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Report and Proceedings
py
| Natura! History and Philosophical Society |
BELFAST:

MAYNE, BOYD & SON, LTD., 2CORPORATION STREET
(PRINTERS TO THE QUEEN’S UNIVERSITY).

1919.

Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society.
——_ :0 : ——

ESTABEISGIED 1821-
—— :0:——
CONSTITUTION.

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CONTENTS.

The Fixation of Nitrogen and its Application to the Industrial
Development of Ireland—Professor William Caldwell, M.A.,
SOeID eos I ssle(Cs

The Giant’s Ring-—H. C. Lawlor, M.R.I.A.

The Folk-Lore of North of Ireland Place Names—Sir John Byers,
M.A., M.D.

The Psychology of Telephony—John Lee, M.A.

Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation—James Rice, M.A.
Annual Report

Treasurer’s Account

Exchanges

Office-Bearers and List of Shareholders and Members

t
NATURAL
HISTORY

cigs

29°

30°

43.

81

85

86.

88.

BELFAST
Aw LRA La dTSEORY
Pee hI MOSOPHICAE SOCIETY.
SESSION 1917-18.

11th December, 1917.

“THE FIXATION OF NITROGEN AND ITS APPLICATION
TO THE INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT OF IRELAND.”

By Proressor WILLIAM CALDWELL, M.A., Sc.D., F.I.C.

(Abstract).

Dr. Caldwell described, besides other methods, the method
of obtaining nitrogen from liquid air, and in this connection
recalled the work of Dr. Thomas Andrews, formerly Professor
of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Belfast, and the work of
Lord Kelvin and Joule in defining the principles on which the
liquefaction of gases is based.

It was pointed out that we require unlimited quantities of
nitrogenous compounds, not alone for use as artificial fertilizers,
but for use in the manufacture of explosives. The supplies of
the naturally occurring nitrates are decreasing rapidly, therefore
we shall have to adopt some method of fixation of nitrogen to
replace the natural supplies. Germany’s preparations for war
were based on the establishment of huge chemical industries,
and the foresight of Germany saved that country from defeat
after the blockade of Germany became strict.

We may likewise build up industries with peaceful objects
in view, to replenish our unproductive soil and to intensify our
agricultural pursuits,

a

6 Professor William Caldwell on

In olden times natural manures were sufficient to feed the
lands with the requisite nitrogen to be converted into nitrates,
previous to absorption and assimilation by the plants and
vegetables. Now we must procure artifical fertilizers. One of
these artificial fertilizers is procured from the gas works. The
coal is destructively distilled and the ammonia evolved is absorbed
and converted into ammonium sulphate. But the production of
ammonium sulphate in the whole world is relatively a small
amount. It was only one million tons in 1910—an amount
quite insufficient to meet the demands of agriculture. We must
have recourse to Chili saltpetre, a naturally occurring sodium
nitrate found on the plains of Chili. For ages the nitrogen of
the atmosphere has been absorbed by the soil, and the nitrifying
organisms convert it into nitrates.

In 1830 only 935 tons of saltpetre were used from this
source, whilst in 1912 2,500,000 tons were used, and 75% of
these imported nitrates were used as artificial fertilizers. In a
short space of time, however, these sources of supply will have
vanished, and therefore we must apply our scientific knowledge
to make good the deficiency.

Let us see what methods we may adopt. Plants, belonging to
the Leguminosae order, have their roots covered with nodules,
which are vast collections of nitrifying organisms, which possess
the power of using the free nitrogen of the air and assimilating
it in their tissues. At the ordinary temperature without any
extraordinary phenomenon these organisms are secreting and
storing vast supplies of nitrogen for their own use. Yet these
organisms which flourish on the roots of leguminous plants are
not specific. They may be cultivated and used by other plants.
Land barren and poor in quality may be inoculated with these
organisms and made rich and fertile for the production of
foodstuffs.

But there is another and more prolific method of fixing the
nitrogen of the air. The method was suggested by Sir William
Crookes at a conversazione of the Royal Society in 1898,

~T

The Fixation of Nitrogen

_ There exists in the atmosphere, according to a rough
approximation, 4,000 billion tons of nitrogen. Over every
square yard there are about seven tons of nitrogen. Over every
square mile of the earth’s surface we have as much free nitrogen
which, if converted into nitrates, would manure the lands of the
world for a very prolonged period. Crookes demonstrated the
fixation of this free nitrogen by passing electric sparks through
air enclosed in a specially constructed globe, and showed that the
nitrogen was burned and thus converted into oxides of nitrogen
which, when absorbed by water or alkali, yielded acids or salts
in nitrogen, products ready for use as fertilizers. Crookes
pointed out that the experiment might be made the basis of a
huge industry destined to solve the great food problem of the
world.

A few years later the first successful nitrate factory was
established by Professor Birkeland and Dr. Eyde at Notodden,
where the artificial production of nitrates is carried out on an
extensive scale. Here an alternating current of 3,000—5,000
volts is used, and a powerful electric are is formed between two
copper electrodes placed in a stream of air. The electrodes are
hollow to permit them being kept cool by a constant stream of
cold water. The terminals are placed about.4 to $ inch apart.
The are is deflected at right angles to the direction of the
electrodes by means of a powerful electro-magnet, placed in such
a way that the terminals of the copper electrodes are in the
middle of the magnetic field. A great roaring disc of flame
immensely hot forms between the electrodes. The gases from
the flame are pumped off and yield according to the method of
absorption either alkali salts or calcium salts. The calcium salts
may be applied directly, without purification, to the soil as a
fertilizer.

There is another important method called the Haber process,
which has been adopted in countries where water power can be
easily obtained When a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen is
subjected to sparks from an induction coil combination takes

8 Professor Wiliam Caldwell on

place with the formation of ammonia. But the yield of ammonia
under these conditions is very small. It has, however, been
found that if a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen be passed
over a catalyser—in this case finely divided osium or uranium—
heated to a definite temperature, the two gases readily unite and
ammonia may be separated in quantities sufficiently large to
prove a commercial success.

In 1913 Germany spent £2,000,000 on works to secure the
production of ammonia on an enormous scale by this process.
. The nitrogen is obtained from liquid air, and the hydrogen may
be obtained by several interesting methods. Hydrogen may be
prepared very cheaply by the electrolysis of a solution of potas-
sium carbonate or of a solution of caustic potash at a temperature
of 60°C. The cost is reduced by making use of the oxygen
which is evolved at the same time. A second method is to use
water gas and to pass it at the required temperature through
eauzes composed of catalytic metals, iron, nickel or platinum.
The mixture of gases necessary for the production of ammonia
may be also obtained from air and steam. The mixture is
deprived of oxygen by passing it over heated copper, and then
over heated iron to decompose the steam. The oxides of the
metals are in turn reduced, and may be used again and again.

Ammonia may also be made from the nitrides—compounds
of nitrogen with metals. The process has been developed by
Serpek, who uses aluminium nitride, and subsequently decomposes
the nitride with the production of ammonia, and aluminium is
obtained as a bye-product. The process might be developed in
the North of Ireland, where Bauxite, a naturally occurring
hydrated alumina, is found in County Antrim.

Again, the carbides, for example calcium carbide, absorbs
nitrogen and forms cyanamide. This substance may be used
direct as a fertilizer, or it may be decomposed and ammonia
obtained under certain conditions.

The cyanamide industry-is being developed on a large scale
in Germany, France, Italy, Norway, Japan and America,

The Fixation of Nitrogen 9

The fixation of nitrogen may be made by (1) electrical
methods or by (2) chemical methods, and although the
electrical method, such as the Birkeland Eyde process, requires
about 30 times more energy than the chemical method, e.g., the
direct synthetical. method, yet from the economic standpoint
it is not certain that the chemical methods are the better ; for,
from the point of view of capital expenditure, the are processes
have a good deal in their favour.

Mr. Kilburn Scott has been working on this problem in this
country for some years past, and he has devised a special electric
furnace for the production of nitric acid, which differs from those
used on the continent for the same purpose, in that it is a self-
contained three phase unit. The furnace is filled with three
triangular metal electrodes. The arcs are struck between the
electrodes where they are near together at the bottom, and they are
spread out in flames by the flow of air. When the air comes in
contact with the rapidly rotating triple are flames, combination
between the nitrogen and the oxygen take place with the
formation of nitric oxide. The nitric oxide must be cooled as
rapidly as possible, and to facilitate this an arrangement is fitted
to the furnace to absorb the heat from the hot gases. And as the
hot gases pass away they are used to heat the incoming air.
The normal yield of nitric acid is about 50 gms per kw. hr, and
with the three phase furnace the yield has been raised to about
66 gms per kw. hr. The other part of the process is similar to
what I have described under the Birkeland Eyde system.

Dr. Maxted, on the other hand, favours the method of the
direct synthesis of ammonia and its subsequent oxidation to
nitric acid, and he estimates that the cost in that case cannot be
more than £15 per ton. And he states that so far as power
and raw material are concerned the formation of ammonia by
direct synthesis is a process more than twice as efficient as the
cyanamide process and more than six times as efficient as the arc
process. The direct synthesis of ammonia with the subsequent
oxidation to nitric acid is by far the most economical means of

10 Professor William Caldwell on

effecting the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. With us in Ireland
the product is required as a fertilizer, and in this case it would
obviate any risks of loss by accidents to the ships, and indeed it
would save much shipping which could be diverted to other
uses. We have had to rely on our Navy and its command of
the seas for the importation of all our supplies of nitrate of
soda, the raw material required to make explosives. On the
other hand, the Central Powers have been cut off from external
supplies, and have had therefore to develop. their internal
resources, which they have done to an enormous extent, and if
it had not been for this marvellous developmant of chemistry,
Germany would have been defeated three years ago.

Since the beginning of 1915 a Committee has been appointed
in England to consider these different schemes, and latterly after
more than a couple of years, a report has been issued and the
Government has made some important recommendations, and
some real work has been begun.

To help those who wish to make individual efforts the
Government will readily place all their knowledge at their
disposal. Some new work has likewise been done on the
syuthesis of ammonia, and a catalyser has been used which gives
excellent results.

Now what can we do in Ireland. Have we any means of
providing cheap power? In the first place one should perhaps
say that any waste from the gas works, or gas coke furnaces, or
blast furnaces should be prevented, because we are just able to
obtain about 1/10th of the amount of ammonium sulphate we
should obtain if waste was entirely prevented.

It is not a dream to assert that the power is at our doors.
If we want water power then on the Bann we have two water-
falls—one at Portna and the other at Mavanagher. They might
be used without any very extensive hydraulic work, and would
produce between them about 600 H.P. The falls are not high—
from 1lft. to 16ft.—but then we must remember that the falls
at Reinfelden and Schaffhausen are not any higher. ‘These small

The Fixation of Nitrogen Ui:

falls on the Bann might be used for the Haber process which
requires only a moderate expenditure of power. Nor can the day
be far distant when we shall harness the waters of the Shannon,
and for Ulster the waters of Lough Erne will one day be con-
veyed by canal and pipe to some power station for distribution
for different purposes for many miles around the province. Again
we have other sources of power, and if these can be developed,
then Ireland will benefit to a very great extent. Ireland is
mainly an agricultural country, and if we could have cheap
fertilizers our agricultural pursuits would develop enormously.
We are a poor people, and the land is cultivated in a poor
fashion. In Germany four or five times the manure we use 1s
put into the soil, with the result that their crops in the past have
been more prolific.

For the source of cheap power we turn to peat. The peat
itself is a source of nitrogen, and when the peat is carbonized the
nitrogen present can be recovered as ammonia, and in view of
the enormous peat moors which exist in the world the reserve
stock of nitrogen is very great. In Russia there is no less than
95,000,000 acres, in Finland 185 million acres, and in Ireland
1/7th of the whole country—about 2? million of acres is bog or
peat land. Hence the combustion of the peat itself will produce
huge quantities of ammonia sulphate, but the combustion from
the peat will also give us a power gas, which can be used for
industrial purposes or for the purpose of synthesizing ammunia
itself, by the use of atmospheric nitrogen. The problem has been
solved elsewhere. The peat gas is produced and utilized, and the
ammonia obtained as a bye-product. At Osnabriick, in Germany,
the peat gas is used by a central electrical power station, and
ylelds 3,000 H.P., whilst the reclaimed moorland can be
used for agricultural purposes. Therefore, a practical use
for the peat in this country is to convert it into gaseous fuel in
suitable gas producers. In this way you obtain the combustible
gases, ammonia, and some other important bye-products. There
is a plant of this type in use at Portadown belonging to the firm

i2 Professor Caldwell—The Fixation of Nitrogen

of Hamilton Robb, Ltd. This installation is, it seems, very
satisfactory, and effects a considerable saving in the coal bill.
The bye-products are allowed to go to waste ; nevertheless, it is
a commercial success. Recently plants have been devised to
recover the nitrogen as ammonium sulphate while the gas is used
to drive gas engines, which drive alternate current generators.
In. another such plant in Italy a total power capacity of over
3,000 H.P. has been obtained, and the gas engines are coupled to
alternators. The current transmitted at a tension of 30,000
volts is distributed over an area of 25 miles radius. Therefore,
what one would naturally suggest is the establishment of a
producer plant at or near the bog land itself, the conversion of
the mechanical power into electricity, and the transmission of the
energy at high pressure to the point where it is wanted. This
method of using the peat, and the recovery of the land. for
agricnitural purposes, may be combined with some of the methods
for preparing or synthesizing ammonia or nitric acid, by the use
of atmospheric nitrogen. Our fertilizers will be produced in
abundance, our lands will yield accordingly, and our people may
have such prosperity as a result of the enterprise, as to cast
discontent aside and become as happy, as contented, as enter-
prising as our fellow-countrymen in the North of Ireland.

Sth January, 1918.

THE GIANT’S RING.
By Mr. H. C. Lawtor, M.R.I.A.

The Giant’s Ring, situated in the townland of Ballynahatty
and adjoining those of Edenderry and Ballylesson, some four
miles south-west from Belfast, may well be classed among the
most remarkable earthworks in Ireland. It is somewhat smaller
than Tara or Emmania, covering some ten acres, but it is dis-
tinguished by containing a very fine Cromlech almost in the
centre, a feature which makes it, I think, almost unique in
monuments of the sort. Mr. Borlase states that another example
of a Vallum or Rath surrounding a Dolmen is that of Leacht an
Seail in County Kilkenny, but im this case the ring has been
levelled.

