"W5Si5iBaiSS««»^

UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS!
LIBRARY

SPECIAL
COLLECTION:.

S
685

1868

LIBRARY

m* •ootk-^uift ■ ft •t»T or Ml. Wii

REPORT

ON THE

TEIAL OF PLOWS,

HELD AT UTICA,

BY THE N.Y. STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Commencing September 8t7i, 1867*

WITH A SUPPLEMENT SHOWING THE RESULTS OF A SPECIAL TRIAL AT

BRATTLEBORO, TO DETERMINE SEVERAL DISPUTED QUESTIONS

RESPECTING THE ACTION OP THE PLOW.

ALBANY:

PRINTING HOUSE OF VAN BENTHUYSEN & SONS.

1868.

r

'S o

£1
M4Q

REPORT ON TRIALS OF PLOWS.

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

In presenting their REroRT on the Trials of Plows, held at
Utica, under the auspices of the New York State Agricultural
Society, the Board of Judges will not be required to spend much
time in insisting on the value of that implement, or in proving its
influence upon the welfare of society at large.

It is so generally acknowledged, that it has passed into a maxim,
if not into an axiom, that the plow lies at the foundation of all
wealth, and is the basis of all civilization. Like other truths of
a similar character, which are received without hesitation and
without inquiry, it is believed that the real value of the imple-
ment is obscured by haze and mist in most minds, and that a few
remarks upon this subject will not be wasted if they serve to give
greater sharpness of delineation to this idea of its primacy among
agricultural implements.

Its use dates back to a very remote antiquity. It is now gen-
erally admitted by Biblical critics that the Book of Job is the
most ancient writing contained within the canon of the Old Testa-
ment. Yet this ancient work begins with an allusion to it: "And
there came a messenger unto Job, and said, The oxen were
ploughing and the asses feeding beside them; and the Sabcans
fell upon them, and took them away; yea, they have slain the
servants with the edge of the sword, and I only am escaped alone
to tell thee." — Job i, 14, 15. In our History of the Plow we
have given copies of sculptures on ancient monuments which date
back four thousand years.

It is certainly strange, in view of the importance and the anti-
quity of the plow, that its construction should have received so
little attention from scientific men, and the principles upon which
it acts should have been so little observed b}' those who habil.u-

4 Report on Trials of Flows.

ally use it. The only special treatise upon it, known to us, is the
work of Small, which was published late in the last century, and
even that tells us very little of its history, or its theory, being
mainly devoted to practical details.

The census of the United States for the year 1860 gives the
immber of acres of improved land in the United States, but unfor-
tunately we are not told how many acres are in grass, or how
many under tillage.

We know, however, that in New York about two-thirds of the
improved lands of the State is in grass, and that in the State of
Ohio about one-third of the improved lands is in grass. The
averao^e ratio of the G^rass to the tillage land in these States is,
therefore, as 1:1; or half of the whole of the improved lands are
under tillage in these two States. If we may assume that this is
the proportion throughout the Union, then, since there are 163,-
110,720 acres of imiJ roved lands, one-half of the amount, namel}',
81,555,360 acres are under tillage, or say, in round numbers,
80,000,000 acres. As Ohio and New York are the chief grass-
raising states, it is probable that the average tillage in the other
states is still greater than it is in them; but at all events, our esti-
mate would not seem to be an exaggerated one. If now we
assume that every plow turns over fifty acres annually, it will
require one million five hundred thousand plows to accomplish
the Avork; and if a plow lasts on an average eight years, it will
take one hundred and eighty-seven thousand five hundred new
plows every year to supply the demands of our countr}'-, without
referring to the large number exported to foreign countries.

There are 833,412 farmers in the United States who own from
three to fifty acres, and 1,121,602 who cultivate farms between
fifty and one thousand acres each. Or, there are 1,955,012 inde-
pendent cultivators of the soil. The above calculation would
agree with a purchase of one new plow by each cultivator every
tenth year.

The number of establishments in the United States for the
manufficture of plows, harrows and cultivators, is four hundred
and twenty-three, and the total value of these products is $2,855,-
248. If we suppose that one-third of this value is to be deducted
for harrows and cultivators, it will leave $1,903,499 as the value
of the plows manufactured annually; and if Ave assume that the
average value of each plow is ten dollars, we shall have a result
which varies very slightly from the estimate we have given.

Introductory Chapter. 5

Having, therefore, obtained a similar result by tliree dift'crcnt and
independent processes, we may with some confidence assume, as
the anmial production, 187,500 plows for domestic use.

We have endeavored to ascertain the annual value of the plows
made in this country and exported to foreign countries, but, from
the fact that all the agricultural implements exported are given
in the official tables under one head, without any attempt to spe-
cify the number and value of each machine, it is impossible to
ascertain the number or value of the plows exported. The Ames
Plow Company have for several years exported about one hun-
dred thousand dollars worth annually, and other makers, in the
opinion of the revenue officers, export two hundred thousand
dollars worth more, which makes the whole value of the plows
cxi)orted, three hundred thousand dollars. It is believed that
the value of this export might easily be increased ten-fold.

The plowing of the land under cultivation in the United States
requires, according to our estimate, the labor of one million teams
of either oxen, mules or horses for eighty days in the year; and
we do not think the average value of the men and teams required
for this purpose can be reckoned at less than two and an half
dollars a day for each plow. This would make the aggregate
cost of the plowing in each year to be $20,000,000.

We have shown in a subsequent chapter, that there is a difl'er-
ence of power required to perform the same amount of work by
difierent plows, amounting to fort3^-six per cent, as shown by
careful trials in England, and to forty-two per cent, according to
the trials instituted by this Society in 1850.

It follows from this, that if the plow having the least draught
was brought into universal use, to the exclusion of those which
require a greater power, it would reduce the cost of plowing in
the United States forty-two per cent, or it would reduce it from
$20,000,000 to $11,600,000, leaving $8,400,000 in the pockets of
the farmers, as a fund to be applied to the payment of taxes or
the improvement of their farms.

If we suppose that the same number of men and teams were
employed as heretofore, then they would be enabled to cultivate
an area forty-two per cent greater with the same expenditure of
power that they now employ; that is, they would cultivate an
area of (113,000,000) one hundred and thirteen millions of acres,
without any more expenditure of power than they now do (80,-
000,000) eighty millions of acres.

6 Report on Trials of Plows.

The annual value of the crops produced on the present area of
plowed land in the United States, may be roughly estimated at
($900,000,000) nine hundred millions of dollars, or eleven and a
quarter dollars per acre.

If, by the use of better plows, we can increase this amount
forty-two per cent, the aggregate increase would he ($378,000,-
000) three hundred and seventy-eight millions of dollars.

We do not mean to assert that this sum would represent the
actual increase of the annual value of the products of agriculture,
but allowing each reader to make the deductions which he may
think necessary for the increased cost of cultivating this increased
area, such as seed, planting, after-culture and gathering, it will
be seen that the use of the best form of the plow will increase
the aggregate profits of agriculture to an extent equal to the
annual national internal taxation of the United States.

In view of the benefits which we have shown will result from
the adoption of the best form of the ploAv, it is obvious that no
amount of labor or expense which our agricultural societies can
bestow upon it with a view to its improvement, will be misap-
plied or wasted.

We are not without hopes that our labors to this end at Utica
will be thought by our agricultural brethren to have yielded
some good fruits, and that this success will prove a suflicient
stimulus not only to our own Society, but to other State Socie-
ties in the United States, to continue this rigid system of obser-
vation until all the laws of the plow shall have been discovered
and accurately stated for the benefit of the farmers of our couiitiy.

History of the Plow.

CHAPTER 11.

THE mSTORY OF THE PLOW IN EUROPE.

It is impossible to say who was the first inventor of the plow.
The earliest records speak of it as a well-known instrument of
husbandry, and we are therefore left to conjecture respecting the
origin of the mellowing of land to fit it for the reception of seeds
and the growth of grain.

The inhabitants of the earth must have observed, at a very
early period of its history, that ground which had been accident-
ally loosened bore a more abundant harvest; the rooting of hogs
must have given them sufficient examples of this, if nothing else
had suo-wested it to them.

CO

The next step, after they had become fairly conscious of this
fact, would be to imitate it at such places and at such times as
experience had shown them was most desirable. Probably a
sliarpened stick would be the most likely instrument to suggest
itself to their minds; then they would widen the end of it, sharp-
ening it to a chisel edge with a view of making more rapid work.

Man in the hunter, and even in the pastoral state, is very averse
to bodily labor. The little inventive power that he possesses
will surely be directed to the making of contrivances which will
i\'le:ise him from bodily toil. While working the land with his
sharpened ,s(ick, with his mind intent upon some mode of amelio-
ratinof his condilion, he sees the bulls and cows g-razino^ on the
hillsides around him; they are stronger than he, and he desires to
subjugate their strength to his service. Seeing a forked stick in
his path, a bright thought dawns upon his mind; he will tie the
long end of a stick to the horns of a bull, w^hile the short end will
run into the ground and stir it much faster than he could do it with
sharpened stick, and Avith much less labor to himself. He tries his
the experiment, and crios, Eureka! or some barbarous equivalent
for that Greek word. The germ of the plow is at length invented.

The process by which the first man arrived at this result may
be pure conjecture; but that the forked stick was the origin of
the plow, we have the most ample evidence.

8

Report on Trials of Plows.

Fig. 1 is copied from an ancient monument in Asia Minor, made
wholly of the natural crooks of the branch of a tree, the only arti-
ficial contrivances being the brace e, which strengthens the share
c bj and the pins in the fore part of the beam a b, and connect it with
the central division of the yoke^r. It was with a plow like this
that the servants of Job were " plowing in the field when the
Sabeans came upon them and drove them away." It was with
such an one that Ulysses plowed among the sands of the shore at
Ithaca, when he feigned madness before the messengers of Aga-
memnon.

r

p

The most ancient monuments of Egypt, dating back at least
three thousand years before the Christian era, reveal to us a
slight modification of this implement, quite as rude in form, yet
somewhat more powerful in execution.

Fig. 2 is a copy of these figures. It will be seen that the share
being triangular in form, will take a broader furrow, while two
handles in the place of one give the plowman a greater command
over the instrument.

History of tue Plow.

The most ancient form of the Roman plow iisea in the clays of
the Tarquins, is given in Fig. 3.

A more recent form of
the implement, as used
by Cincinnatiis and Cato,
is given in Figs. 4 and 5,
which will be found to
agree exactly with the

description of the imple- Mg.3.

ment given by Virgil in the Georgics. The sole of the plow,
A B, has two rectangular pieces of wood, G and H, fixed to it
on each side, forming an acute angle with it, in which the teeth,

E F {dentalia), are inserted. This
exactly answers the description of
Virgil: "Duplici aptantur dentalia
dorso;" (the teeth are fitted to the
double back.) E and F project
obliquely upward, and perform the
oflice of a mould-board. The share,
B, was of metal.

The next improvement in the plow
was to cover the point with iron.
A very ancient implement of British
husbandry, called the Caschrom, is
given in Fig. 6, which is used as a
plow at this day in some parts of the
outer Hebrides and in the Isle of
Sky. Like the preceding examples
of the implement from Asia Minor
and Egypt, the wooden portion of
it is in one single piece, and has
evidently been selected on account
of the natural crook which it had
'assumed in the tree, that permits
the part a d to run nearly horizon-
tally, while the upward curve of
F'/g, 4. jF'i^r. 6. the handle, a c, rises to the shoulder

of the plowman, and is allowed to rest upon it. When he
desires to make it go deeper into the ground, he raises c on
his shoulder; when it runs in too deeply, he presses with his foot
upon the pin e. It is armed with an iron chisel at the point h,

10

Report on Trials of Plows.

having a socket at the upper end, d, into which the fore end
of the wooden part is firmly wedged.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7 IS the figure of an East Indian plow now in the Museum
of our Society at Albany. Its form has not been altered for cen-
luries, and in some portions of India it is the only plow in use.

The Greeks, who always had a piece of history for every emer-
gency, tell us that Ceres, or Demeter, as she was called by them,
who was the daughter of Saturn and Ehea, and the mother of
Proserpine by Jupiter, was the iuventress and guardian of agri-
culture. The story goes, that one day as Proserpine Avas gather-
ing flowers in the fields of Enna in Sicily, Pluto came and carried
her away, to be the queen of the lower regions. Ceres Avas dis-
consolate for the loss of her daughter, and for a long period
devoted herself to searching for her over the whole earth. While
she thus devoted herself to this search, she neglected the earth,
which thus become barren. Jnpiter, and all the gods in succes-
sion, besought her to abandon the search and return to Olympus,
but she refused, and would not be consoled. At length the gods
persuaded Pluto to allow Proserpine to revisit the upper world,
remaining with her mother two-thirds of the year, while she was
still to return to him for one-third of it. Ceres was appeased by
this arrangement, and consented to return to Olympus; but ere
she went, she taught to Triptolemus of Eleusis the art of agricul-
ture, giving him at tlie same time her cliariot drawn by two
dragons, in which, by her command, he traveled over the whole
earth, distributing corn to all the inhabitants. Triptolemus,
under her inspiration, was the inventor of the plow.

The Greeks had two festivals in honor of Ceres, which were
called Thesmophoria and Eleusvnia. The Romans, who were
greatlv devoted to agricultur(\ wore ai'dent worshi[)pers of Ceres,

History of the Plow.

U

12

Report on Trials of Plows.

having many temples devoted to her service, and one annual fes-
tival called the Ceralia. This festival was celebrated by matrons
holding burning torches in their hands, and whoever ventured to
appear without previous initiation was punished with death.

This divine origin of agriculture was devoutly believed by the
Greeks and Romans, as well as the Egyptians; but like all other
false beliefs, it worked great practical injury. It was reckoned
impious to change the processes which had been expressly
revealed from heaven, lest they should appear to derogate from
the wisdom of Ceres, and thus incur her displeasure; which, of
course, was an absolute barrier to all improvement. In fact it
would seem that the shadow of that delusion has reached down
to the present day, since, in no art known to man, is it so difficult
to give currency to new processes as it is in agriculture. A very
large portion of the farmers still use implements as rude as those
we have already figured. In fact the Caschrom is still in use in
some parts of the Hebrides.

J^lff. 8.

In Fig. 8 we give the plow used throughout Egypt at the present
day, which is but a very slight improvement on the ancient imple-
ment represented in Fig. 2. Fig. 9 is an accurate representation
of a plow now in our museum at Albany, such as is almost
universally used in Mexico. Even in France, Spain and Italy the
plows used are of the most awkward kind, incapable of doing
good work, and excessively wasteful of power.

The next step in improvement seems to have been the substi-
tution of a more decided wedge form in the plow for the trian-
gular sticks of an earlier age. In some cases the leading idea of
the plowmaker seems to have been to have the wedge act hori-
zontally, lifting up the earth; in others the edge was formed to
act laterally, pushing the slice cut off" by the point over to the
other side, so as to leave a free space for the next furrow.

History of the Plow.

13

Fisi'. 10, Chinese plow in the miiseiim of the New York State
Agricultural Society.

Fio-. 11 represents a plow figured from the Harleian manuscript
No. 4,374, such as Avas used in England in the reign of Edward

I^iff. 9.
the Fourth, A. D. 1470. It is formed from a rhomboidal piece
of wood, bent or grooved downward from the middle towards
the front and rear, with the edges turned upward, the acute ends
being turned towards the front and rear, the front being shod

F'ig. 20.
with iron. In this way the earth is scooped up from the solid
earth, pushed backward and upward to the middle line of the
share, when it falls backward in a pulverized state into the furrow
from whence it was taken.

14

Report on Trials of Plows.

Fig. 12 is taken from an old Saxon calendar, preserved in the
Cotton manuscripts of the eleventh century, and used in the time
of William the Conqueror. It was drawn by four oxen, and fast-
ened to them by ropes made of twisted willows, and sometimes

by the skins of whales. It consists of a simple wooden wedge
covered with straps of iron, one side being placed parallel to
the line of the plow's direction, the other sweeping over to
the left hand, clearing it from its own path, and leaving an unob-
structed furrow for the next slice. A coulter, not unlike those
now in use, is inserted in the beam, and a wheel is placed in front
to regulate tlie depth.

We have met with nothing previous to this plate which shows
a real coulter, or that which we now call by that name. Virgil's
plow had none, nor were any of the Italian plows provided with
one in TuU's day.

ft will be seen from the two last illustrations that the idea of
a wedge form for a plow had begun to dawn upon men's minds;
some using the wedge acting vertically, others laterally; but they

existed in the nn'nds of plowmakers in too vague and misty a form
to be of much pi-actical benefit. No one had as yet grasped the
idea of conil)ining the two wedges in the same implement, nor
had they any i(l(>a of the curves by which tliis could l)e effected.

History of the Flow.

Ii l|i.|',),;|U,>!iVl|n:;i||ii|llJi|ll!!M!l

15

16 Report on Trials of Plows.

There is a plow now in the museum of the Society at Albany,
from Canada, derived from France, which has been in use there
unchanged for centuries, although no one knows how many, which
seems to be the first feeble attempt to realize this idea. We give
a drawing of it in Fig. 13.

It will be seen that this is the twisted wedge raising up the
earth first and then twisting it to the right. It is furnished with
two wheels to keep it steady in the furrow, and a coulter of the
modern form. It is a rude affair when compared with our modern
implements, but it shows real genius in its author.

The beginning of the last century was signalized by a revival
of interest in agriculture in England, and attention was more
strongly turned to the improvement of the plow than ever before.
A plow introduced from Holland, and known as the Rotherham
plow (many persons suppose this name to be a corruption of Rot-
terdam), was first constructed hy Joseph Foljambe of Yorkshire,
which he soon after sold to Mr. Staniforth, who did not manufac-
ture them himself, but charged a royalty of two shillings and six-
pence on the manufacture by others; but when he attempted to
raise the price to seven shillings and sixpence, the validity of his
patent was contested and set aside by the courts on the ground
that it was not a new invention.

This plow became very popular among the more enterprising
farmers; but notwithstanding its work was much better, and its
draft was much lighter, it came very slowly into use among the
masses.

Fig. 14, land side of Eotherham plow. Fig. 15, furrow side of
Rotherham plow.

DIMENSIONS OF THE ROTHERHAM PLOW-Fio. 15.

Feet. In.

From the end of stilt, E, to the point of the share, 1 7 4*

From the end of beam, A, to point of share, 1 3 0*

Length of the beam, A, B , . 6 0

Width of the head in the widest part, T ] 4

Width of the head at J •. . . . 0 9

Width of share at D 0 85

Length of surface on which the plow touches the ground, J, 1 2 10s

Height from ground where the coulter goes through 1 8

Width between stilts at extreme end 2 6

Height of stilts from ground 2 10

Weight of wood and iron work 14 cwt.

* These measures are taken by dropping a perpendicular to the plane of the sole, and
then measuring horizontally.

History of the Plow.

17

This plow was niade of wood, covered in the working parts
with sheet iron, which needed frequent renewal. It is the first,
so far as we know, which provided a bridle, e, Fig. 16, by which
the plow could be turned to or from land. The point is conical,

which enters the land on the principle of burrowing or mining,
rather than by the clean chisel cut now adopted, which must have
considerably increased the power required to operate it; still, a
comparison of it with its predecessors shows that it must have

done much better woik, and with less expenditure of power. It
will also 1)e seen, on examination of the mould board, that the
maker had empirically approximated to the true theory, as the
two wedges, lateral and vertical, are connected by a curve line,
so that the furrow slice is first raised a little and is then gradu-
ally turned over to one side.

Ten years after the letters patent
were granted to Foljambe for thr
Rotherham plow, Jethro TuU pul)-
lished a work on " Horse-hoeing
Husbandry," the first edition of
which was published in 1730. In this work, although TuU was
a thorough radical in the cause of agricultural improvement, he
gives the preference to the old Berkshire plow, which will be
seen, on comparison with the Rotherham plow, to be far inferior
2

F'iff. f6.

18 Refoet on Trials of Plows.

to it in ease of management, in ability to do good work, and in
lightness of draft.

We give this plow and its subordinate parts on Plate I, as illus-
trating the history of ploAvs, and as a curious example of the
slowness with which real improvements were adopted in agricul-
tui-al communities. We may add, that Tull published another
edition of his work in 1762, thirty-two years after the introduc-
tion of the Rotherham plow, in which he still adheres to his pre-
ference for the old Berkshire.

Tull was strongly in favor of four coultered plows, such as is
shown in Plate I, fig. 2. His eighteenth chapter is devoted to a
dialogue between a farmer and himself, in which he gives his
reasons for his preference of that form of plow. His chief reasons
are briefly these: It divides the land more completely, aflbrding
greater access to air and moisture. The furrow being cut into
four parts, it will have four times the superfices that it would have
without the coulter cuts; but this is not all. "It is more divided
crossways, viz : The ground wrest presses and breaks the lower
(or right hand) quarter; the other three quarters, in rising and
coming over the earth board, must make a crooked line about a
fourth longer than the straight one they made before moved;
therefore, their thinness not being able to hold them together,
they are broken into many more pieces for want of tenacity to
extend to a longer line, contrary to a whole furrow, whose great
breadth enables it to stretch and extend from a shorter to a longer
line without breaking; and, as it is turned oft', the parts are drawn
together again by the spring of the turf, and so remain whole
after plowing."

The objects which Mr. Tull sought to accomplish were very
desirable, but the four coultered plow was never very generally
adopted; and as the same objects have been since accomplished
in a far more simple and philosophical manner, it has fallen into
utter oblivion.

Fig. 1 represents the old Berkshire plow, pure and simple.
The plow head consists of a pair of wheels, A B, and their axis.
Two crow staves, D D, through which two rows of holes are per-
forated, by means of which the pillow, E, upon which the beam
rests, is elevated or depressed. H, the tow chain which fastens
the plow to the head. L, the bridle ch.iin, one end whereof is
fastened to the beam by a pin, and the other end to the top of
the stake, which is held up to the left crow staft' by the ring M.

History of the Plow. 19

The plosv tail consists of the beam, N, the coulter, O, the share,
P, and the sheat. Q; the hinder sheat, R, passing through the
Ix'um near its end. T, the drock which belongs to the right side
of tile plow tail, and whereto the ground wrest, V, is fastened, as
is the earth board, whose fore part, W, is seen before the sheat.
Z is the double retch which holds up the sheat.

We have retained the antiquated nomenclature of Tull in this
description, as these words are still retained in some English
works, and would not be understood by American readers without
a plate with references were before them.

Fig. 2 represents the four coultered plow recommended by
VuU. The beam differs in length from the former one, being ten
feet four inches long, or two feet four inches longer than the
other. It differs also in shape, being only straight from a to b,
from thence curving suddenly upward, as shown in the figure.
The perpendicular height at a is eleven inches, at b one foot eight
inches, while the height of the beam where it rests upon the
pillow is two feet ten inches above the plane of the sole.

From the end a to the back part of the fii'st coulter is three
feet two inches; from thence to the back of the next coulter is
thirteen inches; from thence to the fourth is the same. From a
to b is seven feet.

The beam is made of ash or oak, and is five inches deep and
four inches broad at the first coulter.

Fig. 4 is the sJieat^ seven inches broad, with the iron retch upon
it, the left leg of which must stand foremost. The ends pass
through the beam, and are secured on the top by nuts; the sheat
is also mortised into the beam and secured by a pin passing
through the hole a. The angle bed must always be less than
45 deg. ; from 42 deg. to 43 deg. works best in practice.

Fig. 5 is the share, a, the end of the point; b is the tail of the
share; length, from a to b is three feet nine inches; c is the Jin;
d the socket into which the l)ottom of the sheat enters; e a thin
plate of iron to which the hinder sheat is riveted. From a to f
is the point, three and a half inches long, flat beneath and round
above. From f to c is the edge of the fin, which should be of
steel.

Fig. 6 shows the share with its right side upward as when
plowing; the side a b should l)e perfectly straight, but its under
side, c, should be a little hollow.

20 Effort on Trials of Plows.

Fig. 7 is the share turned bottom upward, showing concavity o
of the fin, which must be greatest in a stony, rubbly soil.

Fig. 8 shows the share right side upward, but leaning towards
the left.

Fig. 3 shows the upper and right side of a four coultered plow,
of which V, the iron ground wrest, is shown in Fig. 9; it is two
feet five inches long, four inches deep at the end b, and three-
eighths inch thick, except at the end a, where it is thin enough
to bend so as to set close to the share, as at e, fig. 6. The ground
wrest has four small holes near its end, a, into one of which a nail
is inserted, which fastens it to the sheat through the long hole in
the side of the socket of the share, as at a, fig. 10, when it will
stand in the position ef in fig. 6. From the outside of the ground
wrest at y, to the outside of the share at 6, is eleven and a half
inches. The ground wrest has several holes at the upper side of
its broadest end, as at 5, in fig. 9, by which it is nailed to the
lower part of the drock T, as in fig. 3, which drock, with its per-
forations, is shown in fig. 11

Fig. 12 is the earth board (mould board), with its inside up-
wards; the notch a b shows the rising of the wood which take^
hold of the sheat, to Avhich it is fastened by the holes c and d,
and at the other end it is fastened to the drock by the hole e; all
which is seen at W, in fig. 3. The pin with which it is fastened
to the drock is larger in the middle than at either end, which
prevents the earth board from coming near the drock; by this pin
the distance between them is regulated, so that the rear end of
the earth board may be thrown inward or outw^ard, according to
the requirements of the soil.

Fig. 13 is the long handle, five feet four inches long, and four
inches in the widest part; it is pinned to the sheat through the
holes a 6, and to the drock through the hole c.

The short handle, S, is fig. 14; is three feet nine inches long,
and is pinned to the hinder sheat, fig. 15, by the hole a, and to
the top of the fore sheat above the beam by the hole b.

Fig. 16 is the piece for the mortises in which the coulters are
inserted; the lateral distance between them is two and a half
inches. The fore part of every mortise should incline a little to
the left, so that the backs of the coulters may not bear against
the lett side of the incisions made by their edges. In setting the
coulters, each should stand nearer to the perpendicular than the

History of the Plow. 21

one behind; or, in other words, the forward coulter should have
the least rake, and the rear coulter the most.

Fig. 17 is a coulter, a b; its length is two feet eight inches, e
d; its edge is sixteen inches long, d c; the length of its handle is
sixteen inches, one and seven-eighths inches broad, and seven-
eighths inch thick.

Fig. 18 is a nut with its two opposite corners turned up so as
to be driven by a hammer.

Fig. 19 is an iron collar (bridle) by which the tow chain is
fastened to the beam, as seen at a, fig. 3. The notches are in-
tended to facilitate the direction of the share to or from land.
The length ot each side of this collar is one foot.

The tow chain is shown in fig, 3, where the link Y is secured
by the stake, as shown in fig. 1.

Fig. 20 is the iron wilds. The distance between the two legs
is eight and a half inches; their length is nineteen inches. Its
position is seen in figs. 1 and 2; the notches are intended to give
a broader or narrower furrow. E is the ring by which the two
links and the two crooks, F and G, are held together, and on
which they all move.

The diameter of the left wheel in fig. 2 is twenty inches; of the
right, two feet three inches; their distance asunder is two feet
five and a half inches.

The crow staves are one foot eleven inches high from the box
to the gallows, and their distance apart is ten inches. The height
from the plane of the sole to the hole in the box where the tow
chain passes through it, is thirteen inches, which is two inches
below the holes of the wilds on the rear face of the box. The
height at the other end, where the crook of the collar takes hold
of the pin of the beam at c, fig. 2, is twenty inches high.

No other noticeable changes were made in the plow until
near the beginning of the present century, when the conviction
that there was a real law of nature which ought to regulate the
shape of the plow, began in a vague and misty way to take pos-
session of men's minds. They felt instinctively that the imple-
ment was too complicated and cumbrous, and that it was quite
possible to simplify it and to diminish its draft.

One of the earliest laborers in this field was Thomas Jefferson,
late President of the United States, who, in a communication to
the French Institute, attempted to solve the mathematical problem

22

Report on Trials of Plows.

of the true surface of the moulcl-boarcl, and to lay down intelli-
gible and practical rules for its formation, for the first time.

He saw very clearly, and we believe he was the first to discern
it with distinctness, that the plow should consist of two wedges,
one acting vertically and the other laterally, which should be so
blended in a curve surface that the furrow should rise and turn
over smoothly and continuously.

It is impossible to over-estimate the value of this contribution
to agricultural science. All the old writers complain that Avhen
the makers of good plows died, their art died with them. Their
plans being purely empirical, they could not communicate the true
mode of making them to others, and hence the art was lost as fast as
it was found. Indeed, the same maker was often unable to realize
his own ideals in practice, making at one time a plow that gave
perfect satisfaction, and the next time one that was very inferior.
Thus, Arthur Young tells us in his agricultural report of Suffolk,
that "a very ingenious blacksmith of the name of Brand" made
a plow of iron, of which he says " there is no other in the king-
dom equal to it;" and yet when he died no one else could make
them. A drawing of this plow is given in Fig. 17.

JP'iff. f7.

It was usual for the farmer to purchase the wooden part of his
plow of a mechanic called the plow-wright, which he afterwards
had ironed l)y a ))lacksmith. Neither of these men paid any
regard to the views of the other; the plow-wright made his part
according to the counsel of his own will, while the blacksmith
adhered to his own notions without the slightest reference to the
plans of the plow-wiiulit. The result was an implement, as a

History of the Plow. ^3

whole, which had no unity of phm, and the discordant parts could
not, therefore, be expected to accomplish satisfactory results.

In view of these great difficulties in the way of making uni-
formly good plows, it must be admitted that the discovery of Mr.
Jetferson, by Avhich mould-boards could be made by any one with
Ihe absolute certainty of having them all exactly alike, was an
era in agriculture, and the root of all real progress in the manu-
facture of this all-important implement.

W(; have therefore thought that it would be desirable to give
a full description of his method, which we hope will prove intel-
ligible to every one who desires to understand it.

In order to obtain a clear idea of the curve of the mould-board
which Mr. Jeft'erson considered to be the best, we give his ideas
in his own words, except that we shall take the liberty of chang-
ing the antiquated names given by him, for those which are used
to designate those parts at the present day:

" The mould-board of the ])low ought not only to be the con-
tinuation of the shield of the share beginning at its posterior
edge, but it must also be in the same plane. Its first function is
to receive horizontally from the sock the earth, to raise it to the
height proper for being turned over; to present, in its passage, the
least possible resistance, and consequently to require the minimum of
moving power. Were its function confined to this, the wedge would
present, no doubt, the properest form for practice; but the object
is also to turn over the sod of earth. One of the edges of the
mould-board ought then to have no elevation, to avoid an useless
wasting of force; the other edge ought, on the contrary, to go on
ascending until it has passed the perpendicular, in order that the
sod may be inverted by its own weight; and the inclination of
the mould-board must increase gradually from the moment that
it has received the sod.

" In this second function the mould-board then acts like a wedge
situated in an oblique direction, or ascending, the point of which
recedes horizontally on the earth, while the other end continues
to rise till it passes the perpendicular. Or, to consider it under
another point of view, let us place on the ground a wedge, the
breadth of which is equal to that of the share of the plow, and
which in length is equal to the share from the wing to the poste-
rior extremity, and the height of the heel is equal to the height
of the rear of the share above the sole: draw a diagonal on the
upper surface from the left angle of the point to the angle on the

24

Report on Trials of Plows.

right of the upper part of the heel; slope the face by making it
bevel from the diagonal to the right edge which touches the
earth: this half will evidently be the properest form for discharg-
ing the required functions, namely, to remove and turn over grad-
ually the sod, and with the least force possible. If the left of
the diagonal be sloped in the same manner, that is to say, if we
suppose a straight line, the length of which is equal at least to
that of the wedge, applied on the face already sloped, and moving
backwards parallel to itself and to the two ends of the wedge,
at the same time that its lower end keeps itself always along the
lower end of the right face, the result will be a curved surface,
the essential character of which is, that it will be a combination
of the principle of the wedge, considered according to two direc-
tions, which cross each other, and will give what we require, a
mould-board presenting the least possible resistance. This mould-
board, besides, is attended with the valuable advantage that it
can be made by any common workman by a process so exact that
its form will not vary the thickness of an hair. One of the great
faults of this essential part of the plow is the want of precision,
because workmen having no other guide than the eye, scarcely
two of them are similar. One may easily conceive and render
sensible the manner in which the sod is raised on the mould-
board which we have described, by an attentive consideration of
the following diagram, Fig. 18.

-yd

Fiff. f8.

Draw on an horizontal plane or parallelogram, ahcfe the
lines a b and c e, being each = to twenty-four inches, = the length
of the mould-board, and the lines b c^ d e, each = nine inches, =
the width of the sole at the heel of the plow, produce the line a e
to d, and make e d foui- and u half inches, this being the overhang

History of the Plow. 25

of the rear end of the moukl-boarcl beyond tlie perpendicidar
which Mr. Jelt'crson thought the most convenient length in prac-
tice.

At the point d erect a straight stick twelve inches long, which
is twice the depth of the proposed furrow; then from the point
b stretch a string tightly to the top of the stick at d. When this
is done, take a straight edge twelve inches long, and placing it on h c,
where it will rest horizontally and will coincide with the plane
of the parallelogram, move it backwards towards the line a d,
keeping the point of the edge which was at first coincident with
the point c along the line c e, and always preserving the paral-
lelism of the edge with the vertical plane of b c, it is evident that
as the edge resting on the diagonal b d moves backwards, the end
which at first coincided with b will rise upward, and every suc-
cessive removal towards the line a d it will assume a larger angle
with the horizontal plane. When the end which was at c arrives
at the point gr, and the corresponding part of the edge is on the
string at h, the line gr li will form an angle of forty-five degrees
with the horizontal plane. When the end of the stick stands on
the point f^ and the edge coincides with/* on the string, the stick
will be exactly perpendicular to the plane: passing on in the line
/ e, towards a cZ, the angles will assume an opposite direction, so
that when the end of the moving stick rests upon e, and the edge
rests on the string at tZ, it will make an angle with the plane of
110^ degrees. When the path of the straight edge from b c to
e d is attentively considered, it is evident that it will have des-
cribed a curved surface, which is the ideal of what we seek to
reproduce in wood.

Let us assume that the depth of the furrow is six inches, its
width nine inches, and the length of the mould-board two feet,
these fio;ures will decide the size of the block from which the
mould-board must be cut.

The transverse section of the block. Fig.

— —, ^ 19, will then be nine inches at the base b c,

thirteen and a half inches at its summit a d,
and twelve inches at the side a b. The line
b c must be nine inches, because hat is the
width of the furrow. The line a b is placed
at twelve inches, because Mr. Jefferson found
that unless the height of the mould-board
jF///. /O. was tAvice as gieat as the furrow (which we

26

Report on Trials of Plows.

Ta

Tl

have assumed to be six inches), the earth, when the soil was
friable and sandy, would rise up over the edge of the mould-
board like waves, and fill the furrow behind the plow. It will
be seen, however, since in the progress of discovery we have
obtained a much better form of mould-board, there is no necessity
for this great excess of height. The line a d \s taken at thirteen
and a half inches, because in his opinion it was essential for the
rear end of the mould-board to project four and a half inches

beyond the perpendicular, in order to
make the sod fall on to the preceding
slice by its own gravity. It is possible
that this amount of inclination from the
perpendicular would be sufficient to
efiect the object on level land, but it
requires a much greater lateral projec
tion to make the sod fall properly
when the furrow is turned up hill. Mr.
Jefferson's line of inclination is twenty
and one-half degrees; modern practice,
founded on the necessity of the case,
^ gives an inclination not less than fort}'-

J^/ff. 20.

five degrees.

A block having a transverse section,
as in Fig. 19, and three feet long, is
taken and smoothly planed on all its
sides. This block is represented in
Fig. 20. The first operation consists
in forming the tail, by which the mould-
board is affixed to the stilt or handle,
by sawing across from a to 5, on ifs
left side, and at the distance of twelve
inches from the end, f g ; continue the cut perpendicularly along
a e, until the edge of the saw comes to a line one and a half
inches above the side n i; then taking h i, j h, each equal to one
and a half inches, and saw across the line j k, along the line k e,
parallel to the right side. The piece b a e I- j f g will fall of
itself and leave the tail, k e d i h j, an inch and a half in thick-
ness. It is of the anterior part, b a e d I m n, that the mould-
board must be formed.

By means of a square, trace out on all the faces of the block,
lines at an inch distance from each other, of which there will

History of the Plow.

27

necessarily be twenty-tlirec; then draw the diagonals, m d, Fig. 21,
on the upper face, and d o on that which is situ-
ated on the right; make the saw enter at the
0 point m, directing it towards d, and making it
descend along the line m Z, until it marks out
a straight line between d and I, Fig. 22. Then
make the saw enter at the point o, and preserving
the direction o d, make it descend along the line
o I, until it meets with the central diagonal, d I,
which had been formed by the first cut; the pyra-
mid, m n 0 I d, Fig. 23, will drop out by itself
and leave the block in the form represented by

Fig. 22.

I^fff. 2f.

It is here to be observed, that in the last ope-
ration, inst-ead of stopping the saw at the central

diagonal, d I, if we had continued to notch the
!)l(>ck, keeping on the same plane, the wedge
/ m n o d a, Fig. 21, would have been taken
away, and there would have remained another
wedge, I o d a b c, which, as was observed be-
fore, in speaking of the principle in regard to
the construction of the mould-board, would exhi-
bit the most perfect form, were the only object
to raise the sod; but as it must also be turned **-
over, the left half of the upper wedge has been
preserved, in order to continue on the same side
the bevel to be formed on the right half of the
lower wedge.

Let us now proceed to lay down the means of

producing this bevel; in order to oljtain which we
had the precaution to trace out lines around the
ij block before we removed the pyramid, Fig. 23.
Care must be taken not to confound these lines,
now that they are separated by the vacuity left
by the removal of that pyramid, Fig. 22.

Bearing in mind that the line a d is thirteen
and a half inches in length, the line a h is twelve
inches, the line 6 c or / o is nine inches in length
and that the line d c slopes downward and inward
towards the left hand, as shown in Fig. 19. We make the saw
enter in the two points of tlio first dotted line situated nearest to

J^/^

m

28 Report on Trials of Plows.

m and o, Fig. 22, and on the diagonals m d and o d, continning
the stroke on that first line till it reach on the one hand the cen-
tral diagonal d I, and on the other the lower right edge, o /t, of
the block. Fig. 22; the posterior end of the saw will come out at
some point situated on the upper trace in a straight line with the
corresponding points of the edge and the central diagonal. Con-
tinue to do the same thing on all the points formed by the inter-
section of the exterior dias^onals and lines traced out around the
block, taking always the central diagonal and the edge o h, as the
term and the traces as directors; the result will be, that when
you have formed several cuts with the saw, the end of that instru-
ment, which came out before at the upper face of the block, will
come out at the face situated on the left of the latter; and all
these different cuts of the saw will have marked out as many
straight lines, which, extending from the lower edge, o h, of the
block, will proceed to cut the central diagonal. Now, by the
help of any proper tool, remove the sawn parts, taking care to
leave visible the traces of the saw, and this face of the mould-
board will be finished.

An attentive consideration of the processes which have been
gone through with the block, Fig. 22, will show that they are
precisely equivalent to those described in elucidating Fig. 18; the
diagonal, d I, in the first, corresponds with the diagonal b d in
the second, and the line o h in the one corresponds with the line
c e in the other.

It must not be forgotten that the point d overhangs the point
c four and a half inches towards the right; hence there will be a
point in the line o h, at /, which will be exactly vertical on the
diagonal d I, it is obvious that in sawing the traces bewteen/ and
0, the point of the saw will be directed upward and forward
towards the line am. At / it will be directed vertically upward,
and after it passes the point /, towards c, it will be directed
lownwards and backwards towards the line b I; the saw marks
'A'hich are left on the face of the mould-board are the representa-
tives of the successive positions of the twelve-inch stick as it was
progressively moved backward in a line parallel to itself from c
towards e, in Fig. 18.

It now remains to construct the opposite side of the mould-
board so as to be parallel at all points with the face. Invert the
block, and make the saw enter at the points where the line b I,
Fiij. 24, meets with the traces, and remembering that the side.

History of the Plow.

29

jli

a b m I, which in Fig. 22 hiid vertically and
to the left of the block, now lies down-
wards on its face, while the side of the
wedge a d m {a d being thirteen and a half
inches) now lies vertically and is on the
leftside of the block; now continue the
stroke along these traces until both ends
of the saAV approach within an inch, or any
other convenient distance of the finished
face of the mould- board. When each of
the traces have been thus sawn through,
remove the sawn parts with some conven-
ient tool, as before, and the mould-board
is finished.

Any one who will have the patience to
fix in his mind carefully the line left by

the saw when its posterior end rests in the line o h, and its ante-
rior end on the diagonal d /, through each of the twenty-three
traces made upon the block, will be enabled to conceive of the
exact twist of the surface of the mould-board; yet as some minds
have a difficulty in realizing such warped surfaces, we give
another method which may be more clear to such readers.

^/^. 26.

Suppose the saw cuts the lines m d and o d, Fig. 24, in the
points X and t, in the traces x z and t s, parallel to a b b o, and
the prolongations of wdiich on the triangles m d I and Ida are
the lines x iv and t lo; the saw must then penetrate the block,
remaining in the same plane in question, until its point has reached
the point s, and at the same time touch the point w of the central
diagonal d I. The fore end of the saw will come out at some
point, y, of the face a m d, so that three points, s lo y, will be in
the same straight line. But if this operation be repeated in dif-
ferent places of the lines, m d and o d, bringing the edge down

30 Report on Trials of Plows.

along the traces to the line o h, at the rear, and the line d /, in
front, the fore part of the saw will come out on the face, a m d,
as we go on towards c, at constantly varying elevations above the
line a m. If we now connect the points thus made by the saw on
the face, a m d, the line traced between them will be the line
'; f/ d, Figs. 24 and 25. Beyond this height the saw, directed in
the same manner, will come out at other points situated on the
posterior face, a b m I, and a line connecting these points, as
before, will form the second of these curves on both figs., n, ?,
which will meet the first in the point n.

These two curves being traced out, let us sui:)pose straight lines
drawn to the places where the saw stopped each time that it
touched the diagonal, d I, and of which one, as already said, passes
through the points s w y; and let us conceive a surface touching
all these straight lines, and w^hose limits, on the one hand, shall
be the curves d y n, I n, and on the other the line o //., this sur-
face, which must be uncovered by sections made with a proper
instrument, will form one of the faces of the mould-hoard, which
is represented hj d n I o c, Fig. 25, where c y represents the per-
pendicular and the point d curves over towards the spectator four
and a half inches beyond the point c. The share, I o x, has been
added to show how the plow looks when finished.

To make the opposite face of the mould-board, the thickness
thereof having been determined by the thickness of d e k i, Fig.
24, at one and a half inches, let us first conceive that there has
])een traced out, proceeding from the points, the cuvve c u p,
])arallel to d y n, and then proceeding from the pointy, the curve
]) q, parallel to n I.

Let us next suppose that the saw cuts the edge h I of the face
h ami in the point cc', situated in the same plane as z x, t s, which
plane has been taken, for example, in regard to the anterior face
of the mould-board. The saw must be directed along the traces
x' z and x' s, in such a manner that its motion shall stop at the
term where its edge, on the one hand, shall touch the curve e p,
in the point v, situated on the trace x z, and, on the other, shall
be situated parallel to the line s w ?/, at which the saw stopped
on the other side of the mould-board. The edge of the saw will
then cut the face oi b I o c, in some point t ', so situated that the
straight line drawn through that point and the point w, shall be
parallel to the straight line which passes through the point s lo y.
If you continue cutting in the same manner, with the saw, differ-

History of the Flow.

31

eiit points of the edge h /, those by which it comes out will form,
on the face b I o c, a curve j s q; and if, through these points and
those corresponding to them in the lines e p and jp q, there will
be diaMm straight lines, such as that which passes through z and
w, which we have taken as an example, the surface touching these
straight lines, and, uncovered by means of any sharp instrument,
will form the remainder oH j h o I q t' of the plane bloc, being
the opposite side of the mould-board.

It is fixed to the plow by mortising the fore part, o Z, Fig. 25,
into the posterior end of the share, which must be made double,
like the handle of a pocket comb, that it may receive and secure
this fore part of the mould-l>oard. A screw nail is then made to
pass through the mould-board and the handle of the share at the
place of their contact, and two other screw nails pass through the
tail of the mould-board and the right handle of the plow. The
part of the tail which passes be3'ond the handle must be cut
diagonally, and the work will be finished.

^ We have thus given the plan of forming
the mould-board in full detail, so that the
principle of its construction maybe clearly
understood; })ut Mr. Jefferson found, in
actual practice, that some modifications of
it might be usefully made. Thus, he says:
" Instead of beginning to form the block
as represented hy a b c d, Fig. 26, where
a b is twelve inches in length, and the

111

J^i^. 26.
an^le at b is a riorht one, I cut off towards the
bottom and along the whole length, b c, of the
block a Avedge, b c e, the line e b being equal to
the thickness of the bar of the share (which I sup-
pose to be one and a half inches); for, as the face
of the wing inclines from the bar to the ground, if
the block were placed on the share, without taking
into the account this inclination, the side a b would i |
lose its perpendicular direction, and the side a d
would cease to be horizontal. Besides, instead of
leaving at the top of the block a breadth of thir-
teen and a half inches from m to w, I remove from
the right side a kind of wedge, n d z c p, of one
and a half inches in thickness, Fig. 27; because experience has

32 Repobt on Trials of Plows.

shown me that the tail which, by these means, has become more
oblique, as c z, instead of d i, fits more conveniently to the side
of the handle; the diagonal of the upper face is consequently
removed back from a to c, and we have m c, instead of m d, us
above. These modifications may be easily comprehended by
/hose acquainted with the general principle."

This method, devised by Mr. Jefferson, removing, as it does,
the formation of the plow out of the domain of empiricism, and
enabling workmen in diflerent sections of the country, without
communicating with each other, to form their mould-boards pre-
cisely alike, was one of the most valuable contributions towards
the perfecting of plows that has ever been made by any one man,
and will always entitle him to a conspicuous place among the
benefactors of agriculture.

But the credit that we award to him must be confined to the
service which he rendered in demonstrating that plows could be
made by rule, and to the actual discovery of one of the many
rules that are applicable to the formation of the mould-board.

A very slight examination of Mr. Jefierson's method will show
its very great defects. For instance, the overhang of the wing to
the right, e d, Fig. 19, is only four and one-half inches. This
would only be sufiicient to turn the furrow slice, when it was
turned down hill, or, on some soils, it would answer on a level,
but, on other soils, it would be quite insufiicient to invert the slice,
while it would be sure to tumble back into its original position
when the furrow was turned up the hill. Modern practice shows
that no plow can be safely relied on to invert the furrow where
Ihe overhang is less than forty-five degrees.

To make this angle, the line e d, Fig. 18, must be made twelve
inches instead of four and a half inches. Then, to complete the
plow, according to Mr. Jefferson's rule, the perpendiculary would
be advanced six inches towards c, and the line gr h would be
carried forward, so that it would stand within five and a quarter
inches of the point c. It will be very obvious that such a
degree of bluntness would be impracticable without an expendi-
ture of power which no farmer could afford to throw away. In
other words, the rule is only applicable when we have an imprac-
ticable rear wing to the mould-board or an impracticable share.

The lower edge of the mould-board is quite too long, increasing
the friction very unnecessarily. In our best modern plows the

History of the Plow. 33

vcrl icnl sections of the mould-board are either concave or convex,
accordino; as the soil is too lio^ht or too still'. The vertical sections
of Mr. Jefferson's would be all rectilinear, which are not as favor-
able for good and easy plowing as curves.

The straight diagonal line, m d, used as the generator of Mr.
eTctferson's twisted surface, should have been a curve instead of a
.straight line.

Tile reception of the front edge of the mould-board into a cavity
ill the posterior edge of the share, and secured by a single screw
nail, suggests great weakness where great strength is required.
The connection of the tail of the mould-board with the handle,
by two screw nails, is quite too weak a connection, and would of
itself condemn the plow in modern markets.

Mr. Jefferson seems to have confined his attention solely to the
mould-board, overlooking the sole, the land side, the position of
the beam and cutter, with reference to the plane of the land side
altogether. It will be seen, as we advance, that these points are
all of radical importance, and that no perfection of the mould-
board can compensate for their defects.

At the conclusion of his paper he says that, having satisfied
himself that the plan that he has laid down is the best, he pro-
poses in future to have his mould-boards made of cast iron. This
is the first allusion that we have met with in an American author
to the use of cast iron for the plow. If we are correct in this, it
adds greatly to his credit.

The first of any idea, on Mr. Jefferson's part, of improving the
plow, which Mr. Randall finds among his papers, is contained in
his journal of a tour in Germany, made in the year 1788, when
he was American Ambassador in France. In passing through
Lorraine, along the banks of the Meurthe, he frequently alighted
to observe the teams and the implements of the farmers who were
engaged in plowing by the wayside. Some of the plows thus
examined were more remote from the improved forms of the
present day than those traced in the hieroglyphics of early
Egypt. Stopping for a night at Nancy, the capital of the ancient
dutchy, he made an entry in his journal, from which the following
is an extract: " Oxen plow here with collars and hames. The
awkward fig-ure of their mould-boards leads one to consider what
should be its form. The offices of the mould-board are to receive
the sod after the share has cut under it, to raise it gradually and

34 Report on Trials of Plows.

to reverse it. The fore end of it should therefore be horizontal,
to enter under the sod, and the hind end perpendicular, to throw
it over; the intermediate surface changing gradually from the
horizontal to the perpendicular. It should be as wide as the fur-
row, and of a length suited to the construction of the plow."
He then gives diagrams and descriptions, which have already been
described in detail. The entries in the journal show that the
whole plan was at that time clearly developed in his mind.

When he resided in Philadelphia, as Secretary of State under
General Washington, he consulted the celebrated David Ritten-
house as to whether his proposed plow was founded on mathe-
matical principles, and Mr. Rittenhouse, after a careful examination
of the whole question, made that fact demonstrable.

In 1793 Mr. Jeiferson, as we are informed by Mr. Randall, put
his theory to the test of practical experiment. He had several
plows made after his patterns, and put into use on his estates, in
Albemarle and Bedford counties, in Virginia, and became fully
satisfied of their practical utility.

Mr. Strickland, a member of the English board of agriculture,
travelled in this country and saw these plows in operation. Being
much pleased with their operation, he took home drawings of
them, which he submitted to his associates in the board. They
were so highly approved that Jefi'erson was elected as an honorary
member of the board, and was requested by Sir John Sinclair, its
president, to forward a model and a full description of his inven-
tion. Mr. Jefterson complied with his request, and the letter to
Sir John was printed in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, from which
we have compiled the preceding account of his invention.

The originality of Mr. Jeflerson's discovery Avas contested by
William Amos, in a communication published in 1808, hut he gives
no proofs of it, and Mr. Jefferson certainly was not foolish enough
to present his method as original to two learned societies, who had
the means of at once detecting the imposture. The fact that
these bodies, the French Academy and tlie English Board of
Agriculture, acknowledged the invention to be his own, must
forever set the question at rest.

The discovery has also been claimed for James Small, but Sir
John Sinclair distinctly states that Small perfected his plow
gradually and experimentally, and without the assistance of the
key which Mr. Jefferson's princijjle would have given him. His im-

History of the Plow.

35

provements were enipirica,!, and were not at first guided by any
mathematical principles whatever. There can l)e no dou1)t Avhat-
ever that Mr. Jefferson is solely entitled to the honor of inventing
the first mould-board made on mathematical principles. We have
inserted this account of Mr. Jefferson's discovery in the chapter
on European plows, because his method was first published in
Europe.

CHAPTER III.

HISTORY OF THE PLOAV— Continued.

The celebrated James Small, of Scotland, was the next great
improver of the theory and practice of plow-making. He was
the first inventor of the cast-iron plow, though the beam and
handle were still made of wood. He took the Rotherham plow
as the basis, and impi'oved it in almost every particular.

He established his manufactory at Black Adder Mount, in Ber-
wickshire, in 1763, and died about thirty years afterwards; having
distinguished nearly every one of those years by some new
improvement in some of the parts. He left the implement at his
death so nearly perfect that to this day it is used in many of the
largest and best cultivated districts in Scotland, and prized more
highly than any other. The cut, showing Small's chain plow,
Fig. 28, gives his first eflbrts to improve the Rotherham plow,
which will be readily seen on a comparison of the drawings rep-
resenting; them.

jF'iff. 28.
The plow as finally perfected by Small, and generally known
as the East Lothian Plow, has attained to so high a degree of
celebrity, and proved itself so advantageous to farmers, that we
propose to give its details very fully, from Stephens' Book of the
Farm.

36 Report on Trials of Plows.

Plate II, fig. 49, rejDresents an elevation of the plow on the
furrow side, drawn to a scale of one inch to a foot, and Fig. 50, a
horizontal plan of the same. It is found with various shades of
difference, but not to the extent or of such marked character as
to require separate description from what follows. The l)eam
aud handles are almost invariably made of malleable iron, the
body frame being of cast iron, the latter varying slightly with
different makers. In its construction the beam and left handle
are usually finished in one continued bar, ABC, possessing the
varied curvature exhibited in Fig. 49, as viewed in elevation.
When viewed in plan, as in Fig. 50, the axis or central line of the
beam and left handle are in a straight line, though in this arrange-
ment there are some slight deviations among the different makers —
the point of the beam being in some cases turned more or less to
the right or furrow side, and this is found to vary from one-half
inch to two inches from the plane of the land side. The right
handle, D E, is formed on a separate bar, and is attached to the
body frame at its fore end by a bolt, as will be shown in detail,
and farther connected to the left handle by the bolts F F F and
the stays G G. The coulter, I, is fixed in its box, K, by means of
iron wedges holding it in the proper position. Its ofiice being
that of a cutting instrument, it is constructed with a sharp edge,
and is set at an angle of from 55 deg. to 65 deg. with the base line.
The mould-board, L, which is fixed upon the body frame and to
the right handle, is a curved plate of cast iron, adapted for turn-
ing over the furrow slice. Its fore edge or breast, M N, coincides
with the land side of the plow's body; its lower edge, T, behind,
stands from nine to ten inches distant from the plane of the land
side, while its upper edge, P, spreads out to a distance of nine-
teen inches from B, the land side plane. In this plow the mould-
board is truncated in the fore part, and is met by the gorge or
neck of the share, the junction being at the line N. The sJiare
or soch, N R, is fitted upon a prolono:ation of the sole bar of the
body frame termed the head, and falls into the curves of the
mould-board, of which its surface forms a continuation. The
bridle, C, or muzzle, as it is sometimes named, is that part to
which the draught is applied, and is attached to the point of the
beam by two bolts, the one, S, being permanent, upon which the
bridle turns vertically. The other l)olt, U, is movable, for
the purpose of varying the earthing of the plow; the landing
being varied by shifting the draught bolt and shackle, Y, to right

History of the Plow, 37

or left. The right and left handles are furnished at A and D with
wooden helves, fitted into the sockets of the handles. If any one
Avill take the trouble to compare the means employed in Jethro
TulFs plow, Plate I, to make the plow run deeper or shallower,
more to land or from land, with the arrangements for this purpose
in the Rotherham plow. Fig. 16, they will see that a great
advance has been made, but an inspection of Small's bridle, as
shown in the plate, will demonstrate that much more convenience
and certainty has been attained by him in this respect, and nothing
since has been invented to accomplish this object which can be
pronounced materially superior to it.

The general dimensions of this plow may be stated thus, as
measured on the base line: From the zero point, O, to the
extremity of the heel, T, the distance is four inches, and from O
forwards to the point of the share, R, the distance is thirty-two
inches — giving as the entire length of the sole, three feet. Again,
from O backward to the extremity of the handles. A', is six feet
two inches, and forward to the draught bolt, V, four feet seven
inches, making the entire length of the plow on the base line ten
feet nine inches; but, following the sinuosities of the beam and
handle, the entire length from A to C is about eleven feet three
inches. Although we have explained the word zero, used above,
in the chapter "On the Mechanical Conditions of the Plow," yet,
as it is a point of great importance in regulating the proportions
of the implement, and has received very little attention from
American plow makers, we here observe that the zero line is that
which, on the surface of the mould-board, where a vertical trans-
verse section at right angles to the plane of the land side falls,
which is distant from that plane by a space equal to the greatest
breadth of the furrow taken by the respective plows. The zero
point is found on this line, at an altitude above the sole the exact
height of the furrow slice. Or we may define it as that vertical
section of the mould-board which, in its progress under the slice,
will just touch the latter when in a vertical position. The scale
in this arrano-ement counts riiiht and left of zero.

In reference to the body of the plow, the center of the coulter
box, K, is fourteen and a half inches, and the top of the breast
curve, M, nine inches before the zero point, both as measured on
the base line; but, following the rise of the beam, the distance
from M to the middle of the coulter box will be seven inches.

The heights at the different points above the base line arc

38 Report on Trials of Plows.

marked ou the figure in elevation, along the upper edge of the
beam and handle; but the chief points in height are repeated
here, the whole of them being measured from the base line
to the upper edge of the beam and handles at the respective
points. At the left handle, A, the height is three feet, at the
light handle, D, two feet nine inches; and a like difference in the
height of the two is preserved till the right handle approaches
the body at the middle stretcher, F; thence the difference increases
till it reaches the body. The height at the point of the beam
is eighteen inches, and the centre of the draught bolt, at amediuni,
seventeen inches. The lower edge of the mould-board behind,
of this plow at T, is usually set about half an inch above the base
line, and at the junction with the share about the same height.

The dimensions in breadth^ from the land side line, embrace the
o1)liquity that is given to the direction of the beam and handles,
compared with the land side plane of the body taken at the sole.
The amount of obliquity, as exhibited by the dotted line, A C,
Fig. 50, which coincides with the land side plane of the body,
is that the axis of the beam at the extremity C stands one and a
quarter inches to the right, and, at the opposite end, the left
handle. A, stands about two inches to the left of the line. These
points may, however, be raised slightly from the dimensions here
given. In the first — the point of the beam — it is found in the
practice of different makers to range from one to two inches.

The dimensions of the parts of the frame work of the plow
are: The beam, at its junction with the mould-board at M, is from
two and a half to two and three-quarter inches in depth, by one
inch in breadth — the same strength being preserved onward to
the coulter box, K. From the last point a diminution in breadth
and depth begins, which is carried on to the extremity, c, Avhei-e
the beam has a depth of one and three-quarter inches, and a breadth
of one-half to five-eighths of an inch.

The coulter box is formed Ijy piercing an oblong mortise throngh
2 he bar, which has been previously forged with a protuberance at
this place, on each side and at the upper edge; the mortise is two
and one-half inches I)y three-quarters of an inch.

From the junctioji with the mould-boar«l at IM, backward, the
beam decreases gradnally till, at the hind palm of the body at B,
it is two inches in depth and five-eighths of an inch in breadth
where it merges in the left handle, A. This last member retains
a nearly nnifoim size thioiighoul of two inches by three-eiijhths

History of the Plow.

39

of all inch. The rii^ht handle, D, is somewhat lighter, being
iisnally one and one-half inches by three-eighths of an inch, and
l>()th terniinate in welded sockets which receive wooden helves of
six or eight inches in length. The stretchers, FFF, which snp-
port and retain the handles at their dne distance apart, are in
length snited to their positions in the handles, and their thickness
is abont three-qnarters of an inch in diameter, tapering toward the
ends, Avhere thev terminate in a collar and tail bolt with a screwed
mit. The nppcr stretcher has also a semicircular stay riveted to
its middle, the tails of the stays, G G, terminating, like the
stretcher, with screwed tails and nuts.

Having given the general dimensions and outline description of
this plow, there remains to be described the details of the body
frame and its sheathing, all the figures of which are on a scale of
one and one-half inches to one foot.

The Body Frame. — The different view^s of the body frame are
exhibited in the Figs. 29 and 30, wherein the same letters refer to

1'

WATERS-SON Sa.lV.Y.

J^iff. 29.

the corresponding parts in the different figures. Fig. 29 is an
elevation of the furrow side; Fig. 30 a plan of the sole bar of the;
frame inverted; and a vertical section on the line XX is given in

m.

Fiff. 30.

Fig. 31. In all the figures, then, aaa\% the sole bar, with two
arms, h and c, extending upwards, and having at the lower edge
a flaniro, d^ running alono; the right hand side. Each of the arms,

40 Rerort on Trials of Plows.

b, c, terminates in a palm, ef, by which it is bolted to the beam.
The arm, c, is furnished, besides, with an oblique palm or ear, gr,
upon which the fore edge of the mould-board rests and to which
it is bolted. The sole bar, a, with its flange, terminates forward
in the head, h, which is here made to form the commencement of
the twist of the mould-board, and upon which the share is fitted,
reaching to the dotted line, zi, Fig. 29. The fore edge, kil, of
the frame is worked into the curve, answering to the oblique sec-
tion of the fore edge or breast of the mould-board, and serves as
a support to the latter throughout their junction. The curvature
given to the arm, 5, is unimportant to the action of the plow, but
the general oblique direction here given to it is well adapted to
withstand the thrust constantly exerted in that direction when the
plow is at work. In Fig. 30, the sloping edge, d m, represents
the enlargement of the sole bar on which the share is fitted and
where the lower part of the fore edge of the mould-board rests.
The depressed portion, m n, is that which is embraced by the
flange of the share. In the frame, o, is the lower extremity of the
right handle broken ofi" at o, to show the manner in which it is
joined to the sole flange of the frame by the bolt, p. The bolt
holes, q q, are those by which the beam is secured to the palms
of the frame; r r are those by which the land side i^late is attached,
and s s those of the sole shoe, t, being that which
secures the mould-board to the ear, and u that which
receives the lower stretcher of the handles. (See
Fig. 50, Plate II, at F and O.) The letter v marks
the second bolt hole of the mould-board, while its
third fixture is effected upon the right handle by the
^S intervention of a l)];acket, or of a bolt and socket as
seen at o, Plate II. The curved lines, to w, mark the
position of the beam when attached to the body,
the beam being received into the seats formed on the
land side of the palms, <?, /, as seen more distinctly at
^ w m h\g. ol.

The body frame being an important member of the implement,
regard is paid to having it as light as may be consistent with a
due degree of strength; hence, in the different parts breadth has
been jriven them in the direction of the strain, while the thickness
is studiously attenuated in such places as can be reduced with
safety. The least breadth of the sole bar, «, is three and three-
quarter inches, of the arm, c, four and one-half inches, and of 5,

History of the Plow.

41

two and one-quarter inches. The breadth ot the sole flange is
two inches, the greatest thickness in any of the parts is three-
quarters of an inch, and the total weight of the frame is thirty
pounds.

Tlie Share. — Figs. 32 to 37 are illustrations of the share and
its configuration; Fig. 32 is a plan; Fig. 33 a geometrical eleva-

J3.

J^iff. 37-

tion of the furrow side, and Fig. 34 is a direct end view looking
forward, of which a is the boss adapted to the curvatnre of the
mould-board; b, the land side flange, which embraces the head
of the land side; c, the sole flange, embracing in like manner the
head below; and these three parts form the neck or socket of the
share, fitting closely upon the head, and being in effect part of
the mould-board. The part d ef, Fig. 32, forms the share proper,
consisting of dee, the shield terminating in the point e, and of
the feather or cutter running oflf at the point e. The extreme
breadth of the share in this plow, measuring from the land side to
the point g of the feather (or the rear angle of the feather'), varies
from six to six and one-half inches; and its length in the sole,
including the neck, 6, is about sixteen inches, the feather, g e,
being eleven inches.

The other figures, 36 and 37, are transverse sections of the
share on the lines p-p- and hh, respectively, exhibiting the struc-
ture and relation of the shield, and the feather represented by
the line A' V, Fig. 49, Plate II, where, as will be observed, the
cutting edge, through its entire length, lies within less than one-
quarter of an inch of the base line.

The share is of wrouoht iron, and is always formed from a

42 Report on Trials of Plows.

plate forged for the express purpose at the iron mills, and known
in the trade by the term sock plate. Fig. 38 represents the form

in which those plates are
0^^ — V-Jl7~~~~'"~^>-^ manufoctured, the thick-

\ \ej '^^^^^^^^ ness beino- from one-half

d.

