 788.
Lambert Harbour, 474.

Lambert, Jonathan, 243.

Lambil Island, 606.

Lamellibranehiata, account of the, 624.
Lamma Channel, 628.

139

1092

THE YOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER

Lamna, teeth of, 757, 775, 805'.

Lampides mtherialis. 555.

Lampinigan Island, 656.

Lancelet, 540.

Lances, at Admiralty Islands, 718.

L'ancetes varius, 269.

Land Crabs, 927.

Land Planarians, 473.

Landrail, 529.

Langerhans, Prof., 632; on Pyrocystis,
936.

Language, of aborigines, 538 ; rapid
changes of, 539.,

Lanibal Island, 667.

Lankester, Prof. , on Procalistes, 472.
Lantana camera, 143.

Lanuginella, 451.

Laoetang, 566.

Laphygma macra, 148.

Laridse, 326, 328.

Larus dominicanus, 294, 473 ; L. novtx-
hollandioe, 529.

Latitude, relation of barometric pressure
to, 26.

Latreillia, 898.

Latrunculia, 572.

Laughing Jackass, 189.

Lava, cascade of, 769 ; fountain of, 768.
Lavandula rotundifolia, 183.

Lavender, 183.

Le Maire, 697, 818, 875.

Leach, Dr., xxxviii, 878.

Leads, cup, 42 ; deep-sea, 42 ; hand, 42.
Leadsman, loss of the, 466.

Leaf cutting Ants, 236.

Leander tenuicomis, 136.

Lecanora esculenta, 517.

Lefroy, Sir Henry, 167.

Lefroyella, 451.

Legaspi, Miguel Lopez de, 649.

Leidy, Prof., 856.

Lema Island, 628, 646.

Lendenfeld, R, v., 643.

Lenz, 959, 962.

Lepas, 758, 852 ; L. anatifera, 136,
169, 757 ; L. anserifera, 136 ; L.
faseicularis, 758 ; L. pectinata, 136.
Leper’s hospital, Tahiti, 776.

Lepeta caeca, 136.

Lepidisis, 692.

Lepidonotus cristatus, 630.

Lepidoptera, 148, 216, 357, 548, 555, 580,
600, 729.

Lepidopus tenuis, 745.

Leptoceplm.lus, 219, 521.

Leptochiton alveolus, 287 ; L. belJcnapi,
288.

Leptoccelia, 893.

Leptogonaster, 616.

Leptograpsus variegatus, 591.

Leptopenus discus, 798 ; L. hypoccelus, 799.
Leptoptilum gracile, 476.

Leptopty chaster, 609, 614 ; L. Jcerguelensis,
390, 391.

Lemcea, 669 ; L. abyssicola, 183, 896.
Leucandra aspera, 640.

Leucania antica, 148.

Lcucetta, 642.

Leucifer, 171, 219, 527.

LeucUla, 642 ; L. connexiva, 641 : L. uter,
641.

Leucippe, 588.

Leuekart, Dr. F. S., 315.

Leucon, 743 ; L. nasicus, 743.

Leuconia, 642 ; L. crucifera, 639 ; L.

multiformis, 642.

Leuconidse, 640, 641, 642.

Leucosia, 589.

Leucosiidea, 585.

Leucosolenia blanca, 639.

Levuka, 491, 492 ; harbour at, 507 ; slope
from barrier reef at, 508,

Leytimur, peninsula of, 576, 578.

Lialis punctulata, 536.

Libellula, 149.

Libertia formosa, S28.

Libinia gracilipes , 591 ; L. smitM, 591.
Library on board the Challenger, 45.
Lichen, 356 ; free living, 517.
“Lightning,” H.M.S., xlvii, 1, 99.

Lights of junks in China Sea, 628.

Lilium lapideum, 49.

TAma, 625.

Limax canariensis, 56, 269 ; L. gagates,
148, 269.

Limes at Tahiti, 788.

Limnadia, 462.

Limnetis, 462.

Limosella aquatica, 356.

Limulits, supposed larva; of, 663 ; L. ro-
tundicaudatus, 663.

Lindsay, Capt., 735.

Lindsay Island, 735.

Line, hemp, advantages of, for sounding, 70.
Lingula, 663.

LimjpTda, 55 ; L. leprosa, 269.

Liponema, 576.

Lisbon, 46 ; soundings off, 46.
Lispognathus thomsoni, 587.

Lissocarcinus, 589.

Lithistida?, 451.

Litkodes, 898 ; L. agassizi, 898.
Lithodidea, 898.

Lithothamnion, 127 ; L. mamillare, 184 ;

L. polymorphum, 184.

Litiopa melanostoma, 136.

Little Auk, 359.

Little Saba Island, 129.

Little Tawali Island, 593.

Littoral formations, 925.

Lituolidse, 836.

Lizards, 127, 213, 485, 536, 555, 580, 665,
729.

Lobo Arm, 867.

Lobos Island, 902.

Locust, 530.

Lofoten Islands, xlvi.

Loggerhead Ducks, 872.

Loligo, 543.

Loligopsis ocellata, 273.

Lomaria alpina , 253.

Lombok, moonsoon at, 584.

Lonchotaster, 609, 615.

London Missionary Society, 533.

London River, 342.

Long Beach, 377.

Long Island, 466.

Long pig, 494.

Long Reach, 870.

Longway, 536, 538.

Lontar, 561.

Lonthor, 561.

Lophaster, 615.

Lophius, 729.

Lophogaster ingens, 740 ; L. typicus, 152,
739.

Lophogastridse, 739, 740.

Lophokelia prolifera, 796.

Lophotidse, 906.

Lord Howe Island, 466.

Lory, 489, 669.

Lory, Rev. H. C., 892.

Los Negros Islets, 697.

Los Reges Islets, 697.

Louisiade Archipelago, 731.

Loup Marine Bay, 344.

Low Island, 697.

Loxosoma, 671.

Loyalty Islands, 730 ; natives of, 726, 728.
Loyasa, Don Garcia Jofre de, 873.

Lucas, the story of, 230.

Luffaria, 644, 645, 646.

Luidia,. 390.

Lulugban Island, 623.

Lumbricus, 150, 269.

Lupea, 136.

Lupocyclus, 588.

Lutaos, 659, 661 ; canoe of, 663 ; pile-
dwellings of, 658; spear dance by, 661.
Lutor Island, 544.

Luzon Current, 647.

Luzon Island, 624, 627 ; coast of, 646.
Lyallia, 375, 945 ; L. Jcerguelensis, 299.
Lycopodium, 599.

Lycosa, 55, 128.

Lyell, Sir Charles, 566.

Lyemun Pass, 646.

Irygodivm, 787 ; L. reticulatum, 489.
Lyman, Theodore, on the Ophiuroidea,
172, 174, 1067.

Lyreidus tridentatus, 898.

Lyssacina, 444, 446, 450 ; families of,
447.

Lytocarpus, 751.

Mabouya, 147 ; M. cyanura, 485, 489
729.

Macacus philippinensis, 665.

Macaroni Penguin, 358.

Macauley Islands, 475.

Macbride’s Head, 893.

MacCormick, Dr., 346.

M'Donald, Capt., 368.

Macdonald, Dr., 499.

McDonald Islands, 367, 943.

Macellicephala mirabilis, 630.

Macgillivray, Mr., 475.

M ‘In tosh, Prof. W. C., 753; on the
Annelida, 628, 1070; on Cephalodiscus,
671, 676.

Maelay, Baron, see Miklucho-Maclay.

Maclean, Staff-Surgeon George, 19, 541,
928 ; on health of crew, 1027.

Maclean nets, xlvi.

Maclear, Capt. J. L. P., 19, 869, 1067.

Maclear Island, 701, 702.

M‘Lintock, Sir Leopold, xv.

M'Murdo Island, 342.

Macquarie Island, 475.

Macrocceloma, 586.

Macrocystis, 379, 383 ; M. pyrifera , 258,
376.

Macrura, 898 ; account of the, 522.

Macruridse, 628, 906.

Macrurus japonicus, 745 ; M. macrochir,
745 ; M. parallelus, 745.

Mactan Island, 647 ; description of, 648.

Madeira, magnetic observations at, 52 ;
sounding at, 51.

Madeira • to St. Vincent, Cape Verde
Islands, 181.

Madras, 961.

Madre Island, 865, 867, 868.

Madrepora, 780.

Madreporaria, 793, 799.

Moeandrina, 146, 565 ; M. labyrintTviformis,
146 ; M. sinuosisdma, 146 ; M. striqosa,
146.

Magalhaes, Fernao de, see Magellan.

Magellan, Ferdinand, 648, 873 ; death
of, 649 ; squadron of, at Moluccas,
595.

Magellan Strait, 359, 862, 867, 868, 869,
878, 883, 894, 898 ; deposits in, 873 ;
history of, 873 ; Loggerhead Ducks
in, 872 ; navigation of, 876.

Magnaghi, Capt., 71 ; thermometer of, 95.

Magnetic anomaly of Bermuda, 140.

Magnetite, 161, 175; see also Deposits.

Magnoliaeeae, 828.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

I Mahori race, crania of, 730 ; origin of,
732.

Maika Island, 544.

Mail steamer, at Amboina, 579 ; com-
municated with, 542.

Maioidea, 585.

Maire, Le, 697, 818, 875.

Majaqueus, 325 ; M. cequinocticUis, 358.
Maka Se, 747.

Makalehe Islet, 605.

Makkaha Island, 477.

Makogai Island, 492.

Makura Island, 514.

Makyan Island, 593, 595.

Malacobdella, 831.

Malacosaccus, 450.

Malacosteus indicus, 669.

Malagueta, 821.

Malamaui Island, 656, 659, 664 ; curious
plank-like tree roots at, 664.

Malanipa Island, 606, 655, 666.

Malarious fever, cases of, 1029.

Malaspascua Island, 647.

Malaspina, Mount, 618.

Malatta Bay, 507, 509.

Malay Archipelago, 693.

Malay guides, superstition of, 599.

Malay houses, resemblance of, to Swiss
chalets, 660.

Malay race, 658, 730.

Maldanidas, 634.

Malden Island, 765.

Maldonado Island, 902.

Malicolo Island, 515.

“ Mallard,” fittings of the, 72.

Mallenoah Island, 487.

Malletia, 625.

Malta, xliii ; meridian distance between
Gibraltar and, 47.

Mamberan Eiver, 679 ; drift wood off,
679.

Mammalian foot, comparative anatomy
and homologies of, 457.

Mandanui Tower, 648.

Mandioca, 235.

Mandioli Island, 593.

Manganese nodules, 435, 757 774, 775,
804, 806, 815, 851, 1042 ; analyses of,
1043, 1048.

Manganic infiltrations, 125, 813.

Mango trees, 784.

Mangrove, 460 ; swamp, 149 489.

Manicina, 146.

Manigonigo Island, 623.

Manila, 623, 697 ; description of, 627.
Manila Bay, 624, 646.

Manila hemp, 654.

Manila to Hong Kong, 624.

Manila to Zebu, 647.

' Manipa, 578, 592.

1093

Mansel, Mr., 892.

Maoris, cranial characters of, 474, 731.
Map, primitive form of, 786.

Maquiliere Islands, 605.

Maracaibo, Gulf of, pile-dwellings at, 661.
Marchantia, 184.

Mareh Island, 594.

"Margaret Oakly,” the, 698.

Margarita, 896.

Margaritella, 451.

Margaronia.Jlegia, 128 ; M. jairusalis, 148.
“Maria,” the, 874.

Marianne Strait, 346.

Marine galvanometer, Sir Win. Thomson’s,
96.

Marine research, growth of, xxxv.

Marion du Fresne, 291, 322.

Marion Island, 289, 291, 292, 293, 319,
355, 375, 759, 878, 891, 943.

Marion Island, appearance from the sea,
293 ; cliff at, 300 ; Capt. Cook at,
292; description of, 291; discovery of,
291 ; flora of, 299, 945 ; geographical
position of, 292 ; hills at, 300 ; lava
at, 300 ; limit of vegetation at, 301 :
Polyzoa at, 302 ; shore at, 294 ; tem-
perature of water at, 301; vegetation
at, 299 ; volcanoes at, 301 ; weather
in vicinity of, 293.

Marion Island to the Crozet Islands, 302.
Mariqui Point, 655, 657.

Marpessa, 187 ; M. nigrolimbata, 187.
Marquesas Islands, 722, 731, 759.
Marriner, W., 483.

Marsili, xxxv.

Marsipaster, 615.

Marsipella, 836.

Marso Island, 698.

Marsupial foot,- 457.

Marsupialia, account of the, 456.

Martin, Dr. J., 483.

Mary River, 455.

Maryburgh, 455.

Marks, bench, 25.

Mas-a-fuera, 823, 829, 943 ; flora of, 945.
Mas-a-tierra, 818.

Masters, Capt., 826.

Mastigoteuthis agassizii, 273.

Mata Island, 668.

Mataual Mount, 606.

Matanuku Island, 508.

Matelot Island, 336.

Matoya, 745, 746, 749.

Matsu- wo-ga-hana, 747.

Matty Island, 689.

Matuku Island, 487, 489, 499 ; barrier reef
at, 487, 488 ; description of, 487 ;
dredging off, 490 ; natives of, 490 ;
vegetation of, 489.

Mauna Kea, 765.

1094

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Mauna Loa, 765, 766.

Maurelle, Capt. Francisco, 697.

Mauritius, 693, 968.

Maury, Capt., xliii, 322.

May, Capt., xlvii.

May, Cornelius, 875.

May Hill, ferruginous sandstones of, 892.
Maykor Island, 549.

Mayne Harbour, 868. i
Mayne Passage, 867.

Mbatiki Island, 492.

Mbau, 492 ; buildings at, 494 ; 'columns
of basalt at, 493 ; deposits at, 493 ;
description of, 492 ; drums at, 496 ;
mound at, 494 ; sacrificial stone at,
493, 494 ; scenery at, 496 ; small islet
off, 496.

Mbure, 494.

Meangis Islands, 668 ; deposits off; 669 ;
dredgings off, 669.

Measurements of Admiralty Islanders, 707.
“Mechanic,” the, 376.

Mechanic’s Bay, 377.

Medceus elegans , 588 ; M. haswelli, 588,
Medio Island, 866.

Mediterranean Sea, 967 ; fish of, 745.
Medusae, 460, 903 ; account of the, 600.
Megalasma, 852.

Megapodius, 664, 927 ; M. tumulus, -535;
eggs of, 664.

Megaptera, 806 ; M. lalandi, 477.

Megerlia truncata, 13'2.

Melaleucas, 178.

Melampus gundlachi, 148.

Melanesian race, 706; crania, characters
of, 730.

Melania apiensis, 518; M. ordinaria, 518,
M. turbans , 518.

Melano Island, 577, 578.

Melasomidse, 186.

Molastomaeese, 229, 564.

Melbourne to Sydney, 453.

Melithaeaeea, 692.

Melittiaulus, 451.

Melittionidse, 447, 451.

Melo, Gasper de, 577.

Melophones, 567.

Mdosira, 933.

Membranipora luberculcclct, 136.
Membraniporidse, 674.

Menado, 579.

Menemerus, 56.

Menipea aculeata, 675 ; M. benemunita,
675 ; M. clausa, 674; M. patariformis,
673.

Mercury, compressibility of, 105, 107;
effect of temperature on, 107; piezo-
meter, 107.

Merick, 874.

Meridian distance, Malta to Gibraltar, 47.

Meridian distances, 1020; chain of, 1022 ;
secondary, 1024.

Merops ornatus, 535.

Mesoplodon, 775, 806; M. layardi, 286,
892; microscopic structure of teeth of,
286; M. sowerbyi, microscopic struc-
ture of teeth of, 286.

Messier Channel, 862, 870, 877; pilotage
through, 863.

. Mcstizes, 650.

Meta, 518 ; M. granuZata, 489; M. insu-
•laris, 490; M. tuberculata, 485, 489.

Metacrinus, 306, 317; M. costatus, 669; M.
moseleyi, 669; M. murrayi, 669; M.
varians, 669; M. wyvillii, 669.

Meteore reef, 491.

Meteorites, characters of, 809.