Another individual peculiarity of the Giant’s Ring is that
whereas in all other cases that have come to my knowledge the
mounds or walls of ring forts or raths have always been formed
by heaping up the soil dug from a surrounding trench ; in this
instance there is no foss round the Vallum, and no sign that
there ever was one. ‘The question naturally arises, where then
was the vast quantity of material necessary to build the mound
got from? I shall refer to this interesting question later.

Unlike Tara, Emmania or Newgrange, the Giant’s Ring is
completely without a vestige of written history. The complete
removal from the whole district of all trace of the old inhabitants,
through English and Scottish plantations, has also removed any
oral traditions that might have been handed down concerning it.
The names of the townlands in which it lies or which it touches,
Ballynahatty, Edenderry and Ballylesson, convey no hint. True,
Dr. O'Donovan suggested that Ballynahatty might resolve itself
into Bally n’ait tigh or the ““Townland of the site of the House,”

14 Mr. HI. C. Lawlor on

or that it was in prehistoric times the residence of a Sept
called O’Hatty. Ballylesson in its present form is, merely the
townland of the small lis or fort. This cannot apply to the
Giant’s Ring. Two other suggested interpretations of Ballylesson
have been put forth: one that it is a contraction of Bally-lis-owen
or the townland of the lis of Owen; the other that the ‘an’ or
‘on’ terminating the word Ballylesson is a modern contraction
from the old Irish Oenach or festival with games, and that the
-uame means the “ place of enclosure of the games.” This trans-
lation is very tempting, but unfortunately does not lend itself to
gaelic etymology. The form of the name of this townland in
the 17th century inquisitions was Ballynalissan. We may assume
that the Bally is comparatively modern, say mediaeval, but un-
fortunately we cannot up to the present trace any earlier reference
to the place in ancient literature. If it is referred to, as 1t may
be, it is by some name that has not yet been identified as apply-
ing to it.

The townland of Edenderry, “The slope of the oak trees,”
touches on the Ring on the south side. The oak tree has always
been associated with Druidical worship. Some sixty years ago a
few stunted oaks still remained on the Giant’s Ring, and it is
quite possible that they were the descendants of an ancient grove
of oaks connected with Druidical ceremonial.

The Vallum is divided by seven depressions into seven arcs.
That these are part of the original design there can be little
doubt. Mr. Borlase in his description of the Ring refers to this
fact, and points out that similar: depressions or gaps are a
notable feature in certain very similar and even larger prehistoric
enclosures in Ohio, known as the “Mound builder’s works.”

It is curious that from one spot only outside the Ring can a
view be had of the inside; this is a certain point ona ridge
about 100 yards from the vallum on the north side, and on the
spot is an old thorn bush known locally as the fairy thorn. It
lies N.E. of the cromlech.

The fascinating mystery of this ancient monument has for

The Giant's Ring 15

generations excited the curiosity of many people of historic and
antiquarian tastes. Within the last few years it has been placed
under the guardianship of H.M. Office of Works, who have
ample powers to protect it from destruction.

In the early part of last year I had an interview with the
Board, and laid before them the fact that a number of local
gentlemen would be willing to provide the funds necessary to
investigate and excavate the Ring if the Board would give them
permission. They advised us to form a local committee who
would be responsible for the proper carrying out of the work
under their supervision, and guarantee that no injury would be
done to the structure, and that everything would be left as we
found it, and that any antiquarian remains found would be
handed to the local Museum. The necessary preliminaries having
been satisfactorily arranged, a liberal sum was contributed
towards the expenses, and work was commenced on Monday,
the 10th September. I have to acknowledge the kindness of
Mr. Gray and Mr. Thompson, the tenants in possession of the
Ring, for their permission to make the excavations, and for their
help in many ways in forwarding the work.

The vast extent of the Ring of course prevented any thought
of excavating it all over, so we decided to sink trenches radiating
from a small circle round the cromlech. In dry weather in
certain places in the Ring the grass dries up and yellows in
patches, suggesting the presence underneath of stone slabs or
hollow cavities as the cause. Several of these were noticeable
in a line running east of the cromlech, so we began the first
radial trench, No. 1 in the plan, to cut through some of these
patches. We found the undisturbed till to lie evenly 15 to 18
inches under the surface, being of the glacial deposit common in
the whole basin of the lower Lagan. The yellow patches were
not caused by slabs of stone as we thought possible, but merely
by some extra porous spots in the gravelly nature of ‘the till.
We extended this trench to the inner edge of the Vallum, but
nothing in the way of. archaeological remains rewarded our

16 Mr. H. C. Lawlor on

search. The trench was accordingly filled in and carefully
resodded. ‘The same negative result awarded our excavations of
trenches 2 to 6, the only noteworthy feature being that while
the depth of the undisturbed till below the grass was mostly
15 to 18 inches, at the cutside end, as we approached the vallum
the surface of the till descended somewhat steeply. Thus the
surface of the till underneath the soft top soil of the surface of
the whole enclosure resembles the shape of an inverted saucer,
of which the centre is some 10 feet higher than the edges. The
depth of the soft top soil at the outer edges increases to
from five to six feet deep, so that the visible surface also has
the inverted saucer shape, although to a much less extent.

The circular trench round the cromlech was dug so as to
approach the latter not nearer than 20 feet. In it nothing of
interest was found, and all were filled in and _ resodded.
Our object in sinking the circular trench so far from the
cromlech was to avoid any possibility of loosening the fuunda-
tions of the great stones. ‘This caution was necessary, as had
there been any previous disturbance of the firm till in the
immediate vicinity of the stones, such as the presence of a cist or
urn chamber, there would have been some danger in excavating
to any depth too close to the stones. As the work proceeded,
however, it became evident that there was little danger. as the
upright stones are well and truly set on the hard till, and no cist
or chambers exist round the outside of the monument. We sank
narrow trenches radiating inwards from the circular trench with-
out finding anything of note, except at one point only. In the
trench north-east of the cromlech we found at 15° down, spread
on the hard till, a layer of brown black sooty remains of fire. »
We followed it until it disappeared, exhibiting the fact that it
only extended some three feet in diameter, with a depth of only
about one inch. The fire remains were evidently extremely
ancient, as it required a glass to see that they contained fragments
of burned wood. No remains of bone could be detected in the
black soil, but a stone hammer, the only implement or fragment

The Giant’s Ring ys

of implement or utensil discovered in our researches, lay in the
fire remains. In all our investigations we found no single vestige
of pottery, no pieces of worked flint or shaped stone, only this
one elongated oval stone chipped at each end by hammering some
object.

The accompanying larger scale plan of the immediate vicinity

GIANTS RING.
Cc? DOWN.
Plan shewing Irenchey_excavated
eases —
Vis
ve
/
jo
if
ey
|
==
Se a
\ ‘
oN
= \
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PN NN

of the cromlech shows the position of the stones as they remain
to-day, and also the places where we excavated. It is of import-
ance to draw a distinction between the stones that are set on the

18 Mr. H. C. Lawlor on

hard till and those that lie only on the surface. The original
supporting stones are all set on the hard till. One very large
stone stands upright, leaning against the main structure on the
north side, but it is not set on the till. There can therefore be
no doubt that it was originally a second top stone of the crom-
lech itself, fallen down through original faulty erection, or more
probably by the action of modern destructive hands.

The earliest known description of this cromlech is that in
Harris’ County Dowa, published in 1744. If his description is
correct, the monument has suffered much since then. He says :
alt consists of one huge upper stone, almost round, 7ft. lin. by
6ft. Llins. ; two ranges of rude pillars support it, each consisting
of seven, and round it at about 4 feet distant are several fixed
stones not above two feet high.”

The possibility of the correctness of Harris’ account has been
called in question by a writer in the Dublin Penny Journal as
long ago as 1834. Mr. Borlase thinks that Harris’ account was
probably correct, and that the outer ring has been removed for
building stone. The removal of these seven stones of the outer
ring might account for the fall of the second top stone now lying
on its edge on the surface of the top ground; but Harris men-
tions only one top stone, the one that still remains in its place.
It rests actually on three stones, not on seven, though there are
seven upright stones besides the fallen top stone. The ~ several
fixed stones” (now two in number) “ not above two feet high at
about four feet distance” are still there. Now the nearest one
of these to the uprights of the cromlech is only 2ft. 6in. there-
from, whereas Harris says 4 feet from the alleged outer row of
seven stones. Had there been such second or outer row of seven
stones they would actually have touched this smaller stone, not been
4 feet from it as Harris states. Had builders come to quarry
stones for their work from the cromlech it is inconceivable that
they would not have first taken these two comparatively small
outlying stones which could be easily lifted; as the monument
now stands, and as it appears to have stood in Duberdieu’s time,

The Giant's Ring 19

and I think probably in Harris’ time, it consists of one top stone
in position, one top stone fallen and seven upright stones, besides
the two outside disconnected stones, or eleven stones inall. Mr.
Borlase says “there appear to have been two covering stones, one
of which has fallen owing to the removal of the side ones.” Yet
Harris in 1744 says there was only one top stone, although he
says the alleged side stones were then in position. So that in
this detail Mr. Borlase seems to contradict himself. On the
whole I think the evidence tends to prove that Harris’ account is
inaccurate, and that the cromlech remains almost in its original
form, except that even prior to Harris’ day one of the top stones
had slipped down to its present position from the top of the three
upright stones it lies between, which would still support it if
raised up.

Having closed up and re-sodded all the excavations near the
outside of the cromlech, we proceeded to sink a narrow shaft
under the cromlech itself. This excavation proved that we had
been forestalled by someone who unfortunately never seems to
have placed his discoveries on record. The soil was quite loose,
and at nearly four feet down were fragments of modern lemonade
and porter bottles. Every spade full of soil taken out was care-
fully examined. A few fragments of burned human _ bones
occasionally appeared, not a teacup full in all. Whether the
previous explorer had found an urn containing bones, or merely
found burned bones buried in soil, there was nothing to indicate.
Not a fragment of pottery was forthcoming. Had the previous
investigator found an urn full of bones and taken it away, why
would bones be found through the loose soil? On the other
hand, if he had found merely bones buried in soil, he may have
removed a portion of them, and what we found were the
remainder, reduced in quantity by decay more rapid after his
turning them up. I have made enquiries in every direction I
can think of as to the existence of an urn from this site, either
im museums or private collections, but can find no trace of such.
There may have been one, but from my experience gained in the

20 Mr. H.C. Lalor on

investigation of the Cairn Grannia at Mallusk, I am of opinion
that the interment in this dolmen was one of incinerated remains
in the soil under the cromlech without an urn. In the Cairn
Grannia there are nine distinct cromlechs joined together in a
line. In each one examined the burial was of incinerated remains
in the soil ; two urn burials were found, but they were evidently
of later date and not under distinct cromlechs. As I have
mentioned, the Giant’s Ring cromlech is not in the geometrical
centre of the Giant’s Ring, but some eight or ten yards to the
south-east of that point. We ascertained by accurate measure-
ments the exact centre of the ring, and sank a circular pit five
yards in diameter there. The hard till was 15 to 18 inches
beneath the surface, and this excavation was entirely negative in
results. We also dug several other pits where we thought slight
hollows or dry patches existed, but had no better results.

Our original intention had been to continue the sinking of
these radiating trenches all the way round from the cromlech,
but as the results obtained in the excavations already made were
so completely negative, we decided to discontinue further ex-
cavations in this direction. In all we had excavated nearly 600
yards of trenches of an average depth of about 18 inches down to
the undisturbed till. With the exception of the remains of a
small fire and a stone hammer lying a few feet north-east of the
cromlech, not a single thing was found in excavating outside the
cromlech to indicate that the site had ever been occupied in any
way by man.

It may be urged that our actual excavations only covered, in
all, some 400 square yards out of a surface of some 10 acres, and
that we might easily have missed valuable discoveries ; which
may be perfectly true.

The final excavation we made was to cut a trench two-thirds
across the mound itself down to the original ground level, some
15 feet in depth and 4 feet wide.

The accompanying section of the mound, kindly prepared by
Messrs. Fennell & Clarke, admirably shows the dimensions. The

:
as
2
*
5

TH E

S, eS e226 0G 400
Scait tt

contd ete eects aes eee

The Giant's Ring Pil

material of which the mound is made is chiefly small roundish
boulders covered with an outside layer of earth and sods. A
certain amount of earth has filtered down from the outside among
these stones, and in places among boulders were pockets of earth.
The boulders were of the glacial deposit type characteristic of
the locality. It is, however, a remarkable fact that we found no
large stones ; all were small stones of which an ordinary man
could easily carry one or two in his hands from some distance.
Now, had this circular mound been made by removing the top of
a knoll in the centre, large stones would have been plenty, as we
found numerous large stones in course of our excavations, and
they are of frequent occurrence in all these glacial deposits in the
immediate neighbourhood. One is therefore forced to the con-
clusion that the material from which the mound was built was
carried by the hands of a large number of workers from the
country round, and that the almost flat or slightly convex
enclosure is in its original shape.

It would be futile to conjecture now who were the builders;
were they bands of slaves owned by the surviving relatives of the
great and important person buried in the cromlech? or were
they voluntary tribesmen who, out of respect to the memory of
the deceased, continued to carry stones to cast them on the
mound as they passed until it gradually assumed its vast propor-
tions? I rather think the latter is the more probable, as had
slaves been employed, they would not likely have heaped up only
small stones; again, the ancient Irish custom of passers-by
throwing a stone on the cairn of some deceased chief or king is
well known. The division of the mound into seven distinct ares
or sections may also suggest that the work was done by seven
separate tribes owing allegiance to the deceased. The measure-
mentsof these arcs might accordingly be anindication of therelative
sizes of such tribes, and it may be of interest to record the length
of the sections. The following are the measurements, com-
mencing with the section to the left of the entrance, and measured

b

22 Mr. H. C. Lawlor on

along the top of the ridge :—259 ft. ; 250 ft.; 382 ft.; 387 ft.;
427 ft.; 170 ft.; 205 it. ; total, 2,080 feet.

The measurements of the enclosure to the bottom of the
inside of the mound are east and west 599 feet, north and south
588 feet. The average width of the mound at the base is about
80 feet, so that it will be seen the Ring is almost, though not
quite circular, with a diameter over all of about 250 yards.