&

IvP^ -X^— - ^li to three-quarters of an

^^ -_,^ . , -^ ^^ inch; they are afterwards

'^K^^^^-^^"""^ cut in two through the

" ine a b, each half being

capable oi lorming a
share. To do this, an incision, c o, is made on the short side to a
depth of two inches; the part a. c d e\^ afterward folded down
to form the sole flange, and the part h f g is in like manner folded
dowai to form the land side flange. The point h is strengthened,
when requisite, to receive the proper form of the shield and
point, the latter being tipped with steel. The edge, li c, is
extended to the requisite breadth to form the feather. In order
to cut a sock plate at the proper angle, so as to secure a minimum
expenditure of lal)or and material, let a central line, h h, be drawn
upon the plate, and lu'sect this line in the point A-, the line upon
which the plate should be cut will form angles of 70 deg. and 110
deg. nearly with the line Ji If, or mechanically draw k I equal to
five and one-half inches, at right angles to hh, and draw h'
parallel to h h, mark off two inches from I to i, and through the
point a i k draw the line a h, which is the i:)roper direction in
which the plate should be cut.

The Sole Shoe. — The figures 39 to 41 are illustrative of ihc
sole shoe. Fig. 39 is a plan of the shoe, a a being the sole flange,
and b b the land side flange; Fig. 40 is an elevation of the same,
and Fig. 41 a cross section, showins: the fillinsr up of the inteiiia!
angle, opposed to w^here the greatest wear takes place.

The thickness of the sole flange at the heel a is seven-cighdis
of an inch, diminishing forward to three-eighths of an inch at
three inches from the point, and thence it is thinned oft' to pi-c-
vent obstruction in its progress through the soil. The breadlli cf
the sole is two and one-quarter inches, and its extreme leiiglh
twenty and one-half inches. The side flange is one-half of an inch
thick along the edge, by which it is attached to the sole, diminish-
ing upward to one-quarter of an inch at the top edge, the height
being four and three-quarter inches at the heel, and six inches at
llio fore did ; \ho Avoiglit is altouf fourlcon pounds. The upjxT

History of the Plow.

43

land side plute is eii2:htceii inches in length on the lower edge,
beino- one and one-half inches longer than the corresponding edge
of the sole plate, the purpose of which will be seen in the figure
of the land side, Fig. 46 ; the length of the upper edge is twenty-

one and one-half inches. The breadth and the contour of the
upper edge must be adapted to the form that may have been
given to the beam. The thickness at the lower edge must agree
with that of the sole plate, and be diminished to one-half of an
inch at the upper edge ; weight, nine pounds.

The coulter, Fig. 42, is an edge, and Fig. 43 a side view of the
coulter of this plow, in which the same letters of reference are

a' 'b c J

aigpiiiiiiiijiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiii^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^

l^iff. 4-3.

applied. The neck a b, by which it is affixed in the coulter box,
is about ten inches long, though it may, with all propriety, be
extended to c / the neck is usually about two inches in breadth, and
three-quarters of an inch in thickness. The blade bed varies in
length, according to the variety of the plow to which it ])e]()ngs,
from eighteen to twenty-two inches. The breadth of tlie ])lade is
usually about three inches in the upper part, but is curved off
behind, and terminating in a point at d. The thickness of the
back at the shoulder b is three-quarters of an inch, and tapers
gently downiward to where the curvature of the back begins ;
thence it diminishes toward the point to one-eighth of an inch or
less. It is formed quite fiat on the laud side, and on the furrow

44

Report on Trials of Plows.

side is beveled oif towards the cutting edge, where it is ahout
one-eighth of an inch thick throughout the length of the edge.

The Bridle. — Fig. 44 is a plan, and Fig. 45 is a corresponding
elevation of the bridle, and of the manner of its attachment to the
beam, where a is part of the beam, b the cross head, and c c the

JFlff. 4.5.

.^iff. 44-.

tails of the bridle, with their arc heads, d, embracing the beam on
the two sides ; e is the joint bolt on which the bridle turns for
adjustment to earthing ; /is the temper pin or bolt, and by insert-
ing it into any one of the holes in the arc heads, and passing
through the beam, which is here perforated for the purpose, the
bridh? is held in fmy required position. The draught shackle g
is held upon its place upon the cross head b by the draught bolt
h passing through both parts, and the cross head being perforated
with five or more holes ; the bolt or shackle can be shifted from
right to left, or from left to right, for the proper adjustment of
the landing of the plow. To the shackle is appended the swivel
hook i, to which is attached the main draught bar or swiiiijle tree
of the yoke.

The Land Side. — Figs. 46 and 47 are illustrations of the IuikI
side ; Fig. 46 being an elevation of the body of the plow, repre
sented in the working positions, but with the extremities cut off
The point of the share and the heel rest upon the base line at a
and b, and the lines of the sole lying between these form the very
obtuse angle, which obtains in the sole of this plow ; a c is the
share, and d b is the sole shoe ; e is the land side plate, and / g
is !i p;irt of the beam. The lines a d and d b, together with tlie

History of the Plow.

45

base line, form the very low triangle a d b, whose altitude at d
does not exceed three-eighths of an inch, or by extending the sole
line h d to h, the depression h a, of the point of the share below
this extended line, will be one-half inch nearly. Fig. 47 repre-

li'fff. 4-6.

o

'■'■■■■-

Scale

Z.Ft.

sents a horizontal sole shoe. Here a c is the share, 6 <i is the
sole flange of the body frame, the bolt hole at b being that by
which the palm of the right handle is fixed to the flange ; e and
f the two arms of the frame as cut across in the section g i, the
land side of the sole shoe coinciding with the land side plane ;
the continuation of this line g i to h exhibits the inclination of the
share to the land side, which, in this plow, may be taken at one-
half an inch.

The inclination downward given to the share is intended, and
experience confirms the intention, to give steadiness of motion to
the implement by giving it a lengthened base on which to stand.
It is evident that if a base the converse of this were given to it,
convex instead of concave, so that it should rest on the point d,
when in motion, the smallest oljstruction occurring at the point
of the share would give it a tendency to swerve from the hori-
zontal line of progression, and to lose either depth of furroAv or
be thrown out, thus rendering the management of the plow very
difficult and uncertain. Even a perfectly straight base is found

46

Report on Trials of Plows.

not to give the requisite certainty of action, without a greater
amount of exertion, as well as closer attention on the part of the
plowman. A like reason prevails for this inclination of the share
landward as does for its earthward inclination; and, for the steady
motion of the plow, the latter is even more necessary than the
I'ormer; but there is another reason for this landAvard inclination,
which is that, as the plow is seldom held with the laud side truly
vertical, but inclining a little landward, and it being desirable to
cut the furrow slice, as near as possible, rectangular, the coulter
has always a slight tendency landward at the point; hence it
becomes necessary to give the share a like bias. By this arrange-
ment of the parts the incision made by the coulter will be nearly
vertical. While it is admitted that these inclinations of the share
afford certain advantages in the action of the plow, it must not be
concealed that the practice is liable to abuse.

The curves of the mould-board of this plow are given at Figs.
Ill and 112, Plate III. As plow diagrams in this form are not
familiar to farmers and plow-makers in this country, it may be
proper to give some explanation of the manner in which they are
obtained and the precise lines of the plow which they represent.
Fio;. 48 represents the instrument by the aid of which these lines

m

I^iff. ^8.

are obtained. Lines q r, o ^j, etc., are ruled on the horizontal
surface two inches apart. The plow to be analyzed is placed upon
the table, with the plane of its land side perpendicular to the plane
of the table, its sole line at right angles to the ruled lines and the
front edge of the mould-board, t, on the line iv m ti; draw the line
Im at right angles to ivm, making it as long as the mould-board

Flaie III.

ANALYTICAL SECTIONS OF MOULD-BOARDS.

Fig. 111. ^he East Lothkr/i. Fig. 112.

o a b

Fig. 113. ^he Mid Lothian.

Fig. 114.

Fig. 115. Tihc Berwickshire.

Fig. 1 16.

7_J

^

V

y

\

L

"\

History of the Plow. 47

of the plow; ill is a board about three feet square, provided with
broad feet behind, which can be fastened securely to the table,
10 X m ?/, by means of thunil) screws. The two parallelograms,
ah cd and cdcf, are connected by pins, as shown in the figuio,
so that all the joints can work freely; the lower end of the bar,
ef, has a stout Avire, /, inserted into it for a tracer. A sheet of
paper, i' h', is tacked to the board, i /t, at the four corners, and a
tracing pencil is inserted in the socket, (/. The face of the board
is now set on the line q r, the face of the square, v r, is set on the
line 2, the face,^? u, lying on the table parallel to in I. The tracer,
j, is then brought up to the top of the mould-board and is carried
along to the bottom, touching the surface at every point in its
passage, being directed by the face, v r, the line of motion being
recorded accurately by the pencil, </, on the paper, i' //. The face
of the board is now set on the line o jh and the face of the square,
V r, is placed on the line 2, and the line 2 is traced on the paper
as before. In this way the 1)oard is successively set backward on
all the lines ruled on the table, takino- care that its lower riorht-
hand corner is kept on the line m I until all the lines of the mould-
board are transferred to the paper. A little attention to the action
of the jointed parallelograms, abed and cdef, will show that
the path of the pencil, g, must be exactly parallel to that of the
tracer, j. If the point of the tracer passes down a vertical line,
the pencil will trace a vertical line on the paper. If it passes
along a horizontal line, or an angle of 45 deg., or over a convex
or concave line, precisely similar lines will be traced on the paper,
and it is by this method that the lines of the figures on Plate IV
have been traced. It may be, perhaps, proper to say that the
bars, ah, c d and ef, are each three feet long, one and one-half
inches wide, and three-quarters of an inch thick. The four bars,
a c, h d, c e and df, are of similar breadth and thickness, and are
all made of hard wood, and are jointed together on brass studs,
care being taken that the perforations are all made exactly equi-
distant from each other.

Fig. Ill of Plate III is a geometrical elevation of Small's or
the East Lothian plow in a plane parallel to the land side of the
mould-board, I d being its base line. The perpendicular lines of
division, commencing from the line o o, or zero, and extending
right and left, are the lines of section. Those to the right or fore
end of the mould-board, marked a a, bb, etc. The curved line,
xi/m, represents the \)a(h described on the face of the mould-board

48 Report on Trials of Plows.

by the lower land side edge of the furrow slice, as the mould-
board passes under it, which is called the line of transit.

Fig. 112 is a front view in elevation of the same plow, and cor-
responding to Fig. Ill, Plate III; km is the base line, m g is the
land side plane in a vertical position, m also is the place of the
point of the share, and h i the line of junction between the neck
of the share and the mould-board; the remaining lines beyond h i
exhibit the outline of all the sections taken by the instrument in
reference to the lines in Fig. 111. Thus o og m is the section of
the entire body of the plow in the plane of the zero, o y o being
the outline of the mould-board at this section, and y the zero
point; aagm, the lirst section forward of the zero, b b g m, the
Sf.cond, and so on. In like manner, 1 Ig m is the first section
backward from the zero, 2 2 g 7n the next section backward, and
so on, each section so lettered and numbered having relation to
the divisions carrying the corresponding letters and numerals in
Fig. 111. The entire series of lines 112 2, etc., and a abb, etc.,
thus form a series of profiles of the mould-board, supposing it to
be cut vertically by planes at right angles to the land side of the
plow. In Fig. 112, also, the dotted line, m 3/ 5;, represents the
line of transit, as in Fig. Ill, and zh represents a transverse sec-
tion of the slice as finally deposited by the mould-board.

Mr. Stephens, it will be observed, gives none of the horizontal
lines, confining himself wholly to the vertical lines; in fact, ver}^
little attention is paid to these lines in any part of Europe, being
left to arrange themselves by chance out of the arrangement of the
vertical lines, which alone receive attention. In this respect it
will be seen hereafter they dififer very materially from the best
class of American plows, in which much attention is very properly
ffiven to the arrangement of the transverse lines.

The reason for this difl'erence is found in the fact that the plow-
men of Great Britain havve an almost superstitious reverence for
the high shouldered, crested furrow. The proprietor and the
plowman both delight to stand on the headland when the work is
done and survey the even furrows, laid so straight that the pencil
rather than the plow would seem to have traced them. The fur-
rows must be of precisely even thickness, in all their length. No
departure from a mathematical straight line is tolerated. You
must see a mouse running in the bottom of every furrow from
end to end. But the crowning glory in their eyes was to see the
crownino; auijle of the furrow slice unbroken and unabraded from

History of the Plow. 49

end to end. The plow which insures this result most certainly is
the best plow in their eyes, even though it should require more
power to draw it, though it should wear out faster, and though it
were far more costly than another.

The English plowmen would not subscribe to our chapter on
" The Objects to be Accomplished by Plowing." The plow is not
the implement to pulverize, in their view, but the harrow. Pul-
verizing properties would be objectionable to them, as it would
interfere with a sharply defined crest. Since the vertical lines of
the plow are those which determine the shape of the crest, it is
not Avonderful that their formation should have monopolized the
ingenuity of the English plow wrights.

Turning our attention to the sections of the various plows given
in Plates III and IV, we shall see plainly enough that all the
plows there given have been constructed with reference to this
object. On inspecting Fig. 112 we see that the lines of the plow
in front, c c, b b and a a, are concave above the line of transit,
while those in the rear , 1 1 and 2 2, are concave beloiv that line.
The lines in contact with the slice are all of them straight, or
nearly so, agreeing in this respect with the plan of Mr. Jefferson,
It differs from his in this, that as the generating line of this plow
as Small finally made it, is a catenary curve, Mr. Jefferson's gene-
ratines line is a straight line. This will be understood l)y a recur-
rence to Fig. 18, which represents Mr. Jefferson's method of
forming the twist of his mould-board.

If we now take in elevation. Fig. 49, what is shown in plan in
Fig. 18, by erecting a post, d d', twelve inches high at the point
d. and stretching a cord tightly from d ' to b, we shall have Mr.
4

50 Report on Trials of Plows.

Jefferson's generating line; one end of a twelve-inch rule carried
along from b to d', Fig. 49, and the other end along e c, Fig. 18,
will describe the twist of his mould-board in the air. The twist
of Small's mould-board is obtained by extending the cord d' b,
and suffering the slack to fall by its own gravity, when it will
assume the curve d' o b. One end of the ruler being carried
from b through o, along to d ', Fig. 49, and the other along the
line e c, Fig. 18, will describe in the air the twist of Small's
mould-board. By the substitution of a curved line for a straight
one, Small obtains a wider wing without making the fore part of
the plow too blunt, and thus insures the result so highly coveted
by the British plowman, of giving a high sharp crest to the
furrow. It is difficult to imagine any practical purpose which is
obtained in giving concavit}'^ to the parts above the transit line in
the fore part, and below it in the hind part of Small's plow. The
zero line o o, it wall he seen, makes a very small angle with the
line which at first was the bottom of the furrow slice, but which
has now assumed a vertical position, and hence there is a corres-
pondingly small tendency to break off or abrade the corner y,
which, when finally deposited, forms the crest. The angle thus
formed with the lower face of the furrow slice is much smaller
than in the Rotherham plow, which had a tendency to break off
the crest, and it is to this circumstance more than its superior
lightness and its improved mechanical construction that the great
popularity of Small's plow was owing.

The next improvement in the plow" was made by Mr. Wilkie,
of Uddingstone, near Glasgow. We have used the word " improve-
ment;" we had better have used the word alteration, for until
this day it is not fairly settled that it is really better than Small's.
It is noAV generally known as the Lanarkshire Plow. The body
frame, which in Small's plow, Fig. 28, is made of cast iron, is
made of malleable iron in the Lanarkshire; the two arms, b and
c, instead of being bolted to the frame are welded to it, and form
prolongations from the beam and left handle. The bridle, coulter
and some other parts show trifling variations of form, but nothing
diflers in principle from Small's, except that it is provided with
two very useful appendages, which should be attached to all
plows, as they save much time, and their presence will induce
the plow^nan to temper his irons and keep the plow in nuieh
better condition for work than he Avould do in their absence.

Ill STORY OF THE PlOW.

51

They are the plow-stufF and hummer nut-kc}', represented in Fig.
50 and Fiir. 51.

J^/(/. 50.

Comparing the sections of this plow,
Plate III, figs. 117 and 118, it will be seen
I^ig. 6/. that the lines are sharply convex, which

"will increase its pulverizing power, as will be shown hereafter, and
it will also be seen that the zero line o o coincides for half its length
with the face of the furrow slice in its vertical position, and there-
fore has less tendency to rub the angle at y, than Small's plow.
It is two inches narrower from the beam to the rear upper angle
of the mould-board; the left handle stands nine inches farther to
the left. The edge of the feather rises from the point to the rear
angle of the feather. The Mid Lothian Plow partakes of the
characteristics of the Lanarkshire and East Lothian phjws. The
curves of its mould-board, as seen in Plate III, figs. 113 and 114,
show a tendency to convexity in the extreme lower part, while
the greater portion of the upper part are straight, like Small's.
The zero line makes a smaller angle with the vertical furrow-
slice, and has therefore less tendency to disturb it. Its share
rises from the point to the rear corner of the feather, like that of
the Lanarkshire, and it wall of course leave the bottom of the
furrow as represented in Fig. 98.

Mr. Stephens has invented a mathematical method of forming
a mould-boaid, which, though substantially on the plan of Mr.
Jefferson's, has some modifications which are decided improve-
ments. Instead of using a straight diagonal, like Mr. Jefferson,
he uses the arc of a circle, and, by lateral additions to his block,
he is enabled to make such an overhang to the wing of the mould-
board as to make it fall into its place with certainty, and, at the
same time, to give an easy and gradual entrance to the breast of
the plow^ We give his method in his own words:

"From a careful study of the foregoing diagrams (Plates III
and IV), and from a comparison of numerous implements and
their practical effects, together with a consideration of the dynam-
ical principles on wdiich the plow operates, I have been led to
adopt a theoretical form of mould-board, which seems to fulfill
all the conditions rcfjuired in the investigation, and which is capa-
ble, ])y very simple modifications, of adaptation to the circuni-

52 Report on Trials of Plows.

stances of the medium on which it works. In the outset it is
assumed that the soil is homogeneous, and that it possesses such a
degree of tenacity and elasticity as to yield to the passing form
of the plow, and to resume, when laid in the due position, that
form which was first impressed upon the slice by the action of
iho share and coulter; the second consideration being the cuttino-
of a slice from the solid land. In a theoretical view, this must
be an operation through its whole depth and breadth; hence
the share is conceived to be a cutting edge, which shall have a
horizontal breadth equal to the breadth of the slice that is to be
raised, and that the face or land side of the coulter shall stand at
right angles to this. Another consideration is, that the slice now
supposed to be cut has to be raised on one side and turned over
through an angle of 135 deg., the turning over being performed
on the lower ri<>:lit hand edofe, as on a hino^e, throuo-h the first 90
deg., the remaining 45 deg. being performed on what was at first
the upper right hand edge (^m, Fig. 97). The slice, in going
through this evolution, has to undergo a twisting action and be
again returned to its original form of a right prism. To accom-
plish this last process, it is evident that a wed(/e, tivisted on its
upper surface, must be the agent; and to find the form and dimen-
sions of this wedge is solving the problem that gives the surface
of the mould-board required.

We have seen. Fig. 97, that the slice, in passing through the
first ninety degrees, descrilios the quadrant d k with its lower
edge, and in doing so we can conceive a continued slice to form
the solid of revolution abed e. Fig. 123, Plate IV, which is
a quarter of a cylinder, as shown here in isometrical perspective;
the radius a b or a c, being equal to the 1)rcadth of the slice. We
have next to consider the ano-le of elevation of the twisted wedge;
and in doing so we must not only consider the least resistance,
but also the most convenient lenirth of the wed'»-e. In takino; a
low angle, which would present, of course, proportionally little
resistance, it would at the sam.e time yield a length of mould
board that would be highly inconvenient, seeing that the generat-
ing point, in any section of the slice, must ultimately reach the
same height, whether by a high or a low angle. From experience,
we find that from the point of the share to that point in the plow's
body where the slice arrives at the perpendicular position, which
I have liamed the zero, that thirty inches foi-m a convenient
length. The length c d ()f the solid is therefore made equal to

Plate IV.

ANALYTICAL. SECTIONS OF MOULD-BOARDS.

Fig. 119. TZ''? J^V ester n Fifeshire. Fig. 120.

Ranso?ne's F F.

ji c ~Tr

Fig. 127.

The Nezo Mai/ld-BnaiYl.
(Figs. 123-128.)

Fig. 128.

History of the Plow. 53

thirty inches or more, and this being clividecl into ten equal parts,
the parallels 11, 22, 33, &c., are to be drawn upon the cylindrical
surface, and between the points b d & curve has to be described
that shall 1)0 tlie line of transit of the slice. After investigating
the application of various curves to this purpose, I have found
that the circular arc is the only one that can be adopted. It pre-
sents the least attainable resistance in the first staffes of the
ascent, where the force required to raise the slice is greatest, and
in the last stages where the force of raising has vanished, leaving
only wdiat is necessaiy to turn the slice over, there the resistance is
greatest ; and, above all, the circle being of equal flexure through-
out, it is in every w^ay best adapted to the objects here required.
To determine the radius of curvature of this arc, we must evolve
the cylindrical surface, cbde, and from it construct the diagram.
Fig. 124, Plate IV. Draw eh equal to c cZ of Fig. 123; ecZ^qual
to the length of the arc, cb or d e, and at right angles to eh;
divide e b into ten equal parts, and from the points of division
draw the ordinates \f. 2g, 3h, etc., parallel to e d; from b set off
ten inches for the length of the share along the line b e, which
wall fall one inch beyond the division 7, and at this distance
draw the dotted line parallel to 7m; upon this set ofli'tw^o and one-
half inches, and through the three points, dmb, describe an arc
of a circle, whose radius will be found equal to the circumference
of the cylinder, of which a b c, Fig. 123, is a quadrant. The
circular arc thus found is to be transferred to the cylindrical
surface c b d e. The transfer may be performed by drawing the
arc on paper, and the paper then laid over the cylindrical surface
in such a manner that the points, b m d, shall be brought to coin-
cide wdth the points, b m d, of the cylindrical surface; when the
remaining points/*^ h i, or any number more, may be marked on
the cylindrical quadrant by pricking through the paper with a
pointed instrument at short intervals along the arc; or the lengths
of the ordinates, If, 2(/, 3h, of Fig. 124, may be transferred to the
corresponding parallels of Fig. 123, when the lengths of the
ordinates will cut the parallels in the points fgr h, etc. In either
case the curve can now be traced through the points b p n ?7i, etc.,
on the cylindrical surface. Through the points b p «w?, etc., draw
the dotted lines,//', (/ g', hh', parallel to cd or be, and from the
centre, a, draw the radii of, ag', a It', etc.; the unequal divi-
sions of the arc, c h, will thus show the proportion of angles of
ascent of the slice along the transif now found, b p a, etc., foi*

54 Report on Trials of Flows.

each division of the length, while the degree of flexure in the
curve or line of transit remains uniform by the same, from any
one point to any other equidistant points.

To convert the prism thus prepared and lined off" into that of
the twisted wedge, we have only to cut away that portion of it
contained within the boundaries abed x, preserving the terminal
edges ab, ax and dx, and the prism will thus be resolved into a
form represented by a joortion, a b d x e, of Fig. 125, also in
isometrical perspective. Of this figure, ab d x is the true theo-
retical surface of the mould-board, from the edge, a b, of the share
to the zero line, dx; ab ex is the sole; the curve, b p n m /, etc.,
is the Ihie of transit of the slice, and the triangles, lyi, 2'(7 2,
oil 3, 4V4, etc., are vertical planes, supposed to cut the solid thus
reduced in the divisions 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., to the height of the line
of transit, as in the analytical sections of the mould-boards.

The surface, now completed, can only raise the slice to the per-
pendicular position; and, to complete the operation, we have to
carry the twisted wedge back till it shall place the slice at the
angle of 45 deg. To do this we have to extend the original
prism, or suppose it to have been at first sufiiciently elongated
toward d d', Fig. 125, Plate IV., and to superimpose upon its flat
side the portion d d' ux, or a du of Fig. 126. The part d d' u x is
now to be worked off into a part of a new cylindrical surface,
whose radius is yd or y u, Fig. 126, and upon this surface the line
du, Fig. 125, is to be drawn tangent to the curve b d at d. A
continuation of the divisions of three inches is to be made upon
the line d d\ and the parallels a' q', b' r' and u d' continued on
the cylindrical surfaces. Whatever portion of the superimposed
piece, a d' u, may be found to fall within the small arc, a t, Fig.
126, is to be cut away, forming a small portion of an interior
cylinder concentric to the point y, which, being done, the remain-
ing portions of the superimposed piece are to be cut away to the
(lotted lines d x, a y, b z, u ii' of Fig. 125, or, what is the same
thing, to the lines d a, a' a, b' t and u t of Fig. 126, forming tan-
gents to the curves at a t, and which will complete the surface
of the tAvisted wedge through its entire length, and to the height
of the line of transit, producing what I conceive to be the tvae
theoretical surface of the mould-board.

Fig. 126, Plate IV, exhibits distinctly in the quadrants o b d,
the inequality of the angles of ascent for the slice, where the
radii a ]>', a n', a rii\ k(;. repi'cscnt the ascents to the correspond-

History of the Plow. 55

iiio; divisions of leiiijth iii the transit of the slice throiiofh the curve
h d K, M'hich represents the periphery of the cylindrical surfaces
at the line of transit. The parts of the figure lying above that
line, represent those that must be superimposed above the quad-
rantal portion of the cylinder, to complete the upper regions of
the mould-board; tliese parts acting merely as a preventive against
the overfall of the soil into the waste of the plow, are of less
importance as to form, than those just described, but are quite
necessary in the practice of plowing. The parallelogram 1/ d
exhibits the relation in which the furrow slice stands to this form
of mould-board, when the slice has been raised to the perpendi-
cular, and y u in its ultimate position.

Althousfh I hold this to be the true theoretical form, it is not
in this state fit to be employed as a practical mould-board ; but
the steps to render it so are very simple. The broad shovel-
mouth, a 6, Fig. 125, would meet with obstructions too numerous
to admit for a moment of its adoption in practice ; but we have
only to remove the right hand portion of the edge, a b, in the
direction b q, making the breadth, q m, six and one-half or seven
inches broad ; that portion also contained in T r 3 is to be cut
away, leaving m r about four inches broad ; b q r m will then
represent the share ; the mould-board being thus of the prolonged
form in the fore part. And, though this form has no peculiar
advantage over the truncated, in respect to working, it is better
adapted to admit of the body being constructed of malleable
iron, a practice which, though more expensive, is certainly the
most preferable, by reason of its greater durability, and being
less liable to fracture through the efiect of shocks when stones ©r
other obstructions are encountered.

Besides the removal of tliese parts of the theoretical mould-
board, other slight modifications are admissible. When the parts
have been cut away as described, the edge, b q, of the share will
be found too thick for a cutting edge. If brought to a proper
thickness by removing the parts bdo%i\ making the edge to coin-
cide with the curved surface, the share so prepared would have
the character that belongs to the cresting plows. The lower edge
of the mould-board, from r to 2, would be also rather high, and
would present unnecessary resistance to the lower side of the
slice ; both parts, therefore, require to be reduced. The surface
of the feather, b q, is to be sloped down till it becomes straight
between tlie points b and q, q not being more tlian one-quarter of

56 Report on Trials of Plows.

of an inch above the plane of the sole, as at the dotted lines, mz,
in Fig. 126. The lower edo;e of the mould-board is also to be
rounded off as shown by the dotted lines along the lower edge
from h to o, Fig. 128. To prevent the abrasion of the edge of
the slice in passing over the mould-board, it will also be expedient
to make the lines from d to il in Fig. 126, fall in from below the
line of transit upward, as shown in the dotted lines at d' a' h' «."

In order to complete this sul)ject for the benefit of plow-makers,
we give Mr. Stephens' method of forming the pattern of a mould-
l)oard, practically, as we have already given them theoretically.

The Mould-board Pattern. — In this operation the quadrant of
a cylinder, upon which the principle is founded, may or may not
be prepared. If it is to be employed, then the first process is
exactly as before descril)ed in reference to the quadrant, Fig. 123,
Plate IV, which must be formed and lined as there described ; but
the same process may be pursued by lines alone, without the
intervention of a solid, and in the following manner : Having
described the quadrant of a circle, as a 6 c. Fig. 123, of ten inches
radius, construct the diagram. Fig. 124, as before directed, the
entire length, e b, being thirty inches, divided into equal parts of
three inches each. The arc, b d, is then to be drawn through the
points b, p, n, m, which points, instead of being a transfer, as
before described, from the quadrant, may be drawn directly by a
beam compass touching the three leading points, b m d, as before,
which will intersect all the divisions, converting them into ordi-
uates, If, 2^, 3/?, etc., to the curve, b d. The lengths of these
ordinates from the base line, e b, are now to be carefully trans-
ferred to the quadrant of the circle, b d, of Fig. 126, and set ofl"
in the circumference thereof; thus, the point b, in Fig. 126, cor-
responds to the termination, b, of the l)ase line in Fig. 124. The
first ordinate, q j^, i'^ to be set ofl:' on the quadrant from b to j) ,'
the second ordinate, 8;^, is set off" from b to n ; the third, lin,
from h to m, and so on through the entire quadrant of the circle.
'Jhe radii, a b, a p, a n, etc., being now drawn, will furnish the
successive angles of elevation, with the sole plane for each divisi(ni
of the length throughout the quadrant.

lu. applying these to the mould-board, it is to be observed that
the first three radii belong to the share, if it is a prolonged mould-
board ; or the first five, if it l)e truncated. The quadrant, Fig.
126, with its radii being tluis completely drawn out at full size
upon a b(»:u(I, produce Ihe line b a to //, and on y, as a centre

History of the Plow.

57

■with a radius of seven inches, describe the arc a t, and concentric
to it the arc d u. At an angle of 45 degrees, draw t u a tangent
to the arc a t^ and the point of intersection of this tangent with
the arc will fix the extreme point, u, of the mould-board at the
height of the line of transit, which point will be nineteen inches
from the land side plane, b g^ and twelve inches above the plane
of the sole or base line, y b. From d lay off divisions of equal
parts on the arc, d u, each equal to four and a half inches — the
diagonal of a square of three inches — which completes the lines
for the fabrication of the pattern.

The next step in the operation is that of building a blocJc, out
of which the pattern is to be shaped. Provide a deal-board of
three and a half feet, or thereal)outs, in length, with a breadth of
ten inches ; have it dressed of a uniform thickness, and at least
one end and edge straight and right angled, as seen at a b c in

Fig. 52, and a b, fig. 126, Plate
IV, forming a basement to the
block, a being the right angle,
and the continuation of the board
being hid from view under the
superimposed block. Let the
edge, a c, of the ])()ard be marked
off in equal divisions of three
inches, agreeing exactly with those
of the diagram. Fig. 124, mark-
ing the divisions with letters or
numerals corresponding to the radii of the quadrant. Fig. 12(p,
the end, a b, of the l)oard corresponding to the radius, m, of the
quadrant, and to the ordinate, 7m, of the diagram. Provide, also,
a suit-stock or bevel of the form represented by d e f, the stock,
d e, being a straight bar with a head-piece at e fixed at right angles
to the stock, and into this blade, a f, is to be jointed in such a
manner that when the l)lade and stock are set parallel to each
other they shall just receive the thickness of the basement l)oard
between them, the length of the blade being equal to the breadth
of the slice. Five or more pieces of well seasoned, clean, three-
inch Memel or yellow pine deal are now to be prepared, each
about thirty inches in length and from six to four inches in breadth.
Set the level to the angle, b a m. Fig. 120, and, applying it at the
end of the board, as in Fig. 52, it will point out the position in
which Ihefii'st block nuisf be placed on llie board in order that it

J^i^. 62.

58 Report on Trials of Plows.

may fill the lines of the pattern. The farther end of the block
being: set in like manner to face within the lines, it is to be firmly
attached to the board by screw nails. The second block, k i, is
to be joined to the first by the ordinary method of glueing, being
set in the same manner as the first, to fill the lines of the pattern
at both ends, and this requires its being set obliquely to the first.
The third block, I m, is set in like manner, and so on with ?i 0
and^ q. The setting of the diflerent blocks will be much facili-
tated by having the ends, g i I n p, cut ofl' to the plane of the
land side, that is, to coincide vertically with the land side edge
of the board, and by keeping in view that the terminal line lies
at an angle of 45 degrees.

The block being thus prepared, the process of ivorldng it off is
plain and easily performed in this way : Having set the bevel at
the angle, b a m^ Fig. 126, which answers to the end, a b, of the
block, the bevel is applied as in the figure, and the surplus wood
is cut away to a short distance within the end, a b, of the board,
until the blade of the bevel lies evenly upon the surface, and the
kneed head-piece touching the edge of the board. Set the bevel
now at the angle, b a I, and, applying it at the first division on
the edge of the board, cut away the surplus wood with a gouge
or other tool, in a line parallel to the end of the board or at right
angles to its edge, until the edge of the blade, af, lies evenly on
the surface, and the head of the stock touch the edge of the board
as before. Repeating this operation at each successive division
with the bevel, setting it to the corresponding angle up to the
zero or vertical line, and we have a series of leading lines oi-
draughts, each occupying its true position on the surface of the
mould-board to the height of the line of transit. By continuing
these lines, each in the direction already given it, until they
terminate in the breast or in the upper edge of the pattern, we
have a corresponding series of points now determined in the
breast and upper edge; and by removing the surplus wood still
remaining in the spaces between the lines, and reducing the
surface to coincide with them, we have the fiin'shed surface from
the neck of the share up to zero.

To complete the after portion of tJie pattern, we have to forui ii.
temporary bevel with a curved blade adapted to the small arc,
a t, fig. 126, Plate IV, which blade is prolonged in a tangent, t n,
at the anHe of 45 deo;rees. With the o-uidance of this bevel, its
stock being still applied to the board as in Fig. 129, cut away all

History of the Plow. 59

the wood that occurs to interrupt it behind the zero, until it
applies everywhere behind that line without obstruction. At the
third division beyond the zero the pattern may be cut off in a
right vertical, though this is not imperative, as the mould-board
may be made considerably longer or a little shorter, without at
all affecting its operation. At whatever distance in length its
terminal edge may be fixed, that portion of the line of transit
Avhich lies between the zero and the terminus must leave the
original curve, h m d, Fig. 123, at a tangent, and it will reach the
terminus as such, or it will gradually fall into a re-entry curve,
according as the terminus is fixed, nearer to or farther from the
zero line, the terminus of the line of transit being always nine-
teen inches distant from the land side plane. That portion of the
surface which now remains unfinished between the arcs, a t and
d n, Fig. 126, is to be worked off in tangents, applied vertically
to the arc, a t, and terminating in that part of the line of transit
that lies between d and u. Such portions of the interior cylin-
drical surface as may have been formed under the application of
the temporary bevel to the arc, a i, are now also to be cut away
by a line passing through the junction of the tangents, t a', t b\ t v,
Avith the cylindrical arc, a t, forming a curved termination in the
lower part, behind, as seen in Fig. 127, which completes the
surface as proposed. The breast curve and the form of the
npper edge will now have assumed their proper curvature, and
there only remains to have the whole pattern reduced to its due
thicknesses. This, in the fore i)art, is usually al)out one-half inch,
increasing backward below to about one inch, and the whole
becoming gradually thinner toward the top edge, where it may
be three-sixteenths of an inch.

We may now sum up the modern history of the plow in Scot-
laud by saying that all the plows now in use there are formed on
one of the three models which we have described, viz. : Small's,
Lanarkshire and Stephens'. The Berwickshire has the lines of
the mould-board concave, and the western Fifeshire very sharply
convex, but the differences are too unimportant to make a minute
description necessary.

We now proceed to relate the more modern histoiy of the
plow in England. We have already stated that the Rotherham
plow was the basis of improvement in England, as well as in
Scotland, although its progress in the latter kingdom was exceed-
inglv slow, for reasons which we have previous] v given.

60 Report on Trials of Plows.

The wooden plows formerly used were very liable to get out
of order by warping, cracking, etc., and continually needed
repairs, which were very expensive, and the going backward and
forward to the plow-wright, who often was several miles distant,
was a very serious tax upon the time of the farmer, particularly
in a climate as variable as that of Great Britain, often causing
him to lose the proper time for seeding. To remedy this difficulty
in some degree, plows were made of wrought iron, as we have
seen in Brand's plow. Fig. 17 ; but this material being soft and
liable to bend, as well as to wear away rapidly, it became very
desirable to find a substitute which should be more riijid and less
liable to abrasion. We accordingly learn from Mr. J. Allen Ran-
som's valuable work upon farm implements, that his grandfather,
Mr. Robert Ransom, of Ipswich, who seems to have been almost
as successful in making improvements in agricultural implements
as Sir Richard Arkwright was in cotton machinery, olHained a
patent for making plow shares of cast iron in the year 1785. Mr,
J. A. Ransom very justly remarks that this circumstance is Avell
worthy of notice, not only as a very important and successful im-
provement in the part in question, but as the means of drawing the
attention of that individual and many others to further improve-
ments in the plow, which were soon after carried into effect.

Another long step in the improvement of the plow was taken
by the same gentleman in the year 1803, Avhen he obtained a
patent for case-hardening or chilling shares. When plain cast
iron shares were used a little while, it was found that the sharp
edge of the feather wore away so that it, as well as the point,
became thick and l^Uint. This, as can be easily seen, greatly
impaired its efficiency ; it lost its hold upon the ground ; the
weeds were passed over uncut, and a great increase of power was
required to operate it. Mr. Ransom chilled the under side from
one-sixteenth to one-eighth in thickness. This part wears 'inuch
more slowly than the upper part. The upper surface grinds
iiway while the lower part is unaffected, and heuce the edge is
always sharp. The land side of the point was likewise chilled
in the same manner, and with the like results. When the share
was finally worn out, the farmer himself could replace it at a
trifling expense, without the necessity of resorting to a black-
smith or any other mechanic, and the shape of the iron is always
uniform, which it could not be when the point and feather were
tempered b^^ the blacksuiith, guided by hi.s eye alone.

History of the Plow.

61

Fiofs. 53 [a mul b) show shares which have been broken, and

the Avhite lines at the edge show

the chilled parts.

This new process proved of

such practical utility that it was

soon extended to other parts. A

Suliblk farmer invented for his

own use a cast iron sole-shoe,

Avhich was also chilled at the bot- J^iff- 63.— {a)

torn. It was provided with mortises to receive the tenons of the

wooden parts, and soon got into general use. It is represented at

Fig. 54. The old difficulty,
however, still remained, not-
withstanding these ffreat im-
provements. So long as any
portion of the plow was
made by the blacksmith,
changes would be made in

the curves and other parts upon which its useful action depended,

J^iff. 64-.

and there was a consequent uncertainty on the part of purchasers
whether the plows would perform good work. As improvements

Mff. 55.

62

Report on Trials of Flows.

were made in moulding and casting, it became possible to make
the whole plow of cast iron, so that when a farmer once had a
plow that exactly suited him, it could be accurately and certainly
reproduced, and multiplied to any extent, at a very small cost.
The next step, after the adoption of the sole shoe, was to make
the entire frame of iron. They were so constructed that all
parts — the handles, beams and shares, the sole, the mould-board
and the braces — could be screwed upon with a much greater firm-
ness and much greater capability of adjustment than had ever
been attained before. Sketches of three of these frames are
given in Fig. 55.

The following figure (56) will show how the mould-board and
share was attached to the frame.

J^/f/. 66.

The plow made entirely of cast iron was introduced about the
year 1800, and l)y 1810 was in very common use. The changes
made in the plow for the next quarter of a century were very
slight, and these were mainly in the adaptation of the mould-
board to different kinds of soil, that is to say, concave vertical
lines were adopted in loose sandy soils ; straight lines in medium
mellow soils, and convex lines in hard clay and other stift' soils.

About the year 1840, Rev. W. L. Eham developed the doctrine
that the transverse lines of the plo^v should be straight ; and so
far as we know, he was the first one who taught this rule in
Europe, though he had been anticipated many years in this
country.

Let ABC, Fig. 57, represent the breadth of the furrow. On
this diameter describe the semicircle, A 4 C, and divide it into

Plate Y.

PLOWS

Howard's Plow,
r^n- of the full size.

ELEVATION.

Indies K n 6 3 o

ileeb

Ran softie's Flow.

^'f of the full size.

ELEVATION.

History of the Plow.

63

equal parts, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., and draw the radii, B 1, B2, B3, etc.,
draw the parallel lines, 1 1', 2 2', 3 3', etc. Draw the share,
dfg e, and the lines d e, the neck of the share, and 3' 6', makino-
the distance between them equal to the length of the mould-
board. DraAv the diagonals G' d, 5' 1', 4' 2' and 3 3'. These lines
will represent the twist of the mould-board, the zero being at h.

Mr. Rham recommends that all plows should be thus made,
wath straight transverse lines, but that the vertical lines should
be altered to suit different soils. So that, for medium mellow
soils, the vertical lines should be straight ; for stiff clays, convex,
and for sandy and loose soils, concav^e ; the degree of convexity
to be proi3ortioned to the stiffness of the clay, and the degree of
concavity to be proportioned to the looseness of the sand.

Fig. 58 represents these various sections. A B represents the
section contiguous to the neck of the share ; C B in the middle
of its length, and D B at the heel. No. 2 represents the convex
lines for stiff soils, and No. 3 the concave lines for loose soils.

The tendency of plow-makers since the publication of Mr.
Rham's views has been to approximate their mould-boards to the
lines indicated by him.

We give on Plate V figures accurately representing the plows
of Mr. Howard and Mr. Ransom, which may be taken as repre-
senting the utmost perfection to which the art of plow-making
has reached in England up to the present time.

As the plan of Mr. Rham has been substantially adopted by
some of the most eminent plow-makers in England, we Avill give

64

Report on Trials of Flows.

it ill fuller detail. It will be observed that Mr. Rhaiii's mould
board is curved in the form of the spiral thread of a screw, such
as would be generated by a line moved
uniformly forward in a direction at right
angles to its length, while it revolved
uniformly round one of its extremities.
This surface is thus generated mechanic-
ally— Fig. 59. Take a rectangular paral-
lelogram, A B C D, of the width of nine
inches, or as wide as the intended furrow,
and of length equal to four times the
width. Bisect B C in E, and D C in F ; at
F raise a perpendicular to the plane of
the rectangle at F, and make it equal to
C E ; join E G, and produce it to K,
making K G=E G join K D. Draw from
every point in C D lines at right angles to
C D, meeting the line E K in ditferent
points, these lines will form the required
surface. The line K D will be found in-
clined 45 degrees to the horizon at the
angle K D H, wdiich is the inclination at
which the furrow slice is most advantage-
ously laid. To those wdio are not familiar
wdth solid geometiy, these lines may be
"^ easily exhi])ited by means of a wure in-
J^/^. 59. sertod at E and bent at a right angle at K,

inserting the bent portion into the board, A B C D, Fig. GO, at
D, lying in the direction E K, Figs. 59 and 60. Care must be
taken that G F be equal to C E, and H perpendicular to the
board. It is evident that, as the plow moves on, a particle at E
will slide along the line E K, become at G perpendicular to the
l)lane of the sole, and at K be at an angle of 45 degrees with that
A B

F'f'O. 60.

History of the Plow. 65

line. If the slice were a solid substance, this line, E K, would l)c
all that is required to turn it in its proper position ; but as the
soil is generally loose, and would crumble in pieces, a support
must be given to it b}'^ a surface at least as wide as the slice.
This surface is generated by drawing lines from different points
of D C at right angles to the line and meeting the line K E.

CHAPTER IV.

AMERICAN PLOWS.
HISTORY OF THE PLOW— Continued.

We now turn to the history of the plow in this country.
Until the beginning of the present century the plows used were
most deplorable implements, fabricated by the most careless and
unintelligent mechanics, scarcely any two being made alike. We
cannot find, and we have never seen or heard of, a single plow
having been made on the principle laid down by Mr. Jefterson in
his day, except those made by himself; in fact the existence of
his method was hardly known in this country until within quite
a recent period, although it was well known and much talked of
in Europe.

Mr. A. B. Allen, in the Transactions of the New York State
Agricultural Society for 1856, thus describes the primitive
methods of the plow-makers in this country in the early part
of the present century :

" A winding tree was cut down, and a mould-board hewed from
it, with the grain of the timber running so nearly along its shape
as it could well be obtained. On to this mould-board, to prevent
its wearing out too rapidly, were nailed the blade of an old hoe,
thin straps of iron, or worn-out horse shoes. The land side was
of w^ood, its base and sides shod with thin plates of iron. The
share was of iron, with a hardened steel point. The coulter was
tolerably well made of iron, steel edged, and locked into the
share nearly as it does in the improved lock coulter plow of the
present day. The beam was usually a straight stick. The handles,
like the mould-board, split from the crooked trunk of a tree, or
as often cut from its l)ranches ; the crooked roots of the white
ash were the most favorite timber for plow handles in the northern
3

66 Report on Trials of Plows.

States, The beam was set at any pitch that fancy might dictate,
with the handles fastened on ahnost at right angles with it, thus
leaving the plowman little control over his implement, which did
its work in a very slow and most imperfect manner."

It is curious, as well as humiliating, to see how little advance
had been made in the fabrication of an implement which lies con-
fessedly at the root of all human ciTilization. As we have seen,
the original plow was a forked stick, with natural crooks which
adapted it to the purpose ; and after a lapse of three thousand
years, the same idea as stated by Mr. Allen was still uppermost
in the minds of plow-makers, the last differing mainly from the
first in being protected from wear l)y nailing on old hoes, horse
shoes, etc.

It is, however, instructive and interesting to observe that there
was, after all, a certain blind instinct in the American farmers'
minds which led them somewhat in the right direction. They
invariably selected trees for mould-boards which had been acci-
dentally twisted in their early growth, and thus, without knowing
or suspecting it, they were approximating to a helicordal curved
surfiice.

The first American who set himself to work to improve the
plows in common use, after Mr. Jefferson, was a farmer by the
name of Newbold, residing in Burlington, N. J,, who made the
first cast iron plow ever made in America. He used it successfully
himself, but so great was the antipathy to new-fangled notions
that no one would imitate his example, and very few would even
try his implement.

As this plow was the first that was made of cast iron in this
country, and thus inaugurated a new era in the history of the
implement, it is from this circumstance invested with so much
interest that we give his specification in full, viz, :

" The subscriber, Charles Newbold, of Burlingtou county and the State of New
Jersey, has invented an improvement in the art of plough making, as follows, viz.:
The plough to be (excepting the handles and beam) of solid cast iron, consisting
of a bar, sheath and mould plate. The sheath serves a double purpose of coulter
and sheath, and the mould plate serves for share and mould board, that is, to cut
and turn the furrow !

*' The forms to be varied, retaining the same general principles, to meet the
various uses, as well as inclinations, of those who use them.

"Philadelphia, 17th June, 1797-

"CHARLES NEWBOLD.

" Uriah Tracy, ( ^'^^^^-'sses present at the signing."

History of the Plow. 67

The letters pcateiit were signed by John Achims, President, and
Timothy Pickering, Secretary of State, and their legality was
certified to by Charles Lee, Attorney General, on the 26th of
June, 171)7. Fig. 61 is a correct delineation of this plow.

jFigr. 6/.

Charles Newbold, the inventor of the first cast iron plow ever
made in America, was born in the township of Chesterfield, Bur-
lington county. New Jersey, about the year 1780, and in 1804,
married Hope, the daughter of David Sands, who lived a few
miles south of Newbursfh, N. Y. He was endowed with a large
share of energy and genius, Avhich developed themselves in the
formation of so many schemes and contrivances, which succeeded
one another so rapidly in his teeming brain, that he had no time
to carry any one of them into successful operation. He had a
grand scheme for founding three cities on the Hudson river, to be
called Faith, Hope and Charity. These were to be the centres,
respectively, of trades, manufactures and commerce. They were
to be connected together by the best possible roads, as well as
w^ater communication, and from the central city a grand road
across the continent, similar to the Cumberland road, was to con-
nect the Hudson river with the Pacific ocean. From this central
trunk road numerous lateral roads were to be made to diveroe
in every direction throughout the entire continent, so that the
whole trade and commerce of the country should finally centrc^'
in Faith, Hope and Charity. His cotemporaries thought these
notions exceedingly visionary, and some of them thought they
afforded unmistakable indications of insanity ; but a road already
exists in an unbroken line, at this day, from Newburgh to the base
of the Rocky mountains, and in a few years more, though Faith,
Hope and Charity are yet unbuilt, his grand idea of a connection
between their sites and the Pacific ocean, by a railroad over the
whole route, with lateral communications over the whole United

68 Report on Trials of Plows.

States, have been fully realized. He who in that early day. with
the eye of faith, could discern this vast sj^stem of internal
improvement as a present reality, could have been no common
man. Some time after his marriage he removed to Cornwall,
N. Y., where his wife had formerly resided, and remaiued there
until his death.

His plow, consisting of share, land side, sheath and mould-
board, was all cast in one piece by Benjamin Jones, Esq., at the
Hanover furnace, Burlington county, some time lietween the years
1790 and 1796. This plow was put into operation in a young
orchard belonging to Gen. John Black ; the i^lowman soon after-
wards broke the point, and it was never used afterwards. It is
still in existence, and is the property of John Black, Esq. (a son
of Gen. Black), of Mount Holly, N. J.*

Mr. Newbold, although he had made a most valuable improve-
ment, was unsuccessful in persuading the farmers of his region to
adopt it. He spent upwards of $30,000 in perfecting and intro-
ducing his plow, and then abandoned the business in despair, as
the farmers had in some way imbibed the strange notion that the
cast iron plow poisoned the land, injured its fertility, and pro-
moted the growth of weeds. Towards the latter part of his
operations he substituted a wrought iron share for the cast iron, but
it did not overcome the prejudices which had been engendered,
and the farmers still adhered to the miserable bull plows that were
in vogue, which took much more power and did not work as well.

There are traces of the use of a cast iron share still earlier than
Mr. Newbold's. In the year 1794, it appears by the first volume
of the Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Agricul-
ture, Arts and Manufactures, that " Col. John Smith produced
the model of a plow share, according to which it was proposed to
have that utensil made of cast iron, in order to save expense in
husbandry, and come cheaper to farmers than those in common
use, forged from lorought iron ; and Mr. Smith and Judge Hobart
were appointed to get several cast for trial." At the next meet-
ing, Col. Smith reported that the cast iron share exceeded his
most sanguine expectations. "It is cast in the form of a Dutch
share (probably the Rotherham share), after the best model that
could be procured by the society, with this exception, that the
edge is not complete, and not so wide by about three inches as
it will be when finished with the false edg-e which is made of

* This original plow has been presented by Mr. Black to the State Agiicultural Society
of New York, for its Museum, in Albany.

History of the Plow. 69

■wrought iron or steel and fastened on with rivets." He informs
the society that they may be had, either with or without the false
edge, of Mr. Peter T. Curtenius, in New York. The Col. Smith
above named was afterward Gen. Smith, and was the proprietor
of St. George's manor in the county of Suffolk. He was an
eminent and extensive ftirmer, and was one of the original corpo-
rators of the old Agricultural Society of New York.

The next plow patented was by John Denver, June 12th, 1804.
He was a Marylander, and some old people in that State still
remember such a plow, but we can obtain little definite informa-
tion respecting it ; it probably never came into very general use.
There is neither specification, drawing or model of it now in the
Patent Office.

The next patent was granted to Hezekiah Harris, of Kentucky,
February 24th, 1804. We can find no memorial of this plow
either in the Patent Office or elsewhere.

A patent was granted to David Peacock, of New Jersey, April
1st, 1807. There is no record of this now in the Patent Office
at Washington, all the old records having been destroyed by fire ;
but we learn on very good authority that it was made of cast iron,
and resembled Newbold's plow, except that it was cast in three
separate pieces, while Newbold's was cast in a single piece.
Newbold sued him for an infringement, but it was finally settled
by the payment to Newbold of $1,500. He was very much dis-
satisfied with his agents, who made this arrangement, and always
thought that he had been betrayed by them. David Peacock
took out another patent in 1822. There were some improvements
made in other parts of the plow, but the chief feature was the
famous lock coulter which it is believed he was the first to intro-
duce (Fig. 90). The plows made by Peacock were very exten-
sively used throughout the country, and many of them were to
be found in use on farms in this State and in New Jersey and
Pennsylvania as late as the year 1850.

The earliest recocrnition of the importance of straight tran.s-
verse lines in the mould-board that we have met with is contained
in the following letter from the celebrated Timothy Pickering, who
was a most excellent farmer, as well as an eminent statesman. It
was addressed to Dr. Alex. Coventry, and is dated Salem, June
3d, 1820:

" M}^ public employments in the war of our Eevolution having
caiisod me to take my family to Philadelphia, I remained there

70 Report on Trials of Plows.

after its termination. During four years I lived in the country,
and paid some attention to husbandry. One day when learning
to hold a plow (a good Pennsylvania plow of that day), the soil,
rich and moist enough to be adhesive, I observed that the earth
filled the holloAv of the mould-board, and assumed a straight lino
from its fore end, near the point of the share, to its upper pro-
jecting hind corner, and that it mainlained that same straight
line. It then struck me that this straight line should exist in
every mould-board and direct its curvature. Four or five years
afterwards I returned to Philadelphia, having* been again called
to public life. And, at a subsequent period, visiting Mr. Bordle}^
the Vice President of the Philadelphia Agricultural Society (of
which I was a member, and its secretary at its first formation in
1785), he handed me a small model of a mould-board which Mr.
Jefferson had left with him. At the first glance I saw the straight
line before mentioned governed its form, and asking Mr. Bordley's
daughter, then at her needle, for a piece of thread, I stretched it
tVinii the left lower fore part of the mould-board to its right
upper overhanging fore corner, and found it in a .straight line,
touchino; the mould-board in its whole leno-th. 'Here,' said I to
Mr. Bordley, ' is the principle on which this mould-board is
formed.'" * * * * " I have given this detail to explain the
opinion I now express, tJiat the straight line therein described i,s
essential to the form of the mould-board of the least resistance.
Around this line the curvature is to be formed ; and placing the
lower edge or bottom of the mould-board on a level floor, if
another straight line be laid transversely^ on the fore end or point
of the mould-board, and moved regularly backward on its face
in a plane perpendicular to the horizon, it will touch the mould-
board in its whole breadth, throughout its whole length, provided
the curvature be correct. In a word, the curvature will be a
])ortion of a spiral screw. Take a large screw auger for an exem-
j)lification. No earth can be left on such a mould-board ; for
every succeeding portion of earth which the plow raises pushes
off that which is on the transverse straight line behind it : and
the face of the mould-board consists — is made up (mathemat-
ically speaking) — of an infinite number of such transverse straight
lines.

" One more observation: The essential straight line indicates the
slope of the wedge on which the furrow slice rises until it reaches
that ])oint in the line at wliicli the transverse line is perpendicu-

History of the Plow.

71

lar, after passing which the gratlual overhanging of the mould-
board pushes the furrow slice (supposing it to rest on its lower
edge as a hinge) beyond the centre of gravity, and at length
completely snl)verts it; or, in farmers' language, lays it upon its
l)ack. The angle which tJie .stright line should form with the sole
of the plow is another material point to be discovered b}^ expei'i-
ments.

" In adjusting this mould-l)oard to the plow, another point is
to be determined — the extent of the angle which the essential
stright line should form with the bar of the share or land side
of the plow. The smaller this angle the less the resistance at
entering the earth; but if the angle were to be very small,, then
the plow must have great length to obtain a proper breadth of
furrow; and such great length would proportionally increase the
quantity of friction. Hence the conclusion, that keeping both
these points in view, repeated experiments must decide where
lies the just medium of breadth, of angle, and length of mould-
board."

The lines running from the front of the plow towards the back
are now usually transverse lines, but Mr. Pickering evidently
applies this term to the lines running from the sole to the top of
the plow.

The next patent granted was to Hezekiah Harris, of Kentucky,

J^fff. 62.
on the 24th of February, 1808, of which no record remains in the
patent office, and of which we can learn nothing whatever. The

next M-;is to Kicliard B. Chonowotli, of Maryland, a drawing of

72 Report on Trials of Plows.

which is given in Fig. 62, and the following extract from the
specification will give the idea of the inventor:

"There is attached to the upper side of the mould-board,
which is of cast iron, a share which in its shape differs from any
other now in practice, it being fastened on the upper side of the
mould-board with screws, the point doubling over, but running
even with the land side, which is also made of cast iron, and
leaving a hollow under the mould-board so that small stones may
pass without interruption. The share is made of wrought iron
with a steel edge weighing from four to eight pounds."

John Klay, of Maryland, received a patent for a plow dated
January 11th, 1812.

Roswell Tousley, of Scipio, New York, received a plow patent
on the same day; this man was subsequently a partner of Jethro
Woods.

John Seltz, of Pennsylvania, received one February 8th, 1813.

Matthew Patrick, of New York, had a plow patented on the
2d day of January, 1813.

Horace Pease, of Scipio, New York, received a patent for a
plow August 28th, 1813.

Jethro Wood, of Scipio, New York, had a patent for a plow
granted July 1st, 1814. He did not attach much value to this
patent, and never attempted to introduce it extensively, as we arc
informed by his daughters.

The next patents granted for plows were to John Swan, of
Scipio, New York, on the 5th day of July, 1814; to J. Morgan
and J. B. Harris, October 11th, 1814; to David Peacock, of New
Jersey, May 29th, 1817.

Gideon Davis, of Maryland, received a patent for a plow May
26th, 1818. This plow is interesting, as it is the first attempt
since Jefi'erson's da}'^ to construct the mould-board on mathemati-
cal principles. The drawings will be found on Plate VI, and the
following specification will show the ideas which the inventor
sought to embody:

"The great desideratum to be attained in the box share or
shallow plow, is that it be so shaped and constructed as to detach
the furrow slice from the solid ground, raise it up and turn it
over, in the neatest and most uniform and effectual manner, with
the least possible labor, both to the plowman and the team, com-
bining at the same time the advantages of being simple in its
structure, strong and durable, easy to keep in repair, and cheap.

Plate VI.

DAVIS' PLOWS.

History of the Plow. 73

The mode of using, it is desirable, should be such as will cause the
least trouble and inconvenience to the plowman.

"With a view to combine as far as practicable these various
objects, I begin by making the mould-board, land side, and stand-
ard (or width for the beam to rest on), all of cast iron, and in a
solid piece; this is done in the manner that Charles Newbold, of
New Jersey, made his improved plow, patented in the year 1797,
but with several alterations and improvements hereinafter par-
ticularly specified.

" First — Of the shape of the moulding part, or what is com
monly called the face of the mould-board, the general principle
heretofore concurred in by all scientific men who have turned
their attention to this subject, is that as the furrow slice is de-
tached from the solid ground, at a straight line, parallel to the
surface, at such depth as may be required, that it should be
raised up and turned over, so as to retain, as far as possible, the
same flat shape. In order to accommodate the face of the mould-
board to this idea of raising the furrow slice up and turning it
over, it has been so constructed as to form straight lines length-
wise, either horizontal or a little inclined, and also to correspond
with another set of straight lines at right angles with the land
side, or nearly so, commencing at the point touching the edge
of the share and lower edge of the mould-board. These last
mentioned straight lines, as they recede from the point of the
commencement, gradually change from a horizontal to a perpen-
dicular direction, and even pass beyond the perpendicular so far
as to give the proper over-jet behind. It has been thought that
mould-boards so constructed would fit and embrace every part of
the furrow slice in the operation of turning it over, not observing
that the furrow slice must necessarily assume a convex form on
the under side during the operation by which it is raised up and
turned over.

" The truth is, however, that in raising and turning over the
furrow slice it always acquires a convex form on the under side,
or else it is broken into pieces and thrown over; as might there-
fore be anticipated, it will be found that all those mould-boards
which are constructed on this principle wear through, in the
operation of plowing, about midway, whilst the upper and lower
edges are scarcely rubbed. It also necessarily results that plows
of this description work hard and are of heavy draught, because
the mould-l)oard not being adapted to the convex form which the

74 Bepobt on Trials of Plows.

furrow slice is disposed to assume, lifts the furrow slice at a sin-
gle point, and that in the middle instead of being equally applied
throughout the entire operation.

"In order to meet and remedy the inconveniences arising from
this form of structure, I form my mould-board into a different
shape, and instead of working the moulding part or face of the
mould-board to straight lines, my improvement is to work it to
circular or sphere lines. By repeated experiments I have ascer-
tained that in one direction, viz.: from a, Plate VI, fig. 4, inclin-
ing to the back part, d, the circle or segment of the mould-board,
to which the mould-board is wrought, should have about three
times the radius of the smaller segments represented b^^ the lines
lettered c c, &c., the former being thirty-six inches, the latter
twelve inches. In order then to shape the moulding part, or the
face of the mould-board, having obtained a suitable block, I begin
by laying off the bottom (Fig. 3), and (Fig. 4) by circular or
spheric lines at a a a. If I intend to construct a plow of a
proper size to cut and turn a twelve inch furrow, I strike this
segment of a circle of thirty-six inches radius (Fig. 1), and at
twenty-four inches back from the point c at right angles with the
land side and twelve inches from the land side; the circle will
intersect the angle line; this circle is extended out from the land
side; I then work the block to fit the same segment, inclined
from a (Fig. 4) at the point of the share, to a at a perpendicular
raised twelve inches from the horizon, with the circle extended
in toward the land side; then having wrought to the shape of
these two lines, I apply the circular part of the smaller segment
(Fig. 2) and work the face of the mould-board, until that segment
will have an equal bearing on all parts, corresponding with the
cross lines c c c, &c., which if produced would all terminate in
a point at d, Avhich is about thirty-six inches from the perpendic-
ular, where the line a a crosses the line d b; this being worked
off uniformly, forms a section of an oxydromic or spiral curve,
and when applied to practice is found to fit or embrace every
part of the furrow slice far more than any other shaped plow.
The plow may be made larger or smaller, suited to deep or shal-
low plowing, by enlarging or diminishing the radii of the seg-
ments which it is wrought by. Believing that this mode of
shaping the moulding part or face of the mould-board is an origi-
nal invention of my own, not heretofore known or used, and that
it is a most important improvement in the shape of the plow, I

History of the Plow. lb

chiini the exclusive privilege of making, using and vending the
same.

" Second — Shape of the throat and hind part of the mould-
board: The shape of the throat is exhibited in the accompanying
drawing, fig. 4, fig. 5, Plate VI. I construct this part of my
plow with a gentle curve from the top of the share entirely up
to the beam, which, at a suitable height for a plow designed to
turn a furrow slice of about twelve inches in width, say about
sixteen inches, will incline forward as it comes up to the beam to
form a birth for it to rest on in an easy circular form. I dress it
ofl' also round as it ascends from the share, making it broader
and broader as it approaches the beam. The object of this
peculiar shape is to prevent brambles, long grass, &c., from lap-
ping so short as they would do if the front of the throat were
sharp, and the inclination forward at the upper part of the throat
forms a curve with the under side of the beam, so as to prevent
anything in plowing to be jammed under the beam — the pres-
sure below naturally forces the incumbrance up and forward,
when it faces over and the plow cleans itself. This I consider
an improvement of great value in plowing in clover, long manure
and the like. The head part of the mould-board. Figs. 3 and 4,
y*, I dress off in a gentle curve from the end or wing of the sliare
up to the hind corner of the mould-board. This shape I have
ascertained to answer every purpose in turning over the furrow
slice, and as it does not come down to the bottom of the farrow
the plow works with much less friction, is lighter, cheaper and
handsomer.

" Believing these shapes for the throat or breast, and the hind
part of the mould-board not to have been known or practiced
before my application of it, and that they constitute valuable
improvements in the construction of the plow, I claim the exclu-
sive right to use and dispose of them.