Meteorology, early history of, xliii ; of Ad-
miralty Islands, 708; of Amboina, 584;
of Antarctic region, 396 ; of Banda,
569 ; of Crozets, 322 ; of Dobbo,
551; of Falkland Islands, 885, 888;
of Fernando Noronha, 213 ; of Heard
Island, 377, 378; of Hong Kong, 637,
638; of Honolulu, 764; of Kerguelen,
353, 354; of Manila, 627; of Marion
Island, 293; of S. Pacific, 801; of
Tahiti, 782; of Ternate, 600 ; of Tonga-
tabu, 486 ; of Tristan da Cunha, 245,
267 ; of the voyage, 998; methods of
observation at sea, 56.

Metir Island, 593, 594, 595.

Metrosideros, 787; M. florida, 473; M.
robusta, 473.

Metsehnikoff, 152; 195, 641.

Meyen, J. F. , on the Radiolaria, 220.

Meyer, Capt., 369.

Meyer’s Rock, 368.

Meyo Island, 593, 604.

Miako, 747.

Mica, 161, 910, 917.

Mica schist, 169, 434.

Microglossus aterrimm, 534.

Microlepidoptera, 269.

Micronesian race, 730.

Micro-organisms, Bailey’s description of,
xliv.

Mid Channel Island, 864.

Middle Island, 262, 863 ; Peak, 262, 863.

Miers, E. J., on the Brachyura, 585,.
1071.

Mikados, residence of, 747.

Miklucho-Maclay, Baron N. de, 598, 699,
706, 708, 714, 725, 727.

Miliola, 360, 379, 467.

Miliolina semdnulum, 912.

Millepora, 781; M. alcicomis, 145, 146;
M. nodosa, 789 ; M. ramosa, 145, 146.

Milleporidse, 792.

Miller, Prof. W. A. , xxxviii, 99.

Miller, Mr., Consul at Tahiti, 783.

Miller-Casella thermometer, description of,
86. *

Milne-Edwards, M., xlv, 148, 187, 525,
900; on osteology of Tubinares, 328.

Mimaster, 615.

Mimicry, protective, 581, 582.

Mindanao Island, 606, 655, 659, 666;
southern peninsula of, 667.

Mindoro, 624; Sea, 623 ; Strait, 647.

Minerals, in deposits, 161, 195, 210,276,360,
435, 512, 520, 530, 833; see also Rocks.

Mingan Island, 344.

Mioga Sima, 746.

Missionaries, collection by, at Fiji, 502 ;
Dutch, at Dobbo, 545 ; London, at

, Somerset, 532.

Misurmna, 187.

Mitara Island, 594.

Mithraculus, 586.

Mithrax, 586.

Mivart, St. George, 221.

Mhvara, 747, 748.

Miya Saki, 748.

Mocha Island, 801, 802.

“ Modeste,” H.M.S., 638.

Modiola, 626.

Mogador, 970.

Mohammedans, at Banda, 562 ; at Ki
Doulan, 555 ; at Samboangan, 658.

Mohrya,. Lake, pile-dwellings on, 661.

Mole lighthouse, 646.

Molgulidse, 165>.

Mollusca, xliii ; bivalve, 624 ; land, of
Admiralty Islands, 729; of Api, 518;
of Bermudas, 148; of Falkland
Islands, 892 ; of Juan Fernandez,
829; of Ki Islands, 556 ; of St.
Vincent, 188 ; of Tenerife, 56 ; of
Tong.atabu, 485 ; of Tristan da Cunha,
269 ; scarcity of deep-sea, 624 ; see
also Gasteropoda, Nudibranehiata, &c.

Mollymauk, 265, 294.

Molokai Island, 759.

Molten Lake, 767.

Molucca Passage, 593.

Moluccas, 595.

Monactinellidse, 569.

Monarcha infelix, 729.

Monauleee, 575. ■

Monaxonida, account of the, 569.

Money, at Dobbo, 552 ; at Monte Video,
907 ; at Ternate, 598.

Monitor, 729.

Monkeys, 190, 665.

Monocaulus, 751, 753 ; M. imperator ; 757.

Monoclinic felspar, 161, 169 ; see also
Deposits.

Monopoly of nutmegs by the Dutch, 565.

Monostomumfaba, 316. .

Monsoon, 552, 584.

Montague Island, 454, 464.

Monte Video, 902, 907.

Monte Video to Ascension, 908.

Monuafai Island, 477.

Monument Island, 514.

Monument, Selkirk’s, 828 ; Spencer’s, 48.

Moore, 407.

Morgan Bay, 377.

Morgan Islands, 376.

Moros, 658, 659 ; houses of, 659.

Morrell, Capt., 249, 415, 416.

Morris, Prof. J., 892.

Morunga elephantina , 819.

Moseley Island, 696, 703.

Moseley Point, 701.

Moseley, Prof. H. H., 19, 53, 360, 372, 459,
479, 492, 663, 664, 689, 706, 753,
762, 831, 889, 891, 943, 1065, 1069.

Moseley, Prof. H. 1ST. , appointment of, 22;
ascent of Ternate by, 598 ; on Caxoeira,
228; on colouring matter of Actino-
metra, 541; on the Corals, 788; excur-
sions at Cape York by, 536; on eyes of
Ipnops, 239; on Peripatus, 284; on
St. Paul’s Rocks, 208 ; excursion to
San Domingo valley, 189 ; excursion
at Tahiti by, 783 ; on the Tongans,
479 ; on the Tunicata, 162, 165 ;

excursion to Wanumbai by, 550.

Moseley a, 544.

Mosque, Mohammedan, 555.

Moss, Dr. E. L. , on Arctic ice, 431.

Mosses, 253, 293, 300, 375.

Moths, see Lepidoptera.

Motu Ara Islands, 466.

Motu-Uta Island, 776.

Mound Bird, 535, 664, 927.

Mount, Aconcagua, 849 ; Anson, 862 ;
Baker, 862; Berry, 454 ; Black, 863 ;
Blue, 459 ; Bougainville, 681, 689 ;
Bungay, 336 ; Calvario, 627 ; Camp-
bell, 333, 334, 336, 340, 345 ; Colan,
623 ; Crosbie, 344 ; Crozier, 332, 333,
336, 341, 342 ; Dinero, 872 ; Drome-
dary, 454, Egmont, 466; Erebus, 429;
Evans, 344; Everard, 453; Havergal,
332, 341, 342, 348; Hooker, 332;
Imlay, 454 ; Kembla, 463 ; Kiera,
454; Klobat, 605; Laboa, 593; Malas-
pina, 618 ; Massey, 454 ; Matanal,
606 ; Millar, 863 ; Moseley, 332 ;
Oroc, 623; Orofena, 786 ; Parapari,
623; Peeper, 336; Piedra, 627 ; Porte-
zuela, 827 ; Richards, 332, 334, 342 ;
Ross, 332, 336, 342, 347 ; Sabine,
41 3 ; Saligit, 623 ; St. Michael,
213, 214 ; St. Thomas, 627; Table,
332,' 341; Terror, 429; Tizard, 344;
Victoria, 635; Washington, 509, 511;

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE

Mount-

Wild, 337 ; Wyville Thomson, 332,
334, 341, 342.

Mountains at Juan Fernandez, dangers of,
826.

Mouse Island, 337.

Mow Island, 656.

Mozambique, saltness of the sea at, xxxiv.

Muddy Bay, 541.

Mugil, 187.

Mugilidee, 147, 454, 460, 499.

Muller, Fritz, on Ocypoda, 187.

Miiller, Johannes, 195, 381 ; on Radiolaria,

220.

Miiller, Otho F., xxxv, 934.

Mullet, Grey, 454, 459, 460.

Munida, 901.

Munnopsidse, 880, 881.

Muroena, 485, 498.

Munenidee, 907.

Murchison, 813.

Muricidae, 692.

Murray, Island, 337, 338, 696, 703 ;
Islanders, 537, 541.

Murray, John, 19, 53, 225, 277, 455, 456,
469, 517, 687, 695, 743, 744, 892,
915, 947, 980, 1066, 1071.

Murray, John, on abyssal fauna, 616 ;
appointment of, 22 ; on Bathybius,
939; on calcareous matter in sea water,
980 ; on Cetacean bones in deposits,
807; on Challengerida, 225; on Coral
Reefs at Tahiti, 778, 781; dredgings
by, 214; on Ipnops, 239; on manganese
nodules, 1042; discovers Ophiotholia,
173; on pelagic organisms, 218 ; on
Pyrocystis, 935 ; on Radiolaria, 219.

Murray, John, and Renard, Abbe A.,
on cosmic spherules, 809 ; on deep-
sea deposits, 915, 1071; on volcanic
ash in deep sea, 81 3.

Murray, Dr. John, on water of Firth of
Forth, xxxvii.

Mursia armata, 588 ; M. cristimana, 587 ;
M. curtispina, 588.

Mus alexandrinus, 536.

Musa textilis, 654; M. troglodytarum, 784.

Mushroom Corals, 788.

Music, at Admiralty Islands, 723 ; Javan-
ese, 567 ; of Malays, 566 ; of Tahiti,
801.

Musschenbroek, S. C. J. van, Resident of
Ternate, 596.

Mussels, 460, 499, 500.

Mutsu Sima, 747.

Mutton Bird, 358.

Mutton Cove, 338, 339, 356.

Mycedium, 780 ; M. fragile , 145.

Myliusia, 451.

Myliusid®, 448, 451.

1095

Myrica fay a, 178.

Myrmecodia armata, 580.

Myrmelion, 186.

Myro Tcerguelenensis, 357.

Myrtle, 828.

Myrtus, 821.

Mysidse, 739, 742.

Mysis, 171, 219.

Myxilla, 570 ; M. japoniea, 570.

Myxine, 907 ; M. australis, 745.

Myxobrachia, 470.

Myzomela, 534; M. jugularis, 489; M.
pammelosna, 729.

Myzomelidse, 829.

Myzostoma, description of typical, 313;
parasitic on Actinometra, 541 ; peculiar
condition of, 316; M. asymmetricum,
316, 669: M. calycotyle, 669; M.

cirrifer,um, 315; M. costatum, 315;
M. deformator, 316, 669; M. folium,
315; M. glabrum, 315; M. horologium,
316; M. murrayi, 316; M. pentacrini,
316, 669; M. quadrifilum, 316; M.
tenuispinum, 316,669; M. willemoesii,
316, 317; M. wyville-thomsoni, 669.

Myzostomida, 303, 669 ; account of the,
313; endoparasitic forms of, 316.

Ha Vatani Tawake, 493.

Haailaka Island, 561.

Habe Sima Lighthouse, 747.

Hadawa, 497, 499, 500; hotel at, 497.

Ncesa, 881 .

Nairai Island, 492.

Hakello, 500; chiefs house at, 501; club
dance at, 503, 504; dancing at, 500;
dancing costumes at, 503; dress of
men at, 502, 503; fan dance at, 504;
missionary collection at, 502; order
and decorum at, 506; tombs of chiefs
at, 500.

Nanina eitrina, 556; N. tongana, 485.

Hanusa Island, 668.

Narborough, Sir John, 875, 877.

Hares, Capt. G. S. , xlix, 1, 19, 20,
63, 354, 372, 408, 508, 516, 869;
hydrographic instructions to, 34 ;
recalled to Arctic Expedition, 638 ;
suggests deep-sea trawling, 47, 49 ;
on temperature at the Cape of Good
Hope, 283.

Hares Harbour, 696, 730, 734; anchorage
at, 702; description of, 699; land
surface in vicinity of, 703.

Harrows, the, 414; English, 868, 869.

Hasingari, 746.

“Hassau,” H.M.S., 655, 865, 868, 869,
875, 878.

Hassau Bank, 873.

Hassau Bay, 867.

1096

THE TOY AGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Nassellaria, 222, 224, 227.

National Air of Tahiti, 801.

Natuna Island, 647, 815.

Naturalists’ workroom, apparatus for, 43 ;
description of, 5.

Nauphanta, 629 ; N. challengeri, 603.
Nausithoe, 603.

Nautilograpsus minutus, 136, 169, 585.
Nautilus, pearly, 490; ornament mad
from, 518.

Nautilus pompilius, 274, 490.

Navire Cove, 319, 321; depth of water at,
321.

Navusa, 497, 499; fortifications of, 500.
Naxia, 588.

Neasellus kerguelenensis, 882.

Nebalia, 150, 743 ; N. geoffroyi, 151, 152 ;

N. longipes, 152.

Nebaliopsis, 743.

Necroscia moderata, 580.

Nectarinia frenata, 534.

Nectarophila juliae, 666.

Needles, vibrating, 42.

Negretti & Zambra’s thermometers, de-
scription of, 88 ; Magnaghi’s revers-
ing apparatus for, 94 ; improved deep-
sea thermometer, 93.

Negrito tribes, 730, 733.

Negros Islands, 618, 652, 698.

Neira Island, 561, 573.

Nellia simplex, 182, 674.

Nelson Strait, 866.

Nematocarcinus, 526.

Nematops microstoma, 729.

Nematoscelis, 741.

Nemertea, account of the, 830. 1
Nemerteans, 150.

Nemertines, 150.

Neocrinoids, 313.

Nephila, 489 ; N. nigritarsis, 485 ; N.

victorialis, 485, 490, 518.

Nephilengys, 489.

Nephrops, 525.

Nephthya, 689.

Neptunus sayi, 136, 586 ;, N. spinicarpus,

■ 586.

Neriene, 269.

Nerita, 684.

Neritina shells for ornaments, 547.
Nerium oleander, 143.

Nertera, 261; N. depressa, 253, 257.
Nervous system, diseases of, 1030.
Nesocichla eremita, 261.

Nesospiza acv/nJioe, 261.

Nest, of Antennarius, 136; of Booby, 205;
of Megayodius, 535 ; of Mollymauks,
294 ; of Noddy, 529.

Nestor meridionalis, 473.

Nets, of Admiralty Islands, 715 ; fishing, 9 ;
trammel, 43.

Nettastoma parviceps, 745.

Neumeyer, Dr., 369.

Neuropogon taylori, 356.

Neuroptera, 485.

New Britain, 705.

New Caledonia, 704.

New Guinea, 449, 666, 679, 730, 731, 933;

pile-dwellings of, 661, 681.

New Hanover, 705, 722.

New Hebrides, 496, 514, 730 ; natives of,
516 ; nurse from, 498.

New Mexico, ’462.

New Zealand, 285, 463, 475, 730, 878 ;

deposits off east coast of, 476.

New Zealand to the Kermadec, Islands,
474.

Newfoundland, deposits off, 169.

Newton on phosphorescence of the sea,
xxxiv.

Nezumi Sima, 747.

Ngaloa, 491 ; Harbour, 491, 508 ; descrip-
tion of, 507 ; Island, 491, 507.

Ngor Island, 543.

Nicaragua, Lake of, 499.

Nicobar Islands, 227, 709 ; rock at,
227.

Nicobar Pigeon, 709.

Night Birds, 262, 787.

Night Heron, 709.

Nightingale Island, 240, 262, 944 ; channel
between, and Inaccessible Island,

263 ; fresh water at, 267 ; rocks at,

264 ; survey of, 262 ; vegetation at,
263.

Nile, the, 967.

Ninox boobook, 535.

Nipon Island, 666, 745, 749.

Nippers, Burt’s, 42.

Nitella antarctica, 356, 484; N flexilis,
484.

Nitsch,- C. L., 934.

Niu Sawa, 488.

No Sima, 750, 754.

Noctiluca, 740, 748, 750; N. miliaris,
639, 679, 746, 933.

Noctilucidae, 934.

Noctuid, 269.

Noddies, 204, 213, 262, 529, 729, 928 ;

nests of, 204, 529.

Noddy Tern, 738.

Nodel, Bartolome Garcia de, 875.

Nodel, Gongalo de, 875.

Nodosaria, 837; N. calomorpha, 912.
Nodules, manganese, see Manganese no-
dules.

Noessaniva Point, 576.

Nolloth, Commander, 242, 268.

Nonionina umbilicatula, 912.

Nooit, Oliver van, 875.

Nordenskiold, 426, 809.

Norfolk Island, 475, 697.

Normanby, Marquis of, 455.

North Atlantic, temperature of water in,
428 ; temperature strata in, 24.

North Bay, 507.

North Cape, New Zealand, 467.