I have referred to the great depth of the soft top soil cover-
ing the hard boulder clay immediately inside the mound. This
is carefully shown in the sectional diagram, and proves that
originally the mound was at one time considerably higher, a great
deal of soft mould having been worn down by weather and
spread over the ground at the bottom.

It is noteworthy that in the immediate vicinity of the
Giant’s Ring numerous antiquarian remains have from time to
time been found. Thanks to the painstaking work of the late
~ Mr. McAdam, editor of the original Ulster Journalof Archaeology,
and the late Mr. Getty, an account of these, so far as they could
ascertain particulars in the year 1855, was published in that
Journal.* Fortunately the farm immediately to the north side
of the Ring was then in possession of the late Mr. David Bodel,
representative of a family who had been in continuous occupation
of the farm for at least three or four generations. Mr. David
Bodel aud his father before him took an intelligent interest in
such matters, and although in agricultural improvements to
their farm they had destroyed many ancient monuments, Mr.
Bodel was able to supply Mr. McAdam with a pretty full
description of such of these monuments as he had either seen or
found himself, or his father had described to him.

One of these was discovered by Mr. Bodel in 1855, and I
take the following from Mr. McAdam’s article. This ancient
sepulchral Chamber lies almost due N.W. of the Giant’s Ring,
about 4/500 yards distant, in a small plantation of Scotch fir
at the west end of the farm house. ‘The floor of the Chamber

* Vol. iii, p. 358 et. seq.

The Giant's Ring 23

is about five feet below the surface of the ground, and is three
feet high in the centre. The depth of the top of the roofing
stones below the surface is 18 inches. In the Chamber when
found were four urns containing burned bones, besides a number
of skulls and other bones, human and otherwise, some burned
and some not. The urns were too fragile to preserve ; the bones
were removed by Mr. Grattan for examination. After examination
the Chamber was carefully closed up, and remains, I believe,
still intact.
Of the other remains of which Mr. Bodel supplied a
description, I shall quote from Mr. McAdam’s article.
“In addition to the facts observed upon the present
occasion, it may be well to record, upon the testimony of
Mr. Bodel, that the field in which this discovery was made
forms part of a farm held by him and his family for several
generations ; and that, on various occasions, he and his pre-
decessors have discovered throughout the same piece of
ground indications of extensive interments ; vast quantities
of human bones have been turned up by the plough, both in
his own time and that of his father, especially in the vicinity
of the present dwelling-house. In the boundary fence of the
field, facing the Giant’s Ring, is an enormous stone which he
suspects to be a Cromlech, and intends to have uncovered.
Very near this spot there were taken up in the field, a little
below the surface, many cartloads of human bones, but
without there being any mound or mark to distinguish the
place. On the site of the dwelling-house itself, which is
not many perches distant, was a mound, which on being
removed at the time of building the house, disclosed several
short stone coffins or cists containing earthen urns and
burnt bones. In several parts of the same field similar cists
were found subsequently, all formed of stone slabs, and
having a slab at the bottom and one as a lid’ These in
most cases contained urns. The coffins were all shorter
than a man, In one of the urns was found a skull by Mr

Myr. H. C. Lawlor on

Bodel himself; in each of two others bones and a stone
implement. One of the implements was minutely described
by Mr. Bodel as a black stone 6 inches long, knobbed at
each end and hollowed between, with a small hole passing
through the centre of the intermediate stem. The other
was a yellow stone tapering at each end, almost resembling
in size and shape a gimlet head, and pierced in like manner
at the centre with a small hole. In another urn, along with
the usual burnt bones, were two flint arrow heads.
Occasionally stone axes have been found in the field. At
one extremity of it, furthest from the house, there was a
spot several perches in extent, on which the vegetation was
observed to be always bad. On digging it up it was found,
for several feet deep, to consist of a peculiar dark-coloured
and soapy mould, and intermixed with it were observed a
number of red stones, presenting the appearance of having
been discoloured by strong heat. Near this spot was a
small mound, somewhat elevated ; and about fifty or sixty
years ago (i.e., about the year 1800), Mr. Bodel’s father,
having an idea that he might find something valuable within
it determined to open it. On removing the earth a little
he came to some large blocks of stone standing upright, and
was then fully persuaded that his hopes would be realised.
He therefore removed the entire mound, and found it to
contain three very large stones placed on end and sloping
towards each other at the top. On examining underneath
this enclosure he found an urn.and a quantity of small
bones, but nothing further. In the same part of the field
were found four rings made of a black light substance, like jet,
the largest about four inches in diameter, and the other
three smaller, in regular succession, the whole of them
fitting exactly one within the other, so that when thus
placed they presented the appearance of a circular grooved
disk. In one part of the field Mr. Bodel pointed out a spot
where a pillar stone was buried some years ago in clearing

The Giant's Ring 25

the ground. Some coffins and urns, exactly similar to those
in Mr. Bodel’s field, were found at different times in the
adjoining lands held by Mr. George Thomson, Mr. McKeown,
and Mr. Frederick Russell; and there was at least one
artificial Chamber discovered resembling the one now
described.”

In Arthur Young’s “ Tour in Ireland,” published in 1780, the
author refers to a mound close to the Giant’s Ring, in which had
been found on its removal vast quantities of human bones. He does
not indicate how long before he wrote, this discovery had been
made ; he may refer to the mound which had occupied the site
of the farm house mentioned by Mr. Bodel, or possibly yet
another sepulchral mound. Father O’Laverty in his “ Down and
Connor” * refers to a funereal mound in the grounds of Eden-
derry House, lying south-west of the Ring, in which Urns have
been found.

It is worthy of note that in these various accounts of past
discoveries in this district, particularly in Mr. Bodel’s graphic
narrative, while many funereal urns, wholesale internments in
mounds, various stone implements and other remains have been
found, not a single instance is recorded of the discovery of
ancient bronze or other metal.

Bearing upon Harris’ statement that in his day, 1744, the
cromlech had two rings of seven stones each, or 14 stones in all
supporting the top stone, it is important that Mr. Bodel, who
was able to describe to Mr. McAdam in 1855 so much of what
had happened to the various ancient monuments in the locality
for three or four generations, probably back to Harris’ time, makes
no reference to the removal of any stones from the cromlech ; it
is inconceivable that Mr. McAdam and Mr. Getty should not
have made enquiries from Mr. Bodel on this point, and recorded
anything he had to say.

During our investigations, which extended over a week, we
had the benefit of the presence and advice of several distinguished

* Vol, ii, p. 240.

26 Mr. H. C. Lawlor on

archaeologists, of whom I may mention Professor R. A. S.
MacAlister, Mr. Andrew Robinson, of H.M. Board of Works,
Canon Lett and others. Professor MacAlister has been good
enough to write the following on the result of the investigation :—

NoTE By PRoFessor R. A. 8S. MACALISTER, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A.

“That no antiquities of any kind were discovered in the
Giant’s Ring is not surprising, having regard to the probable nature
of the Monument. Indeed, from one point of view the negative
result is not unsatisfactory, as it is an indication that the study
of this and analogous monuments, after many and devious experi-
ments, has at last settled down on proper critical lines.

That the monument was primarily sepulchral may be taken
for granted ; also that it belongs to the Dolmen building period.
That is to say, it dates from the time of the overlap between the
stone age and the bronze age, though probably a little nearer in
date to the former than to the latter period, i.e., early in the
time of overlap. ;

There is no doubt that the stone monument in the centre of
the ring was erected over the sepulchre itself, the structure being
designed, like all dolmens, after the model of a house. It is,
indeed, the “ eternal house” provided for the use of the soul, in
which food and the offerings could be provided from time to time.

The stratum of burning found in-a patch immediately to the
north-east of the Dolmen, may possibly mark the site of a dwel-
ling, perhaps the actual dwelling of the deceased, though this
of course can only be a matter of conjecture.

The mound of earth and stone surrounding the Dolmen (1)
is undoubtedly connected with it, (2) is not the rampart of a
residential enclosure, for in that case pottery and other signs of |
occupation would have been found within it. The total absence
of any such objects, and the absence af any signs of disturbance
of the soil for graves or any other purpose (excepting recent
tillage) is an indication that the enclosure within the mound was

The Giant's Ring

i)
~I

not only not occupied, but was actually avoided. We are in the
presence of a religious taboo of some kind.

It is not difficult to guess the reason of this taboo. The
ground surrounding the Dolmen is sacred to the spirit of the
_ dead person ; no unauthorized intruder dare tread upon it. At
the same time the fence protects the living, preventing the ghost
from breaking bounds and coming out to injure them in any way.
Modern savage life presents analogies with both these forms of
belief.

The modern superstitions connecting fairies with ring-forts
of this kind are survivals of this dread. Some of the so-called
ring-forts are probably at least primarily, sepulchral ; and fear of
the ghost, degenerated in more modern times to fear of the
fairies, has prevented intruders from trespassing upon them even
to our day. ‘These sepulchral ring-forts (if I may use this not
very scientific expression for convenience) are essentially of the
same type of monument as the Giant’s Ring, differing only in
their inferior size. ‘The unusual size of the Giant’s Ring may be
confidently taken as an indication of the great and important
rank which the person commemorated by it held among his
contemporaries. He was most likely deified after his death ; and
the tradition of horse races and other games held in the Ring till
modern times may well go back to the games and processions
that we may presume were held there periodically in his honour.
In this connection it is worth noticing that to the north of the
Ring is a ridge from the highest poimt of which (and from
nowhere else in the immediate neighbourhood) a view of the
interior of the Ring can be obtained. On this view point stands
a thorn tree, suggestively called the fairy thorn, though the ridge
in question, I am satisfied, is quite natural. That the exact
nature of the interment was not discovered in the recent excava-
tion can be sufficiently explained by previous looting. Such a
monument as this would be sure to attract the attention of
treasure seekers as soon as the dread of the Ghost had ceased to
influence the population.

28 Mr. H. C. Lawlor on The Giant’s Ring

Like Stonehenge, the tomb sanctuary became the centre of
a bronze Age cemetery, the graves of which were scattered
around, but not inside the Ring.

The nearest analogy to the Giant’s Ring burial that I can
quote, in Ireland, is the Bronze Age Sepulchre excavated a few
years ago at Longstone Fort, Furness, near Naas, County Kildare.*
There was at this place an earthen ring similar to that surround-
ing the Giant’s Ring Dolmen ; at its centre was a subterranean
cist burial, marked by a tall standing stone. Traces of extensive
burning were found around the cist: these the explorers
interpreted as the marks of a peat fire, probably lit for a beacon
to summon the clans to the burial of the chieftain.

The excavation has thus proved that the Giant’s Ring was
a tabooed grave sanctuary, into which intruders were not
admitted (except perhaps on the occasion of games or other
religious celebrations) ; sacred to the spirit of some great chief,
medicine-man, or other notable functionary, of the end of the
Stone or beginning of the Bronze Age (say very roughly, about
2,000 z.c.). The gigantic nature of the structure makes it
certain that the deceased was a personage of outstanding im-
portance ; and suggests the probability that the work was
carried out to his own plans and during his lifetime, though this
again is naturally conjecture only. But it is not unlikely that
he might compel his followers to erect the structure under his
own superintendence in order the more to impress his own
importance upon them.

* Proceedings Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx sec. C. p. 351.

12th February, 1918.

THE FOLK-LORE OF NORTH OF IRELAND
PLACE NAMES.

By Sir JoHn Byers, M.A., M.D.

(Abstract. )

After pointing out the importance of the study of place-
names, not merely as to their origin, but also in regard to the
curious sayings, homely proverbs, and rustic rhymes associated
with them, Sir John Byers said certain broad principles might
be laid down to form a guide in their investigation :—

First—Many place-names are not only very ancient, but also
remarkably permanent.

Second—Place-names, in their origin, are, as a rule, simple,
and show sympathy with nature.

Third—Place names are often primarily most utilitarian,
except in the case of religion and superstition.

Fourth—In the history of almost all countries, and especially
so in the case of the northern parts of Ireland, various bodies of
people—colonists and conquerors—came at different times, each
speaking a mother-tongue of their own. Now, not only did these
invaders bring place-names peculiar to themselves, but they
also adopted and often altered others already existing.

Fufth—Place-names are, in many cases, compounds made up
of a substantive or generic term, and a correlative, indicating
some attributive quality. In pronunciation, the stress or
emphasis almost invariably remains on the qualitative syllable,
and this, in English place-names, usually precedes the other,
while, on the contrary, in Celtic words, the qualitative usually
follows the substantive.

Sir John Byers illustrated each of these principles by
humerous examples, and gave a selection of proverbs, sayings,
and rhymes associated with a large number of North of Ireland
place-names.

12th March, 1918.
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF TELEPHONY.
By Mr. rasta M.A.
(Abstract.

The true student is always working at experimental
psychology. The working of the human mind is the most en-
trancing subject, and wherever we are we can watch its operations.
The waiter in Mr. Bernard Shaw’s early comedy asked us all to
watch the working of the barrister’s brain. But not only
barristers have brains, and the true experimentalist will wish to
gather his data from a wider field. He will be interested in the
human mind normally, so to speak. He will watch carefully
when any factor comes into the normal life which will enable him
to study the human mind afresh. Now I am about to claim that
the telephone is such a factor. It will be my effort to show that
some of the fundamental problems of psychology are capable of
fresh consideration by reason of the data which the use of the
telephone has placed at our disposal. For the telephone was
something more than a new instrument of communication ; it
was a revolutionary change in our method of communication ; the
telegraph was less revolutionary. The written message still
obtained, not essentially different from the written message which
we put carefully in an envelope. It was more brief, more blunt.
It eschewed the pretty politenesses of the ready letter writer, the
“kind regards,” the “ Yours faithfully,” the “best love to all,”
and “hope to find you well as it leaves me at present.” It went
to the point without fuss or flummery. But the telephone
wrought a revolution. It brought us back to the courtesies of
speech ; it threw the cumbrous art of handw™ting overboard.
It called on us to face each other direct ana without inter-
mediary, and so it affected our mental relationship. Deep called

The Psychology of Telephony 31

directly unto deep. And so it came about that the rector of a
distant Yorkshire village, what time he spent his leisure making
the telephone into a practicable means of day-by-day communica-
tion, really wrought more wisely than he knew. He really set
out to put the human mind to a severe test, for the human mind
had grown accustomed to the written word as its means of com-
munication, and not readily, as I hope you will see, did it fit
itself into the new conditions. Telephony is only at the begin-
ning, we have heard again and again, but I think it is nearer the
truth to say that the human mind in its appreciation of the
differences which have been wrought by telephony is only at the
beginning.