" Third — The structure of the land side with the mould-board
and standard, or the fore and top part of the mould-board:
Charles Newbold made his mould-board, land side and stand-
ard of one piece, and of cast iron. In connecting his land side
to the mould-board, he made it nearly square and stout to give it
strength, I make my land side thin and broad, g, Fig. 5, which
gives more strength vertically, without so much weight. This
form also makes it a guard, which prevents sods, dirt, &c., from
working in and clogging tluit part of the plow. In order then

76 Report on Trials of Plows.

to give additional strength to the land side sidewise, and to con-
nect it at a proper angle with the mould-board, I make a rib, //,
Fig. 3, on the land side, about midway between the top and bot-
tom, say about two and a half inches from the bottom. This rib
is made broad where it joins the mould-board at /, and tapers as
it goes back to the birth for the handle to fasten on, where it ter-
minates at i, Fig. 3, where I make a projection or jog, which
cannot be represented in the drawing, to raise about half an inch
for the end of the handle to rest against. This rest, or jog, sus-
tains the pressure of the handle endwise, so that the screw bolt
is only required to confine it to the side. C. Newbold made the
standard of his plow to pass up through a mortise in the beam;
mine extends only up to the beam; the beam is fastened on it
with a strong iron scrcAV bolt, which may be made either to pass
up through the top of the standard in the front part of it and
through the beam vertically, j, Fig. 5, or to pass through the beam
in an inclined direction, and containing the same inclination
through the top of the standard, having on the inside a birth for
the nut to work on, J, Fig. 4. There are plows in which the
beam is fastened on the top of the standard with two bolts. The
improvement which I claim to have invented consists, therefore,
only in these particular modes of connection. The advantage of
it consists in this — that the fastenings being made by a single
bolt upon which the beam can turn, it enables me to adjust the
landing of the plow by a simple operation in altering the position
of the end of the beam, where it is united to the handle. This
will be more particularly described when I speak of the stocking
of the plow.

"There have been, also, land sides heretofore constructed which
were made thin and broad, but supported in a difterent manner.
My improvement, therefore, consists only in the mode of making
the rib, the projection or jog in the inside of the land side, the
form of the top of the standard or the fore and top part of the
mould-board, which, being made to extend forward under the
beam, equalizes the bearing of the beam. Thus a smaller piece
of wood will be more sufiicient to form a beam than if the fasten-
ings to the handle and standard are brought nearer to each other.

" Fourth — The shoe: Charles Newbold made a bar of wrought
iron which he caused to extend back from the share to the end of
the land side, below it, and fastened to it with a sci'cw bolt pass-
ing lip through the shoe and land si(l(>.

History of the Plow. 77

" Stepliens, of New York, applied his shoe on the bottom of the
kind side of the plow, and fastened with a small screw bolt pass-
ing through both. Shoes constructed in this manner will only
answer the purpose of protecting the bottom of the land side.
The side, however, is equally exposed, and in time will wear
entirely oft". To obviate this inconvenience, I make a groove or
countersink in the side and lower edge of the land side of my
plow, which forms a birth for the shoe, and admits of the thick-
ness, without any inconvenience, I make from its projecting out,
E R, Fiirs. 3 and 5 : the shoe extends round under the bottom of
the land side and fastens on with one or more screw bolts.

" The improvement consists in so constructing and applying the
shoe that it protects both the sides and the bottom of the land
side. It may be made of wrought or cast iron, or steel.

" Fifth — New mode of making, applying and using the share
of the plow, whether formed of wrought or cast iron: If I apply
the wrought iron share, I make it in the usual way by weld-
ing the wing on the land side (see Fig. 6), and fasten it to
the cast iron part of the land side with a small screw bolt, n,
Fig. 5. Then I fasten it to the mould-board by means of a pro-
jection made on the front and lower part of the mould-board,
with an inclination forward, forming a dovetail or hook which I
extend through the share. (See o, Fig. 6.) This mode will hold
on the share very firmly, but as it is liable, being made of cast
iron, to break off, in order to obviate this danger, I fasten the
share to the mould-board with a strong screw bolt, having the
head made to fit a tapering hole made in the mould-board, and
passing down through the wing of the share, ^j. Fig. 6, and drawn
up tight with a screw nut. If it be a right-handed plow, this
should be a left-handed screw, and if a left-hand plow, then a
riffht-handed screw. This is somewhat the manner in which
David Peacock, of New Jersey, fastened the share on his plow,
patented in the year 1807, but with this difference: he put tvv^o
screw bolts and a false coulter through the wing of his share ;
therefore made it stationary, and without its being made fast to
the cast iron part of the land side at all. But, in my mode of
fastening the share on, by putting a piece of wood or leather
between the wrought and cast iron land sides at n, Fig. 5, the
point of the share may be somewhat adjusted, and the bar always
regulated to suit the shoe of the plow. The point and edge of
the share is likewise of a different shape from any that have here-

78 Report on Trials of Plows.

tofore been made to my knowledge. Having remarked that the
point of the share is always disposed to wear round, I make the
point round at first. I also make it about twice as broad as usual,
and of course much thinner. The edge of the share is likewise
made rather concave or hollow, this being the shape to which it
naturally wears. In consequence of this they wear much more
uniformly, will last longer and be less expensive.

"It is also a fact that the broad share or coulter point Avill
enter or strike into the ground much better than those of the
ordinary construction, and, being much thinner, will retain their
edge and work much longer without requiring repair.

" In using the wrought iron share, the point or fore and lower
part of the mould-board, especially if the point of the share is
suffered to wear off very short, is liable to wear away. To obviate
this, I make a plate of wrought iron of suitable thickness, say
one-fourth of an inch. Fig. 7, and shape it to fit, or nearly fit, on
the front and lower part of the mould-board, and fasten it on with
the head of the main screw bolt, with which the share is fastened
on, taking care to fit the lower edge down snug to the top of the
share. This plate may be put on when needed, and renewed as
required.

" If I apply a cast iron share, I make a birth or countersink on
tlie lower and front part of the mould-board (see q, Fig. 4, and i\
Fig. 3), on Avhich I put my cast iron share, in the manner in which
Richard B. Chenowith, of Baltimore, fitted the share on his plow,
patented in the year 1808, but with the following alterations and
improvements: He employed two small screw bolts to fasten his
share on ; and to enable him to set the edge of the share deeper
as it wore off, he made the holes in his mould-board of consider-
able length, and in such form that the share could, when required,
be moved down or with the point and edge forward. Thus the
point and edge was extended, but the desired effect was not pro-
duced. The point and edge would naturally wear to a bevel on
the under side, and it was owinjx to this circumstance that it would
not penetrate into the ground; not because it wanted more length.
In my plow the share is fastened on with one screw bolt ; more
may be used, but are unnecessary. Having the point made round,
broad and much thinner than usual, with the edge rather hollow,
it is thus accommodated to the shape into which it has a tendency
to wear. When it is first put on, a small strip of wood or leather
is inserted between the edge of the mould-board and the share.

History of the Plow. 79

(See Fis". 3.) This strip may be about a fourth of au iuch thick
at or uear the point of the mould-board, tapering to an edge at
the other end, and about half or three-fourths of an inch wide.
This strip should be made of such thickness as to set the point of
the share level with the after part of the plow; and as the siil)-
stance of it is somewhat elastic, the tendency is to diminish the
sharpness of the stroke, which would be produced if the castings
were to come together. The principal advantage, however, of
this method of affixing the share is that it affords an opportunity
of adjusting the point and edge of the share, so that when the
point and edge of the share have worn to a level on the under
side, the piece of wood may be taken out and another inserted of
about half the thickness, and then, again, if required, the whole
may be taken out. By this operation the point or edge is let
down as much as is necessary each time. It, at the same time,
inclines the point of the share to the land, which is as necessary
as to set it deeper. When worn as long as it can be in this man-
ner, strips of wood may be inserted between the upper edge of
the share and the mould-board, which will adjust it still more, as
was recommended by Richard B. Chenoweth in the use of his
plow.

" In making my cast iron shares and shoes, if I use a metal which
is not too high, I have one-half of the mould made of cast iron
and the other part of sand, in the usual way. The shares and
shoes are thus rendered more uniform and less troublesome to
mould, and consequently cheaper.

" In respect, therefore, to the share, whether of Avrought or
cast iron, I claim the shape of the point and edge as of my inven-
tion, together with the modes of fastening the shares on the plow
and adjusting them, the modes of moulding and casting shares
and other shoes, either wholly in cast iron moulds or partly of
cast iron and the residue of sand.

" Sixth — The manner of stocking or using the plow, heretofore
the object of all constructors, has been, so far as I am acquainted,
to make the beam immovably fast to the handle and to the stand-
ard, whatever may have been the particular mode of fastening
adopted. In stocking my plow the handle is made fast to the
land side at h, Fig. 5; I then lit the beam on the top of the
standard and on the inside or outside of the handle, so as to lay
solid on one and fast against the other, / and t, Figs. 4 and 5.
The beam is there fastened on the standard with a strong screw

80 Report on Trials of Plows.

bolt, either passing up through the front of the standard and the
beam, as at j, Fig. 5, or I pass a screw bolt down through both
the beam and the top part of the standard, and fasten the neck
of the screw on the inside of the mould-board, atj, Fig. 4.

"Either of these modes will permit the beam to move on the
top of the standard in the manner of a swivel, so as to turn the
fore end of the beam to the right or left at pleasure, which I
consider an object of importance in the construction of a plow.
The hind end of the beam is then fastened to the inside or out-
side of the handle, iv^ Figs. 4 and 5. The other handle is fastened
to the mould-board with two small screw bolts, and the two han-
dles connected by two rounds u u, Figs, 4 and 5. Thus framed,
if it be wished to set a horse plow to work, after three horses
abreast, I fit a block of wood in between the handle and the end
of the beam of about two inches thick. (See x, Fig. 5.) It then
is necessary to put a brace from the screw bolt that fastens the
beam to the handle and fasten it to the handle .above with a small
screw bolt. Fig. 5. Thus constructed, the plowman can raise the
end of the beam by putting a bit of leather or wood between the
top of the standard and the beam; if, on the contrary, he Avishes
to lower it, he can do so by diminishing the thicknesss of the
block under the beam, or he may raise or lower the end of the
beam where it rests against the handle. He may give the plow
more or less land by adding to or diminishing the block between
the handle and the end of the beam, or by loosening the upper
screw that fastens the handle to the mould-board at z, and driving
a wedge between the mould-board or the handle more land will
be given, and be reversed. Thus the plow may be readily
adjusted as convenience may require; and should the wood spring
it can be set right without difficulty or delay.

"The improvement, therefore, which I claim to have invented
in the stocking of the plow consists in enabling the plowman
thus to adjust the stock at his pleasure, the introduction of the
blocks between the beam and the standard and between the beam
and the handle, the use of the wedge between the mould-board
and the handle, and the particular modes of fastening the beam
on the top of the standard and the side of the handle for the pur-
pose of adjusting the plow so as to give more or less land or depth.

^^ 8eventh — Of the coulter: If the locked coulter be a^Dplied, it
is put in a rib on the point of the wrought iron share, much in
the usual form, and passed through a mortise in the beam in the

History of the Plow. 81

mode usually adopted. But having satisfied myself by experi-
ments that it requires an increase of twenty-two per cent power
of draught more to urge the plow along, with such a coulter, than
with a sword coulter i^roperly fitted to it, my attention was
directed principally to the latter.

"This I apply in a manner different from any heretofore used.
Instead of putting it through a mortise in the beam, I apply my
coulter to the side of the beam. (See y, Figs. 4 and 5.) My mode
of doing it is as follows: Holes are made through the coulter-
shank, and a strong screw bolt passed through the beam and
coulter ; a strong strap of iron is fitted on the screw-bolt outside
of the coulter, with a hook which is turned back of the coulter
and tapped on the front of the throat of the plow. Thus fitted,
if the coulter rests solidly against the standard and fair with the
beam, when drawn tight to it with the screw, it cuts to great
advantage. To operate more beneficially, the edge of the coulter
should stand about five inches in front of the throat and about
one inch to land.

"■Lastly — The mode of using the plow: The ordinary mode of
using the plow when draAvn by horses or mules is to attach the
team to the plow by means of double and single-trees, coupled
with what is commonly called clips and open rings. A serious
objection to this mode is, that the single-trees, being attached
in this manner, are at liberty to dangle about, so that they occasion-
ally are caught in the ground and turned over, the chains become
entangled in the legs of the animals, thus occasioning frequently
much trouble and sometimes serious injury.

" My improvement consists in the application of the stiff double
and single-trees (see Fig. 8), which are constructed by making
the double-trees in two bars, so that the single-trees work between
them. Thus, all the play is admitted which is needed, and the
inconvenience pointed out entirely avoided. The mode in which
the double-tree is attached to the plow is by means of a clevis
which opens in the bow (see a a, Fig. 8), which forms two
blocks, admitting of being easily attached to or detached from
the plow, perfectly safe, and by which the team can be placed
farther from or nearer to the plow, quietly and without trouble.

"Date of patent, October 1st, 1825.

" William Elliott,

-Alex. MclNTiRE, ^Witnesses."

6

" GIDEON DAVIS.

82 Be POUT ON Trials of Plows.

We believe that Mr. Davis was the first to dispense Avith the
perforation and consequently the weakening of the beam, in order
to insert the coulter. His plan of attaching it to the side was
imperfect as compared with modern methods, but it was a step in
the right direction.

The inventors of plows now multiply so rapidly that we shall
cease to enumerate all the patents that were granted, and confine
ourselves to those which involve ncAV ideas, or those which have
been remarkably popular. Zadock Harris, of Washington county,
in the State of New York, received a patent on the 17th day of
March, 1819, for an improvement in the pk)\v, a figure of which
is given.

J^iff. es.

The following extracts from the specification will make the
drawinof intelligible:

"This plow is different from all other plows, inasmuch as the
land side i-s composed of three plates which are fixed over each
other, and the lower or under part of the plow is composed of
two plates, Avith other pieces combined and connected, as here-
after described.

" The first land side plate and the under plate are cast togethei',
each in their proper direction or position, which is nearly at right
angles.

" The lower part of the land side is so formed as to l)e of double
the thickness of the upper part, so that the upper part m;iy
receive the cutter which fits the sunken part and rests on the pro-
jecting thickness which forms an angle of about twelve degrees
rising towards the back part of the plow.

"At the upper end of the said angular line there is a groove
or cavity with a number of indents for the purpose of receiving

History of tub Plow. 83

the hooked part of the cutter, by which it may be extended at
pleasure Avhen the wearing of the cutter requires it.

"The cutter is a plate of steeled iron, formed to the shape of
the plow in front and of a thickness so as to fill up the sunken
part l)efore described ; the under side of the upper part of the
cutter extends in a narrow form having a hook at the end, which
bends downwards and catches in the indents before mentioned;
when the last mentioned plate or cutter is in its place it causes the
surface of the land side to be flush and even.

" Over the above described plates is placed another plate which
may be called the shelter plate, as it receives all the wear of the
land side; it extends the whole length of the plow, and covers
the under structure; the front part partakes of the shape of the
cutter and recedes a little from it; it is fastened either by screws
or bolts, which make the whole land side firm and secure.

"The plate of the under side of the plow, which is cast with
the first plate of the land side, has on its upper surface an
indented groove and projects in front of the plow, and forms
what is called a nose; this bar, as it wears in plowing, may be
extended and turned at pleasure. On the right hand side of the
above mentioned groove there is a rising ratchet or toothed edge,
the indents of which prevent the under cutter from shifting its
situation when in the act of plowing.

"The under cutter is formed of a proper shaps to suit the
under part of the plow, and is made either of wrought iron,
steeled, or entirely of iron ; the inner side is bent downwards for
the purpose of catching in the ratchets or teeth before mentioned,
when wanted to be brought forward, where it wears in plowing.
Towards the inner side of said cutter there is a long perfora-
tion for the purpose of admitting through it the shapes rising
from the cast plate, which fastens the cutter by a key.

"The mould-board is a separate piece, and made of cast iron,
having proper staples or bolts in their proper situation for the
purpose of fixing it by keys or otherwise ; or it may be fixed by
screws.

"This new construction of a plow may be adapted to any plow
already in use, and the cutters may be made either of steel,
wrought iron or cast iron."

What is called the "under plate," in the specification, is a sort
of shelf extending across the fore part of the plow from the land
side plate to the mould-board ; it is about one and a half inches

84 B.EPORT ON Trials of Plows.

above the solo of the land side, and two and a half inches on the
mould-board side, so that it slopes towards the land side and
towards the point. A flange is cast on each side in which the
bar runs which forms the point. The other parts of the plow
are described with sufiicient clearness in the specification.

This is the first attempt that we have been able to find to meet
a want which had been long and which is still felt, of guarding
against the rapid wearing away of the point of the plow. This
plow was once quite popular in Washington and the adjoining
counties, but the difiiculties in the use of the sliding point finally
overcame the advantages arising from its use, and it finally dis-
appeared from the market. The cases of the patent office are
loaded with models showing a great variety of contrivances for
an independent sliding and reversible point. The best of these
contrivances was probably that of Prouty & Mears, of Boston ;
at all events, a greater number of these were sold, and they
remained longer in use than any other ; but at present the agri-
cultural community have almost all gone back to the point cast
on the share.

The use of two large wooden wheels running upon an axis,
upon which the beam rested, is, as we have seen, a very old con-
trivance ; but the single wheel, running by suitable attachments
under the fore part of the wheel, is a modern contrivance of
which it is generally believed Zadock Harris was the inventor.
We are not sure of the fact, but the current of testimony is
undoubtedly in his favor. He first attached one of these wheels
to one of his own plows in the summer of the year 1820. It is
certain that he introduced their use into the northern part of New
York.

On the first of September, 1819, Jethro Wood, of Scipio, N. Y.,
took out a patent for his improved plow. This contained his
most mature views upon the subject, and describes the pattern
from which he never afterwards varied. Very large numbers of
plows were made from patterns furnished by him, and even to
this day there are many plows made in various parts of the
country which depart very slightly from the principles estab-
lished by him. If we are not mistaken, the plow known as the
Livingston county is an example of this class.

Jethro Wood was born, we believe, in Westchester county.
New York, and in early life removed to Scipio, Cayuga county,
in that part now known as the village of Aurora. There Avas a

History of the Plow. 85

large number of the Society of Friends settled there, which
probably induced him to select this location, he being a member
of that society. There was much social visiting among them,
and as they were all engaged in agricultural pursuits, this was
naturally the leading sul)ject of conversation at these gatherings.
Roswell Towsle}^ Matthew Patrick, John Swanm, J. Morgan and
J. B. Harris, all patentees of plows and all members of the Society
of Friends, were also residents of Aurora. It was natural that
daily association with men of this stamp should turn his mind to
speculations upon the best form of the plow. He was not, as is
'generally supposed, a manufacturer of plows; we are assured
upon the highest authority that he never made a plow in his life,
he made the patterns only, and sold rights to manufacture them.
Fig. 64 is an accurate copy of the figure drawn by him and depos-
ited in the patent office as an illustration of his views of the best
possible plan for the mould-board of a plow, and in connection
with the specifications which we give in a somewhat abridged
form will, we trust, convey a clear idea to the mind of the reader
of his views upon the subject.

First Specification. — The mould-board: This may be termed a
plane curvilinear figure, not defined nor described in any of the
elementary books of geometry or mathematics, but an idea may
be conceived of it thus: The land side of the plow measuring
from the point of the mould-board, is two feet two inches long.
It is a straight lined surface from four to five arid a half inches
wide and half an inch thick. Of the twenty-six inches in length,
eighteen inches belong to the part of the plow strictly called the
land side, and eight inches to the mould-board. The part of the
mould-board comprehended by this space of eight inches is very

86 Report on Trials of Plows.

important, affording weight and strength and substance to the
plow, enabling it both to sustain the cutting edge for separating
and elevating the soil in swards, and likewise the standard for
conncctino; the mould-board with the beam. The figure of the
mould-board, as observed from the furrow side, is a sort of irregu-
lar pentagon or five sided plane, though curved, and inclined in
a peculiar manner. Its two lower sides, b a and a c, touch the
ground, or are intended to do so, while the three other sides, c d,
d e and e 5, enter into the composition of the oblique or slanting
mould-board overhanging behind, vertical, midway and projecting
forward. The angle of the mould-board, as it departs from the
foremost point of the land side, is about 42 deg., and the length
of it, or in other words, the first side, a b^ is, eleven inches. The
line of the next, or the second side, a c, is nearly but not exactly
parallel with the before mentioned right lined land side, for it
widens or diverges from the angle at which the first side, a b^
and the second side, a c, join towards its posterior or hindermosL
point as much as one inch; hence the distance from the hinder-
most point of the mould-board at the angle of the second and third
sides, a c d, directly across to the land side, is one inch more than
it is from the angle of the first and second sides directly across.
The length of the second side, a c, is eight inches. The next
side, or what is here denominated the third side, c d, leaves the
ground or furrow in a slanting direction, backward, and with an
overhanging curve exceeding the perpendicular outwards from
thence to six inches, according to the size of the plow; the length
of this third side is fourteen inches and one-half. The fourth
side, d e, of the mould-board is horizontal, or nearly so; extend-
ing from the uppermost point of the third side to the fore part
or pitch is eighteen inches. The fifth or last side, e b, descends
or slopes from the last mentioned mark, spot or pitch to the place
of beo-innino;.

At the low and fore part of the mould-board, where it joins
the land side, its length is thirteen inches. ******
The peculiar curve has been compared to a screw auger and to
the prow of a ship, but neither of these similitudes conveys the
fair and prope-r notion of the inventor. It has the following
properties: A right line drawn by a chalked string, or by a
straight ruler, diagonally or obliquely upwards and backwards
from a point two and a half inches above the lip or extremity of
the mould-l)oard to the an<j;lc where the third and fourth sides

History of the Plow. 87

of the mould-lioard join, which is shown in the figure by the line
h d, touches the surfiice the whole distance in an even and
uniform application, and leaves no sinking or protuberance in any
part of the distance, so, at a distance half way between the
diagonal line just described and th3 angle between the first and
second sides, a line, f g, drawn parallel to the diagonal line
already mentioned will receive the chalked string as on a uniform
and even surface. In like manner, if a point be taken one inch
behind the angle connecting the second and third sides, and a
perpendicular, h t, be raised upon it, that perpendicular will
coincide with the vertical portion of the mould-board in that
place ; or, in other words, if a plumb-line be let fall so as to
reach a point one inch behind the last mentioned angle, then such
plumb-line will hang parallel with the mould-board the whole
way; the line of the mould-board there neither projecting nor
receding, but being both a right line and a perpendicular line.

Moreover, if a right line be drawn from a point on the just
described perpendicular, one inch or thereabouts above the upper
margin of the fourth side, and from the point to which the said
perpendicular, if continued, would reach, if the said J. Wood
repeats a right line, k I, be drawn downwards and forwards, not
exactly parallel to the diagonal herein already described, but so
diverging from the same that it is one inch more distant or
farther apart at its termination on the fifth side of the mould-
board than at its origin or place of beginning, such line so
beginning, continued and ended is a right line parallel to the
mould-board along its Avhole course and direction, and the space
over which it passes has no inequality thereabout.

If the mould-board be measured and proved vertically and
obliquely by the saw in fashioning it, and by the rule in meeting
it, and by the chalk line in determining it, the capital and dis-
tino-uishino- character of rio;ht lines extendino; on, over and alono;
the peculiar curve which his mould-board describes is always and
inseparably present.

/Second Specijication. — A cast iron standard for connecting the
mould-board with the beam: It rises from the fore and upper
part of the mould-board, being cast with it, and being a projection
or continuation of the same from where the fourth and fifth sides
meet. By a screw-bolt and nut properly adjusted above the top
of the standard, and acting along its side, assisted, if need require,
l^v a wodo-o for tiirhtcnino- or loosonino-, the beam may be raised

88 Report on Trials of Plows.

or lowered, and tho mould-board, with its cutting edge, enabled
to make a furrow of greater or smaller depth, as the plowman
may desire ; and a latch and key fixed to the beam, and capable
of being turned into notches and grooves or depressions on one
edge or narrow side of the standard, serves to keep the beam
from settling or descending. By means of the screw-bolts, wedges,
catches and keys, with their appropriate notches, teeth and joggles,
the plow may be deepened or shallowed most exactly.

Third Specification — Claims the share.

Fourth Specification — Claims securing the handles to the mould
board and land side of the plow by means of notches, ears, loops
or holders, cast with the land side and mould-board respectively,
and serving to receive and contain the handles without the use of
nuts and screws.

Fifth Specification — Claims an improvement in the method of
adjusting the cast iron land side to the cast iron mould-board.
Their junction is after the manner of tenon and mortise— are
joggled or dovetailed together in the casting operation — so as
to make them hold fast. The fore end of the tenon is addition-
ally secured by a cast projection from the inside of the mould-
board, formed for its reception, and if any other tightening should
be requisite, a wooden wedge well driven in will bind every part
efiectually without the assistance of screws.

Finally — He claims the right of varying the dimensions and
proportions of his plow, and of its several sections and parts. A
disclaimer of certain portions of these claims was entered Feb-
ruary 24th, 1838, and another disclaimer of certain other parts
Avas entered on the 26th of May, 1838.

There can be no doubt that this plow became very popular
among farmers, and did more to drive out the wretched and
clumsy plows of the olden time than any other which had then
been invented. As late as the year 1820, a writer in the Ehodc
Island American says that, in most parts of Massachusetts, the
Old Colony plow, with ten-foot beam and four-foot land side,
were still in use; and the Sutton plows, which he says " are not
fit to plow any land that has sod on it; your furrows stand u[)
like the ribs of a lean horse in the month of March. A lazy
plowman may sit on the beam and count every bout of his day's
work. Besides, the great objection to all these plows is that they
do not perform the work well, and that the expense is enormous for
lacksmith work. Six of these plows cost me, on an average, last

History of the Plow. 89

year, five dollurs each to keep the shares and coulters Rb for work,
and the wear of the other parts could not be less than one dolhxr
more — six dollars per year for each plow." It was the merit of
Wood that he was more successful than any of his predecessors
in driving out the cumbrous forms of the plow above described,
and in forming a taste for lighter, better and cheaper implements.

There Avere sold in the city of New York of Wood's plows, in
the year 1817, 1,550; in the year 1818, 1,600; in the year 1819,
3,600. We are informed that the sale largely exceeded the last
mentioned number in the year 1820, but we cannot obtain the
exact figures. These sales very largely exceeded the sale of any
other plow then in existence.

The first use that we have been able to ascertain that was made
of the dynamometer in this State was at a trial of plows at Mount
Vernon, New York, on the 20th of November, 1820. The width
of the furrow was ten inches, but the depth is not stated. The
poAver required by Henry Burden's plow was two and a half hun-
dred weight; by George Woodward's, two and a half hundred
weight; by John C. Stevens', three and three quarters hundred
weight; by Jethro Wood's, three and a quarter hundred weight;
and George Nixon's, three and a quarter hundred weight.

It is alleged that Mr. Wood not only made no profits by his
efforts to improve the plow, but that he actually lost large sums
by his enterprise. His daughters have repeatedly applied to
Congress and to the State Legislature for compensation, but hith-
erto the application has been unheeded.*

It is evident that Mr. Wood had no claim as the inventor of a
cast iron plow, because he had been anticipated in this by New-
bold and by several others. He could not claim the vertical
straight lines, as he had been anticipated in these by Jeflferson
and Small. He could not claim the' straight transverse line, d b,
Fig. 64, for Col. Pickering had laid down this line long before
him on theoretical grounds, and Jefferson, without any theory,
had adopted it in practice. Mr. Wood's claim must therefore
rest on the straight lines hf and b I, which, we believe, fairly
belong to him.

In the year 1817, Mr. Edwin A. Stevens, of Hoboken, turned
his attention to the plow. He had seen Newbold's plow, which
first drew his attention to the subject. He made a mould-board

* Since writing this Report, the N. Y. State Legislature appropriated two thousand
dollars to the heirs of Mr. Wood.

90

Report on Trials of Plows.

according to his ideas of what was needed for good plowing, and
then plowed with it in some very sharp sand which he found on the
shore of Hoboken. Noting the parts which did not at once pol-
ish, he continued to change the twist qf his mould-board, testing
it constantly in this way until he found that it would polish all
over and in all parts alike. He was then satisfied that he had the
best plow that was attainable, and had his castings made from this
pattern. But he did a much more important service to plow
makers and farmers by inventing the process of cold chilling the
base of the land side and the lower edge of the share, ignorant
that the same thing had been done by Mr. Ransom, in England.
This discovery constitutes an era in the progress of the plow in
this country. Mr. Stevens had a very good dynamometer with
which he made many experiments.

In the year 1819, Henry Burden, since so celebrated as the
inventor of cut spikes and horse shoe machinery, was a young
man who had just arrived in this country from Scotland. He
brought letters of introduction to the late Patroon, Gen. Stephen
Van Rensselaer, who informed him that the plow in this country
Avas still in a very imperfect condition, and advised him to turn
his attention to its improvement. Mr. Burden acted on his
advice, and constructed a plow which was a decided improve-
ment upon all that had preceded it. It retained the principle of

0

III' n till III!

£

Mg. 66.

vertical straight lines, but was quite unlike both Small's and
Wilkie's. Many hundreds of them were sold, but as an opening
was then made for Mr. Burden to enter into a much larger and
more lucrative business, he relinquished the manufacture of
plows. A cut of the implement is given in Fig. (35.

History of the Plow. 91

Mr. Burden never made a plow which exactly conformed to
his own ideas of the true form, being restrained by the preju-
dices of the farmers, who required a longer and heavier plow
than he deemed necessary. In all the trials that were made with
this plow in competition with others, it was found to do better work
with less power than any other. It was all of iron except the
beam and handles; its use extended as far as Richmond, in Vir-
ginia.

Many other plows were patented and many were made and
sold without being patented, which varied very little in their
general principles, but which founded their claims on public favor
upon some very slight real or ftmcied improvements. As they
soon went out of use it is unnecessary to describe them in detail.

David Hitchcock, of New York, constructed a plow which he
patented July 16, 1823, which was very popular, and continued
to have a large sale for eight or ten years. These plows were of
cast iron, and were much shorter than those now in use. They
were better adapted for stubble than for sod plowing, though
they did fair work on sod land — at least it was considered good
in that day; they would not be as well approved at present. He
made seven sizes. None of these plows would work well at a
greater depth than five inches; the best work was done at four
inches. It was largely used in New York, New Jersc}^ and
Canada, but most within a circle of forty miles radius, of which
Worcester, Mass., was the centre.

About this period the Hingham self-holding plow became very
popular in Norfolk and Plymouth counties, in Massachusetts. It
is the tirst attempt that has come to our knowledge of a deliberate
effort to make a self-holding plow, and for this reason we notice
it, although it soon went out of use. It had an oblique beam,
set strongly to land, on the forward part of which a strong iron
axle was bolted transversely and at right angles to it; on the left
end a small wheel ran on the grass, and on the right end a larger
wheel ran in the bottom of the furrow, which arrangement pre-
vented it from canting to either side. On this axlo rises an arch,
through which and through the axle a perpendicular shaft passes
down near the bottom, having a drum, four inches in diameter and
five inches lono^, which, rollino- a<2:ainst the edo-e of the slice being;
cut, gauges its width.

Mr. Joel Nourse, who is one of the most successful improvers
of the plow of the ])resent generation, having made and sold more

92 ■ Report on Trials of Plows.

approved plows than any other man in America, if not in the
world, learned the blacksmith's trade of his father. When he was
nineteen years old, his father gave him his freedom, and entered
into partnership with him in the year 1827. He forged the shares,
coulters and other iron work for the old fashioned wooden mould-
l)oard lock share plows of half a century ago. They employed
an expert wheelwright to make the hard wood or oaken mould-
boards and other wood work of these plows. This was in the
town of Shrewsbury, Mass., six miles from Worcester. Mr.
Nourse had a keen eye, a quick ear, and a dexterous hand.
Always on the look-out for improvements, nothing in the action
of the plow escaped his observation. The shop was a frequent
resort of farmers, whose conversation naturally run much on the
form and construction of the implements which were being man-
ufactured under their eyes, and which, in the finished state, were
all around them. Mr. Nourse carefully treasured up the hints
which, from time to time, were dropped. around him, endeavoring
constantly to realize them in practice. In this way the real theory
of the plow began gradually to dawn upon him, and the constant
improvements which he introduced caused a rapidly increasing
demand for his work.

After his father's death he removed his establishment to Wor-
cester, establishing himself there in a wider field of business
Cast iron mould-boards were now getting into general use, though
many farmers still were prejudiced against them, fearing that they
would poison the laud and increase the growth of weeds, and that
they could not be relied on to stand the wear and tear of
plowing.

A foundry, which was the first and the only one in New Eng-
land, had been fitted up at Hartford, Conn., expressly for the
casting of these plows. Mr. Nourse was accustomed to go there
in a two horse lumber Avagon and buy a load of these castings
,of the Jethro Wood and Hitchcock patterns, though there was
much the greater proportion of the latter. These he would Iirins;
to Worcester, and having fitted them with beams, handles ;ui(l
all other needful appliances, he sold them out in a finished form.
After he had been some time established in Worcester, his busi-
ness increased so much that he took in Mr. Mason, his brother-in-
law, as partner, in the year 1837, and soon after this they admitted
Mr. Ruggles, a brother of Judge Ruggles, of Maine, as a third
partner, the name of the firm being Eiiggles, Nourse & Mason.

History of the Plow. 93

The new firm began, in the year 1840, with mtiking a series of
plows of different sizes, in strict accordance with Mr. Jefferson's
principle; but these had but a very limited sale, as they were found
to be very deficient in turning qualities, though they answered
very well in stubble land. On the failure of tliis specuhition, Mr,
Nourse determined to remedy the difficulties Avhieli he found in
existing plows, and apply to the new implements all the know-
ledge and skill which he had acquired in the course of his expe-
rience. I]i order to accomplish this he took a sheet of thick lead
and patiently cut and hammered upon it until he brouglit it to a
form which his judgment approved.

The plow thus made Avas distinguished from others chiefly in
two respects. First, by the greater length of mould-board, and
second, by a nearer approach to straight lines in a longitudinal
direction. The most of the plows of that day had extremely
short mould-boards, and very few of them made any approach to
straight lines, in any direction.

The Eagle plows, as compared with others in the market, were
very long; they had more turn of mould-board at the rear end
and a greater intensity of twist beyond the perpendicular. He
was induced to pay particular attention to this point by the fail-
ure of the Jefferson plow to invert the furrow slice, but he found
the unexpected result that, in accomplishing this object, he effected
at the same time a much more complete pulverization.

The plow thus made from the lead pattern was the famous
Eagle No. 2, and was finished in the year 1842. This plow retains
its popularity to the present day, large numbers of them being
still sold.

Finding this to be a very good and serviceable plow, he next
made Eagle No. 20, and rapidly thereafter various other sizes of
the Eagle were made, which are still popular, and are shipped
to every part of the world where our commerce reaches.

From the year 1841 to 1861 the sale of these plows reached
25,000 annually.

The Eagle No. 2 was the only pattern of this series which was
modeled in lead, the others being worked out of the wood with
more or less theory based on the Eagle No. 2 as the ground
work.

In the year 1845, Governor Holbrook, of Vermont, began to
aid Mr. Nourse in the planning of his plows. The latter had
never been able to devise any system that would make the straight

94

Report on Trials of Plows.

lilies come accurately, both vertically as well as longitudinally,
but Governor Holbrook devised a system by which, if the longi-
tudinal lines are carefully laid down upon the pattern, the vertical
lines will be certain to come right.

In 1841 Mr. Nourse went to Boston and opened a large ware
house, the style of the firm being the same in both places. Some-
years later other parties were admitted into the firm, under the
style of Ruggles, Nourse, Mason & Co. The firm dissolved ii
1855, all the old members except Mr. Nourse retiring, and a ne\v
firm was formed under the style of Nourse, Mason k Co. This
firm, under its various changes, have sold more plows than any
other in the United States. Fig QQ represents Eagle No. 2.

J^iff. 66.

It is adapted to turn furrows from four to seven inches deep by
twelve to fourteen inches wide. It was sometimes rigged with a
common coulter for flat furrow plowing, and sometimes with a
fin share, which adapts it for stubble plowing.

We insert, as a contribution to the history of the plow, the
following letter, from Mr. J. Dutcher, of Durham, N. Y.,
addressed to T. B. Wakeman, of New York:

" The history of the plow in America, for the last forty years,
has been so identified with that of my own, that in speaking of
the plow I shall often have to say something about myself. I
have always considered the plow the most useful and necessary
implement that man has anything to do with, for this reason, I
liave bestowed upon it a great amount of time, labor and money.

" As early as the year 1^06, when I was but a lad, I began to
observe the difference in the constructions of the plow. At that
time there were two kinds in use; one was called the Hog plow,
which was said to be of Dutch origin, and another called the Bull
plow, a Yankee invention. About this time I was learning the
blacksmith trade, and had considerable to do with the plow, in
constructing and making that part of it called the share. The
Bull plow Avas the most esteemed; the other went out of use

History of the Plow. 95

about the year 1809 or '10. The cast plow, with wrou<»;ht share,
was known in and about Albany and adjoining counties. It is
said to be Mr. Peacock's patent. But I considered all that I saw
awkward and complicated, not simple enough for general use, hut
such as they were, I made and sold, like the other plow makers.
In the year 1818 I heard that there was a new plow got up by
Jethro Wood, and as the plow was rather my hobby, I took the
trouble of going some twenty miles or more to see it. But when
I come to see and examine it I found it to be complicated, weak
and short-lived, yet it Avas diiferent from those heretofore used —
composed of three parts, a mould-board, land side and share.
The mould-board was too short and too full on the external sur-
face, and otherwise not properly shaped. Its entering wedge, or
first part of the plow was too low and did not turn the furrow
upon the edge in proportion to its entering the ground; in any-
thing like quick speed the furrows were broken and deranged.
" The land side was too narrow, long, and too weak, and did not
protect the front edge or part of the mould-board on the land side
and was too straight on the bottom; the share was far from being
right; it left the shin of the plow all unprotected. In April,
1819, I planned a plow which I supposed better adapted to do
the work, as it afterwards proved itself to be. This plow I did
not patent until 1832. Owing to the bad management in Wash-
ington I lost my first $30. Not having my specification at hand,
I will describe my improvement at that time, April 15, 1819.
The mould-board was longer than any I had known. It was con-
cave, with a corresponding shape. My land side I made twice as
wide as Wood's — six to seven inches — and connected it to the
mould-board by two wrought iron bolts. My share, in which
consisted my greatest improvements, was constructed with a
projecting piece called a shin share, so made as to supply with a
new edge the shin of the plow as well as the wing. By this
improvement, w^hich has been adopted by all plow makers, the
plow was more durable by one-half. The making of the land
side concave on the bottom, although about half an inch from the
point to the heel of the plow, was a very simple but an important
improvement. The mould-board back of the wing of the share
did not touch the ground by half an inch. The two improve-
ments are quite necessary in rough and stony lands. Wherever
my plow was introduced it superseded Mr. Wood's. The result
was a prosecution l)y Mr. Wood for an infringement of his patent.

96 Report on Trials of Plows.

He tried the second time, but was unsuccessful in both. About
1821 persons in different parts of the country got up plows.
Among them were Mr. Tice, of Washington county, Mr. Wright,
of Saratoga, Mr. Chamberling, of Dutchess, and several others in
different parts of the Union. They all laid aside theirs and
adopted my improvements. I found it impossible to protect
myself from these encroachments. Although my plow was made
by all plowmakers, yet I did not consider it perfected. In 1823
I ascertained that my land side was not as durable as it ought to
be. By not extending all the way outside to the share, it left
part of the mould-board exposed to wear and could not be
renewed without getting an entire new mould-board. To remedy
this I extended the land side outside of the mould-board up to
the share. Finding that the wrought standard I then used was not
sufficiently strong and cheap, I, in 1823, extended the body of my
cast mould-board up to the beam, securing the beam to the body of
the plow by a wrought bolt from the centre of the land side and
mould-board perpendicular through the casting on which the
beam rested, and through the beam, securing it with nut and
screw. These have also been generally adopted. One more
improvement remained to be made. In my letter to the Secre-
tary of the American Institute, published in the journal of the
Institute in 1837, I said that the mould-board, beam and handles
of all the American plows were too short. I had been convinced
of this years before. About 1838 I adopted these alterations.
The plowmakers all followed suit. Owing to the imperfection
of the patent law I had little encouragement to patent my last
improvements. One clause in the patent law of 183(j, which
declared that a patented article must not bear sale at the time of
the issue of the patent, and that there must not be more than one
year from the date of the improvement before the patent is taken
out, deprived me of my rights to my improvements.

•' My large size plow that takes a furrow seven inches deep by
fourteen wide, turns over six and three-quarter inches more
at the top edge of the mould-board than at the bottom. From
all that I have discovered in twenty-five years of observation and
experimenting, I have not found one straight line that I could
recommend on the running part of the ploAv. Although a plow
will run well in its perpendicular position if the land side is
straight, 3'^et it will run better if it be even one-eighth of an inch
concave towards the land. In no case should it be rounding:.

History of the Plow. 97

" There arc other points that should be kept in view, particn-
hirly the line of draft, compromised in the height of the horses'
breast, and of the end of the beam and its length. I know plow-
makers Avho are unacquainted with this essential principle. When
the land side is straight on the bottom from point to heel, the
end of the beam must be one inch or more higher in order to
make it enter, particuhirly in rough or hard land. This inch in
the forward end of the beam places it thus much above the line
of draught. In drawing, the team pulls the beam down, causing
the plow to run on the point, and causing it to run unsteady, and,
as farmers say, to root the ground. The half inch concave on the
l)()ttom will enable the plowmaker to fix the beam below the
line of draught, which will make the plow run flat, and not ren-
dering it liable to tip up behind when meeting with obstructions.
This principle, as simple as it is, gave m}^ plow a decided prefer-
ence. The proper length of the beam is important, and often
overlooked. Although smooth, mellow soil requires some varia-
tion in the plow from that designed for hard and stony land, yet
for hind in ijeneral two or three inches in the beam makes o-reat
difference in the running, throwing the end out of the line of
draught. The length that I have found as generally best for an
half inch concave is two feet two inches. I place my plow on a
straight place, then measure the perpendicular from the point of
the plow to the beam; then from this point two feet two inches to
the end of the beam. For hard ground, two feet, and for mellow
soil, two feet four inches are the extreme lengths.

"Owing to the ignorance and prejudice of ftirmers it has cost
me more labor to introduce my plow than to make the improve-
ments. These difficulties were aggravated by having my improve-
ments pirated by almost every plowmaker in the country. The
province of Congress is to give protection to the real inventor,
not to convey his improvements to another. Every farmer has a
I'ight to his own field and its products; equally inalienable are the
rights of inventors.

" My long experience in the construction and great familiarity
with the use of the plow have led me to comprise the excellencies
of the plow in seven essential points — materials, strength, draught,
expense of first construction, workmanship, yearly expenses and
performance. A deficiency in one of these may make the plow
comparatively worthless.

98

Report on Tbials of Plows.

" Mr. Wood lays it down as a scientific principle that the lines
of draught of the mould-board should be as shown in A; that is,

beginning at the point of
the share, draw a straight
line to the npper edge to
the mould-board behind,
that the straight line should
rest upon the external sur-
i'ace of the mould-board all
^ the way up to the upper

edge of the mould-board behind. This, he sa3's, is the line the
furrow follows. Now I assert that this is not in accordance with
the natural operations of the furrow as it rises and turns from its
horizontal to its perpendicular and inclined position. Practical
experience has shown me that the surface of the mould-board
should be a curve as shown by a straight line drawn from the
forward point on the lower side of the mould-board diagonally
to the upper end. This line will be one inch above the surface
in the middle. Lines drawn at right angles in this line will be
one-quarter of an inch above the surface. The furrow will follow
the curved lines indicated in cut B.

" The time and money
I have expended on the
plow are equivalent to
$5,000. The advantages
the public have derived
can be estimated by hun-
dreds of thousands, while
my returns have not ex-
ceeded $1,000. Plowmakers have paid to Jethro Wood sums that
should have come to me, the real inventor of the improvements.
This was done in consequence of improper laws passed by Con-
gress in his favor.

"In Mr. Jefferson's letter to Sir John Sinclair, in 1798, you
will find Mr. Wood's mould-board described. In Ransom's His-
tory of Agricultural Implements, Johnson's Encyclopedia of
Agriculture, and in'the English journals since 1800, you will see
that Robert Ransom invented a cast iron share as early as 1785.
He also invented the process of chilling the point of the share.
A farmer in Suffolk, England, made, in 1790, cast land sides.
]Mr. Newbold, of Orange county, in this State, made cast plows

Plate VI f.
MCCORMICK'S PLOW.

History of the Plow. 99

as curly as 1790, and patented the invention in 1797. The patent,
"which I have seen, was signed by the elder John Adams. The
casting of this plow went up through the beam like that of J.
Wood's. Mr. Peter T. Curtenius of this city had cast iron plows
for sale in 1800. They were of three pieces — mould-board, land
side and share.

"In 1814, Mr. Wood obtained a patent, again in 1819, and l)y
special act of Congress procured a renewal of fourteen years,
making thirty-three years in all. He now seeks another renewal!

"J. DUTCHER."
McCormick's Plow.

This plow w^as in great reputation and use. The only reason
why we have not given a specification of it at large is, that having
given Davis' and others at full length, it would take up too much
room. There are, moreover, a great many points of resemblance
between this and Davis'. A general reference, therefore, to the
drawino- of it is given in connection with the followinoj extracts
from the original specification itself, which show that the improve-
ments consist chiefly in the following particulars, viz. (See Plate
VII):

First — In the shape of the bar and point, as w^ell as the shoe
or fender to be attached to a wrought or cast iron land side.

Second — In the face of the mould-board, and the method in
which it is wrought; the front edge of the mould-board; the curve
or projection over toward the land side; the method of making
the hole for the brace or bolt through the neck from the hind
part, or a ketch without a hole through; also, the ketch at the
bottom of the mould-board to fasten the share on; the concave
groove for the handle, and one hole for a bolt to fasten it, and the
method of hardening; the front edg-e and wearing of the mould-

o o o

board.

Third — In the method of fastenino- the wrought share to the
cast land side and mould-board by ketches and projections; the
fender or shoe, the concave groove in the land side for the handle
to fit it; the structure of the fore part of the mould-board, for
the cast share, and self sharpening and advancing point, the brace
bar for the bar to rest on, and the method of fastening the bar or
point, and its position upon an inclined plane, and the shape of
the share.

Fourth — Putting the beam on the outside of the handle, the
manner in which they are fitted together, and fastening them with

100 Report on Trials of Plows.

a staple and two screw nuts; the adjusting of the beam on the
top of the neck of the mould-board and fastening it with one end
of the brace or screw bolt, both coming from the hind part and
through the neck of the mould-board, with one screw, and raising
and lowering the beam at the handle.

FifUi — In the shape of the sword and front edge of the
coulter and the method of fastening with the stirrup.

Fig. 1. A — Beam bolt. Fig. 2. A — Self sharpening point.

B — Fastening by a staple. B — Share

C — Mould-board. C — Shoe or fender.

D— Share. D— :Mould-board.

E — Adjusting screw brace. E — Beam bolt, hooked at lower

end.
F — Fastening by a staple .

CHAPTER y.

HISTORY OF AMERICAN PLOWS— Continued.

Mr. John Mears was born in 1795, and was brought up as a
plovvmaker. In 1831 he became acquainted with David Prouty,
a practical farmer and country trader, with a mechanical turn of
mind, Mr. Prouty called his attention to the Hitchcock plows,
with which he had not previously been familiar. Finding them
much better than any they had ever seen, David Prouty, his son
Lorenzo and John Mears, formed a partnership for the purpose
of making and selling these plows. They sold seven sizes of
these, and at once found a very large demand for them.

Mr. Mears had a very active mind, and applied himself assidu-
ously to the study of the plow. He had not long been engaged
in this line of observation before he perceived the irregularity
of motion which w^as produced by the oblique insertion of the
beam, and he was not Ion"; in reasoniuij out the centre drauoht
principle which we have described in the chapter on " The Line
of Draught in Plows," Chapter VIII. This has been one of the
most important improvements made by American inventors of the
plow, and is now almost universally adopted by all plowmakers.

Their mould-board was formed by cutting a strip of sole leather
to the width of the proposed furroW; one end of it was nailed to

History of the Plow. 101

a flat surface, and the remainder was twisted over precisely as a
iurrow would be. The wooden pattern was then cut so as to
coincide with the surface of the twisted leather. Prouty & Mear's
No. 5i and No. 30 were formed in this wa}'-. They became very
celebrated, and large numbers of them were sold. The sales of
this firm amounted to about five thousand annually, at an average
price of eight dollars. Their self sharpening points were
probably the best that were ever made. The first prize, at the
great trial in Albany in the year 1850, was awarded to these
plows.

Messrs. Minor and Horton began to make what is known as
the " Peekskill Plow " in the year 1835. Mr. Minor had been
an employee in the establishment for nine years. The first plow
patterns made at Peekskill were by James H. Conklin, whjle an
apprentice with Levi Carpenter in 1823. They were known as
L. C. plows, and had two points to the share, a few of which are
still in use. The next was made by Stephen Gregory, which
was known as the Gregory plow; these were made in 1826.
The next were made hy the same J. H. Conklin, who had formed
a copartnership with James Wiley; these were made in 1827,
and were called the Wiley k Conklin plow. These suited the
market well, and large numbers of them were sold of seven
different sizes. About the same time Truman Minor, who was
the superintendent of Scth Halt's foundry, made a set of patterns
for four different kinds of plows. Shortly after this Mr. Hait
died, when Frost Horton and Truman Minor formed a partnership
us above stated, and having taken Mr. Halt's foundry, began the
manufacture of the "Peekskill Plows," of nine different sizes.
In the year 1855, Mr. Minor retired from the firm, and died in
the year 1862. On his retirement the firm assumed the style of
Horton, Depew & Sons, which continued to manufacture the same
kind of plows until 1864, when they sold out the business to J.
B. Brown and I. L. Paulding, who formed a stock company known
as the Peekskill Plow Company.

This company, since its first formation and under various names,
have made patterns for about ninety different forms of the warped
surface which Mr. Minor originally devised. They have, during
that period, made about one million sets of castings, and it is
estimated (though on unreliable data) that about half as many
more have been made from patterns taken from these castings by
others.

102 Report on Trials of Plows.

Mr. Minor made a semi-cylinder of the length of the proposed
plow, and of the same diameter as the width of the proposed
furrow; the cylindrical surface was divided in both directions by
lines one inch apart. A line beginning at the left rear corner was
traced diagonally through the corners of the squares to the right
front corner; the line thus formed was applied from the point of
the share to the rear upper wing of the mould-board, and the
pattern was worked down until it accurately coincided with it;
there is a series of straight lines also in this plow running from
front to rear. Such is the description of the principles of the
Peekskill plow given us in the year 1850 by Mr. Minor. We
wrote to Mr. Brown, of the Peekskill Avorks, to know whether our
recollections were correct. He replied as follows: "Your state-
ment of the principles of Mr. Minor's plows expresses his ideas,
as far as it goes, as well as they can be briefly expressed by words,
but it seems to me to convey no idea of the helicoidal torsion
which, being moderate, constitutes the ' easy lines' of Mr. Minor's
plows."

The Peekskill plows have transverse straight lines, as we have
before stated. The first or lowest of these in the No. 21 plow
makes an angle of 21 deg. with the plane of the sole. The upper
line is very nearly horizontal; the intermediate lines difler in the
angle which they make with the plane of the sole by regular
gradations; if they are produced backward they would approxi-
mate to the form of a fan, but they do not radiate from a common
centre. The lines running from the bottom to the top of the
plow also vary in the angles which the}^ make with the vertical
line which in this plow is situated about five inches in front of the
extreme rear angle of the mould-board. The first of these lines
forms an angle of about 40 deg. with the vertical, and they regu-
larly increase as they approach the vertical. The length of this
plow from the point to the extreme rear angle of the mould-board
is thirty-five and a half inches; the length of feather fourteen and
a half inches; distance from land side to the point of the feather,
ten inches; length of land side twenty-seven inches; distance from
sole to under side of the beam at the standard, fourteen inches. A
figure of this plow is given in Transactions of the New York State
Agricultural Society for 1850, page sixty-one. There can be no
doubt of the great excellence of this plow; its chief defect is,
that its curves are too regular, and therefore it fails in pulverizing

History of the Plow. 103

power; but its draft is very easy. It won the second prize in the
great trial at Albany in 1850, in fallows and in stiff sods.

It would be very improper to pass over the labors of the cele-
brated Daniel Webster, in a report on the history of plows. He
invented in the year 183G or 1837, a plow for work twelve and
fourteen inches deep, which is still in existence, the property of
his life-long and highly esteemed friend, Peter Harvey. It is
twelve feet long from the bridle to the tip of the handles; the
laud side is four feet long; the bar and share are forged together;
the mould-board is of wood plated wdth straps of iron; breadth
at the heel of the mould-board to land side, eighteen inches;
the spread of the mould-board w^as twenty-seven inches; the
lower edge of the beam was two feet four inches above the sole;
width of share fifteen inches.

The history of this plow is so admirably stated in a letter from
Gov. Holbrook, of Vermont, that we give it in his words. "I
have certainly been faulty in recollection, in that I have not before
now, given you an account of what I personally know of the
efforts of the late Daniel Webster, to improve the plow for deep
thorough plowing. My memory was jogged in this regard by a
question put to me in a letter received from a friend, yesterday,
touching this matter; and, therefore, I now write to give you an
account of Mr. Webster's great plow.

" You doubtless know that Mr. Webster was passionately fond of
farming and rural life, of farm stock, and especially large, sleek,
superb oxen, of which he always kept several yokes (as Ave say in
Yankee phrase) or pairs for the w^ork of the farm at Marshfield.
He not only himself raised the best of large, lusty steers, which
were closely matched and trained to the yoke, but not unfrequently
he bought Avorking oxen when opportunities offered for securing
those which Av^ere Avell matched, Avell trained, of large size and
superior quality.

'• In perfect accordance with his thoroughness in everything else,
he belicA'^ed in deep, thorough ploAA^ing, and that our farmers Avere
quite too superficial in the tillage of the land. But at that early
day there Avere no ploAA's made that could turn a furrow of more
than fiA^e or six inches deep. Therefore, he determined to make
a ploAV himself that would give him the depth of furroAv he desired
in his farming, for a deeper furroAV he must have, no matter, he
said, if it was a foot deep.

" According!}^, some thirty years ago or more, he set himself at

10 4

Report on Trials of Plows.

History of tue Plow.

105

_^ ,-1 ^ (M r-l

CO 05 CO <M "* »«

o

■w

S gf^.

fi S c ^ r-

5~ «^ rt

?5 C

o o o ^ g

CCS
O (U o

HHHP

=^c„

o 5^ "o o d o

106 Report on Trials of Plows.

work to plan a large plow, and employed a wheelwright to make
the wooden mould-board agreeably to his directions and under his
daily personal supervision, and then a blacksmith was employed
to cover the mould-board with straps of thin iron in the usual way
of strapping wood mould-boards in those days, and to set the
wrought iron and steel-edge share, and the lock-coulter, which
passed up from the share through the beam, all agreeably to Mr.
Webster's directions. Then the wheelwright was directed how to
set the beam and handles. Everything must be done precisely as
he directed as to landing of beam, pitch and landing of share, etc.,
and he felt as much interest and enthusiasm in the production of
this plow as anybody could.

" The mould-board was immensely large and long, and was con-
structed substantially on Jefferson's principle of straight lines,
but with such modifications and variations in form as Mr. Webster
thought best, such as greater length, proportionately, and with
more twist or overhang at the rear end, so as more surely to invert
the sod in deep plowing. It was constructed to turn a furrow a
foot deep and about two feet wide. The beam, of the toughest
white oak, was long and of huge strength, sufficient for four yokes
of his large oxen.

" When the plow was completed, ready for trial in the ground,
Mr. Webster was the first man to hold it, and worked several
hours with it, feeling greatly delighted with the capacity of his
new plow for deep, thorough work.

" With this huge plow and a strong team the rough tillage lands
at Marshfield, and such of the pastures as had become more or
less covered with bushes and shrub oaks, small white birches, etc.,
were deeply plowed and thoroughly turned over and subdued.
The bushes and shrubs were cut at the surface of the ground and
cleared ofi" the land, and the roots and stumps turned over by the
plow.

" I visited Marshfield and Mr. Webster about twenty years ago,
when he showed me this plow, explained how and Avhy he got it
up, and took me to see a field which had recently been cleared
of bushes and shrubs and deeply plowed with this large plow. I
remember his making a remark to me, substantially as follows:
' When I have hold of the handles of my big plow in such a field
as this, with four yokes of oxen to pull it through, and hear the
roots crack, and see the stumps all go under the furrow, out of
sight, and observe the clean mellowed surface of the plowed land.

History of the Plow. 107

I feci more enthusiasm over my achievement than comes from my
encounters in public life at Washington.' That is the idea, and
not far from the lano-uao-e of his remark to me."

The following letter, received after Gov. Holbrook's gives Mr.
Harve^^'s recollections of the history of the Webster plow:

" Boston, yl^nV 18^/^ 1868.

" My Dear Sir — I send you, by to-day's mail, the drawings of
the Webster plow, together with a sketch, which will give you
the means of furnishing an accurate description of its dimensions.

" This plow was manufactured in Mr. Webster's workshop on
his farm at Marshfield; the model and plan of its construction
was entirely his own, and much of the work was performed by
his own hand.

"He had, on his extensive farm at Marshfield, laying near to
the sea (upland country), some eight or ten acres, more or less,
on which there had been a growth of stunted oak, lit only for fire
wood. This had been cut for this purpose; and an undergrowth
of scraggy roots, spreading in every direction, had sprung up.
It was useless for cultivation as it then was, the roots or stumps
too small and too numerous to be removed with an ordinary stump
puller, and too strong for any ordinary plow to grapple with.
This plow was made to meet the difficulty, and succeeded.

" I have seen the great man holding the plow, assisted by some
six or eight farmers, with strong arms, while it was propelled by
six pairs of oxen, tearing up roots and everything else that stood
in its way, accomplishing a triumph great in its way, as had been
often performed by its maker in the many intellectual triumphs
in the forum and senate, and appai-ently giving him quite as
much delight.

"The plow proved a success, accomplishing all for which it
was intended.

" It is probably the largest plow ever built on this continent.
" Most respectfully, youi's,

"PETER HARVEY."

A great number of inventions for sul)sidiary purposes are
recorded in the Patent Oflice, having for their object some
improvement in the clevis, the wheel, the share and various other
subordinate parts; but the next really earnest attempt to improve
the form of the plow was by James Jacobs, whose patent is dated
July 8th, 1834. and is reprosonted in Fig. 67.

108

Report on Trials of Plows.

The following extracts from his specification, will explain his
ideas:

" The mould-board of cast iron, Fig. 67, from the extreme
points of the length of the mould-board, from a to bo. straight

line is to be struck from one to the other of six inches and one-
eighth in length, and from the middle of this line a perpendicular
is to be let fall to the surface of the mould-board, which will l)o
five-sixteenths of an inch. A line is now to lie struck from the
point c, which is to be at the commencement of the thin edge of
the mould-board to the point d^ placed at the shoulder on the
under side, for the reception of the extreme edge of the back of
the share of two and five-eio;hth inches in leng-th. From the lettei-
d to a. a straight line is also to be struck of four and five-sixteeni h
inches in length; a perpendicular, let fall from the centre of tlii.s
line to the surface of the mould-board, will be full three-eighth
inch in length, and from said point c to the hinder circular edge
of the mould-board, seven-sixteenths of an inch. From the point
'I, to the pointy, a line is drawn of four and seven-sixteenth
inches in length, and a perpendicular raised from the centre of
this line to the top of the circular jjart of the upper edge of tlu?
mould-board will be a full quarter of an inch in length. From
the lettery to the letter b on the front edge of the mould-board
a line is to be struck of two and three-quarter inches in length, and
from the centre of this line a perpendicular let fall on the front

History of the Plow. 109

edse of the mould-board will be five-sixteenths inch in len^rth.
From the point d to the point b a line is to bo struck of two and
three-sixteenth inches in length, and a perpendicular raised frojn
the centre of this line to the thin edge of the mould-board will
be one-quarter inch in length. The portion of the surface of the
mould-board, contained betvveeu each point or extremity of these
original straight lines struck as above directed, is to be shaped
upon that segment or portiou of a circle as will be between said
point having the perpendicular for the height of the arch; the
line a h will be the only exception to the rule, and in this particu-
lar that three-quarters of the distance across from a towards b will
be described on nearly a straight line, the extremity of the point
beino; a little elevated.

" From the point k to the point g in Fig. 2, showing a left hand
view of the mould-board, the line between these extremities or
points will be of one and three-sixteenth inches in length, and
another line from the point/ top' will be two and a half inches in
length; the point k is to drop one-eighth of an inch below a hori-
zontal line drawn from g towards b. From the point g to b the
length of the line will be one and three-sixteenths inch. From
the point h to I the length will be one and five-sixteenths of an
inch. A perpendicular is let fall from the point a to the hori-
zontal plane on which the flat part of the under side of the
mould-board rests, designated by the point I, being that of the
intersection, and another line at right angles with it, being con-
tinued from the point I till it intersects the line running along
the face of the slice from k to g, parallel with the bar, at the
point j gives a line struck from I to j of three inches in length,
which gives the correct width of the board behind from outside
to outside. On the back of the inside of the mould-board a flat
shoulder is formed of about two inches in length, increasing in
thickness of the mould-board towards the upper part to about
double the width of the average thickness of the mould-board
throughout, and thereby presents a flat surface upon which the
right handle is bolted. On the line k g, as a base, a perpendicu-
lar is to be raised through / to the point m g two and three-
quarter inches in height, and another parallel to it at one inch
distant of two and nine-sixteenths of an inch in height. The
distance from m to o will be a projection of one-quarter of an
inch forwards. The curved line of the front edge of the slice
continues its direction beyond /about half the distance on to m,

110 Report on Trials of Plows.

when it projects forward about one-quarter of an inch and is then
moulded off to the point o, thereby leaving sufficient shoulder
for the hole through which the front bolt is to be fastened. On
the face of the mould-board, Fig. 1, the concave surface d to e
continues in the same slope to about two-thirds the distance above
the neck over the line f c, where it projects forward in a concave
sufficiently deep for the reception of the head of the front bolt
terminating at the top under the beam in a sharp edge, having
the corners rounded off. The back part of this head runs back
about one-quarter of an inch beyond the curved line of the back
part of the slice, thereb}' leaving space for the insertion of a hole
to be cast for the reception of the end of the brace that extends
from the heel of the bar to the said hole in the head. This form
and arrangement present such a shaped mould or pattern as may
be cast at one operation.

" Fig. 3 is a view of the share where a line from the point a
to the point c extends to two and four-eighths inches in length,
and a line from c to b is of three and three-eighths inches in length,
and the distance c to e is one and five-eighths inches along the bar.
The width of the share from e to d is two and three-eighths
inches, and the edge from heel to point is sharp throughout.
That part between a and / extending in a circular from d to f,
and the remainder of the point from f to a, is rounded at the
extremity of said point. The depth at c, in Fig. 4, of the bar
is to be three-eighths of an inch, and at e it is to be seven-eighths,
and extending back to b of the same depth, this share and bar is
to be made of wrought iron. These proportions are reduced to
one-fourth of a plow of full size, so that in constructing a mould-
board of the full size of my ' Smeller Plow ' the proportions are
to be increased accordingly."

It will be observed that Mr. Jacobs' method is wholly empirical,
or, at least, if there is a principle involved in its construction, it
is not obvious to us after a careful examination, and none is hinted
at in the specification. It consists simply of lines drawn in certain
directions, and of specified lengths in a plane and from given
points in these lines, letting fall perpendiculars of given lengths,
which are ordinates to the desired curve at these points; the points
of the curve being ascertained in this way, the remainder of the
pattern is cut aAvay so as to form a regular curve with them.

The next attempt to apply mathematical principles to the con-
struction of the mould-board was made by Aaron Smith, of

History of the Plow.