North Danger, 647.

North Island, 339.

North Pacific, bed of, 754 ; surface fauna
in, 758 ; temperature in, see Tempera-
ture ; use of tow-net in, 758.

North Rock, 137.

North Sea, 978.

Northers, 353.

Norway Rat, 498.

Norwegian North Atlantic Expedition, 75.

Norwegian Sea, 427, 428, 959, 967.

Notacanthidse, 906.

Nothria, 635 ; N. ehlersi, 635 ; N. wille-
moesii, 635.

Notophyllum, 629.

Notopygos, 630.

Novaloa, mission college at, 497.

“Novara,” the, xlix, 777.

Nuculina ovalis, 625.

Nudibranchiata, account of the, 693.

Nukalofa, 477, 480, 481 ; buildings at,
480 ; meteorology of, 486 ; natives at,
481.

Numerals, of Admiralty Islands, 706 ; of
Australian aborigines, 538.

Nummoloculina, 835.

Nummulites, 835. ■

Nusa Laut, 578.

Nusa Tello, 558.

Nutcracker, 566.

Nutmeg, Pigeons, 555 ; plantations, 565 ;
trees, number of, 569.

Nuuanu Yalley, 760.

Nycterybia, 205. .

Nyctiphanes norvegiea, 743.

Nymphaster, 612, 617.

Nymphon, 857, 858 ; N. brevicaudatvm,
861 ; N. gallicum, 861 ; N. gracile,
xlii ; N. grossipes, 858 ; N. hamatum,
859 ; N. longicollum, 833 ; N.
macronyx, 860 ; N. macrum, 861 ;
N. meridionale, 860.

• Oahu Island, 754, 755, 759, 765 ; barren
aspect of, 759.

Obi Lato Island, 592, 593.

Obi Major Island, 592.

Oboor Island, 556.

Observation Islet, 683, 688.

Observations, botanical, 27 ; chemical, 27 ;
physical, 23 ; temperature, see Tem-
perature; tidal, 25, see also Tides ;
zoological, 32.

Observatory Islet, 6.96, 701, 702,

Observing station, at Gibraltar, 47 ; at
Madeira, 52 ; at Tahiti, 777 ; at
Valparaiso, 843 ; list of, 1026.
Obsidian bladed spears, 717; description
of, 718.

Ocean currents, see Currents.

Ocean, efforts to acquire a knowledge
of the, xxxi ; movements of the, 25.
Ocean physics, early history of, xliii.

Ocean temperatures, see Temperature.

Ocean water, see Sea water.

Oceanites, 324, 765 ; 0. ocectnicus, 436.
Oceanitidae, 323, 329 ; peculiarities of, 323 ;

resemblance of, to Procellariidse, 324.
Ocnus, 379.

Octacnemus bythius, 162.

Octopus, 543.

Oculina bermudensis, 146 ; 0. coronalis,
146 ; 0. diffusa, 145, 146 ; 0. pollens,

145, 146 ; 0. speciosa, 146 ; 0. valen-
ciennesi, 145, 146 ; 0. varicosa, 145,

146.

Oculinidse, 792.

Ocyale mirabilis, 55.

Ocypoda, 663 ; 0. ippeus, 187 ; 0. rhombea,
149.

Odontocyathus coronatus, 793.

Odutsi, Island, 747 ; Peak, 747.

CEcodoma, 236.

Oersted, Prof., 382.

CEstrelata, 325 ; (E. lessoni, 358.
“O’Higgins,” the, 873.

Okabula, 747.

Okhotsk, Sea of, 755.

Oki-Sima, 747.

Olango Island, 647.

Oldfield Anchorage, 870.

Oleander, 143.

Olfersia, 205.

Oliver, Prof., 375, 943.

Olland Island, 864.

Olmedilla, 874.

Olyntlius, 570, 640.

Ommastrephes oualaniensis, 518.
Onchidium, 489.

Onchopora sinclairii, 674.

Onchoporidse, 674.

Oncinopus aranea, 588.

One Tree Island, 865.

Onei/rophanta mutabilis, 277, 757, 804.
Onevah Islet, 477.

Oniscus, 269 ; O. paradoxus, 878.

Onychia caribcea, 136.

Onychocrinus, 313.

Oorhynchus, 857, 858; O. aucklandice, 860.
Oosima, 748.

Oosima Harbour, 746.

Oot Island, 556.

Open ocean, morning minimum of pressure
in, 1001.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

Ophiacantha, 172, 173 ; O. cosmica, 833 ;

. O. segesta, 161 ; O. sentosa, 833; 0.
troscMli, 161 ; 0. vimpara, 394 ; pro-
pagation of, 396.

Ophidiidee, 520, 906.

Ophiernus, 172.

Ophiochytra epigrus, 775.

Ophiocoma didelphis, 394.

Ophiogeron, 173.

Ophioglossum pendulum, 704.

Ophioglypha, 173 ; O. bullata, 161 ; 0. hex-
actis, 394 ; 0. radiata, 628 ; O. umdu-
lata, 738.

Ophiohelus, 173, 174 ; distribution of,
175.

Ophiolepis squamata, 382.

Ophiomastus, 173.

Ophiomitra carduus, 182 ; 0. chelys, 161,
173 ; 0. plicata, 628.

Ophiomusivm camcellatvm, 161 ; O. corti-
cosum, 738 ; O. lymani, 804 ; 0. pul-
chellum, 173, 182.

Ophiomyces, 174.

Ophiomyxa, 173.

Ophiopeza, 173.

Ophioplinthus, 172.

Ophiopyren longispinus, 161.

Ophiotholia, 173, 174 ; 0. supplicans, 804.
Ophiothrix, 173.

Ophiotrochus, 172.

Ophiura, 173.

Ophiurid, parasitic on Actinometra, 541.
Ophiuroidea, account of the, 172.
Ophthalmis lincea, 581.

Opuntia, 760.

Orange season at Tahiti, end of, 784.
Oranges at Tahiti, 788.

Orbicula, 893.

Orbiculina, 186.

Orbitolites, 485, 487, 835.

Orbulina, 218, 467, 511, 851, 911, 919 ;
0. universa, 435, 436, 803, 838, 912 ;
yellow cells in, 839.

Orca, 437.

Orchids, 459, 460, 534.

Oreaster, 188, 542.

Organpipe Coral, 664.

“Oriental,” the, 368.

Ornaments, at Admiralty Islands, 709,
710, 711, 722, 727 ; at Api, 518 ; at
Arrou Islands, 547 ; at Cape York,
541 ; at Humboldt Bay, 683.
Ornithoptera poseidon, 548.

Oroc, Mount, 632.

Orofena, Mount, 786.

Orotava, 53.

Orthidse, 893.

Orthis, 893 ; O. concmna, 894 ; 0. suli-
vani, 893, 894 ; O. tenuis, 893.
i Orthoptera, 580.

1097

Orthotetes, 894.

Oscillatorise, 136, 545, 606, 654, 738, 930.
Osmcea, 186.

Osmunda, 143 ; 0. cinnamomea, 143 ; O.

regalis, 143.

Osnaburgh Point, 532.

Osorio, Spanish royalist, 825.

Ossifraga, 325 ; 0. gigantea, 294, 436.
Ostracoda, account of the, 846 ; British,
847 ; pplagic, 847.

Otosawrus rhicrolepis, 485.

Ovalau Island, 492, 502, 508.

Ovulwrn ovum, 709, 710, 715, 722.

Owen, Prof., 366.

Owl, 535, 766.

Oxycephalus, 171.

Oxygen, in bottom waters, 995 ; in inter-
mediate waters, 996.

Oxypleurodon stimpsoni, 588, 589.

Oxyrhina, teeth of, 757, 775, 805.
Oxyrhyncha, 585.

Oxystomata, 585.

Oxyuris, 129.

Oysters, 460.

Pachychalina, 572.

Pachygrapsus, 587 ; P. maurus, 587 ; P.

transversus, 587.

Pacific Islanders, crania of, 730.

Pacific Ocean, 428, 449, 450 ; bed of, 771 ;
density of water in, 961 ; salinity
of, 961 ; saltest water in, 965 ; winds
across the, 753.

Pack ice, 430 ; colour of, 405 ; description
of, 406 ; nature of ice composing, 405.
Paddy, 359.

Page, Mr., 497.

Pagodroma, 325 ; P. nivea, 436'
Paguridea, 898, 899.

Pagurus, 187 ; P. striatus, 900.
Paloechthus cossonoides, 269 ; P. glabratus,
269.

Palceeudyptes, 364.

Palcemon, 187, 190,651; P.fucorum, 136;

P. pelasgicus, 136.

Palseocrinoids, 311, 313.

Palaeozoic Crinoids, 313.

Palinurus, 879 ; P. frontalis, 830.
Pallenopsis, 857, 858 ; P. mollissima, 859 ;
P. patagonica ; 858.

Palm, 459 ; fruits brought up in trawl,
607, 628 ; of Juan Fernandez, 828 ;
Sago, 547, 555, 597 ; Saguir, 598.
Palma Island, 181 ; deposit west of, 1'82.
Palmas Island, 668.

Palmetto, 943.

Palmipedes, 366.

Pamilacan Island, 652.

Pamphila moseleyi, 555 ; P. pustula, 128.
Pan Azucar, 902.

1098

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Pan-pipes, 723.

Panay Island, 622, 652.

Pandanus, 478, 488, 502, 517, 546, 679.
Pandion Tialiaetus, 727.

Papeno Valley, 783, 785, 788.

Papiete Harbour, 776, 788. '

Papilio alcidinus, 548, 581 ; P. laglaizei ,
582; P. polydamas, 128; P. thomsonii,
555.

Papuan pigs, 729.

Papuans, 730, 731.

Paractinise, 575.

Paradis tubulifera, 575.

Paracydo'is milne-edwardsi, 590.

Paradisea apoda, 550 ; P. minor, 550 ;

P. papuana, 598 ; P. rubra, 598.
Paradoxostoma, 847.

Pardgonaster, 617.

Parahiba, 215 ; soundings off, 215.
Paralomis verrucosus, 898.

Paranebalia, 151.

Parapari, Mount, 623.

Pararchaster, 614 ; P. pedicifer, 610.
Parasites, on Crinoidea, 317 ; on fish, 183,
846.

Parasitic Nemertines, 169.

Parelpidia cylindrica, 833.

Parenchymula, 641.

Parinarium laurinum, 719.

Parker Bay, 867.

Parker, Prof. W. K., on Green Turtle, 928,
1065.

Parroquet, 485 ; Brush-tongued, 534.
Parrots, 485, 489, 497, 548, 598, 729.
Partula hartmanni, 729.

Pas, Lake, 661.

Pasithea, 187.

Passage Island, 605.

Passigi Island, 605.

Patagonia, 869, 878, 886 ; Brachyura at,
591 ; forests of, 876; glaciers at, 876 ;
scenery of, 876.

Patella, 628.

Patina pellucida, 136 ; P. tella, 136.
Patten, Capt. John, 243.

Patterson, Mr., xxxix.

Paynter Island, 866.

Peacock, Capt. George, 876.

Peak, of Fernando Noronha, 211, 213 ; of
Tenerife, ascent of, 53 ; rabbits on,
55 ; spiders on, 55 ; sunset effect on,
54 ; vegetation on, 54 ; of Ternate,
ascent of, 598 ; of Tidore, 604.

Peaked Bock, 628, 744.

Peareey, F., 455, 783.

Pearcey Bock, 339.

Pearl Lochs Harbour, 763.

Pearl, shelters, 541; shells, 545.

Pearly Nautilus, living specimen of, 490.
Pedanthis, 601.

Pecten, 651.

Pedinura, 173.

Pedis, 601 ; P. antardica, 601.

‘Pectyllidse, 601.

Pedyllis, 601.

Pedata, 278, 280.

Pedicellinopsis fruticosa, 671.

Pediculus capitis, 129.

Pedro Island, 862.

Pedro Sarmiento, 867, 869.

Pegella ichorina, 580.

Pelagia, 471.

Pelagic, Diatoms, account . of the, 930 ;
organisms, 195, 218; 219, 833, 838,
847.

Pelagodroma, 324.

Pelagonemertes rollestoni, 831.

Pelamys bicolor, 485, 681.

Pele’s hair, 768, 769.

Pelecanidse, 328.

Pelecanoides, 325, 326 ; distinct peculiari-
ties of, 326 ; P. urinatrix, 359.

Pelecanus fuscus, 126.

Pelew Island, 730.

Pelicans, 126.

Pellina, 571.

Pelops gularis, 555.

Peltarion spinulosum, 587, 592.

Pembroke Point, 892.

Penceus, 527.

Peneid shrimps, 182.

Penguins, 258, 295, 357, 358, 361, 398,
400, 436; aquatic migration of, 266 ;
Crested, 358; distribution in time of,
363; as food and fuel, 377 ; Gentoo,
295 ; geographical distribution of,
362; iris of, 258 ; Jackass, 259, 894 ;
Johnny, 295, 357 ; King, 296, 357,
397; moulting, 297; nest of, 261;
and pigs at Hog Island, 321 ; Bock-
hopper, 259, 296, 358 ; skin of, 321 ;
structural features of, 361; young, 297.

Penguin Island, 318, 321, 402, 862.

Penguin rookeries, 259, 264, 296 ; at
Christmas Harbour, 296; at Inacces-
sible Island, 258 ; stampede across,
260,

Peniagone wyvilUi, 775.

Pennatulida, account of the, 49.

Pennatulids, 557, 651, 744.

Penrhyn Island, 765.

Pentacheles, 524.

Pentacrinidse, 306.

Pentacrinus, 303, 306, 651 ; P. alterni-
cirrus, 316, 317, 669; P. maclear anus,
303, 311 ; P. naresianus, 669 ; P.
wyville-thomsoni, 303.

■Pentalophora decadis, 146.

Pentarthrum carmichaeli, 269.

Pepsis collaris, 236.

Percis allporti, 454.

Peribolaster, 616.

Pericera, 586 ; P. cornuta, 587.

Pericharax, 642.

Peridiniidse, 934.

Peridinium tripos, 218, 933 ; P. tabulation,
935.

Perigea subaurea, 148.

Periophthalmus, 489, 497; P. koelreuteri,
489.

Peripatus, 284, 473 ; P. capensis, 284, 473;
geographical distribution of, 285 ; P.
novoe-zealandioe, 473; viscid discharge
from, 285.

Periphema regina, 603.

Periphragella, 451.

Periphylla mirabilis, 602.

Periphyllidse, 601.

Perisiphonia, 752.

Peristera geoffroyi, 213.

Peritricha, 934.

Perkin, 948.

Peromednsee, 601.

Peron on oceanic temperature, xxxvii.

Peru, 886.

“ Peru,” the, 876.

Peruaguacu river, 227 ; river steamers on,
228 ; scenery on, 228.

Peruvian Current, 363.

Petalophthalmus armiger, 742.

Peter the Great Island, 416.

Peters, Prof. , on Ardocephalus, 355.

Petrels, 358, 765 ; account of the, 323 ;
Burrowing, 787 ; difference between,
and Gulls, 326.

Pdrochirus granulatus, 900.

Petrology of St. Paul’s Bocks, 206, 207 ;
see also Bocks.

Pets kept by Malays, 564.

Pettersson, Dr., observations on sea water
ice by, 426, 427.

Pfahlbauten, 661.

Phabotreron brevirostris, 666.

Phseodaria, 222, 227, 759, 842, 903; descrip-
tion of, 225 ; difference between, and
other Badiolaria, 225; obtained dur-
ing voyage, 225.

Phseodium, 225 ; structure in Foramini-
fera resembling, 842.

Phaethon, 783 ; P. cethereus, 530, 928 ; P.
flavirostris, 144, 476, 738, 928.

Phalacrocorax, 328.

Phalanger, 713, 729 ; Woolly, 564.

Phalangista maculata, 456.

Phalarope, 680.

Phalaropus hyperboreus, 680.

Phascogale calura, 456.

Phascolion, 908.

Phascolosoma, 908 ; P. flagriferum, 908 ;
P. vulgare, 908.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1099

Pheasant Cuckoo, 534.

Pheronema, 450.

Philemon albitorques, 729.

Philippines, 627, 649, 658, 666, 749,
900, 927, 933, 988 ; Brachyura at,
589.