To begin with, we have not grasped the central fact that the
telephone annihilates distance. Whatever may be our explana-
tion and our theory of the Kantian categories of time and space,
the fact remains that the telephone illustrates how deeply the
framework of space is upon our minds. It is shown in the first
place by the way we bawl into a telephone. That comes from
the idea that the persons to whom we are speaking is far away.
We shout as if we were shouting at them across a valley. The
fact is that the people are very near to us. They are so near, in
fact, that in auditory efficiency they are only a few feet. This is
proved by the use of the telephone for persons with inefficient
hearing, where the telephone actually is only a few feet distant.
But our mental framework is such that we cannot bring ourselves
to realize that the telephone has annihilated distance, that it has
broken down all walls and barriers, that it has given us a
whispering nearness to the person to whom we are speaking.
Which of us, using the telephone, realizes for 2 moment that our
lips are to our friend’s ear? That puts in a phrase the fact that
we have but little conception of what the telephone has done in
the annihilation of space.

Now let us examine the content of this conservative
psychology. In the first place the phraseology which we use
is based on the emphasis of distance. It is as though we thought

32 Mr. John Lee on

we are still speaking with two tin cans and a drum of parchment,
now shouting at the parchment and now turning our mouths
away and shouting through the pure air, “Could you hear that
Bill?” The favourite phrase is“ Are you there?” It is an
emphasis of distance, a puerile phrase, an indication of vacuity
of mind, for indeed we should shudder if the answer “No!” came
along. The word “Hello!” which is regarded with disfavour
nowadays, took its origin in the convenient shout which made
the hills resound. We need other phrases, but much more than
that we need the psychological realization that the person to
whom we are speakingisclose by. Until we get this psychological
realization we shall never use the telephone efficiently. , No
matter how Science may improve it, no matter how clearly and
distinctly the newer receiver may give us the distant voice, so
long as we have the framework of distance and of wonder as
the primary outfit of our minds, just so long shall we shout
“Hello!” and “Are you there?” and so long will the telephone
continue to be a tin can and a parchment diaphragm. *

This conception of distance vanishes from the mind of the
expert. I could show you a group of ladies speaking with infinite
ease from London to all the great towns of the country. They
pass from the Brighton subscriber to the Liverpool subscriber
with infinite ease. They speak in a soft, subdued voice, a
trained voice, as if they realized the new intimacy. They are
not overwhelmed with the wonder of the thing ; they are taught
to harness the lightning and not to shudder at it. They will
say “Liverpool” with a rising inflexion, which meaus “ Please
tell me, Liverpool, if you are within earshot ;” they will reply
“Liverpool” with a falling inflexion which says: “I am in
attendance ; I am Liverpool and not Newcastle-on-Tyne”; but
it does not say or suggest “I am at Liverpool, two hundred miles
away.” ‘That intimate and trusting use of the telephone needs
to be cultivated and then the telephone will be really useful, but
it is not done in a generation. The framework of mind to
which we have grown accustomed is not readily changed. ‘The

The Psychology of Telephony 33

psychology of adaptation to habit throws its tyranny over us
and holds that tyranny fast for many a generation.

This is why we use stilted speech and why we shrink from
intimacy. We speak in the mode of the writer rather than in
the natural mode of the speaker. We labour under the burden
of distance, which is always present with us, and we speak on the
telephone, as Queen Victoria said of Mr. Gladstone, just as if we
were addressing a public meeting. The personal nature of a
telephone conversation has not yet been grasped. Of this fact
we can see various evidences. The telephone is used outrageously
in the drama. The speakers bellow through the instrument,
and their conversation is a repetition of what the other fellow
says:— Mayfair 1861, that you Jimmie? Oh, you are going
to catch the 12-30 to Bournemouth, are you? Ah, it will be a
very pleasant day. Yes, I like the Royal Hotel, too.” ‘There is
a typical stage conversation It includes what Jimmie said and
no more. In fact it is designed to convey what Jimmie said
and nothing else. It is the crudest of stage conventions. But
it is having one more influence in robbing the telephone of its
intimacy. After seeing a telephone play who would trust the
instrument with any secret at all? What may thus be said of
the drama can be said with redoubled energy of the Kinema.
Watch the Kinema actress seize the telephone! Watch her as
she brings it to her mouth! You can literally see her shouting
into it. If ever there is a time when one rejoices at the silence
of the Kinema it is when the telephone is in evidence. Indeed
the telephone and its particular utility in disseminating sound
has become the very warp and woot of the Kinemadrama. And
that is not the function of the telephone at all. It is the most
secret of methods of communication. To-day between 10 a.m.
and 11 am. there were some 20,000 conversations in Belfast
They were intimate and secret The operators do not listen to
them ; they have something else to do, for the operator’s work
is so scientifically scheduled that she connects some 240 calls in
the hour, and you will at once see that she has little chance of

34 Mr. John Lee on

listening, and if she had a chance the one thing she would have
no taste for would be to listen. It is safer to speak on the
telephone than to speak in a tramcar; it is safer to speak on
the telephone than to write. Yet none of us really comprehend
the fact.

I am assured that love-making on the telephone is only
indulged by rare souls who have learned to trust the instrument.
I heard a story some years ago of a man who was known by all
the public (including the telephone staff) to be appallingly in
love with his wife; it was in the earlier days. An operator
found him speaking to his wife; the temptation was too great
and she listened, alas! ‘‘ And besides,” he said, “I think I saw
a cobweb over the middle of the sideboard. Id sack her, if I
were you.” It was unpoetic; it cured the operator of listening.
But if you want evidence on this heading come with me to the
realm of fiction. English fiction makes a good deal of the love
interest. Yet you never can find an instance of a love scene on
the telephone. The young couple will speak by telephone, but it
is a chastened and restrained conversation. I saw a novel last
year which handled the situation in this somewhat crude fashion :
“Molly!” “Yes, dear.” “Did you get my letter?” “Yes,
what a lovely letter!” ‘‘ Which part did you like best?” “Oh,
the last paragraph, it was lovely!” “Ill write again
to-night.” ““ Will you say it all over again?” “Yes, dear.”
“That will be lovely.” Personally, I do not believe that such a
conversation ever took place; I doubt if any self-respecting
telephone would stand it. But it throws a light on telephone
psychology. The writer of that novel was perfectly certain that
on the telephone you could only hint at what you intended to
say, and that the real declaration of one’s inner feelings must be
under a sealed cover. I shall come back to this aspect of the
question later, but this timidity is all a part of the one fundamental
characteristic of our use of the telephone—we have not realized
that it annihilates distances—we have not realized its beautiful
intimacy. Space is part of the framework of our minds, except

The Psychology of Telephony 35

when dissolved by the faculty of sight. Some telephone
_ philosophers think that we shall never be rid of the disability
until seeing by telephone (so to speak) becomes an accomplished
fact ; just as we read in that ancient classic, the Book of Job,
“LT have heard of thee by the hearing of the ear, but now mine
eye seeth thee.” Something has been done in that direction, but
not yet is it part of the interchange of communication, and I am
afraid that it is not likely to be. We shall have to modify our
telephone psychology without the aid of sight, and it will be a
good discipline for us.

Much the same might be said as regards time. For some
mysterious reasons, which I cannot explain, time is always
erratic on the telephone. I have had respectable citizens, even
ministers of religion, tell me in days gone by that the operator
kept them waiting ten minutes. In one case it was a bishop,
usually harmless, kindly disposed, and a lover of his kind. He
had waited 35 seconds for an answer—too long, we admit, but
his conception of the period was amazing. I tried him with my
official stop watch, and I asked him to guess the length of certain
periods of time both with the telephone in his hand and without
the telephone. His guess was wonderfully accurate without the
telephone, but with the telephone invariably he quadrupled
the time once it got beyond ten seconds. Other citizens are affected
in the other direction. They ask for a number; the operator
picks up a peg and taps the terminal and finds the number
engaged. She conveys the information to the caller. Of course
she is quick ; she is trained to be quick ; we know to the decimal
of a second how long it takes her to perform the operation. But
I am constantly told that she never tries at all, that she just
says number engaged” out of spite or negligence. And this
summary reflection on her honour is always based on the pre-
sumption that the interval of time is not sufficient. Now it may
as well be said that with the telephone in one’s hand the estimate
of the lapse of small periods of time is invariably aberrant. Why
it should be so I do not know, but I have tried my own estimate

36 Mr. John Lee on

again and again and have found it hopelessly wrong. Certainly
I am not ready to condemn an operator merely on my own
conception of the passage of time ; nor am I prepared to pit my
conjecture of the passage of time against that of the various
appliances given to the operator for making the record, appliances
which both indicate the time and check the record. There are
circumstances in which three minutes seems to be a desperately
short period ; I expect the young man and maiden, to whose
conversation I have already alluded, would think it had only
lasted seconds when, in truth, it ran into tens of minutes. Other
types of conversation seem to be prolonged. But the telephone
machine is ruthless. Three minutes in its eyes are three single
minutes. The operator who asks you to have another call has
no interest whatever in cutting you short. She herself has her
observers. She is doing her duty under the eyes of strict
supervision. She is not knitting, even in days when all the rest
of the world is knitting. She is not reading novelettes. She is
not talking to her young man, that phantom young man of the
subscriber’s fancy, for to her the telephone is a professional
thing, and even when all the rest of the world does its love-
making by telephone she will scorn to do so. For to her it is
unpoetic, her bread and butter, her craft. To the rest of the
world it isan embroidery on life ; to her it is life itself. It has
modified her conception of space and time in that it has made
them real and accurate, the things-in-themselves. The rest of
the world are only in process of having its conceptions modified.
Psychologically she is in advance of her time.

There are other characteristics. It is strange how numbers
are affected by the telepbone. New limitations of memory are
revealed. The transposition of digits follow broadly certain well-
known laws. A subscriber will look at the directory and pick
out a umber, say 3547. This is a difficult number to remember
in the brief period which elapses from the printed page to the
telephone. Why? Because the human mind yearns to give the
figures in sequence, and it will give them in sequence unless it is

The Psychology of Telephony 37

watched. So that 3547 becomes 3457 in, as we may say, the
twinkling of an eye. You will agree that there are certain
numhers which will not stick in your memory. There are many
instances where subscribers are frequently unable to remember
their own numbers. The introduction of the “double” was a
help. 3, double 5, 7 is an easy number to remember, for this
reason. No doubt some of you have felt aggrieved when we
introduced “O” (Oh!) instead of “0” (nought), yet we had a
reason on our side. It is much easier to articulate “Oh” than
“nought”; it is especially to be appreciated in respect of
“double oh” ; it is a clearer demarcation from 9. A telephone
company in the middle West of America once proposed the
substitution of “cinq” for “five,” in order to avoid the old
confusion between “9” and “5.” That was an heroic sugges-
tion. We have to get over it by teaching the staff the careful
articulation of “ five ”—rather long—and “nine,” crisp and sharp.
You will notice, though it is uot so striking in Belfast as else-
where, because it is nearer the normal in speech, that our
operators roll their r’s, that they say “sev—en,” that they pro-
nounce the consonants clearly ; of course they repeat back the
figures, as a safeguard, rather differently from the way in which
the subscriber has passed them. All this, you say, has nothing
to do with psychology ; it is a mere matter of articulation.

But it has a great deal to do with psychology. Do not
forget that the telephone is a metallic instrument. It makes its
speech by the vibration of a metallic diaphragm. Compare this
to the beautiful flexibility of the human instrument and you will
realise that the telephone is at a great disadvantage. Moreover
there are some sounds which it is said the telephone does not
carry at all, such as sibilants. Now here comes in psychology.
The telephone auditor, in listening to the sounds which reach his
ear has to build them up into the likeness of speech which
reaches his ear direct and without the interposition of a metallic
diaphragm. There are therefore two arts involved.’ There is
the art of telephone speech, which has acquired by a process

c

38 Mr. John Lee on

largely subconscious the method of masking those sounds which
are less efficiently carried by the metallic medium and of slightly
emphasizing those sounds which are definitely and clearly carried
by the medium. There is also the art of telephone hearing by
which one learns to rely on the clearer consonants and to fit in
the sounds which come less definitely. So it comes about that
the person who hears most efficiently on the telephone is not the
person whose hearing is most acute, but he who has reasonably
good hearing and who also has the quasi-musical gift of building
sounds into sound phrases, “out of three sounds he makes,” as
Browning says, “not a fourth sound but a star.” Everyone is
not equally successful with telephone speech, but it is true that
far more persons are successful with telephone speech than with
telephone hearing. Having said this by way of fundamental, I
have to point out that there are further subtleties. In some
extraordinary way not yet explicable there are certain sympathies
which we have to take into account. Certain speakers appeal to
certain hearers. Certain methods of articulation seem to suit
certain psychological tendencies in piecing together the sounds
which do come and the sounds which do not come. I have
known cases where speakers whom I should expect to be per-
fectly clear on the telephone do not produce this effect at the
distant end. Also I have known cases where men whose hearing
is thought to be imperfect have shown astonishing skill in being
able to interpret methods of articulation which do not suit the
metallic medium of the telephone. The fact is that the telephone
does not seem to us to be mechanical. We have forgotten that
it can only apply the transmission of sounds to human use by
means of a mechanical medium. There is a great religious leader
who is said to be buried with a telephone in his coffin, readily
joined up, to be used in emergencies. That was a profound
compliment to the telephone. For that religious leader always
asserted the purely spiritual nature of the resurrection, and in
doing so he forgot that by installing a telephone he was insisting
upon a mechanical means of transition,

The Psychology of Telephony 39

But something more than the voice is carried. Mechanical
though the instrument is yet it does convey a conception of
character. There are some, though very few, well-authenticated
cases of “ falling in love,” that emotional crisis of which psycho-
logists have given so many and so varied explanations, over the
telephone, without any personal or direct acquaintance. The
New York Telephone Company tells its operators that the culti-
vation of a soft voice is a sure way to matrimony and points
boldly to statistics which proves the thesis quite as readily as
they prove anything else. But it is not the soft voice which
alone, to use a colloquialism, “does the trick.” There is some
intangible method or inexplicable method of conveying the sense
of character by telephone. The subscriber sometimes lays down
his telephone, smiles benignly, and says “ That is a real, nice
girl.” Of course she is. But why does he sayso? He knows
nothing of the colour of her hair, the poise of her head, the slow
graceful carriage of her body, all so dear to the novelist who
describes in his own way the motions of love. She has spoken
courteously to him—perhaps to the extent of half-a-dozen words,
and at once he makes up his mind that if the worst comes to the
worst he will take her as a daughter-in-law. He sums up her charac-
ter in a twinkling, without a shadow of doubt, not caring how she
behaves to her brother, what her ideals are for the future govern-
ment of the world, or how she could make a currant cake, in
days, that is, when there were currants. I believe that the arrival
of our young women as telephonists in France had a marked
influence. Crusty generals adopted almost tender addresses ;
weather-beaten colonels found the telephone suddenly efficient ;
subalterns developed new chivalrous instincts. They could not
help it, for courtesy and determination to help are infectious.
Indeed I could go farther. The telephone reveals character in
an amazing way. Ordinary interchange of speech often hides
our motives. “ We say unkind things in a kind way.” But the
telephone brings out the hidden springs. John Smith, whom
you know as a decent citizen, cordial and reasonably kindly, is

40) _ Mr. John Lee on

known to be a brute on the telephone. Not that he changes his
spots like the leopard, but that the telephone reveals the spots.
There is something to be said, therefore, for the Cupid-blind
method of making perfect marriages, not in Heaven, but by the
telephone. Only those who do it must trust the telephone abso-
lutely and, as I have shown, it is not easy. For the average man
or woman amongst us the telephone will be an enemy to love-
making. It will reveal that skeleton in the cupboard of our
characters which, at any cost, must remain hidden. The tele-
phone is the Mother Hubbard who goes to the cupboard and
finds not merely a bone but the complete skeleton.