Ill

BloomfieUl, Michigan, who obtained a patent May 10th, 1844.
This is the plow which first came into notice as the " Michigan
plow " at the great trial by the New York State Agricultural
Society, at Albany, in 1850, and which, with some important
modifications, is now known as the sod and sab-soil plow, and is
one of the best plows in existence for sod lands. A figure of this
plow complete is given in the Society's Transactions for 1850.
Figs. 69 a, 69 b, 69 c, 69 cZ, 69 e, 69 /, 68 and 69 represent the
plow in detail. Fig. Q>^ represents the sole; Fig. 69 _/' represents
the sole of the share.

The following extracts from the specification will give an idea
of the principles involved in its construction:

" Fig. 68 is a plan of the hind plow as I draw it on my working-
board when preparing to make a pattern. The numbers on the line
J J, representing the land side, show the distance between the
principal points of the varying outline of the mould-board as

|,,8 7 6 J <^ 3 2 / (!)

lA

'If 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 T 1 i|i|i||i|

W Sc^le 1'/^ inch 1 foot ll|

T\^

Fig. 68.

marked by the dotted lines drawn at right angles to the land-side
and terminating in those principal points. The distance from the
face of the land side to these principal points are marked on these
dotted lines.

" Fig. 69 is a rig-ht-hand or face-view of the mould-board, with
the share attached, showing the outline of its respective sides. The
line u I is erected perpendicularly from the point of the mould-
board. The measurements in the dotted lines, drawn horizontally
from the perpendicular, give the outline of the head of the board.

112

Report on Trials of Plows.

said measurements being taken at the respective distances marked
on the perpendicular; the line m n is drawn in the plane of the
base of the mould-board, and the numbers from the perpendicu-
lars drawn from the line give the outline of the lower side of the
end of the board, and also of the top of it us far as the lin-; op;

Fig. 69.

and the measurements from the line p ?', drawn through the point
p, parallel to the plane of the base ot the board, gives its remain-
ing outline to the sheath (generally called the standard). The
line n b' c' p is a guide line in forming the face of the board. The
curve, b c h, may be determined bv the scale of one and a half
inches to the foot, which is that to which the respective figures
showing the parts in details are drawn. The face of the mould-
board was exactly perpendicular, and the line o jj from 5- to p is
in it; o p is also one of the guide lines in forming the face of the
board. The rise of the line of the board from a' to t' is made at
such a rate, compared with the spread of the board, as will exactly
preserve through that distance the same width of the plow as at
the heel, a'. From t' to the perpendicular the rise is such that
the increased width of the plow (Fig. 6S) is to the distance as
one to two and one quarter inches, and from the perpendicular to
the end of the board these measurements are as one to one. The
point, t', being where the action of the farrow slice, following
that of the heel,«', commences, I make that a point through which
to draw a line from the point of the mould-board, «, to the per-
pendicular. This line also lies in the surface of the board, and as

History of the Plow.

113

^''^^^.

D?^

Fig. 69, d.

Fig. 69, e.

114 Report on Trtals of Plows.

a guide line. The lines v p and v u, both being in the surface of
the board, the one where the furrow slice is nearly horizontal,
and the other where it is perpendicular, the point, v. Fig. 69,
I take as a radiating point to u b' c' jp. A straight edge is to lie
in each of these radiating lines so as to fit the actual mould-board.

" The same figure also exhibits another series of lines which lie
in the surface of the board. These are parallel to the forward
part of the base, u s, of the board, and touch the curve, u b c p,
and the perpendicuhir, o ]). They are also fitted by a straight
edge. The angle formed by the base of the land side and the
line li s is about 37| degrees. The triangular space, a' s m, repre-
sents the heel of the mould-board, which is so formed as to cause
it to lift or carry up the furrow slice to the top of that of the
forward plow, which is from three to three and a half inches.
The form of this part is shown in Fig. 69, b i s, which is an end
view of the heel, looking at it from the rear end of the plow.
The line a s is formed by the termination of the curving out of the
mould-board as seen at a', Fig. 69, b is; the part a' in the same
figure being a vertical continuation of the body of the mould-
board down to the sole, by which particular form this j^art is
removed entirely out of the way of the furrow slice of the forward
jjlow. The slice cut off by the fore plow may be about two and
a half or three inches in thickness, and it is turned over by it
into the furrow last made.

"Fig. 9 is a left-hand view of the mould-board of the forward
plow, separate from the share and land side. E, Fig. 12 is the
share seen in place in Figs. 16 and 17.

"Fig. 14 is the plan of the length and width of this plow cor-
responding to Fig. 68 of the hind plow.

"Fig. 15 is a right-hand view of the mould-board, share and
coulter as combined for use.

" It wall be seen on inspection that the curve of the mould-
board forms an irregular conical fioure, the larger end beino"
directed forward."

In October, 1839, Samuel Witherow, of Gett3'sburg, and
David Pierce, of Philadelphia, took out a patent Avhich was truly
novel. We have not been able to ascertain that it ever got into
general use, but it certainly seems worthy of a thorough trial.
The following extract from the specification will show the prin-
ciple upon which it was founded very clearly:

" It is a princi])le resting upon mathematical dcm uistration that

History of the Plow.

115

a cycloiJal arc is that which offers the least resistance to a
descending body, and it is hence deducible that an ascending
l)ody will pass up a cycloidal curve with less resistance than up
any other."

This may be true, but wo have never seen any such demonstra-
tion. It is undoubtedly true that a body will fall through a
cycloidal arc in less time than any other.

" The construction of our mould-boards is dependent on this
principle. In forming them we employ the cycloidal curve iu
two Avays, namely, to the formation of the concave of the mould-
board in the lines of ascent of the sward or furrow slice in the
act of plowing. The second application of the cycloidal curve is
in the convex curve along the sole of the plow, constituting the
part which enters and cuts the ground horizontally. In the
accompanying drawing. Fig. 70 represents a mould-board, A being-
its point and B its heel;
H the line A B is that of
the sole constituting the
lower edge which cuts
the furrow slice horizon-
tally. This curve in a
pjow which has been
essayed, and has been
found to answer well, was generated by a circle of eighteen
inches in 'diameter.

" In Fig. 71 the curve C D E may represent the cycloid genera-
ted by the cii'cle F. The point
D, which is that of least curva-
ture, corresponds ^vitli the point
A of the plow Fig. 70, the
cycloidal line continuing to the
hind part or heel at B. It will,
no doubt, be advantageous to
vary the curve according to the nature of the soil — a point to bo
determined by experience — but whatever variation may be found
useful in this respect is still to be made in conformity with the
principle upon which we proceed, namely, that of making it
cycloidal. The line I H along the upper part of the mould-board
and in a plane parallel to that of the plane of the line A B, we
also make to fit the same cycloidal gauge.

" In the plow that has been put in operation with a view of testing

Ji'ig. 70.

F'ig

116 Report on Trials of Plows.

the principle, the lines of the ascent of the furrow slice which
govern the concavity of the mould-board, were regulated by a
cycloidal gauge made to a curve generated by a circle of sixteen
inches in diameter. Let C D G, Fig. 71, represent such a gauge,
and the lines a^ a^, &c.. Fig. 70, be assumed as those of the ascent of
tlie furrow slice on the mould-board; in formino^ said board we
place the gauge in the direction a' with the part D, which is that of
least curvature at a', and thus proceed on until we arrive at the
hinder part, B H, withdrawing or lowering the gauge at its lower
end at each successive application, so that a small ^lortion of the
least curved portion towards D, and a larger portion of that
towards C shall touch the mould-board; these successive depres-
sions may be indicated by the divisions at D upon the gauge.
The degrree in which the mould-board shall curve and hang^ over
at H for turning the furrow slice may be varied according to the
judgment of the maker, the curvature being governed by the
diameter of the o-eneratino- circle and the deo:ree in which the
gauge is depressed at every successive application of it.

" Having thus fully set forth the nature of our invention, and
shown the manner in which we carry the same into operation,
what we claim therein is the giving to our mould-board the seg-
ment of a cycloid convexly on its face in a line leading from front
to rear, and concavely in the lines of the ascent of the furrow
slice."

Eemarks by the Inventors.

"The main object is to pulverize the soil" — (they are the first
who have made this avowal among inventors) — " and the onl}' way
in which this can be eftected is by bending a furrow slice on a
curved surface" — (this is the first allusion that we have met with
to the influence of the shape of the surface in cracking the soil) —
"so formed that it shall also twist it somewhat in the manner of
the screw. Such a surface will be formed by taking a strip of
iron and twisting it after the manner of a screw auger; and if
there is given to this piece of iron a greater twist at one end than
the other, cycloidal curves may be thereby produced. Now as
the curvature of the cycloidal mould-board generally increases
from the lowest to the highest point of ascent, it follows, neces-
sarily, that the furrow slice, in passing along it, will ])e more and
more bent as it ascends. By forming the fore part of the mould-
board by means of that point of the cycloidal gauge which has
the least curvature and the hinder part b^- tiiat portion which lias

History of the Plow. 117

the greatest, the bending of the furrow will continue and be
increased as it passes horizontally as well as in its ascent. By
forming the lines of ascent cycloidal concavely and the horizontal
lines cycloidal convexly, the twist in the mould-board will gradu-
ally increase from the fore to the hinder part as the curves con-
tract, which Avill operate very advantageously in pulverizing the
soil. The convex cycloidal form given to the horizontal lines will
cause the furrow slice to leave the mould-board in a direction
M'cll calculated to prevent it from falling otf in segments. The
advantages possessed by this mould-board, as has been abundantly
proved in practice, are, that it will seem light, and that it will
turn the furrow slice over in a connected sheet well pulverized."

It has always been an object with inventors to diminish the
friction of the land side. The first earnest attempt to realize this
idea in practice was by T. D. Burrall, of Geneva, who claimed, on
the 28th of October, 1843, as follows:

"The nature of the invention consists in removing the sole of
the land side, and placing an inclined wheel, denominated a shell
wheel, between the land side and the mould-board, with its face
in a line with the cut of the coulter. The land side curves up
from the point of the share and backward to the junction of the
handle and beam. The beam is halved on the land side outward
and the handle is aifixed to the side of it, the whole being secured
by a screw bolt passing through them. This forms a secure joint,
without tenon and mortise, without materially weakening the beam
or handles. This plow was carefully tested by the New York State
Agricultural Society. At first it ran easier than the plows that
were tried in competition with it, but after a little while it became
choked, and then its draft was greater than the others. The
judges of the society did not consider it an improvement, and we
believe the public have pretty fully ratified their decision."

In the year 1839, Cyrus Alger, of Boston, received a patent for
annealing cast iron plows, by which they were rendered malleable,
so that the shape could be altered when desired, and then hardens I
and tempered like steel. We are not informed whether this
patent was ever brought into practical use, or whether it answered,
in any tolerable degree, the purposes for which it was designed.
If it really accomplished what it proposed to do, it would, in our
judgment, be very important.

The next attempt at a mathematical mould-board was made by
Mr. Samuel A. Knox, of Worcester, for m.-iiiy years the foreni.iii

118 Report on Trials of Plows.

of Messrs. Ruggles, Nourse &, Mason. It is strictly geometrical
in its construction, and it probably works with as little resistance
as any plow that was ever made. It turns over the furrow very
handsomely as well as evenly, and would secure the unlimited
approbation of an English plowman; but its pulverizing power is
somewhat deficient, and it therefore fails in what we consider one
of the most important functions of a plow. A view of all the
lines is given in Plate VIII. The patent for this method was

granted in 1852.

KJNOx's Specification.

"To enable any one skilled in the art of plow-making to form
the mould-board of plows, according to my said invention, I will
first describe the mode of determinino- the form of the surface
of a pattern from which to mould and cast the mould-board of a
green-SAvard, flat-furrow plow intended for a twelve-inch furrow;
and I will then indicate the changes necessary to the production
of the required form for an old-ground plow, from which any
skillful plowmaker will be enabled to make the necessary change s
for plows of any other dimensions.

" For making the pattern from which to cast the mould-board
of a green-sward, flat-furrow plow, I first determine the propor-
tions of the base by drawing a line, A a, diagram Fig. 1, which
represents the line of the land side, and at right angles to this I
draw another line, B b, on which I determine the breadth of the
base of the plow from the line of the land side to the heel, c, of
the mould-board, say twelve inches for a furrow of that breadth,
and this I divide into inches. I then draw two lines, D d and
E e, parallel with, and one on each side of, and at a distance of
twelve inches from, the line B b. I then draw a diagonal line,
F y, from the intersection of the line D d and A a, passing
through the line B b iit c (the heel of the intended mould-board),
and project the said line until it intersects the line B e at e, and
the plane of this line, B f, perpendicular to the base, at tlio
I'cquired height, to be hereafter specified, determines the iucli na-
tion of the upper edge of the working surface of the intendi'd
mould-board to the vertical plane of the line A a or laud side.
The distance of the point of the plow at //, from the line B b, is
determined by multiplying the length of the diagonal line, Bf,
in inches, from the point where it intersects the lines A a and
D d to the point of its intersection with the line B b, by an
equ;il nmnbcr of inclics, and (Icn dividing this product ))y the

Phitc YIII.

S«nmJ) %. l,>«ai, fa^,wv\^,^) iJ^iA) . f)ou)u\.) J) SU.l.

^a

w^

~^

f

9

V

~r"

-\

. .A

History of the Plow. 119

breadth of the intended plow at the heel, c, of the mould-l)oard,
say twelve inches, the product of which will be twenty-four inches
and one twelfth (24yL)) and add to this product one-tenth thereof,
which will make the distance of the point from the line B h
twenty-six inches and fifty-nine one hundred and twentieths (-/./g).

" Having determined the above proportions, I build up a block,
represented at Figs. 2 and 3, from which to form the pattern, and
consistinor of a series of flat blocks of wood, fflued tosrether to
the required height in the usual manner of preparing blocks for
making plow patterns.

" The face, A a, of the said block is made perpendicular to the
base and corresponds to the line A a or land side of diagram
Fig. 1; the end, E e., presents a plane perpendicular to the base
and at right angles to the face, A a, and corresponding with the
line E e, of diagram Fig. 1, and the opposite end at g is cut to
the required length for the location of the point of the plow.
On the under side or face of this block I transfer the two lines
B h and D d and the diagonal line Ffivom. diagram Fig. 1, as
represented in the dotted lines. Fig. 3. And I also mark on the
face, A «, and also on the opposite face of the said black lines,
B b and D d to represent the planes of the said lines perpen-
dicular to the base, as represented by dotted lines in Fig. 2.

"I divide the block into three imaginary divisions by three
imaginary planes perpendicular to the base, and corresponding
with the three lines B b, D d and E e, the first division being at
the line D d, the second at the line B b, and passing through the
heel of the intended mould-board, and the third at the line E e;
I then draw a diagram. Fig. 6, with a base line representing
the base of the plow on which I erect a perpendicular line. A; a
representing the land side or line A «, diagram Fig. 1, and parallel
therewith, and at a distance therefrom of equal to the breadth of
the plow from the heel of the mould-board, in this case twelve
inches, draw line B corresponding with the line B b on diagram
Fig. 1, and from the base mark on the said line twelve divisions
of one inch each, numbered from one to twelve. And I then
strike the arc of a circle, h, on a radius of double the breadth of
the intended plow at the heel of the mould-board, which in this
case will be twenty-four inches, the said arc being made to inter-
sect the line B b at the base and at the twelfth division from the
base; and then draw lines parallel with the base through each of
the points of the twelve divisions to intersect or cut the said arc,

120 Report on Trials of Plows.

the said lines being indicated by the figures numbering the several
divisions on the line B b. The arc h represents the concavity of
the face of the intended mould-board at the second imaginary
division. And the point of intersection of the said arc h with
the base in the position of the heel of the mould-board and
marked c, and the point of its intersection with the division line
12 determines the height of the line Ff of the upper edge of
the working surface of the mould-board and perpendicularly over
the heel of the mould-board.

" On the said diagram Fig. 6, I draw another line, E e, parallel
with the line B b, and at a distance therefrom equal to the breadth
of the plow at the heel of the mould-board, and in this case
twelve inches. I then draw a straight line, fff^, from the point of
intersection of the line A a with the base to the point of intersec-
tion of the division line 4 with the arc h, and project it beyond the
arc h. But it becomes necessary to determine the height, from
the base, at which this line g f^ will intersect the plane of the
third division. This I obtain on Fig. 5, which represents the
lines on the face of the mould-board when jjrojected on a plane
perpendicular to the base. On this figure I draw the three par-
allel lines D d, B b^ E e perpendicular to the base, and, as in
the other figures, indicating the first, second and third divisions,
as also the distance of the pointy of the plow from the second
division. I transfer on the line B b oi this Fisr. 5, from diagrrani
Fig. 6, the several divisions numbered from one to twelve of the
arc h of Fig. 6, and I then draw a straight line from the point g
through the division numbered 4 and project it to the line E e,
or plane of the third division, and this gives the inclination of
the line g f^ to the base, and hence the height of its intersection
with the plane of the third division. And this height from the
base I transfer to diagram Fig. (3, and draw through it a line M ni
parallel with the base until it intersects the line g f^ on this dia-
gram Fig. 6, and from this point of intersection I describe thi;
arc of a cirle / on a radius equal to the breadth of the plow at
the heel of the mould-board, in this case twelve inches; I tiien
describe an arc of a circle, k, of a radius of four times the breadth
of the plow at the heel of the mould-board, and in this case
forty-eight inches, making the said arc pass through the points of
intersection of the arc /with the line E e, and the line g f^ with
the line Mm. This arc of a circle, k, determines the concavity
of the face of the mould-board at the plane of the third division,

History of the Plow. 121

and the point of its intersection with the line E e determines the
height of the npper edge of the working surface of the mould-
board from the base. And having thus obtained this height I
transfer it on to the line E e, Fig. 5, and from this height I draw
the diagonal line F f'^'^ intersecting the division 12 on the line
B b twelve inches from the base, and project it to the front end
of the plow. The inclination of this line to the base line gives
the inclination of the upper edge of the working surface to the
base of the plow, its inclination to the plane of the land side
having been determined by the line Ff on diagram Fig. 1. The
inclination of the line g f^ to the plane of the base has already
been determined, and to determine its inclination to the plane of
the land side, I delineate on diagram Fig. 1 the arc h of Fig. 6,
so that the chord of the arc shall be parallel with the line A a,
and intersecting the line B b at the point c, or heel of the mould-
board, and so that the line of division 4 shall coincide with the
line B b, the convexity of the arc being towards the line A a, 1
then draw the diagonal line gf^ from the point g of the plow to
the line E e, or third division, and intersecting the line B b at
the point of its intersection with the arc 7i. The inclination of
this line, gf^, to the plane of the land side, so determined on
diagram Fig. 1, I transfer to Fig. 4, which represents a plan view
of the mould-board, with the lines projected on a horizontal
plane, where it indicates the inclination of that part of the sur-
face of the mould-board to the plane of the land side, along the
entire length of the mould-board, the inclination thereof to the
base having already been defined and represented in Fig. 5.

"Having, in the manner above described, defined and located
the inclination of the surface of the mould-board to the plane of
the base and the plane of the land side, along the straight line
Ff^'^ or upper edge of the working surface, and along the straight
edge, ^/*, from the point of the plow to the third division, it
becomes necessary to define the form at certain distances between
these two lines sufiiciently near to each other that the workman
may practically work down the whole surface of the mould-board.
I have found that by lifting the form on the lines at distances of
about an inch apart, that the workman can finish the residue of the
surface with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes; but,
after the location of certain lines at this distance apart, by the
same rules these divisions can be multiplied to an indefinite
extent.

122 Report on Trials of Plows.

"Referring to diagram Fig. 6, the diagonal lines Ff^- and g f^
will be found. On the line IlJ el divide the space between tlie
points of its intersection with the arc, 7^, and the line M m into
eight equal parts, and from each of the points of division I draw
lines parallel with the base to intersect the arc, h, and these points
of intersection I mark from 4 to 12, as the divisions are marked
on the arc, /^, of the second division; and I then draw diagonal
lines, /^, f^^ p, f^, f^, /^°, f^\ passing through points of the
divisions correspondingly numbered on the arc, h, of the second
division, and on the arc, k, of the third division, and project them
until they intersect the first division. On Fig. 5, I measure the
height from the base where the line F f^'^ intersects the line D d
or plane of the first division, and transfer that distance or height
on the line A a or plane of the land side. In like manner, on
Fig. 5, I measure the distance or height from the base where tlio
line g f^ intersects the line D d or plane of the first division, and
transfer that height on to the line A a, of Fig. G, from the base,
and draw a line, N n^ parallel with the base until the said line
intersects the diagonal line, g y^, and this point of intersection
will be found to be at the same distance from the line A a, Fig. 1,
as the point of its intersection of the said line g f^ with the line
D d or plane of the first division is distant from the plane of the
land side, so that these several points of intersection on these
several figures prove each other. I then strike an arc, o, of the
same radius as the arc k (forty-eight inches), so that it shall inter-
sect the point Avhere the line F f^"^ intersects the line A a, and
also the point where the line ^n intersects the diagonal \u\e g f^;
and the distance between the lines F f^~ and N n, where these
lines cut the said line A a, 1 divide into eight equal parts, and
from these divisions I draw lines parallel with the base, and these
several lines will be found to cut the several diagonal lines, /'^ to
jf^^', inclusive, where they intersect the arc o, which points of
intersection on the said arc, o, are numbered from 5 to 11, as tlio
corresponding divisions are marked on the ares, h and /,■, of the
second and third divisions.

" From the several points of intersection on the said arcs o and k
of the first and third divisions, numbered from 4 to 12 inclusive,
I draw lines perpendicular to the base, and cutting the said base
lines; and the divisions thus obtained on the base line of Fig. 6
I then transfer to Fig. 4, transferring the divisions obtained from
the arc o on to the line 1) d, or tii'st division, and begiinu'ng with . .

History of the Plow. 123

number 4, which will be found to coincide with the diagonal
line g f^ and ending with number 12, which in both figures is the
IDoint of intersection of the diagonal line Ff^' with the line ^ «
or plane of the land side. And the divisions obtained from the
arc k or third division, in like manner transfer to the line E e, or
third division, on Fig. 4, measuring on both figures fi-om the lines
A «, or plane of the land side, and the division number 4 will be
found to coincide with the diagonal g f^, and the division num-
ber 12 with the diagonal line Ff^'^ or upper edge of the working
surface of the mould-board. From the several points of division
thus transferred on the lines D d and F e of Fig, 4, except the
two numbered 4 and 12, on which the lines Ff^~ and gf^ were
previously drawn, I draw straight lines diagonal to the plane of
the land side, which lines are marked Ff^ to 11 inclusive. And
where these several lines cut the lines B b, or plane of the second
division, the distance of each from the line A a, or plane of the
land side, will be found, on measurement, to be equal to the dis-
tance of the correspondingly numbered divisions on the arc h of
the second division from the line A a on diagram Fig. 6. In this
way the inclination which the surface of the mould-board makes
to the plane of the land side along the several lines gf^ to Ff^'
is obtained, defined and proved, and it only remains to olUain,
define and prove the inclination of the said surface to the base of
the plow along the said lines. This is done by transferrinjx the
divisions on the arcs o and k, as projected by lines parallel with
the base, to the lines A a and F e. Those on the line A a of
F'icr. 6, I transfer to the line D d of Fig-. 5, measurino; both fitjures
from the base; and those on line F e of Fig. 6 to the correspond-
ing line F e of Fig. 5, measuring both figures from the base.
The surface of the mould-board having been defined at the first,
second and third divisions, and along the several inclined lines
from g f^ to F f^', the workman will be enabled to make the
surface between conform properly to the surface at these lines;
but it will be obvious that the number of graduations on the arc
h of the second division, instead of being made one inch apart,
which I have found to be sufllicient in practice, may be made as
much less than an inch as the constructor may desire. As the
form below the line gf'^ runs into the cutting edge of the share
it is left to the judgment of the constructor to determine the
form of that part, as also the form or extent of the surface above
the line of the ui)per working edge; of the m()ul(l-lK)ard and the

124 Report on Trials of Plows.

extent of the wing back of the second division, as it may be cut
short of, or extended back of the third division; as also with the
amount to be cnt away along the lower edge of the wing back of
the heel of the mould-board.

" The drawings represent that form of the auxiliarj^ parts which
I prefer, but to which I do not wish to be nuderstood as confining
myself. The points where the several lines g f^ to F f^'^ inter-
sect the vertical plane of the land side, and marked jj^ to p^"^, in
Fig. 5, will give the general configuration of the line of the
forward cutting-edge, termed the shin of the plow. The mode
of procedure which I have adopted for working out the block of
wood to the form required for making a pattern is as follows: 1
make an instrument or gauge, Fig. 7, consisting of a plate, q, on
a base, r, at right angles therewith, and one edge of the plate, q,
is cut to a form fitting the concavity oi the arc, h, Fig. 6, when the
base, r, of the said instrument is in the plane of the base of the
said Fig. 6. and hence this curved edge will be the proper gauge
to determine when the face of the block, Figs. 2 and 3, is cut to
the required concavity in the plane of the second division. I
transfer on the face of the plate, q, of the said gauge up to the
curved edge thereof, the graduations or divisions of the arc, h,
Fig. 6. When the plane of the said gauge is in the plane of the
second division, B b, and the plane of its base in the plane of the
base of the block and the angle, c, at twelve inches from the face,
A a, of the said block, or vertical plane of the land side, then
the workman has obtained the required concavity of the face of
the block in the plane of the second division, and marks thereon
the divisions on the face of the gauge to locate the several
divisions, numbered from 1 to 12, of Fig. 6. I then make another
gauge, Fig. 8, in like manner, with the curved edge thereof fitted
to the concavity of the arc k, Fig. 6. While the base of the gauge
is in the plane of the base of Fig. 6, and on the face of thisgaugo,
I transfer the graduations of the arc k. I then cut into the face
of the block, in the direction of the plane of the third division,
until the curved edge of the said gauge touches every part of the
said surface, and its vertical edge, £J e, is at the same distance
from the plane of the block which represents the land side, as the
line ^ e, Fig. 6, is from the line A a, of the said figure, and the
base of the gauge is in the plane of the base of the block. This
determines the requisite concavity of the block in the plane of
the third division, and at the re(juircd distance from the land

History of the Plow. 125

side, and I then transfer on the surface of the block the gradua-
tions on the edge of the gauge, numbered from 4 to 12.

" I then make a third gauge, Fig. 9, in like manner as the other
two, to correspond in every respect witli the arc o, Fig. 6, as the
other gauges were made to correspond with the arcs h and A-. I
cut and mark the surface of the block on the plane of the first
division in the same manner as it was cut and marked by the
other gauges in the plane of the second and third divisions, and
bearing the same relation to the face of the block which repre-
sents the land side that the arc o, on Fig. 6, bears to the line A a
or plane of the land side. Having thus cut away the surface of
the block to the required concavity in the jDlane of the first,
second and third divisions, and marked and numbered thereon the
several graduations to correspond with the graduations on the
arcs 0, h and h^ of Fig. 6, I then cut away the surface of the
block in the direction of straight lines, so that a straight edge
Avill touch along the entire length of the surface, passing through
the graduations correspondingly numbered on the concavity at
the three divisions, as shown on Figs. 4 and 5 by the lines g f^
Ff^ to Ff^^y inclusive, and then work off the remaining portions
of the surface between and beyond these lines to a form which
will correspond therewith."

Plows had previously been made approaching in some degree
to a cylindrical form, but Mr. Joshua Gibbs, on the 15th of
August, 1854, patented a plow which strictly conformed to this
principle, as will be seen by the following extracts from his
specification:

" Fig. 72 is an elevation of my improved plow, showing the
working side of the mould-board. Fig. — is the representation
of the interior of a cylinder from which the mould-board was
made. Fig. — is a section of said cylinder. Fig. — , the mould-
board as seen when looking at the forward end. Fig. — , the
land side and parts connected with it. * * * *

" The working surface of the mould-board, A, consists of about
one-quarter of the interior surface of a hollow cylinder, one end
of which is represented in Fig. — , and a section of the interior
in Fig. — . If the plow is intended to turn a furrow six inches
wide, a mould-board made from a cylinder of about twelve inches
bore is desirable; but if it is to turn a furrow twelve inches
wide, the mould-board should be made from a cylinder with a
bore of about two feet. As these plows have been found to work

126

Report on Trials of Plows.

best when the length of the mould-board is from once and a half
to twice the diameter of the bore of the cylinder from which the
mould-board is made, and the form of its exterior edges about the
same as represented in the drawing, the mould-board may b.e
fastened to the other parts of the plow as may be convenient or
desirable, taking into consideration the material from which it is
made. The share is fitted to the lower edge of the mould-board,
and its point is fitted to a recess in the heel of the coulter, C.

J^iff. 72.

"It has been found that when the top of the land side was
made parallel with the bottom, and a wooden standard fitted to
it, with a shoulder fitted against the top edge of the land side,
that the shoulder upon the wooden standard is soon worn oft' as
the wood wears away, so as to leave the plow defective and liable
to get loose and shackling.

" To remedy this defect, and improve the plow in this respect.
I make the top of the land side, D, opposite to the wooden stand-
ard, E, at an angle about as represented in the drawing, that is,
liigher towards the forward end of the plow, so that the iron land
side shall protect the shoulder of the wooden standard, E, and
prevent it from being worn off, so as to preserve a shoulder upon
the standard, E, as long as there is any of the iron of the angle,
F, remains upon the land side to press against it, when the false
coulter, or bolt, G, is screwed up to hold the parts together."
Claim — " making the working surface of the mould-board in the
form of a hollow cylinder; the centre or axis of said cylinder

History of the Plow. 127

being parallel or nearly parallel horizontally to the base of the
mould-board or bottom of the plow substantially as described,"

In 1858, H. M. Phitt invented a plow which was literally a
screw-auger. It had wings, and a pair of broad wheels which
turned an axis on which a mitre wheel was keyed, which phiyed
in a pinion upon the shaft of the auger, which drew the slice
backward on to the wings, which rolled it over into position.
Wc believe this has not been successful in practice.

M. L. Roberts, of Smithville, Canada West, has no land side,
but in place of it a wheel whose plane is at an angle of 45 degrees,
and the mould-board consists of vertical rollers, the object of
which is to diminish the friction of plowing.

Chapman & Barnum have also patented a device for diminishing
the friction of the land side, which consists in substituting for the
ordinary rear wing of the mould-board a revolving body what
would be called a cone if its sides were bounded by straight lines.
The sections, made vertically through the axis, are arcs of circles.
The small end of the cone is directed downward and the larger
one upward. The lower end of the axis is inserted into a pro-
longation of the shoe, backward, the upper one being inserted in
a bar, movable laterally, so as to increase or diminish the angle of
the axis, at pleasure, with the plane of the sole.

We have not tried any of these friction expedients, but, from
the best information we can obtain, they are illusory, and have
never, so far, been practically successful.

In September, 1863, Mr. Mead, of New Haven, obtained a
patent for a plow, the share and mould-board of which conform
exactly to the surface of a frustum of a cone, as shown in Fig. 73.

We have now passed in review all the expedients which have
been devised within the period of four thousand years for the
improvement of the plow. We do not flatter ourselves that we
have seized on all the successive steps which have been made in
the construction of this most important implement. If any
attempt has been made to write a connected history of the plow
before us, we have not been able to find it. We have traveled
through a field hitherto unexplored, and it would indeed be
wonderful if we should not miss some of the objects lying in our
way.

It will be seen that the first idea of the plow was a crooked
stick, of which various forms were in use. Then came the pro-
vision of an iron point to the plow. Up to this time the crooked

128

Report on Trials of Plows.

sticks used were on the principle of the double mould-board;
they threw off the earth on each side. The next step was to hew
off one side of the stick, so as to throw out the earth only on one
side, approximating to a single mould-board. Then the plow
became a simple wedge, the land side being nearly parallel with
the line of the plow's motion, the other moving the furrow slice
to the right, but leaving the furrow standing on edge. Then the
wedge was gradually twisted so as regularly to invert the furrow.
Jefferson and Small discovered the importance of straight lines
running from the sole to the top of the share and mould-board.

J^iff. 73.

Colonel Pickering was the first to discover the importance of a
straijrht line running; from the front to the rear. Jethro Wood
discovered that all the lines running from front to rear should be
straight. Mr. Knox first discovered a method of laying down
all the lines of a plow on a plane surface. Mr. John Mears was
the first to discover the importance of centre draft, and pointed
out the practical means of attaining it by the inclination of the
land side inward.

Aaron Smith was the first to adopt two plows to work well
together, one of which threw two or three inches of the surface
into the bottom of the preceding furrow, and the other covered
it with the lower earth.

Finally, Governor Holbrook has invented a method by which
plows of any size may be made symmetrically, either convex or
concave, in such a way as to insure the complete pulverization of
the soil.

We believe that we have been the first to announce that the
great object in all plows is to form the curve in such a way as to
make all the parts of the furrow slice to travel with different

History of the Plow. 129

velocities in order to produce pulverization, but that these ditfer-
ent velocities should be no greater than is required for the disin-
tegration of the soil, in order to avoid an unnecessary expenditure
of power.

In vicAv of the fact that the plow has always been regarded as
the basis of all civilization and all wealth, it may well excite
astonishment that it should have required so many years to have
made the few successive advances which we have just detailed.

We can only account for the apparent anomaly by remembering
that very few of the gifted minds of successive generations have
devoted their attention to the plow, and that until the present
time there has been no clear and definite idea in the minds of
inventors of the precise objects which they were seeking to
accomplish.

We hope it wall be found that the very careful and accurate
trials with superior instruments made at Utica, will have the eliect
of giving more definite ideas to the inventors of the country, and
that the result will be seen in a more rapid series of improve-
ments in the plow in the next five years than has been accom-
plished in the preceding centuries.

Just as the manuscript is going into the hands of the printer
we have received a pamphlet giving a description of Dr. Grant's
new invention of a plow for deep tillage.

We are heartily in sympathy with the objects which the Doctor
has in view, but as we have never seen the plow nor its work we
can give no intelligent opinion of our own as to his success in
practically accomplishing those objects.

We give the drawings and description from the pamphlet as a
part of the current history of the plow.

Fig. 1 represents the lona turning plow, which has been fitted
for receiving certaii? additions hy wdiich it is transformed to ari;

y

IBO

Report on Trials of Plows.

implement of entirely new character, and rendered capable of
very desirable preparation of the gronnd l)y deep woriting. The
additions are very readily ap})lied when the transformation is
reqnired, and as easily laid aside again Avhen it is wanted for
ordinary work without impairing in any degree its utility or con-
venience.

Fig. 2 represents the most important of the additions for the
transformation to which all of the others are accessory or sup-
plemental. This consists chiefly of an inclined
plane or share, either in one or more pieces, as
circumstances may determine. This arrangement
has a corresponding land side, to Avhich the
original gives place in transformation. There are
two sizes of the inclined plane, designated as No. 1 and No. 2.
The latter is able to raise its slice of suljsoil from the greater
depth. Each size of the inclined planes has a corresponding
accessory part for rendering them more efficient for certain pur-
poses that will be noted in the account of the operation of the
implement. There are also two supplementary pieces for increas-
ing the width of the mould-board at its upper edge, the wider of
which is used for the deeper working.

JF'iff. 2.

Fiff. S.

Fig. 3 represents the most simple form of the Transformed No.
1, having the narrow supplemental plate and the No. 1 inclined
plane without any of the accessories, all of which are important
in fitting it for the variety of uses to which it is adapted. These
are of the utmost simplicity in their manner of application, are
durable in wear, and not liable to break or get out of repair.
These plows perform easily and thoroughly the operation of
trench plowing, that is often attemvjted Hjut always with a very

II f STORY OF THE PlOW.

131

sniull measure of siieecss) l)y drivijig' large plows of the ordinary
constructioti twice in the same furrow. The inclined plane per-
forms thoroughly the work of a shovel or spade, and much more,
taking up the subsoil cleanly from the bottom, leaving a level
floor, finely pulverizing and mingling it with the fertile soil, but
placing more of the surface soil at and towards the bottom than
toward the top, or vice versa, as may be desired, mingling manure
also most intimately throughout, when that is used.

Fig. 4 represents Great Trench Plow No. 1. It cuts a furrow
ten inches wide, and has good turning power for any thickness
of slice not exceeding ten inches, and is calculated for any depth
not greater than twenty inches. It is designed for heavy soils.

Fig. 5 represents Great Trench Plow No. 2, which is designed
for moderately adhesive loams, and for very friable sandy and
gravelly soils, and will do the work well two feet deep, or any
less that may be required.

Fig. 6 represents a great Trenching Plow that is constructed
for working in loams or clays, but is prepared for the reception
of appliances that adapt it for light loams or the most crumbl\

132

Report on Trials of Plows.

gravels. Its gauge is for less depth than the preceding, Ijut by
the assistance of the appliances it may be titted for a depth of
twenty inches or more.

J^/S^

Fig. 7 represents a larger plow of tne same plan as the pre-
ceding, that by such accessions as are represented in the cut can
be regulated for any kind of practicable soil and for any depth
between sixteen and twenty-four inches.

J^i^. 7.

Deep working maybe divided into two kinds that are effectual,
and one ineffectual. The two effectual kinds may be designated
by the terms half -trenching and trendiing, or, for marked distinc-
tion, thoroHcih-lrenching, The former is often preparatory to the
latter. Ineffectual deep-working is when tillage plows, going
dee])er th;in their turning gauge, simply raise the soil to let it fall
back as if nearly undisturbed. Trenching (or thorough-trenching)
consists in reversing the two strata, that is, putting the upper
fertile portion below, and lower unfertile portion above, the
thickness of the latter being determined by the depth of working.
For convenience, we designate these strata h^ the terms soil and
subsoil, as well as by the descriptive terms fertile portion and

History of the Plow.

133

mtftrtile portion, using them interchangeably, as may seem most

convenient or applicable.

When pretty deep trenching is to be done, the labor of opening

the first trench is considerably greater than that required for the

succeeding ones, whether
performed with spade or
plow, but particularly so

J^iff. /.

J^iff

with the latter. Fig. 1
1 represents a trench about
nine inches deep, through
which the turning and
trench plows have each
passed, and the raising
capacity of the latter is
^^^^^^^^^H nearly exhausted by the
7i bank. By strenuous effort,
H six inches more of depth
2. might be accomplished,

but not very satisfactorily.
To enable the plow to
gain nearly the requisite
depth in this first trench,
J, I =;:^H the bank, A, must be

removed to the position
represented at A, Fig. 2.
This may be partially
done with a plow, but
must be completed with
spades or shovels, when
the depth represented by
p, Fig. 3, may be easily
gained, but it will be
di65cult to go deeper in
the trench with any of
the plows here represent-
ed. The next proceeding
in order is to turn over
and throw down into the
trench, p, a slice com-
„. _ posed of the thickness of

I^iff. 3.

jp'ig. 4..

134

Report on Tbials of Plows.

the fertile straciiin, and

as wide as th.e trench, as

^^ represented at C. The

1 next step is to raise a

; slice of the subsoil of any

S=j^,--^j^ ;==^-==^ thickness required, not

I^iff. 6.

making greater depth
than twenty-one inches,
as shown at D. The dart
marked eighteen inches,
by error, should be 21.
The representation in Fig.
5 is of Avork done in ad-
hesive loam, and shows
^^^' '^* rather the working of the

jilow than the exact appearance of the trench, that never being
quite so clear and square after the passage of the plow, as is here
represented.

In very unadhesive, gravelly or sandy soils the appearance will
be as represented in Fig. 6. Debris, as at H, occurs in gravels,
consisting in part of the falling of the edge of the land side bank,
and in part of the falling back of the subsoil slice. This is often
in about the proportions required, and then only the passage of
the transformed, with its peculiar grinding action is required to
perfect the operation. If a larger admixture of the surface soil
is required at the bottom of the trench, a small slice of it is easily
thrown down by a small plow drawn by one horse before the
passage of the transformed.

It is, of course, impossible to leave as clean a furrow as is rep-
resented in Fig. 7, as the ground from both sides will fall in and
fill the furrow. It is rather intended to represent the actual
working of the plow at the depth of two feet. These plows are
worked with two pairs of strong oxen.

Objects to be Accojijplished by Plowing. 135

CHAPTER VI.

ON THE OBJECTS TO BE ACCOMPLISHED BY PLOWING.

Before we can judge of the best form and arrangement of the
plow, we must lirst clearly comprehend the objects sought to be
accomplished by plowing land.

In general we may say that we seek in plowing laud to cause
it to yield a greater amount of crops; but this general answer is
insufficient for our purpose. We want to know ivh^/ plowing the
laud makes it more fertile before we are in a position to know
which of the various forms of the plow is best adapted to pro-
mote the desired fertility.

If we find that two or more forms of the plow are equally/
adapted to improve the condition of the land, the question then
arises, which of them can be worked with the greatest economy?
This question involves several elements. We are to inquire
which of them can be worked with the least expenditure of
animal power. It has been proved by the trials instituted by our
own Society, by the Highland Society of Scotland, and by the
Koyal Agricultural Society of England, that some forms of the
plow can open a given sized furrow with thirty per cent less of
power than others, or what is nearly the same thing, two horses
will do as much as three. It is easy to understand that the
farmer using the one will find farming a remunerative occupation,
while the farmer that uses the other will carry on his business at
a loss. Another question which must be answered under this
head of inquiry is, which of the plows will wear the longest? It
is well known that there are great differences in this respect, some
lasting five times as long as others. The points of many plo wh
now in market wi)l only last for a single day. Again, some plows
can be advantageously worked by much less skillful workmen
than others, and, of course, unskilled laborers can always be
obtained at a lower rate of compensation than the skilled classes.
Finally, there are some plows which can be worked with far les;s
labor by the operative, which is an advantage that no good
farmer will overlook. The plow which combines with the lowest
price the greatest number of these advantages is clearly to be
taken as the cheapest plow.

136 Report ox Trials of Plows.

Let us first endeavor to underwtimd how the ploAv makes land
more fertile. To accomplish this we must know what fertility is,
and what causes it.

All plants whatever have their origin in a minute germ whose
weight is exceedingly small compared with the weight of the
fully developed plant. The germ has no creative power what-
ever; it can only assimilate other matter with its own substance,
and the whole of the extra weight of the mature plant consists
of foreign matter which, by a curious but not unintelligible
chemistry, the germ has assimilated with its own tissues and made
a part of its own substance.

The substances thus assimilated are numerous, varying in differ-
ent plants, but all derived originally from the rains and dews,
from the atmosphere and the soil.

The compounds derived from air and water are called organic;
those derived from the soil are called inorganic. Gum, sugar,
and woody fibre are examples of the former; lime, potash, iron
and saline matters are examples of the latter.

The amount of inorganic matter in plants varies from one to
twelve per cent of their whole weight, according to their differ-
ent natures; 100 pounds of wheat contains 1.18 pounds of ash
or inorganic matter; 100 pounds of rye contains 1.04 pounds; 100
pounds of barley contains 2.35 pounds; 100 pounds of oats con-
tains 2.58 pounds; 100 pounds of wheat straw contains 3.51
pounds of ash; 100 pounds of rye straw contains 2.79 pounds;
100 pounds of barley straw contains 5.24 pounds; 100 pounds
of oat straw contains 5.74 pounds.

If we have an acre of hmd which yields us 1,500 pounds of
wheat and 2,000 pounds of straw, it has taken from the soil about
eighty-eight pounds of mineral matter.

An acre of land which bears a crop of oats, consisting of one
ton of straw and forty bushels of grain, will abstract one hundred
and fifty-six pounds of mineral matter from the soil.

The mineral matter absorbed by growing plants does not exist
in the soil in unlimited quantities, but in definite quantities that
can be exactly ascertained if we resort to the proper methods of
inquiry. When we have ascertained the absolute amount of
mineral matters required by plants in the soil, if we divide the
whole number of pounds of these matters in an acre of soil by
eighty-eight, we shall know the exact numlier of crops of wheat
that can be taken from an acre; and if we divide it by one hundred

Objects to be Accomplished by Plowing. 137

and fifty-six, we shall know the number of oat crops that can be
taken.

When this number of crops has been taken from the soil, it is
evident that its capacity for producing wheat or oats is exhausted-
and can never be restored until the missing mineral is replaced
from some foreign source.

In practice, however, thei soil becomes incapable of yielding
either wheat or oats long before the supply of mineral matter is
exhausted. A wheat plant, for instance, may absolutely starve
for want of ammonia in a soil which an exact chemical analysis
shows to be superabundant in ammonia, or it may perish for lack
of phosphate of lime in a soil replete with that substance; or it
may be unable to procure a due supply of silicic acid from a soil
consisting of pure sand.

Every farmer knows that if, after it appears to be exhausted of
its mineral matter, the soil is allowed to rest, exposed to the action
of frosts, rains, dews and sun-light, it will, after the lapse of a
certain time, recover its fertility; the phosphate of lime, silicic
acid and carbonate of potash, in which it seemed utterly deficient,
have now been restored to it by the operation of its own internal
processes, and not supplied to it from without.

Again, it is found that, on many kinds of laud, very small crops
are obtained at the first plowing; but that, at every successive
plowing, the crop increases. It would seem from this that plants
increased in magnitude just in proportion to the diminution of the
supply of food.

An attentive examination of these apparent anomalies will lead
us to a clear understanding of the causes of fertility in a soil.

First — Soils may contain a superabundance of mineral matters,
though they are so unevenly distributed that a larger part of the
soil is so deficient in them that it may be absolutely barren.
Thus, if we measure oif ten square feet at one corner of an acre,
and cover it thickly with lime, the opposite corner of the acre
receiA^es no benefit from the application; there is too much lime
in one plat and none in the other. If the arable surfaces of the
two soils are mixed together, both will be benefited and both
will be more fertile. Or we may suppose that a soil deficient in
phosphate of lime has a bone buried in it. After a certain time
it will be found that some of the phosphate of lime and gelatine,
with its included nitrogen, is dissolved, and the particles of earth
in contact with the bone are saturated with the solution, and

138 Report on Trials of Plows.

cannot take up any more. If we now remove the bone and biuy
it in unsaturated earth, another portion will be dissolved, and the
soil contiguous to it will be saturated. We may thus, by suc-
cessive removals and burials of the bone until it is wholly dissolved,
render many times more soil fertile than if it had been left steadily
in one place. There is no soil known through which the fertile
matters are evenly diffused, and hence benefit must always result
from mixing together the fertile and unfertile portions.

This is one of the objects sought to be accomplished by plow-
ing land; it is because the spade accomplishes this more perfectly
than any form of plow yet known to us, that so much larger
crops can be obtained when that method of tillage is used.

Plows differ very widely in their power to mix soils together.
Those which invert the furrow completely hardly mix it at all.
Those which leave the furrow at an angle of 45 deg. mix it more
intimately. Those which take a narrow furrow do it still more
completely than those that take a broad one, and those that turn
a furrow in two successive portions, as the sod and subsoil plow,
intermingle the particles of the soil more perfectly than when it
is turned in one mass.

It is obvious, from these considerations, that by bringing into
contact with each other the particles of soil which had previously
>>een separated, we increase its fertility, and therefore those kinds
of plows which accomplish this object most perfectly, other things
being equal, are to receive the preference.

Second — A very little reflection will satisfy a former that he
may have abundant elements of fertility in his soil, yet he will
derive no benefit from them, because they are locked up by affini-
ties which the rootlets of the plant cannot overcome. Thus, one
ton of farm yard manure may be spread over a given area of soil,
and one ton of coal spread over an equal contiguous area. The
plants growing in the soil covered withhnanure will be abundant ly
supplied with ammonia, while those growing in the soil covered
with the coal will receive none, and cease to grow in conse-
quence. If now we ascertain by analysis the amount of ammonia
contained in each, we find that one ton of the former contains
17,4 pounds of ammonia, while a ton of the latter contains 47. G
pounds, or nearly three times as much as the manure contained.

The important practical question, therefore, for the farmer to
ask is, not how much plant nulriniont is contained in his soil, but

Objects to be Accomplished by Plowing. ' 139

liow much is there which is in such Vi physical and chemical con-
dition as to be available by the rootlets of the growing plant.

As the success of the practical farmer depends almost entirely
upon a knowledge of these principles, it will be necessary to give
a brief explanation of them, especially as it is necessary to com-
prehend them, if we nre to attain to clear understanding of the
theory of the plow.

Mr. Way filled several glass vases, furnished with stop-cocks
at the bottom, with dry soils of various kinds; he then poured
into each of them the drainage water from a barn j^ard loaded
with stercoraceous and saline matters which, after it had filtered
through the soils, was drawn off through the stop-cock. That
which had passed through the stiffest clay came off limpid and
apparently pure, the taste being almost like that of rain water;
that which passed through a very sandy soil was but slightly
changed in taste or appearance. The power of a soil to absorb
the manurial matters seemed to depend upon the relative amount
of aluminous matter contained in it, those having the greatest
abundance absorbing most, those having the greatest amount of
sand having the least. It was, however, established beyond a
doubt that all soils had a peculiar power of absorbing manurial
matters, which could not bo separated by the action of water or
by any other way than by the absorbent action of the rootlets of
a growing plant.

Dr. Vcelcker has followed up these investigations with great
assiduity and success. He saturated various kinds of soils with
a solution of caustic ammonia, containino- 23.24 o-rains of ammonia
to the imperial gallon, and ascertained the amount of ammonia
that was absorbed by each kind of soil. He thus found that 3,000
grains of a calcereous clay absorbed 2,758 grains of ammonia
from 14,000 grains of the solution. From the same quantity a
fertile loamy soil abstracted 2,604 grains; 3,000 grains of a stiff
clay soil absorbed 2,262 grains of ammonia; 3,000 grains of a
sterile sandy soil retained 3,228 grains of the solution; 3,000
grains of the soil of a rich pasture took up 1,728 grains of
ammonia.

He next agitated these soils, which had been saturated with
ammonia water of the above mentioned strength, with a solution
of ammonia, which was twice as strong as the preceding, and
found that they now, curiously enough, absorbed very nearly

140 Report on Trials of Plows.

equal portions of ammonia. Tlius, the total amount of ammonia
absorbed by 1,000 grains of soil was, in the case of the

1. Calcareous soil 1.5193 grains of ammonia.

2. Fertile loamy soil , 1.5363 "

3. Clay soil 1.1240 "

4. Sterile sandy soil 1.5220 "

5. Pasture land 1.5217 "

Dr. Voelcker next proceeded to verify these results by repeat-
ing the experiments in another form. He made four solutions of
ammonia of varying degrees of strength, and used the same soil —
a stiff calcareous chiy — in all his experiments.

Per 1,000 grains.

Solution No. 1 contained 44.38 grains of ammonia per gallon, or. . .634

No. 2 " 21.28 " " " .. .304

No. 3 " 12 32 " " " .. .176

No. 4 " 6.16 " " " .. .088

The soil was saturated with each of these solutions, when it

was found that 1.000 grains of the soil thus absorbed in

No. 1 1 .32 grains of ammonia.

No 2 64 '• "

No, 3.... 26 " "

No. 4 10 "

These experiments show conclusively that all soils have the
power of absorbing ammonia from its solutions; that no soil can
abstract all the ammonia from a solution; that all soils can take
up a greater relative amount of ammonia from strong than from
weak solutions of ammonia; hence a soil which had absorbed as
much ammonia as it would from a weak solution took up a fresh
quantity of ammonia when it Avas brought into contact with a
stronger solution.

Dr. Voelcker's experiments further showed that soils were
equally disposed to appropriate ammonical salts as they were to
absorb ammonia itself.

He next endeavored to ascertain how far the soils were disposed
to part with the ammonia thus absorbed to the rain water which
percolates through them. In order to accomplish this, a quarter
of a pound of a soil, saturated with ammonia, was well shaken in
7,000 grains of distilled water. It was allowed to settle for three
days, when the clear liquor was carefully decanted, and tiie
amount of water contained in it exactly ascertained. The soil
thus washed was again shaken in a well stoppered bottle with
7,000 o-niins of fresh distilled water, and settled and decanted

.2-36 grs.

ammonia.

.642 "

.610 "

.622 "

.120 "

.193 "

.228 "

Objects to be Accomplished by Plowing. 141

as before. This was repeated seven times successively, with the
following results:

First washing, removed by 7,000 grains of water .

Second "

Third "

Fourth "

Fifth

Sixth "

Seventh "

Total.... 2.651 "

Thus we see that after seven successive washings with 7,000
grains of water, or 49,000 grains of water in all, only 2.651 grains
of ammonia was obtained from a quarter of a pound of soil. It
had previously absorbed 4.655 grains of ammonia, and there were
therefore 2.004 grains left in it after this very thorough washing.

It is very clear from this experiment that the power of soils
to remove ammonia from solutions is much greater than their
property of yielding it again to water.

Prof. Way discovered that soils not only possessed the power
of separating ammonia, but likewise other bases from their solu-
tions, and they held them after being so absorbed Avith very great
tenacity. Thus, 100 grains of clay soil taken from the plastic
clay formation in England absorbed 1.050 grains of potash from
a solution of caustic potash containing one per cent of the alkali.
It is interesting to observe that the liquid was not in this case
filtered through the soil, but only left in contact with the cold
solution for twelve hours.

Prof. Way has further shown that soils have the ability to
separate the alkaline bases from the acids with which they arc
combined. He found that when saline solutions were slowly
filtered through soils five or six inches deep, the liquids which
passed through were deprived of their alkaline bases, as potash,
soda, ammonia and magnesia, and only the acids were to be found
in combination with some other base. Thus when muriate of
ammonia was filtered through the soil the ammonia was removed,
and a corresponding quantity of lime in combination with muri-
atic acid was found in the filtered liquid. In the same way
sulphate of potash was deprived of its base, and the liquid col-
lected gave sulphate of lime on analysis.

Prof. Liebig has attempted to show that this power of soils
which enables them thus to attract manurial substances from their

142 Report on Trials of Plows.

solutions is unalogous to that by which charcoal separates coloring
matters and odoriferous matters from their combinations. This is
known to be partly mechanical and partly chemical. The chemi-
cal force, like that which causes the solution of substances in
water, is very weak; it attracts substances to itself, but does not
produce any change whatever upon the character of the sub-
stance. The coloring or the odorous matters are held in contact
with the pores of the charcoal just as coloring matters adhere to
the fibres of cotton or wool quite unchanged in their nature.
Neither powdered pit coal nor the hard, glassy charcoal from
sugar or blood have much power to attract coloring matters from
their solutions, while porous blood or bone charcoal possesses this
property in a very high degree, and among wood charcoals, those
which have the greatest amount of capillary porosity.

It is just so with soils, those which have the greatest amount
of capillary porosity will condense the greatest amount of manu-
rial substances on their internal surfaces; will retain them longest
against the adverse solvent action of water, and will give them
out most readily to the rootlets of the growing plant. A mass
of adhesive clay will absorb but a very slight amount of availaljle
manure, but if this same mass is rendered friable by mechanical
processes its power of absorption is amazingly increased. In
view of what has been stated, it is very clear that plowing land
increases its fertility in one Avay by increasing its porosity by
pulverization.

Again, many manurial substances exist in the soil which, being
insoluble, exercise no action on the growth of plants, and con-
tribute nothing to their nutrition; l)ut by the slow, though regular
action of the frosts and the rain, the air and the sunshine, these
insoluble and refractory compounds are reduced to a soluble state,
whicli are appropriated and held in deposit by the soil to the
credit of the next cultivated crop. This routine explains the
Avell known fact that soils, which have been cropped to the very
verge of barrenness, will recover their fertility if allowed to
remain long; enoug-h under the action of these climatic influences
to saturate the soil with the necessary plant food which they have
unlocked from their chemical combinations and given to the soil
in a proper physical condition.

These changes are brought about much more rapidly when
certain mechanical changes of condition are wrought upon the
soil.

Objects to be Accomplished by Plowing. 143

Carbonic acid is one of the most active of the agents employed
in bringing the insoluble inorganic matter in the soil into that
physical condition when they become available as plant food; in
order that this acid may be formed, it is essential that the car-
bonaceous matters in the soil should be brought into direct contact
■with the atmosphere from which they procure the oxygen neces-
sary to convert them into carbonic acid.

So long as staofnant water remains in the soil, or so lono; as it
is in a dense and very compact condition, it is impossible for the
carbon in the soil to be converted into acid.

A supply of available phosphatic salts is essential for the
growth of most cereal plants, but these salts often exist in great
profusion in the soil without contributing in any way to the nutri-
tion of plants, because they are in an insoluble condition. If
now water charged with carbonic acid is allowed to circulate
through the hard phosphatic nodules a portion of them will be
dissolved by the acid and diflused by the water among the pores
of the soil where they will be fixed in readiness for the demands
of the growing plants. In this case we see another way that the
fertility of the soil is increased by pulverization, because the air
is admitted to the soil, which becomes the agent of converting
the carbon existing in it into carbonic acid, which in its turn ren-
ders many substances which were previously useless very efficient
in promoting the growth of plants.

Mr. Way shows that the agents which exercise the greatest
power in retaining manurial substances in physical combination
with the soil are the double silicates, which we will endeavor to
explain briefly, as their recent investigation has probably pi-e-
vented a large proportion of the users of the plow from becoming
fully acquainted with their properties.

If pure sand or powdered quartz be fused with lime, alumina
or some other alkali, they become chemically united, and are
known as silicates. Thus, silica combined with potash is called
silicate of potash; with ammonia, silicate of alumina, etc. These
substances, under favorable circumstances, are very prone to unite
together. Thus, silicate of alumina and silicate of lime are often
found united together as one well marked substance havino;
definite characters. These new compounds are called double
silicates. They have the power, in a remarkable degree, of
exchanging bases in a certain prescribed order. Thus, when the
double silicate of aluniinu and soda is digested with a solution of

144 Report on Tbials of Plows.

some lime salt, a new compound is formed, in which the soda is
I'eplaced by lime; in the same way the lime may be supplanted
by magnesia, and the latter by potash.

It is very instructive to observe that these successive replace-
ments take place in a regular and unvarying order, which Prof.
Way has determined as follows: Soda, lime, magnesia, potash,
ammonia.

Thus, in the double silicate of alumina and soda, the soda may
be replaced by lime, the lime by magnesia, the magnesia by
potash, and the potash by ammonia; but this cannot take place in
the reverse order. Ammonia will dispossess any of the articles
which precede it on the list; but none of these, either singly or
in combination, has the power to dispossess ammonia. The value
of these double silicates is in the order in which they are placed
above. The double silicate of soda is less valuable than the
double silicate of lime; the double silicate of lime is less valu-
able than the double silicate of magnesia; the double silicate of
magnesia is less valuable than the double silicate of potash, and
the latter is less valuable than the double silicate of ammonia.'
Thus we see the admirable provision of Divine Providence, that
the more valuable compound shall alwaj's have the power of dis-
placing the less valuable, while the inferior is restrained by
impassible barriers from supplanting the superior compound.

When we learn that the formation and the transformation of
these double silicates from a lower degree into a higher one is
g]-eatly promoted by a porous condition of the soil, we see an
additional reason for the thorough pulverization of the soil by
the plow.

The distance to which the roots of a plant will extend when
there is no physical obstruction to their progress through the soil
is far greater than is usually supposed by those who have not
actually witnessed their extension. We have seen the roots of
Indian corn extending seven feet downward; the roots of lucerne
will penetrate fifteen feet: onions will run downward three feet
where the physical condition of the soil favors the extension of
their range. It is obvious that, as the nutritive matters in the
soil cannot travel to the root, the latter must therefore go to the
former; and the fjirther the root extends, the greater the amount
of food which the plant can obtain, and the greater must be its
growth and nutritive capacity. The roots of plants always develop
themselves in the direction of least resistance. If the roots of

Objects 'lo be Accomplished by Plowing. 145

a plant have a hard, impervious soil on their right and a porous
soil on their left, the roots will all be directed from the right to
the left. The growth of roots takes place by the addition of new
cells to their outer extremities. The newly added cell must
therefore push the earth before it by a force somewhat greater
than the cohesive force of the soil which it penetrates. The force
required for this purpose exhausts the vital force of the plant. A
thoroughly porous soil therefore relieves this exhaustion and
economizes the vital force which is then directed to some other
point. Plants differ greatly in their power of forcing their roots
into the soil. Wheat and barley both radicate feebly and will
hardly enter a stiff soil, while buckwheat will penetrate it readily.
The roots of quack grass {triticum repens) will force their way
triumphantly through the stiffest clays, while the feebler roots of
timothy [p/tleum pratense) will scarcely penetrate them at all.

Jethro TuU, to whom practical husbandry is so much indebted,
ascertained the range of porous land required by each kind of
plant in the following manner:

In the midst of hard, impervious land he dug a trench twenty
yards long, in the form of a truncated wedge, the transverse
width of the narrow end being two feet, and the broad end being
twelve feet wide. In the fine, loose earth of this trapezoid he
planted along the middle line, at distances of one yard apart, the
plants whose root range he desired to ascertain. The plant one
yard from the narrow end was smaller than that which was two
yards from it, and this latter was smaller than that which was
three yards distant. When he found the point where the plants
ceased to enlarge and remained of the same size until that which
was nearest to the widest end, he believed that he had the meas-
ure of the normal length of the root of that plant; thus when
the trapezoid was planted with turnips each turnip was larger as
it receded from the narrow end until the fifteenth, from thence to
the twentieth the turnips were of equal size. Measuring laterally
from the fifteenth turnip, he found that the range of loose soil
was four feet, which he therefore concluded was the natural length
of the turnip root.

When the first settlers of Ohio began to cultivate the rich
valley of the Scioto, they subjected it to a very imperfect and
.shallow cultivation; two or three inches was the utmost depth of
the plowing, but such was the great natural fertility of the land
^^hat the ci'ops of Indian corn averaged seventy bushels to the acre.
10

146 Report on Trials of Plows.

Successive crops of corn have been annually taken from the soil
ever since, but the average product has run down to about forty-
bushels to the acre. In the year 1862 a large field was plowed
with the sod and subsoil plow to the full depth of eight inches.
The result of this experiment was that the land produced one hun-
dred and twenty bushels to the acre, while the skim plowed land
contiguous to it yielded but forty bushels.

These facts show an additional answer to the question, "How
does plowing increase the fertility of the soil ?" They tell us
very clearly that it is by aifording facilities to the extension of
the roots, and thus extending the range of pasture for the plants.

The answers already given by no means exhaust the question.
There are still many important uses of plowing which are yet
undescribed. The germination of seeds requires seclusion from
light; they must therefore be placed beneath the surface. They
also require the presence of atmospheric air; without it the radicle
will not enter the soil nor the plumule jDrotrude into the air; nor
Avill the starchy matters stored up in the cotyledons be trans-
formed into sugar for the nourishment of the young plant. Pul-
verization of the soil is therefore essential, that the seeds may be
regularly secluded from the light; but in such a way that the air
can penetrate very freely to them. These conditions are com-
pletely fulfilled when the land is properly plowed.

Stagnant water in the soil, by cutting off the access of air to
the roots of plants, prevents their nutrition and consequently
their growth. Deep plowing diminishes this evil by permitting
the water to penetrate deeper into the ground.

Warmth of the surface soil is essential to the growth of crops.
When water lies upon the surface, it is taken up again into the
air by evaporation, which causes the absorption of an immense
amount of sensible heat which it renders latent. The cooling of
surfaces by evaporation is made practically familiar to us when-
ever we wash our hands or wet our heads. Deep plowing and
thorough pulverization, by permitting the water to sink into the
ground, diminishes the amount of evaporation from the soil, and
thus prevents the temperature of the surface from being lowered.

The exhalation of moisture from plants into the air is very
great. In the experiments very carefully made by Hales, he found
that a sunflower threp and a half feet high, with a superficial area
of 5.616 square inches, perspired at the rate of from twenty to
thirty ounces in twelye hours, or seventeen times more than a man

Objects to be xiccoMPLiSHED by Plowing. 147

would do under similar circumstances. A vine with twelve square
feet of foliage exhaled at the rate of five or six ounces a day. An
acre of Indian corn, having 1500 plants on an acre, would exhale
about one ton of water in a day. If this moisture is supplied by
the roots from the reservoirs of water in the ground as fast as it
is exhaled, no mischief is done; on the contrary, the plant is
benefited by the increased vital action which ensues. If, on the
other hand, the supply from the ground is less than the amomit
evaporated, the plant withers and finally dies.