Philipsite, 774, 815, 816.

Phoberus, 525.

Phoebetria, 299, 324.

Pholadomya, 625.

Pholas, 680.

Pholcas ancoralis, 490 ; P. phalangioides,
55.

Pholidaster, 616.

Phormosoma bursarium, 628 ; P. hopla-
cantha, 198, 853 ; P. luculentum, 628 ;
P. tenue, 775.

Phorus, 490.

Phosphorescence, of deep-sea fish, 905 ; of
Pyrocystis, 936 ;• of sea, xxxiv ; of
water at Hong Kong, 638.
Phosphorescent organs, of fish, 521 ; of
Euphausiidae, 740, 743.

Phoxaster, 612, 615.

Phoxichilidium, 857.

Phronima, 171, 219.

Phthirius pubis, 129.

Phthisis, cases of, 1030.

Phylactella, 672, 758.

Phylica nitida, 244, 253, 257, 263, 944,
955.

Phyllidiadse, 694.

Phylliroe, 219 ; P. atlantica, 136.
Phyllobranchiata, 523.

Phyllocarida, account of the, 743.
Phyllodes, coloration of wings of, 583 ;
P. cerasifera, 583, 666 ; P. consobrina,
583 ; P. conspicillator, 583 ; P. floralis,
583 ; P. roseigera, 583 ; P. verhuellii,
583.

Phyllodocidse, 629.

Phyllopus bidenlatus, 845.

PhyllorMna cervina, 536. .

Phyllosoma, 219.

Phyllospongia, 644, 645.

Phyllospongos, 644.

Phymosoma, 908.

Phijsalia, 218.

Physalus australis, 437.

Physematium, 220.

, Physeter macrocephalus, 808.

Physiculus dalwigki, 745.

Physogyra aperta, 565.

Physostomi, 907.

Piazzi Island, 866.

Pico Island, 167 ; deposit off, 175 ; dredg-
ing off, 195.

Piedra, Mount, 627.

Pier End, 747.

Piew, the, 299.

Piezometer, 14, 42, 102 ; description of
the, 105 ; mercury, 103, 107 ; results
obtained by, 108 ; water, 105.

Pigeon, Fruit, 485, 498, 518, 566, 729;
Goura, 688 ; Great Fruit, 485 ; Ground,
535; Nutmeg, 555.

Pigeon Island, 701, 704, 728.

Pigment in Foraminifera, 842.

Pigs, omniverous habits of, 784..

Pigs’ tails as ornaments, 518.
Pile-dwellings, distribution of, 661 ; at
New Guinea, 661 ; origin of, 661 ; at
Port Isabella, 659 ; at Samboangan,
658; ofTobaddi, 681; of Ungrau, 681.
Pillars of Hercules, xxxi.

Pillow, peculiar form of, 481.

Pilot Joe at Fiji, 498, 499.

Pilulina, 836.

Pilumnoplax, 585 ; P. abyssicola, 588 ; P.

normani, 587.

Pilumnus, 588.

Pimento, the, 821.

Pina, 622.

Pincis Bay, 416.

Pine-apple, 597 ; fabric made from fibres
of, 622.

Pinhao, 212.

Pinus canariensis, 54.

Pio, the, 299.

Pipe of Australian aborigines, 537.

Pipitea Point, 472.

Pirates, Malay, 604 ; rendezvous of, 604 ;

report of, at Ternate, 597.

Pisang, 561.

Pista mirabilis, 635.

Pitylus cardinalis, 146.

Pityriasis versicolor, 553. •

Placiphora setiger, 288.

Plagiostomous fish, remains of, 462.
Plagusia, 219 ; P. immaculata, 586.
Planaria, 219.

Planispirina, 835.

Plantain, 598, 784.

Platform Island, 214.

Platurus laticaudatus, 729.

Platydercus splendens, 497, 498 ; P. tabu-
ensis, 485.

Platycerium, 459, 547.

Platydactylus, 186.

Platydia anomio'ides, 132.

Platyglossus cyanostigma, 203.

Platymaia wyville-thomsoni, 590.
Platymera, 590.

Platyonychus iridescens, 588.

Plectellaria, 225.

Plesioneura proserpina, 548.
Pleurocorallium johnsoni, 125 ; P. secun-
dum, 692, 693.

Pleuronectids, 219, 729.

Plev/ropus, 219.

Pleurotoma, 897.

Pliny’s Natural History, xxxii.

Plovers, spur-winged, 359.

. Plumage, breeding, loss of, in Birds of
Paradise, 550.

Plumularia obliqua, 136.

Plumularidee, 751.

Plusia ou, 148.

Plutonaster, 610, 612, 615.

Pnevmodermon, 219.

Pneumonophora, 280.

Poa cookii, 299, 355, 375.

Podalirius, 619.

Podocidaris prionigera, 628.

Podophrya, 126, 218, 933.

Podosira, 933.

Pcecilasma, 852.

Poeloe Island, 561.

Pohaku koi, 483.

Point, Botolan, 646 ; Boulard, 863 ;
Oaillie, 681, 688; Caldera, 656;
Lobos, 907 ; Pillot, 863 ; Sigayae,
655 ; Silanguin, 646 ; Tagolo, 655.
Poisoning, cases of, 1031.

Polejaeff, Dr. N., on the Calcare'a, 639,
1068 ; on the Keratosa, 643, 1068.
Poliopogon, 450 ; P. amadou, 125 ; P.
gigas, 477.

Polistes fortunatus, 186 ; P. madoci, 128.
Pollicipes, 853.

Polychseta, 278..

Polycheles, 490, 523 ; P. crucifera, 523, 524.
Polycystina, 220.

Polykrikos auricularia, 934.

Polylophus, 451.

Polymastia brevis, 572.

Polymixia japonica, 745.

Polymorphina angusta, 912 ; P. lactea,
912 ; P. longicollis, 912.

Polynesia, 719, 784, 845.

Polynesians, 706, 730 ; cranial characters
of, 730 ; origin of, 732.

Polynoe, 219 ; P. grandipalpi, 630 ; P.
iphionoides, 630 ; P. scolopendrina,
630.

Polynoella levisetosa, 630.

Polyonyx obesulus, 899. '

Polyopis striata, 575, 576.

Polyperythrin, 795.

Polypodium australe, 300 ; P. phlebis-
copum, 599.

Polyrhachis phyllophila, 666 ; P. sculptu-
rata, 666.

Polysiphonia tuber osa, 575.

Polystomella, 186.

Poly stomidium patens, 576, 804.

Polytrema, 176.

Polyzoa, 46, 544, 669 ; account of the, 670.
Polyzoarium of Cephalodisius, 676, 677.

| “ Pommerania,” the, 976.

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i.— 1885.)

140

1100

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Pompadour Parrot, 485.

Ponies, at Samboangan, 657 ; at Falkland
Islands, 889 ; at Fiji, 494.

Ponta Delgada, 176 ; breakwater at, 179.

Pontaster, 610, 612, 614, 615.

Pontia atlantica, 136.

Pontostratiotes abyssicola, 845.

Pootoy Island, 646.

Population, of Amboina, 579 ; of Banda,
568.

Porcellana, 899 ; P. platycheles, 899*.

Porcellanaster , 610, 615 ; P. gracilis, 833.

Porcellanasteridse, 607, 615.

Poreellanea, 835.

Poreellanidea, 898.

“Porcupine” Expedition, xlviii, 1, 303,
306, 569, 834, 907, 908, 967.

Porites, 517, 564, 780 ; P. clavaria, 145,
146.

Porocidaris, 197; P. elegans, 669.

Porpita, 218.

Porpoises, 459, 725, 872.

Port, Albany, 532, 542 ; Bermejo, 867 ;
Cburruea, 867, 869, 870 ; Darwin,
888 ; Desire, 874 ; Famine, 870,
874 ; Grappler, 864, 868 ; Hardy,
466 ; Hunter, 698 ; Isabella, 656,
659, 665 ; Jackson, 462, 463, 464,
698, 898 ; Louis, 884, 886, 893 ;
Nicholson, 466, 472, 474 ; Otway,
862 ; Palliser, 341, 345 ; Philip, 414,
453 ; Rosario, 867 ; Stanley, 883, 884,
890, 902 ; Sussex, 892.

Port Jackson Head, 454.

Port Jackson Shark, 462.

Portezuela, Mount, 827.

Porto Grande (St. Vincent), 183, 940.

Porto Praya, 188, 192, 751, 929.

Portsmouth, 46.

Portsmouth to Gibraltar, 46.

Portuguese, at Amboina, 577 ; at Banda,
562 ; at Moluccas, 595.

Portunus corrugatus, 587.

Possession Bay, xxxviii.

Possession Island, 318, 321, 357 ; gale off,
319 ; vegetation at, 319.

Pottery, of Admiralty Islanders, 713 ; of
Ki Islanders, 553.

Potts, T. II., on Nestor meridionalis, 473.

Pouchet, on Oeratium, 934.

Pounds Island, 866.

Pountin Island, 628.

Pourtalfes, Count L. F. de, xlvi.

Pourtalesia carinata, 833 ; P. ceratopyga,
833 ; P. laguncula, 476, 757; P.
rosea, 775.

Pourtalesiae, 200.

Powell, Commodore, 827.

Powell, Wilfred, 415, 416, 726.

Preservation of specimens, spirit for, 7.

President of Chili, 824.

Prickly Pear, 760.

Primnoa, 690.

Primnoella, 690 ; P. murrayi, 690.

Prince Edward Island, 291 ; see also
Marion Island.

Prince of Wales, Channel, 542 ; Fo-reland,
336, 345, 350 ; Island, 534.

“ Prihcessa,” the-, 697.

Pringlea, 375 ; P. antiscorbutica, 299, 355,
375, 945, 1027.

Priocnemis atlanticus, 186.

Prion, 262, 299, 325, 358, 398 ; P. banlcsi,
299 ; P. desolatus, 358, 436.

Proas, Malay, 597.

Procalistes, 471, 472.

Procellaria, 324, 325 ; P. rostrata, 765, 787.
Procellarid, diving, 359.

ProcellariidiB', 323, 329 ; account of the,
362 ; characters of the-, 323 ; differ-
ences between, and Diomedeinae, 325.
Procercea, 632.

Promaehocrinus, 311 ; A abyssorum, 311 ;
P. naresi, 669.

Promachoteuthis megaptera, 273.
Proportional compasses, 42.

Proteaeese) 534.

Protective modifications of eye, 5291
Proteides amyntas, 128.

Protella, 619.

Proto, 619.

Protocaulidae, the, 51.

Protocaulon molle, 476.

Protoparce cingulata, 600.

Protoptilidee, the, 51.

Protozocea, 818.

Protractors, 42.

Proudfoot Shoal, 542.

Provocator pulcher,. 895;

Psammoclema,. 645.

Psammopemma, 645.

Pseudarchaster, 617.

Pseudomma, 742 ; P. roseum, 361.
Pseudorhombila abyssicola , 588 ; P. nor-
mani, 587.

Pseudorhombus ocellatus, 729.

Pseudozius mellissi, 586.

Psilaster, 611, 615.

Psittacus erithacus, 181.

Psolus ephippifer, 282, 379, 396 ; descrip-
tion of, 383 ; P. operculatus, 383.
Psycheotrephes exigua, 775.

Psychropotes longicauda, 833.

Pteraster, 382, 609; P. militaris, 392, 394.
Pterasteridae, 607, 609, 615.

Pteris aquilina, 827 ; P. incisa, 599.
Pteroeides griseum, 51.

Pteroeididae, the, 51.

Pteropod ooze, 126, 922; description of,
919.

Pteropus hypomelanus, 729; P. keraudrenii,
484 ; P. melanopogon, 555.

Pterosoma plana, 831.

Pterotrachea, 219.

Ptilinopus porphyraceus, 485, 498.

Ptilopus johannis, 729.

Ptilorhis alberti, 535.

Ptilotis, 497 ; P. carunculata, 484 ; P.
chrysotis, 534 ; P. filigera, 534.

Ptyehogaster, 901 ; P. formosus, 901 ; P.
milne-edwardsi, 901 ; P. spinifer, 901.

Pueblo Indians, 462.

Puerto, Bueno, 866, 868 ; Peligroso, 867.

Puffins, 129, 262, 325.

Puffinus nugax, 787.

{ Pugettia, 588.

Pule;. c, 269.

Pullenia, 218, 467, 511, 738, 930 ; P.
obliquiloculata, 803, 838, 839, 841,
912.

Pulo ( = Island, Malay) Ai, 561; Babi,
552 ; Bandang, 554 ; Dol, 558 ; Dou-
lan Laut, 556 ; Letman, 556 ; Neira,
560 ; Nera, 561 ; Oboor, 556 ; Onelin,
558 ; Ougia, 545 ; Pisang, 560, 561 ;
Rhun, 559 ; Rozengain, 559 ; Run, 561;
Suwanggi, 561; Swangi, 561; Ta, 558;
Wai, 561 ; Waii, 559 ; Wassia, 545.

Pulvinulina, 218, 436, 467, 511, 738, 851,
919, 930; P. canariensis, 803, 838; P.
crassa, 838 ; P. menardii, 194, 512,
758, 803, 838, 841, 912 ; P. micheli-
niana, 435, 469, 803, 838, 839, 912 ;
P. patagonica, 838, 912 ; P. pauper ata,
912 ; P. tvmida, 194, 838, 912.

| Pumice, in deposits, 628, 813 ; floating, 758.

Punaavia, 776.

Bunaru Valley, 785, 788.

Puncturella granulata, 897 ; P. noachina,
897 ; P. rostrata, 897.

Puzzle-seed, 680.

Pycnogonida, account of the, 856 ; charac-
ters of, 859 ; geographical distribution

_ of, 857.

Pycnogonum, xlii.

Pygosceles, 363, 365, 367 ; see also Apteno-
dytes tceniatus.

Pylocheles, 900.

Pyrgus syrichtus, 128.

Pyrocystis, 758 ; description of, 935 ; P.
fusiformis, 218, 937 ; P. noetiluca, 218,
935, 936.

Pyrosoma, 170, 219 ; capture of a very
large new species of, 170.

Pythia apiensis, 518.

Pythonaster, 615; P. murrayi, 609.

Quail Island, 189.

Quails, 189.

Quarantine Hospital, Tahiti, 777.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1101

Quartz, in deposits, 161, 169 ; crystals of,
in rocks at Kerguelen, 350.
Quatrefages, M. de, 731.

Quedius, 205 ; Q. fulgidus, 269.

Queen Charlotte Sound, 466.

Queensland, 454, 732.

Quelch, J. J., on corals, 145, 544, 565, 1070.
Quelpart, 625.

Quente, River, 177.

Querquedula eatoni, 319, 357.

Quoin Hill, 871.

Quoy, 462.

Radiella, 572.

Radiolaria, account of the, 219 ; classifica-
tion of, 221 ; distribution of, 225 ;
morphology of, 221 ; reproduction of,
220.

Radiolarian ooze, 737, 774 ; description of,
920.

Rain water, composition of air dissolved
in, 991 ; experiments on, 990 ; gases
in, 992 ; observations on, 993.

Raine Island, 519, 521," 528, 529, 929.
Raine Island to Cape York, 531.

Rainfall, at Ternate, 600; at Honolulu, 760.
Rainier, Admiral, 577.

Rallus pectoralis, 529.

Rame Head, 453.

Ramulina, 837.

Rana pipiens, 229.

Randallia gmnulata, 588; R. ornata, 588.
Raninidea, 898.

Ranunculus biternatus, 301.

Raoul Island, 475, 477 ; flora of, 475 ;

volcanic condition of, 477.

Raoulia, 301.

Raspailia, 572.

Rat Island, 211, 214, 907 ; Lepidoptera
at, 214 ; rocks at, 214.

Rata, 473.

Rathbun, Mr., on deep-sea trawling, 49.
Rations of crew, 1027.

Rats at Tahiti, 7 84.

Rattan Palm, at Arrou, 548 ; at Cape
York, 534.

Ratu ( = prince, Fiji) David, 494, 496.
Reagents, 44.

Recent bones, analyses of, 1034.

Reception in honour of Expedition, at
Banda, 566 ; at Ternate, 596.
“Recherche,” the, 698.