There is room yet for a vast amount of research on this
subject. Not indeed that those of us who have spent years of
our lives associated with telephone practice have ignored the
subject. But for the true investigation the student will need a
considerable knowledge of the mechanics of voice production and
of the science of acoustics. Even so, he will be imperfectly
equipped unless he has some acquaintance with the modern
developments of psychology. For some of the margin of these
studies belongs to psychology. You will readily understand now
how strange errors occur in telephone speech. There have been
instances where whole phrases have been imagined, to use the
popular phrase. It is as if the sub-conscious mind, in building
up the material which I have indicated, was sometimes urged
forward to operate beyond its proper limits. And other senses
come into play. I once knew a telephonist who, whenever she
had the task of controlling a certain circuit, always declared that
she could smell the chemicals, which were notably allowed to
escape in the town at the other end. The remedy was simple.
A telephonist who had never been in that town was altogether
unaware of the smell. Indeed we have found that the active
co-operation of the sub-conscious mind in telephone operating has
produced the most curious results. It has not the check which
vision places upon it, and in some temperaments has heen
rather inclined to lead to difficulties. But you must remember

The Psychology of Telephony 4]

that in saying this we are dealing with a twilight realm. The
simple fact is that clear enunciation of consonants reduces this
twilight realm to very small dimensions. The experienced auditor,
using reasonable care, reduces the possibility of error to almost a
negligible degree. In that division of the Head Post Office where
telegrams are accepted by telephone—the most severe ordeal to
which the telephone is subjected—there is a singularly small
proportion of error. Of course we take special pains and it is a
subject which is always being studied, but in the main it is true
to say that the errors are no more numerous than in the case of
telegraphs proper. And it has long been known that even in
respect of telegraph symbols, clear and definite though they
appear to be, psychological factors have their place in the accuracy
of signalling and receiving.

The new science of experimental psychology is making big
demands upon us to-day. Even vast wars are influenced by
psychological means: the temperament of nations is regarded as
a proper field for the operation of suggestion, and it looks as if
the might of arms were within the influence of psychology to
some extent which we cannot estimate. From great things we
come to small, and I claim that if we are to use the telephone
efficiently we cannot despise the close study of these psychological
factors. If we kept some sort of open mind on the subject, some
sort of tolerant expectation of more light, we should be less prone,
at times, to lose our tempers and less prone to blame a body of
women who are rendering the public really faithful and zealous
service. For the greatest beauty of the telephone lies in the fact
that it makes a corporate demand. The best telephone in the
world cannot give an efficient service to the man who does not
speak clearly to the middle of the diaphragm and does not strive
to gather together all the elements of sound which go to make
up the speech which is destined for him. The psychology of the
telephone is the psychology of mutual dependence. It affects us
far more than we suppose. It modifies our speech > it quickens
and enlightens our hearing ; it sharpens that sub-conscious mind

42 Mr. John Lee on The Psychology of Telephony

which works ever on our behalf. It shows us that evidence
which we take to be certain is not always positive ; it warns us
that sometimes we err in that unconsciously we have made a
a mental contribution to contributory facts as they seem
objectively to be. It is a check against over-confidence, a guide-
post against assertiveness, a builder of character in that we learn
the lowliness of the human unit and his dependence upon factors
the existence of which he has scorned. ‘Thus I claim for tele-
phony a creditable position in the world of psychological practice-
Not yet has it come into its own. Only for some 30 years has it
affected on any considerable plane our day-by-day lives. But
when the day comes, as come it may soon, for the telephone to be
extended so as to fulfil more nearly its proper function, we shall
realise how great has been its kingdom over the human mind, for
in that day the kingdom of the human mind will have its true
place among the realms of earth, its true dignity in the league of
nations.

9th April, 1918.
DISCONTINUITY IN THE PHENOMENA OF
RADIATION.

By Mr. James Rick, M.A.

The idea of continuity has been of supreme importance in
the development of all departments of Science. Let us be clear
at the outset as to What this idea implies. It certainly does not
preclude the possibility of swdden changes, 1.e., changes in the
properties of bodies taking place at rates which are to be regarded
as very much greater than the normal values for such rates. To
take a simple example, the impact of two billiard balls offers an
illustration of the fact that a change may be sudden without
being discontinuous ; for we have no reason to suppose that the
laws of motion, to which the balls are subject at the other
periods of their motion, are inoperative during the brief interval
when they are in contact and their surfaces are being progressively
strained from their normal shapes and restored to it. A dis-
continuity in a natural occurrence implies the existence of a
period of time, long or short, in which laws, previously assumed
to be of a general character, are found to fail and cease to explain
the occurrence in a manner consistent with established principles.

It is in the realm of Biology that the notion of continuity
has made its most sigual contribution to the advaucement of
science. The assumption of the evolutionary growth of all living
forms from protoplasm without the intervention of “special
creations” is the most striking example of the application of the
principle of continuity to which one can direct the attention of a
general audience. Yet even in this department of science pheno-
mena in which discontinuities appear to be present have been
plentiful ; so much so that the particular theory of variation of
species which is associated with the name of Darwin has had to

44 _ Mr. James Rice on

be modified and extended in the constant endeavour to obtain
a principle wide enough to bridge the gaps which constantly come
into view with our increasing knowledge.

The part which continuity has played in the development of
Mathematics and Physics is not so well known, but students of
those subjects can bear testimony to the fact that without it
their present position would not have been attained The
calculus is the very embodiment of mathematical continuity, and
it is in the realm of the so-called “continuous functions” that it
has given the most striking examples of its power. The belief
that all physical and chemical phenomena are but continuous
transformations of energy from one form to another, which could
ultimately be explained by the laws of Dynamics, has had a pro-
found effect on the minds of all physicists and chemists. But
the struggle between discontinuity and continuity is making
itself felt here in a manner too marked to ignore. The desire to
found his subject on a vigorous and unassailable basis has of late
driven the mathematician from those elegant applications and
developments of mathematical analysis with which all mathe-
matical students are so familiar, to the close and careful
scrutiny of his methods and assumptions and the thorough study
of those discontinuities and singularities in mathematical functions
which his predecessors used to pass by with airy indifference. In
Physics we are faced with difficulties of a like nature. By reason
of the refinements of modern experimental methods older theories
of radiation and the heat content of bodies have been found
wanting. Where we previously pictured an output of energy in
a continuous and orderly fashion, we have now apparently to
postulate something of a catastrophic nature, a discontinuous
emission of energy, whose essentially disturbing feature is not so
much its suddenness, as our inability to fit it into the scheme of
laws and equations which have hitherto served to summarise our
knowledge in this branch of science. The solution of this diffi-
culty will, it is expected, provide us with the key to several other
ditfieulties still preventing an advance in this subject.

Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation 45

It is to this particular difficulty that I wish to direct your
attention this evening, and to make the matter as intelligible as
possible to the non-physicists among you, I must recapitulate
certain facts and definitions; and in this recapitulation the
exigencies of time prevent me paying too much attention to the
historical and logical order of the development of the ideas
presented.

The nineteenth century witnessed the foundation of the
energy principle. In a limited form conservation of energy may
be said to date back to Galileo, and Newton made a clear state-
ment of it for a restricted range of phenomena ; but it is on the
work of Carnot, Joule, Clausius, Rankine, Thomson and Helm-
holtz that its acceptance in the widest sense reposes to-day.
That form of energy which we most readily apprehend is the
energy of moving matter—so-called kinetic energy—and the
mathematical physicist demonstrates for us how it is to be
measured, viz., by multiplying half the mass of the body by the
square of the velocity, and, if need be, by certain numerical
factors also, according to the particular units in which we desire
to express the result—ergs, joules, foot-pounds, etc. Another
form’of energy possessed by matter is that known as energy of
position or energy of configuration. A body possesses this by
reason of its occupying a position of advantage with respect to
other matter in the universe which is exerting force on it, or
by reason of the fact that it is strained from what may be called
its natural shape or configuration. Such energy is generally re-
ferred to as “ potential” ; for if the body leaves its position of
advantage or returns towards its natural shape it does so with
increasing movement, i.e., with gradual increase of kinetic energy,
so that this acquired energy of motion may be said to be latent
or potential in the matter as it was originally situated or strained.
The important feature about the possession of this type of energy
is that it depends upon the action on the body, by other matter,
of forces which arise solely from the position of the body or from
elastic stresses set up in the body by its deformation—forces and

46 _ Mr. James Rice on

stresses which are quite independent of the body’s state of
motion, and which exist whether it is at rest at or in motion
through the position or configuration considered. Once more the
mathematician teaches us how to measure the amount of potential
energy which a body in one position possesses in excess of what it
possesses in another, viz., by the mechanical work of the forces
as the body passes from the first—and more advantageous—
and less advantageous—position. The
formulae obtained vary with the nature of the forces involved
and the particular laws which connect the magnitude of the
forces with the relative position of the body. In one very
important case, the energy of a raised mass, the measure is
obtained by multiplying the weight by the height, and perhaps by
a numerical factor suitable to a special unit of energy. In

position to the second

another case, the energy of a stretched string, the result depends
on the tension and the elongation of the string—half their pro-
duct giving the energy of strain.

It used to be urged against the workings of the scientific
mind that it sought to give a “mechanical” explanation to the
universe and to life itself—the implication being that in so
doing it affected to regard living matter as a “dead machine,”
an automaton without emotions or feelings. The implication
was, of course, false, but the original statement contained an
element of truth in so far as there has always been on the part
of the scientist an effort to explain all physical and chemical
changes in terms of movement of matter, especially matter in
the molecular, atomic or subatomic form; such movement being
always subject to the dynamical laws, which were first propounded
clearly by Newton, and whose consequences were fully worked
out by the great mathematicians of the 18th and early 19th
century. One of the deductions from these laws establishes the
existence of an exact equivalence between the two forms of
energy just dealt with, whenever the forces involved are of a
conservative nature—in practice this would exclude the action
of forces arising from friction and percussion. Whenever the

Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation 47

body loses energy of motion under these restricted conditions, it
gains energy of position and vice-versd, or at all events this
conservation can be demonstrated for a system of bodies which,
while mutually acting and reacting on one another, are freed
from external influence. For many years, the view that heat
was a material substance, barred the natural extension of this
deduction to the view which regards the molecules and atoms of
a body as a system of bodies, themselves subject to dynamical
laws, and consequently brings their relative motions and positions
within the scope of the energy principle. With the gradual
abandonment of the belief in the material nature of heat, came
the conviction that heat was but the energy of molecular agitation.
This, at all events, was a tenable and highly plausible hypothesis,
and permitted a great extension of the energy principle on
the assumption that all intermolecular forces, such as cohesion
and those developed during friction or impact were subject to
Newton’s laws. That was the state of affairs when in 1840 Joule
began his famous experiments on the equivalence between heat
developed by friction and the mechanical work expended in
maintaining the motion of the rubbing bodies. The positive
results of Joule’s work and that of his successors constitute one of
the finest achievements of the 19th century. After that first step
other developments followed rapidly. Not only can matter in
its molecular and atomic form possess energy of motion; it can
also possess potential energy. Energy of strain becomes resolved
into the mutual energy of position of the individual molecules
separated as they are from one another in their vibrational
movement against their mutual attractions. The absorption by
a liquid of latent heat as it is converted into vapour is but the
conversion of kinetic energy of the molecules of the fluid into
potential energy as those molecules escape from the liquid, and
not only rise against gravity but also separate considerably trom
one another against the mutual attractions which hold them
together in the condensed form. ‘The electric energy of the
materials of a voltaic cell, the chemical energies of various

48 Mr. James Rice on

substances which enter into combination with one another are
also examples of molecular potential energy, and all are capable
of being converted into molecular kinetic energy-—it is this con-
version we are dealing with when we speak of heat of reaction,
combination, combustion, and so on. Indeed we measure such
energies by the amounts of heat procurable by their conversion
under well-defined conditions. The work of Joule and _ his
followers has given us, as it were, a currency in which we can
measure any amount of energy and in any form, just as in the
world of economics we measure the value of all commodities in
terms of one commodity—money. All forms of energy are
ultimately measurable in terms of heat energy, although in actual
experience we may measure an amount of energy in terms of an
energy which is not thermal but one whose value in thermal
units is known.