Every farmer is familiar with the curling of the corn leaves
when the evaporation is most rapid under the fierce heats and the
blue skies of midsummer, especially when the surface is baked
hard. He also knows that the true antidote to this condition is a
thorough pulverization of the soil. When this is eflTected, the
stores of moisture in the depths of the earth are pumped up by
the capillary attraction of the interstices of the soil, and the
balance between supply and demand is once more restored.

Soil in a finely divided state radiates heat much more rapidly
than when its surface is hard and baked; it will therefore cool
more rapidly. Dew is deposited in the clear nights most copi-
ously on those bodies which are relatively colder than the sur-
rounding air. It follows from this, that when two contiguous
acres of land are planted with an equal number of corn plants,
they will both exhale the same amount of moisture from their
leaves; but if the soil of one of the acres is thoroughly pulverized,
and the other is hard baked, vastly more of the daily exhalation
will be returned to the pulverized soil than to the hard one, on
account of its superior radiant powers. The pulverized soil will
thus be supplied with water at the expense of the other.

No soil can produce maximum crops of any kind where the
food of the desired kind of plant is taken up and appropriated
by weeds. It is therefore one of the prime objects of agriculture
to destroy them, and at the same time to utilize them so as to
make them restore to the desired plant that nutriment of which
they have already robbed it. Other things being equal, that plow
is best which most completely buries the weeds growing on the
surface and secures their decomposition, so that the roots of the
growing plant can avail themselves of the food stowed away in
the cells of the weeds.

We have now completed the task we proposed to ourselves, by
showing all the objects which it is proposed to accomplish by the

148 Report on Trials of Plows.

use of the plow in order that we may be enabled to ascertain
what form of the plow is most likely to secure the ends which
we have in view. They are:

Fh'st — To pulverize the soil with a view to promote those chem-
ical transformations which will unlock the food of plants from its
combinations with unassimilable elements and put it into such a phy-
sical condition as will make it accessible to the rootlets of the plant.

Second — To pulverize it with a view to facilitate the formation
of the double silicates.

Third — That the roots may freely permeate the soil in all
directions, thus increasing the range of their pasture.

fourth — To promote the germination of seeds.

Fifth — To get clear of stagnant water from the surface.

Sixth — To prevent the refrigeration of the soil by evaporation.

Seventh — To secure the return of the water evaporated by the
plant in the form of dew.

Eighth — To destroy the weeds in the soil.

Ninth — To utilize them and convert them into food for plants.

All plows known to us press downw^ard upon the subsoil with
a weight proportioned to the depth of the furrow slice and the
density. This downward action combined with the sliding action
of the shares has a necessary tendency to pack the subsoil and to
polish the surface. This effect is cumulative, and every succes-
sive plowing increases the evil until the bottom of the furrow
becomes so dense that neither rain nor air nor the roots of plants
can possibly penetrate beneath it. The spade avoids this diffi-
culty. Hence, other things being equal, a plow which leaves the
bottom of the furrow in the same state in which the spade leaves
it would have a very decided preference.

Guided by the principles which we have now so fully explained,
w^e have drawn up a series of practical directions which will be
found inserted in the Programme, page 3, under the head of
"Duties of Judges," which, if they have been fnlly carried out in
the spirit in which they were devised, we believe will settle con-
clusively nearly all the questions in practical plowing which have
heretofore been left undetermined.

We have not sought to give a complete and exhaustive enumera-
tion of all the objects which the plow is designed to accomplish,
such as the mellowing of the soil by frost and the destruction of
insects, but only those which involve the peculiar form of the
the plow and the principles of its construction.

Practical Questions in Plows and Plowing. 149
CHAPTER VII.

ON SOME OF THE PRACTICAL QUESTIONS IN PLOWS AND PLOWING.

FULVERIZATION.

As stated iu our chapter "On the objects to be accomplished
by plowing," our convictions are strong that the primary object
of the process is to mellow the ground by direct pulverization.
We have never seen this stated as desirable in any of the English
books or periodicals to which w^e have had access.* They all
design to effect the pulverization of the soil mediately by plow-
ing, but they always expect to effect it immediately through the
harrow. They must first turn over the soil, laying it in sharp and
well defined ridges, mathematically parallel to each other. But
this darling sharpness of ridge cannot be obtained unless the slice
is turned over with the least possible disturbance of the relations
of its particles Avith each other; hence a structure which would
effectually pulverize the soil and injure the sharpness of the crest
would so offend the superstitious prejudices of English plowmen
that not one could be sold in any of the markets of the kingdom.

This superstition was transmitted to America, and until very
recently the lines of American plows have been formed on
English principles. The importance of thorough pulverization
was recognized l)y American farmers at a much earlier period
than it was in England; but as they had not thoroughly studied
the relations of the lines of the plow to the comminution of the
furrow slice, they Avere unable to realize their ideal of perfection
in practice.

Let us suppose a series of sheets of pasteboard to be superim-
posed as at A, Fig. 74. It will be seen that the edges, a h, are
in a straight line, at right angles to the line c a. If we now press
a thumb on cZ, and, with the other hand, raise up the corners of
the sheets at h, the edges of the sheets will no longer be in a line
at right angles with the line of the upper sheet, but the upper
sheets will have advanced beyond the loAver ones. Before the

♦Perhaps we should except "Talpa" from this remark, but the author of that work
did not expect to pulverize the soil by a plow, hut with some instrument which should
throw out the earth like a woodchuck.

150

Report on Trials of Plows.

flexure, the edge 5, touched the dotted line at e; it is now sep-
arated from it by the space b e, and each successive sheet is seen
to be in advance of the one beneath it. To produce this successive
advancement of the upper sheets, each must have moved over the
surface of the other. Every plowman * knows that the furrow
slice has a certain amount of elasticity, that is, the parts may be
displaced to a certain extent, and then, on the removal of the
displacing forces, they will return to their former position. This
elasticity varies with the nature of soil. In some the slightest
displacement will cause a permanent disruption; in others it will
stretch considerably before disruption takes place. The bending
A n upward, as shown in the figure, is pre-

cisely what is done by the plow, the
point of the plow being directly beneath
cZ, and the point, b, resting on the
mould-board a little to the right of the
shin. Let us suppose that the soil of
the furrow slice, E ^s the most elastic,
and that the distance, b e, is just sufii-
J^iff. 74.' cient to overcome that elasticity, then

it is evident that every soil whatever will be split horizontally
into flakes at its lower edge by a plow having that elevation. We
say at its lower edge because, as the upper edge does not move
through a space equal to b e, and as that is the precise point
where the elasticity of the slice is overcome, any less motion will
fail to split the layers. It follows, from this reasoning, that every
kind of soil should have a mould-board specially adapted to it, if
we would obtain the greatest economy of power, because the
more blunt is the entering wedge, the greater will be the draught;
and it would be uneconomical to use an entering wedge sufficiently
blunt to flake up a stiff" clay for a light loam where a much moi-e
acute angle will suflice. Still, if economy of power is not an
object, a plow which will separate the most tenacious soils longi-
tudinally will be sufficient for all soils that are less so.

Our object is, as we have said, to pulverize the soil; but split-
ting it longitudinally is not pulverizing it. To accomplish this
object we must split it in other directions. Jethro TuU, as we
have stated, invented a plow with four coulters, figured in Plate
I, which made four vertical sections through the slice. This can

*See Tull's remarks, page 18.

Practical Questions in Plows and Plowing. 151

be better done by a proper twist. If the furrow slice is twisted
with a force insufficient to overcome its cohesion it will assume
the form (Fig. 75) represented in section at B. The radius, a b,

J^ig. 76.

is shorter than a c, hence the arc at h is smaller than that at c; but
the lines before flexure were equal in length, therefore while the
inner circle, h h i\ forms a complete semicircle the outer line,
f G d, falls short of being a semicircle by the distances d e and gff,
and the lines d i and / A, which were before parallel with each
other, now when bent into the curve form an acute angle. Sup-
pose the twist is increased until the force of cohesion is over-
come, the section now breaks asunder as at 6 c cZ, &c., the fracture
being greatest at the outer circle and growing smaller as it
approaches the inner one; the edges^ li and i d are again parallel,
and are in fact in the same straight line. We have thus accom-
plished by a twist applied at the right point all and more than
Tull accomplished by his four coulters.

We have now, as shown in the furrow slice. Fig, 76, by a proper
2^ b adjustment of the enter-
ing wedge of the plow,
split it into layers on
the face, c d, the fissures
J'^iff. 70. runninor through to the

opposite face, and also by a proper arrangement of the twist we
have split it on the fjice, a b, through to the bottom. These
fissures are seen crossing each other at right angles on the
end, a c.

By a proper adjustment of the wing of the mould-board we
may break the slice in still another direction. Suppose the wing
of the mould-board were to be turned at right angles to the
direction of the ascending slice, as in Fig. 77. Then the ascend-
ing slice, e d f c, would be compelled to change its direction
from the line e d to the line a b; but to accomplish this the
particle of earth at d would move through the arc b d, while
the particle at f would only move round the centre. Now it is
evident that since each particle in lli<^ dotlcd line y (Z is moving

152

Report on Trials of Plows.

J^iff. 77.

with a different velocity the continuity of the \\xvQ,fd will be bro-
ken, and a fracture will occur at the point y* represented by b f d,
and it is also evident that every successive line of the slice e dfc
0^ L will be subject to a similar

fracture on passing the point
\ J f. It is, however, unneces-
sary to have so large a frac-
ture; as the slightest fissure
is all that is required, we
may therefore very greatly
diminish the angle of the
wing with a great saving of ^i'^' 78.
the power required, as at Fig. 78, where b f d, the angle of
fracture, is seen to be very greatly reduced, although the actual
pulverization is quite as well performed as it was with the much
larger angle, b f d, in Fig. 77.

We have now, in addition to the longitudinal fissures shown in
Fig. 74, on the sides, a b and c d, another series of transverse
fractures across the face, c cZ, Figs. 75 and 77, made by the lines
of the plow, which must necessarily break up the slice into fine
particles, which will
admit air and moist-
ure, and facilitate the
chemical transforma-
tions in the soil which
we have shown to bp
so essential for the d
velopment of its late i t
fertility.

It is shown in the
History of the Plow,
which we have at-

T%^ ij- s b

mmmmmmm nii

.iiiiiiii i=-

ll'^'i

it W'

( 1 1 \1\ b

1 1

J^/</' 79.

tempted to sketch, that the efforts of all the inventors who
have applied their skill to the improvement of the moul I-
board, have been directed to the formation of a perfectly curved
or twisted wedge which should be entirely regular in its foi-in-
ation, that is, that the third line should depart from the piano
of the second precisely as far as the second does from the
plane of the first, and that the fourth should depart from
the third precisely as much as the third does from the second,
and so on. This is csixMially line <>(' ihe plows which are

Pb ACTIO AL Questions in Plows and Plowing. 153

avowedly formed on mathematical principles, as Jefferson's, Ste-
phens', Rhani's and Knox's. Indeed, their object in invoking the
aid of mathematical principles was to iusnre this perfect regu-
larity in the twiwt of the mould-board.

If we are correct in the })rinciples laid down above, the makers
of plows have been in error with regard to the desirableness
of a uniform twist in the mould-board. We grant that where
economy of power is the sole object, the twist must be regular
and gentle; but where the primary object is to mellow the soil,
then irregularity in the lines becomes indispensable.

We have shoAvn that, in order to secure thorough pulverization,
the surface of the mould-board must be adapted to fracture the
slice in three several directions. It is therefore plain that there
must be three points, at least, where the twist must be intensified
so as to insure the desired result, and at these points, at least, the
regularity of the curve must be interrupted, so as to overcome the
maximum elasticity of the soil.

The conclusion to which these views lead us is, that the best
plow must have irregular lines of curvature to an extent which
will insure the fracture of the furrow slice in three directions;
but the irregularity should never be greater than will accomplish
this result, as all excess will be a waste of power.

We have spoken repeatedly of the elasticity of the earth of
which the furrow slice is composed, especially when its sui-face is
covered with a tough sod. In order to measure the extent of
this elasticity we inserted two wooden wedges, a and b (Fig. 79),
at right angles to the land side of the furrow; when the plow,
which was running twelve inches deep, came up with them at the
zero line, the wedges ceased to be at right angles with the land
side, but made an acute angle with it, and the wedge a' was seven
inches in one instance in advance of the ^vedge b' , and this w^as
the measure of the elasticity of the slice, as the two wedges
resumed their former relative positions when the furrow was
completely turned over. There is considerable difliculty in
making the experiment, as the slice is generally bi-oken before it
arrives at the zero line. We repeated it many times unsuccess-
fully. We found the stretch of the land side of the furrow twice
to be six inches, and only once did it cohere until it was stretched
seven inches.

154 Report on Trials of Plows.

on the draught of plows.

In our inquiries respecting jjlows, their draught, or the power,
which must be applied in order to enable them to perform the
work required of them, is an element of the greatest interest, and
our inquiries naturally resolve themselves into the following
questions:

First — What power is required to plow a furrow of a given
size with the same plow in soils differing in their cohesive proper-
ties?

Second — What is the power required to draw different plows
through the same soil with furrows of equal size?

Third — What proportion of the power required by a plow is
used by the sole? What by the land side? What by the share?
What by the coulter? What by the mould-board?

Fourth — Does the wheel add to or diminish the draught of the
plow?

Fifth — Does increased speed produce an increase of traction,
and if so, in what proportion?

It was our intention to have ansAvered all these questions by
varied and frequently repeated experiments, but when we Avere
read}' to enter upon this branch of the investigation, we found
that the Express company, in consequence of a misunderstanding
of their instructions, had shipped the dynamometer, and we were
therefore unable to carry out our intentions. A few experiments
were, however, made which we shall report in this connection.
We would, however, in view of the great importance of the sul)-
ject, strongly recommend to the Executive Committee of the
Society to carry out these experiments next spring in the most
thorough and satisftictory manner.

Such trials as have been made by various experimenters at
different times and in various places which have come to our
knowledge we have brought together here for the information of
'.hose who are interested in such subjects.

The most instructive series of experiments on these poinis
which have been made hitherto are those of Mr. Pusey, Avhich
are detailed in the first volume of the Journal of the Eo}'al
Agricultural Society. The following experiments give some
approximations to an answer to the first question, viz: "What
power is required to plow a furrow of a given size, with the same
plow, in soils differing in their cohesive properties?" Fergusson's
swing plow, (liking a furrow five inches deep and nine inches

Practical Questions in Plows and Plowing. 155

wide, showed a draught in a sandy loam of 266 pounds; a loamy
sand, 266 pounds; a moory soil, 322 pounds — increase, 21 per
cent; a strong loam, 490 pounds — increase, 84 per cent; a blue
clay, 700 pounds — increase, 163 per cent.

In our trials, Collins k Co.'s steel plows, with a furrow twelve
inches wide and twelve inches deep, showed a draught in an
indurated clay soil, mixed with coarse gravel, of 613 pounds;
an unctuous tough clay of 705 pounds, the increase being 15 per
cent. Holbrook's plow, taking the same furrow, and in the same
soil, showed a draught in clay and gravel of 615 pounds; unctuous
clay of 671. pounds; difference 9 per cent.

From these data it is obvious that the draught of plows taken
ill (liferent soils cannot be compared with each other since the
diflerence in the power required to overcome their cohesion has,
by actual trial been found to extend to one hundred and sixty-
three per cent, and it is quite probable that future trials may
disclose even wider diiferences than this.

In answer to our second question, " What is the power required
to draw difierent plows through the same soil, with furrows of
equal size, we have the following experiments by Mr. Pusey.
The furrow was five inches by nine inches:

PLOWS.

a

o

>^
3

02

C
w

s

O

g

60

p

m

'o

O
O

o

60

P

<

<u

^60
>

t<-i
o

-u
C
<u
o

ID

Oh

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

Fergussou' Scotch swing

266
280
196
196
252
252
238
238
322
252

700
728
602
602
616
672
602
700
728

266
238
168
182
224
210
238
224
294

490
462
322
462
420
378
420
504
504

322
322
224
196
294
266
252
294
350

406
406
201
329
364
350
350
392
441

34
34

"9'
21
16
16
30
46

Hart's Berkshire one-wheel. . .
Ransom's FF two-wheel

Rutland Ransom two-wheel. ..

Old Berkshire wheel plow

Holkham plow, two wheels . . .

Averages

I

250

661 1 227

440

280

371

23

We learn from this table that there is a difference between
plows in the same soil, and with equal furrows of forty-six per
cent in the extreme case of the Old Berkshire as compared with
Hart's one wheel Berkshire, while the average difference in the
drauG;ht of nine plows was tweuly-three per cent.

156

Report on Trials of Plows.

The column headed "Per cent of averages" is intended to show
the excess per cent of the average draught of each ph)w in the
five different soils over the draught of Hart's one wheel Berk-
shire, as for instance Eansom's F F two wheel plow required on
an average in all the soils nine per cent more power than Hart's,
&c. In order to make this point still more intelligible, we have
calculated the following table, showing the excess of power per
cent required for each plow over Hart's as shown in each kind of
soil:

PLOWS.

cd O

3 ^

pq o

Hart's Berkshire one wheel . .
Ransom's FF, two wheel ....

Khig's one wheel

Rutland Ransom, tvv'o wheels
Ferguson's Scotch Swing ....

Clark's Scotch Swing

Ransom's Swing

King's Swing

Old Berkshire wheel plow...

00
00
21
21
36
43
28
28
64

00
00
00
16
16
21
2i
lU
21

00
8^
4H
33^
58i
411
33i
25
75

00

431

30^

56i

52

431

301

111

56i

141

00
28^
50
64i

50
35|

78^

Averages

28

35

37

231

This table will be found an exceedingly instructive one, which
we urgently advise every farmer and plowmaker to study with
profound attention. It shows that in a sandy loam the difference
between the minimum draught (Hart's and Eansom's F F) and
the maximum (old Berkshire) amounts to sixty- four per cent.
Two horses would thus draw Hart's plow with much greater ease
than three horses Avould draw the Old Berkshire. In the loamy
sand the excess is still greater; the latter plow would require three
and a half horses to do the work that the other would do with
two. Alderman Mechi estimates the cost of keeping a horse in
England for one year at £39 ($195), and it is no less in this
country. If this estimate is correct, a farmer would save at the
rate of $292.50 a year by using the lighter instead of the heavier
plow. An examination of the other columns of per centages
will show the saving which will be effected by the use of each.
The table also shows how greatly the economy of cultivation is
aff'ected by cohesive soils. The average draught of all the plows
in the sandy loam is 250 pounds, while the average draught in
blue clay is 661 pounds; hence, while the farmer on the sandy
loam is compelled to pay $195 for his power, the farmer on the
stiff* clay must pay $515 for cultivaling the same area.

Practical Questions in Plows and Plowing. 15 T

The table also shows in a very striking manner how necessary
it is that plows should be specially adapted to the soils in which
they are intended to work. Thus Hart's plow works the easiest
in all soils except the moory soil, in which Ransom's F F excells
it by fourteen and one-third per cent, while in the strong loam
Hart exceeds Ransom by forty-three and a half per cent, and
loamy sand by eight and one-third per cent. Ransom's Rutland
excels Furguson's Swing by fifteen per cent in sandy loam, while
in strong loams Ferguson excels Ransom by four and a half per
cent. This question of the adaptation of plows to different soils
and situations has been too much overlooked even by intelligent
farmers, and it shows very clearly that the plow for " all kinds
of work," which so many of them are looking and longing for,
will never be devised by the ingenuity of man. If a farmer
desires 'perfect work the plow to accomplish it must be made
expressly for the soil and the conditions of the work, and if he
uses any other kind he must pay the penalty in a waste of power
and an imperfection in the work.

A series of experiments having for their object an answer to
the question we are discussing, was made by Mr. J. C. Morton, and
given in his Encyclopedia of Agriculture. The ground was a
deep, silicious loam, above the quartoze conglomerate of the old
red sandstone formation, and was of a uniform texture. The
results of the dynamometer w^ere taken with a self recording
arrangement, and every care was taken to obtain perfectly correct
results. The size of the furrow was in all cases six inches by
nine inches.

PLOWS.

Wilkie's

Barrowman's , . .

Fergusson's

Beverstone

Barrett & Exall's D P.
Ransom's one-handled

Averages .

Pounds. :Per cent.

581
644
560
478
567

566

22
35
17
00
18

18

In these experiments the same difference appears between the
draught of plows in the same soil and with a furrow of the same
size, as was disclosed in Mr. Pusey's experiments, but it is not so
great in amount, the draught of the heaviest exceeding that of the

158

Report on Trials of Plows.

lightest by tbirty-iive per ceut, and the average of tbe five by
eighteen per cent.

The trials made by this Society in 1850 were on stubble land,
the soil being a stiff loam inclining to clay, mingled with stones
of various sizes, near Greenbush. The following table shows the
differences in the draught of the plows tried at that time:

PLOWS.

Pounds.

Per cent,

Wilkie's Scotch, A. Fleck

Subsoil and sod, French & Smith

Washington Co., Iron Beam, D. Eddy & Co

John Randerson's

Miner & Horton's, Peekskill

Starbuck & Co., Trojan

P. Auld, Improved Scotch

Prouty & Mears, Centre Draft, No. 51

Bosworth, Rich & Co., Iron Beam, D

R. R. Tench & Co., Empire, A3

H. L. Emery, Albany

W. W. Chase, Amsterdam, No 6

E. J. Burrall, Shell-wheel

Prouty & Mears, Connecticut Valley

Average

487

42

406

19

439

28

342

00

363

6

379

11

373

9

383

12

425

24

456

33

427

24

343

350

2

525

53

407

19

The furrow slice in the above trials was seven inches by ten
inches.

In this series of experiments we find the difl'erence between
the heaviest and the lightest plow is equal to fifty-three per cent,
and the difference between the lightest plow and the average
draught of them all was nineteen per cent.

Summing up tha results of the three sets of experiments, we
have:

Mr. Pusey's Experiments — Maximum difference, 78 1 per cent;
average difference, 23^ per cent.

Mr. Morton's Experiments — Maximum difference, 35 per cent;
average difference, 18 per cent.

New York State Agricultural Society's Experiments — Maximum
difference, 53 per cent; average difference, 19 per cent.

Average of the three experiments — Maximum difference, 55|
per cent; average difference, 20 per cent.

Which may be taken as the best answer that can yet be given
to the second question.

The third question which we have proposed is, " What propor-
tion of the power required by a plow is used by the sole? What

Practical Questions in Plows and Plowing.

159

by the land side? What by the share? What by the coulter?
What by the mould-board?"

The first question is answered by Mr. Pusey's experiments, as
follows:

PLOWS.

Surface
draught.

Weight
of plow,

lbs.

lbs.

168

180

168

180

42

168

112

179

140

147

112

112

84

140

112

112

2i6

Fergusson's Swing
Clark's Swing . . .

Hart's Wheel

FF Wheel

F F Swing

King's Swing. . • .
King's Wheel ....
Old Berks' Wheel
Rutland Wheel. . .

Average

117

164

The average draft of these plows working in strong loam, and
with a furrow of five inches by nine inches, was, as we have seen,
440 pounds. Hence the ratio of the power consumed by the
friction of the sole to the whole power is as 1: 3.76.

We have met with no experiments having for their object the
determination of the friction of the land side separately from the
other portions of the plow.

The only experiments known to ns on the influence of the share
on draught are those of Mr. Morton, which, although they do
not give a complete answer to our question, are sufficient to show
that this part of the plow exercises a very important influence
upon the action of it. The draught of Ferguson's Swing plow,
with a share ten inches wide, was 630 pounds, while the same
plow, with a share six inches wide, drew only 560 pounds. In
the former case the w^hole of the lower portion of the furrow was
cut ofi"; in the latter case four inches on the right side of the
furrow were uncut, and were torn ofi" by the wedge of the share
and mould-board. The experiment shows that the cutting of
these four inches and the increased friction of the wider share
increased the power required to the extent of twelve per cent.

The experiments of Mr. Stephens seemed to show that it
required exactly the same power to draw a coulter through the
ground as it did to draw the plow w^ithout a coulter; but this
experiment needs verification.

160 Report on Trials of Plows.

According to Mr. Morton's experiments the whole draught of
the plow is 476 pounds; the removal of the mould-board dimin-
ishes this only to 434 pounds; in other words, only ten per cent
of the whole draught is caused by the turning of the furrow
slice. The draught of the plow running along the open furrow
was 168 pounds, which, being subtracted from 434 pounds, the
di-aught without the mould-board, leaves 266 pounds as the
draught required for the cutting of the furrow slice. Should this
division of the draught hold generally true, we may infer that
the labor of plowing may be distributed as follows: Thirty-five
per cent for the weight of the implement; fifty-five per cent to
cutting of the furrow slice, and only ten per cent to the action.

This conclusion, if correct, will change the former current of
opinion to a very great extent. Great labor has been expended
upon the mould-board, upon the hypothesis that the draught
depends to a very great extent upon its shape, but it will be
seen that the share, the coulter, and the weight of the plow are
far more promising points for its improvement than the mould-
board.

The effect of the friction of the sole upon the draught has been
known to plowmakers for a long time, and many attempts have
been made to diminish it by the addition of a large wheel near
the heel, in such a position that the plow nearly balances over it,
and by the introduction of friction wheels on the land side. At
the trial at Albany in 1850, Mr. Burrall exhibited a plow with one
of these wheels. At first its draught was very light, though not
as much so as some of the plows which were not furnished with
this appliance, but after working some time the wheel became
clogged by the loose earth, and it then became decidedly heavier
than those which were formed in the usual manner.

Another experiment which was tried by Mr. Pusey, with a view
of determining the ratio of the draught to the depth of the
plowing, may be usefully stated in this connection.

The experiment was made on a free, brown loamy sand of a
good quality, without stone, gravel or clod, resting on a pure,
yellow sand on the coral sag formation. The results are given in
the following table:

Practical Questions in Plows and Plowing. 161

PLOyVS.

Furrow,
4 by 9 in.

Furrow,
5 by 9 in.

Furrow,
6 by 9 in.

Furrow,
7 by 9 in.

252
238
154
168
224
210
224
224
294

266
238
16S
182
224
210
238
224
294

266
252
224

252
252
252
294
252
336

308
294
252
294
294
280
322
280
434

Clark's Swing Plow

F F (Ransom's) Two-wheeled

F F (Ransom's) Swing

Kino's One-wheeled

Rutland N L Two-wheeled

Old Berks

Average ...•..•..•■.

221

227

264

306

The increased average draught of the first inch is 2.71 per
cent; of the second inch, 16.29 per cent, and of the third, 15.91
per cent. Average, 11.63 per cent.

Mr. Pusey made a second experiment to determine this point a
few days afterwards upon a poor, moory soil, with Ferguson's
Scotch plow, with the following results:

Furrow, nine inches wide.

FURROW— Depth in inches. '

Draught
in lbs.

Increase,
percent.

5

322
308
350
420
434
560
700
700

""s'.io

20.00

3.33

29.03

25.00

6

7

8

9

10

11 „

12

Ave

raffe

474

12.29

The experiments on this point made by Mr. Morton are giveu

in the following table:

Furrow, nine inches wide.

FURROW.

Fergusson .

Beverstone.'Barrowman .

Barrett.

Average
pounds.

Depth in inches.

Pounds.

Pounds. Pounds.

Pounds.

4

462
560
840

378
476
896

574
644

854

354
560

442
560
863

6

81

Average

621

583

690

457

621

11

162

Report on Trials of Plows.

Increase.

PLOWS.

Between , Between

4 and 6 in .

Per cent.

Of Fergusson's .
Of Beverstone's
Of Barrowman's
Of Barrett's....

Average . . .

21.21

25.92
12.19
58.18

29.37

6 and 81 in,

Per cent.

50.00
88.23
32.01

56.94

Average
per cent.

35.50
57.07
22.40
58.18

43.31

The average increase of power for each inch in depth ot Fer-
guson's plow was 7.90 per cent, or 84 pounds; Beverstone's plow
was 12.68 per cent, or 115 pounds; Barrowman's plow was 4.98
per cent, or 62 pounds; Barrett's plow was 12.92 per cent, or 103
pounds. Average, 9,62 per cent, or 91 pounds.

Our own experiments on this point were very meagre, on
account of the mistake in sending ofl* the dynamometer heretofore
alluded to, but as the subject is of so much importance we give
them here. The experiment w^as made in a very hard soil, with
gravel indurated in the cla}^, and all the plowing was deeper than
any previous plowing, so that in each case the plow went into
soil which had never been disturbed before. The plow used was
Holbrook's No. 100; furrow ten inches wide. At 8^ inches deep,
659 pounds; at 10^ inches deep, 753 pounds — increase, 94 pounds;
at 12^ inches deep, 801 pounds — increase, 48 pounds. The aver-
age increase of power for each inch of depth in this case is 35
pounds, or 5.38 per cent.

We can most fully corroborate the correctness of Mr. Pusey's
remark, that this is a very difficult experiment to make. It is
hard to preserve the exact depth of one inch more or less; some-
times it will run up or down considerably more than an inch.
Sometimes when plowing at a given depth the share will encounter
a mass of roots which resist very greatly, while in plowing an
inch deeper we do not encounter these obstacles, and the plow at
that depth does not appear to draw as heavily as it did when
plowing an inch shallower. Owing to these inequalities in the
texture of the soil at different depths, we need not expect to meet
with any very regular law of progression in the draught in the
indications of any particular table; but by having recourse to
averages, the indications of a uniform law of increase begin to
develop themselves sufficiently to assure us that when a sufficient

Practical Questions in Plows and Plowing. 163

imiiiher of experiments shall have been carefnlly made we may
ascertain the law nearly enongh for all practical pnrposes. The
average increase of draught per inch in Mr. Pusey's experiments
was 12.29 per cent. In Mr. Morton's experiments it was 9.62 per
cent, and in our own experiments it was 5.38 per cent. The
average of all these is 9.09, say in round numbers, ten per cent
of increase in draught for each additional inch depth of furrow
between the limits of four and twelve inches.

If this conclusion approximates to correctness it appears that
the draught increases in proportion to the depth much less rap-
idly than has been heretofore supposed. Mr. Pusey says that it
has been laid down in our books that the draught increases as the
squares of the depth; that is to say, that if the draught at four
inches be 252 pounds, at seven inches it will be as 49 to 16, or
756 pounds, whereas experiment shows that on an average it is
only 308 pounds, or less than half that amount.

It must not be forgotten that both theory and experiment show
that plows made expressly for deep tillage will work relatively
lighter in a deep furrow than in a shallow one. Thus a plow
made expressly for a four inch furrow compared Avith one made
for a twelve inch furrow Avill work in the furrow it was desio-ned
for with much less draught than a deep plow; but if the four
inch plow is made to take a furrow ten inches deep, the plow
designed for twelve inches will be found to require much less
draught. This fact should never be lost sight of in trials of this
kind.

We know of no experiments made with a view to determine
the ratio of power required to turn over furrow slices of difi'er-
ent breadths while the depth remains uniform.

There is another point upon which Mr. Pusey's experiments
throw much light, and which led to conclusions very different
from those which have been generally entertained. It has been
generally supposed that the power required to draw a plow
increased as the square of the velocity, but experiments show that
this is not the case.

Mr. Pusey made repeated trials in order to settle this point
under a great variety of circumstances. The first trial was in the
moory ground mentioned in preceding tables, and with Clark's
plow. The horses were made to walk as slowly as possible, and
the draught was found to be 336 pounds in a five inch furrow.
The horses were now urged forward at their highest rate of speed,

164

Report on Trials of Plows.

and the draught was 350 pounds, which is only 14 pounds more
than when they were walking slowly.

A second trial was had in an adhesive loam, in so bad a condition
that the polished mould-board was completely encrusted with earth.
Hart's plow was selected for the experiment, and one hundred
and ten yards, or one-sixteenth of a mile, were accurately meas-
ured off. At the first trial the horses traveled the distance in
two minutes and forty seconds, being at the rate of one and a
half miles in an hour. The dynamometer showed a draft of 322
pounds, the furrow being four inches l)y nine inches. At the
second trial the distance was done in two minutes and twenty-five
seconds, being at the rate of one and three-quarter miles in an
hour. The furrow was of the same size, and the draught was
still 322 pounds as before. At the next trial the rate was one
minute and forty seconds, which is at the rate of two and three-
quarter miles in an hour; the draft, from some cause, was reduced
instead of being increased, and stood at 308 pounds. Finally the
distance was accomplished in one minute and five seconds, or at
the rate of three and a half miles in an hour. The draft was
indeed increased, but the increase Avas only 14 pounds, which
might ver}^ probably be due to an increased tenacity of the soil.

The following table shows the time which would be required
for plowing an acre, with a furrow nine inches wide, at the differ-
ent rates of motion, exclusive of stoppages:

Rate of going per hour.

Time required to plow
an acre.

Draught of
plow.

1 2 miles

7 hours, 20 minutes.
6 " 30
4 " 00
3 " 08

322 pounds.
322

308 "
336 "

11 "

9| <«

3i "

Mr. Morton's experiments were first with a speed equivalent to
two and a half miles an hour. The furrow was four by nine
inches, and the draught was 378 pounds. At five miles an hour
the draught was 392 pounds. His experiments were made with
a self recording dynamometer, in which the pencil described the
extent of every oscillation. It is worthy of remark that these
oscillations were very greatly increased at the higher rate of
speed, ranging between the extremes of 210 and 644 pounds,
while at the lower rate the oscillations ranged from 280 to 504
pounds.

Practical Questions in Plows and Plowing. 165

This result might have been reasonably expected, as when the
plow strikes a stone or other ol)struction the horses will naturally
exert all their strength, and by so doing cause a wide sweep of
oscillation.

We can say in conclusion that the results o1)tained upon this
point by Messrs. Morton and Pusey are fully corroborated by
our own observations. We could detect no difference between
the draught at high or low speeds, except such as are within the
limit usually allowed for errors of observation. In fact, the
dynamometer sometimes showed a less draught at a high speed
than it did at a low one.

This is quite in accordance with other experiments which have
been made to ascertain the laws of friction, which show that it is
entirely independent of velocity.

The resistance to the action of the plow is made up of the
weight of the plow pressing upon the sole, with the superadded
weight of the furrow slice; the friction of the land side against
the earth; the friction of the furrow slice against the surface of
the mould-board; the splitting action of the coulter, and the force
required to lift up and turn over the furrow slice. It is only in
this latter case that the real work performed is increased by the
velocity, and this is so small a proportion of the whole force that
it may be safely neglected in practice.

It will be seen at once by every farmer that the conclusion
we have come to, in view of the experiments, is one of very
great practical value. It shows, as Mr. Morton remarks, "the
importance of employing draught animals which naturally walk
at a rapid pace. Sucti animals, with same effort, get through
double the work of those of a more sluggish movement. With
the same effort, and therefore at no greater expense to the farmer.
The employment of active animals is obviously one of the most
influential methods of diminishing the expense of horse labor."

In view of these experiments, Mr. Pusey remarks: "Here,
then, it appears to me we have found the secret of the Scotch
horse's superior performance as to quality of work done. Though
they are stepping briskly along at a pace which enables them to
work five-quarters of an acre in a day, while the dragging walk
of the other horses carries them through three-quarters of an
acre only in the same time. They feel the weight of the plow
certainly not more than the others; perhaps even less. Let the
horses be lively enough to face their work boldly, and step out

166 Report on Trials of Plows.

well; they get, or rather their master gets, beyond the former
three-quarters of an acre, two-quarters more plowed for nothing.
It is true that the horses have to walk a greater distance in one
case, but this cannot be of much consequence. In plowing an
acre, with the furrow nine inches wide, the horse has to walk in
the furrow eleven miles exactly. If, then, he plow three-quarters
of an acre in a day, he has to walk eight and one-quarter miles
only; if five-quarters, he must pass over thirteen and three-
quarters miles — but five and a half miles more than before. The
increased rate of the animal's exertion has also, of course, a great
effect upon the fatigue of its frame, where the difference is con-
siderable. But I suppose that each animal has, in some degree,
a natural pace, suited to its conformation, which is most easy to
it, and that the quicker rate of two and three-quarters miles in
the hour may be as natural to the Clydesdale horse as a more
tardy Avalk to cart-horses of our heavy breeds. Still I do not
wish to assert that, under all circumstances, it is as easy for a
horse to move quickly as slowly with a heavy draught. If he be
overweighted, he will not have sufl^cient strength to spare for
carrying on his own weight with ease, and will naturally flag at
his task.

" In order to move briskly, he ought, I suppose, to feel in some
degree master of his work, and be able, if required, to draw
something more than his actual load. I ought also to mention,
after stating the superior exertions which the horse may be called
on to make, that these Clydesdale horses of Lord Moreton's are
not only fed in a superior manner, but that their day's work is
broken into two portions of time, between which they have rest,
and either return home to be fed or are supplied by means of
nose-bags, with corn, in the field. I believe that the practice of
working horses for eight hours together not only adds to their
fatigue, but that the absence of food for so long a time must be
a much more severe privation to them (as to all animals feeding
on grass and seeds only) than it is to the carniverous animals and
to ourselves."

Line of Draught of Plows. 167

CHAPTER VIII.

ON THE LINE OF DRAUGHT OF PLOWS.

Ill using a double mould-board plow it is very obvious that the
line of draught will be in the direction of the middle line of such
plow; that is, the resistance of the earth to the action of the
mould-board on the right side of the beam tending to throw the
heel of the plow to the left hand, will be exactly counterbalanced
by the resistance of the earth on the left mould-board, tending
to throw the heel to the right hand. These two faces being equal
and contrary will therefore neutralize each other, and the plow
will move steadily forward in the direct line of the draught.

This is not the case when the left side is cut off, as in our ordi-
nary plows, and the whole of the work is done by the share and
mould-board of the right side. Here the plow is acted on by a
lever whose length is the breadth of the plow, the eifect of which
is to throw the heel of the plow against the land side, and there-
fore to throw the point away from land, thus constantly narrowing
the breadth of the furrow. lu order to obviate this tendency of
the plow to run out, the English and Scotch plowmakers make
their beams oblique to the plane of the land side, so that the for-
ward extremity of the axis of the beam falls from an inch and a
quarter to two inches to the right of the plane of the land side
produced to that point. Although this obliquity of the beam
eflectually resists the tendency of the plow to run out, yet it
introduces an element of unsteadiness into the motion of the plow
which keeps the eye of the plowman continually upon the watch,
and his hand continually in motion to rectify the aberration.

Messrs. Prouty & Mears devised a much better plan for accom-
plishing this object, which has been since adopted by the greater
number of our American plowmakers.

They considered that there was a plane passing lengthwise
through the plow, which was so situated that the forces on each
side of it would balance each other. Since the greatest amount
of the force required to move the plow is employed in severing
the furrow slice from the solid land, it follows that the plane will
lie much nearer to the land side than to the furrow side of the
plow. They accordingly found, from carefully repeated experi-

168 Report on Trials of Plows.

ments, that in average soils and conditions that if the land side
was made with seven degrees of obliquity to the perpendicular,
or eighty-three degrees to the plane of the sole, the axis of the
beam would lie in the plane passing through the centre of resist-
ance. When the axis of the beam lies in this direction the plow
moves forward without any tendency to deviate from the line of
motion either to the right hand or the left. I'his arrangement is
illustrated in Fig, 80, in which a vertical section of the plow is
represented. The dotted line, C D, being the per-
^ pendicular to the plane of the sole, S; the angle

IT C D B is 7 deg.; L is the standard, and the lower

I / part of it is the land side; M, section of mould-

1 board; B, section of the beam.

h\ There is also a horizontal as well as a perpen-

1 \ dicular plane of resistance. When the draught

I X'v^'^ coincides with this plane there is no tendency in
N\^^ the plow to go deeper or shallower; if the draught

^"s -^^ is above it the point of the plow is drawn down-

I^iff. 80. ward with a force proportioned to the height of the
point of draught above this plane; if placed below it, the point
of the plow will in like manner rise out of the ground, and these
tendencies can only be counteracted by the plowman pressing on
the handles of the plow in the former case, or lifting them b}^
main force in the latter case.

Again, we have a third plane of resistance, which is vertical and
transverse. The plow enters the unbroken earth by a single
point, the transverse sections increasing gradually in area until
they attain to their maximum dimensions; but as the point enters
and breaks the solid earth, the force required does not increase
nearly as fast as the sectional area increases, hence the position
of this plane raises from one to five inches behind the point of
the plow, according to the consistency of the soil and the shape
of the plow.

The point of resistance of the plow is therefore situated at the
intersection of these three planes. If the line of draught passes
through this point, the plow will, in the language of the plow-
man, "swim free;" and it is therefore a point of great practical
importance to ascertain the locality of the point of resistance,
and to have a ready means of adjustment by which the line of
draught may be made to pass through it.

Line of Draught of Plows. 169

In speaking of the proper angle of draught, Mr. Stephens
remarks ("Book of the Farm," page 286):

" The reasoning heretofore adopted on this branch of the
theory of the plow seems to be grounded on the two following
data: the height, on an average, of a horse's shoulder, or that
point in his collar Avhere the yoke is applied; and the length of
the draught chains that will give him ample freedom to walk. It
falls out, fortunately, too, that the angle of elevation thus pro-
duced crosses the plane of the collar as it lies on the shoulders
of the horse when in draught, nearly at right angles."

It may, however, be shown that the plow may be drawn at any
angle from the horizontal nearly up to the perpendicular, if
certain practical diiSculties were removed, and that would require
a continually diminishing force to draw it as the line of draught
approaches to a horizontal direction, arriving at a minimum when
it reaches that point. It is, however, impossible in practice to
apply the force in this direction, as the line of draught would, in
this case, pass through the solid earth of the furrow slice; but it
is practicable to draw the plow at an angle of 12 degrees, which,
as will be demonstrated, will require less draught by fourteen
pounds than would be required if the angle were 20 degrees,
which may be considered as the average in the ordinary practice
of plowing. A plow drawn at this low angle, viz., 12 degrees,
would have its beam (if of the ordinary length) so low that the
draught-bolt would be only ten inches above the base line; and
this is not an impracticable height, though the traces might be
required inconveniently long. On the same principle, the angle
of draught might be elevated to 60 or 70 degrees, provided a
motive power could be applied at such high angles. In this, as
before, the beam and clevis would be in the straight line between
the point of attachment at the collar and the centre of resistance.
The whole plow, also, under this hypothesis, would require an
almost indefinite increase of weight; and the power required to
draw the plow, at an angle of 60 degrees, would l)e nearly twice
that required in the horizontal direction, or li| times that of the
present practice, exclusive of what might arise from increased
weight. We may, therefore, conclude that to draw the plow at
any angle higher than the present practice is impracticable, and,
though rendered practicable, would still be highly inexpedient
by reason of the disadvantage of incrersed force being thus ren-
dered necessary, unless we can suppose that the application oi

170

Report on Trials of Plows.

steam or other inanimate power might require it. Neither would

it be very expedient to adopt a lower angle, since it involves a

a greater length of trace m

chains, which at best would

1)6 rather cumbrous, and it

would produce a saving of

force of only 14 pounds on

the draught of a pair of

horses. Yet it is worthy of

being borne in mind that,

in all cases, there is some

saving of labor to the horses,

whenever they are, by any

means, allowed to draw by

a chain of increased length,

provided the clevis of the

plow is brought into the

line of the draught, and the

drauo;ht chains are not of

such undue weight as to

produce a sensible curva-
ture; in other words, to

insure the change of angle

at the horse's shoulder due

to the increased length of

the draught chain."

This subject will be better

understood when considered

in connection with Fig. 81.
Let a represent the body

of the plow, b the point of

the beam, and c the centre

of resistance of the plow,

which may be assumed at a

aeight of two inches above

the plane of the sole, d e,

though it is liable to change

within short limits. The av-
erage leno-th of the draught

chains or traces being ten

feetjincludingcvener, whiffle i^^/^. cV/.

Line of Draught of Plows. 171

trees, hooks, and all that intervenes between the clevis and the
horse's shoulders. Let that distance be set off in the direction
bf, and, the average height of the horse's shoulders being four
feet two inches, let the point/ be fixed at that height, above the
})ase line, d e. Draw the line / c, which is the direction of the
line of draught, acting upon the centre of resistance, c; and if
the plow is in proper temper it will coincide with the clevis; e cf
being the angle of draught and equal to 20 degrees. It will be
easily perceived that, with the same horses and the same length
of yoke, the angle, e c f, is invariable; and if the plow has a
tendency to dip at the point of the share under this arrangement,
it indicates that the draught-bolt, b, is too high in the bridle.
Shifting the bolt one or two holes downwards will bring the plow
to swim evenly upon its sole. On the other hand, if the plow
has a tendency to raise at the point of the share, the indication
from this is that the evener is too low in the clevis, and the recti-
fication must be made by raising it one or two holes in the clevis.

Suppose, again, that a pair of taller horses were yoked in the
plow, the traces, depth of furrow, and soil, and, by consequence,
the point of resistance, c, remaining the same, we should then
have the point / raised to /'. By drawing the line /' c we have
e cf as the angle of draught, which will now be 22 degrees; and
in this new arrangement the draught-bolt is found to be below the
line of draught,/"' c; and if the traces were applied at b, in the
direction of/' 6, the plow would have a tendency to rise at the
point of the share by the action of that law of forces which
oblige's the line of draught to coincide with the line which passes
through the centre of resistance; hence the draught-bolt, b, Avould
be found to rise to b\ which would raise the point of the share
out of its proper direction. To rectify this, then, the draught-
bolt must be raised in the bridle by a space equal to b b\ causing
it to coincide with the true line of draught, which would again
bring the plow to swim evenly on its sole.

Regarding the relative forces required to overcome the resist-
ance of the plow when drawn at different angles of draught, we
have first to consider the nature of the form of those parts
through which the motive force is brought to bear upon the plow.
It has been shown that the tendency of the motive force acts in a
direct line from the shoulder of the animal of draught to the
centre of resistance; and, referring again to Fig. 81, were it not
for considerations of convenience, a straight bar or beam lying in

172 Report on Trials of Plows.

the direction c 6, and attached firmly to the plow's body, any-
where between c and y, would answer all the purposes of draught,
perhaps better than the present beam. But the draught not
being the end in view, but merely the means by which that end
is accomplished, the former is made to subserve the latter; and
as the beam, if placed in the direction c 6, would obstruct the
proper working of the plow, we are constrained to resort to
another indirect action to arrive at the desired effect. This
indirect action is accomplished through the medium of a system
of rigid angular frame work, consisting of the beam and the
body of the plow, or those parts of them comprehended between
the points b h c, the beam being so connected to the body, a h, as
to form a rigid mass. The effect of the motive force applied to
this rigid system of parts at the point b, and in the direction bf,
produces the same result as if c 6 were firmly connected by a bar
in the position of the line c b, or as if that bar alone were
employed, as in the case before supposed, and to the exclusion
of the beam, b h. -

Let us now proceed to examine the effect of the oblique draught
on traction. The average draught of plows at the Albany trials
in 1850, was 407 pounds, with a furrow seven inches by ten
inches, when exerted in the direction b f. If now we take the
value of the line b f at 407, a certain portion of the force will be
exerted in direct traction, and another portion will be exerted
in pulling the plow up from the ground in the direction i f,
and the force of traction will be to the lifting force in the
exact ratio of the line i b to the line if. The line if is 50 inches
— 16 inches = 34 inches : the line b f is 120 inches; the line i b
is therefore 115 inches; and we therefore have 120 inches : 115
inches : : 407 pounds : 390 pounds = the amount of direct draught
upon the plow exerted by the horses. In like manner the force
lifting the plow upwards is found to be 114 pounds. The same
result would follow if the beam were supported by a wheel under
the point b; the wheel would then bear up the beam with the
same force as that by which it was supposed to be suspended,
viz.: 114 pounds. But to carry out the supposition, let the
draught now found be applied at the point c; as the plow would
then have no tendency to dip or rise, the force, k b, vanishes,
leaving only the direct horizontal force, i b; hence, were it pos-
sible to apply the draught in a horizontal direction from the point

Line of Draught of Plows. 173

of resistance, the resistance of the ploAv would be 390 pounds
instead of 407 pounds.

THE WHEEL.

It is not difficult to show that, theoretically considered, a wheel
placed under the beam can in no case lessen the traction of the
plow, as many plowmakers and plowmen have alleged.

Let us suppose that the line of draught is in the horizontal
direction; it will therefore require that a support be placed
beneath the beam to prevent its sinking too low, which support,
in all modern plows, is given by a wheel. It has been shown
that whether the plow be drawn in the ordinary direction of
draught, b f, in which one oblique propelling force only is
exerted, or with two antagonist forces, b i, in the horizontal direc-
tion, and the upholding force, b k^ in the vertical, we find that in
the latter the diiference in favor of motive force is only one
twenty-fourth of the usual resistance; but the upholding force is
equal to two-sevenths, while none of these variations has pro-
duced any change in the absolute resistance of the plow. The
impelling force is theoretically less in the latter case; but since
the wheel has a load of 107 pounds to carry, we have to consider
the efiect of this load upon a small wheel, arising from friction
and the resistance it will encounter by sinking more or less into
the subsoil.

Mr. Stephens has ascertained from experiment that the differ-
ence of force required to draw a wheel twelve inches in diameter,
loaded as above described, and again when unloaded, over a tol-
erably firm soil, is equal to 22 pounds, a quantity exceeding one
and a half times the amount of saving that would accrue by adopt-
ing this supposed horizontal draught with a wheel. Having thus
found the amount of draught at two extremities of a -scale, the
one being the oblique draught, in common use, at an angle of 20
deg., the other deduced from this through the medium of the
established principles of oblique forces, and the latter producing
a saving of one twenty-fourth of the motive force while it is
encumbered with an additional resistance arising from the support
or wheel. It necessarily follows that at all intermediate angles
of draught, or at any angle whatever where the principle of
the parallelogram of forces finds place — and it will find place
in all cases where wheels yielding any support are applied to the
plow under the beam — there must necessarily be an increase in

174

Report on Trials of Plows.

the amount of resistance to the motive force. The diagram,
Fio-. 82, will make this important matter still more intelligible.
Let a be the point of resistance of a plow's body, b the point
of the beam, c the position of the horses' shoulders, and a d the
horizontal line; then will c a d he the angle of draught, equal

g

J^/^. 82.

20 deg. Let the circle e represent a wheel placed under the
beam, which is supported by a stem or shears, here represented
by the line e h. In this position the point of the beam, which is
also the point of draught, lies in the line of draught; the wheel,
therefore, bears no load, but is simply in place, and has no effect
on the draught; the motive force, therefore, continues to be 407
pounds.

Suppose, now, the point of the beam to be raised to a, so that
the line of draught, g c, may be horizontal; and since the line of
drauo;ht lies now out of the oris^inal line, a b c, and has assumed
that oi a g c, g being now supported on the produced stem, e g,
of the wheel, draw g i perpendicular to « c and complete the
parallelogram, a i g k; the side, a i, will still represent the origi-
nal motive force of 407 pounds, but by the change of direction
of the line of draught, the required force will now be represented
by the diagonal, a g, of the parallelogram, equal to 425 pounds,
and .9^ c is a continuation of this force in a horizontal direction.
The draft is therefore increased by 18 pounds. Complete also
the parallelogram, a I g m, and as the diagonal, a g — the line of
draught last found — is equal to 425 pounds, the side, I g, of the
parallelogram will represent the vertical pressure of the beam
upon the wheel, e, equal to about 250 pounds, which, from Mr.
Stephens' experiments, may be valued at 50 pounds of additional
resistance, making the whole resistance to the motion 475 pounds,
and being a total increase arising from the introduction of a wheel
in this position of 68 pounds. Having here derived a maxiunim —

Line of Draught of Plows. 175

no doubt an extreme case — and the usual angle of 20 deg. as a
minimum, we can predicate that, at any angle intermediate to
lab and / a g^ the resistance can never be reduced to the mini-
mum of 407 pounds. Hence it follows, as a corollary, that
ivheels placed under the beam can never lessen the resistance of the
plow; but, on the contrary, must in all cases increase the resist-
ance to the motive force more or less, according to the degree of
pressure that is brought to bear, and this will be proportional to
the line of the angle in the resultant, a g, of the line of draught.

We have now finished the discussion of the wheel question on
theoretical principles, deeming it best to introduce no disturbing
questions to distract the attention of the reader until all that we
had to say under that head was brought to a close.

We may now remark that our theoretical views are based upon
a uniform motion, a uniform soil and a homogeneous texture, but
such a coincidence of conditions is rarely met with in practice.
Some portions of the soil are wet, while others are dry; some
parts are hilly, and others level; some parts are adhesive, and
others are crumbling; some are stony, others full of roots. The
instances are indeed rare where there is a perfect uniformity in
the conditions which are essential to bring it into conformity with
theory.

There are few questions connected with plowing which have
been more energetically or more persistently disputed than that
between wheel and swing plows. The Scotch plowmen have been
especially pugnacious, doing battle for the swing plow with the
utmost vehemence. The English plowmen have been equally
certain that the wheel was essential to good plowing. While the
Americans, thinking little about the matter and saying less, have
instinctively adopted them.

The advocates of the swing plow claim the following advan-
tages. ^

First — It educates a better class of workmen. Almost any
one, after the practice of one or two days, can use a wheel plow
and do pretty good work. None but a first-class workman can
make good work with a swing plow.

' Second — Its depth can be regulated by the proper adjustment
of the whiflie-trees in the clevis, or by increasing the length of
the traces.

Third — The plowman can regulate the action of the point by
bearing upon or lifting up the handles.

176 Report on Trials of Plows.

Fourth — It is more simple in its construction and less in cost.

Fifth — It can be used across ridges, and under a much greater
variety of circumstances than the wheel plow.

Sixth — It requires less power.

The advocates of wheel plows claim the following advantages
for their favorite implement:

Fi7'st — The plowing can be effected with more ease to the
plowman.

Second — The work can be performed with much greater accu-
racy; the depth is more uniform and the sole is kept more level.

Third — Where very shallow or very deep plowing is required
it can be better done with a wheel than with a skim plow, and
also where the land is hard and stony.

Let us briefly consider these conflicting allegations:

First — It is doubtless true that a swing plow requires a more
skillful plowman than a wheel plow, but this, in a country where
skilled plowmen are so rare as they are in this, is an objection
rather than an advantage. No one denies that a poor workman
can do very much better work with a wheel plow than with a
swing plow, and this, in our judgment, settles this point in their
favor.

Second — The alleged capacity for adjustment is true, but it is
equally true of the wheel plow.

Third — This allegation must also be admitted, but it is done
at a great expense of friction upon the team, and of great labor to
the plowman, which increases the wear of the plow. The use of
the wheel obviates the necessity of all this, and therefore we
think that in this respect wheels have the advantage.

Fourth — This must be admitted, but the advantage in this
respect is so slight that it is scarcely worth taking into the
account.

Fifth — This assertion must be taken with some limitations. In
cases where the rock lies at varying depths, sometimes within
three or four inches of the surface, at others at a greater depth,
in cutting across dead fallows where the surfiice is rough, and
hard clods interrupt the even action of the wheels, there can be
no doubt that the swing plow would do best. In crossing steep
ridges and furrows the action of the ascending wheel raises the
share out of the furrow, while in descending it plunges deeper
into the ridge. This, however, occurs only in extreme cases, and

Line of Draught of Plows. 177

to a considerable degree the same efiect attends the swing plow
unless it is managed by plowmen more expert than are often
found in England or even in Scotland, and of whom scarce a score
could be found in the State of New York. On the other hand,
in stony land, or where the soil is obstructed by roots, it must be
confessed on all hands that a wheel is of the greatest advantage.

8ixth — The assertion that the wheel plow requires more power
than the swing is completely disproved by the most accurate and
frequently repeated experiments.

We have shown by geometrical reasoning that the wheel adds
to the draught of the plow when constantly pressed upon by the
trim of the plow; but this ought never to be allowed, and will
never occur in level and tolerably homogeneous soils, when the
draught is properly adjusted. The pressure will only occur in
coincidence with the occurrence of inequalities; but on the other
hand, these inequalities must be overcome by the pressure of the
plowman's hands, which, acting on a long lever, increases the
friction in a greater degree than the wheel, and therefore augments
the friction of the plow in a greater degree also.

Mr. Hand ley, in a paper which received the prize of the Royal
Agricultural Society, details a series of experiments that he per-
formed with a view to the determination of this question.

Tavo wheel plow^s were tried in connection with two swino-
plows. The average draught of the wheel plows was 288 pounds,
while the average draught of the swing plows was 341 pounds,
making an average difference of 53 pounds in favor of the wheel
plows.

Mr. Handley's experiments were performed at Ipswich, in 1838.
The average weight of the wheel plows was 220 pounds; the
average weight of the swing plows was 135 pounds. It was
farther established at this trial that the draught of a plow is not
increased in an equal ratio w^ith its weight, for on loading one of
the wheel plows with 112 pounds, or 51 per cent additional
Aveight, the draught was only increased 33 pounds, or 12 per cent.

These trials were repeated by Mr. Pusey in 1840, with the
following results: The average draught of four swing ploAvs,
Avorking a deep, strong loam, was 441 pounds, while that of the
four Avheel ploAvs, working in the same soil, was 434 pounds.
shoAving an average difference of 7 pounds in favor of the wheel
plows in this kind of soil. In a broAvn loamy sand the average

12

178 Report on Trials of Plows.

draught of the four swing plows was 245 pounds; that of the four
wheel plows was 210 pounds, showing an average of 35 pounds
in favor of the wheel plows. In a blue clay soil the average
draught of the four swing plows was 686 pounds; the average
draught of the four Avheel plows was 630 pounds, showing a differ-
ence in favor of the wheel plows of 56 pounds. In a sandy loam
the difference in favor of the wheel plows was 49 pounds. The
average difierence in these four trials, in as many different soils,
was 37 pounds, or 10 per cent, in favor of the wheel plows.

Mr. Handley accounts for this superiority of wheel plows as
follows:

" As regards the cause of the diminished force required by the
wheel, compared with the swing plow, it appears to me to be
principally, if not fully, explained by the more uniform horizontal
motion communicated to the share and sole of the former through
the regulating medium of the wheels at the fore part of the
beam, which diminish the shocks arising from the continued
vibrations of the implement when balanced between the hand of
the plowman and the back and shoulders of the horse. It is not
contended that Avheels so situated act the part of lessening the
friction between the sole and the soil; but they keep the rubbing
part more truly to its depth, and maintain its horizontal action
more correctly; whereas the horses affect a swing plow at every
step by the irregularity of their proper movement, which has to
be counteracted by the effort of the man at the opposite end.
Thus conflicting forces are momentarily produced, and continual
elevations and depressions of the point of the share take place,
together with deviations from the flat position of the sole, which
should be retained at right angles to the perpendicular; and to
remedy which unskillful plowmen bear unequally on the stilts,
which produces a lateral pressure landwards, and consequently a
great amount of friction along the whole of the left side plane of
the plow. However small may be the eflbrts of the plowman to
keep his plow ^ sivim.ming fair,^ those efforts must be attended
ivith increased resistance, and consequently with increased resist-
ance to the horses."

It is not pretended that, in a wheel plow, none of these irregu-
larities of motion exist; on the contrary, the dynamometer shows
them to be very considerable, but less in degree than in the swing
plow. The oscillations of the index of the dynamometer are, as

Line of Draught of Plows. 179

might be expected, very great when applied to a plow. The point
of a plowshare may be readily supposed, at one instant, to have
burst a sod, which, opening and being raised upwards, offers for
several inches but a trifling resistance to its progress; it again
meets the obstacle, which is again overcome. It is similar with
roots, stones and other varying impediments, and thus, at every
step of the horse (whose motion is also a series of impulses), the
draught, as exhibited by the dynamometer, is continually and
largely varying.

These are effects arising from the nature of animal force and
of the soil; they are necessarily common to both plows, but
appear to be augmented in the swing, compared with the wheel
plow, and sufiiciently account for the diminished draught of the
latter as shown in the experiments.

We think we have now shown that the claims of the advocates
of swing ploAvs are mostly invalid, while those of the friends of
the wheel plow are shown to be founded in reason and experi-
ence, and the practice of American farmers is therefore fully
justified.

Before leaving the subject we desire to quote a statement of
Mr. Handley, which very strikingly illustrates the action of the
plowman on the draught of the plow.

" In one of my trials I substituted for a first-rate plowman one
who, though no novice, was decidedly his inferior, and who held
the same plow for a bout, during which he exerted his best abili-
ties, aware of the comparison about to be instituted, and yet the
draught w^as in, his hands, increased six per cent, and I have no
doubt, had he continued to hold the plow for an entire day, it
would have been considerably more. This man, though inferior
to the other, possessed skill above the average of plowman usually
employed. Had he held a plow with wheels there would proba-
bly have been no difference in the draught between the holding
of the plow by himself and predecessor."

There is a considerable difference in the mode of making and
attaching wheels to plows. The old fashioned high gallows
frame may be seen in Plate I. This plan, though capable of
being used by a good plowman so as to do good work, is so
complex in the adjustment that in the hands of unskilled work-
men they are apt to consume more power and to do less perfect
work.

180

Report on Trials of Plows.

A much better and simpler plan for a trvo wheeled plow is given
in Plate V, in connection with the plows of Messrs. Ransome and

Howard. It is claimed by many that

there is an advantage in the use of two

wheels, as the land wheel acts as a

lateral gauge to the width of each

furrow as well as to the depth, and

therefore the uniformity of width,

depth and angle of the furrow slice

J^iff. S3. thus produced give a perfect form to

the whole operation. The American form of the double wheel

plow is given in Fig. 83.

The usual form of the single wheel is shown on the side of

the plow beam, in Fig. 84, and beneath it

in Fis:. 85. In either case the wheel

frame is clasped to the ^

beam in a manner that

readily admits of raising

or lowering the wheel to

J^iff, 84: give the plow any desi- -F'/ff. 86.

red depth of work; and when adjusted to a given point it is

then made fast by tightening the clasp.

THE COULTER.

Fig. 86 shows the manner of inserting the coulter through a
mortise in the beam. It is secured by a wedge; the beam is
strengthened from splitting by a diagonal baud passing round it.
It is adjusted to the sidv. of the beam, as shown

>

Fig. 86.

Fiff. 87.

Fig. 88.

in Fig. 87, by a diagonal clamp, which supports the front of the
coulter on the upper side, and the back on the lower side; the
ends pass through holes in an iron plate, and are fastened securely
by nuts.

Fig. 88 is a form of the coulter in which a circular plate,

Line of Draught of Plows.

181

Jiuviiio; a socket on its face, which secures the shank of the
coulter; is made to revolve by the action of a screw, thus
cnahling the plowman to set it at any desired angle.

The favorite plans for raising or lowering the coulter in Eng-
land are given in Fig. 89, and also for changing its angle, which
will be readily understood on inspection.

JF'iff. 89,

Fig. 90 represents the lock coulter, which is made of wrought
iron, steel edged. It passes through the plow beam, and is made fast
on top with a key, or with a nut and screw, and locks through the
share and mould-board where they join together.
The adjustment is a very
strong one, both for the
coulter and the plow, and
fits the implement for work-
ing among stones, stumps
and roots, as the coulter
cannot be turned out of'
place or broken by such
obstacles. The revolving
coulter is represented in Fig. 91. It consists of a steel plate,
revolving on an axis, and having a stem which is clasped to the
beam, as shown in the cut. In some cases the coulter is con-
veniently replaced by the fin share represented in Fig. 92. It is
used for plowing sod lands infested with roots and stumps or
stones, where the sward cutter cannot be used without danger of
getting bent or misplaced. It is also useful when plowing in
stubble or coarse manure, serving to keep the plow from clogging
at the standard. It separates the furrow slice from the unplowed
land easier and more smoothly than it could be done by the
breast of the plow. Much depends upon the form and size of

jFlff. 90.

JPig. 97.