Reckaderos, 650.

Red Bird, 144, 146.

Red clay, description of, 920 ; micro-
scopic examination of, 921.

Red Cliffs, 765.

Red Hand of Australia, 461.

Red Island, 376, 378.

Red Islet, 369.

I Red mud, description of, 918.

Red Patch Point, 543.

Red Sea, 962, 967, 968.

Redfield Rocks, 737.

Reef, appearance indicative of, 491 ;
Barrier, 519, 521 ; Cook’s, 542 ;
Great Detached, 521, 530, 531; at
Kandavu, 508; mode of growth of,
781; at Tahiti, 778, 779. .

Reef Corals, at Bermuda, 145; at Kandavu,
508.

Regadrella, 450.

Regnault, 948.

Reibnitz, Capt. von, 453.

Reichenbach, 809.

Reirson Island, 765.

Religion of guides at Tahiti, 785.

Remigia marcida, 148.

Renard, Abbe A., analysis of manganese
nodules by, 1048; on St. Paul’s Rocks,
209, 1067.

Renard, Abbe A., and John Murray, on
cosmic spherules, 809 ; on deep-sea
deposits, 915, 1071; on volcanic
minerals in deep sea, 813.

Renieridas, 572.

Renilla mulleri, 908.

Renillidse, 51.

Rennel, on currents, xliii.

Reophax, 842 ; R. scorpiurus, 912.

Report of Committee on proposed Expedi-
tion, 21.

Resident, of Amboina, 578; of Banda, 566;
of Ternate, 596.

Respiratory system, diseases of, 1030.

Retama, 54.

Reteocrinus, 313.

Retepora margaritacea, 67 5.

Reteporidae, 675.

Retort stands, iron stanchions in place of,

13-

Reunion Isle, 345.

Rewa, 492 ; excursion to, 492 ; Queen of,
505; River, 497, 498, 506 ; volume of
water poured into harbour of, 497.

Rhabdocalyptus, 451.

Rhabdodictyum, 450.

Rhabdoliths, 511.

Rhabdonema, 930.

Rhabdopectella, 450.

Rhabdopleura, 671, 676.

Rhabdosoma, 171, 219.

Rhabdospheres, 607 ; distribution of, 938.

Rhaphigaster, 148.

Rhaphithamnus longijlorus, 828.

Rhea, 872.

Rhipidura semirubm, 729.

Rhizammina, 836 ; R. algceformis, 574,
758, l 805.

Rhizochalina, 571.

Rhizocrinus, 306, 308, 313 ; R. lofotensis,
311.

Rhizomorpha, 502, 504.

Rhizopoda, 934.

Rhizopoda polythalamia, 220 ; R. radiaria,
220.

Rhizosolenia, 930 ; 11. flaccida, 931.

Rhodes Bay, 342.

Rhodocrinidee, 313.

Rhun Island, 561.

Rhynchodemus, 473.

Rhynchoscaphia antarctica, 634.

Riccia, 704.

Rice fields, 598.

Rich, Lieut., 242, 243, 245 ; journal of,

. at Tristan, 244.

Richards, Admiral G. H., 1, 22.

Richards, R. R. A., 19, 257, 728.

Richards Islet, 701.

Richards, Mount, 347.

Richardson, Capt., 242, 256.

Riches, Capt., 652.

Ridge between Banda and Arafura Seas, 559.

Ridley, S. O., on Corallium, 125, 692; on
the Monaxonida, 569, 1071.

Rifle Bird, 535.

Rio de la Plata, 902, 908, 960 ; deposits
off the mouth of, 910 ; trawlings and
dredgings off, 911.

Rio Parahiba, 215.

Rio San Francisco, 215.

River Plate, see Rio de la Plata.

Roang Island, 605 ; Peak, 605.

Robert Point, 865.

Robinson Crusoe, 821.

Robinson, Sir Hercules, 463.

“Rochelle,” the, 369.

Rock (a), 542.

Rock Island, 745, 749.

Rock Lilies, 459.

Rockall, xlviii.

Rockhopper Penguin, 259, 296, 358.

Rocks, at Amboina, 580 ; at Ascension,
929 ; at Bermuda, 137 ; at Green-
land Harbour, 350 ; glaciated, near
Halifax, 158 ; at Gunung Api, 563 ;
at Hammond Island, 542 ; at Heard
Island, 372, 373 ; at Inaccessible
Island, 262 ; at Isthmus Bay, 866 ;
at Juan Fernandez, 830; at Kandavu,
508 ; at Kerguelen, 348, 352 ; at
Nicobar Islands, 227 ; at Nightingale
Island, 264 ; at Platform Island, 214 ;
at Rat> Island, 214 ; at St. Vincent,
188 ; at San Iago, 191 ; at Ternate,
600 ; at Tongatabu, 483.

Rocks of Despair, 334.

Rodents, 128, 872.

Rodondo Island, 453.

Rogers, Capt. Woodes, 376, 820.

1102

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Rogers’ Head, 376, 373.

Roggewein, 822.

Rolleston, Prof. , on pigs’ skulls from
Admiralty Islands, 728.

“Roman,” the, 377.

Romblon, Island, 623 ; Strait, 647.
Ronalds, Dr. Edmund, 987.

Rooke, Dr. T. C. B., 764.

Rope, hemp, 10, 70; steel-wire, 72.

Rose, G., on meteorites of native iron, 810.
Rosia Bay, 47, 48.

Rosnevet, M. de, 345.

Ross, Sir James Clark, xl, 292, 320, 322,
330, 346, 347, 353, 406, 408, 415, 416,
417, 421, 428, 429, 430, 884 ; dredg-
ings of, xlii.

Ross, Sir John, xxxviii, xl, 98 ; Arctic
voyage of, xxxvii.

Ross, Lieut. John, 824.

Ross, Mount, 332, 342, 347.

Ross Rocks, 291, 292.

Rossella, 361, 451.

Rossellidae, 447, 451.

Ros'sellinse, 45 J.

“Roswell King,” the, 340, 341, 346* 377.
Jlotalia, 544 ; R. soldanii, 912.
“Roundtree,” the, 130.

Route, proposed, 23.

Royal Sound, Kerguelen, 336, 337, 345,
350, 352, 356, 359 ; survey of, 338.
Rozengain Island, 559, 561.

Rumex, 828; R. frutescens, 253, 257.
Rumphius, 490.

Rung, Capt., 95.

Rusa moluccensis, 583.

Sabal blackburniana, 143, 943.

Sabine, Sir Edward, xxxviii.

Sabine Land, 416.

Sabine, Mount, 413.

Saccharum, 497, 679.

Saccopteryx eanina, 235.

Sacol Island, 606, 655.

Saddle Point, 376.

Sagenella, 836.

Sagitta, 170, 219, 436, 629, 903.

Sago Palms, 547, 555.

Saguir Palms, 598.

St. Agnes Peak, 867.

St. Allouran, Capt., 344.

St. Amaro, 229, 233, 236.

St. Andrews, xxxv.

St. Anne, Island, 870 ; Point, 870.

St. Bernardino Strait, 647.

“St. Charles,” the, 821.

St. David Islands, 678. •

St. George’s Channel, 698.

St. Helena, 943; flora of, 944.

St. Martin’s, Cove, 886 ; Island, 121.

St. Michael, Mount, 213.

St. Nicholas Church, 650, 652.

St. Paul Island, 943 ; flora of, 945.

St. Paul’s Rocks, 194, 201, 928; analysis of,
206 ; birds at, 204 ; dangerous charac-
ter of, 202 ; deposit at, 206 ; descrip-
tion of, 202 ; fish at, 203 ; microscopic
examination of, 207 ; mode of forma-
tion of, 208 ; necessity for lighthouse
at, 203 ; petrology of, 2.06 ; white
coating on, 204, 207.

St. Paul’s Rocks to Fernando Noronha, 209.

St. Thomas Island, 121, 126 ; human para-
sites at, 129 ; effect of hurricanes at,
129.

St. Thomas, Mount, 627.

St. Vincent, 183, 188, 759 ; birds at, 186;
. climate of, 185 ; coal at, 185 ; coral
at, 191 ; deposits at, 186 ; desolate
appearance of, 183 ; mountains of,
183 ; rocks at, 188 ; spiders at, 187 ;
survey of the anchorage at, 185 ;
vegetation at, 183. -

Sakate, 747.

“Salamander,” H.M.S., 876.

Salenia, 201 ; S. hastigera, 197, 198.

Salice Island, 605.

Salicornaria magnified, 674 ; S. malmnen-
sis, 675.

Salicornariadse, 674.

Saligit, Mount, 623.

Salino Island, 655.

Salmonid fish, 864, 903.

Salmonidse, 907.

Salpa, 170, 171, 219, 436, 938.

Salpidae, 162.

Salticidae, 187.

Salute at Amboina, 579.

Salvadori, Count Thomaso, 1066.

Salvin, Osbert, 1066.

“Samarang,” H.M.S., 368.

Samboangan, 606, 655, 665 ; dancing by
Lutaos at, 661 ; description of, 657 ;
Mohammedans at, 658 ; Moro houses
at, 659.

Samboangan to Humboldt Bay, 666.

Samboangan to Ilo Ilo, 618.

Sambro Island, 158.

Samoa, 484, 704, 730.

San Antonio, 182, 183, 943 ; Fort, 843.

San Ambrosio, 943.

San Bias, 697.

San Diego, 878.

San Domingo, valley of, 188.

San Felipe, 874.

San Felix, 943.

San Gabriel Islets, 697.

San Iago, 188 ; birds at, 189 ; coral at,
191 ; rocks at, 191 ; spiders at, 187.

San Jorge, 176.

San Marcello do Mar, 227.

San Miguel Islands, 176, 697 ; cultivation
at, 177 ; English gardener at, 178 ;
excursions at, 176 ; hot springs at,
176 ; vegetation of, 178.

San Rafael Islets, 697.

Sanagi Sima, 747, 748.

Sand bath, 14.

Sand Crabs, 187.

Sands, see Deposits.

Sandalwood trees, 828.

Sandstone Island, 466.

Sandwich Island, New Hebrides, 515; see
also Efate.

Sandwich Islanders, 483 ; crania of, 731.
Sandwich Islands, 693, 753, 755, 759, 763,
969 ; King of the, 761 ; see also Hono-
lulu, Oahu, and Molokai.

Sandwich Islands to Tahiti, 769.

Sandy Bay, 618.

Sandy Cay, 652, 654.

Sandy Hook, 959.

Sandy Point, 865, 870 ; Chilian settlement
at, 870 ; coal mines at, 871 ; massacre
at, 871 ; mean temperature at, 876.
Sanguir Island, 605.

Sanmen Sima, 747.

Santa Ana, Port, 618.

Santa Clara Islet, 826.

Santa Cruz, anchorage off, 52.

Santa Cruz Islands, 606, 655.

Santa Cruz Major Island, 662, 663.

“ Santa Maria,” the, 646.

Santa Marta, 871.

Santiago, visit to, 843; see also San Iago.
Santiago Point, 647.

Sao Islets, 593.

Saparoea Island, 577, 578.

Saphara Ursula , 729.

Saphirina, 219.

‘ ‘ Sappho, ” the, ■ 250.

Sarangani Islands, description of, 667.
Sarcode of Foraminifera, 839, 841.
Sarcophyton, 689.

Sarcostemma daltoni, 184.

Sargasso Sea, 136, 895, 966.

Sargassum baeeifervm, 135.

Sarmiento, Pedro, 873; expedition of, to
Magellan Strait, 874.

Sarmiento Bank, 872; deposits off, 873.
Sarmiento Channel, 862, 866, 877.

Sarong, 545, 567. •

Sars, Prof. G. O., xliv, xlvi, 382, 390, 392,
570, 857; on the Cumacea, 742, 1070;
on the Phyllocarida, 743, 1070; on the
Schizopoda, 739, 1070.

Sars, Prof. Michael, xliv, 694.

“Satellite,” H.M.S., 248.

Saumarez Island, 864.

Saunders, Howard, 1066.

Saunders, Lieut. Commander, 699.

Scale of victualling during voyage, 1028.

Scalpellum, 853, 854; S. album, 669; S.
maximum, 853 ; S. regivm, 171, 855 ;
S. stroemii, 853 ; S. velutinum, 183.

Scaphander mundus, 897 ; S. niveus, 897.

Scaphopoda, account of the, 894.

Scenery of Patagonia, 876.

Sceptrella, 572.

Schistidium, 375.

Schizaspidia murrayi, 485.

Sehizopoda, account of the, 739.

Schmidt, Prof. Oscar, on Hexactinellida,
443, 445 ; on Monaxonida, 570.

Schnittstrecker, 441.

Schoolmaster, loss of naval, 188.

Schouten, 697, 875, 818.

Schouw, Prof. G. F., 26.

Sehrank, F. von Paula, 934.

Schultz, Prof. Max, 382.

Schulze, Prof. F. E., 477, 569, 639, 643;
on the Hexactinellida, 437, 1071.

Scincidee, 485, 555.

Scissurella crispata, 897.

Sclater, Dr. P. L., 766, 1065, 1066.

Sclerisis, 692.

Scleroplegma, 451.

Sclerothanmidae, 448, 451.

Sclerothamnus, 451.

Scolopendra, 186, 269.

Scopelid®, 521, 907.

Scopelus macrostoma, 775.

Scopularia, 451 ; families' of, 447.

Scopus, 328,

Scoriae, 300.

Scotoplanes globosa, 278.

Scout Island, 862.

Scout Peak, 863.

Screw Pines, 478, 546, 766, 785, 786.

Scrupocellaria macandrei, 675.

Scylla Island, 862.

Scyllcm, 219 ; S. pelagica, 136, 169.

Seyphomedus®, 218.

Scytodes thoracica, 55.

Scytophorus striatus, 57 5.

Sea, early knowledge of, xxxi ; exchange
going on between atmosphere and,
957 ; methods of observation at, 56 ;
phosphorescence of, xxxi v ; temperature
of, 83 ; see also Temperature.

Sea, Anemone, 648; Beans, 129; Dog, 355;
Grass, 497 ; Leopard, 355, 373 ; Lion,
354, 819 ; Slug, 379 ; Snake, 485,
681; Urchin, 187.

Sea level, determination of mean, 25; obser-
vations on, at Falkland Islands, 833.

Sea Reach, 868, 870, 877.

Sea water, alkalinity of, 973, 976 ; analysis
of, 997 ; in Antarctic regions, 422 ;
in Arafura Sea, 545 ; average com-
position of salt in, 954, 972, 973,

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

Sea water —

980 ; at Bermuda, 135 ; calcareous
matter in, 980, 981 ; carbonic acid
in, 977, 979, 993, 994, 995, 996 ; col-
lection of samples of, 110 ; composition
of, 954; compressibility of, 115; deep,
967 ; density of, 107, 135, 948, 956,
963; density in Agulhas Current, 423;

_ density in ice pack, 960 ; density of
total salts in, 971 ; early analysis of,
xxxvi ; effect of depth on, in Pacific,
965 ; gases in, 14, 16, 23, 976, 983,
985 ; greatest salinity of, in Pacific,
965 ; ice, experiments on, 425, 426,
427 ; in Indian Ocean, 962 ; nitro-
gen in, 995 ; oxygen in, 995, 996 ;
salinity of, 956, 961, 964; solid matter
in, 972 ; specific gravity of, 108 ;
source of salts in, 955,.

Sea weeds, 127, 184,

Seal, Elephant, 294, 321, 354, 373, 377,
819; Fur, 264, 321, 355, 819, 865, 872.

Sealers, diet of, 321. .

Seasons anticipated by plants, '229.

Sections, microscopic, curling up of, 441.

Sedan chair, travelling by, 230.

Sedge, 257, 564.

Sedgwick, A., 285.

Seemann, Mr., 488, 489, 498.

Segestria, 55.

Selenka, Prof. Emil, on the Gephyrea,
907, 1070.

Selkirk, Alexander, 820; monument to, 827.

Selpo Point, 866.

“Semiramis,” H.M.S., 242, 256.

Semper, Prof., 150, 315, 489 ; on Corals,
788 ; on Pycnogonida, 856.

Semperella, 450.

Semperellin®, 450.

Separation Point, 466.

Sepia, 270, 272, 491, 543.