We have by no means exhausted all our stores of energy in
the short statement just made. Energy, for instance, reaches us
from the sun in a form whose importance is manifest to all. It
is established beyond doubt that it requires some time to reach
us—about 8 minutes in fact. It is decidedly inconvenient for us
to conceive a quantity of energy leaving the sun at an instant
and turning up on the earth’s surface 8 minutes later, if we can-
not make it give some account of itself in the meanwhile. We
absolutely refuse to believe that it is non-existent in the interim.
There is no material substance in the intervening space to attach
it to; so we invent one, put the energy into it, and call it
radiant energy. A very arbitrary act, no doubt, and many
scientists, even the great Newton himself, had serious doubts
about it. Yet the “proof of pudding, etc.” Its justification lies
in the coordination of our knowledge thereby effected, a coor.
dination whose completeness can only be appreciated by those
engaged in the study of physical science.

To the physicist, indeed, it is not a question of the existence
of the ethereal medium ; his difficulty lies in its nature ; his
doubts are centred around the properties he is to aseribe to it.

Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation 49

For many years some of the best brains in Europe struggled to
show that there was, for instance, no essential differeuce between
the transmission of a beam of light through the ether, the trans-
mission of an earthquake shock through the earth, and the
transmission of a wave through water. But it was just on the
nice combination in the ether of the property of rigidity possessed
by an elastic solid like the earth with the property of fluidity
possessed by water, that full success was wanting. There came
a second phase when Clarke Maxwell, abandoning attempts to
explain the physical properties of the ether in terms of those of
matter, essentially reversed the problem, and began the modern
attempt to found an electrical theory of matter by pointing out
the similarity of light waves to the electrical waves with which
we girdle the earth to-day—although Maxwell himself did not
live to see his prediction of the existence of these waves actually
verified. Tremendous success followed on this suggestion ; it
proved a landmark in the history of Physics; but like all great
advances, it brought its own difficulties, and those difficulties have
accumulated until to-day it would appear that we are awaiting
the advent of another genius, a Newton or a Maxwell, to usher
us into a third phase. The trouble is, to put the matter in a
crude way, that the ether, so far from being a substance whose
existence is in doubt, has acquired such enormous importance
that we are hard put to it to explain why it does not possess all
the energy in the universe, and why matter, as we appreciate it
by our senses, possesses any at all and is not in reality the dead
and inert thing so scorned by a former generation of anti scientific
speculators.

To appreciate the nature of the present impasse, I must ask
you to follow me into some considerations of a rather special
nature, concerned with the manner in which the _ physicist
measures radiant energy and in what particulars he distinguishes
one quality of radiation from another. ‘To be sure, in the eye
one has an instrument in some slight degree suitable for that
purpose—but one too crude and too limited in its range to be of

50 Mr. James Rice on

much scientific value. For one thing, the eye is quite incapable
of distinguishing between two radiations producing the same
colour sensation, which a modern spectrometer will resolve with
the greatest ease ; for another, as is well known, the particular
qualities of radiant energy which are capable of affecting the
retina constitute a very narrow range of the totality of ethereal
vibrations.

We can probably approach the question in hand by con-
sidering a wave motion in a medium where we can follow the
occurrences with great ease. Picture a small needle with its
point just touching the surface of a pool of water, and compelled
by some mechanism to oscillate up and down; a disturbance is
created in the water, and alternate crests and troughs travel out
with a definite speed from the centre of disturbance. There are
obviously three quantities of immediate importance; one is the
frequency of oscillation of the needle or disturbing mechanism,
i.e., the number of vibrations executed per second ; the second is
the wave length of the train of waves sent out—that is, the
distance from crest to crest, or trough to trough, or, in general,
between two successive rings of water in the same phase of
motion ; the third is the speed at which the rings travel out. Of
course, when we speak of the rings travelling out, we are refer-
ring to an outward movement , not of the water itself, but of a
particular form or configuration of the water. As far as the
water is concerned, each drop of it is rising and falling like the
needle point, and with the same frequency. Very little experi-
menting is needed to prove to us that the more frequent the
oscillations of the needle the shorter is the wave-length of the
ripples. Indeed, a little thought shows that the two are very
simply connected, that in fact the wave-length is the distance
which the disturbance advances outwards while the needle
executes one complete up and down oscillation, so that the wave-
length is determined by a division of the speed of the ripple
movement by the frequency of the needle’s oscillation. It is
clear that for such simple and almost ideal wave motions as these

Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation ou

one important distinguishing factor is wave-length, or its equiva-
lent, frequency. Another feature is the amplitude of the
oscillation of the wave particles, i.e., the extent of movement
between the highest and lowest point. This diminishes, no
doubt, as we recede from the needle, but at any one defined spot
it depends on the amplitude of movement of the needle, and may
be inereased or decreased by variation of the extent of the
needle’s oscillation. So we naturally discriminate between two
ripple-trains by the details—wave length (or frequency) and
amplitude. The water is, morever, the receptacle of energy which
is being imparted to it by the vibrating mechanism of the needle,
and which we readily apprehend as existing in one of the two
most familiar forms, kinetic energy or potential energy. At
places where the water is momentarily at its undisturbed level,
the energy is entirely that of motion ; for there each particle is
passing through its mean position, upward or downward, with its
greatest speed. At the trough or crest the energy of each
particle is for the instant all potential, since in the former case
the pressure of the surrounding elevated water gives an excess
of upward force which will presently impart kinetic energy to the
drop against downward-acting gravity, while at the crest the
conditions are reversed, but with the same result—possession of
potential energy. At other phases of motion the energy is partly
kinetic and partly potential. But whatever the form it takes,
the existence of an energy in the water, which has _ been
“emitted ” by the mechanism controlling the needle, is obvious.
I have chosen this very simple and commonplace example of
wave-motion, because its very simplicity exhibits all the essentials
for a general grasp of radiation problems ; it is, in fact, a case of
actual radiation in the wide sense in which that word is used
to-day. Allow me to make a little further use of it, in order to
show you how physicists measure the wave-lengths of those
ethereal vibrations which possess the simple qualities which we
have attributed to the ripples. In the case of the ripples them-
selves the measurement of the wave-length would appear to be a

52 | Mr. James Rice on

simple matter of a ruler. It is nothing so easy. I should not
envy the man who essayed to measure the wave-length of a train
of moving ripples to an accuracy of, say, one per cent., with
nothing but a foot-rule for apparatus. And yet the measurement
has in it simplifying elements absent from the corresponding pro-
blem for light waves. The medium, water, appeals directly to
our senses; its oscillations, which are of course not merely
surface phenomena, are all the more easily observed by the fact
that there is a surface whose changes of form disclose to us the
underlying movements. Further, even in the case of the tiniest
ripples, the wave-lengths are enormous compared with those of
light. However, if you look at this slide*, it may help you to
obtain a sufficient idea of the means adopted by the physicist for
attacking this problem. This picture is an instantaneous photo-
graph of the surface of a shallow dish of water which is being
disturbed by the oscillations of two needles, both vibrating with
equal periods, and each one exciting a ring-shaped train of ripples
whose wave lengths are equal. The apparatus employed in the
production of this picture is called a ripple-tank, and requires the
nicest adjustment between the mechanism actuating the needles,
which is an electrically driven tuning fork, and the photographic
apparatus, which is in reality a scientific adaptation of the cine-
matograph camera. ‘The picture shows you an instantaneous
view of the surface of the water. What you observe is that along
a series of radial lines or channels, diverging from a spot between
the needles, the water is absolutely undisturbed, while along the
intervening radial channels you have the water surface corrugated
in crests and troughs, The photograph shows you that as a
matter of fact along certain paths there is no energy of vibration
transmitted at all; the two wave-trains are said to interfere
along such lines. Along the intervening paths the wave-trains
reinforce one another, and all the energy emitted by the vibrating
mechanism is directed along these channels. The reason for this

Pg.

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Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation 53

state of affairs may be gathered from the next slide”, which
presents to you a diagram illustrating by thick and dotted lines
the crests and troughs of each wave-train as they would be
situated at a definite moment, were the other train absent.
Where crest cuts crest, or trough cuts trough you would expect
reinforced oscillation, and you will notice that such intersections
do actually lie on radial lines ; while where crest cuts trough you
would expect interference and absence of energy flow, and such
intersections, once more, lie on radial lines, which separate the
previous set of lines. Furthermore, you will experience no
difficulty, I presume, in appreciating the fact that if the frequency
of the oscillation of the needles were increased the channels of
energy flow would be more numerous and more closely packed ;
their angular separation would be less, for with increased fre-
quency the common wave length of each train would be decreased,
the thick and dotted circles of the second slide would be more
numerous, and the lines of intersections, therefore, more numerous
as well. Indeed, there is a very simple relation which connects
the wave-length of each ripple-train with the separation of the
lines of energy flow when the distance separating the needles is
known, and by its aid wave-length could be calculated if other
and more direct methods were not available. One limiting
condition must be observed before we leave this illustration ; the
frequency of the oscillation must neither be so great nor so small
as to make the wave-length too small a fraction or too great a
multiple of the distance apart of the needles. In the first case
the channels of flow would be so numerous and closely packed as
practically to obliterate the intervening quiescent avenues, while
in the second they might not exist at all.

In applying this method to the problem of light radiation,
we naturally ask are there sources of light which send out
ethereal vibrations of such a simple character as that possessed
by our ripples, having the necessary uniformity of wave-length

baie Us (cay

54 -Mr. James Rice on

along the whole train; and also can we obtain two or more
sources of such light as nicely adjusted in phase to one another
as the needles of a ripple-tank. The answer is in the affirmative.
The light emitted from incandescent sodium, lithium, strontium,
to choose a few familiar substances, the light emitted from tubes
containing traces of any gas and electrically excited by a coil
possesses in a high degree those elements of simplicity required.
From such sources we can obtain beams of almost homogeneous
or “ monochromatic ” light, i.e., light of definite wave length or
frequency. Square across the path of such a beam we can put
what is called a grating, consisting of a series of fine, equally
spaced, parallel lines ruled by a diamond point on a piece of
glass. Such lines serve to scatter and absorb some of the
luminous energy of the advancing beam; the remainder of
the energy will emerge through the clear pieces of glass between
the lines—the spaces as they are called. These spaces, as a
matter of fact, serve as sources of light possessing that nice
adjustment of phase which was postulated above as an experimental
necessity. Instead of two such sources only, we generally have
several thousands. The essentials of the occurrence are, however,
still preserved ; it is found that the light energy is directed not
merely along its original direction, but also along several other
well defined directions. The slide shows you a crude picture
of some of the energy being directed along one direction ; it is
collected by the lens and focussed to a fine line. The slide
shows you only one of these lines corresponding to one direction
of energy flow. There are in general several such line images,
and their distance apart serves to determine the angular separation
of the various paths of the energy, and this, as you will remember,
determines the wave length. once we know the distance apart
of the successive spaces of the grating. In actual practice the
line image is projected on the vertical cross wire in a telescope
eye-piece, which permits of a very fine adjustment of the
telescope and a very precise determination of the divergence of
each energy stream from the original direction of the light. As

Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation 5D

already indicated in the ripple-tank photograph the wave length
of the light must be comparable with the distance separating
the successive spaces of the grating for the experiment to succeed.
Fourtnately the skill of such physicists as the late Professor
Rowland, of Baltimore, has placed at our disposal gratings with
as many as 14,000 lines to the inch, and also photographic copies
of these. Such fineness of ruling is absolutely necessary for
accurate work on light. The wave length of any homogeneous
light is so small compared with our usual standards of measure-
ment that we find it convenient to introduce two new units of
length into use, viz., the millionth part of a metre, i.e., the
thousandth of a millimetre, which is called a micron, and the
thousandth part of this length called a millimicron. Rowland’s
gratings have their spaces separated by distances of the order
2 to 3 microns, the separation being known from the mechanical
means by which the ruling was carried out. The results of
measurements with such gratings and other apparatus designed
for similar purposes is to prove that when we analyse the white
light of the sun or electric arc into a spectrum band on a screen
by prism or grating the light which illuminates the extreme red
end of the band has a wave-length of -8 micron approximately,
while the light illuminating the other, the violet, end is
about -4 micron in wave length. To indicate the precision of
measurement possible in spectrometric work, it is known that
the yellow light emitted from incandescent sodium vapour is
composed of two homogeneous qualities, one having a wave length
-5890 micron and the other -5896 micron, a difference in wave
length of but -6 millimicron. This excessive shortness of wave
length carries with it as its natural counterpart an extreme
rapidity of vibration on the part of the mechanism inside the
atoms of the radiating, luminous material, and also on the part
of the ethereal medium through which the light is transmitted.
These frequencies can be calculated very easily from the known
speed of light through the ether, which is 300 millions of metres
per second. For extreme violet light it turns out to be about

56 ‘Mr. James Rice on

750 billions of vibrations per second, and for extreme red light
about half of this number. (Billion is taken to mean 10” or
one million millions).

We are able to do more than measure the wave-length of a
stream of radiation ; we can also measure the amount of energy
which is carried per second across any section of its path. To
do this the cross-wire of the telescope in the spectrometer is re-
placed by an extremely thin strip of some metal coated with a
highly absorbent material such as lamp black. The energy of the
concentrated stream from the grating is converted into the
universal currency for measuring energy, viz., heat, in the strip.
The strip itself forms part of an extremely sensitive mechanism
in which an electric current is generated by the heat thus
developed, this current being measurable by a delicate mirror
galvanometer. The sensitiveness of such “radiomicrometers” is
such that a rise of one millionth of a degree in the temperature
_of the strip is observable with accuracy.

The possibility of using such radiomicrometers 1s of extreme
importance ; for, as is well known, there exist radiations which
do not affect the retina. Our only direct experience of them is
the sensation of glow when we stand before a fire or hold our
hand near a hot kettle, ete. Such radiations are poured forth in
profusion from all bodies, hot or cold; only at the extreme zero
of temperature, the so-called absolute zero, would any body cease
to radiate. This fact generally eludes us because of our lack of
direct sensation in many cases, although we occasionally experi-
ence one result of it, viz., the chilly sensation near a very cold
body, arising from the condition that we are radiating more to
that body than it is radiating in return to us, involving a net loss
of energy on our part. At all events their existence is undoubted.
They can be directed from bodies, luminous or not, to a grating ;
the diffracted streams from the grating can be detected by means
of a radiomicrometer, and measured both as regards wave-length
and intensity. The photographic plate is also an extremely use-
ful appliance in radiometric work ; the camera can replace the

Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation 57

telescope of the ordinary spectrometer, and the position of the
dark lines and bands on the developed plate give the necessary
data for measuring the direction of the diffracted streams of
radiation which produced this effect on the negative. The
amount of chemical action at each line on the negative, estimated
by the depth of tone, indicates the intensity of the stream of
radiation. With the specially sensitized plates available to-day,
the range of radiation over which the photographic plate can be
used is very wide, but it is for those qualities of radiation which
are shorter in wave-length than the extreme violet of the visible
spectrum, the so-called actinic, photographic or ultra-violet rays,
that it has been mainly employed.