182 Report on Trials of Flows.

the coulter and its adjustment. It should be made of iron, faced
with steel, and of sufficient bulk to stand firmly in the position
in which it is set for its work; not to bend either to the right hand
or to the left. The most approved
English coulters are about two and
a half inches wide, and formed by
the meeting of two curves, as in
Fig. 89 . The land side of the
coulter should be flat, and the
opposite side a gradual taper from
the edge to the back. The thick-
ness must be determined by the ^f'^- ^2.
strength of the work it has to perform. American coulters are
generally made either straight edged, as in Fig. 87, or slightly
curved backward from the point. When secured, as shown in
Fig. 89, it is kneed inward, so as to adjust it to the plane of the
land side.

Having now considered the various forms of the coulter, we
pass on to a consideration of its function and its adjustment.

Mr. Stephens has asserted that the force required to draw a
coulter seven inches deep in the earth requires no more power
than it does to draw a plow making a furrow seven inches deep
and ten inches wide, without a coulter. This experiment, we
believe, stands alone, unsupported by the testimony of any other
observer. We had desired to verify it at Utica, with every pre-
caution to insure accuracy, but were prevented from doing so by
the unexpected and untimely removal of the dynamometer from
thence.

The subject being one of such great importance, we give -Mr.
Stephens' statements in his own words:

" On a subject which has of late attracted considerable atten-
tion, I was desirous of obtaining information from experiments
alone on the actual implement; and, to attain this more fully, I
determined on analyzing the resistance as far as possible. With
this view, a plow was prepared whose coulter was descended
seven inches below the line of the sole, and fitted to stand at any
required angle. This plow, with its sole upon the surface of a
two-year old lea, and the coulter alone in the so^7, the bridle
having been adjusted to make it swim without any undue tendency,
the force required to draw this experimental instrument, as indi-
cated ])y the dyii!inionieter, was twenty-six imperial stones (350

Line of Draught of Plows. 183

pounds), and no sensible difference was observed in a range of angles
varying from 45 to 70 degrees. This coulter, having been
removed, the plow was drawn along the surface of the field, when
the ploAv indicated eight stones (112 pounds), the usual draught
of a plow on the surface.

"Another well-trimmed ploAV Avas at work in the same ridge,
taking a furrow ten by seven inches, and its draught was also
350 pounds. The furrow thus taken produced, of course, a slice of
very rough plowmauship; and though it exhi])ited, by a negative,
the essential use of the coulter — the clean cutting of the slice
from the solid ground — the whole question of the operation and
working efiects of the coulter are thus placed in a very anomolous
position.'-

If the experiment of Mr. Stephens is reliable, it would seem
that the extreme care which plowmakers have taken to adjust the
coulter accurately to the various parts of the plow is quite unnec-
essary, and that the reasons given for their respective plans rest
upon a purely imaginary foundation.

Farmers having observed that a drawing cut requires less power
to separate a solid body than a direct cut by pressure — as the saw
cuts easier than the chisel — have imagined that they obtained
such a drawing cut by giving a long rake to the coulter; but on
looking closely at the matter it will be seen that this gives no
drawing action whatever to the cut of the coulter.

There is no upward and downward motion, no reciprocating
action as when we draw a knife across a loaf of bread, but it is
simply a cut efiected by horizontal pressure operating through
the whole length of the blade just as when the edge of a chisel is
pressed into wood by the blow of a mallett. There is therefore
no economy of power by inserting the coulter at a high angle
with the sole, the resistance so far as the splitting of homogeneous
earth is concerned is precisely the same whether the angle is 45
deg. or 80 deg.

Nevertheless, in practice, arising from other causes than the
splitting of the earth, there are great advantages to be derived
from a variation of the angle between 45 deg. and 85 deg., and
incidentally there is a considerable saving of power.

Thus in plowing stubble land which is very foul the dry grass
and butts of the straw would collect transversely on the edge of
the coulter. In this case the draft is frequently increased by 150
pound.s; by giving it it a long rake the stubble is slioved upward

184 Report on Trials of Plows.

and the edge is kept clear. So when the ground is full of roots,
when the coulter is set slanting the roots will slide upward, and
the drawing action will cut them; whereas, if the coulter was set
at 80 deg. it would draw them out. On the other hand, when
used for plowing sod or clover the furrow will be much cleaner
when the angle is 75 deg. or 80 deg., as it will not press the
grass and roots upwards before they can be cut through.

There is one rule pretty generally observed in relation to the
coulter, both in Europe and America, which is that the land side fticc
shall always be parallel to the plane of the land side of the plow.

Another rule pretty generally adopted is that at the point where
the coulter meets the surface of the ground the edge should stand
about on(;-quarter of an inch landward of the plane of the land-
side of the plow.

Li the plows made by Prouty & Mears, and those of some other
makers, the reverse of this rule is adopted, the coulter being set
inwards toward the mould-board about half an inch at the point
where the coulter touches the surface, as shown in Fig. 93, and
extending from thence landward so that the point of the coulter
is vertical over the point
of the share. This leaves
a small triangle whose
base is half an inch and
whose altitude is the
depth of the furrow to

cut off by the shin of the Jf'iff. 93.

plow; this is converted into powder, which rolls over on the face
of the furrow slice and covers the grass, which sometimes sticks
up in the angle of the slice.

The vertical elevation of the point of the coulter above the
plane of the sole is not well settled. In England it is generally
put from one to two inches above, in America from three to four
inches above it.

Then English and Scotch usually put the point of the coulter
vertically over the point of the share, but in America it is placed
mostly from two to four inches in advance of it.

We think there is no absolute rule which can be laid down
upon these points. The nature of the soil to be plowed will
influence the set of the coulter very considerably, and the deter-
mination of this part of the trimming of the plow may be safely
left to the judgment of the plowman.

Mechanical Conditions of the Plow. 185

CHAPTER IX

OF THE MECHANICAL CONDITIONS OF THE PLOW.

In order to fulfill the indications described in the preceding
pages, it is necessary to form the plow so that, in sandy land, or
in light crumbly loams, the furrow shall be completely inverted,
so that the surface of the soil shall be laid upon the bottom, and
that which was upon the bottom shall be turned upon the top.

In stiffer soils it is necessary to lap the furrows, so that the
upper surface shall form an angle of 45 degrees with the base,
when the lower edge of the last plowed slice will lap over one-
third of the preceding slice.

As will be seen on Fig. 94, where the lines a c and c?y are nine
inches long, and the lines a g and d h are six inches long, and the
lines a h and d e are each three inches long, or one-third of the
length of the lines a c and d e, which represent the breadth of
the furrow. When the furrow slices are laid in this position, the
line 6 c is always equal to the line c e, and the line eftofi.

It may be shown by the following reasoning which we borrow
from Mr. Stephcus, that this position insures the exposure of the
greatest possible surface of earth to the atmosphere. It also
elevates the maximum cubical mass of earth, and makes the
deepest seed-bed when the angles are drawn off by the action of
the harrow.

Let a b, Fig. 95, represent the breadth of a ten-inch furrow
slice, and describe the semicircle, a c b, upon it as a diameter.
From this well known property of the circle, that the angle in a
semicircle is a right angle, every triangle formed upon the
diameter as a base, will be right angled; and the only isosceles
triangle that can l)e formed within it will be that Avhich has, c d

186

Report on Trials of Plows.

equal a b, the breadth of the slice, which must always be equal
to the distance between the apices of two contiguous furrows.

Complete the parallelogram, a c cl e, which will represent the
transverse section of a rectangular slice, whose breadth is ten
inches, and whose two exposed faces, a c and c b, lie at angles of
45 degrees, and their breadth, as well as the area of the triangle,
a b c, will be a maximum. In order to prove this, let a section
of another slice be formed, whose exposed side, a f, shall be
greater than the corresponding side, a c, of the former, and let
this be taken at eight inches. Fromy, through the point 6, draw

f g; then will af b be a right angle as before; f g, being also made
equal to ten inches, complete the parallelogram, afgr h, which
will represent the transverse section of a rectangular slice ten
inches by eight inches, occupying the same horizontal breadth as
before, and whose exposed faces will be a / and / b. Draw the
line i c k parallel to a b, and passing through the apex, c, of the
triangle, a c b; and the line i k, also parallel to the line, a b,
passing through the apex, /, of the triangle, a f b. Here the
triangles, a c b and afb, stand on equal bases, a b; but the first
lies between the parallels a b and i c k, and the second between
those of a 6 and i' k'; the altitude,//', therefore, of the triangle
a f b is less than the altitude, c c', of the triangle, a c b. And
triangles on equal bases being proportioned to their altitudes, it
follows that the triangle afb is less than the triangle a c b, both

Mechanical Conditions of the Plow. 187

in area and periphery. Suppose, again, a slice whose sides, a I,
is less than the corresponding side, a c, and let it be six inches;
from I through the point ^, as before, draw I m, and construct the
parallelogram, aim n, we- shall have a transverse section of a
third slice of ten by six inches, whose exposed faces, a I, lb,
occupy the same horizontal breadth as before. Here the triangle
alb lies between the parallels a b and i' k', consequently to afb,
and less than a c b.

This simple geometrical demonstration as applicable to the slice
may be corroborated by the usual formula of the triangle. Thus
the altitude of the triangle acbis'^-^ = ^ inches == c c', and the side
a c or c b is = ^a c^-{-g c^; or a c and c c being each equal to five
inches, a c or cb will = V 25 + 25 = 7 • 071 inches, which is the
depth due to a slice of ten inches in breadth, and the sum of the
two exposed faces will be 7 • 071 + 2 = 14 • 142 inches.

In the triangle a f b, a b = 10 inches, and a f = S inches,
then ab^ — af =fb'^, and the V/^^ = ^ inches. The three
sides, therefore, of this triangle are ten, eight and six inches,
and the altitude,//', is easily found by the principles of similar
triangles. Thus, in the similar triangles, a //',/ bf', a b : a f
• • / ^ • //'• The perpendicular//' is therefore = 4-8 inches,
hence the exposed surfaces are as 14 • 141 : 14, and the altitudes
as 5 to 4 • 8.

Since it turns out that a I is equal to f b, and a 5 is common to
both, it follows that I b is equal to a / and the periphery and
altitude is also equal and less in all respects than the triangle
a c b, and so of any other position or dimension.

By recurring to Fig. 94, it will be seen that when the furrow
slices are laid at an angle of 45 degrees, a triangular drain, g d h,
is left under each furrow. This not only drains off the surface
water, but allows the air to enter freely beneath the surface,
which, in conformity with what has been said in the preceding
section, is of very great advantage, and strongly recommends the
adoption of this mode of plowing in stiff and retentive soils.

It will follow, from what has been stated, that the proportion
of the depth to the width must always be in the ratio of 2 to 3.
Six inches deep and nine inches broad, or seven inches by ten,
are the most usual proportions.

Fig. 96 illustrates the action of the plow in this style of plow-
ing; a b is the exterior edge of the slice which is being turned;
e f is the edsje along which the land side of the plow has just

188

Report on Trials of Plows.

passed; c d is the inner edge of the slice; g h is the sole of the
furrows, and ih^lm are slices which have been previously turned
over.

I^lff. 96.

The exact mechanism of the rotation of the slice is clearly
illustrated in Fig. 97. Let abed represent the transverse section
of a furrow slice nine inches wide and six inches deep, which it
is proposed to raise. The point of the plow enters at the point
d; as nothing is cut or broken before it, it must necessarily take
a greater strain and sustain a greater amount of abrasion than any
other portion of the implement. The entrance of the point gives
an upward tension to the slice, which facilitates the action of the

horizontally cutting edge of the feather, which severs the slice at
the bottom from the sole, d c, as it advances forward; at the same
time the slice is raised from its centre, c, and the outer and under
corners traverses the arc of a circle, d eg k. The parallelogram,
c e sf, shows the position of the slice when the point d has been

Mechanical Conditions of the Plow. 189

vertically elevated four inches to the point e. At the point g it
has been vertically elevated eight inches, and the position of the
slice is shown in the parallelogram c g Ji i. When the point d
has been i-aised through an entire quadrant, the line cZ c is repre-
sented by k c, and the line b chy c m. The vertical line of the
mould-board in contact with the line k c is called the zero line,
and the point touched by the angle at k is called the zero point.
This point is of importance, as from it all measurements of plows
are usually made. Up to this time the slice has turned on the
centre c, but on its further passage to the positions o p n m and
q r m s, the centre of rotation is the point m, until it attains to
an angle of 45 degrees, when the slice rests upon the edge of the
preceding furrow. If the whole sole of the slice were to be
severed by the share, it is clear that it would be very difficult, if
not impossible, to lay the slice accurately. The plow would act
as a simple wedge, pushing the slice over to the furrow side from
the land side; it would not coincide with the twist of the mould-
board, and therefore the transverse cracks which it receives, and
which is so essential to its pulverization, would not be communi-
cated to itj it would frequently leave it in a vertical position, and
sometimes, especially on side-hills, the furrow would fall back
into its old position. To prevent this, the rear angle of the
feather should never be further from the plane of the land side
than from one-half to three-quarters of the breadth of the furrow,
that is, if the furrow is ten inches wide, the rear angle of the
feather should be from five to seven and one-half inches from the
plane of the land side, measuring across the sole of the plow by
the shortest line between them. The strip thus left unsevered
on the furrow side holds the furrow to its place and forms a sort
of hinge upon which it turns.

We have hitherto confined our attention exclusively to furrow
slices whose transverse sections are rectangles; but many plow-
makers and plowmen insist that a crested furrow, whose trans-
verse section is a trapezoid, is better than the rectangular furrow
because it forms a deeper seed-bed. This form is produced when
the rear angle of the feather lies in a plane from one inch to an
inch and a quarter higher than the plane of the point.

Fig. 98 shows that those who claim a better seed-bed for a
trapezoidal furrow are mistaken. A series of triangles, fgf and
f g'f", etc., are left undisturbed at the bottom of the furrow,
which are eft'ectually cut up by a plow turning a rectangular

190

Report on Trials of Plows.

furrow slice. Again, the side a b being nine inches, and the side
c (Z a fraction longer; the side h d six inches, and the side a c four
and a half inches, it is evident that less loose earth is provided
for the seed-bed by a trapezoidal slice than a rectangular one by
the triangle, d e c, which varies from one-seventh to one-tenth of
the entire section, according to the elevation of the rear angle of
the feather.

a. *i

The practical rule proposed by Mr. Stephens for the formation
of the sole of the plow, with reference to the formation of rec-
tangular furrow slices, is that the height of the shield — the
surface of the share — on the land side, opposite to the rear angle
of the feather, be two and a half inches above the line of the sole
shoe; that the share be one-half an inch below the line of the
sole shoe, and not exceeding one-half an inch to landward of the
land side plane; and that no part of the edge of the feather
should be more than three-eighths of an inch above the plane of
the sole shoe, that plane being always understood to be at right
angles to the land side plane.

Another style of plowing, known as sod and subsoil plowing,
which was introduced into this country about the year 1850, has
worked its way very largely into public fovor, and is probably
destined to receive a still greater popularity as time continues to
reveal its merits.

Fig. 99 shows the manner in which the work is performed. A
skim plow is attached to the fore part of the beam, by clamps,
which turns over from two to three inches, «, of the sod, depositing
it, with the grass downward, on the sole of the preceding furrow,
c. A larger plow, attached to the rear of the beam, follows and
turns over the rest of the furrow, 6, depositing it, in a finely pul-
verized condition, on the top of the first or sod furrow. In this
way the grass and weeds on the surface arc effectually buried.

Mechanical Conditions of the Plow.

191

and are placed in a position to nourish the roots of the crop at
the precise period wlien nourishment is most needed for maturing
the crop. This kind of plowing prepares sod-ground for corn in
the best possible manner.

J^iff. 99.
For land which is too bushy or too rooty with wild or swamp
grasses, or where ic is so sandy or mellow that pulverization is
not an object, a third style of plowing is adopted which requires
a special form of the plow.

'%i -

J^ig. WO.

The action and movement of the furrow slice for fiat furrow
sod plowing is shown in Fig. 100, and requires no other expla-
nation.

192

Report on Trials of Plows.

The fourth kind of plowing is in stubble or old land, and is
generally called stubble plowing. Fig. 101 represents this style

ill!llJUIlii|ii!|iiiiiiiiiiin llimiiiillhllliillll

J^iff. /Of,

of plowing. The twist of the furrow is more sharp and decided
than in sod plowing, as the soil is less compact, and can be pul-
verized with less expenditure of power.

Many side-hills which are fertile, are yet so steep that a furrow
cannot be turned up hill, and must therefore be turned down hill.
This requires a plow which shall permit the share and mould-
l)oard to swing alternately to the right and left of the land side.

Since mowing machines have been used as a substitute for the
scythe, a demand has arisen for a more level culture, dispensing
with open furrows and every other form of surface obstruction.
The swivel plow being adapted to meet this want, its use has
been greatly extended, and few farmers now feel that they can
dispense with them.

There are other kinds of plows, but these five are sufficient for
the cultivation of the land, and no good farmer can afford to
dispense with them.

Mr. Holbrook has made an effort to dispense with so great a
number by adapting to his sod plows a mould-board for stubble
plowing, and a skim plow, when desired, for sod and subsoil
plowing; and he has thus undoubtedly greatly increased the
range of usefulness of each plow. Still it is impossible to ignore
the fact that each plow can only do perfect work when taking the
exact depth and width of furrow for which it was designed, and
in exact proportion to its recession from this standard does it
depart from perfect work. Such being the fact, we hope to see
a very considerable increase in the number of plows owned by
each farmer, which will enable them to do much better work in

Mechanical Conditions of the Plow.

193

all positions, and to grow a much larger crop upon an acre than
they have ever done before.

Before entering upon a consideration of the parts of a plow in
detail, it is desirable to define those parts with accuracy, so that
all ambiguity and misapprehension may be avoided
I

Fig. i02.

Fig. 102 represents Mr. Holbrook's Sod and Subsoil Plow.
A B is the beam; g i the skim plow; s t its standard; li i its fin
coulter; j the wheel; h the bridle; a the point of the plow; ach
the share; h a' the feather; h the rear angle of the feather; «' the
front angle of the feather; e u c v the mould-board; f v the sole
of the mould-board. The portion of the mould-board in contact
with the furrow slice, at the instant that it assumes the vertical
]30sition, is called the zero line, and is marked on the figure. The
portion of the mould-board in the rear of this zero line is called
the wing of the mould-board; d uis, the standard; u c a the line
where the portion of the mould-board in front of the standard,
which coincides with the land side, is called the shin. The curved
portion of the plow, included in il v «, is the breast. The furrow
side of the share is denominated the shield. The side of the
figure towards the eye is the furrow side, and the opposite one is
called the land side; m and Z are the stilts or handles; oj^and
q r are the handle braces.

ON THE VARIOUS MEANS OF HOOKING TEAMS TO THE PLOW.

This is done by swing or swingle trees and bars, as they are
called by some, or whiffle trees and eveners, as they are called by
others. The length of the evener is generally three and a half
feet; the length of the whiffle tree, between the hooks of the
traces, is three feet, but these lengths are often considerably
laised in order to meet special conditions.

13

194 Report on Trials of Plows.

The strum upon a whiffle tree when used in plowing is analogous
to that of a l)eam supported at both its ends and sustaining a load
in the middle. The rule for estimating their strength is there-
fore the same in each case; and we know that the strength of
])eams is proportional to their breadths multiplied into the square
of their depths and divided by their lengths. It is to be under-
stood that the depth here expressed is that dimension of the
whiffle tree which lies in the direction of the strain. It is used
to express what the farmer would call the breadth of the whiffle
tree. Suppose a whiffle tree three feet long between the trace
hooks; its depth three inches, and its breadth one and a half
inches, accordino; to the rule oiven above, we have ^ -^ ^ ^ = 4 • 5,
which, multiplied by the constant number 660 for oak, and 740
for ash, gives, in the one case, 2,970 pounds, and in the other
3,330 pounds, as tlie force that would break the whiffle tree.
The same rule is a})plicable to the evener. The strength, thus
found, is applica1)le onl^^ to the centre of the whiffle trees and
evener, for it is ol)vious that the strain at the extremities is only
half that at the centre. The ends may, therefore, be much less
in depth than the centre, with perfect safety.

Wooden whiffle trees ought always to be fitted with clasp and
eye mounting of the l^est wrought iron, from two to two and a
half inches broad, about three-sixteenths of an inch thick in the
middle parts, and worked off to a thin edge at the sides. The
part forming the eye may range from one-half inch diameter in
the centre eye of the large tree to three-eighths inch in the end
clasps of the small trees; and they are applied to the wood in
a hot state, which, by cooling, embraces the wood very firmly.

On the evener, the middle clasp has usually a ring or link
welded into it, by which it is attached to the hook of the plow
bridle. The two end clasps have their eyes on the opposite edge
of the whiffle trees, with sufficient opening in the eyes to receive
the (8) hooks of the whiffle trees and evener.

The mode of attaching two horses to a plow is so well under-
stood by farmers that it is unnecessary to occupy any space in
describing it.

Fig. 103 gives Mr. Stephens' mode of yoking three horses to
the plow, which works very well in practice. In this figure, a is
bridle of the plow; b the evener, five feet in length and of
strength proportioned to the draught of three horses; c d and e
are the three whiffle trees. The traces, though broken off in the

Mechanical Conditions of the Plow.

195

figure at f g, are to be understood as extending forward to the
shoulders of the horses. Between the evener and the whiffle
trees the compensating apparatus is placed, as seen in the figure,
consisting of three levers, usually constructed of iron. Two of
these, h i and h 2', are levers of the first order, but with unequal
arms; the fulcrum, ^, being fixed at one-third of the entire length

Fiff. JOS.

from the outward end of each. The arms of these levers are,
therefore, in the proportion of two to one, and the entire length
of each between the points of attachment is twenty-seven inches.
A connecting lever, I, of equal arms, and twenty inches in length,
is jointed to the longer arms, ii^ of the former, by means of the
d()ul)le short links, m n. The two levers, li i, h i, are hooked by
means of their shackles at k to the evener, b. From the mechan-
ical arrangement of these levers, if the whole resistance at a be
taken at 600 pounds, k and h will each require an exertion of 300
pounds to overcome the resistance. But these two forces fall to
be subdivided in the proportion of the arms of the levers h i;
two-thirds of each, or 200 pounds, being allotted to the arms, h,
and the remaining one-third, 100 pounds, to the arms, 2, which
brings the system to an equilibrium. The two forces, i 2, being
conjoined by means of the connecting levers m n, their union
produces a force of 200 pounds, thus equalizing the three ultimate
forces, h I h, to 200 pounds each, and these three combined are
equal to the whole resistance, a; and the three horses that are
yoked to the whiffle trees, c d e, are subjected to equal exertion,

196

Report on Trials of Plows.

whatever may be the amount of resistance at a, which has to be
overcome.

The method of attaching three horses to the plow, most usual
in the State of New York, is shown in Fig. 104. In this case the
length of the whiffle trees is twenty-four inches; the secondary
evener is thirty inches, and the principal evener is forty-Hve
inches; in each case measuring between the draft-hooks. This
brhigs the horses very near together, but they cannot much
exceed this length if one of the horses walks in the furrow. In

case the two horses are on the right hand and the one horse on
the left, the clasp-ring or hook which is attached to the plow
must be placed exactly at one-third of the distance between the
two hooks at each end of the principal evener, that is, fifteen
inches from the right hook; if the two horses are placed at the
left hand, then the distance must be reversed. In this case, as
before, each horse will pull exactly one-third of the load, for, as
the left-hand lever is just twice as long as the right-hand lever,
this last will take just twice as much power to draw it. If the
total draught of the plow is 600 pounds, the left horse will pull
one-third of it (200 pounds) and the two right-hand horses will
pull 400 pounds; the secondary evener being a lever having equal
arms, the load on each horse will be just half that amount — 200
pounds. If the nigh horse is heavier and stronger than the other
two, it will be still more convenient, as the long side of the evener
may then be somewhat shortened so as to enable the horse to
walk more easily in the furrow.

When it is desired to attach four horses to the plow, it is
usually done by placing them two-and-two, one pair before the
other, the evener of the forward pair being connected with the
evener of the hinder pair by a long-chain called a soam-chain.
The horses next to the plow are connected l)y a neck-yoke, through

Mechanical Conditions of the Plow.

197

the ring of which the neck-yoke runs. It is an objection to this
method, that both teams are not obliged to do their fair equal
share of the work.

The plan recommended by Mr. Stephens obviates this difficulty,
and compels each horse to take his proper proportion of the load.

It is represented in Fig. 105, where a is the bridle of the plow,
with its swivel hook. A pully, 6, of cast iron, six inches in
diameter, mounted in an iron frame, of which an edge view is
given in m, is attached to the hook of the bridle. A link-chain, c,
is rove through the frame of the pulley, and to one end of it the
short end is hooked; the evener, cZ, is hooked to a set of whiffle
trees for the plow horses. The other end of the chain passes
forward to a sufficient distance to allow the leading horses room
to work, and to it is hooked the second evener at e, for the leaders.
In the figure, a part of the chain, from/ to g, is broken off; but
the full length is about eleven feet. In this arrangement the

198 Report on Trials of Plows.

trace-chains of the nigh-side hind horse are hooked to the whiffle
trees at h h, and those of the off-side horse at i i; the leaders
being at h h and I I respectively. In this arrangement the balance
of the forces is perfectly preserved; for the hind horses and the
leaders, as they pull at opposing ends of the chain passing round
a pulley, which must inevitably be always in equilibrium, each
j)air of horses has an equal share of the draught; and, from the
principles of the evener and whiffle trees, through wdiich each
pair acts, the individual horses must have an equally perfect
division of the labor, unless this equilibrium has been removed
for the purpose of easing a weaker horse. In order to prevent
either the hind horses or the leaders from slipping too much
ahead, it is common to apply a light check-chain, o, of about
fifteen inches long, connecting the two parts of the main chains,
so as to allow only a short oscillation round the pulley, which is
limited by the check chain. When this is adopted, care shonld
be taken never to allow the check-chain to remain upon the
stretch; for if it does so, the advantage of equalization is los!,
and it becomes no better than a simple soam-chain. In all cases
of using a chain, that part of it which passes forward between
the hind horses must be borne up by means of a neck-yoke or
other attachments to their back-bands or collars.

ADJUSTMENTS FOR PLOWING UNDER WEEDS AND STUBBLE.

Those who have plowed land infested with long weeds, bushes
and tall corn stubble, well know how difficult it is to make good
work and bring the surfjice growth beneath the plowed ground.
Fig. 106 shows a ready and eifective means of accomplishing this
object. This plan consists of a log-chain, or large tarred rope,
having one end attached to the outer end of the whiffle tree of
the off-side horse, and the other end hitched round the beam of
the plow, near the standard, as represented by the Fig. 106. The
chain should always be only long enough to draw the tops of
whatever is being plowed in along in the furrow, just in time to
allow the furrow slice, when turning, to fall on it. If the chain
is a few inches too long, the furrow slice will fall upon it, and l)o
broken and displaced as the chain draws out. Take a "rolling
hitch" around the beam of the plow, and then adjust the length
of the chain until the bi":ht of it will remain on the turnino;
furrow slice, only two or three inches forward of the point where
it comes to rest. This will draw the tops of weeds, grass, Canada

Mechanical Conditions of the Plow.

199

Jfiff. 706.

200 Report on Trials of Plows.

thistles, and corn-stalks, completely beneath the falling earth;
whereas, without such a contrivance, the tops would extend above
ground, and if not already matured, would continue to grow,
sometimes quite as well as if they had not been plowed in. Some-
times weeds and corn-stalks are lirst mowed close to the ground,
and hauled into the furroAvs, as the plowing is in progress. But,
in this practice, the green material is not distributed as evenly as
it is when plowed in without being mowed. A piece of half-
inch round iron, bent in the form of a letter U is used instead of
a chain for drawing under red clover or other crops. But, as a
chain is more flexible than an iron bow, it has been found more
convenient. When the plow is drawn by oxen, the chain is
attached to a stick about twenty inches long, bolted to the upper
side of the beam, as shown by the preceding engraving. If
hitched to the forward end of the plow beam, the chain will not
always run far enough to the right side of the furrow to draw in
the tops of all the stalks. However, if the chain is adjusted
correctly as to length, the work can be performed quite satisfac-
torily.

Plowmen experience some difficulty in keeping the bight of
the chain back in its proper place on the turning furrow slice.
For this reason they are not able to draw everything under the
slices, as is desirable. To obviate this difficulty, J. & A. Kilmer
have invented the arrangement shown in Fio-. 107. The attach-
ment in question is merely a chain. A, connected to the plow
beam and the double whiffle tree, and provided with a rod, B,
which is called a "regulator" by the inventor. This regulator
makes a bight or loop in the chain, so that the matter desired to
plow under is caught by it and diverted toward the furrow, into
which it is thrown and covered. ^

DEVICES FOR CLEARING THE COULTER.

In using the ordinary plow, especially on stubble fields, or in
Iieavy grass land, the angle between the coulter and beam fre-
(|uently becomes choked to such an extent as to raise the share
from its proper depth, and necessitate stopping the team and
removing the obstacle by hand. In the accompanying engraving
there is represented a very simple contrivance designed to remedy
this difficulty. (See Fig. 108.)

In the guide wheel is placed a stud or pin which forms a crank,
and to this pin is pivoted the end of a rod of iron, wiiich is carried

Mechanical Conditions of the Plow.

201

along under the beam and around the lug of the share to the
coulter, as seen in the engraving. As the guide wheel rotates a
reciprocating Avith a vertical motion is given to this vibrating rod,
so that as the rod advances to the front of the coulter edge it
pushes the stubl)le from the blade and throws it down into the
furrow.

LEFT HAND PLOWS.

In some parts of the country left hand plows are very much in
voo-ue. The team is generally driven with a single line. In
Fig. 109 we give an illustration of the mode of driving.

J^iff. 709.

In this case the nigh horse walks in the furrow, and the single
line is attached to his bridle. The off horse is guided by a
"jockey stick," «, from the hames ring of the nigh horse, and by
strap c between their heads.

PLOWING GROUNDS WITHOUT DEAD FURROWS.

It is sometimes very desirable to do this; we therefore give
the annexed method of accomplishing it, taken from the "Ameri-
can Agriculturalist."

PLOWING GROUND WITHOUT DEAD FURROWS.

Dead furrows are a nuisance, especially where hoed crops are
cultivated; and when land is stocked down for meadows, deep
dead furrows make an uneven surface for the mowers and horse-
rakes to work over. When a field is
plowed in lands beginning on the out-
side, turning all the furrows outward,
and finishing the plowing in the middle
of the field, there will be a dead fur-
row from every corner to the middle
dead furrow of each land, and a strip
of ground eio:ht or ten feet wide on J^i^ff- ^ -

one side of every dead furrow Avill be trodden down firmly by the
teams when turniii«r around. Plowiuir a field without dead fur-

202

Report on Trials of Plows.

J^lg

rows is simply commencing at the middle
and turning the furroAV slices all inward.
If the plowing be done with a right hand
plow the teams will "gee around," always
turning on the unplowed ground. When
a field is plowed in this manner there are
no ridges or dead furrows, and the surface
is even, so that the operation of any
machine is never hindered. When sod
ground is plowed in lands there is always a strijD of ground
beneath the first two furrow slices at every
ridge that is not broken up. This is to a great
extent avoided when the whole field is plowed
as one land, and may be entirely avoided if
back-furrowed. The accompanying diagrams
"will show how to plow a square field, or one
of irregular boundary, commencing in the mid-
dle and finishing at the outsides. Fig. 1 I^lg. S.
shows a rectangular field. The plowman finds a point equally
distant from three sides, measuring of course at right angles to
the sides, and sets a stake. Then he finds the point equally dis-
tant from the three sides at the other
end, and sets another stake. From
these two stakes to the corners of the
field he turns two furrow slices together,
and then plows the field, being guided
by them, and occasionally measuring to
the outside to see if he is keeping his
"^' furrows of equal width at setting in and
running out, and on each side. In Fig. 2, a four sided lot,
where the angles are not right angles, precisely the same rule is
followed. In the case of the triangular field, the plowman begins
l)y plowing about a single point, which, though awkward at
first, may be executed with ease after a few trials. In the CMse
of the irregular five sided lot, represented by Fig. 4, it is a little
more difficult to start exactly right, but the ruling gives a clear
idea of how the furrows run, and it is always well to pace off
frequently to the outside of the lot — or rather from the fence
startino; at rigrht angles to it — to be sure that the portion remain-
ing unplowed on each side, and at each end of each side, remains
always of a corresponding width as the plowing progresses.

Report of the Judges. 203

CHAPTER X.

REPORT OF THE JUDGES

APPOINTED BY THE STATE AGRICULTITRAL SOCIETY OP NEW VORIC TO EXAMINE
PLOWS, CULTIYATORS AND HARROWS.

HISTORY OF THE TRIAL.

The Society has for several years had it in contemplation to
make a thorough trial of the various agricultural implements
used for preparing the land for the growth of crops; for putting
in the seed; for the distribution of manures, and for severing the
crops from the soil, as well as preparing them for market.

Much delay occurred in prosecuting this design from its
inability to procure instruments of sufficient accuracy for determ-
ining the actual results obtained in a satisfactory manner. These-
difficulties were finally overcome, and instruments were invented
and manufactured for the purpose, mainly by Mr. Henry Water-
man, of Hudson, the Consulting Engineer of the Society.

It was at first proposed to make a trial of all the implements
in a single year, but it was soon found that this would involve so
large an amount of labor, and occupy so much time, that it would
be impossible to procure a board of judges who could spare the
time from their own private pursuits to do justice to the work
assigned to them.

It was, therefore, resolved to hold a trial of the implements
for severiug the crops from the ground and for preparing them
for market in the year 1866, at Auburn, and the trial of plows,
harrows and cultivators was fixed for the mouth of May, 1867.

Extensive correspondence was had with the leading manufac-
turers of these implements, after which the executive committee
prepared a programme, which is given below, and appointed the
following gentlemen to act as judges at the trial, viz:

John Stanton Gould, of Hudson, N. Y., Chairman; Prof
Benjamin Pierce, Cambridge, JNIass.; Hon. Elisha R. Potter,
Kingston, R. L; Sanford Howard, Lansing, Michigan; Henry
Waterman, Hudson, N. Y.; Peter Crispell, Jr., Kingston, N. Y.;
George Geddes, Syracuse, N. Y.; Abraham B. Conger, Wald-
berg, Rockland county, N. Y.; Joseph McGraw, Jr., Dryden,
N. Y.; B. P. Johnson, Albany, X. Y.

204 Report on Trials of Plows.

NEW YORK STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
Second National Trial of Plows and Other Implements. 1867

PROGRAMME FOR PLOWS.

The New York State Agricultural Society respectfully invite the makers of
plows in any State of the Union, in Canada, and in Europe, to compete in the
following enumeration of classes for the prizes annexed to each class:

A gold medal is offered by the New York State Agricultural Society for the best
plow in each of the following classes:

Class I. — A sod plow for stiff soils.

Class II. — A plow for stubble land in stiff soils.

Class IIL — A sod plow for sandy soils and light loams.

Class IV. — A plow for stubble land, which will cut a furrow twelve inches
deep, with three horses, which will raise the lowest soil to the surface of the
furrow. For a plow which will turn a furrow of this kind not less than five
inches wide, the Society offers as a prize its large gold medal.

Class V. — A Michigan sod and trench plow.

Class YI. — A subsoil plow in connection with an ordinary plow.

Class YII. — A ditching plow for opening drains.

Class YIII. — A machine for excavating ditches for under-draining.

Class IX. — A steel plow for alluvial and unctuous lands.

Class X. — A swing or side-hill plow.

Entries.

§ 1 . Competitors must enter their plows at the Secretary's oflBce, Albany, at
least two weeks before the time fixed for the commencement of the trial. This
rule will be rigidly enforced, as it will otherwise be impossible to provide lots for
the trial.

§ 2. At the time of making the entry each competitor will be required to file a
statement showing, first, the price of the plow ; second, its weight ; third, the
rule or the formation of the mould-board ; fourth, a statement of the valuable
points claimed by the exhibitor.

§3.

§ 4. Each plow will be numbered in the order of its entry. A card showing
legibly this number and the number of its class must be aflBxed to each plow. If it
is lost or the numbers be obliterated, new cards will be furnished by the Secretary.
No judge will make any record respecting any plow unless this card is upon it.
Without a strict adherence to this rule it will be impossible for the judges to keep
their notes correctly.

§ 5. Every plow entered will be charged with a fee of twenty dollars.

§ 6. As soon as the time for making the entries has expired, the Secretnry will
cause them to be printed. A complete list of the entries, with the numbers and
the statements required to be made, will be placed in the hands of each of the
judges.

Duties of Officers.

The OflBcers of the Society will,

§ 1. Stake off a suflBcient number of plots, each containing a quarter of an acre.
A space two feet wide will be left between each plot.

§ 2. The stakes will be 2^ feet long by 21 inches wide. The plots will be num-
bered from No. 1 upward. There will be four stakes to each lot, each of the four

Report of the Judges. 205

will bear the same number. The number of all the stakes will face inward toward
the lot which they designate. The stakes will be rounded at one end and sharp-
ened at the other.

§ 3. Eight poles will be provided, each eight feet long, they will be painted
white downward two feet below the top, a black ring six inches Avide will be painted
in the middle of the whole field. Two swivel hooks.

Two hooks with their ends bent on opposite sides of the shank.

Four gauges to show the breadth of the furrow. One for ascertaining its depth.
One dynamometer. One platform scale of sufficient size for weighing plows. One
tape line 200 feet long. One tape line eight feet long for each member of the des-
criptive committee. A two-foot carpenter's square. A bevel rule. A spirit level,
and a blank book and pencil for each judge.

§ 4. They will procure a sufficient number of active and faithful policemen to
keep all intruders from the plow ground, and to preserve order at the trial. A
tent sufficiently large to shelter all the judges. A team for the special dynamome-
ter trials, and a lumber wagon.

Duties of Competitors.

§ 1. Each competitor will furnish his own team and plowman. In the special
dynamometer trials the team to be furnished by the Society.

§ 2. They will provide themselves with wrenches and other tools for taking the
plows apart when necessary.

§ 3. The plots will be plowed in the order of their numbers. All competitors
not ready for work when called on may be ruled out by the judges.

Duties of Judges.

§ 1. The chairman of the Board of Judges will, on the first day of the trial,
distribute the plots of ground by lot among the competitors.

§ 2. The judges will commence operations each morning at eight o'clock,
lunch at half past twelve o'clock, and finish at half past five o'clock. They are
particularly requested to look over their minutes every evening, and if their notes
are imperfect to remedy the deficiency as early as possible.

§ 3. Before entering upon his duties, each judge shall subscribe a written
declaration that he is not directly or indirectly interested in the sale of any plow.

§ 4. The following will be examined as the most important points of the plow :

1. Pulverizing power.

2. Non-liability to choke in stubble.

3. Lightness of draught, considered in connection with pulverizing power.

4. Ease of holding.

5. Durability.

6. Cheapness.

7. Excellence of mechanical work.

8. Excellence of material.

9. Thorough inversion and burial of weeds.

10. Even distribution of wear.

11. Regularity or trueness of turning and carrying the furrow slice on sod.
§ 5. Lightness of draught alone, except in sandy lands, will not be esteemed a

great merit. The plow which pulverizes the soil most, with the least draft, will
have the preference.

§ 6. The Society desire to encourage an increased depth of plowing in the State.
Those plows, therefore, that arc able to turn a furrow in a satisfactory manner.

206 Report on Trials of Plows.

so that the depth shall bear the greatest proportion to the width, will have the
preference. The furrow will be laid as nearly as possible at an angle of forty-five
degrees.

§ 7. The judges will be subdivided into committees, as follows.

(a) A Dynamometer Committee.

(i) A Description Committee.

(c) A Weight and Price Committee.

(d) A Time Committee.

(e) A Committee on Quality, Material and Mechanical Structure.

Each judge will form an opinion upon each point of the work of the plows and
record it in his note book.

§ 8. The point of each plow will be detached before it begins to work and accu-
rately weighed by the Weight and Price Committee. It will be weighed again as
soon as its work is finished. It will be deemed a point of great merit in the plow
that shows the least abrasion.

§ 9. Not more than four plows shall be at work at any one time, and one judge
shall be assigned by the chairman to each plow. It shall be the duty of the judge
so assigned to observe the action and work of the plow during the whole time that
it is in operation. He will note the exact time occupied in plowing. If there are
any stoppages he will note the exact time of the stoppage, and state exactly the
cause of it. He will measure and record the length and breadth o each urrow
slice three times on each furrow, the average of these to be taken as its true size.

§ 10. The dynamometer will be applied on two furrows, viz., going and return-
ing on each lot. The length and depth of the furrow slice shall be measured six
times on each furrow, when the dynamometer is applied. The judge in charge
will also observe whether the sole of the plow is kept in a horizontal position ; if
it departs fi-om this at any time it is to be noted; the instrument No. 2 will enable
him to measure the amount of departure.

§ 11. In addition to the dynamometer trials on the respective lots, additional
trials shall be made under the dh'ection of the judges in some level field. Each
plow shall plow one furrow without, and the next with the dynamometer attached,
and so on until all have been tried. If desired, the judges may then try the
draught by a windlass and hand power.

§ 12. After all of the plowing is finished, the judges will carefully and critically
examine each lot. They will designate the different qualities of plowing by the
numbers one up to ten. Ten indicates the best plowing, one the worst, and the
other numbers the intervening degrees of merit. As the examination proceeds
each judge will place in the book opposite to the number of the lot the number
which, in his judgment, indicates the excellence of the plowing. The judges will
then assemble privately, when the chairman will inquire of each judge successively
what number indicating excellence he has affixed to No. 1. The chairman will
lecord such numbers opposite to No. 1. He will then ask for the marks of each
judge for lot No. 2, and so on until the merit marks of all the judges are ascer-
tained and recorded. The plow used on the lot to which a majority of the judges
assign the highest marks of merit shall have the preference for " excellence of
work."

§ 13. The records of the dynamometer trials shall then be examined by the
judges, and if they find that there is any very striking discrepancy between the
different kinds of trial above mentioned they may cause the plows in which such
discrepancy exists to be tried over until they arc fully satisfied with respect to

Report of the Judges. 207

the draft of each. They will then determine the best plow for lightness of draught,
which determination shall be recorded by the chairman.

§ 14. The plows shall then be examined with regard to wear, those being deemed
best M'here the wear is most evenly distributed. The plows having the greatest
number of votes shall be deemed the best in point of durability.

§ 15. The plows shall then be minutely examined with reference to the material
of which they are composed (the quality of the wood and iron), and the best in
this respect shall be recorded as "made of the best material."

The plow having the greatest number of suffrages shall be deemed the best for
mechanical construction. "

§ 16. Exhibitors will be required to present an ingot, cast in an iron mould, of
the iron used in making the plow, at least one and a half inches thick. There
must be an aflBdavit stating the furnace from which they obtain their pig-iron, and
if more than one kind is used, the proportions of each kind used, and that the
ingot is a fair sample of iron used in the plows.

§ 17. The judges will closely observe the furrow slice in the act of being turned
and see if that action tends to open or compress it ; they will also observe the
force required to press the end of a stick into the furrow. If practicable the
jud-^es will not determine on the question of pulverization until they have had an
opportunity of seeing the time that elapses before each lot dries after a fall of
rain, and the growth of crops on each.

§ 18. The plow which is finally determined to have the greatest number of good
points shall be awarded the first prize as the best plow.

§ 19. The judges shall in no case consult with each other or express opinions
in presence of competitors.

§ 20. No person except judges and officers shall be permitted by the police to
enter upon the plowed grounds.

§21. The judges will cause comparative experiments to be made to ascertain
the influence of the coulter on draught ; they will investigate experimentally the
best angle for its insertion, and also the most advantageous depth for it.

§ 22. They will inquire into the effect of the wheel on draught.

§ 23. They will ascertain the influence of speed upon the draught of the plow.

§ 24. They will ascertain the effect of long and short beams.

§ 25. They will investigate the influence of weight on plows.

§ 26. They will ascertain the rate which the several parts of the plow consume
power, as compared with the total draft, i. e. what proportion of the power is
consumed in turning the furrow over.'' What proportion for overcoming the cohe-
sion of the earth on the land side .'' On the bottom ? How much of friction 1
Miscellaneous Regulations.

§ 1 . The plows for competition must be exactly as they are sold to the farmers,
except that each competitor will be allowed to scour the working parts.

§ 2. Provision will be made by the Society for conveying the judges to and from
the trial grounds. Lunch will also be provided for them.

§ 3. Notice will be given of the time and place of holding the trial as soon as it
is determined on.

PROGRAMME FOR HARROWS.

§ 1. There will be but one class of these machines. A premium of a medal
is offered for the best harrow.

§ 2. The general rules for the trial of plows will be followed in the trial of
harrows, as far as they are applicable.

208 Report on Trials of Plows.

§ 3. Harrows will be tried next in order after the trial of plows.
§ 4. The points to be determined respecting them are as follows :

1. Which combines strength with lightness in the highest degree?

2. Which combines the best materials with the best workmanship ?

3. Which combines the greatest pulverizing power with the least draft ?

4. Which is managed in the field with the greatest facility ?

5. Which is least liable to clog in working ?

6. Which works the most rapidly ?

Persons desiring to enter articles for exhibition only will be permitted to do so
on payment of five dollars.

PROGRAMME FOR CULTIVATORS.

The Society offer the following premiums for cultivators :

Class I.
For corn and root crops, best one-horse cultivator to cultivate one row, a gold
medal.

For best two-horse cultivator for cultivating two rows, a gold medal.

Class II.

For mellowing soil and killing weeds, best cultivator on wheels, with device for
raising and lowering the frame that holds the teeth, so as to regulate the depth of
cultivation and to make the machine portable, a gold medal.

Best cultivator having handles to guide it, and with or without small wheels to
regulate the depth of the cultivator, a gold medal.

The judges will carefully observe and express their opinion on each of the
following points :

1. Thoroughness and depth of pulverization. It is desirable the instrument

should work deep or shallow, as may be desired by the operator.

2. Adaptation to a variety of soil, such as sandy, stony, cla3'^ey, etc.

3. Facility of control by the driver ; this includes steerage, turning corners,

raising or lowering one or the other of the parts at the pleasure of the
driver.

4. Comfort and convenience of the driver ; this also includes his ability to

see the rows distinctly.

5. Portability and convenience for storage.

6. Ability to resist clogging, not only by grass, roots, and other ligneous

matters, but in damp soils.

7. Adaptation to side hills and uneven surfaces.

8. Adaptation to the greatest variety of purposes.

9. Durability.
10. Cheapness.

The instrument having the greatest number of merits and the fewest defects will
be entitled to the prize. If, however, an instrument has many advantages, if it
has one defect of great magnitude, it must be rejected.

The same implement may compete in both classes if desired, but it will pay a
separate entry fee for each class.

The trial of cultivators will follow immediately after the trial of harrows.

Place of Trial — Near Utica, N. Y.

Time of Beginning — Tuesday, May 7th, 1867.

The judges will meet at Baggs' Hotel on Saturday, May 4th.

Report of the Judges. 209

The President, Secretary, Consulting Engineer, and Chairman of the Board of

Judges, will assemble at Baggs' Hotel on Tuesday^ April 30th, iand will make all

needful arrangements for the preparation of the ground and the reception of

implements.

B. P. JOHNSON, Secretary.
State Agricultural Rooms, Albany, N.Y.

The judges and competitors were all assembled at Utica on
the 7th of May, as appointed in the programme. The grounds
were all staked on the farm of Mr. John Butterfield, who had
generously offered it, with all needful facilities, to the Society;
and every preparation was completed, but it had rained nearly
every day for a week previous, the ground was thoroughly satu-
rated with moisture, and it continued to rain for ten consecutive
days after the 7th, the day appointed for the commencement of
the trial. The land was, in consequence, like a mortar-bed, and
was utterly unfit for a trial which would be satisfactory either to
the Society or the competitors.

It was therefore resolved, after conference with all parties, and
with their entire assent, to adjourn the trial until the 10th day of
September, to, be held at the same place.

At that time, the parties having reassembled, the trial was had
in conformity w^ith the programme. The following is the list of

entries:

PLOWS.

Class I.
No. 16 F. F. Holbrook Boston.

Class II.

No. 17 F. F. Holbrook Boston.

No. 12 Collins & Co New York.

Class III.

No. 1 A. L. Brearley & Co Trenton, N. J.

No. 18 F. F. Holbrook Boston.

Class IV.

No. 19 F. F. Holbrook Boston.

No. 13 Collins & Co New York.

Class V.
No. 20 F. F. Holbrook Boston.

Class VI.
No. 6 R. J. Wheatley Du Quoin.

Class VII.

No. 5 A. P. Routt Somerset, Va.

Class VIII.
No. 23 E. Heath Fowlerville, N. Y.

Class IX.

No. 14 Collins & Co New York.

14

210 Report on Trials of Plows.

Class X.

No. 21 F. F. Ilolbrook Boston.

No. 27 L. D. Burch Sherburne, N. Y.

Oil an examination of the preceding list of entries, it will be
observed that the plows entered by F. F, Holbrook are more
numerous than those of any other contributor, and that in ftict
the}^ are represented in nearly every class. These plows are all
constructed on a plan invented by Governor F. Holbrook, of Ver-
mont, and now a professor of Agriculture in Cornell University,

We were instructed in the most minute details of this plow by
Gov. Holbrook, and the trials at Utica and subsequently at Brat-
tleboro showed very clearly the influence of the warped surface
which is generated by his method upon the texture of the soil.

Governor Holbrook is as yet unprotected by a patent on his
method, and we are therefore most reluctantly compelled to
withhold a description of it, but we have no hesitation in saying
that it is the best system for generating the true curves of the
mould-board that has been brouoht to our knowledo-e. This
method is applicable to the most diversified forms of the plow,
to long or short, to broad or narrow, to high or low, no matter
what the form may be, this method will impress a family likeness
upon them all; there will be straight lines in each running from
the front to the rear, and from the sole to the upper parts of the
share and mould-board. None of these lines wnll be parallel to
each other, nor will either of them be radii from a common
centre. The angle formed by any two of them will be unlike
the angle formed by any other two; a change in the angle formed
by any of the transverse lines will produce a corresponding change
in the vertical lines, and there will always, in every form of the
plow, be a reciprocal relation between the transverse and vertical
lines. Plows made upon this plan may appear to the eye to be
as widely different as it is possible to make them, and yet, on the
application of the straight-edge and protractor it will ])e found
that they agree precisely in their fundamental character. The
surface of the mould-board is always such that the difterent parts
of the furrow slice will move over it with unequal velocities.

Class I. — Sod Plows for Stiff Soils.

The only entry in this class was by F. F. Holbrook of his Lap
Furrow Sod plow for stiff soils (No. 65). Weight, 130 pounds.
Price, $20.

The soil was of a stiff, clayey consistency, and running at six

Report of the Judges.

211

inches below the surface into a mixture of l)lue c hi}" and gravel;
it was in a very dry state, and had never been previously plowed
to a greater depth than five inches. The sole of the plow during
the entire trial run in soil which had never before been stirred
with the plow. The furrow slice was ten inches by seven inches.
The actual draught was 472 pounds; the draught as estimated
for each cubic foot turned over, 972 pounds. It worked exceed-
ingly well, pulverizing the ground thoroughly, holds very easily
and keeps well in the ground, and has a remarkable j^owxr of
self-adaptation to the furrow slice.* We ascertained by trial that
this plow may be made to do very good work in a furrow eight
inches deep and twelve inches wide, or b}' changing the cutters
it will make good fiat furrovv plowing.

Inasmuch as there was no competition in this class, we should
have deemed it our duty to have withheld the gold medal if we
had the slightest doubt that it was fully merited, but we have no
doubt whatever upon that subject. The material which enters
into its composition is of the very best quality, the workmanship
is excellent, it is strong and durable, the draught is light, and it
has every quality of a good plow in a very eminent degree. We
therefore unanimously award a gold medal for this plow in this
class. The annexed cut is a very good representation of it.
(Fig. 110.)

riff. /fo.

Class II. — For Stubble Lands in Stiff Soils.
The entries in this class were:

F. F. Holbrook's No. GG. Weight, 118 pounds. Pi'ce, $1?.
Size of furrow slice, ten inches Avide, seven inches deep.

* In view of the extreroo tenacity of the ground this shows an exceedingly light
draught.

212 Report on Trials of Plows.

Collins & Co.'s B 14. Weight, 98 pounds. Price, $25. Size
of furrow slice, thirteen inches wide, seven inches deep.

The lot of land on which the trial was had sloped downwards
towards the north. It may be described as a stiff clay loam
which is underlaid from four to five inches below the surface with
a gravelly stratum, consisting of stones varying in size from a
hen's egg to a cherry, impacted in a stiff clay. It had never been
plowed deeper than five inches. The plows, therefore, had to
work in two inches of soil which had never been stirred before.
The land had been saturated with water in the early part of the
season, and in the latter j^art it had been baked by the fierce
summer sun until it was almost as hard as a brickbat. A luxuri-
ant coat of vegetation had sprung up under these influences, con-
sisting of smart-weed {^Polygonum acre), mild water pepper (P.
hydropiperoides), mullein {X'erbascum Thapsus), Indian tobacco
{Lobelia infiala)] several Asters, chiefly A corymb osus and A cor-
difolius, heal-all {Brunella vulgaris), red-top {Agrostis vidgaris),
quack {Triticum repens). Fescue grass {Festuca elatior), hairy
panic grass (Panicum capillars) — this was very abundant — scour-
ing rush {Eqaisitum arvense), fox-tail [S elaria glanca), three or four
species of sedge, thistles {Cir'sium Lanceolatum and Carvense),
golden rod {Solidago Ohioensisf) yarrow {Achillea Millefolium),
fled clover {TrifoUum pratense), white clover {Trifoliam repens),
reabane {Erigeron Pkiladelphicum) , daisy fleabane {Estrigosum),
shepherd's purse {Oapsella Bensa pastoris), dandelion {Taraxi-
cum Densleonis), blue vervein ( Verbena hastata), water hoarhound
{Lycopus sinuatus), sunflower {Helianthus strumosus). Some of
these plants grew together in patches, while others were found
scattered in all parts of the lot. Besides these plants there was
the stubble of the preceding year, which had been cut pretty
high. Take it altogether it was one of the most difiicult fields to
plow that could be well imagined. The plowing was executed
in furrows running north and south; at about one-third of the
length of the furrow a line running east and west divided the lands
into parts differing essentially in their physical characters. The
lower or northern end of the land was more unctuous and adhe-
sive, of a yellow color, and having fewer stones than the upper
or southern portion. It appeared to the eye to be more easy to
ploAv than the upper part, but in every furrow the dynamometer
showed a greater degree of resistance.

Report of the Judges.

213

The annexed Fig., Ill, represents Mr. Holbrook's plow No. &Q.

The next cuts, Figs. 112 and 113, represent views of the Col-
linsville plow in competition in this class, and the separate pieces
which compose it.

The trials were made on lands one-quarter of an acre in extent.
After a very careful examination and comparison, the judges deci-
ded upon the several points as follows:

First — Pulverizing power: One-half the judges were of opinion
that Holbrook's plow pulverized the soil more effectually than the
other. The other half were of opinion that the Collins plow had
pulverized the land quite as well as the Holbrook plow. No
decision was had upon this point.

Second — Non liability to choke in stubble: The judges were
unanimously of opinion that Holbrook's was superior in this
respect.

Third — Lightness of draught: The following is the record upon
this point:

Holbrook's No. QQ.

Width of furrow, 10 inches.
Depth of furrmo, 7 inches.

READING OF THE DYNAMOMETER.

DISTANCE IN YARDS.

HALF POWER IN POUND
YARDS.

1st furrow.

2d furrow.

1st furrow.

2d furrow.

In hardest soil down hill

In hardest soil up hill

lu loosest soil down hill

In loosest soil up hill

88
81
78
92

94
102

78
70

16,000
14,700
12,400
12,300

17,600

18,300

11,450

9,400

Collms' Plow B 14.

Depth of furrow same as the
preceding.

Width of furrow, 13 inches.

READING OF THE DYNAMOMETER.

DISTANCE IN YARDS.

HALF POWER IN POUND
YARDS.

1st furrow.

2d furrow.

1st furrow.

2d furrow.

In hardest soil down hill

In hardest soil up hill

In loosest soil down hill

In loosest soil up hill

109

119

44

53

125

119

48

53

22,400

23,000

9,100

10,300

25,500

24,500

9,450

10,900

214

Report on Trials of Plows.

J^/ff. 772.

PVff. 2/3.

Report of the Judges.

215

It will be understood that the "hardest soil" of the table is
the southern or upper end of the lot, while the "loosest soil" is
the northern or lower end of the lot. The " hardest soil" is the
gravelly portion, the "loosest soil" is the tenacious portion.

The following table is deduced from the preceding, and shows
the average number of pounds required to draw the plow through
each yard of the whole furrow:

HOLBROOK.

COLLINS.

FURROW 6 BY 10 INCHES.

FURROW 7 BT 13 INCHES.

1

1st
furrow.

2d
furrow.

Mean
of both.

1st
furrow.

2d
furrow.

Mean
of both.

Tn hardest soil down hill.. .

In hardest soil up hill

In loosest soil down hill . . .

In loosest soil up hill

Average of work up and

down hill, in hard soil . . .
Average of work up and

down hill, in soft soil ....

Average of all the trials.. . .

364
363
318
289

363

303

375
359
294
269

367

281

369
361
306
279

365

292

411

391
414

389

401
401

409
412
394
411

410

402

410
401

404
400

405

401

333

324

328

401

406

403

These numbers are reduced to the power required for each
cubic foot of earth by dividing the actual area of a cross section
in inches, and multiplying by 144 square inches, which gives the

following table:

HOLBROOK.

!
COLLINS.

1st
furrow.

2d Mean
furrow, of both.

1st
furrow.

2d
furrow

Mean |
of both.

In hardest soil down hill. . .

In hardest soil up, hill

In loosest soil down hill. . .

In loo.sest soil up hill

Average of work up and

down hill, in hard soil. . .
Average of work up and

down hill, in soft soil. . . .

Average of all the trials . . .

768
747
654
550

757

602

770
738
604
552

754

578

769
742
629
551

755

590

650
612
655
615

631

635

646

652
623
651

649

637

648
632
639
633

640

636

679

666

672

633

643

638

On comparing these two tables it will be seen that they give
dilibrent results. The mean averaoe result of all the trials as

216 Report on Trials of Plows.

indicated in the first table for Holbrook's plow is 328 pounds.
The mean result for Collins' plow is 403 pounds, making a differ-
ence of 75 pounds in favor of Holbrook's.

The mean average result according to the second table for Hol-
brook's plow is 672 pounds, and for Collins' 638 pounds, making
a diflerence of 34 pounds in favor of Collins.

Before the dynamometer was applied it was the opinion of
several of the judges who consulted on the subject that as the
soil on the lower or southern end of the lot was the most homo-
geneous that the inditations of the dynamometer while passing
through it would give the best indications of the relative power
consumed by each plow, and it was accordingly resolved to make
separate ol)servations upon it.

On comparing the power consumed by each plow while passing
through the more homogeneous portion of the furrow it will be
•seen that the average draught of Holbrook's plow was 590
pounds, while the average draught of Collins' was 636 pounds,
showing a difference in favor of Holbrook's of 46 pounds.

SUMMARY.

By the first table Holbrook has the advantage by 75 pounds.
By the second table, in " loosest soil," Holbrook excels by 46
pounds. By the second table, the general average, Collins excels
by 34 pounds.

The question to be determined is, which of the plows is of the
easiest draft?

From the indications of the first table it would seem that the
Holbrook plow has the preference, but Collins' plow turned over
twenty-one square inches more than Holbrook's and hence appears
to do more work with less power. It appears from the experi-
ments of Mr. Morton that only ten per cent of the power required
for plowing is expended in turning over the sod, while the remain-
ing ninety per cent is absorbed by friction and by the clearage of
the soil. If this statement of Mr. Morton's is correct, then it
would be incorrect to assume that the poAver required is in pro-
portion to the square inches in the furrow slice, and therefore the
indications of the second table would not he correct.

A majority of the judges therefore decided that the Holbrook
plow had the lightest draught, and they were confirmed in this
conclusion by the fact that in the homogeneous soil even by the
second table the Holbrook ph)w was shown to be the b'ghtest.

Report of tme Judges.

217

Fourth — Ease of holding: Unanimously decided in favor of
Holbrook's plow.

Fifth — Durability : Unanimously decided in favor of Collins' plow.

Sixth — Cheapness: Decided in favor of Holbrook.

Seventh — Excellence of mechanical work: Decided to be both
equal.

Eighth — Excellence of material: Decided in favor of Collins.

Ninth — Thorough inversion and burial of weeds: Unanimously
decided in favor of Collins.

Tenth — Even distribution of wear: No difference of wear.

Eleventh — Regularity or trueness of turning: Decided unani-
mously in favor of Holbrook's.

The preference was given to Holbrook's plow on the second,
third, fourth, sixth and eleventh points, being five points in all.
The preference was given to Collins on the fifth, eighth and ninth
points, being three points in all, and were decided to be equal on
the first, seventh and tenth points, being three points in all.

As the Holbrook has the greatest number of points of excel-
lence, and as it is not objectionable in any point, and as the points
in which it excels are the most important ones, the judges agree
to award it the gold medal.

Class HI.
Entries were made in this class by A. L. Brearley & Co., Tren-
ton, N. J., and F. F. Holbrook, Boston.

Motbrook—ee, Sod.

No ground, after diligent search, being found in the vicinity
of Utica suitable in all respects for a trial of them, the proprie-
tors very politely waived their admitted right to a trial else-
where, and no trial or award in this class was made.

218 Beport on Trials of Plows.

Class IV.

The State Agricultural Society of New York has long been
deeply impressed with the conviction that no one thing was more
essential for the enhancement of the profits of agriculture than a
deeper and more perfect tillage, and that no one cause was more
operative in. causing the diminution of several of our most
important crops per acre than shallow plowing. In some counties
the produce per acre is increasing, in others it is diminishing.
In the former the plow runs deeper every year, in the latter it
merely skims the surface. In these counties the plow rarely runs
deeper than three inches. In some of our best counties the
plowing is done as deep as eight or ten inches, but the average
depth of plowing over the whole area of the State does not
exceed four and a half inches.

It is true that in some sections the surface soil is underlaid by
a subsoil which, when first brought to the surface in large quan-
tities, is injurious to vegetation; but there are very few subsoils
in the State that are so bad that if plowed in the fall, and one
inch of them is brought to the surface where it can be exposed
to the ameliorating influence of the atmosphere and the winter
frosts they will not perceptibly increase the crop. * If this pro-
cess is resorted to every other year, almost any soil may be deep-
ened in sixteen years from four inches to twelve inches, thus
trebling the range of pasture for the roots of plants, and doubling
if not trebling the amount of the crop.

This is not the language of theory, but of sober and often
repeated experiments made in every section of the State.

We might write a volume filled with experiments carefully
made by weight and measure to illustrate the importance of deep
plowing, but we content ourselves with a statement submitted to
us by an eminent agriculturalist and statesman whose name would
be a suflicient guarantee for its correctness in any part of the
United States, which is as follows:

"Some two or three weeks since I visited a farm near here
which a young man bought six years ago who used to work for
me. When he bought this place it had a barn on it 30 by 40
feet, and it held the entire crop that the farm was capable of
jiroducing. He built a barn the first year 100 feet long by 40
feet wide and 20 foot posts, and stabling all below this. This

♦ Mr. Howard dissents from this opinion.

Report of the Judges. 219

fall his barns are nearly full; ten or twelve tons more of straw
or hay would entirely fill them. He has between 800 and 900
l)nshels of corn, 550 l>iishels of oats, some rye and buckwheat,
potatoes, and 500 bushels of carrots. The farm had been shal-
low tilled for sixty or seventy years, closely cropped, and the
manuring was not liberal. He commenced with some twelve or
fifteen acres of sod, plowing it in November nine inches deep,
manuring- it the next spring with twenty-five two-horse loads per
acre, and cross plowing it about four inches deep, and planting
Avith corn, &c. The second year the field was stocked to grass
with a grain crop, and another field of twelve or fifteen acres of
sod taken up and managed like the first. In this wa}^ he has gone
on from year to year, until now he has plowed all the plowable
portion of his farm nine inches deep, which is nearly twice as
deep as it had ever before been worked. Next year he com-
mences to go over the same ground again in a similar way.
excepting that the plowing will invariably be from two to three
inches deeper than before."