Sergestes, 219, 527 ; S. oculatus, 136.

Serolis, 361 ; geographical distribution
of, 878 ; S. antarctica, 879 ; S. brom-
leya/na, 476, 879 ; S. carinata, 878 ;
S. latifrons, 878 ; S. neeera, 879 ; '
S. paradoxa, 878 ; S. schythei, 878.

Serpula, xlii, 138, 176, '367, 635, 917.

Serpulid®, 635.

Serrao, Francisco, visits Moluccas, 595.

Setella, 219.

Setubal, xlvii.

Sextant, 42.

Sextant Rock, 541.

Shag, 872; see also Cormorant.

Shag Island, 369, 376, 378.

Shallow Bay, 701.

Sharks, 499, 680 ; Port Jackson, 462.

Sharks’ teeth in deposits, 435, 775, 804,
806, 808, 817.

1103

Sharp, the buccaneer, 819.

Sharpe, D., 892.

“Shearwater,” H.M.S., xlix, 1, 47.
Shearwaters, 324.

Sheath-bill, 294, 298, 359.

Sheep, as beasts of burden, 233; at Falkland
Islands, 888; at Juan Fernandez, 826.
Sheerness, 18, 941.

Shells, high price of, 583 ; removal of cal-
careous,^ deep-sea deposits, 803 ; action
of Epizoanthus parasiticus on, 899.
Shelvocke, 821.

“Shenandoah,” the, 251.

Sheridan, Mr., 455, 456.

Shetland Islands, xl, 739; plateau between,
and Faroe Islands, xl.

Shika-no-se, 747.

Shoal Water Bay, 336.

Sholl Bay, 868.

Shore Crabs, 663.

Shortland, Capt., 421.

Shrike, 518.

Sial Point, 592.

Sialia wilsoni, 146.

Siao Island, 605, 606.

Sibago Island, 606.

Sibbald Island, 345.

Siberian Sea, 427.

Sibuyan Island, 623.

Sicogon Island, 623.

Sicyonia, 527.

Sicyonis crassa, 575, 576.

Siderastrcea galaxea, 146; S. radians, 145.
Siebold, Prof, v., 743.

Siemens, Sir C. W., 21, 24, 95; electrical
thermometer by, description of, 95.
Siete Pecados, 623.

Sieves, 41, 75.

Sigor, 682, 684.

Sigsbee, Capt., 71, 72, 75.

Silenia, 625.

Siliceous spherules, 811.

Siliceous Sponges, 443, 450, 650, 775, 804;
see also Hexactinellida, Monaxonida,
Tetractinellida.

Silino Island, 654.

Silphid®, 186.

Simara Island, 623.

Simon’s Bay, 282, 289, 900 ; peculiar
temperature conditions at, 283.
Simplicella, 644.

Singapore, Strait of, 647.

Sinkers, 41, 58.

Siphonacese, 127.

Siphonosphoera, 220.

Sipocz, Dr., analysis by, of Diatomaceous
ooze, 1051 ; of glauconitic grains,
468 ; of olivine, 206 ; of Radiolarian
ooze, 1050 ; of red casts, 531.
Sipunculus, 630, 908 ; S. nudus, 908.,

1104

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Siquijor Island, 652.

“Sir Andrew Hammond,” the, 699.

Siriella, 136, 742 ; S. gracilis, 742 ; S.
thompsonii, 742.

“Sirius,” H.M.S., 697.

Siyako, 747.

Skint, 189, 729 ; see also Scincida?.

Skipjacks, 729.

Skua, 261, 266, 295, 357.

Skull, see Crania.

Sladen, W. Percy, on the Asteroidea, 607,
1070.

Slip water-bottle, 111.

Sloggett, Lieut. H. C., 19.

Small Fukube Island, 747.

Smith, Capt. Daniel, 764.

Smith, Edgar A., on the Lamellibranch-
iata, 624, 1070 ; on Land Mollusca,
56, 148, 188, 269, 485, 518, 556, 729,
829, 892 ; on Lepty chaster Jeer guelensis,
390,' 391 ; on Ophioglypha, 394.

Smith, Mr., xxxix.

Smith and Bransfield, 415, 416.

Smitt, Prof. S. I., 585.

Smyth Channel, 867, 868.

Snakes, 127, 536, 548, 600, 681, 729.-

' Snowy, Channel, 870 ; Sound, 870.

Society Islands, 763, 776, 965.

Society for Propagation of the Gospel, 247,

250.

Soil of Juan Fernandez, 826.

Sojoton Point, 618.

Soldier-crab, 150.

Solitary Island, 344.

Sollas, Prof. W. J., on Monaxonida, 569 ;
on the Tetractinellida, 451, 1070.

Solomon Islands, 710, 717, 720, 722, 924.

Sombrero Island, 121, 123 ; Peak, 862.

Somerset, Cape York, 532.

Sonchus oleraceus, 253, 257, 828.

Sooty Albatross, 299.

Sounding, apparatus for, 57 ; Buchanan’s
combined water-bottle and tube, 117 ;
earliest records of, xxxv ; gear, 42 ;
Hooke’s method of, xxxiv ; lines, 41,
57 (cost of, 58 ; rate of descent of, 65 ;
wire' rope for, 70; reels for, 58);
machines for, 59, 117 (Baillie, 60 ;
Brooke’s, xliv ; Hydra, 59) ; method
of, 63 ; remarkable, 132, 735 ; rods,
41 (Baillie, 18 ; Hydra, 18); tables
of, during voyage, 67, 68, 1007 ; tem-
perature, 24 ; tubes, 117.

Soundings, Abrolhos Island to Tristan da
Cunha, 237 ; Admiralty Islands to
Japan, 734 : in Agulhas Current, 423 ;
Azores to Madeira, 180 ; off Bermuda,
139 ; Bermuda to the Azores, 167 ;
Bermuda to Halifax, 153 ; Bermuda
to New York, 157; on British Antare-

Soundings —

tic Expedition, xli; Falkland Islands
to Lobos Island, 902 ; Fernando Nor-
onha to Bahia, 215, 216; Gibraltar
to Madeira, 48 ; Halifax to Bermuda,
160 ; off Inaccessible Island, 255 ; at
the entrance to Island Harbour, 339 ;
off Kerguelen Island, 360 ; Kerguelen
to McDonald Islands, 367 ; Joflf Ki
Islands, 556; Madeira to St. Yincent,
182, 183 ; off Porto Praya, 192 ; near
St. Paul’s Rocks, 193 ; at St. Paul’s
Rocks, 206 ; St. Paul’s Pocks to Fer-
nando Noronha, 210 ; St. Thomas to
Bermuda, 134 ; St. Vincent to San
Antonio, 188 ; in neighbourhood of
San Antonio, 182 ; off Swain Island,
340 ; Sydney to Cook’s Strait, 467 ;
Tenerife to St. Thomas, 121 ; Tristan
da Cunha to Ascension, 909; off Wat-
son’s Bay, 463.

South Africa, the Bush race in, 733.

South America, 933 ; surface drift on
coast of, 886.

South Georgia, 969.

South Orkneys, 416, 969.

South Sea, 875.

South Sea Islands, 730.

South Shetland Islands, 416, 878, 969.

South Trinidad, 943 ; flora of, 944.

Southeast Hill, 862.

Southeastern Australia, 462.

Southeastern Moluccas, 943 ; flora of, 945.

Southern Ocean, 449.

Sow thistle, 253, 257, 828.

Soya Mountain, 578.

Sozu Sima, 747.

Spaniards, at Juan Fernandez, 823, 825 ;
at the Moluccas, 595.

Spanish authority in South Pacific, 824. '

Sparassus, 187.

Spartina arundinacea, 253, 257, 944.

Spartocytisus nwbigenus, 54.

Spatangi, xliii.

Spears, of Admiralty Islanders, 717 ; of
Australian aborigines, 538 ; at Wokan,
547.

Species, anatomical structure in the de-
termination of, 365 ; tegumentary
appendages in the determination of,
365.

“ Speedwell,” wreck of the, 821.

Spencer’s Monument, 48.

Sphcerarthrvm, 548.

Sphseroida, 224.

Sphceroidina, 218, 511, 919, 930 ; S. dehis-
■ cens, 194, 512, 803, 838, 841, 912.

Sphaeromidse, 881..

Sphasrozoida, 224.

Sphoerozoum, 220.

Spheniscidse, account of the, 361 ; distribu-
tion in time of, 363 ; geographical dis-
tribution of, 362 ; structural features
of, 361.

Spheniscus, 259, 361 ; S. demersus, 259,
362, 364, 894 ; S. magellanicus, 259,
362, 364 ; S. mendiculus, 362, 364 ;
S. minor, 362, 364.

Spherules, cosmic, see Cosmic Spherules;
zeolitic, 815.

Sphingidse, 148.

Sphinx Moths, 127.

Spice at Ternate, 597.

Spider’s web catching bird, 556.

Spiders, at Api, 518 ; at Bermuda, 148 ;
at Cape Verde Islands, 187 ; at
Fiji, 489 ; at Kerguelen Island, 357 ;
at Mount St. Michael, 214 ; at St.
Paul’s Rocks, 205 ; at St. . Thomas,
128 ; at Tenerife, 55 ; at Tongatabu,
485 ; at Tristan, 205.

Spilbergen, Joris, 875.

Spines on Isopoda, 881.

Spiochcetopterus, 630.

Spiramia funestis, 580.

Spirialis, 219.

Spirifera, 893 ; S. antarctica, 893 ; 8.
cultrijugata, 893 ; S. hawJcinsii, 893 ;
S. orbignii, 893 ; S. speciosa, 893.

Spirit for preserving specimens, 7.

Spiroloeulina teriuis, 912.

Spirorbis, 136.

Spirula, 125, 269, 933 ; capture of, 560 ;
shell of, 530 ; S. australis, 274.

Spit Bay, 377.

Spithead, 941.

Spitzbergen, xlvi, 959, 967.

Spoggodes, 689.

Spondias, 713.

Sponge Bay, 211.

Sponges, 898 ; Calcareous, 639 ; Hexac-
tinellid, 437; Keratose, 643; Monax-
onid, 569 ; Siliceous, 443, 450, 650,
775, 804 ; Tetractinellid, 451.

Spongia, 450,

Spoon-sticks, 712.

Spratt, Capt., xliii.

Sprightly Bay, 344.

Springs, boiling, at Furnas, 176.

Spry, W. J. J., 19.

Spry Rock, 345.

Spumellaria, 222, 224, 227.

Spurilla sargassicola, 136.

Spur-winged Plover, 359.

Squadron Rocks, 466.

Squilla, 188; larva of, 818.

Squillerichthus, 219, 818.

Stachyptilidae, 51.

Stag’s-horn Fern, 459, 547.

Stalked Crinoids, account of the, 303.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1105

Stanchions for retort stands, 13.

Standard sea water, density of, 950.
Stanley Harbour, 388, 394, 883, 888; Fue-
gianbows at, 894; meteorological table
compiled at, 888; supposed change in
sea level at, 883 ; rookeries of Jackass
Penguins at, 894.

Starfish, xlii, xlv, 173, 183, 276 ; account
of the, 607.

Starling, metallic, 548.

Staten Island, 886.

Statice jovibarba, 184.

Station, Scottish Marine, 95.

Stauria, 800. ■

Steamer, a derelict, 865 ; search for, by
pinnace, 569.

Steatoda versuta, 55, 269.

Stebbiug, Rev. T. R. R., on the Amphi-
poda, 618, 1071.

Steel-wire rope, Agassiz’s, 72.

Steenstrup, Prof., 270.

Steganopodes, 328.

Stelechopus hyocrini, 315.

Stellettina,'452.

Stelospongos, 644 ; S. longispinus, 639.
Stenopteryx hybridalis, 148.

Stenorhynchus, 355; S. leptonyx, 373 ; S.
spinifer, 586.

Stephanophyllia, 797 ; S. complicata, 797 ;
S. discoides, 797.

Stephanoscyphus, 675, 757, 758, 775.
Stephanotrochus diadema, 794 ; S. nobilis,
.794.

Stephen Island, 466.

Stepsanoda, selkirki, 829.

Stercomrius antarcticus, 261, 266, 436.
Sterna fuliginosa, 529 ; S. hirandinacea,
872 ; S. lunatd, 729.

Sternaspis, 908.

Sternoptycliidee, 905, 907.

Sternoptyx, 219.

Stevenson, Alan, xxxix.

Stewart, Charles, 708.

Stichaster, 612.

Sting Rays, 459, 718.

Stirling, Dr. William, appointment of, 22 ;

resignation of, -33.

Stokes, W., death of, 132.

Stoltenkoff, Frederic and Gustav, 257.
Stoltenkoff Island, 262.

Stomatopoda, account of the, 817.
Stomiatidse, 412, 520, 907.

Stone rivers, 892.

Stonesfield beds, 459.

Stony Bill Point, 864.

Stop-cock water-bottle, method of using,
112; Buchanan’s improved, 115.
Storck, Mr., 498.

Storks, 328.

Stormy Petrel, 765.

1 Stradling, Capt., at Juan Fernandez,
820, 821.

Strait, of Gibraltar, 967, 970; of Magellan,
473, 869, 873, 876, 878; of Singapore,
647.

Strait Rock, 542.

“Strathmore,” wreck of the, 320.

Strawberries, at Juan Fernandez, 828; at
Tahiti, 784.

Strepsilas interpres, 529.

Streptocaulus, 751.

Streptorhynchus, 894.

Strickland, Mr. A., xxxix.

Strombus, 683.

Strong, Capt. John, 820, 875.

Strongylocentrotus, 396.

Strophogorgia challmgeri, 691; S. verrilli,

691.

Studer, Th., on Kerguelen Isopoda, 882.

Stutchbury, G., on Corals, 788.

Styela bythia, 164; S. squamosa, 164.

Stylasteridae, 792.

Stylifer, 183; S. bryehius, 895.

Styliola, 171, 219, 919.

Stylocheiron, 741.

Stylochus mertensi, 136; S. pellucidus, 136. /

Stylorrhiza, 572.

Styracaster, 612, 615; S. armatus, 738; S.
horridus, 613.

Suangi Island, 592.

Suarez, Juan, 874.

Suberitidee, 571, 572.

Submarine Currents, apparatus for trying,
41.

Succinea bermudensis, 148; S. falklandica,
892.

Sueste Island, 668.

Sugar Loaf, the, 337, 350.

Suhm, Dr. R. v. Willemoes-, 19, 20, 129.
205, 269, 313, 316, 356, 462, 471, 472,
651, 663, 739, 741, 742, 743, 758, 908.

Suhm, Dr. v. Willemoes-, on animal life at
St. Vincent, 186 ; on Antarctic Crus-
tacea, 587 ; on Balanoglossus, 195 ;
extract from journal of, 316 ; life of,
769; on Myzostomida, 313; on Nautilo-
grapsus minutus, 169 ; on parasites of
Actinometra, 541 ; on Proealistes, 471 ;
on Termites, 541 ; on Trigonia, 462.

Suhm Island, 337, 696, 700.

Sukune Sima, 747.

Sula cyanops, 529; S. leucogastra, 204,
529, 928; S. piscator, 518, 529, 928.

Sulivan, Capt., 884.

Sulphur Channel, 628.

Sulu Archipelago, 655.

Sulu Sea, 90, 618, 647 ; barrier surround-
ing, 618 ; soundings in, 618.

Sumatra, 961.

Sumbawa, monsoon at, 584.

Sun Bird, 666.

Sunday Island, 477.

Sunkong Island, 646.

Sunset effect, an extraordinary, 54.
Superstition of Malay guides, 599.
Supplies, at Amboina, 579; at Arrou, 552;
at Banda, 568; at Fiji, 508 ; at Ilo
Ilo, 622 ; at Ki Doulan, 556; at
Monte Video, 907; at Tahiti, 777;
at Ternate, 597; at Valparaiso, 843;
at Zebu, 650 ; of water, 13.

Surface fauna, 436, 512, 521.

Surface drift offcoast of South America, 886.
Surface gatherings, 776.

Surface water, carbonic acid in, 979, 994 ;

highest temperature of, 990.

Surveyors, observations ol TJ.S. Coast, 24.
Sus papuensis, 728.

Susaki, 750.