My remarks so far have been based more or less on the
assumption that ideal radiations of precise and definite wave-
length exist and are detactable. I must qualify that stalement
somewhat. As already stated, there are certain luminous bodies,
such as the incandescent alkali earths, or electrically excited
gases, which emit radiations approximating to the ideal torm ;
but even in such cases, what we actually detect is a stream of
radiation with wave-length between certain limits, restricted, no
doubt, but still not absolutely identical. The reason for this is
not merely the finite dimensions of our receiving and detecting
apparatus ; it lies in the very nature of matter itself. But apart
from such radiations as are approximately monochromatic or
homogeneous, we have in the sun, the flame of a candle, the
incandescent metal filament or mantle, the electric arc, and so on
a whole series of bodies which are pouring forth radiations which
are the very opposite of homogeneous. Even the tumbled surface
of a choppy sea can only give an imperfect analogy to the com-
plexity of ethereal vibration which must be set up by the presence
of an ordinary incandescent solid. Yet the grating and radio-
meter can evolve order out of that seeming chaos and discover
uniformity of behaviour. The grating will analyse a stream of
such heterogeneous radiation into component streams, each stream
having its own narrow limits of wave-length or frequency, and

58 Mr. James Rice on

each producing on the radiometer (if set in the correct position to
receive it) an effect denoting the intensity in which it existed in
the original heterogeneous stream. We can say that these quasi-
heterogeneous streams existed in the original one, just in the
same sense that we say that the violet, blue, green, yellow and
red of the spectrum existed in the original beam of sunlight before
it was analysed by prism or grating. By these means physicists
have actually been able to isolate from radiant energy emitted by
various light sources, radiations extending as far into the ultra-
violet as -06 micron, and as far into the infra-red as 300 microns,
or -3 millimetre, which correspond to limits of frequency of about
5,000 billions per sec. and 1 billion per sec respectively. It will
be, of course, readily grasped that the dimensions of the gratings
used for such extremes must be varied with the qualities
measured ; for the spacing of the grating must always bear a
close relation to the wave-length measured.

This range of wave-length by no means completes the
picture—far from it. The absorbing powers which the materials
of our apparatus possess for all qualities of radiation, and for
some qualities in a very high degree, prevent us at present
extending research in the immediate neighbourhood of the limits
mentioned. But that radiations of longer and shorter wave
length exist there is absolutely no doubt. The ethereal waves
of wireless telegraphy are extreme examples of long wave-length.
The huge antennae employed to-day emit radiations whose wave-
lengths attain in some cases to 3 kilometres, corresponding to a
frequency as low as 100,000 per see. When Hertz first isolated
electrical waves in 1887 and verified Maxwell's prediction, he
worked with waves about 60 cms. long, small enough compared with
those that flash our messages across the oceans, but enormously
long compared even with the longest of the so-called infra-red
waves detected from ordinary sources of light. But just as
some workers, by increasing the size of the emitting apparatus,
have produced electrical waves of great wave-length for purposes
of communication, others by diminishing the size have sought to

Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation 59

bridge the gap that separates the early Hertzian waves from the
long infra-red waves and have so far succeeded as to reach a
wave-length of 6 mms. The accompanying slide* will give you
some idea of radiations which have actually been detected and
measured by the variety of means at our disposal, except that
the dark portion indicating the gap between infra-red and
electrical should be actually smaller owing to work carried out
since this diagram was constructed. Further, a remarkable
series of researches carried out since 1912 have suddenly opened
up a new field of knowledge at the other extreme of the complete
radiation range. This refers to the nature of the X-rays. It
had long been suspected that they were ethereal vibrations with
the same elements of undulatory motion in them as in ordinary
light waves; it was also known that if this view as to their
nature were correct, their wave-lengths must be very short
compared even with the 60 millimicrons or -06 micron of the
extreme ultra-violet so far attained. This inference has been
fully justified. Taking up an observation, first announced by
Professor Laue of Zurich, Professor Bragg of London and his
son, together with the late Henry Moseley of Manchester
University, published a series of researches opening up a new
avenue of knowledge whose possibilities we are just beginning to
realize. Sufficient to say, that they have demonstrated beyond
doubt the ethereal nature of the X-rays. From the heterogeneous
stream of X-ray radiation emitted by any bulb, it is possible to
isolate and measure the wave-lengths of individual, almost
homegeneous, streams. It is possible also, by varying the metal
of the anticathode and by using a high enough voltage, to make
a bulb emit practically nothing but an extremely homogeneous
radiation, characteristic of the particular metal used and closely
analogous to the kind of radiation emitted, say, by incandescent
sodium except for the much shorter wave-length. The natural
unit of length for these waves turns out to be the millimicron, or
even ‘1 of it, the so-called Angstrom unit. Thus, for instance,

* Hig. 3.

60 My. James Rice on

anticathodes of the heavy metals, such as platinum, palladium,
rhodium, tungsten can be made to emit radiations with wave-
lengths equal to about half of an Angstrom unit, or -05 millimicron.
Lighter metals radiate with wave-lengths somewhat longer, for
example about -15 millimicron for copper.

Before leaving this explanatory portion of my lecture, I ought
to mention that we cannot escape the conclusion that those oscil-
lations which we can excite in material bodies by hammering,
bending, etc., and which give rise to aerial vibrations producing
the sensation of sound, also give rise to ethereal vibrations,
which, however, would be in the main of excessive wave-length
and of the feeblest intensity. Also all that oscillatory motion
in the molecules which we call the heat-motion must give rise to
ethereal vibrations, even when the body is not luminous ; in fact
such vibrations do constitute some part of the infra-red vibrations,
The shortest qualities of the infra-red, however, together with the
luminous ultra-violet waves originate from mechanisms within the
- atom, no doubt the rings of electrons, constituting the “ planets ”
of the “solar system ” to which now-a-days we liken the structure
of the atom. In X-rays we are doubtless receiving intimations
of violent changes going on in the very interior of the atom itself,
its ianermost rings of electrons, perhaps even in its very nucleus,
that positively electrified core which seems to hold the negative
electrons in their orbits against centrifugal action and mutual
repulsion.

What picture does all this give us of the condition of the
ether with which we have had perforce to fill our universe. One
whose very complexity it seems hopeless to analyse, compared to
which the most violently agitated water surface seems simplicity
itself. Yet that hopelessness is not justified: In the grating and
radiometer we have means of analysis which have brought us
considerable knowledge, and the past history of science fully
supports the view that out of all the seeming disorder the mind
of man will evolve order. Indeed he has already made a good
start, but one serious difficulty confronts him.

Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation 61

Let us return to the analogy of the water surface. Suppose
our pool or tank of water has not merely one or two needles
touching it, but millions. Conceive each one to be oscillating up
and down as before, with all varieties of frequency and form of
vibration, The surface of the water will present at any instant
a form which must be the synthesis of all the individual move-
ments which would exist alone were all needles but one at rest.
In the same sense as we say that there are red, green and blue in
the white sunlight, so we can say that there are in the complex
motion of the water surface all the individual wave motions
emitted by each needle, and a natural question presents itself——
can we from the actual wave surface determine the wave length
and intensity of each individual train? Well that problem
certainly meets too many mathematical obstacles to be soluble in
any but a few limited cases. But another consideration equally
interesting crops up. Supposing we have some knowledge of the
movement of the needles, not necessarily a detailed one, but
something about their average behaviour, should we not then be
able to infer something about the resultant movement of the
water surface, again not detailed knowledge necessarily, but
behaviour on the average? Now turn from this two-dimensional
picture : think of the three-dimensional ether aud the analogues
of our needle-points, viz., the molecules, atoms and electrons of
matter, all in excessively rapid movement in it and all exciting
ethereal radiations whose frequencies and intensities are depend-
ent on these movements. To narrow down our problem to quite
manageable dimensions, let us abstract ourselves from open space
where we meet with bodies with all varieties of temperature.
This is a perfectly legitimate procedure in investigating the
elements of a problem. Let us think of this room—with our-
selves removed from it, as causing too much disturbance—having
walls, ceiling, floor, etc., all at one temperature, and quite imper-
vious to all radiation from external sources ; whether we leave
the air in it or not does not matter. The enclosed ether is
excited by radiations proceeding in all directions, emitted by the

62 Myr. James Rice on

walls, each train, as it reaches the wall again, being in part
reflected and in part absorbed only to be emitted once more.
No we do know something about the molecular movements in a
piece of matter at a given temperature, not detailed knowledge
concerning any individual molecule to be sure, but knowledge
concerning average behaviour. From that knowledge we can
infer certain results concerning the movement of the ether in our
“constant temperature enclosure.” Furthermore, it is possible
to test these inferences, and unfortunately while some of them
are verified, one very important one is absolutely at variance with
the facts.

To show you where the contradiction arises, I must necessarily
try to explain to you what is the kind of knowledge we have
about molecular and atomic motion. To do so, I take the
simplest instance possible, molecular motion in a body of gas,
where the molecules spend the greater part of time practically
free from each other’s influence or that of the molecules in the
sides of the enclosing vessel. The whole theory of such molecular
motion has been very thoroughly worked out and can be
found in books on the Dynamical Theory of Gases; the results
obtained are numerous and in many cases capable of verification ;
in fact few single bodies of scientific knowledge can show such a
strong chain of influence and verification. One of these results
refers to the average energy possessed by any individual molecule
of the gas when its temperature is definite. At any instant
among the enormous numbers of molecules present—and you
must remember we are dealing with numbers of the order
30 trillions per cubic centimetre for a gas at atmospheric pressure—
as many are travelling within any well-defined limits of direction
as within any other similarly defined limits. Otherwise we
would be having the gas pressing in one direction more than
another. ‘That is, there are no privileged directions of motion.
At a given temperature there is one privileged speed ; i.e., there
are more molecules with speeds varying by not more than say
1 metre per second from this speed than there are molecules

Discontinwty in the Phenomena of Radiation 63

varying by the same amount from any other speed. In fact
more than 60 per cent. of the molecules have at a given instant
speeds between one-half and twice this speed, and less than
1 per cent have velocities more than two anda half times it.
For air in normal conditions it is about 460 metres per sec. Of
course any one definite molecule will probably assume in its
career the most various speeds, but the actual number within
defined limits of velocity remains practically unchanged. Further
the average kinetic energy of a molecule, that is the total kinetic
energy divided by the number of molecules is a definite quantity,
which depends on the temperature in a very simple way ; it is
simply proportional to the temperature, provided we measure
this not from the arbitrary zeros of the usnal scales but from the
absolute zero. Of course this average kinetic energy per molecule
is a very small amount of energy indeed, even at very high
temperatures, on account of the excessively small mass of the
molecule. It can be obtained by multiplying the absolute
temperature of the gas by a fractional number which is nearly
200 trillionths (i.e., 2x 10~'°), the units of energy being those
suitable to the C.G.S. system, viz., ergs. To avoid repeating
this extremely small number too much let us indicate it by a
letter, say a, and refer to the average molecular kinetic energy
of a gas at temperature T on the absolute scale as
a T ergs.

The application of the same mathematical methods which
have proved so successful in the case of gases, to the case of solid
bodies is naturally attended with more difficulty, and the positive
results are much fewer. As regards the energy of each molecule,
however, a result, which is an extension of that for the gas, can
be obtained with a considerable weight of evidence in its favour
on the basis of ordinary dynamics. It is known as the Theorem
of the Equipartition of Energy. Returning to the case of the
gas for a moment, the mathematical analysis only considers the
energy possessed by the molecule by reason of its general trans-
latory motion, with no reference whatever to any internal energy

64 Mr. James Rice on

which the molecule may possess by reason of the relative motion
of its parts to each other, i.e., its atoms, or even the electrons
within the atoms. Considered in that restricted light the mole-
cule has, as we say, three degrees of freedom, i.e., the most
general translatory movement can be compounded of three
partial movements in three defined directions, say, back to front,
side to side, and up and down; this is a natural sort of division
in view of the three dimensional nature of our space. We also
say that for each degree of freedom the molecule possesses an
amount of energy

il
3 aT ergs

giving the total, a T ergs, as before for the three degrees of
freedom.

Now, when we go inside the molecule, as it were, we per-
ceive the existence of other degrees of freedom. To a huge
celestial intelligent being our solar system would be as one body
travelling through space with apparently three degrees of freedom.
To us, however, it appears as a number of discrete bodies with
many degrees of freedom quite independent of its own present
motion towards the costellation Hercules. Similarly the com-
plexity of the structure of the molecule yields many more
degrees of freedom than the three referred to, and the accom
panying movements and vibrations must involve the possession
of kinetic energy over and above the energy of translation. The
theorem of Equipartition states that in so far as such movements
can be affected by conditions which alter temperature, the
a T ergs of kinetic
energy for each such degree of freedom. I have put in a pro-
visional clause, you will observe. On the grounds of pure
Dynamics it should not be necessary to insert it ; the movements
in question should be affected by changes of temperature. But
that is the trouble, as we shall see. This enumeration of the
average energy of the molecule is not exhaustive ; it refers solely

molecule, on the average, should possess

Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation 65

to kinetic energy. The very existence of these intermolecular
vibrations of necessity postulates the existence of mutually
restraining forces on the various parts of the molecule, and such
forces involve the possession by the molecule of a certain amount
of internal potential energy. Further, if the molecule constitutes
part of a solid body there will be restraining forces of cohesion
on the molecule as a whole involving possession of still more
potential energy. Under certain rather restrictive conditions,
but, nevertheless, conditions which are of considerable import-
ance in practice, we can say that each molecule, in addition to
the total kinetic energy referred to, possesses on the average an
amount

. a T ergs

of potential energy for each degree of freedom of motion which
involves vibratory movement. I must ask you to bear in mind
the fact that these are statements about average values of
energy. They are entirely statistical. The behaviour of any
individual molecule is much too complex an affair to follow. In
any case it probably passes through the most varied conditions in
any finite period of time. Further, this equal partitioning of the
energy among the various degrees of freedom is a result depend-
ent on the complete truth of the dynamical principles as laid
down by Newton and extended by Lagrange and Hamilton.