Entertaining these views the Society determined to avail itself
of this trial in order to turn the attention of the farmers of the
State to the importance of deeper plowing than they have been
accustomed to, and to furnish them, if possible, with better facili-
ties for accomplishing it than they had hitherto enjoyed.

It therefore offered its highest prize — the large gold medal —
for "a plow for stubble land which will cut a furrow twelve
inches deep, with three horses, which will raise the lowest soil to
the surface of the furrow, and which Avill not be less than five
inches wide."

It knew when it made the offer that a furrow turned so as to
lie at an angle of forty-five degrees after reversal must have its
depth in the ratio of its breadth as two to three, but it refused
to assume any limit to the ingenuity of American engineers and
mechanics, and sent out its ofier to the w^orld hoping rather than
expecting that it would be successfully competed for.

Two plows were entered for this premium, both of them of a
very superior character, and both doing the work which was
called for.

The trial was in the same field in which CUiss No. II was tried,
and the description of the soil given under that class will answer
for this, only as the plowing was so much deeper in Class IV the
difiiculties arising from the impacted gravel were greatly exag-

220

Report on Trials of Plows.

geratetl. It may be that worse land to plow can be found, but
none of the judges has ever seen worse.

The plow entered by Collins & Co., Hartford, Conn., was a steel
plow known as C 3. Weight, 95 pounds. Price, $25.

The plow entered by F. F. Holbrook was a cast iron plow,
known as Plow No. 69. Weight, 139 pounds. Price, $24.

This plow is furnished with two mould-boards (as is the case
with all Mr. Holbrook's plows), one of which is used for sod, the
other for stubble plowing; one of them may be detached and be
replaced by the other in a very short time by any plowman.

The judgment on each point was as follows:

First — Pulverizing power: Unanimously decided in favor of
Holbrook's.

Second — Non liability to choke in stubble: Unanimously
decided in ftivor of Holbrook's.

TJdrd — Lightness of draught in connection with pulverizing
power: The following tables show the results for

Holbrook's iVb. 69:

Size of furrow turned, \2inches
wide and 12 inches deep.

READING OF THE DYNAxMOMETER.

1

DISTANCE IN YARDS.

HALF POWER IN POUND
YARDS.

1st furrow.

2d furrow.

1st furrow.

2d furrow.

In hardest soil down hill

In hardest soil up hill

In easiest soil down hill

In easiest soil up hill

113i
126

57^
47

117

116

57

54

33,300
41,200
19,800
16,700

35,700
35,400
19,550
16,800

Collins & Go.'s C 3.

Size of furrow turned, 12 inches
wide and 12 inches deep.

READING OF THE DYNAMOMETER.

DISTANCE IN YARDS.

HALF POWER IN POUN D
YARDS.

1st furrow.

2d furrow.

1st furrow.

1
2d furrow.

In hardest soil down hill

In hardest soil up hill

70
761

85
98

lOU

SH

64^

88^

25,900
22,000
33,155
27,700

31,800
25,750
28,000
29,150

in easiest soil down hill

In easiest soil up hill

Report of the Judges.

221

The following table is computed from the preceding one, and
shows how many pounds were required to draw each plow
through each yard in each furrow. For example, if a rope had
been attached to the bridle of Collins' plow and passed over a
pulley, it would require a weight of 740 pounds, acting by its
own gravity, to pull it one yard of the hardest soil down hill in
the first furrow, and 617 pounds in the second furrow:

i

COLLINS & CO.

HOLBROOK. 1

1

1st
furrow.

2d
furrow .

Aver-
age.

1st
furrow.

2d
furrow.

Aver-
age.

111 hardest soil down hill. . .
In hardest soil up hill

Average

740

577

617
609

678
593

587
654

610
610

598
632

658

613

635

620

610

615

In easiest soil down hill ....
In easiest soU up hdl

Average

780
565

752
659

766
612

666
711

686
622

676
666

672

705

689

688

654

671

Average of the two soils
down hill

760
671

684
634

722
602

626
682

648
616

637
649

Average of the two soils
up hill

Average

665

659

662

654

632

643

On examining the tables it will be seen that the average power
required to pull the Collins plow in the hardest soil was 20 pounds
more than tliat required to pull the Holbrook plow; in the easiest
it required 18 pounds more; the average of all the pulls was 19
pounds more.

This fully establishes the fact that the Holbrook plow has the
lightest draught.

N. B. — It will be observed that the above table also represents
the power required to turn each cubic foot of earth, because the
area of the cross section is just a square foot.

Fourth — Ease of holding: Decided in favor of Holbrook's.

Fifth — Durability: Decided in favor of Collins'.

Sixth — Cheapness: Decided in favor of Holbrook's.

Seventh — Excellence of mechanical work: Adjudged equal.

Eighth — Excellence of material: Decided in favor of Collins'.

Ninth — Thorough inversion and burial of weeds: Decided in
favor of Holbrook's.

222

Report on Trials of Plows.

Tenth — Even distribution of wear: The difference in this
respect was very slight, but while every part of Holbrook's
mould-board was evenly polished, there were a few points in
Collins' which had evidently less rubbed. Slight as the difference
was, there was a difference, and we were therefere compelled to
decide this point in Holbrook's favor.

Eleventh — Eegularity or trueness of turning: Decided in favor
of Holbrook's.

SUMMARY.

The first, second, third, fourth, sixth, ninth, tenth and eleventh
points, eight points in all, were decided in favor of Holbrook's
plow. The fifth and eighth points were decided in favor of Col-
lins' plow, and they were adjudged to be equal on the seventh.

The judges therefore decided that Holbrook's plow was the
best one, and as it fully met the requisitions of the Society, they
adjudged to it the Large Gold Medai..

The annexed cut. Fig. 114, gives a tolerably clear idea of the
appearance of Holbrook's prize plow No. 69.

It will be observed that it enters the ground with a very low
inclined plane, rises by an easy curve which elevates the slice
into the air, and then by a succession of sharp twists in different
directions it cracks the slice, and if it is in a tolerably dry condi-
tion reduces it to powder.

The Society called for a plow " which will raise the lowest soil
to the surface of the furrow." This was done by this plow at
Utica to the very letter of the requirement, but as we desire that
the public may exactly understand the whole case, we must state
that owing to the extreme dryness of the soil and its minute pul-
verization, the lowest soil, after Ijeing lifted to the top of the

Report of the Judges. 223

furrow, fell back again into the furrow channel to some extent.
We did not consider this an objection, as it promotes that mixing
of the soil which we have shown to produce such good effects;
but it is proper to add that we saAV this plow work subsequently
in the soil of the Connecticut valley, where there was more moist-
ure in the soil, and there, none of the soil fell back into the fur-
row channel, but the furrow, twelve inches deep, was turned
over as handsomely as could be desired and remained just as it
was first laid

The adhesive character of the soil in this valley enabled us to
study the action of the twist of the plow to great advantage.
We could see the horizontal laminations and the vertical and
transverse cracks just as they were produced by the various
curved lines on the surface of the mould-board, opening the whole
interior of the furrow slice to the air.

We are aware that we shall shock the prejudices of all farmers
by the assertion, but we cannot refrain from expressing our delib-
erate conviction that this plow put the land at Utica in a better
condition for a crop than it could possibly have been put by the
spade. We have seen very active laborers who have spaded
sixteen square rods of earth a day to a depth of seven inches, but
the average day's work does not exceed ten square rods a day.
One man and three horses will plow two hundred and forty rods
a day; or, in other words, three horses will do the work of
twenty-three men, and in addition will stir it five inches deeper
and leave it in a mellower condition. There can be no question,
therefore, of the great value of this plow. Its performances
astonished every one who saw it operate. A portion of the huul
plowed was the site of an ancient brick yard, containing a thick
stratum of angular fragments of burned brick tightly imbedded
in an indurated bed of blue clay, yet the plow passed through it
without stopping, and completely pulverized every part of its
immense furrow slice of twelve inches square. In two or three
instances the plow was arrested suddenly by large boulders deeply
impacted in the soil, but no part gave way in the least, even
when subjected to this sudden strain. This, in our opinion, is a
conclusive test of the great strength of this plow, and of the
judicious distribution of the material which enters into its com-
position to resist the strains and shocks which it has to encounter.

After a most careful and thorough examination of all the sepa-
rate parts of this plow, considered individually and in combina

224 Report on Trials of Plows.

tion, having applied all the tests known to us, and having seen it
work in a variety of soils, and under very diversified circum-
stances, we are compelled to record our deliberate opinion that
this plow is one of the most valuable contributions that the
mechanic arts have ever made to agriculture, and that its wide
diffusion through the State of New York will add immensely to
the profits of agriculture by greatly increasing the fertility of
land at a very small cost.

We subjoin a full and minute description of the plow and its
constituent parts.

Description of F. F. Holbrook's Plow No. 69 — Class IV,
Entry No. 19.

There is a point in every mould-board which coincides with the
edge of the slice at the instant that it assumes the perpendicular
position, and which is vertically above the sole of the plow, the
exact breadth of the furrow. This is called the zero iwint, and a
vertical line drawu through it and produced to the sole is the
zei^o line. In measuring this and all other plows described in this
report, we have dropped a plumb line to the plane of the sole
and measured in a straight line backward and forward to the point
from the zero line thus ascertained.

Inches.

From the zero point to the tip of the handle 41|

From the zero point to the second cross-brace : 27|

From the zero point to the first cross-brace IGj

From the zero point to top of flanch where the handles are secured 11 2

From the zero point to bottom of handles 7

From the zero point to rear edge of mould-board 3|

All the above measurements are rear; the rest are in front of
the zero point.

Inches.

From the zero point to heel of land side 1

From the zero point to centre of standard IBs

From the zero point to rear end of sole of share 15

From the zero point to front of standard I64

From the zero point to rear edge of coulter at top of beam 22^

From the zero point to angle of feather 21

From the zero point to front edge of coulter at top of beam 251

From the zero point to fore end of feather 311

From the zero point to point of share 331

From the zero point to point of coulter 35

From the zero point to centre of wheel 43 4

From the zero point to fore end of beam 51i

From the zero point to centre of holes in bridle 525

Beport of the Judges. 225

The Avhole length of the implement, from the tip ot tne nandle
to tile bridle, is therefore 6 feet 1\ inches. The whole length on
the hind side is 2 feet 8| inches, and from the point to the rear
edge of the mould-board is 3 feet \ inch.

Vertical Measurements.

Inches.

From the tip of the handles to base line 343

From the highest point of the handles to base line 38

From the second cross-brace to base line 3I5

From the first cross-brace to base line 22

From the highest point of the handle flanges to base line 19 1

From the upper and rear end of beam to base line 17

From the upper edge of beam, where the standard passes, to base line. . 22 2

From the upper edge of beam, in front of coulter, to base line 22

From the upper edge of beam, extreme front, to base line 20

From the centre of lovrer hole in bridle to base line IGs

From the centre of upper hole to base line 22

The Handles

Are made of oak wood. The left one lies 6| inches to the left
of the plane of the land side. The right handle is 30 inches
from the tip of the left one. The distance (measured on the
inside) between the handles at first cross-brace is 2| inches; at
the second cross-brace, 17 inches. Width betAveen them where
they enter the flanges, 1| inches. From the lower end of the
handles to the top of the flange, 9| inches; to first cross-brace,
16 inches; to second cross-brace, 31 inches. The three last meas-
urements are made upward in the line of the slope of the han-
dles. They are 2i inches wide and 1| inches thick. The first
cross-brace is made of iron, cast hollow in the middle, and with
flanges at either end bevelled to suit the spread of the handles;
a bolt rod runs through it, headed on the right side and secured
by a nut on the outside of the left one. The second brace is
made of wood, shouldered, with the ends projecting through
holes in the handles made to receive them, an iron bolt passing
through half an inch above them, headed on the left and nutted
on the outside of the right one brings their upper j)ai't firmly
together and prevents their outward flexure as the wooden one
prevents their inner flexure. The rear standard, Fig. 115, B,
rises upward and backward, having on its upper extremity
flanges, c d^ three-quarters of an inch deep on both sides and
on the front and rear faces which receive the lower ends of the
handles, and which are bolted throuirh it.

15

226 Report on Trials of Plows.

Beam.

A step, Fig. 115, b, projects If inches forward from the front
edge of the rear standard; a nipple, e, also projects forward a
little above the step which enters the rear end of the beam, and
resists its lateral movement. The beam rests npon the step, and
is secured hy a bolt running diagonall}^ through it and through
the rear standard, which is headed on the beam and nutted on the
standard. Its size. Fig, 114, «, at this point is 3 inches vertically
and 2| inches horizontally. At the point. Fig. 114, 5, where the
standard bolt passes through it, it is vertically 4| inches and
horizontally 2| inches. At the extreme front, c, its cross section
is 2^ inches square. Its whole length, from front to rear, meas-
ured along the line of its upper curves, is 5 feet i inch. Meas-
ured along a straight line, from heel to point, it is 4 feet 11
inches. Its upper surface rises from the heel, curving upward
and forward to the centre of the front standard; from thence it
descends in a slight curve to its front extremity. The following
measurements, vertically from the base line to the top of the
beam, will more clearly show the character of the curves:

From the top of the heel of the beam, a, where it joins the
rear standard, 1G| inches; one foot in advance of this point it is
21| inches; at three feet it is 221 inches; at four feet it is 20|
inches; at the fore end it is 19| inches.

The vertical measurements from the same points on the base
line to the under side of the beam are: At the heel, 15 inches;
one foot in advance, 17^ inches; at two feet, 17| inches; at three
feet it is 17| inches; at four feet it is 17^ inches; at its front it is
17| inches. The material is of white oak, and its line of direc-
tion is parallel with the plane of the land side. The land side
face of the beam at the heel is 1| inches within the land side
plane, and at the front it is If inches within it. The attachments
to the beam are, first, the bridle; second, the Avheel; third, the
coulter; fourth, the skim-plow.

The Bridle,

Fig. 114, d, consists of a semi-circular iron arc three-fourths of
an inch in front of the fore end of the beam, pierced with seven
holes which pass horizontally through it, the upper one being six
inches above the lower one. A strap extends backward from the
upper and lower part of the arc 8^ inches in length, embracing
the upper and lower faces of the beam, which arc pierced with

Report of the Judges. 227

throe holes respectively 3|, 4^ and 8 inches behind the arc. A
bolt passes through the rearmost boles, on which the bridle rotates
as a centre horizontally. A bolt passes through either the 3i or
4^ inch holes, which secures the bridle in the line of the beam, or
it may be thrust through holes drilled in the beam, one inch to
the right or left of the central holes, which causes the plow" to
take more or less land. An extent of lateral motion, amounting
to 3^ inches, is secured by this arrangement, while the tendency
earthward is regulated by the vertical holes in the bridle.

The WJieeL
Fig. 114,/, is made of cast iron, 10^ inches in diameter and 1|
inches wide. The land side face is a flat plate, perforated by five
holes, each 3 inches in diameter, and having lateral ril)S on each
side between the holes. Its centre, when running at a depth of 8
inches, is 9 inches behind the fore end of the beam. It is huno- on
a U shaped attachment, a c b, Fig. 84, having its right limb at its
upper extremity sharply curved and prolonged to the right.
Eighteen inches behind the fore end of the beam a bolt passes
horizontally through the right extremity of the limb and through
the beam of the plow, on which it rotates vertically. The axle of
the wheel projects tow^ards the left from the low^est portion of the
curve. A cast iron button, having a pin on its rear extremity
which projects towards the right and enters the beam about half
an inch, is its centre of rotation. It has a shoulder cut at its fore
end, through which the left limb slides upward and downward.
A bolt passes through the middle of the button and through the
beam, having a thumb screw on the right side of the beam, by
wdiich the left limb of the wheel attachment is securely clamped
at any point through a vertical range of ten inches.

TJie Coulter,
Fig. 114, h, is 2 feet 2| inches long; cutting edge, 10| inches; it
is 3 inches wnde and i inch thick, and has a curved taper from the
back to the point. The angle which its cutting edge forms Avith
the base line is 64 degrees. Its point stands 4 inches above the
sole and \ of an inch inw^ard from the plane of the land side, in
which respect it varies very materially from most plows. It is
set against the land side of the beam, to which it is secured by a
clamp formed on three sides by a |-inch round iron rod, having
screws cut on the ends which project beyond the right face of the
beam. Cast iron plates, k and e, furnished with three semi-cylin-

228 Report on Trials of Plows.

dricul and horizontal depressions, are placed one above the beam
in front of the coulter, and the other below the beam and behind
the coulter. On these the rods rest, fitting into the semi-cylin-
drical depressions. When the cutting angle is as above described,
the rods are.placed in the middle depression in each plate. If it
is desired to vary the angle, so as to make it greater of less, the
rods are shifted into corresponding depressions. An iron strap,
m, perforated with holes at each end, passes over the projecting
ends of these cross-rods, and is screwed tightly against the beam
by nuts, which keeps the coulter firmly in the angle in which it
has been set. The coulter is kneed inward to the furrow side so
as to bring its land-side face nearly into the plane of the land
side.

The reader will observe, on examining the figure of this plow,
which we have given al)ove, or, still better, the plow itself in our
museum, that the line of the shin or breast varies considerably
from any others. Instead of being curved, it is nearly in a straight
line; it is a long taper wedge which insinuates itself into the
ground very easily; and then, when the slice is once raised into
the air, there is a sharp and sudden twist of the wing of the
mould-board which breaks it in pieces and completes the pulver-
ization. As an illustration of the lifting power of the plow, we
may mention that we repeatedly found, on measurement, that the
upper edge of the slice, when it was at the extreme point of the
wing of the mould-board, was 28 inches above the bottom of the
furrow. It may be further observed that this plow, like all those
exhibited by Mr. Holbrook, are susceptible of four changes: first,
they may be used as sod plows; second, by a change of mould-
board, it may be converted into a stubble plow; third, by the
addition of a skim plow on the front of the l)eam, it may be
changed to a sod and subsoil plow; fourth, by a change in the
position of the coulter, it may be made to turn a lap furrow or a
flat furrow.

The Skrm Plow

Is attached to the land side of the beam by two bolts passing

through the standard and fastened by nuts on the mould-board

side.

The Land Side, Mould-Board and Standard

Are all cast in one piece, and are braced by a rod running from
the rear of the mould-board to the land side cast in the same
piece with them. The lower end of the mould-board has a

Report of the Judges. 229

shoulder into which the share is titted and seemed by one bolt.
The standard, Fig. 116, H, is 10 inches high and 6 inches wide,
and, including the flange, which runs around the top and l)oth
sides, is 1 inch thick. It has an oblong opening, c, of 7 inches
by 2i, the sides of which are also ribbed. There are iive holes
on each side of this opening which permit a vertical range of six
inches to the sole of the share. The land side is a continuation
of the standard, and the breast is a continuation of its curve.
The length of the sole of the land side is 6| inches. The curve
of the mould-board differs from that of the plow. The tirst line,
coinciding with a straight edge, runs from the point of junction
between the share and land side at the breast back to a point on
the lower edge of the mould-board, "^-f^ inches above the plane of
the sole, which makes an angle with that plane of 6° 11'. The
upper line runs from a point on the upper edge of the mould-
board, 1\ inches above the sole, to a point in the rear edge, 8^
inches above it, and makes an angle with it of AP 34'; the inter-
mediate lines vary in proportion. The vertical lines, in which a
straight edire coincides with the surface, varv more in their angles
with the tirst horizontal line than the lower share. Near the
standard this angle is 71°; the next towards the rear makes an
angle of 83°; the next, 85°; the next, 87°; the next, 91°; the
next, 97°, and the one nearest to the rear edge is 113°.

Share.

Length of the land side of the share, 4| inches; length of the
point, li inches; length of the feather, 9 inches; distance of angle
of feather from bottom of the mould-board, 2| inches. The
coulter is cast in the same piece with the share; it rises at an
angle of 43°, and is concave on its edge. The point is 1\ inches
l)road. The sole of the share and of the land side both slope
upward. A straight edge laid from the heel to the point forms
the base of a triangle Avhose apex is at the junction of the share
and land side, and whose height is i inch. The face of the
land side slopes towards the furrow side; at 4 inches above the
])ase line it is ^ inch inward. The top of the coulter is \ of an
inch inward from the land side plane. The breadth from the
angle of the feather to the land side is 7| inches.

We now come to the plow proper, or to those parts which are
directly concerned in turning over the furrow. These are the
share, the land side and the mould-board, with their attachments.

230 Report on Trials of Plows.

The Share^
Fig. 114, n (outside), Fig. 116, g, (iusicle view), is made of cast
iron, and forms part of the land side and part of the mould-board
side of the plow. Its length on the land side is 9 inches; length
of point, 2 inches; length of share on the mould-board side, Fig.
116, a 5, measured from the point, over the feather, to its inter-
section with the mould-board, 16^ inches; width from land side
to the angle of the feather. Fig. 114, o, 10| inches; length of
feather, Fig. 114, o p^ Fig, 116, c cZ, 13| inches (measured on the
sole); width of point. Fig. 116, a a\ \\ inches. The feather
extends 2 inches beyond the edge of the mould-board to the
right, and is bolted to it by two bolts. Fig. 116, e/", secured by
nuts. At the line where the mould-board meets the share at the
breast its vertical height above the base line is 3| inches. At the
point where the upper surface of the mould-board meets the
share the height is 2 inches. Distance from the angle of the
feather to the lower edge of the mould-board is 3^ inches. The
land-side of the share begins to depart from the plane of the
land side towards the left from the point of its junction with it
at its fore end, at the point it stands \ of an inch more to the left
than the plane of the land side. The land side face of the share
slopes vertically inward towards the furrow side, in conformity
with the slope of the land side.

The Land Side.
The sole of the land side, r. Fig. 115, is cast in a separate
piece, 1 inch deep and 2 inches wide at the rear end, and -^^ of an
inch deep and | of an inch wide at the front end. It receives the
lower edge of the land side plate on its upper surfiice. On tho
furrow side it has two semi-circular steps of li inch radius, e and /",
one being 6 inches and the other 21 inches in the rear of its foro
end, through which it is bolted to the land side plate. Through
these the sole is bolted to the land side plate, the heads being on
the outside and the nuts on the inside. The holes in the plate are
countersunk to receive the heads of the bolts, so that they lie in
its plane. The sole extends ^ an inch to the left of the plane on
the land side, at the rear end, running out to nothing on the front
end, where it joins the share. A straight edge, extending from
the heel of the land side to the point of the share, will form the
base of a triangle whose apex is at the point of junction of the
land side and the share, and whose altitude will be \ of an inch.
If the sole of the laud side is jiroduccd to the poiut, the end of the

Report of the Judges.

231

line will be | of an inch above it; or it may lie otherwise stated,
that the sole of the land slopes upward and forward, and the
sole of the share slopes upward and backward to the point of
their junction. The object of giving it this concavity is to
diminish friction and to give dip or eartliAvard tendency at all
times, together with steadiness of motion. The land side is
inclined vertically inward, so tliat at 12 inches al)ove the sole it
inclines 1^ inches from the perpendicular. The front standard,
A, is cast in the same piece with the land-side plate; its front face
forms a continuous curve with the breast, its radius g-rowin^
smaller as it rises, until at length the line of the curve moves
forward. It is flat on the land side and convex on the furrow
side. It is cast hollow, which permits a bolt to pass vertically
through it, its head being on the under side and a nut which
screws on the upper surface of the beam. It is 3 inches wide
and li inches thick. Its upper termination is in a plate, a, 6
inches long and nearly as broad as the beam which rests upon it.
The rear standard is cast in the same piece with the land side
plate, and is provided with flanges at its upper end, which
receives the lower ends of the handles, as described above.

We give the annexed cut (Fig. 115) of the front and rear
standard, A and B; a and b are the flanges upon which the beam
rests; c and d the flanges which support the handles. D, the
d

J)

f— PI

ni

t r

TT-

\

, t

—

""

C

' - -ItUIII:

J^/^. //.5.
dog-brace. One of the teeth enters the staple seen on the inside
of the hmd side; the other enters into a corresponding staple, z
(Fig. IK!), ill llic mould-boMid. Tli(> hook on the k>ft end of the

232

Report on Trials of Plows.

dog-rod catches into a staple, k (Fig. 116), on the mould-board;
the screw end passes through the hole seen in D, and is secured
by the nut. By this arrangement the land side and mould-board
are held firmly together as one piece.

The Breast.
A straight line drawn from the point of the share to its junc-
tion with the standard measures 22| inches. The ordinates to the
breast curve, measured along this line, are, at 4 inches from the
standard, i of an inch; at 8 inches, || of an inch; at 12 inches, \f.
of an inch; at 16 inches, \^ of an inch; at 20 inches, -^^ of an inch.

The Mould-Board,
Fig. 114, r. Fig. 116, g, rises regularly from the base line and
forms a continuous curve with the upper surface of the share;
but a vertical flange, s, descends from its front lower edge to the
sole. The rear edge of this flange is 19i inches behind the point

J'Vr/. i/'O.

Report of the Judges. 233

of the share, measured on the base line. The clog-brace D, and
dog-rod E, Fig. 115, take the place of the thimble-brace formcrh^
used. The dog D being more convenient, is preferred. A §
wrought iron brace extends from the top of the rear standard
diagonally across to the rear of the mould-board. It is 15
inches long, and hooks at both ends into staples which are cast
on these plates, and which, on the mould-board, is 4| inches
below its upper edge, and 5 inches in front of its rear edge. A
series of straight lines, which coincide at all points with a straight-
edge running from the front to the back part of the mould-
board. The iirst of these extends from the land side of the
point of the share to a point in the lower edge of the mould-
board, which is 2 1 inches vertically distant from the plane of the
sole, and 18 inches distant from the point forms an angle with
the plane of the sole of 5° 02'. Another of these lines, drawn
from the point where the land side joins the mould-board on the
breast, to a point in the lower edge of the mould-board 7| inches
vertically distant from the base line, forms an angle of 4° 08'.
Another of these lines runs from the top of the breast to a point
in the lower edge of the mould-board llf inches vertically above
the base line. The uppermost coinciding line at the top of the
mould-board forms an angle of 3° 20'. It will be seen that these
lines form angles with the plane of the sole gradually though
not absolutely regularly diminishing as they rise vertically on the
mould-board. Another set of lines may be drawn from front to
rear forming angles with the first named line at the point of 62°,
and at the rear of the mould-board of 85°, the intermediate lines
forming angles gradually increasing from front to rear, but, as in
the case of the other set of lines, the rate of increment is not
entirely regular. If these lines are drawn upon the sui-face of
the mould-board their intersections will form trapezoids; if the
diagonals are drawn on any of these it will be found that a straight-
edge applied to one of them will show a concave surface, while
at ihe cross diagonal it will show a convex surface.

The mould-board closes over the land side at the breast by a
lip; it also has a flange around its upper and lower edge one-
half an inch broad. The mould-board is attached to 'the standard
by means of the pin seen in Fig. 115, and marked P, which enters
a thimble cast at the lower end of the inside of the mould-board,
ii, Fig. 116; it also rests on the projecting ear, O, Fig. 115, to
which it is fastened by a bolt and nut. By this" simple ai-range-

234 Report on Trials of Plows.

meiit the mould-board can be readily changed from a sod to a
stubble plow, and vice versa. The dog, D, hooks into (7, Fig.
115, and into i, Fig. 116. The rod, E, hooks into h, and the
nutted end passes through the hole in the middle of the dog,
which braces all parts firmly together.

While we have been compelled by the results of the trial to
give a very decided preference to the Holbrook plow, we intend
to bestow a strong commendation upon its competitor, which is
in all respects a very excellent plow, though not as well adapted to
deep plowing as Holbrook's. The material of which it is made
is the hardest and least frangible steel that ever came under our
notice. This was very strikingly exemplified, when a stone two
feet lonof, eifi:hteen inches wide and three inches thick was caught
between the revolving cutter and the breast of the plow and torn
out from ten inches beneath the surface of the ground. The
cutter was pressed by this operation fully three inches to the
right of its natural plane, but when released it sprang back to it
again without injury to it or to any part of the plow.

We know nothing of the process by which these desirable
properties are imparted to the steel, but we can fully testify to
the excellence of the article. It pulverizes the ground remarka-
bly well for a concave plow, and buries the weeds and stubble
tolerably well. In our opinion it would be better if it were
longer and less abrupt; and we think the breadth from the land
side to the angle of the feather on the share is too great, as it
does not leave a hinge sufficiently wide for the furrow slice to
turn in. We give the following full description of it:

Turf and Stubble Plow C No. 3. Collins & Co., Hartford.
F. F. Smith, Patent. Class IV, Entry No. 13.

This plow is of cast steel, with the exception of the standard,
which is of wrought iron, and the bolts and brace rods, which
are also of wrought iron, and the bridle, which is of cast iron;
the beams, handles and one cross-brace are of wood.

General Dimensions. ^ ,

Inches-

From zero to rear end of mould-board 4^

From zero to heel of land side 5

From zero to first cross-brace 5

From zero to second cross-brace 101

From zero to extreme tip of left handle 33

From zero to rear edge of standard 85

From zero to rear corner of fi-athoi- 12

Report of the Judges. 235

Inches.

From zero to junction of land side with share 17

From zero to point of share 28

From zero to extreme front of beam 52

From zero to front hole in the bridle 534

These points are all referred to the base line by a plumb line,
and then measured horizontally backward and forward from the
zero line. This line is found on the mould-board at the point
where the furrow slice touches it when it is set perj)endicularly
on its edge, or by finding the point where a line at right angles
from the land side as long as the breadth of the furrow slice
touches the mould-board, and also above the sole as much as the
furrow is broad.

It will be seen from the above that the extreme length of this
plow is 7 feet 2^ inches from the tip of the handles to the front
of the bridle. And the whole length from the heel of the land
side to the point is 2 feet 9 inches. The tip of the left handle
lies 3| inches to the left of the plane of the land side.

Vertical Measurements.

Inches.

From base line to the tip of the handle 33

From base line to the highest point of the handle 351

From base line to third cross-brace between handles 284

From base line to second cross-brace between handles I82

From base line to first cross-brace between handles II5

From base line to top of beam at rear edge of standard 231

From base line to top of beam at front end 18|

From base line to upper hole of bridle 20^

From base line to lower hole of bridle 141

Handles.

An iron strap, one-half an inch thick and 2^ inches wide, is
bolted to the inner face of the land side, 8 inches in a<lvance of
the heel and 3^ inches above the sole. It rises upward and back-
ward, making an angle of 48° with the base line, and is continued
15 inches a])ove the bolt. It is twisted or kneed inward so as to
make its outer or left plane coincide with the inner or right hand
face of the left handle, which is bolted to it and is in contact
with it for 6 i inches. This handle passes upward through a
mortise in the beam, and after ascending 6 inches alcove begins to
deflect towards the left from the plane in which it previously
stood. It is two inches broad (^^ e. on its sides) and 1| inches
thick {i. e. on its front and rear edges). Below the beam its form
IS semi-cylind7"ical, and the bolts which hold it in contact with tlif

236 Report on Trials of Plows.

iron strap are headed with a clip which embraces their whole cir-
cumference and correspond with them in form. Above the beam
the sides are trimmed off on the edges so as to give them a well
marked convexity.

The right handle is bolted by two bolts, 6 inches apart, to the
mould-board. A half inch wrought iron brace rod, 15 inches
above the bolt, which fastens the iron strap to the land side,
passes between the handles, and is 1\ inches long. Another iron
brace rod, curved upward in the middle and having a screw cut
upon both ends, passes through the beam and both handles; each
end is secured by two nuts, one on the outside, the other inside,
thus resisting both outward and inward pressure. It is 10| inches
in length, and is 11 inches above the first one measured on the left
handle, and 14 inches measured on the left one. A third brace rod
of wood, 15 inches above the last one, as measured on the left han-
dle, and 17^ inches on the right handle, is 18 inches long, measured
as the others have been on the inside of the handles. One inch
above this is a quarter-inch iron rod, which passes through both
handles, and is secured by a nut on the left one. The distance
between the tips of the handles is 28 inches, and as we have
before stated, the tip of the left handle lies 3| inches to the left
of the plane of the land side, the tip of the right handle must
lie 24^ inches to the right of that plane. Both handles are made
from wood.

Beam.

The beam is made of oak wood. Measured along the top, in
conformity with the curves, it is 5 feet 7^ inches long. Measured
in a straio-ht line, it is 5 feet 6 inches Ions;,

The following measurements, made vertically from the base
line to the top of the beam at the points indicated, will give a
tolerably di-stinct idea of its curves:

Inches.

From base line to extreme rear end of the beam 18

). From base line to the point where the front edge of the left handle passes

! through the beam 44

In advance of the preceding measurement 19 g

From base line at 1 foot in advance of first measurement 211

From base line at 2 feet in advance of first measurement, which corre-
sponds with the rear edge of the standard 22>\

From base line at 3 feet in advance of first measurement 221

From base line at 4 feet in advance of first measurement 20-8

From base line at 5 feet in advance of first measurement 18s

From base line at the extreme fi'out of the beam I84

Report of the Judges. 237

Similar moasiirements to the under side of the beam:

Inches.

At the heel IGi

At 45 inches in advance 171

At 1 foot in advance 18s

At 2 feet in advance 19g

At 3 feet in advance , 18A

At 4 feet in advance 17;^ ,

At 5 feet in advance 16^

At front end of beam 16^

The beam projects 2 inches behind the left handle of the plow.
At the hinder end it is 3 inches deep and 2| inches wide. At the
standard it is 4| inches deep and 2| inches wide. At the front it
is 3 inches deep by 2^ inches wide.

The Land Side
Is made by a single plate of cast steel, 21 inches long, and 5
inches deep, and three-eighths of an inch thick, bevelled otf at
its upper front edge to meet the breast curve of the share and
mould-board. At its rear end a wear iron projects three-fourths
of an inch laterally towards the land, which extends 8^ inches
forwards and then runs out, the land side and share beino; thence-
forward in one plane. The wear iron also extends 2 inches diago-
nally upward, and is then lost in the plane of the land side. At
its junction with the share the plate is thickened on the inside,
and a gain is cut on the end outside face, which extends 2 inches
over the interior face of the share at the point they are bolted
together.

From a point 11 inches in front of the heel and 3 inches above
the sole, a wrought iron brace, seven-eighths of an inch wide and
three-eighths of an inch thick, crosses over to the mould-board.
It is bolted to both through flanges which turn downward at
angles corresponding with each plate. The land side is exactly
perpendicular to the plane of the sole for six inches vertically.

Share.
A straight edge laid from the heel of the land side to the point
of the share forms the base of a triangle, the apex of which is at
the point of junction between the land side plate and the share,
its altitude being one-half an inch. A straight edge laid upon
the sole of the land side and produced is a qnrter of an inch vert i-
cally above the point. The point is exactly in the plane of the
land side and not set towards the left as is usually the case. It
is also in a straight line with the sole of the share. The ana'le

238 Report on Trials of Plows.

of the feather is 12 inches, measured at right angles with the
exterior face of the land side. There is no marked line of
separation between the point and the rest of the share; its breadth
is one-half an inch. The edge of the feather from the point to
the angle is regularly concave on the sole. The length of the
chord connecting the point Avith the angle is 19| inches, and the
longest ordinate to the curve is three-fourths of an inch. The
distance of the angle from the bottom of the mould-board is 5|^
inches; it is brought to a cutting edo;e alono^ the sole for its entire
length, and does not vary anywhere from the plane of the sole.
The vertical height of the breast at the junction of the share and
land side is 4 inches, and at the standard 10 inches. The length
of the share on the land side is 10| inches. The upper edge of
the share coincides with the lower edge of the mould-board in a
straight line. An iron plate three inches wide is applied along
the line of junction on the inner face and unites the two by
means of two bolts passing through the phxte and the upper edge
of the land side, and two through the lower edge of the mould-
board.

The Standard

Is of wrought iron, 2| inches wide and 'three-quarters of an inch
thick; it is straight until it reaches the breast of the plow; it
then curves forward to correspond with it. It twists inward
Avhen it meets the land side and has a gain cut in the lower end
to receive the land side plate which is bolted to it; it terminates
above in a plate six inches long and three inches wide, having
transverse slots cut at each end, through which bolts pass upward
through the beam secured by nuts upon its upper surface. By
this arrangement the angle made by the beam and the plane of
the land side may be varied at pleasure. The land side is per-
pendicular to the sole for six inches; from thence upward the
standard inclines to the furrow side; at 12 inches above the
sole it deflects three-fourths of an inch. A line drawn from
the point to the top of the breast where it meets the standard is
19i inches, and the longest ordinate to the curve of the breast is
1| inches.

The Mould-Board

Is of cast steel, which is three-eighths of an inch thick. It has
straight transverse lines, but its vertical lines are concave. We

Report of the Judges.

239

did not perceive that the twist conformed to any matheniaticul
principle, but it worked very well in practice.

Class V — Sod and Subsoil Plows.

The only entry in this class was by F. F, Holbrook, of Boston,
and consisted of the plow used in Class IV, with a skim plow
attached to the beam in front, as seen in Fig. 117. Entry No. 20.
Weight, 150 lbs. Price, $27.

A full description of the stubble plow will be found in Class IV.
The sod and subsoil plow is No. 69, with a stubble mould-board and
the skim plow attached. It works from 8 to 14 inches deep, by
10 to 14 inches wide, according to the wishes of the plowman.

In our trials at Utica, on ground as adverse to its good perform-
ance as could well be imagined, it worked 11 inches deep and 11
inches wide for the first two furrows, and 11 inches deep and 12
inches wide for the second two furrows.

The following table shows the force which was consumed:

FUEROWS.

Distance in
yards.

Half power in
pound yards.

First

153
151
153
152^

45,000
43,500
57,500
55,600

Second

Third •

Fourth

The annexed table g-ives actual draught reduced from the above
table, the draught per cubic foot, and the averages.

240

Report on Trials of Plows.

SIZE OF FURROW.

DRAUGHT.

AVERAGES.

Width in
inches.

Depth in
inches.

Actual.

Per cubic foot
of earth.

Actual.

Per cubic
foot.

11
11
12
12

11
11
11
11

588
576
752
730

700
G86
820
795

I 582
\ 741

693
807

It will be observed that the average cliifereiice between the two
first and two last, amounting to 159 pounds, is altogether too
great to be accounted for by the very slight increase of one inch
in the width of the furrow, and was obviously due to the hetero-
geneous character of the soil, which varied very greatly in tena-
city and density in the space of a few feet.

In order to determine this matter more fully, we made experi-
ments with this plough at various depths, the results of which
are recorded in the following tables:

Holhrooh^s Bod and Buhsoil.

Width of furrow, 12 inches.

Depth in
inches.

Distance in
yards.

Half power in
pound yards.

First furrow . .
Second furrow
Third furrow .

101
124

154
146
149

50,800
55,000
59,700

In the following table these numbers are reduced to actual draft
and draft per cubic foot in pound yards:

DEPTH OF FURROW

Actual
draught.

Draught per
cubic foot.

8 I inches
10 5 inches
12i inches

660
753
801

931

861

785

This shows the heterogeneous character of the soil in a very
striking manner. In the first experiment 121 square inches of
furrow slice were turned over, with a force of 582 yard pounds;
in the second experiment 660 yard pounds were required to turn
over a furrow slice of 102 square inches.

In the first experiment, 741 jnvd pounds were required to turn

Report of the Judges.

241

132 square inches; in the second, it required 75o yard pounds to
turn a slice of 121) square inches.

The work performed by this plow was entirely satisfactory.
The furrow channel was perfectly cleared; the earth was tho-
rouo;hly pulverized; the grass, weeds and stubbles were entirely
buried, so that they could not possibly spring up again; the plow
ran very truly, so that a boy could hold it, and, as will be seen
on inspecting the table, it consumed very little power in propor-
tion to the work performed. The workmanship throughout was
excellent and conscientious, and the material was as good as wood
and cast iron could make them.

We have no hesitation in awarding a gold medal to this plow.

As heretofore remarked, plow No. 69 has a stubble mould-
board, for stubble plowing, as in Class IV; a skim plow, to be
used in connection with the stubble mould-board, for sod and sub-
soil plowing, as in Class V; and a sod mould-board, for sod plow-
ing, as represented in Fig. 118, — turning either lap or flat furrows
by a change of cutter, and working from seven to ten inches deep.

Class VI — Subsoil Plow in connection with an Ordinary Plow.

The only entry in this class was by R. J. Wheatly, Du Quoin,
Illinois.

Entry No. 6. Weight of attachment, 20 lbs. Price, $10.

This is intended to ])e affixed to any plow, and is not intended
for any one in particular.

An ordinary clevis is afiixed to the beam of the plow about one
inch in advance of the standard. From the centre of the right
side of the clevis a shaft extends 3| inches to the right. A plate of
iron is bolted to the rear end of the beam, near the handles, 4 inches

16

242 Report on Trials of Plows.

long and 1\ inches Avide. A vertical projection descends from
it 2 inches long. From this a horizontal projection extends 2^
inches; from the end of this a vertical plate descends 8 inches, and
is perforated with live holes, 1 inch apart and ^ inch in diameter.
A strong clamp on the right side of the standard is bolted to
these holes, according to the desired depth of subsoiling. The
stem hinges on the first mentioned shaft on the clevis, which is
16 inches long and 1 inch by | inch. It passes backward, and is
fastened by the clamp; it then bifurcates into two curved arms,
11 inches long and 8 inches apart at the roar extremity. A knife
shaped like the letter U, but brought to a lancet-shaped point
beneath, which is 13 inches below the bifurcated arms, and 3
inches wide, is fastened to the arms by two bolts. The upper
arms of the knife are curved over towards the plow, having a
slot in their extremities so as to change the angle at which it
enters the ground at pleasure. The lower part of the knife is
not in the same plane on both sides, the hinder part being an inch
and three-quarters higher than the front edge; the soil dug up by
the front edge is therefore raised vertically 1| inches, and falls
the same distance back into the furrow channel from the back
edge, which pulverizes it very well.

The plow was first tried alone, without the attachment for
subsoiling, with the following result:

Furrow, 7 inches deep and 8 inches wide.

]32 yards — Half power in pound yards, 34,600 pounds; actual
power in yard pounds, 524 pounds.

After the attachment was applied, the furrow was ten inches
deep, or three inches lower than before, which was therefore the
amount of subsoiling actually performed. The power required to
accomplish this work, viz., a furrow slice 7 inches deep and 8
inches wide, turned over, and 3 inches deep and 8 inches wide,
pulverized at the bottom of the furrow, was 74 yards. 34,400
pounds half power in pound yards; actual power in pound yards,
876.

The power required, therefore, to subsoil three inches deep
was 352 pounds, or 117 pounds for each inch that was subsoiled.

Mr. Holbrook's Sod and Subsoil, going in one inch deeper and
taking a furrow three inches broader, absorbed 194 pounds less
of power than did this of Mr. Wheatley's.

We were all very much pleased with the appearance of the
invention and we confidently expected that a trial would demon-

Effort of the Judges. 243

stmtc its usefulness; but in the fiice of the facts disclosed by the
trial we were reluctantly compelled to withhold a testimonial of
the approval of the Society.

Class VII — A Ditching Plow for Opening Drains.

It will be seen by the list of entries that A. P. Routt, of Som-
erset, Va., was the only competitor, while the premium is awarded
to N. Hawks, of Maine. Mr. Routt has addressed a protest to the
board of judges, and it is acknowledged that the award was an
improper one.

The blame of this transaction rests wholly on the shoulders of
the chairman of the board of judges, whose duty it was to see
that every implement competing for a prize was properly entered
in the class for which it was competing. On account of sickness
in Mr. Routt's family his plow was tried out of its regular order
so that he might go home. Mr. Hawk's plow was tried in the
regular order, and Mr. Routt was therefore not present to chal-
lenjje his rio;ht to do so. The chairman havino- seen his name on
the entry list supposed it was quite right, and permitted him to
make the trial, without actually looking, as he ought to have
done, to see whether this was the class for which he had entered.
The mistake was not discovered until the premium was awarded,
and after this it was of course impossible to withdraw it.

The ditcher consists of a double mould-board plow, which makes
the ditch, and is followed by a roller formed of two cones united
by their bases, which are two feet in diameter, the axis being 13
feet long. Two wrought iron arms proceeding from the rear of
the plow frame and extending laterally and backward embrace
each end of the axis, and draws the cones after the plow which
pack and smooth the side of the ditch. After seeing it work, we
did not think that it was a desirable implement for the farmer,
and we should not, therefore, have awarded a premium to it under
any circumstances.

The ditching plow of Mr. Hawks is one part of a machine
which may be employed for various purposes. It can be used as
a ditching plow, a cultivator, as a seed planter and a potato
digger. Weight of the whole combined machine 180 pounds.
Price, $50. We took a memorandum ot the weight and price of
the ditching plow alone, but it is now obliterated, and therefore
we are unable to give it.

Considered as a seed planter, it may be described as a double

244 Report on Trials of Plows.

moiild-])oard plow cast in two pieces, viz.: the point and shares,
and the win<>;s or mould-boards. The beam is of oak, and is 45
inches long. The wheel, which is attached in the same way as
Gov. Holbrook's, which we have already described, is 7 inches in
diameter and 2 inches broad. The clevis is the same also as Gov.
Holbrook's. A pair of cast iron arms rise from the upper edge
of the mould-boards on each side, 9 inches to the rear of the
breast, in a curved direction towards beam and bolt, through its
heel. These arms descend six inches, and are flanged below. From
these flanges a box is supported in which are inserted the gudgeons
of the driving wheel, which can be raised or lowered at pleasure.
The driving wheel is 11 inches in diameter and 1 inch wide.
Two pins are inserted on each side of the driving wheel, which
strike on cones which communicate a vibratory motion to the
slides, which open the valves for the deposit of the seed. By
increasing the pins, the quickness of the viljrations and conse-
quently the amount of seed sown is increased ; by diminishing
the numl)er of pins, the quantity sown can be diminished. A
pair of hinged ears, 8 inches above the sole of the mould-boards,
project in the rear of the handles, from which brace-rods (half an
inch in diameter) extend backwards 12 inches to the covering
irons. Another pair of brace-rods extend from the first pair, at
the front of the covering irons, upwards to the handles. Eighteen
inches above the sole of the mould-board one end has a ring
which embraces the first pair of braces, and the other is bolted
to the handles. The covering irons are 1 inch apart behind and
9 inches apart in front, sloping to the right and left as they
descend to the ground. They are 14 inches long, and are curved
upward and backward from below. A rib is cast about the mid-
dle of the covers, 10 inches high in front and 2 inches high
behind, which flare outward. A pair of ears are cast about the
middle of the covers, to which a cross-rod is bolted, from the
centre of which a standard rises, which is surmounted by a cross-
bar; from the ends braces extend to the handles; on each side a
thumb-screw, on the top of the standard, regulates the depth of
the hill. A pair of eyes, 1 inch in diameter and ten inches apart,
are screwed into the top of the beam ; between these a wooden
roller is inserted, from the centre of which a wooden bar runs
laterally. A marker is placed at the end of this bar, which can
be moved backward and forward, and secured by a thumb-screw
at any point, so as to make the marks for the furrow at any

Report of the Judges.

245

Jf'fff. ff9.
by hinging a bar from the rear end

required distance. A drawer vibrates at each motion of the slide,
which regulates the egress of the seed. Two projecting pins
in the downward channel play up and down and prevent clogging.

~j^ J ^^^^MBmm^^y'-^-'^^ Ine description above
' ^/-<«^^ given, in connection with
the drawing, Fig. 119, will,
we trust, give a tolerable
idea of the implement when
adjusted for planting seed.
When the boxes and
planting machinery are de-
tached it is converted into
a horse hoe or cultivator,
of each mould-board to
which cultivator teeth are attached; these arms are expansible
to any required width b}' means of a pair of wrought iron arcs,
one of M^hich is attached to the middle of each bar; they are per-
forated with holes, and can therefore be used to set the arms at
any angle by thrusting a pin through these holes.

Fig;. 120 shows the machine when used as a cultivator. When
used as a ditcher, the cov-
erers seen behind in Fig.
119 are reversed and hinged
to the rear of the mould-
boards by means of slots in
the sides and screw bolts
they may be raised higher
as the ditch deepens. It
really did excellent work
as a ditcher, and by passing backward and forward a few times a
single horse would cut out a very neat ditch with very little
labor and great neatness of execution. We deemed its work
much better than Routt's in all respects.

JSTo. 4,

Fig. 720.

Class VIII — A Machine for Excavating Ditches for Under-
draining.

There was only a single entry in this class, which was made bj'-
E. Heath,. of Fowlerville, N. Y.

We have mislaid our notes of the weight and price of this
machine, or we neglected to procure them. Some idea of the
machine will l)c ol)tained 1)V an examination of the annexed

246 Report on Trials of Plows.

Fig. 121. It runs upon a light wooden railroad, or rather
trajn, road; as soon as it has passed over one pair of rails they
are taken up by an attendant and replaced in front of the machine.
What is called the shovel is more like a chisel which enters the
ground diagonally. It is moved forward by means of a chain
which is anchored to a stake at some distance ahead, and the
other end is slowly wound round a pulley which revolves on the
machine. The shovel runs down to the bottom of the ditch at
each plunge, and raises the earth to the surface, where it is
caught by the scrapers, by which it is removed about two feet
from the sides of the ditch. The power required to operate the
machine is two horses, a driver, and a man to remove the rails,
or an expert man may do both. It will cut a tile drain at the rate
of from four to six rods an hour in ordinary ground. It cut a
ditch in our presence, in a very adhesive clay soil, two feet deep,
taking out six lineal inches at every revolution of the sweep;
while doing this it was worked with only one horse and one
man. It appears complicated on looking at the figure; but it is
in reality very simple. There is not a single geared wheel used
in its construction; it can all be made by any blacksmith or car-
penter, and if anything breaks it can be repaired in any village
in the country. There are only 100 pounds of castings used
about the whole machine, and any one that is competent to run a
mowing machine or a threshing machine will have no difficulty
in operating this one.

We were unanimously of the opinion that this machine is very
far in advance of any contrivance for the excavation of ditches
that we have ever seen, and that it is a practical, economical and
useful implement which is greatly demanded at the present time.
We do not doubt that its proprietors will be enabled to simplify
and improve its details, and to strengthen some of its parts; but
in our judgment the principle is a good one, and will meet the
approbation of the increasing number who desire to increase the
products of their farms by luiderdraining. We therefore award
to it a gold medal.

Class IX — A Steel Plow for Alluvial and Unctuous Lands.

The only plow entered in this class was that of Collins & Co.,
of New York.

Plow C, No. 3. Entry No. 4. Weight, yO pounds. Price, $25.
There was no land in the vicinity of Utica which was adapted

Report of the Judges.

247

248

Report on Trials of Plows.

for an actual trial of this plow in the kind of land for which it
was specially intended; but from the trials which we made in
adhesive soils, from a study of its shape and a test of the material
of which it was composed, we had not the shadow of a doubt of
its admirable adaptation to work in this kind of soil with entire
success, and therefore awarded to it a gold medal.

Class X — A Swing or Sideiiill Plow.

Two entries were made in this class, viz.: F. F, Holbrook, No.
6, Sivivel Plow; weight, 136 pounds; price, $20. Lyman D.
Burch, Sherburne; weight, 110 pounds; price, $15.

The plow made by Mr. Holbrook is laid out by an exceedingly
ingenious process, with which we were made fully acquainted, but
which we cannot make public, as it is not patented. We exceed-
ingly regret the necessity for this enforced reticence, as the dia-
grams given in full would elucidate very clearly some important
points in the general theory of the plow, and in the special theory
of swivel plows, which we think are at present very ill under-
stood by the users of plows. A very good idea of Mr. Holbrook'y
plow will be obtained by an examination of the annexed Fig. 122.

It, like all other swivel plows, consists of a half of two mould-
boards combined in one; but, unlike others, it is so combined as
that the one-half shall help the other all the way from the zero
line forwards, so that a full sized furrow slice may be properly
turned. It worked well in all respects, was very strong, and was
thoroughly well made in all its parts. It pulverized the ground
very thoroughly, and l)nned the weeds very well. Its chief

Report of the Judges.

249

characteristic was its pvilverizing power, and the soft, velvety feel
of the furrows under the foot which had been plowed with it.

Burch's plow was a very peculiar one, and was quite novel in
its construction. The leading ideas sought to be embodied in it
are lightness, strength and cheapness. We have no drawing of
this plow, but will try to describe it as well as we are able. The
beam is of cast iron, strengthened by a frame work of wrought
iron rods. A hook cast on the rear end of the beam holds a brace.
An iron bar, six inches in advance of the hook, projects laterally
on each side of the beam, another bar of the same size is placed
on the front end of the beam. One-half inch rods are stretched
between these cross-bars, parallel to the beam; are carried round
through the front bar, and connect in the middle \\ inches from
the front bar. At either end l|-inch hooks are inserted, which
hold the head block to which the clevis is attached. One foot in
advance of the first mentioned hook is a horn. Nineteen inches
in advance is a pair of straps curving laterally outward, down-
ward and backward. The coulter perforated through the shank
is held by this rod passing the ends of these straps. The coulter
can be shifted laterally on this rod, and the upper end catches in
the horn on either side of the beam. The coulter is spatula-shaped,
nine inches long and three inches broad, sharpened on both sides.
We give a figure of share:

J^/cf. f23.

It will be seen that the share has on its under side a brace or
strengthener of the point which is cast Avith it. It extends through
a slot or cavity of the mould-board, back along the two wings or
prongs of the point, its object being to give strength to the point
and allow of its l)cing made of hard iron, which makes it much

250

Report on Trials of Plows.

more durable. It is difficult to describe the mould-board, which
is of uo regular figure. It approximates in its general outline to
a cone, but has been pared away at different points to suit the
views of the maker, and to adapt it to what he conceives to be
the wants of the farmer.

The distance across, from the land side to the point of the
feather, is 10| inches. The length from the point of the plow to
the point of the feather is 14 inches. Length of the land side,
23 i inches. From the point to the standard is 15 inches.

It worked very easily, and was very strongly made, and was of
durable materials. Its great defect was a want of pulverizing
power; the earth was hard after being plowed.

The judges decided as follows between these two plows:

First. Pulverizing power: Very greatly in favor of Holbrook's.

Second. Non-liability to choke in stubble: Equal in this respect.

Third. Lightness of draft.

PLOWS.

FURROW.

DRAUGHT.

AVERAGES.

Width,
inches.

Depth,
inches .

Actual.

Per cubic foot
of earth.

Actual.

Per cubic foot
of earth.

Holbrook's Swivel
Burch's Swivel...

12
12
12
12

7
7
7
7

618
593
507
514

1,059

1,015

869

881

^605
UlO

1,037

875

At a subsequent trial of their draft, side by side, in soil as
nearly alike as possible, Holbrook's average draft was 502 pound
yards. Burch's average draft was 432 pounds. In the first case,
Buch's was lightest by 95 pounds, or 15.7 per cent. In the second
case he was lighter by 70 pounds, or 13.9 per cent. The merit of
lightness of draft was therefore awarded to Burch.

Fourth — Ease of holding: Decided in favor of Burch.

Fifth — Dura'bility: Both equal in this respect.

Sixth — Cheapness: In favor of Burch.

Seventh — Excellence of mechanical work: In favor of Hol-
brook.

Eighth — Excellence of material: Both equal in this respect.

Ninth — Thorough inversion and burial of weeds: Holbrook.

Tenth — Even distribution of wear: Holbrook, slightly.

^^ewn//<'— Regularity or truoncss of turning: Holbrook.

Report of the Judges. 251

It will be seen that five of these points were decided m favor
of Holbrook, three in favor of Burch, and in three points they
were judged to be equal.

On this state of facts the question was discussed which was
entitled to the medal, and the question finally turned on the com-
parative merits of easy draft and thorough pulverization. One
portion of the judges held that if Holbrook consumed more power
he did the most work; that is, he did that which it was the object
of plowing to accomplish, viz., thorough pulverization, while
Burch did not. Others contended that the orreater ease of draught
of Burch's plow entitled him to the premium. On a division it
was found that four of the judges were in favor of awarding the
premium to Holbrook and four to Burch. After a full reconsid-
eration the vote remained the same, and therefore no premium
can be given in this class.

In point of cheapness Mr. Burch's plow was very remarkable.
The following statement shows the cost of each part:

Plow beam 37 pounds. Casting, 6 cents $2 22

Handle yoke 5 " " 6 " 30

Crotch 4 " " 6 " 24

Roller 5 " " G " 30

Coulter guide 2 " " 6 " 12

Mould-board 19 " " 5 " 95

Shoe 7 " " 5 " 35

Point 6 " " 5 " 30

Wheel iron 5 " 30

Vhole weight 90 " $5 08

The whole cost of the plow complete $10 00

HARROWS.

Only one class of harrows was made in the programme of the
Society, and only two were entered for competition, viz.:

J. E. Morgan, Deerfield, Oneida county, N. Y. Weight, 200
pounds. Price, $30.

The extreme width of the harrow is 7 feet 4 inches. Its
extreme lenoth is 5 feet 3 inches. It has 48 teeth three-fourths
of an inch square and 5^ inches long below the lower surface of
the frame, which are steel pointed; a bolt passes through the
frame behind each tooth to prevent splitting. It is made in two
separate pieces, rectangular in form; each of the pieces has two
huge bolts passing through all its bars, secured by a nut on the
outer side of the outer liar; these huge bolts are furnished witli

252

Report on Trials of Plows.

an elongated eye, C D E F, the axis of which forms an angle of
20*^ with the vertical line, the upper end of the eye being directed
to the opposite harrow; these eyes are connected by a three-
quarter inch iron rod, A B, running through them. By this
arrano-ement a backward and forward motion to the extent of
nine inches, and an upward and downward motion to the extent
of six inches is allowed to each side of the harrow, which adapts
them admirably to work in rough and uneven ground. The
draught is taken by rods hooking over a bar of iron between the
two inner beams two feet long, vibrating on an iron arc of a
circle having a chord of 32 inches. These rods run back to hinge
on the third tooth of the harrow. The evener is attached by a link
to one end, and by a chain to the other 18 inches long. The chord
of the right arc is 25 inches. The frame of the harrow is made
of white oak. The wooden bars are 2| inches square and 8i
inches apart. The tracks of the teeth are 4 inches apart. It is
drawn diagonally.

The draft of this harrow over ground which had been previ-
ously harrowed was 314 pounds; over ground which had not
been previously harrowed, 371 pounds.

The harrow is made in the best possible manner, the mate-
rials are of the best quality, and the workmanship is most thor-
ough and conscientious throughout. It will be seen from the
description given above that it has a wide range of self-adjust-
ment and self-adaptation, and is easily kept clear of weeds and
other accumulations. The teeth track vcrv well, no one tooth in

Report of the Judges. 253

ordinary circumstances following in the track of the other. It is
a most excellent instrument in all respects, and avb were unani-
mously of the opinion that it deserved the gold medal.

The other harrow was entered by F. Nishwitz. Weight. 250
pounds. Price, $40.

It is exceedingly ingenious in its construction; and if not
entirely unique, we have never met with any similar one, nor
have VfQ. met with any description of anything resembling it.

It consists of two expansable arms, hinged in front and con-
tiguous to each other. They are expanded behind to any desired
width by circular arras springing laterally and inwardly from the
main arms at a point 2| feet behind the angular point. These
pass one above the other, and are secured at any desired expan-
sion by a pin thrust through them both. The main frame is of
oak, 8 inches wide and 2 inches thick. It runs on wheels 20
inches in diameter and 2i inches wide, which are placed on a
crank axle, the arms of which are 5| inches long, and which regu-
late the depth.

The cutting action of this implement is by a series of rolling
plates attached to each arm of the harrow. These plates are in
the form of hollow segments of a sphere; the length of the chord
is 11 inches, and the versed side | inch. They are made of gray
iron chilled on the edge, which is quite sharp; the convex side is
turned outward. Seven of these concave plates are attached to
one of the expanding arms, and six to the other. There is a
socket attached to the center of each plate, upon which it rotates.
A hollow cone, the opening at the base being 2| inches in diame-
ter, and having a flange which is f inch wide, is placed on the
lower side of the expanding arms; an eye-bolt passes through the
cone, which is fastened by a nut on the upper side of the arms;
the eye fits into shoulders cut in the lower part of the cone. A
steel pin from the eye projects inward, upon which the socket
of the plates run; on the outside a scraper is attached to the
under side of the oak arms, which takes otf the adhering earth
from the convex surface, and also prevents the plates from run-
ning off the steel pins upon which they rotate. They can be
moved on a slot \\ inches backward and forward. The plane of
rotation of the plates make an angle of 15 degrees with the line
of the harrow's motion.

The effect of this machine as a pulverizer was most astonishing.
It worked most effectually diagonally across the fui'rows, going

254 Report on Trials of Plows.

across in this way and returning at a reverse angle, so as to cut
the furrow diamond wise, reduced it to powder like flour. It
also worked most admirably in scarifying sod. It makes one of
the most perfect implements that can be imagined for mellowing
the surface of moss bound meadows, and for scarifying meadows
and pastures where the grass has run out, which it is desirable to
re-seed without plowing.

We did not test among lumps and clods, but it was very evi-
dent from its mode of action that it would be a most effectual
mode of breaking these down, and it will probably prove a
better implement for this purpose than Crosskill's clod crusher,
or any of the numerous imitations of that implement with which
the market abounds. It is also admirably adapted to working
fallows. It is not well adapted to level uneven land or to cover
seed. In these respects it would not answer as well as Mr. Mor-
gan's; but as a superficial pulverizer we cannot speak too highly
of it. As it is designed to meet a difficulty in practical hus-
bandry which no preceding machine accomplishes as well, we
recommend to the Executive Committee to award a special gold
medal to Mr. Nishwitz for this invention.

CULTIVATOES.

Class I — For Corn and Root Crops, Best One-horse Culti-
vator, ONE Row.

There were two entries in this class, one by Alden & Co.,
Auburn, and by N. Hawks, Appleton, Maine. The weight of
Alden's machine is pounds. Price, $12.50.

The frame, ABCDEFGH, Fig. 125, with various additions
and substitutions, is made to accomplish a great variety of ser-
vices in practical husbandry, as seen in Fig. 125. It is used
simply as a cultivator for ordinary purposes. The thills, A B
and C D, are of white ash; as seen in the figure they are 22 inches
above the bars, E F and G H, but may be raised or lowered \\
inches. The upright and diagonal braces are of hoop iron; the
bars of oak. The teeth are of steel; the hind tooth is in the
form of a double diamond, the three front ones are half diamond.
The teeth are reversible, so as to throw the earth to or from
the row. Throwing the earth from the row he went within an
inch of it. The piece of ground assigned to him for trial was
excessively weedy. On going twice over it, it was thoroughly

Report of the Judges.

255

cleared of weeds, and the ground was well melloAved two inches
deep. It is converted into a marker for planting corn by taking
off the four teeth and bolting a
bar Ion Of enough to mark three
rows on the under side of the
arm, G H. It is shown as a corn-
marker in Fig. 126. The teeth
are wood, and their action will be
understood by an inspection of
the figure. Pegs, not shown in
the figure, are driven diagonally
into the upper corners of the cross
bar, which support weights when
it is desired to press the markers
deeper into the ground. It is ar-
ranged as a quack rake by insert-
ing fifteen teeth curved forward
in an arm similar to the potato
marker. The price of these teeth
is $2..25.

For hilling corn^ a diamond
tooth is placed in front, having
expansible wings. Two other
teeth are placed at H and G,
which throw the earth towards
the corn.

To cover two I'ows of potatoes^
four small plows, with long wings
(it takes twenty minutes to make
this change) are screwed on to
the arms of the machine. With
this arrangement the potatoes
were covered in going backward
and forward, raising a ridge 4 inches high.

Jy'iff. 725.

J^ig. i26.