Sutcliffe, T., Governor of Juan Fernandez,
825.

Suwanggi Island, 561.

Suwarrow Island, 765.

Swain Island, 333, 340, 341, 342, 347.
Swain’s Bay, 344, 346.

“Swallow,” H.M.S., 697.

Swallow, 489, 518, 739.

Swallow-shrike, 535.

Swangi Island, 561.

Sweepstakes Foreland, 871.

Swift, 485, 518.

Swire, Lieut. Herbert, 19, 778.

Swivels, 41.

Sycon, 640, 642 ; S. areticum, 642.

Sycones, 639.

Syconidse, 640, 641, 642.

Sydney, 453, 454, 459, 461, 895 ; current
observations at, 464.

Sydney to Wellington, 463.

Sydney Harbour, 462 ; dredgings in, 462.
Sydney Museum, 462.

Syllidse, 632.

Syllis ramosa, 630 ; budding in, 632.
Sylvester Point, 871, 872 ; rookery of Tern
at, 872.

“Sylvia,” H.M.S., 869.

Sympagella, 450.

Sympagellinae, 450.

Synaphobranchus affinis, 745 ; S. pinnatus,
745.

Synapta, 761 ; large black, 517.

Synaptula vivipara, 382.

Syndendrium, 931.

Syngnathus pelagicus, 136.

Syphilis, eases of, 1030.

Tablas Island, 623.

Table Mountain, 332, 334, 341, 348, 352,
356 ; structure of, 350 ; vegetation
of, 356.

1106

THE VOYAGE OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Table, of density of water in Antarctic
regions, 423; of dietary, 1028; of meri-
dian distances, 1021, 1022; of observing
stations, 1026 ; of secondary meridian
distances, 1024; of soundings, 1007; of
temperatures in Antarctic regions, 422.
Tablet Mound, 870.

• Tachypetes aquila, 213, 928.

Tcegeria, 450 ; T. pulchra, 437.

TtBgerinse, 450.

Tcenia, 129.

Tagolo Point, 655.

Tagubanhan Island, 623.

Tagulanda Island, 605.

Tagus, deposits off the mouth of, 46 ; in-
cline off the, 46.

Tahiti, 483, 661 ; ascent of . mountains
at, 783 ; beauty of, 782 ; communica-
tion with, 777 ; description of, 776 ;
national air of, 801 ; survey of the
reefs at, 778.

Tahiti to Juan Fernandez, '801.

Tait, Prof. P. G., 100, 948', 965, 1067, 1071.
Taitami Channel, 628.

Takami, 747.

Talautse Islands, 605.

Talegalla lathami, 535.

Talisay, 652.

“Talisman,” the, liv.

Talok Lintju, 681.

Taloo Harbour, 777.

Tamandan,,554.

Tamandua, supposed curative properties of
the, 231.

Tamar Island, 867.

Tamarind trees, 184.

Tamarindus indica, 184
Tamarisk, 184.

Tambu, 500.

Tanais, 882 ; T. willemoesii, 882.
Tanguingui Island, 647.

Tanjong Burong, 553, 560'.

Tanjong Mungayen, 579'.

Tanjong Serbat, 554.

Tanna Island, 566, 731
Taonius, '472 ; T. hyperborcus , 273.

Tapa Island, 592.

Taphozous australis , 536.

Tapi Island, 593.

Tarantula, 187.

Tardigrada, 315.

Tarentola delalandii, 56, 189.

Taro, 179, 712.

Tasmanians, cranial characters of, 732.
Tathong Rock, 646.

Tatos, 663.

Tattooing, at Admiralty Islands, 711 ;
at Api, 518 ; at Fiji, 495 ; at Hum-
boldt Bay, 685.

Tavukie, 507.

Tawali Island, 593.

Tawi Tawi Islands, 657.

Taxocrinus, 313.

Taylor, Rev. W. F., 247, 251, 267 ; Rev.
R., 661.

Te Sima, 747.

Teal, 319, 357.

Tedania, 571, 572.

Tegenaria, 55 ; T. derhamii, 55, 269.

Teichonella, 641.

Teichonidse, 640, 641.

TeUphorus prceustus, 548.

Telescopes, micrometer, 42.

Telphwsa, 149, 927 ; T. dehaani, 591.

Telphusidse, 149.

Temperature of Air, over Agulhas Current,
275 ; in Antarctic regions, 401, 417 ;
near Basilan Strait, 606 ; at Falkland
Islands, 885 ; at Greenwich and Sandy
Point compared, 877 ; at Sydney,
464 ; at Tahiti, 785, 788 ; at Tristan
da Cunha, 245 ; on volcano, 600.

Temperature, of freshwater pools, Marion
Island, 301 ; of streams, Tristan da
Cunha, 253.

Temperature of the sea, observations on,
Admiralty Islands to Japan, 736;
in Agulhas Current, 275 ; in Antarctic
regions, xli, 399, 408, 417 ; Api to
Raine Island, 519 ; Azores to Madeira,
180 ; Bahia to Tristan da Cunha,
237, 238 ; Bermuda to Azores, 167,
168 ; Bermuda to Halifax, 156,
157, 158 ; at Cape of Good Hope,
283 ; Cape of Good Hope to Prince
Edward Island, 289 ; Cape of Good
Hope to Melbourne, 421 ; Celebes Sea,
606 ; at the Falkland Islands, 885 ;
Falkland Islands to Lobos Island, 902 ;
Fernando Horonha to Bahia, 216 ;
at Gulf of Penas, 849 ; Halifax to Ber-
muda, 159 ; Heard Island to Antarctic
Circle, 398 ; Hong Kong to Manila,
646; in ice pack, 407, 408 ; in vicinity
of ice pack, 401 ; off Ino Sima, 745 ;
at Juan Fernandez, 849 ; Kerguelen
to Australia, 418, 421 ; Madeira to
St. Vincent, 182; Melbourne to
Sydney, 454 ; off Middle Island, 863 ;
in Molucca Passage, 593 ; Monte
Video to Tristan da Cunha, 909 ;
1ST. Pacific, 754 ; off Porto Praya,
192 ; near St. Paul’s^ Rocks, 193 ;
St. Paul’s Rocks to Fernando
Noronha, 210 ; Sandwich Islands to
Tahiti, 771, 772 ; at Sandy Point,
876 ; at’ Simon’s Bay, 289 ; in S.
Pacific, 802 ; in Sulu Sea, 92, 618 ;
Sydney to Cook Strait, 467 ; Sydney
to Wellington, 464 ; Tahiti to Juan

Temperature of the sea —

Fernandez, 802 ; Tenerife to St.
Thomas, 122, 123 ; off Tristan da
Cunha, 240 ; Tristan da Cunha .to
Ascension, 910 ; Tristan Island to
Cape of Good Hope, 275 ; Valparaiso
to Cape Tres Montes, 849 ; at Val-
paraiso, 849 ; off Watson’s Bay, 464 ;
Wellington to the Kermadec Islands,
474.

Temperature of the sea, effect of melting
icebergs on, 421 ; instructions for tak-
ing, 24, 25 ; method of taking, 83,
119.

Temperature, oceanic, general remarks on,
428, 998 ; supposed temperature of
N. Atlantic, 24.

Tenerife, 52 ; Canadas of, 55 ; excursion
round, 52 ; to Peak of, 53 ; Mollusca
of, 55 ; Spiders of, 55.

Tenerife to St. Thomas, 121.

Terebella, 219.

Terebellid®, 635.

Terebra maculata, 716.

Terebratdla dorsata, 132 ; T. frielii, 131.

Terebratula dalli, 131 ; T. vitrea, 132 ;
T. wyvillii, 131, 757.

Terebratulina caput-serpentis, 132 ; T.
wyvillii, 131.

Teredo, eaten by blacks, 538.

Terias aprica, 485 ; T. biformis, 580 ; T.
enter pe, 128 ; T. invida, 666 ; T.
photophila, 555 ; T. vallivolens, 666.

Termes, 128, 541.

Terminalia catappa, 184.

Termination Land, 402 ; probable non-
existence of, 407.

Termite hills, Cape York, 532, 541.

Tern, 144, 518,521, 529, 545,729, 872, 928.

Ternate, birds at, 598 ; Brachyura at, 588 ;
climate of, 600 ; description of, 594,
595 ; first sight of, 593 ; salute at,
595 ; Peak of, 604 ; ascent of, ' 598 ;
insects on, 561.

Ternate to Samboangan, 604.

Terrigenous deposits, 922.

“Terror,” H.M.S., xl, 354, 878, 884.

Tessaradoma boreale, 674.

Tethya, 572.

Tetraelita, 854.

Tetractinellida, account of the, 451 ; dis-
tribution of, 452.

Tetragnatha, 485, 490 ; T. extensa, 55.

Tetrastemma agricola, 150 ; T. fuscum,
169 ; T. obscurum,. 150.

Tetuaroa Islands, 776.

Textularia, 467, 544.

Thackombau, King, 493, 495.

Thalassceca, 325 ; T. antardica, 436 ; T.
gjlacialaides, 436.

NARRATIVE OE THE CRUISE.

1107

Thalassema, 908.

Thalassia, 540.

Thalassiarche, 324.

Thalassicolla, 220 ; T. sanguinolenta, 470.

Thalassicollida, 224.

Thalassinidea, 900.

Thalassiothrix, 931.

Thalassosphserida, 224.

Thanaos inornatus, 548.

Tlianatus, 187.

Thimmastocheles, 524 ; T. zaleuca; 525.

Thaumatocrinus, 153, 312, 313.

Tliecaphora, 572.

Tlieel, Dr. Hjalmat, on Holothurioidea,
276, 1067, 1070; on Lcetmogone
violacea, 469.

Thenea, 452.

Theodolites, 42.

Theridion, 55 ; T. formosum, 269 ; T.
pulchellum, 55.

Thermesia monstratura, 148.

Thermometers, 42, 45, 83 ; Aime’s,

88 ; broken by pressure, 133, 735 ;
Buchanan’s improved, 87 ; Cavendish’s
self-registering, 84, 97 ; effect of pres-
sure on, 98 ; electrical, 95 ; experi-
ments with, 91, 94, 97; Ferguson’s
improved, 89; Geissler’s normal, 110;
Magnaglii’s, 94 ; maximum and
minimum, 42 ; Miller-Casella, 24,
86 ; Negretta & Zambra’s, 88, 93,
94; ordinary, 83; Capt. Rung’s, 95;
Scottish, 95; Six’s self-registering, 85;
sources of error, 97 ; table of experi-
ments with, 92 ; Prof. Tait’s experi-
ments with, 100.

Thickombia, 508.

Thomisidse, 187.

Thompson, J. V., on Myzostoma cirri-
ferum, 315 ; on Schizopoda, 740.

Thomson, Sir C. Wyville, xlviii, 19, 21,
22, 152, 311, 448, 687, 753, 766, 892,
946, 1065.

Thomson, Prof. C. Wyville, appoint-
ment of, 22, 40 ; dredgings by, 214 ;
on the Furnas valley, 176 ; on Gonio-
cidaris canaliculata, 384; on Hemiaster
philippii (3. cavernosus), 388 ; on
Eymenaster ndbilis, 392 ; instructions
to, 39; on Lepty chaster Jcerguelensis,
390; on “Lightning” expedition,
xlvii; on Ophiacantha vivipara, 395 ;
on Psolus ephippifer, 379, 383 ; on a
visit to Queensland, 454 ; on repro-
duction of Echinoderms, 379 ; on
St. Paul’s Rocks, 208; on soil of
Bermuda, 141; on Dr. R. y. W. Suhm,
771.

Thomson, Sir. William, xxxviii, 21.

Thoracaster, 609, 615 ; T. cylindratus,
183.

Thornton Island, 863 ; Peak, 863.

“Three Grandmothers,” the, 883.

Three Hills Island, 514.

Three Rocks Spit, 747.

Three-toed Sloths, supposed curative pro-
perties of, 231.

Thrinacophora, 572.

Throwing-stick, 538.

Thrush, 261, 365.

Thumb Peak, 337.

Thunder Harbour, 346, 347.

Thunderstorms, maximum frequency of,
1003.

Thurammina papillata, 912.

Thursday Island, 533.

Thylacinus cynocephalus, 456, 457.

Thyrsopteris elegans, 827.

Thysanodactylus bilineatus, 213.

Thysanopoda bidentata, 741 ; T. norvegica,
743.

Thysanozoon, 663.

Tiaro, 455.

Tichoseris obtusata, 508.

Tides, at Albany Pass, 533 ; off Amboina,
593 ; off Arrou Islands, 543 ; off
Azores, 176 ; at Dobbo, 552 ; at Ilo
Ho, 622 ; at Ki Doulan, 556 ; in
Molucca Passage, 593 ; at Port Isa-
bella, 656 ; at Ternate, 600 ; in Torres
Strait, 542.

Tidore, Island, 593, 594, 595; Peak, 604.

Tierra del Fuego, 875, 886.

Tifore Island, 604.

Tigtauan Island, 655, 657.

Tillma moschata, 299.

Tintinnus, 933.

Tionfolokker Islands, 556, 558.

Tipulidee, 891.

Tizard, Staff-Commander T. H., 19, 1067,
1069 ; on chronometers, 1017 ; on
thermometers, 88.

Tmolus columella, 128.

To Sima, 737.

Toads, 228.

Toanoa Harbour, 776.

Tobacco smoking, Australian method of,
537 ; Papuan method of, 538.

Tobaddi, 681; pile-dwellings at, 681.

Toki Tonga, 483.

Tokotoko, 500.

Tollo, 823.

Tom Bay, survey of, 865.

Tomba Ya-uravu, 508.

Tomopteris, 219, 436.

Tonga group, 475, 476, 477, 483, 484, 486,
489, 498, 501, 709, 730, 732, 759,
1002.

I Tongadrava, 500.

Tongariki- Island, 51 4.

Tongatabu, axes of, 483 ; bats at, 484 ;
birds at, 484 ; - Brachyura at, 588 ;
coxswain at, 480 ; description of, 478,
483 ; difficulty in procuring hair of
native of, 480 ; facial expression of
natives of, 479 ; houses at, 480 ;
King George of, 495 ; littoral plants
of, 484 ; lizards at, 485 ; natives of,
478, 482 ; rock at, 483 ; scene on
arrival at, 478 ; stone implements at,
483 ; zoology of, 484.

Tongatabu to the Fiji Islands, 487.

Toothache, fish-bone a cure for, 823.

Topar Island, 865, 866. .

“Topaze,” H.M.S., 826.

Topoealma Point, 833.

Torell, Otto, xlvi.

Tornaria, 195, 219.

TornjiSe, 973, 977.

Toro Island, 864.

Torres Strait, 462, 533, 588, 624, 979.

Tortoiseshell, at Admiralty Islands, 705 ;

, at Dobbo, 545 ; ornaments of, 518.

Tortrix, 205.

Tow-nets, 79, 75$ ; method of working,
218, 227.

Tozeu/ma stimpsoni , 136.

Tracey Island, 701, 702.

Prachelas, 187.

Trachycaulus, 450.

Trachynemidae, 601.

Trachypteridse, 906.

Trade gear, 704.

Trade at Ternate, 597.

Trade wind, 181, 185, 237.

Trade wind regions, density of sea water
in, 966.

Trammels, 10.

Trangan Island, 543.

Trap, model of spring bow, 555.

“ Travailleur,” the, liv.

Travers, W. T., 473.

Trawl, 41 ; beam, 47 ; description of the
75.

' Trawling, apparatus for, 41 ; deep-sea 49 ;
method of, 76 ; rope for, 72.

Trawlings, Abrolhos Island to Tristan da
Cunha, 237, 239 ; in Antarctic
Regions, 398 ; off Banda, 573 ; off
coast of Brazil, 217 ; Humboldt Bay
to Admiralty Islands, 689 ; off the
Ki Islands, 556 ; Marion Island to
Crozets, 302 ; in FT. Pacific, 757 ; off
Rio de la Plata, 911 ; in S. Pacific,
511, 512, 833 ; Valparaiso to Cape

■ Tres Montes, 850, see also Dredgings.

Treaty Point, 744.

Tree ferns, see Ferns.

Thomson, Capt. Frank Tourle, 20, 638,

687, 696, 726, 728.

(narr. chall. exp. — vol. i. — 1885.)

141

1108

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Tree Hill, 744, 749.

Tree Swifts, 485, 729.

Trees, height of, at Arrou, 547 ; looseness
of, at Juan Fernandez, 826.

Tremarec Islands, 344.

Trematoda, 316.

Tremodopus, 270.

Tres Montes Peninsula, 849, 862.

Tretodictyum, 451.

“Trial,” the, 822.

Tribulus cistoides, 184.

Trichobranchiata, 523.

Trichodesmivm, 218, 545, 607.

Trichoglossus cyanogrammus, 688 ; T.
swainsoni, 534.

Trichormnes peltatum, 704.

Trichostemma, 572.

Triclinic felspar, 161, 169; see also Deposits.

Tridacna shell, 710, 716, 721.

Trigonia, 462, 540, 625 ; geographical
distribution of, 462; Prof. Huxley on,
462; Dr. E. v. Willemoes-Suhm on,
462 ; supposed extinction of, 462.

Trigonia acuticostata, 462 ; T. la-
marchii, 462 ; T. margaritacea, 462 ;
T. pedinata, 462 ; T. strangii, 462 ;
T, uniophora, 462.

Trinidad Channel, 865.

Tristan da Cunha group, 238, 240, 241,
352, 796, 908, 943.

Tristan da Cunha, abandonment of, 246 ;
anemometer observations at, 245 ; an-
nexation of, 243 ; Braehyura at, 586 ;
cliffs at, 252, 253 ; climate of, 240 ;
coast of, 242, 245; current observations
at, 268 ; dipsomaniac at, 248 ; the
“Eurydice” at, 246 ; first inhabitant
of, 243 ; flora of, 944 ; geographical
position of, 242 ; history of, 243 ;
houses at, 251 ; invertebrata of, 269;
life at, 251; the Peak of, 242; present
inhabitants of, 247 ; previous ex-
plorations of, 240 ; rainfall at, 245 ;
statistics regarding, 250 ; temperature
of air at, 245 ; temperature of streams
at, 253 ; vegetation at, 253 ; weather
and climate of, 267 ; whalers at, 249.

Tristan da Cunha to the Cape of Good
Hope, 274.

Tristania, 269.

“Triton,” H.M.S., liv, 695; thermometric
experiments on, 95.

Triton, 683, 723.

Triton Bank, 873.

Tritoniadae, 695.

Trochomorpha, 489.

Trochosa, 187, 518.

Trochus, 161, 493, 716 ; T. brychius, 897;
T. niloticus, 710; T. porciter, 897.

Trogons, 550.

Trophonia wyvillei, 633.

Tropic birds, 783, 928.

Tropija, 889.

Trout-like fish in Messier Channel, 864,

866.

Truncatulina, 842; T. haidingerii, 912;
T. wuellerstorfi, 912.

Trunk-fish, 459.

Trygon, 459, 718.

Tua Manado Island, 605.

Tubes, collecting, 43, 45.

Tubinares, account of the, 323; ancestral
form of, 329; definition of, 326;
zoological position of, 328.

Tubipora nvusica, 664, 689.

Tuesday Islets, 542.

Tuiaan, 652.

Tulnalutan Island, 606.

Tulunanaun, 623.

Tulur Islands, 668.

Tunicata, account of the, 162.

Turbinaria, 540.

Turbo, 129; T. pica, 129; T. transenna, 897.

Turdus merula, 365; T. musicus, 365.

Turner, Prof. W., 283, 474, 726, 727, 892,
946, 1065, 1068, 1070.

Turner, Prof. W., on bones from deep sea,
808 ; on crania of Pacific Islanders,
730; on crania of Sandwich Islanders,
762; on Mesoplodon layardi, 286;
on M. sowerbyi, 286 ; on skull of Fur
Seal, 355.

Turnstone, 529.

Turritella, xliii, 490.

Turtle, 507, 530, 729, 927; skulls of, 722.

Turtle Island, 487.

“Tuscarora,” U.S.S., liii, 475, 754.

Tuscarora, 225, 226; T. belknapi, 226; T.
bisternaria, 226; T. cygnea, 226; T.
porcellana, 226; T. tetraedra, 226;
T. tubulosa, 226.

Tussock grass, 253, 254, 257, 258, 263, 321.

Tweeddale, Arthur, Marquis of, 1065.

Twenty-four Islands, 697.

Twin Eocks, 701.

Two Hills Island, 514.

Twofold Bay, 467, 900.

Tylaspis anomala, 900.

Typhlonus nasus, 520, 607.

Typhlops, 127,

Udsi Sima, 747.

Ukado Point, 747.

Ulloa, Don Antonio, 823.

Uloborus zosis, 55.

Umbellula, 49 ; U. leptocaulis, 50, 520 ; U. '
miniaeea, 49 ; U. pallida, 49 ; U.
thomsoni, ' 49.

Umbellulidee, account of the, 50 ; habitat
of, 51.

Uncinataria, 447, 451.

Undina darwinii, 844,

Ungrau, 681 ; pile-dwellings of, 681.

Unio, 499, 500.

United States Coast Survey, xlvi.

United States Exploring Expedition, xl.

United States Fish Commission, liv, 9.

Uruguay Eepublic, want of settled coinage
in, 907.

d’Urville, see D’Urville.

CJsa Sima, 747.

Ushant, xlviii.

TJte, 642.

Uvigerina, 360, 379.

Vaccinium, 599, 787.

Vadebra murrayi, 580.

Valparaiso, 886, 1003.

Valparaiso, deposits off, 850 ; description
of, 842 ; Harbour, 849 ; surface tem-
perature at, 849.

Valparaiso to Cape Tres Montes, 849.

Valve Sounding Leads, 41, 69.

Vandola, 698.

Vanilla in Tahiti, 788.

“ Vansittart,” the, 346.

Vaqueiros, or cattle herdsmen, dress of,
232.

Varanus indicus, 555, 729.

“ Varuna,” the, 130.

Varuna litterata, 586.

Vau, 482.

Vaudreuil rock, 865.

“Vega” expedition, reports of, 426.

Vegetables at Juan Fernandez, 824.

Vegetation, at Api, 517 ; at Arrou, .547 ;
at Browera Creek, 460 ; at Cape York,
534 ; Indian affinities of, 534 ; at
Christmas Harbour, 335 ; of Falkland
Islands, 375 ; on Green Mountain (St.
Vincent), 184 ; at Heard Island, 375,
•943 ; of Juan Fernandez, 827, 945 ; at
Marion Island, 299, 945 ; at Mas-a-
fuera, 945; of Matuku, 489; of Mount
St. Michael, 213; of St. Helena, 944;
of St. Paul Island, 945 ; of St. Paul’s
Eocks, 945 ; of Southeastern Moluccas,
945; of South Trinidad, 944; of Table
Mountain, 356 ; at Tahiti, 787 ; of
Tongatabu, 484; of Tristan da Cunha,
253, 944 ; at Wai Levu, 498 ; at
Wellington, 472.

Velaria, 644.

Velella, 169, 218, 758.

Venus, xliii, 346, 593. ^

Venus’ flower basket, 650.

Venus, Point, 776.

Verbenacese, 828.

Verde Island, 624.

Veretillidse, the, 51.

NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE.

1109

Vernewilina pygmcea, 912.

Verongia, 644, 645 ; V. tenuissima, 639.
Verruca nexa, 854 ; V. nitida, 669 ;

V. prisca, 854 ; V. sulcata, 854.
Vertical distribution of temperature in the
ocean, 428.

Vibilia pelagica, 136.

Victoria, Hong Kong, description of, 636.
Victoria Peak, 636.

, Victoria Land, 416, 417, 428.

“Victory,” the, xxxviii.

Victory Pass, 866.

Viedrua, Andres de, 874.

Vigo, 941.

Village Islet, 688.

Villalobos visits Moluccas, 595.

“ Vincennes,” the, 416.

Viola teydea, 54.

“Virago,” H.M.S., 876.

Virbius acumirvatus, 136.

Virgin Islands, deposits north of, 135.
Virgularidse, the, 51.

Virgulina schreibersiana, 912.

Viti, see Piji.

Viti Levu, 492, 496.

Vitrina larmarckii, 56.

Viwa Island, 492, 496.

“Vixen,” H.M.S., 876. '

“ Volage,” the, 346.

Volcanic ash in deposits, 804, 813.

Volcanic eruption, at Amboina, 578 ; at
Juan Fernandez, 823, 826.

Volcanic mud, description of, 918.

Volcanic particles, characters of, 814.
Volcanic rocks in trawl, 607.

Volcano, ascent of, at Gunung Api, 563 ;

at Ternate, 598 ; at Kilauea, 766.
Volcano, at Kilauea, 764 ; many, in
Moluccas, 593 ; of Ternate, 596.

“ Volunteer,” the, 667.

Voluta abyssicola, 897.

Volute, 895.

Volvulina, 451.

Volvulinidse, 448, 451.

Vomerula, 571.

Vorticella, 218, 933.

Vosmaer, Dr., 640, 643.

Voyage, synoptical table of, 942.

Vries Island, 737, 744, 745, 749.

“ Waaksamheyd,” the, 698.

Wadsworth, M. E., on St. Paul’s Rocks,
209.

“Wager,” H.M.S., 862.

Wai Levu, 495, 496, 497, 506 ; description
of, 497; excursion to, 492 ; river, 679;
shark of, 499 ; vegetation of steep
banks of, 498.

Waihirra, Lake, 788.

Waii (Wai) Island, 559, 561.

Waikiki, 760.

Waimanalo, 762.

Wakaya Island, 492.

Waldheimia tenera, 131; W. wy villa,
131,

Wallabies, 460.

Wallace, A. R., 21, 664, 732 ; on fertiliza-
tion of plants, 829.

Wallich, Dr. G. C., xlv.

Wallis, Capt., 875.

Walterhausen, Sartorius v., on tuffs of
Sicily, 814.

Walteria, 450.

Wamma Island, 544, 552.

Wanumbai, 549, 550.

Warming, 935.

Warmth of water at Arrou, 546.

Warwyck, Admiral Van, 596.

Washing at Amboina, 579.

“Washington,” the, liv.

Washington, Mount, 511.

Wasps, 128.

Wassia Island, 552.

Wateiai Channel, 549.

Water - bottles, 41, 111, 112, 115 ;

Buchanan’s, 117 ; Jacobsen’s, 117 ;
slip, 41 ; stop-cock, 41, 112.

Water, compressibility of, 107, 964 ; trans-
parency of, 26.

Water at Juan Fernandez, 827.

Water-cresses at Juan Fernandez, 827.

Water Hen, 262.

Water piezometer, comparison of, with
mercury, 107 ; description of, 105 ;
method of protecting, 105.

Waterhouse, C. O., on Coleoptera, 269, 548,
555.

Waterman, Capt., 667.

Watson, Bishop, on the saltness of the
sea, xxxii.

Watson, Prof. Morrison, on the Spheni-
scidse, 361, 1067.

Watson, Rev. R. B., on the Gasteropoda,
894, 1070 ; on the Scaphopoda, 894;

Watson’s Bay, 463.

Wauchope, Capt., 242 ; on weather at
Tristan, 246.

Waves, method of measuring length of,
330.

Wawah, 681.

Weapons, of Admiralty Islanders, 717 ;
of Australian aborigines, 538 ; at Cape
York, 541.

Weddell, 408, 415, 416.

Wednesday Island, 542.

Weed, Gulf, 169.

Wellington, 463, 472, 476.

Wellington to the Kermadec Islands and
Tongatabu, 474.

Wesleyan missionaries, good effect of, 506.

West Bay, 372.

West Jason Cay, 873.

West Moncceur Island, 453.

Western Patagonia, 867.

Westford, F. W., 19.

Whale Bay, 348.

Whale Bird, 358.

Whale, 398, 400, 872 ; school of, 679.
Whale’s bones, analyses of, 1036, 1037.
Wharton, Capt., 869, 878.

Wheel ropes, loss of, 153.

Whisky Bay, 377.

White, F. Buchanan, on Pelagic Hemiptera,
512, 1067.

White Albatross, 295 ; nest of the, 294.
White Ants, 128 ; nest of, 128.

White Bay, 342.

White Crested Cockatoo, 534.

White Noddy, 928.

White Petrel, 398.

White Rock, 543.

Whortleberry, 599, 787.

Wichmann on decomposition of rocks,
815.

Wideawake, 529, 928.

Wild, Dr. J. J., 19, 22, 687, 724, 765.
Wild Celery, 253, 257.

Wild geese at Elizabeth Island, 871.

Wild horses, habits of, 890.

Wild Island, 696, 700, 702, 731; chief
of, 723, 728 ; club houses on, 724 ;
dogs on, 729 ; dwelling houses on,
714; measurements of natives of, 707;
population of, 728.

Wild Sugar Cane, 497.

Wilkes, Capt., xl, 407, 408, 415, 416, 417,
418, 421, 429, 760, 765.

Wilkes’ Termination Land, 402, 404.
Willerruesia, 523 ; W. leptodactyla, 522,
524.

“ William,” the, 824.

William’s Bay, 346.

Williams, Thomas, 494.

Williamson, Dr., 21;

Wilson, E. B., 857.

Wilson Promontory, 453.

Wind, velocity of, between Bermuda and
the Azores, 168 ; at Heard Island,
378 ; at Kerguelen,- 353; between
Madeira and St. Vincent, 182 ; obser-
vations on, 773 ; in Pacific, 753, 771,
801, 802 ; at Porto Praya, 193.
Wingless Beetle, 892.

Wingless Fly, 356, 376, 891.

Wingless Gnat, 357, 891.

Winter’s Bark, 828.

Wire rope, 70.

Wokan Island, 544.

Wolf Rock, 593.

“Wolverine,” H.M.S., 320, 321, 322.

1110

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

■Women, at Arrou Islands, 547 ; at Ki
Doulan, 556.

Wood carving at Admiralty Islands, 720.
Wood, fire by friction of, 482. ■

Wooded Island, 746.

Worms, 150 ; see also Annelida.

Worser Bay, '474.

Wounds and accidents, 1031.

Wright, Prof. E. Perceval, xlvii ; on the
Alcyonaria, 689, 1070.

Wryneck, 551.

Wyman, Mr., 127, 128/

Wyville Point, 701.

Wyville Thomson Peninsula, 340.

Wyville Thomson Ridge, xlvii.

Xenia, 689.

XenodermicMhys nodulosus, 74B.

Xois fulvida, 490.

Xysticus, 55.

Yams, 713.

Yap Island, 706.

Yba, 646.

Yedo Bay, 306, 744.

Yellow-billed Albatross, 265; nest of, 266.
Yellow cells in Foraminifera, 839, 840.
Yellow fever, oases of, 1029.

Yellow Sea, current from, 750.

Yguana Shoal, 623.

Ylaoaon Island, 623.

Yokohama, 667, 737, 748, 750.

Yokohama Bay, 736, 744, 746.

Yokoska Harbour, 744.

York Island, 532.

Zamboanga, see Samboangan.

Zapata Islands, 623.

Zapata Mayor, 623.

Zaplvrentis, 800.

Zaus spinatus, 844.

" Zealous,” H.M.S., 865.

Zealous Island, 864.

Zebu, 632, 647, 648, 665.

Zebu Island, coal beds at, 649 ; deposits
off, 652 ; description of, 649 ; history
of, 648 ; ingenious form of dredge at,
650; population of, 649; tides at, 650.

' Zebu to Camiguin Island and Samboangan,
652.

Zeolites, at Christmas Harbour, 349,
350.

Zeolitic spherules, 815.

Ziphioid Whale, Prof. Turner on skeleton
of, 892.

Ziphius cavirostris, 286, 806.

Zittel, 444, 639.

Zizera oriens, 666.

Zoantharia, 574.

Zoanthese, 574.

Zonites cellaria, 56.

Zoological laboratory, description of, 5.

Zoology, of Api, 518; of the Crozets, 221; of
Gulf Weed, 136 ; of Juan Fernandez,
829; of Ki Islands, 555 ; of San
Domingo Valley, 190.

Zooxanthelloe, 222.

Zoroaster, 610, 612, 615, 616.

Zoropsis ochreata, 55.

Zuni, 462.

Zygaenidae, 581.

Zwart Kop, 289.