In a word, this machine
cultivates between the rows in
the usual manner. It marks
furrows for corn, potatoes, or
any other crop requiring to
be planted in straight lines;
rakes quack or other roots out

256 Report on Trials of Flows.

of the soil, leaving them in rows upon the surface. It makes the
furrows for any crops requiring to be planted in hills, and covers
them, ridging them as much as is required. It was tried by very
severe tests in the most difficult soils and circumstances, and did
good work in all.

The work of Mr. Hawks' machine has been described under
the head of "Ditching Plows," in Class VII, as a seed-planter,
cultivator, potato-digger, etc. As the two machines were entered
only as cultivators, we can only compare them strictly as such.
We are of opinion that Alden's Cultivator cut up the weeds, and
mellowed the ground, and performed the legitimate work of a
cultivator better than Hawks, and we therefore award it the gold
medal in this section of Class I.

For the same section of Class I, only one entry was made by
A. L. Brierly & Co., of Trenton, N. J., who entered Phifers'
Improved Wheel Corn, Cotton and Potato Plow and Cultivator,
which is represented in Fig. 127.

The diameter of the wheel is 4 feet 6 inches; length of axle
or distance between the wheels at their maximum separation is
5 feet 4 inches. The axle is of wrought iron, 1| inches in
diameter. The wheels may be run together by means of a sliding
collar and jDiuching screw, so that their distance from each other
will be only 2 feet 6 inches. They may be made to take any
intermediate place between these maximum and minimum points.

Four wooden bars seen in the figure, each 21 inches long, are
adjusted over the axle by a circular clip, the shank of which
passes through the bar and is fastened by a nut. A slotted iron
bar is bolted to the inner ends of each pair of bars. A vertical
bar, with slots in both directions, is bolted to each bar just
in advance of the axle, and secured by fangs on the top and bot-
tom; from this vertical bar and jointed to it a lever extends
backwards 2 feet 7 inches, and 1 foot 10 inches downward. It is
curved downward at its lower end, and slit so as to embrace the
head of the plow or cultivator tooth.

A projection extending backward at an acute angle receives a
brace, which hinges on a bar below the lifting lever, as shown in
the cut. The brace is perforated by nine holes, which are ke3'ed
to the projection from the curved end of the lever; the inner end
of the lever is adjusted by a rod and screw running through the
wooden bars. The cultivator teeth are fastened to the lever by
an iron bolt and wooden pin. If the ploAv or cultivator tooth

Report of the Judges.

257

17

258 Report on Trials of Plows.

encounters any sudden strain, the wooden pin breaks at once, and
its connection by the bolt leaves it simply as a loose joint, and
takes off all the strain until the obstacle is passed.

It will be seen by a careful study of this arrangement that it
provides for a very wide range of adjustment. The wheels may
be set at any distance apart by raising or lowering the curved
levers in the slots of the vertical bars. The plow points may be
made to take more or less depth by means of the lifting lever.
Any one or more of the plows can be lifted from the ground,
either wholly or in part, by the holes at the slot ends of the
curved levers; they can be lengthened or shortened, and the
plov/ can be made to go as deep or as shallow as is desired.

There is a semicircular arch shown in the fio-ure, one end of
which rests on the axle and the other on the slotted bars; it is
furnished on the outer circle with notches. A thumb latch at
the upper end of the lifting lever works a rod connected with a
spiral spring, and permits a bolt to enter the notches, by which
the teeth are raised out of the ground.

A convenient seat for the driver, resting on a steel spring, is
seen in the figure. An arm projecting laterally can be bolted to
the end of either of the curved levers, by which the number of
plow or cultivator teeth can be increased at pleasure.

The machine is also provided with a steering apparatus. An
iron bar is bolted to the under side of the axle, having a circular
disk in the center, in which is a circular slot. The pin of the
tongue is inserted in the slot, but is fastened by a bolt kept in
place by a spiral spring. When the spring is raised by a lever
the tono-ue has a motion of rotation to the extent of the circular
slots. An iron bar 1 foot 4 inches long projects from the tongue
on each side, and a chain passes from either end of it to the ends
of the under bar. A lever can therefore change the angle of the
tongue with the axle at pleasure. The machine was tried in all
the operations that it professed to perform, although we could
only consider it officially as a cultivator.

It first operated as a seed-sower, scattering rye very evenly,
and covering it with four plows running shallow and turning the
earth all one way. Next it worked with seven cultivator teeth,
throwing the earth in opposite directions. It cultivated two rows
of corn, one plow on each side throwing earth towards the corn
and one throwing it away from it. Again, all the plows threw
earth towards the corn, and then both threw it away from it.

Report of tee Judges. 259

The changes to accomplish these different o])jects can be made
very easily; in no case did it require more than six minutes for
that purpose. It did all the work, and went through all the tests
to which it was subjected in a very perfect manner. It worked
close to the corn rows, and, by means of the steering apparatus,
it could be made to move around a hill or a sing-le stalk which
happened to stand out of line, without injuring it or touching it.
It destroyed the weeds very satisfactorily, and it was tested in as
weedy a j)atch and as tough a soil as we ever saw. It pulverized
the soil as well as could be desired. The only fault that we
noticed in the whole course of the protracted trial which we gave
to it was that, in some very bad places, it clogged somewhat. It
is very strong in all its parts, and we think it is not liable to get
out of order. The material is very skillfully distributed, the
greatest amount of material being distributed to the parts where
the strain is greatest.

AVe award the gold medal to this machine in the second section
of the first class.

Class II — For Mellowing Soil and Killing Weeds.

Ford & Howe, of Oneonta, N. Y., entered for this section of
Class 11. Weight, 480 pounds. Price, $G0.

The drawing, Fig. 128, will give a very clear idea of its con-
struction. The evener A B swings on the under side of the
tongue, from the evener iron bars run backward diagonally to
a little beyond the middle of the bars of the frame from which
the cultivator teeth are suspended; hence, although the horses
are hooked to the end of these bars, neither horse can pull more
than another, their action being equalized by the evener as in the
common whiffietree. It will be seen that a brace runs forward
from about the middle of each shank of the tooth, and bolts into
the bars of the frame. There are several holes pierced through
these bars near the lower end; by changing the pins through
these bolts a greater or less angle can be given to the plane of
the teeth as they enter the ground. The tongue has an opening
in the middle, from D to E, which enables the driver more easily
to strike a straight line. It can rotate from right to left around
the pin C. There is a friction wheel on the under side of the
tono-ue, which rolls on the iron arc G. The driver, seated in the
chair, with a foot on each of the outer bars, carries himself to the

260

Report on Trials of Plows.

Report of the Judges. 261

right or the left, as he chooses; he thus turns the machine at his
pleasure, and avoids any plant which may stand out of the line.
By means of a crank not seen in the iigure, the teeth may be
entirely lifted out of the ground or made to run deeper or shal-
lower. By drawing out the pin at E, the tongue may be turned on
the other pin as pivot. By this arrangement it is stowed away
when not in use with much econoni}^ of space. The blades of the
teeth may be turned from the right to the left so as to throw the
earth either to or trom the corn. Where used as a gang plow,
three beams and three rows of teeth are used; for cultivating in
corn only two sets are employed. It does its work extremely
well, and the only objection to it that we observed is that it
takes considerable time to make the changes, viz.: twenty min-
utes to change it from a gang plow to a corn cultivator, and
twelve minutes to change the angle of the teeth so as to throw
earth to the corn when it had been throwing it away from it.
We award it a gold medal in this section of the class.

In the second section of Class II, William H. Burtis k Co.,
Maltaville, Saratoga county, entered McQueston's Improved Cul-
tivator.

This implement will be understood by an inspection of the
annexed Fig. 129, without any further description. Weight, 100
pounds. Price, $35.

It will be observed that the point of each spade has a horizon-
tal range of nine inches on the diagonal rod which passes through
the shank just above the base of the spade. Each of the beams
to which the spades are attached work freely on a centre at the
front end, which enables the attendant to raise out of the ground
or press them into it at pleasure; they also have a lateral range
of a complete semicircle. The wrought iron arch in front is two
inches wide and one-half an inch thick. The wheels are of cast
iron, 14 inches in diameter by 2 inches wide. The shovels are
of steel, 5 1 inches wide and 10 inches long. The work was well
done in all places where it was tried; it stirred the soil to a
depth of 6 inches, which was about 1^ inches deeper than any
of the others. It never was observed to clog. It has one
peculiarity in which it differs from all the others, which we must
confess we do not quite understand — it leaves the grass and weeds
on the top of the ground without burying them, while all the
others bury them. The greatest objection to it is that it makes

262

Report on Trials of Plows.

very hard work for the attendant. Where a machhie is desired
to be regulated by handles and without permitting the attendant

to ride, this machine can be confidently recommended. We
•iward the ffold medal to this section of the class.

JOHN STANTON GOULD,
ELISHA R. POTTER,
PETER CRISPELL, Jr.,
HENRY WATERMAN,

B. P. JOHNSON,
SANFORD HOWARD,
JOSEPH McGRAW.

Note.— Mr. Conger was not present at the trial. Mr. Geddes was only present for a
single day, and took no part in the decision. Prof. Pierce declines to have his name
appended to the report, as he does not concur in some of its statements.

EEPOET OF THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE

ON THE

SUPPLEMENTARY PLOW TRIALS,

Held at Brattleboro', June 2, 3 and 4, 1868.

The Executive Committee of the New York State Ao-ricultiiral
Society, having been informed by the report of the judges of the
plow trial instituted by the Society at Utica, last year, that, from
accidental circumstances, they were unable to complete the trials
necessary to ascertain the facts in relation to the plow and its
working, which were of great importance to the plow-wright and
the farmer, it appointed a special committee, consisting of the
chairman of the board of judges and the consulting engineer of
the Society, who were requested to complete the trials at such
time and place as they might deem most desirable in order to
obtain correct results.

In pursuance of this appointment, they fixed on Brattleboro',
Vermont, as the place, and June 2, 1868, as the time for obtaining
the supplementary tacts which were necessary to the completion
of the plow report.

The points upon which we endeavored to obtain light were the
following:

I. What is the inbrease of power required for each successive

inch of depth in plowing ?
II. What is the increase of power required for each successive
inch of width in plowing ?

III. What is the increase of power required when the furrow

slice remains of the same size for each successive
increment of velocity ?

IV. What proportion of the total amount of power consumed

in plowing is absorbed by the dilferent parts of the
plow, viz., the land side, the share, the mould-board?
V. What is the influence of the coulter on draught?

264 Report of the Special Coiimjttee.

VI. Does the skim-plow consume more or less power than the

coulter ?
VII. What is the elasticity of cliiFerent soils ?
VITL. What is the influence of the wheel on draught ?
IX. What is the influence of the plowman on draught ?

We had ascertained by previous trials that one furrow varied
very greatly in tenacity from another lying closely contiguous to
it, and this difference was so great that it sometimes required a
force of three hundred pounds to overcome it.

It was, therefore, in our judgment, of great importance to
obtain a piece of land for the trials as homogeneous as possible
in its texture and as free from local obstacles, such as stumps,
stones and roots, as could be obtained. In order to guard against
interruptions from continuous rainy weather, it was desirable to
select land which drained easily and rapidly. The lands on the
Connecticut river, near Brattleboro', met these conditions more
nearly than any others with which we were acquainted, and the
trial was accordingly appointed for that locality.

The plowing was done on the meadow belonging to the Brattle-
boro' Lunatic Asylum, which lies about ten feet above the summer
level of the Connecticut river, but w^hich is often entirely covered
by the spring floods. The soil is a sandy loam, somewhat stiffer
than is usual in that class of lands, and very full of micaceous
scales. It has been in sod for twelve years past; the grass, which
was chiefly blue grass, poa pixdensis, was very thick upon the
ground, and the roots were tough and thick. In some of the
furrows there were found thick masses of quack roots {Triticmn
repens); in others there was a great deal of hardback (jSpircea
tomentosa)] in some others, both kinds of roots were combined.
Although the general appearance of the meadow was level, yet it
was nevertheless considerably rolling, and it was found that there
was considerable difference in the draught of the furrows which
were turned so as to fall down hill or up hill.

As examples of the differences thus caused, we refer to the
seventy-second experiment, where the furrow was turned down
hill, and the seventy-third, where it was turned up hill; the
difference in draught being 76 pounds in favor of the down-hill
furrow. The same result is also exhibited in the seventh-sixth
and seventy-seventh experiments, where the difference was 96
pounds. The difference between the seventy-fourth and seventy-

Supplementary Plow Trials.

265

fifth experiments was 136 pounds, which was caused by the
seventy-fifth being turned up hill, and also to the roots of the
hardback, which varied from one-eighth to three-eighths of an inch
in diameter. The soil was very moist from recent copious rains.

Governor F. Holbrook was kind enough to procure for us the
various plows, with the necessary adjustments required for the
trial; and also, at our request, negotiated for the use of the land
and for the the teams and assistants.

We obtained the assistance of Mr. Henry Brooks, of Concord,
well known as a very skillful plowman, and his services as such
were perfectly satisfactory.

Governor Holbrook, of Vermont; Governor Brown, of Massa-
chusetts, and Mr. Joel Nourse, of Boston, the inventor of the
well known Eagle plow, were present with us at all the trials,
and their advice and assistance were of great value. Mr. G.
Tucker, of the Country Gentleman, was also with us during the
whole time.

We began our experiments with two horses, but finding it
difficult to preserve a perfectly uniform breadth of furrow, owing
to the irregularity of their walking, we used four horses, walking
in pairs, so that the irregular walk of one team compensated for
the irregularity of the other. Finding that four horses made the
experiments so much more satisfactory, we continued the use of
them throughout.

I. Experiments to determine the increase of power required
for each successive inch of depth in plowing with

Holbrook'' s Swivel Plow, JSTo. 4:

c

to

S

a>

o
6

<o

Width of furrow,
inches.

03

o
1

P

REMARKS.

1

2
3
4
5

6i

7
7
7
1\

13i

131
13i
13i
13^

494
611

557
575

584

5 This was probably a mis-readina; of the dynamometer,
\ and is rejected in making up the averages.

^ Average of third and fourth experiments,with a furrow
\ slice of the same size, 566 pounds.

266

Report of the Special Coiimpitee.

Holbrookes Sivivel Plow, JSfo. 4 (Continued).

■^

•73
O

a

KEMARKS.

9
10

^11

tl2

tl3
14

11

14

15
15

12
13

13

13

13
13

634

641
660

482
457

582

504

505
501

{The average of the fifth and sixth experiments is 609
pounds. Although the sixth is half an inch wider
than the fifth, the excess is chiefly due to the turn-
ing of the furrow up hill in the sixth.
^ Average of the seventh and eighth experiments, 651
\ pounds.

{Average of the ninth and tenth experiments, 469
pounds. The excess of draught of the ninth over
the tenth was due to old bones which lay in the
bottom of the furrow.
{The work without the coulter was very poor; the
furrow slice was torn and jagged ; the furrows did
not lap well ; the grass was ill covered, and the
pulverization was imperfect.

Work good in all respects.

( Average of thirteenth and fourteenth experiments,
( 5025 pounds.

* The coulter was here removed, and the plow was worked, cutting the sod with the
shin.

\ The coulter was here replaced, but was set so that it only penetrated one inch into
the soil.

% The coulter was here brought down within three inches of the sole of the plow.

.This plow made the best pulverization at a depth of seven
inches. It was slightly worse at eight inches; but at depths greater
or less than these the inferiority of its work was very marked.

The average depth of the first ten experiments was 7.05 inches;
the average breadth of the first ten experiments was 13.65 inches;
the average draught of the first ten experiments was 565 pounds.

This average draught of all the trials agrees within one pound
with the average draught of the third and fourth experiments,
which correspond with it in the size of the furrow slice.
Recwpitulation of Averages.

Inches.

Inches.

Pounds.

Differences, pounds.

6

12^

469

..

6^

131

494

25

7

13^

566

72

1\

131

609

43

8

15

651

42

Supplementary Plow Trials.

267

The average difference of draught for each half inch of depth
is 45.5 pounds, or 91 pounds to each inch. The accuracy of this
average is somewhat impaired by the fact that there is a difference
in the breadth of the furrows, the extremes being 2| inches apart.

We next began a series of experiments to determine the rates
of draught to depth with Holbrook's Plow No. 69, with a coulter
and sod mould-board:

C
3
O

a

3

REMARKS.

15

16
17

18
19
20
21

22
23
24
25
26
27

28
29

30
31

32
33

34
35
36
37

10
10
10
10

10^
lOi
11
11

16
16
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18

18
18

18
18
18
18

18
18
18

*118
*107
* 99
647
594
540
551
558
618
626
603
603
578

744
791

800
871
755
734

876
1,215

976
1,080

Average of fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth experi-
ments, 108 pounds.

Average of eighteenth and nineteenth experiments,
621 pounds.

Average of twentieth and twenty-first experiments,
5455 pounds.

Average of twenty-second and twenty-third experi-
ments, 588 pounds.

Average of twenty-fourth, twenty-fifth, twenty-sixth
and twenty-seventh experiments, 601 pounds.

A-verage of twenty-eighth and twenty-ninth experi-
ments, 767 pounds. In the twenty-ninth, the
coulter obstructed by quack roots.

In the thirtieth experiment the coulter obstructed by
hardback roots; in the thirty-first the coulter
obstructed by quack and hardback roots. Average
of thirtieth, thirty-first, thirty-second and thirty-
third experiments, 790 pounds.

Average of thirty-fourth, thirty-fifth, thirty-sixth,
and thirty-seventh experiments, 1,012 pounds.
This great draught was caused by the blunt shank
and knee of the coulter running into the sod
at this depth. They are retained in the table as
instructive illustrations of the effect of a blunt
coulter, but are rejected in making up the averages,
which are taken from the eighteenth to the thirty-
third experiments, both inclusive.

* Surface draught.

Average depth from eighteenth to thirty-third experiment.s,
7.94 inches; average width, 17.80 inches; average draught, 663
pounds; average prism, 141.33 square inches. Average prism
from twenty-fourth to twenty-seventh experiments, 144 square
inches; average draught, 601 pounds.

268

Report of the Special Committee.

In this series, with Plow No. 69, the average draught of the
whole series exceeds the average draught of the series of experi-
ments which agree with it in the size of the furrow slice by 62
pounds. (Experiments twenty-four, twenty-five, twenty-six and
twenty-seven, eight inches deep and eighteen inches wide.)

Recapitulation of Experiments ivith Plow No. 69.

Average depth,

Average width,

Average draug't

Difference,

Size of prism,

of furrow,

of furrow,

in pounds.

pounds.

square inches.

inches.

inches.

5^

16

621

88

6

18

545^

75i

108

7

18

588

421

126

8

18

601

13

144

9

18

767

166

162

10

18

790

23

180

Surfa

;e draught, 108 po

unds.

The average difference in the draught of each inch in depth was
61 pounds. The excess of 75^ pounds of draught in the furrow
of 88 square inches over the furrow with 108 square inches is
anomalous, and was caused either by an error in reading of the
dynamometer indication or by some local obstruction. The
{j,nomaly did not appear until the indications were computed, and
it was then too late to ascertain the cause of it. This difierence
was not, therefore, included in the average of 61 pounds.

The next set of experiments to determine the rates of draught
to depth was made with Holbrook's Plow No. 65, the coulter
being adjusted to lay Jlat furrows:

^

^

■73

a

o

o

O

3 W

,3 M

A

o

« a>

■si

REMARKS.

««

.^ "*

rd-'^

^

o

-tj

-*-»

s

Oi

c«

o

P

^

u
P

38

%77

39

n

324

> Average of thirty-ninth and fortieth experiments,

40

2h

328

5 326 pounds.

41

u

404

} Average of forty-first and forty-second experiments,
\ 398 pounds.

42

•sk

392

43

H

459

> Average of forty-third and forty-fourth experiments,

44

^k

419

3 439 pounds.

Surface draught.

Supplementary Plow Trials.

269

-4J

a

^
2

to

O

o

O O

o o

'- .9

a,

.9
-1-3

fn

REMARKS

O

■*^

3

p^

o3

12;

fi

^

P

/

45

51

451

)

46

5^

463

( Average of forty-fifth, forty-sixth, forty-seventh

47

5^

428

r and forty-eighth experiments, 443 pounds.

48

5^

424

49
SO

7
7
7

520

r Average of forty-ninth, fiftieth and fifty-first

51

512

t experiments, 512 pounds.

52

8

574

)

53

8

545

f Average of fifty-second, fifty-third, fifty-fourth

54

8

564

( and fifty-fifth experiments, 552 pounds.

55

8

528

)

Average depth from thirty-ninth to fifty-fifth experiments, both
inclusive, 5.64 inches; average width from thirty-ninth to fifty-
fifth experiment, both incbisive, 11 inches; average draught
from thirty-ninth to fifty-fifth experiments, both inclusive, 463
pounds.

The average draught of the whole series of experiments
exceeds the average of the forty-fifth, forty-sixth, forty-seventh
and forty-eighth experiments, which agree most nearly with it in
the size of the furrow slice, by 20 pounds.

Recapitulation of Experiments with Plow No. 65 — Flat furrow.

Depth of fur-

Width of fur-

Draught in

Difference,

Size of prism,

row, inches.

row, inches.

pounds.

pounds.

square inches.

, .

, ,

*77

....

21

326

••

27.5

3i

398

72

38.5

4^

439

41

49.5 (

5^

443

4

60.5

7

512

69

77

8

552

40

88

* Surface draught.

The average difi'erence in the draught of each inch in depth
was 45.20 pounds.

Experiments to determine the rates of draught to depth made
with Holbrook's Plow No. 65. with a coulter adjusted to lap
furrows:

270

Report of the Special Committee.

o
%^ •

3 CO

o

u

e3 CO

o

PL,

cU

Cm 4)

a

t--^

^•S^

^<

^ «

O "

-1^

w

"l C

A

<^

,ri "^

A •'^

ha

o

3

s

54

p

*56

8

485

*57

8

520

*58

8

557

*59

8

558

t60

8

515

t61

8

509

62

8

452

63

8

458

64

8

444

65

8

459

::66

7

10

384

::67

7

10

460

68

7

10

370

69

7

10

420

70

7

10

390

71

7

10

379

REMARKS

The furrow was not of full width ; not averaged.

Average of fifty-seventh, fifty-eighth and fifty-
ninth experiments, 545 pounds.

Average of sixtieth and sixty-first experiments,
512 pounds.

Average of sixty-second, sixty-third, sixty-fourth
and sixty-fifth experiments, 453 pounds.

Average of sixty-sixth and sixty-seventh experi-
ments, 422 pounds.

Average of sixty-eighth, sixty-ninth, seventieth
and seventy-first experiments, 389 pounds.

*0n examining the plow after it had been used in these four experiments, it was
found that the coulter was excessively dull ; it was, in fact, an unfinished one which
had been put in inadvertently when the change was made for a lap furrow. A sharp
coulter was then inserted.

•f The coulter in these two experiments was very badly choaked with roots which
collected across its edge. To remedy this the rake was very considerably increased.

% It was found that the coulter, in these two experiments, had slipped down so as to
loose the extra rake which had been given to it, and the grass roots again gathered ou
its edge. More rake was then given to it.

The difference between plowing seven inches or eight inches
deep, according to these experiments, is 64 pounds. The same
plow showed a difference between seven inches and eight inches,
when turning a flat furrow, of 40 pounds. (Experiments forty-nine
to fifty-five.)

Experiments to determine the rates of draught to depth with
Holbrook's Sod and Subsoil Plow No. 69, with a stubble mould-
board and a skim plow attached to the front of the beam:

The skim plow turned a furrow two and a half inches deep in
all cases; the remainder of the furrow slice was turned by the
main plow.

The column headed "Depth of furrow" indicates the whole
depth turned by the skim and the main plow.

The point of the skim plow was eleven inches in advance of
the point of the main plow.

Supplementary Plow Trials.

271

.§

2

3 CO

2

Si .

,3 m

-a
a

=3

o
a.

OJ

«C a>

&4

-ot

,S

REMARKS

o

p.

5""

c3

125

fl

^

«

72

9

12

621

> Average of seventy-second and seventy-third experi-

/3

9

12

697

5 nients, 659 pounds.

*74

10

12

733

> Average of seventy-fourth and seventy-fifth experi-

*/5

10

12

869

\ ments, 801 pounds.

76

11

12

800

) Average of seventy-sixth and seventy-seventh exper-

*/;

11

12

896

5 iments, 848 pounds.

78

12

12

947

> Average of seventy -eighth and seventy-ninth experi-

/y

12

12

1,003

\ ments, 990 pounds.

80

13

12

1,012

> Average of eightieth and eighty-first experiments,

8i

13

12

1,082

5 1,047 pounds.

182

14

12

966

\ Average of eighty-second and eighty-third experi-

83

14

12

1,143

5 ments, 1,054 pounds.

* Many stones in the bottom of furrow. ] This was not quite full depth.

Average depth from seventy-second to eighty-third experiments,
11.5 inches; average width. 12 inches; average draught, 897
pounds.

The average draught of the whole series of experiments falls
below the mean of 11 and 12 inches, which corresponds with it
in size, 21 pounds.

Recapitulation of Experiments with Sod and Subsoil Ploiv.

Depth of fur-

Width of fur-

Draught in

Difference,

Size of prism.

Yow, inches.

row, inches.

pounds.

pounds.

square inches.

9

12

659

. .

108

10

12

801

142

120

11

12

848

47

132

12

12

990

42

144

13

12

1,047

57

156

14

12

1,054

7

168

The average difference in the draught of each inch in depth
was 59 pounds.

The work of this plow at all depths was very perfect; the
ground was thoroughly pulverized; the vegetation was perfectly
buried, and the surface was left smooth and level as a garden.
There can be no doubt that the work was much l)etter done than
it could have been done by a spade.

272 Report of thr Special Committee.

In making these experiments, several things interesting to the
practical plowman were very fully exemplified:

1. The unequal tenacity of the soil. The plowing was round
a centre back furrow. As the land grew wider the furrows, of
course, receded farther from each other. While testing the sod
and subsoil plow (seventy-second to eighty-third experiments),
one of the furrows ran for half its length through a sandy soil,
while the other ran through a moist, tenacious loam. The even
numbers of the experiments mark the sandy furrows; the odd
numbers the tenacious loams. The average draught of the loamy
furrows is 102 pounds greater than the sandy furrows.

2. The im.poiiance of a proper adjustment of the several parts of
the plow. The draught as indicated in all the tables given above
is much heavier than it would have been if one uniform depth
and width of furrow had been adhered to throughout. The
change from one sized furrow to another, of course, involved a
change in the adjustment of the plow, and this was not always
ascertained on the first or even on the second trial. When this
was not accurately done, the plowman exerted his strength at the
end of a long lever to counteract the effect of the maladjustment,
which was at once indicated by the index of the dynamometer,
sometimes to the extent of 150 pounds. Some of the experiments
were made by plowing two furrows, or once around; others by
four furrows, or twice around. In most cases the two last furrows
showed less draught than the two first, because the plow swam
more freely and required less interposition on the part of the
plowman. As examples of this, we refer to the forty-tifih and
forty-sixth experiments, showing an averaged draught of 457
pounds, and the two next furrows of the same size, which only
averaged 426 pounds, showing an advantage of draught amount-
ing to 31 pounds, arising from more perfect adjustment. In those
last furrows the plow ran for more than two-thirds of the distance
by itself, without a touch of the plowman's finger, and for the
remaining third his touch was the lightest possible. The same
thing is shown by a comparison of the sixty-second and sixty-
third with the sixty-fourth and sixty-fifth experiments, the latter
being 35 pounds lighter than the former, for the same reason.
The necessity of accurate adjustment was very clearly illustrated
in the action of plow No. Q^. We desired to adjust it for a
furrow 12 inches deep and 1(3 inches Avide, but Mr. Brooks,
though perfectly acquainted with the inq)l(Mni'nt, was utterly

Supplementary Plow Trials. 273

unablo to m:ike it take such a furrow; his utmost efforts couhl not
force it more thau eight inches into the ground, nor could it take
a furrow wider than twelve inches. More than two hours Avere
spent in trying to make it swim freely in the desired furrow, but
without success, although Gov. Holbrook and Mr. Nourse, both
eminent masters of the art of plowing, exerted all the resources
of their skill to make it work. We all knew that the plow would
work admirably in such a furrow, for Ave had seen it do it again
and again. We broke off our Avork for dinner, quite in despair
of being able to accomplish what we designed to do with that
ploAv. While sitting at dinner, it occurred to Mr. Nourse that
the difficulty might lie in the beam. Accordingly, on reassembling
in the field, after dinner, aa^c found that the Avorkman had care-
lessly set the beam out of its true direction, so that it turned from
land and out of the ground to such an extent that the clevis could
not afford vertical or lateral motion enough to correct it. These,
tendencies were then counteracted by an opposite adjustment of
the coulter to make it take more land, and by hooking the chain
into the Avheel guards to make it run deeper. We then had no
difficulty in performing the experiments from the fifteenth to the
thirty-seventh Avith relative correctness, although the absolute
draught was undoubtedly considerably greater thau it Avould haA'^e
been had the beam been in its right place.

3. The importance of skill in the 2>lowman ims also very clearly
manifested. This skill is desirable to hold the ploAv to advantage.
Delicacy and sensitiveness of touch are almost as much required
in ploAving as in line engraving. The ploAV manifests its inten-
tion to go astray to the sympathetic ploAvman before it actually
does so; a very slight, an almost inappreciable counter resistance
on his part, promptl3' applied, will check the Abolition of the ploAv
before it is manifested in action, but if the goldeu moment is lost,
it is gone forever. The volition is manifest in action, and an
unsightly alteration in the size of the furrow slice reveals the
ploAvman's awkAvardness to CA'^ery spectator. But the skill of the
ploAvman is not alone manifested in his manner of holding; it is
even more clearly shoAvn in his mode of tempering the ploAv. A
good ploAvman is never satisfied until his plow SAvims absolutely
free; he will not use any more of his own strength than is really
necessary, knowing as he does that, as his force is exerted through
levers, every pound of exertion which he uses reacts on the horses
with a tenfold force. He will, therefore, alter his adjustments,

18

274 Report of the Special Committee.

if need bo, twenty times until this result is fully accomplished
When the plow does not run level, but is frequently changed by
the plowman from one side to the other, the two sides of the
furrow slice will be found to be unequal in thiclniess, and, there-
fore, the soil of the thinner edge has been left undisturbed at the
bottom. We found in every case that the draught of the plow was
lightest when it was going smoothly and steadily by itself,
untouched by the plowman. It was really interesting to watch
its motions when running thus freely; if it encountered any obstacle
in the soil, which had a tendency to throw it out, it would turn
of its own accord to take more land, or if the obstacle directed it
inward, toward the land, it would turn to throw itself out; and
when it accomplished the object it would quietly settle down
again to its level and proper work. It was truly automatic in
its motions, but this was only so when the dift'erent parts were
adjusted with absolute accuracy, which can only be done by an
accom})lished plowman. Seeing these facts brought out so clearly
before our eyes, it was a cause of deep regret to us that the race
of finished plowman was rapidly running out in the State of New
York.

Our plows have been very greatly improved within the last
quarter of a century; but the sons of farmers who were in the
noon of their viffor at that time do not understand the art of
plowing as well as their fathers did. We think that the State
Agricultural Society could exert its great power for good in no
direction where it would be more beneficial to farmers than in
taking measures to stimulate a taste for good plowing among the
rising generation of farmers in New York. The growing class in
our State, who farm for pleasure as well as profit, might do much
to encourage this taste. If they would adcq^t a high standard of
plowing, and insist upon their workmen approximating closely
to it, rewarding the closest approximations to it by a suitable
pecuniary recompense, the fashion of good plowing would soon
spread. Just as the fa.shion of skating has produced an al)undance of
elegant skaters, and the fashion of ba^^e-ball playing has produced
an abundant crop of admirable batsmen, throwers and catchers,
so the fashion of good plowing would supply us with first-class
plowmen.

4. Hie actual results of the trial. These are shown in the fol-
lowing tables:

Supplementary Plow Trials.

275

Table shoiving the average depth and width of furrow, the average draught,
the average size of prism, and the average of the ivhole.

o

o

!-i

1=1

o

ounds
0 turn
einch.

PLOWS.

3 CO

eg

Oh

5

erof p
ired t
squar

M ■"'

^ -"^

£>D

o S

^ S.X5

PL,

'O

3

gS^

S o ee

a>

^

^

2 M

S ^ <X>

P

P

03

^

Swivel No 4

7.05

7.94

5.65

11.50

13.65
17.80
11
12

505
663
463
897

96.23
141.33

62.15
138.00

5.87
4.69
7.45
6.50

No 69

No 65

Sod and Subsoil

Average ..• •

8.03

13.61

647

109.43

6.10

[a) We learn from this table that, with prisms varying very
much in size, the largest being nearly two and one half times
greater than the smallest, the power required for cutting and
turning a lap furrow is expressed by 6.10 pounds for each sec-
tional square inch of the furrow slice.

[b) We learn also that large furrow slices are turned with
more economy of power than smaller ones. The average power
required to turn the two smaller furrow slices of 79.19 square inches
was 6.66 pounds per square inch, while the power required to
turn the two larger ones of 139.66 square inches was 5.55 pounds,
or the smaller required 1.11 pounds more power than the former.
This result appears less favorably when considered with reference
to the average depth of the furrows than it does in relation to the
square inches. The two shallowest furrows average 6.35 inches in
depth, and require 80.94 pounds for each inch of depth. The
two deepest furrows average 9.72 inches in depth, and require
80.24 pounds for each inch of depth.

[c) The sod and subsoil plow seems to require more power
than it does when it is worked with a coulter. Considered with
reference to the sectional area of the slice, the sod and sul)SoiI
requires 6.50 pounds of power for each square inch, while it only
requires 4.69 pounds per square inch when used with the coulter.
Considered with reference to the depth, each inch of the sod and
subsoil requires 78.00 pounds of power, while with the coulter it
requires 83.50 pounds, showing a greater expense of power in the
sod and subsoil plow of 1.81 pounds for each square inch of sec-
tional area, and 5.50 pounds less power for each inch in depth.

276 Report of the Special Committee.

(d) No. 69 requires 1.18 pounds less power for each square
inch of sectional area than the swivel and 2.14 pounds less for
each inch in depth. The swivel consumes 80.14 pounds and No.
69 consumes 78.00 pounds of power for each inch of depth.

(e) No. 65 consumes 0.95 pounds more of power for each square
inch of sectional area of furrow than the sod and subsoil plow, and
3.94 pounds more for each inch of depth. No. 65 consumes 81.94
pounds, and the sod and subsoil 78.00 pounds for each inch of depth.

In order to afford the means of comparison, we here insert some
of the results arrived at by Mr. Pusey and Mr. Morton, which
are given in full in the report on the trials of plows at Utica, in
September, 1867:

The average draught of Mr. Pusey's first four furrows of 5, 6,
7 and 8 inches deep was 53.84 pounds for each inch in depth.
The average draught of his last four furrows, 9, 10, 11 and 12
inches deep, was 57 pounds for each inch in depth. In both cases
the furrow Avas nine inches wide.

In Mr. Morton's experiments the shallower furrovv^s showed an
average draught of 85.40 pounds for each inch in depth; the
deeper ones averaged 94.62 pounds; the furrow in both cases was
nine inches.

The power required in Mr. Pusey's experiments for each square
inch of average sectional area of the furrow slice in the four
shalloAvest furrows was 5.98 pounds; the four deepest furrows
required 6.33 pounds.

In Mr. Morton's, each square inch of sectional area in the
shallowest furrows required 9.49 pounds, and for the deepest
10.51 pounds.

The experiments of Messrs. Pusey and Morton agree in making
the power required to turn each square inch of the sectional area
greater in deep than in shallow furrows, the excess, according to
Mr. Pusey, being six per cent, and according to Mr. Morton it is
ten per cent. According to our experiments it is seventeen per
cent less. Ours were made with different ploAvs, while each of
theirs was made with the same plow, which may partly account
for the discrepancy. But the practical point is very clear, from
all the experiments, that the power required for deep plowing is
not materially greater in proportion to the work done. A furrow
twelve inches deep can be plowed with about twice as much power
as a furrow six inches deep. The actual power consumed by
each successive inch in depth was, aecoi'ding to the average of

8UPPLE3IENTARY PlOW. TRIALS.

277

our experiments for all the plows, 64.05 pounds. Accordino; to
Mr. Pusey's experiments the ditference for each inch was 63.33
pounds. According to Mr. Morton's, the ditference was 86.66
pounds.

II. What is the increase of power required for each successive
inch of width in plowing ?

We answer this question by the following table, showing the
result of experiments made for the purpose with Holbrook's Plow
No. 65. The coulter was set with its point two inches above the
sole of the plow. We began with the narrowest furrow, working
gradually wider. All the furrows were intended to be seven
inches deep, and all were so except the eighty-fourth, which was
six inches deep:

.a

o

so

'^

(3

d
o

_g

oX)

03

'i^

^

ft

*84

8

363

*85

8

415

*86

8

467

*87

9

438

*88

9

453

89

16

525

90

16

519

91

15

509

92

15

504

193

14

513

94

14

485

95

13

. 453

96

13

455

97

12

451

98

12

458

99

10

454

100

10

459

101

8

421

102

8

389

REMARKS

Average of eighty-fifth and eighty-sixth experiments, 441

pounds.
Average of eighty-seventh and eigthy-eighth experiments,

443 pounds.
Average of eighty-ninth and ninetieth experiments, 522

pounds.
Average of ninety-first and ninety-second experiments,

496 pound-s.
Average of ninety-third and ninety-fourth experiments,

499 pounds.
Average of ninety-fifth and ninety-sixth experiments, 454

pounds.
Average of ninety-seventh and ninety-eighth experiments,

454 pounds.
Average of ninety-ninth and one hundredth experiments,

456 pounds.
Average of one hundred and first and one hundred and

second experiment, 405 pounds.

* These experiments made it evident that the plow was working unnaturally. Each
successive furrow was wider than the next succeeding one; the sole of the plow was
therefore wedged hy the shoulder thus formed, and required more power than it would
if the channel on the right hand had been free. We, therefore, concluded to begin
with the widest furrow and work down to the narrowest. The coulter was set flush
with the land side.

f Stones in the bottom of the furrow.

X At this point we set the point of the coulter one-quarter of an inch in from the
land side.

278

Report of the Special Committee.

The average width of the furrows from the eighty-ninth to one
hundred and second experiment was 12.57 inches; the average
drauglit was 469 pounds; the average increase of draught for each
inch is 19^ pounds.

Recapitulation.

Width of fur-
row, inches.

Draught in
pounds.

Difference,
pounds.

Size of prism,
square inches.

Draught of each square
inch of sectional area,
in pounds.

16

522

112

4.64

15

496

26

105

4.72

14

499

3 +

98

5.09

13

454

45

91

4.99

12

454

, ,

84

5.40

10

456

24-

70

6.51

8

405

51

56

7.30

It will be observed that the draught required for each square
inch of sectional area increases as the size of the area diminishes.
This accounts for the greater amount of draught of this plow, as
shown in the table on pages 268, 269.

III. What is the increase of power required when the furrow
slice remains of the same size for each successive increment of
velocity ?

We endeavored to answer this question by the following experi-
ments made with Holbrook's Plow No. 65, cutting a furrow seven
inches deep and fourteen inches wide:

No. of ex-
periment.

Seconds.

Yards.

Pounds.

AVERAGE.

Seconds.

Yards.

Pounds.

103....
104....
105....
106....
107....
108....

96
125
57
58
25
26

76
76
75
73
68
68

450
519
480
520
685
676

110
57^

251

76
74

68

484i
500

680*

In order to facilitate a comparison of our experiments with
those of Mr. Pusey, which are given in the report on ploAvs, we
give the following table, in which the preceding experiments are
repeated in another form:

Supplementary Plow Trials.

279

Rate of going per
hour.

Time required to plow
an acre.

Draught of plow.

l^^jj miles.

9 67 "
K 4 5 u

4 hours, 25 minutes.
2 " 39
1 " 18

484| pounds.

500

680

It appears from the foregoing that, when the speed on the
second trial was very nearly doubled, the draught was only
increased 15i pounds, which was probably due to inequalities in
the soil; and when, in the third trial, the speed was again more than
doubled, the draught was only increased 180 pounds. It may be
considered as fully settled that velocity has very little influence
on draught. The last experiment does, indeed, show that the
draught was somewhat increased, and this was also the case in the
experiments of Messrs. Morton and Pusey; but the cause of this
increase was very apparent in our trials; and we have no doubt
that it was also the case in theirs. When the speed rose to
five and one-half miles an hour (nearly), the soil was thrown
upwards thirty inches high, and laterally four feet, so that four
of the preceding furrows were covered with pulverized earth. It
was this upward and lateral throw of the earth which consumed
the 180 pounds of power. So long as the speed is not increased
to the point where the earth is thrown upward and laterally, we
think it is demonstrated beyond all possibility of doubt that the
power required in plowing is not increased by an increase of
speed.

IV. What proportion of the total amount of power consumed
in plowing is absorbed by the dilferent parts of the plow, viz.,
the sole, the land side, the share, the mould board ?

Exjieriment JVb. 38. — The surface draught of No. 65 (weight,
130 pounds) was 78 pounds.

Experiment iVb. 15. — The surface draught of No. 69 (weight,
140 pounds) was 118 pounds.

The greater surface draught of the latter was probably owing
to the greater breadth of the sole, measured from the laud side
to the angle of the feather.

The average draught of No. 65, plowing seven inches deep, as
shown in experiments Nos. 49, 50 and 51, was 512 pounds.

280 Report of the Special Coiimittee.

The mould-board was removed from No. 65, and the plow was
made to run seven inches deep, with the following results:

No. of ex-
periments.

Draught,
pounds.

REMARKS

109

110

478
485

) Average of one hundred and ninth and one hundred
3 tenth experiments, 482 pounds.

The consumption of power by the mould-board would thus
appear to be 482 — 512 := 30 pounds, or 5,8 per cent, of the whole
amount; the consumption by the sole, 14.5 per cent of the whole
amount.

In Mr. Morton's experiments, 10 per cent of the whole power
was consumed in turning the furrow, which is very small, but 4.2
per cent less than our experiments would indicate. In Mr. Pusey's
experiments, 50 per cent of the power was consumed in what he
calls surface draught; but it must be observed that this was
obtained by running the plow through an empty furrow, and
embraces the friction of the land side as well as of the sole, whereas
ours was obtained by simply allowing the plow to run over the
top of the ground, and we therefore obtained the friction of the
sole without being complicated by the land side.

The plows which we used were so constructed that the land
side could not be detached from the share, and we were, there-
fore, unable to determine the power required by the land side
and the share separately.

The power required to draw the plow through a furrow seven
inches deep was, as we have seen, 512 pounds. Power absorbed
by the sole, 77 pounds; power absorbed by the mould-board, 30
pounds. Now, if we assume with Mr. Pusey, that the sole and
land side together consume 50 per cent of the whole power, then
50 — 1.45 = 35.5 per cent, which is absorbed by the land side;
therefore, the poAver consumed by the land side is 179 pounds,
leaving for the power required for share and coulter 226 pounds.

V. What is the influence of the coulter on draught ?

Mr. Stephens has stated the result of a very remarkable experi-
ment tried by him to ascertain the influence of the coulter upon
the draught. He adjusted a plow Avith a coulter which projected
seven inches beloAv the sole of the ploAv, and having adjusted the
hook of the Avhitfle-trees in the l)ridle, so that the sole would

Supplementary Plow Trials. 281

swim freely on the surface without any tendency to dip into the
ground, he proceeded to measure the surface draught and the
cutting action of the coulter seven inches beneath the surface of
the ground. The draught in this case was 3(34 pounds. The
draught when the coulter was removed and the plow was drawn
over the surface of the ground was 112 pounds, which, being
deducted from the whole draught, leaves 252 pounds as the
draught of the coulter. Mr. Stephens further states, that a well
trimmed plow, turning a furrow seven inches deep and ten inches
broad, was at Avork in the same field, the draught of which was
.only 364 pounds. The same plow, after the coulter was removed,
was put to plow a furrow seven inches by ten inches, and its
draught was also 364 pounds. It Avould, therefore, appear from
this experiment that the surface draught, and the coulter running
seven inches into the ground, required as much power as it does to
turn a complete furrow seven inches by ten inches.

Expermient iVo. 111. — We desired to verify this experiment,
and we accordingly affixed a coulter which had been specially
prepared for the purpose to No. 65, so that it projected six inches
below the sole. The bridle of the plow was not long enough to
enable us to bring it into proper trim, so as to prevent it from
running into the ground, but finally, by attaching a chain to the
guides of the wheel it worked very satisfactorily. The draught
(including the surface draught) was 296 pounds; deducting the
surface draught, which is 77 pounds, we have 219 pounds for the
power consumed by the coulter, which is 33 pounds less than Mr.
Stephens found; but as his coulter ran one inch deeper than ours,
and would therefore necessarily consume more power, the agree-
ment is quite as close as could be expected.

Experiment JSfo. 112. — We then removed the coulter, and
plowed a furrow six inches deep and eleven inches wide. The
draft was now 417 pounds, or 121 pounds more than was required
for the surface draught of the plow, and to cut six inches into the
ground.

In order to complete this experiment on the influence of the
coulter, we should have plowed a few furrows of the same size,
with the coulter adjusted in the ordinary way; but the importance
of the experiment escaped our attention at the moment.

Experiment JSfo. 113. — We thought of it afterwards, and tried
the experiment, but we were at that time plowing in a denser soil,
and the comparison was, therefore, not exact. The draught in the

282 Report of the Special Committee.

soil where we tried it w^as 443 pounds, or 26 pounds more than it

was without a coulter. We record the experiment exactly as it

was made, leaving each one to draw his own conclusions; but, in our

judgment, although the use of a coulter in sod ground makes much

better work, it does not have much effect on the draught in any way.

This opinion must, however, be modified with respect to the

swivel plows, which evidently worked much more easily with a

coulter, as appears by comparing the results of experiments Nos.

9' 10 and 11: p,„„^^

Experiments Nos. 9 and 10 469

Experiment No. 11 582

Difference in favor of coulter 113

It does not appear from our experiments that the depth of the
coulter in the soil, so long as it does not run below the sole of the
plow, affects the draught. (See experiments Nos. 12, 13 and 14.)
But, if the coulter is used, our experiments show very decidedly
that much depends upon its being in a proper condition. On
comparing the average of the fifty-sixth, fifty-seventh and fifty-
eighth experiments (545 pounds) with the average of the sixtieth
aiid sixty-first (512 pounds), it will be seen that 33 pounds were
saved by the use of a sharp coulter.

It was not found that the rake of the coulter made any material
difference when plowing among fibrous roots, but it became neces-
sary to give it more rake when plowing among rhizomes^ such as
quack roots. This fact was well exemplified in experiments sixty
and sixty-one (512 pounds). The rake was then increased very
considerably in experiments sixty-two to sixty-five (452 pounds),
showing a reduction in power of 59 pounds. On examining the
edge of the cutter it was found that there was a rough wire edge
on it, and it was then rubbed down smooth with a scythe-stone,
and the draught fell, in the sixty-sixth and sixty-seventh experi-
ments, to 422 pounds. It was then found that the coulter had
slipped and lost most of the rake that had been given to it during
the last two experiments. It was again adjusted properly, and
from the sixty-eighth to the seventy-first experiment the draught
w^as 389 pounds. These experiments show a reduction in draught
of 156 pounds by putting the coulter in proper order.

VI. Does the skim plow consume more or less power than the
coulter ?

Supplementary Plow Trials. 283

Experiment jSfo. 114 — No. (59 was furnished with a coulter and
a stubble mould-board, the furrow being nine inches deep and
twelve inches wide. The draught of the plow, thus adjusted, was
729 pounds.

Experiment JSFo. 115. — The coulter was then withdrawn from
the plow, and a skim plow was placed on the beam and set to
work with a furrow of the same size; draught, 659 pounds, show-
ing a difference of 70 pounds in favor of the skim plow. These
experiments are believed to give a sufficient answer to the question.

VII. What is the elasticity of different soils ?

We did not try this experiment as fully as it deserves, as we
found it would require more time and expense to do so than we
could well afford; but we performed it carefully in different parts
of the same field, which differed considerably in consistency.

Experiment No. 116. — Eeferring to the report of the judges of
the Utica trial for the method of making it, we have to state that,
with a furrow eleven inches deep and sixteen inches broad, the
upper part of the slice in the most tenacious part of the field
would stretch seven and a half inches beyond the lower portion
before breaking; in the least tenacious part it would stretch tour
and three-quarter inches; and soils of intermediate tenacity would
stretch in proportion.

Experiment No. 117. — The stretch diminished according to the
shallowness of the furrow slice. At four inches deep it would
not stretch much more than an inch in the toughest part of the
field, and in the loosest part it would not much exceed half an
inch. At six inches deep it stretched two and a half inches, and
at eight inches deep, a little over three inches.

This great difterence in the elasticity of soils shows how impos-
sible it is to make any one plow which shall work equally well in
all soils. If it has a sufficient twist to break the least tenacious
soils, it will utterly fail to disintegrate those which are more
tenacious. If, on the other hand, it has enough sharpness of twist
to disintegrate the most tenacious soils, it will cause a great waste
of power when used in less tenacious soils. All that can be
reasonably asked of a plowmaker is that, a soil and depth of
furrow being given, he shall make a plow which will disintegrate
it most thoroughly with the least expenditure of power. It by
no means follows that it will be the best plow in any other
soil?

284 Report of the Special Cojlmittee.

VIII. What is the influence of the wheel on draught ?

We are ashamed to be obliged to state that we quite overlooked
this part of our programme, and are therefore unable to give an
experimental answer to this question.

IX. What is the influence of the plowman on draught ?

We have already answered this question incidentally in the
earlier portions of this report. In some cases, where he was
obliged to exert his force through a lever to counteract a tendency
to irregularity, in consequence of a maladjustment of the parts,
the extra power required rose up to 115 pounds. In all cases the
lightest draught was shown where the plow ran with the least
interference on the part of the plowman.

We cannot close our report of these trials without the expres-
sion of our sincere thanks to Gov. Holbrook and Mr. Joel Nourse
for the very valuable assistance which they rendered to us, without
which our labors would have been much less fruitful.

JOHN STANTON GOULt),
HENRY WATERMAN,

Committee.

INDEX.

PAGE.

Alden & Co., cultivator 254

Alger, Cyrus, annealing cast iron

plows, 1839 117

American, early plow 65

Berkshire plow, preferred by TuU.. . 17

Brand's (Suffolk) plow 22

Burch, L. D., Swivel plow 249

Burden, Henry, plow 90

Burrall, T. D., patent for diminishing

friction of land side, 1843 117

Carbonic acid a solvent 143

Carpenter, Levi 101

Caschrom (British plow) 9

Centre draught (Mears' invention). . 100

(Prouty & Mears) 165

Chapman & Barnum, device for

diminishing friction of land side.. 127

Chenoweth, R. B., patent «. 71

Chinese plow 13

Conkling, James H 151

Coulter, devices for clearing 200

draughtof 182

elevation and set of 183

Mr. Stephens' experiments on

draught of 182

varieties of form and attach-
ment 180

Cultivators, Alden & Co 254

Ford & Howe's 259

Hawks' 256

McQueston's 261

Phifer's 256

Rules for trial 208

Davis, Gideon, patent and construc-
tion 72

Deep plowing, effect of 146

Denver, John, patented a plow 1803. 69

Ditching machine 243

for under-draining 245

Draught of plows (see " Plows,

draught of") 154

Draught of plows, planes of resistance 167

point of resistance 168

angle of 169

experiments on 177

ditference of plowmen 179

1820 89

Dutcher, J., letter on the " Historj'^

of the Plow " 94

PAGE.

Dynamometer at trial of plows, 1820. 89

East Indian plow 10

East Lothian plow 35

Egyptian plow, ancient 8

now in use 12

Elasticity of furrow slice 153

English plow, A. D. 1470 13

Fast-walking draught beasts, value of 165

Fertility, causes of 136

Fords & Howe, cultivator 259

Four-coultered plow 18

Four coulters, use of 18

French (Canadian) plow 16

Grant's lona plow 129

Handley, Mr., experiments between

Swivel plows and wheel plows 177

Harris, Hezekiah, patent 1804 69

1808 71

Harris, Zadock, pat. and specification 82

Harrows, rules for trial 207

J.E.Morgan's 251

F . Nishwitz's 253

Hawks', N., Ditching plow 243

cultivator 256

Heath, E., Ditching machine 245

Hingham's Self-holding plow 91

Hitchcock, David, plow, 1823 91

Holbrook, F. F., method 129

Horton, Frost 101

lona plow, Grant's 129

Jacobs, James, patent 1834 107

Jefferson, Mr ,constructionof hisplow 23

objections to the same 32

suggestions of cast iron for

mould-boards 33

suggestion of two wedges 22

Klay, John, patent 72

Kiliuer, J. & A., invention 200

Knox, James A., patent 1852 117

Lanarkshire plow 50

McCorraick's plow 99

McQueston's cultivator 251

Mead's patent, 1863 127

Mears, John 100

Mexican plow 12

Mid-Lothian plow 51

Minor & Horton 101

Minor, Truman 101

Modern English plows 59

286

Index.

PAGE.

Morgan &. Harris' patent 72

Morgan, J. E., harrow 251

Morton, J. C, experiments in draught

of plows 157, 161. 164

Mould-board. F. F. Holbrook's .' 128

G. Davis' 72

Mr. Jefferson's 23,32, 33

Rham's 62

should be adapted to the soil. 150

Stephens' construction 51

twist of, splits the furrow slice 151
Newbold, Chas., first cast-iron plow

in America 66

New York State Agricultural Society,

trial draught plows, 1850 158

Nishwitz, F., harrow 253

Nourse, Joel 91

Eagle plow 93

Patrick, M., patent 72

Peacock. David, patent 1807 69

1817 72

Pease, Horace, patent 72

Peekskill plow 101

Phifer's cultivator 256

Pickering, T., letter on lines of the

plow, 1820 69

Plants, growth and food of 136

Piatt, H. M., Screw-Auger plow, '58. 127

Plow of Asia Minor 8

Berkshire 17

Brands' 22

British 9

Burch's 249

Burden, Henry 90

Chinese 13

Collins & Co., B 14 213

Collins & Co., C 3 234

East Indian 10

East Lothian 35

Egyptian, ancient 8

now in use 12

English, A. D. 1470 13

Four-coultered 18

French (Canadian) 16

Grant's lona 129

Hawks' Ditching 243

Hingham's Self-holding 91

Hitchcock,', David s 91

Holbrook's No. 65 210

No. 66 213

No. 69 224

No. 6 Swivel 248

Mr. Jefferson's. 23

Lanarkshire 50

McCormick's 99

Mexican 12

Mid-Lothian 51

Modern English 59

Newbold's, Charles 66

Nourse's, Joel, Eagle 93

Peekskill 101

Front's Ditching 243

Piatt, H. M., Screw-Auger . . . 127

Roman 9

Rotherham 16

Saxon, eleventh century 14

Plow, Side-hill 248

Small, James 35

Steel, for alluvial land 246

Sod and Subsoil 239

Webster, Daniel 103

Wilkie's 50

Wood, Jethroj 72

improved 1819 84

Plows, draught of 154

comparison, different soils 157

J. C. Morton's experiments . . 157

161, 164

Philip Pusey's experiments. . . 155

161, 163, 177

ratio to depth 160

ratio to velocity 163

trials of, by N.T.S.A.S., 1850. 158
(See" Supplementary Trials.")

list of entries 209

rules for trials 205

Sod, for stiff soils 210

Stubble, for stiff soils 211

Plowing, adjustment for turning under

weeds, etc 198

attachment of the team 193

crested furrow 89

flat furrow 191

lap furrows, use of 185

proportion of depth to

width 187

left hand 201

Plowing, objects of, enumerated . 148

sod and subsoil 190

stubble 192

without dead furrows 191

Programme of trials 204

Prouty, David 100

Pulverization 149

Pusey, Philip, experiments on draught

of plows 155, 161, 163, 177

Ransome, Robert, improvement 60

case-hardened or chilled shares 60

Rham, Rev. W. L., lines for plow. . . 62

Roberts', M. L., invention 127

Roman plow 9

Roots of plants, extent of 144

Rotherham plow 16

Routt's, A. P., Ditching plow 243

Rules of trials 204

Saxon plow, eleventh century 14

Seltz , John, patent 72

Small's, James, plows 35

Smith, Aaron, patent 1844 Ill

Col. John, cast share 68

Soil, absorbing power 139

mechanical condition 139

deepening of 218

Soils, Vcelcker's experiments 139

Way's experiments 139

Stephens'. Mr., construction of mould-
board 51

experiments on draught of

coulter 182

Stevens, Edwin A., improvement.. . 89

Stubble, to turn under 198

Subsoil , attachment to plow 241

Index.

287

PAGE.

Supplementary trials 2()3

points of . 263

draught experiments to de-
termine increase of power
for each inch of depth. 265-271

remarks on same 272-276

trials to determine increase
of power for each inch of

width 277

to determine increase of power

for increase of velocity. 278, 279
to determine the proportion of
power absorbed by differ-
ent parts of the plow. 279, 280
to determine the influence
of the coulter upon the

draught 280-282

to determine relative draughts

of Skim plow and coulter. 282
to determine the elasticity of
different soils 283

PAGE.

Swan, John, patent 72

Swing plow, advantages of 175

Tousley, Robert, patent 72

Tull, Jethro. experiment on range of

roots of plants 145

Vcelcker's experiments 139

Way's deductions as to separating

power of soils 141

"Webster, Daniel, his plow 103

Weeds and stubble, to bury 198

Wheatley, R. J., subsoil attachment. 241
Wheel of the plow 173

mode of attaching 179

Whiflfle-trees, observations on 194

for three horses 195

Wiley, James 101

Wilkie's plow 50

Witherow & Pierce, patent 1839 114

Wood, Jethro, patent 72

improved plow, 1819 84

LIST OF FIGURES.

Fig. p^'^e-

1. Plow of Asia Minor 8

2. Ancient Egyptian plow 8

3. Roman plow 9

4. 5. Form of plow as used by

Cincinnatus and Cato 9

6. Caschrom (British plow) 10

7. East Indian plow 11

8. Egyptian plow now in use .... 12

9. Mexican plow 13

10. Chinese plow 13

11. English plow, A. D. 1470 14

12. Saxon plow of eleventh century 14

13. French (Canadian) plow 15

14. Land side of Rotherham plow. 17

15. Furrow side same 16

16. Bridle, &c., same 17

17. Brand's (Suflblk) plow 22

18 to 27. Diagrams illustrating Mr.

Jefferson's formation of mould-
board 24 to 31

28. East Lothian plow 35

29. Body frame of the same 39

30. Sole bar of the same inverted. 39

31. Vertical section same 40

32 to 37. Share of the same 41

38. Form of sock plate same 42

39, 40, 41. Sole shoe same 43

42. Edge view of the coulter, same 43

43. Side view of the coulter, same 43

44. Plan of bridle of same 44

45. Side view same 44

46. Elevation of the body in work-
ing position, same 45

47. Horizontal sole shoe, same. ... 45

48. Diagram of the formation of the
mould-board 46

49. Diagram do do do 49

50. Plow staff 51

51. Hammer nut key 51

Fig. pa°e.

52. Diagram illustrating formation

block for mould-board 57

53 a. Shares, showing chilled parts 61
53 b. do do 61

54. Mortised shoe 61

55. Cast plow frames 61

56. Mould-board and share show-
ing attachment to the frame . . 82

57 to 60. Diagram showing Rham's

formation of mould-board. . 63, 64

61. Newbold's plow 67

62. Chenoweth's plow 71

63. Harris' plow, 1819 82

64. Wood's plow 85

65. Burden's plow 90

66. Nourse's Eagle No. 2 94

A. B. Dutchers' diagrams of forma-
tion of mould-board 98

Daniel Webster's plow, land side. . . 104
Daniel Webster's plow, furrow side. 104
Daniel Webster's plow, dimensions . 105

67. Jacobs' plow 108

68. Diagram of Smith's Michigan
plow Ill

69. Diagram of the right hand or
face view of Smith's mould-
board 112

69 a to 69/. Parts of the same ... 113
[Figs. 9, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, referred
to on page 114, are not reproduced
in this report, but all that is neces-
sary for the description is con-
tained in figs. 69 a to 69 b, p. 113.]

70. Diagram of Witherow & Pierce's

mould-board 115

71 . Diagram of generating curve. . 115

72. Elevation of Gibbs' plow 126

73. Mead's share and mould-board 128
— fig. 1. lona turning jilow 129

288

Index.

Fig. page.

73. fig. 2. Inclined plane or share

of same 130

— fig. 3. Transformed No. 1, lona 130

— fig. 4. Great Trench No. 1 do 131

— fig. 5. Great Trench No. 2 do 131

— fig. 6. Trenching plow for loams

and clay, do 132

— fig. 7. Large trenching plow . . 132

— fig. 1 to 8. Diagrams illustra-

ting the operations of
trenching plow . . 133, 134
74 to 79. Diagrams illustrating frac-
ture of furrow slice 150-152

80. Section of Prouty & Mears'
plow, showing obliquity of land
side 168

81. Diagram of line of draught. .. . 170

82. Diagram showing increase of
resistance of wheel 174

82 to 86. Forms of plow wheels. . . 180
87 to 91. Coulters 181

92. Fin share 182

93. Position of coulter, Prouty &
Mears' 184

94. 95. Diagrams of lap furrows, 185, 186
96, 97. Diagrams of rotation of fur-
row slice 188

98. Trapezoidal furrow 190

99. Sod and subsoil furrow 191

100. Flat furrow sod 191

101. Stubble furrow 192

102. Holbrook's sod and subsoil plow 193
103 Whiffletrees for three horses . . 195
104. Method of attaching three horses

in New York 196

Fig. page.

105. Stephens' method of attaching
four horses to the plow 197

106. Chain attachment for plowing
under weeds, &c 199

107. Kilmer's adjustment for do 199

108. Device for cleaning the coulter 199

109. Left hand plow 201

— figs. 1, 2, 3, 4. Diagrams for

plowing grounds with-
out a dead furrow, 201, 202

110. Holbrook's No. 66 for stubble
lands in stifi" soils 211

111. Holbrook's No. 66 214

112,113. Collinsville plow 214

Holbrook's No. 66 sod plow 217

114. Holbrook's No. 69 stubble plow 222

115. Front and rear standard of same 281

116. Parts of the same 232

117. Holbrook's No. 69 sod and sub-
soil 239

118. Holbrook's No. 69 sod 241

119. Hawks' ditching plow 243

120. do do as cultivator 245

121. Heath's ditching machine 247

122. Holbrook's swing or side-hill
plow 248

123. Diagram of Burch's share 249

124. Morgan's harrow 252

125. Alden's cultivator 255

126. do do as corn-marker 255

127. Phifer's two-horse cultivator.. 257

128. Fords & Howe, cultivator 260

129. McQueston's improved culti-
vator 262

PLATES.

PAGE.

PLATE I.— Fig. 1. Berkshire plow 18

" Fig. 2. Four-coultered plow, with parts of same 19

PLATE II.— East Lothian or Small's plow 36

PLATE III. — Anal3'tical section of mould-boards: — East Lothian plow; Mid-
Lothian plow ; Berwickshire plow ; Lanarkshire plow 46

PLATE IV. — Analytical sections of mould-boards: — "Western Fifeshire plow ;

Ransom's F F new mould-board 53

PLATE V. — Howard's and Ransome's plows 63

PLATE VI.— Davis' plows 72

PLATE VII.— McCormick's plow , 99

PLATE VIII — Knox's forming mould-boards of plows 118

DIGEST OF THE

LIBRARY REGULATIONS.

No book shall be taken from the Library without the
record of the Librarian.

No person shall be allowed to retain more than five vol-
umes at any one time, unless by special vote of the
Council.

Books may be kept out one calendar month; no longer
without renewal, and renewal may not be granted more than
twice.

A fine of five cents per day incun-ed for every volume not
returned within the time specified by the rules.

The Librarian may demand the return of a book after
the expiration of ten days from the date of borrowing.

Certain books, so designated, cannot be taken from the
Library without special permission.

All books must be returned at least two weeks previous
to the Aimual Meeting.

Each member is responsible for all injury or loss of books
chara;ed to his name.