Now let us turn to the behaviour of the ether which is
situated within our enclosure where the walls are at a constant
temperature. The trains of radiation passing through it involve
periodic changes at every point of this ether. The old view, so
skilfully developed by Young Fresnel, Green, MacCullagh, Lord
Kelvin was that this periodic change is actually a vibratory
movement of the ether, which is pictured as a material combining
properties of rigidity, incompressibility and fluidity in a fashion
hard to reconcile with our preconceived notions based as they
are on the actual properties of matter as we directly apprehend
it, Maxwell, taking up the ideas of Faraday and putting an

66 Mr. James Rice on

elegant mathematical dress upon them, turned away somewhat
from such hard and fast physical ideas of radiation. Instead he
developed a system of equations based essentially on electro-
magnetism, which he claimed had to be satisfied by the particular
physical property in the ether whose periodic variation accom-
panies the trausmission of energy through space. Despite this
fact, his methods are quite consistent with the notion that a
finite body of the ether can possess degrees of freedom, and that
the average energy of any volume of the ether can be calculated
in a manner analogous to the calculations carried out for ordinary
matter. Furthermore his equations, whose importance in the
Physics of the last fifty years cannot be overestimated, are based
on the truth of Newtonian Dynamics, and ultimately involve an
equipartitioning of energy among the various degrees of freedom
of the ether just as the Lagrange-Hamilton equations involve it
for the molecules of matter. The idea of degrees of freedom is
difficult enough for the non-mathematician to grasp in the case
even of such a tangible thing as solid matter. In the case of
the ether it appears very elusive indeed. It will perhaps be
best to illustrate by the older view of ethereal movement ; at all
events the conclusions are consistent with those developed by
means of Maxwell’s equations. Consider a string stretched
between two points. Such a string is capable of many ways of
simple vibration, several of which I illustrate by these drawings
on the board. First, it may vibrate as a whole between the
indicated forms; then it may vibrate in two halves with
the middle point always at rest. It is known that the frequency
of vibration of any point on the string is in the latter case double
what it is in the former, i.e., double the fundamental frequency.
Then it may vibrate in three different segments, with two
“nodes,” and a frequency three times the fundamental; and so
on. Theoretically there is no limit to this exact division of the
string into so many parts with an accompanying simple type of
vibration, if we regard the string as a perfectly continuous piece
of matter. If, however, we regard it, as we must do on the

Led

Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation 67

molecular hypothesis, as a group of discrete particles, there is an
upper limit to the number of such types of motion, viz., the
number of particles itself. Be that as it may, we have the concept
of a string which may vibrate in certain simple fundamental
ways with frequencies which progress in the ratio of the whole
numbers. Thus if the fundamental vibration has a frequency
f times per sec, the others are 2f, 3/, 4f, etc. up to the limit
prescribed by the structure of the string. Any vibration of the
string, however complex its nature, can be considered as the sum
of a number of their simple vibrations, each one with an appropriate
amplitude or intensity. Hence these simple types of vibration
constitute the “degrees of freedom” of the string, and you will
observe that there are exactly n degrees of freedom whose
frequencies are not greater than n times that of the fundamental,
that is, the number below a certain frequency is proportional to
that frequency. Now let us make a further step. Consider a
stretched skin in the form of a square, instead of a string ; it has
also certain simple types of vibration which may be roughly
considered as a blend of those belonging to all the strings which
we could cut out of the skin by lines parallel to one pair of sides
with those belonging to strings cut out by lines parallel to the
other pair. This blending makes the total number of such
simple types, i.e., of degrees of freedom, whose frequencies are
not greater than a certain frequency to be proportional to the
square of that frequency. Finally, if we consider a cubical lump
of elastic material, its fundamental mode of vibration and all the
simple types constituting its “overtones” are a blend of three
sets of linear types, and it appears that the number of all the
simple types whose frequencies are not greater than a given
frequency is proportional to the cube of that frequency. Now, it .
is this lump of elastic material which we are to take as our model
of the ether. The finite volume of ether enclosed within the
constant temperature walls is at any moment in a definite state
of agitation following on the transmission of vibrations through
it from the walls of the enclosure. This state of agitation is the

68 Mr. James Rice on

sum of an enormous number of simple vibrations, each one of
which corresponds to one degree of freedom of this volume of
ether. Owing to the uncontrolled motions of the molecules of
the walls and their internal parts, the motion of the ether is just
as uncontrolled. The actual state of one tiny portion of it at a
defined instant is as unpredictable as that of a single molecule,
but the energy of the whole should be given by the principle of
equipartition, 1.e., for every degree of freedom there should be

energy of radiation always present of amount
; 9

—a T ergs
»

d 1
where T is the temperature of the enclosure, 3 4 T ergs being

bie 1 :
the average kinetic energy per degree of freedom and 3 T being

the average potential energy. Now, as I have stated above, the
number of degrees of freedom, or simple types of vibration
possible for the ether in the enclosure is first of all proportional
to the volume, as one would expect, and then to the cube of the
highest frequency possible. The question naturally arises—is
there any highest frequency? If the ether is to be regarded as
an absolutely continuous medium, there is not; and this leads to
the conclusion that the number of degrees of freedom of the
ether is genuinely infinite, not merely enormously large like that
of the walls of the enclosure ; and this means that in the steady
state corresponding to a definite temperature while there would
be a finite amount of energy in the walls, there would be an
infinite amount in the enclosed ether, a statement which really
means that the only possible steady condition would be one in
which all the energy would be in the ether and none in the
walls, which would therefore be at absolute zero.

But let us waive this difficulty ; yet we are not freed from
anomalies. Let us put an upper limit to the types of vibration
which the ether may have. Experiment has shewn that the
ether, even if it has a structure, is nothing like as coarse-grained

Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation 69

as ordinary matter. The frequencies corresponding to X-rays
are of the order 3 trillions per sec.

To avoid much use of algebraic symbols let me make use of
graphical methods. The curve which I draw on the board is to
be interpreted thus. Lengths along the horizontal axis are to be
considered as proportional to frequencies, so that a point on this
axis indicates a definite frequency. ‘The lines drawn up from two
such points enclose with the axis and the curve a quasi-rectangu-
lar area. Now the curve is so drawn that this area is propor-
tional to the number of degrees of freedom in, say, 1 ¢.c. of the
ether whose frequencies lie between the limits indicated by the
two points. The area bounded by the curve and the axis up to
a particular vertical line is proportional to the cube of the length
along the axis up to this line, which agrees with the
rule concerning the number of degrees of freedom of the
ether mentioned above. The curve as a matter of fact
is a very well-known one, being a parabola. If we are then to
partition the energy of the ether in a constant temperature —
enclosure equally between all the degrees of freedom, it follows
that the quasi-rectangular strips may be taken to be also propor-
tional to the amount of energy in the ether corresponding to
vibrations with frequencies between the limits indicated by the
two points ; and the whole energy in the ether is to be propor-
tional to the whole area under the curve up to the point
corresponding to the maximum frequency possible if we choose to
impose such a limit which, as I have stated, must be in the
trillions at least. Well, this conclusion is absolutely contradicted
by facts. It is possible to determine what is the partitioning of
the energy among the frequencies. A hollow vessel is maintained
at a steady temperature (by electric heating if the temperature is
very high). A small hole is opened in its wall, which permits
some of the radiation to emerge. This radiation is a fair sample
of that existing inside the vessel and can be analysed in the usual
way. It is known that this radiatiou, “full radiation” as it is
called, is independent of the material of the walls so long as these

e

70 _ Mr. James Rice on

are not perfectly reflecting for any qualities of radiation, a con-
clusion which can be arrived at theoretically, and is substantiated
by experiment. The results of the analysis of such full radiation
and the amount of energy within defined limits of frequency or
wave-length are indicated in the slide* which give curves for a

SPECTRAL ENERGY Curves oF FuLL RADIATION.

(Lummer and Pringsheim).

Fig. 4.

variety of temperatures, the horizontal lengths being taken as
proportional to wave-length, instead of frequency. When drawn
so as to make the horizontal lengths proportional to frequency,

* Fig, 4,

Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation 71

any one of these curves takes the form which I put on the board*

AIN3NDIB4 JO JONVH LINN Y3d ADHINT 4

FREQUENCY PQ

beside the original parabola. The discrepancy between theory
and experiment could not be more forcibly illustrated. Instead
of the greater part of the energy residing in vibrations of very
high frequency, it is largely concentrated in vibrations around a
certain mean frequency, this mean frequency changing to a higher
value, with, of course, a shorter wave-length, as the temperature
of the enclosure rises. To emphasise the point still further, let
me show you the energy curves of the radiation from the sun
(freed from the absorption of the solar and terrestrial atmos-
pheres), the electric arc, and a gas flame, all sources which
approximate closely to the condition of “full radiators.” The
same type of curve with its maximum peak appears just as in the
previous slide. Let me also give one numerical illustration which
can be deduced from such curves. A mass of iron at the freezing
point of water is situated inside an enclosure whose walls are

= hign Oy

-~I
bo

' Mr. James Rice on

perfectly impervious to radiation. According to the theoretical
results the iron ought to lose energy continually until its tem-
perature became practically absolute zero, and the whole energy
of the system had passed into the surrounding ether, and was
contained almost entirely in those vibrations of the ether which
were of the very highest frequency. So far from this actually
happening, the experimental evidences indicates with some
certainty that a steady state is rapidly reached in which the
density of the energy in the ether is about 40 millionths of an erg
per c.c., while that in the iron is about 8,000 million ergs per c.c.
Actually all the energy, with an infinitesimal exception, resides in
the comparatively few degrees of freedom of the iron, while the
enormously greater nnmber of degrees of freedom of the ether
are almost devoid of energy. Nothing further from equipartition
between the matter and the ether could hardly be imagined.

Here then we are faced with a serious discrepancy. It is not
the only one. There is another one concerned with the division of
the energy between the degrees of freedom of the matter itself,
and there are some concerned with such points as the electrical
and thermal conductivities of the metals. Time does not permit
me to enter into any account of these, but this much may be said ;
if we can find the key to the first riddle it will in all probability
give us the answers to the others. It is the master problem, the
interaction between ether and matter.

To sum up the situation as it presents itself to us, we see that
the application of Newtonian Dynamics, as embodied in Maxwell’s
equations, to the interaction between matter and the ether (the
latter being regarded as a continuous medium, or at least one
with an excessively fine structure) leads to a partition of energy
between the ether and the matter in a constant temperature
enclosure, and also a partition of the energy in the ether itself
among its various simple types of vibration, which is wholly at
variance with experimental observation. Nothing could be
further from equipartition than the state graphically represented
on the slides just shown,

oo

Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation

To meet this difficulty two courses seem immediately
possible, one is to abandon the principle of equipartition, but
still retain the classical dynamical principles and discover the
flaws in the chain of inference which leads from the latter to
the former. Such a course is perfectly logical, and finds favour
among the older and more conservative of physicists. But on
the whole, opinion seems to be turning generally to a more
drastic solution, to a denial of the complete validity of Newtonian
Dynamics itself. It must be confessed that it is not only on
these matters that the foundations of classical dynamics have
shown signs of being no longer able to support the superstructure
of our knowledge, and of requiring something broader still to rest
on. It isnot surprising that in this particular difficulty attempts
are being made to arrive at a set of principles of wider application
than any contemplated by Newton or his immediate followers.
To the treatment of the movements of our solar system and of
bodies of ordinary dimensions on the earth’s surface, the
Newtonian dynamics has shewn itself admirably adapted, although
there are one or two minute discrepancies which have obstinately
resisted explanation.

When we pass into the region of molecular, atomic and
electronic motion and the transference of energy from such
exiguous bodies to the ether, we are dealing with orders of mag
nitude far removed from those contemplated in gravitational
theory. Bodies of excessively minute dimensions but possessed
of enormous speeds are our material. The 30 kilometres per
second or so of our earth’s motion round the sun is a very snail’s
pace compared to the speed of electronic movement with which
we are now-a-days familiar, attaining in some cases almost to the
speed of light, 300,000 kilometres per second. ‘There is little to
marvel at, if it should turn out that we want new laws to
co-ordinate the new knowledge in regions so remote from our
customary perceptions, laws to which Newton’s principles consti-
tute an excellent approximation under the conditions for which
they were designed.

74 Mr. James Rice on

Unfortunately, in this direction, little has been attained so
far. If we are to rebuild, we are still awaiting our Newton.
Into the mass of conflicting material one tentative principle has
been thrust. It is little more than a new proposal as to the
partitioning of energy, with but a small physical basis for its
support. Yet its undoubted success in calculating the partition-
ing of energy leads one to believe that it will perhaps one day
occupy a position of some importance in the new structure which
has to be raised. I will treat it first as a mere principle of
partitioning, and then say a few words as to the manner in
which its originator, Professor Planck, of Berlin, and his school
seek to justify it.

Return to the two diagrams. ‘The parabola representing the
partitioning of energy on the older assumptions and the peaked
curve representing the actual facts. Hach curve is supposed to
be drawn for a definite temperature, 7. Professor Planck’s first
step was the discovery of the relation between these two curves
and of a mathematically elegant expression for it. ‘Take two
near points P and Q on the frequency axis ; they represent two
definite frequencies separated by a small range of frequency: the
amount of energy in unit volume of the ether corresponding to
the types of vibration between these two frequencies would be
represented by the narrow quasi-rectangle PQBA on the equi-
partition basis; it is actually represented by PQDC. Now it
appears that the ratio between AP and CP can be expressed by
a simple formula depending on the value of the temperature 7,
and the value of the frequency represented by the point P ; let
us call that vibrations per second, which of course corresponds
to a wave-length obtained by dividing the speed of light by n.
The expression for the ratio further involves the constant a
already used (with a value close to 200 billionths, you will
remember), and a new universal constant, “ Planck’s constant,”
with a value about 6,500 quintillionths (6-5 x 1077’), The
extreme importance of this new constant for purposes of cal-
culation is undoubted. There must be some physical basis for it,

Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation

=I

though what it is forms a matter rather of speculation than of
sure knowledge at present. But I will come to that in a moment.
To proceed. With this set of symbols, two of them absolute
universal constants, two of them standing for measures of definite
physical properties, let us calculate the number :

8hn/2aT
where hf stands for Planck’s constant.

Call this calculated number 7. This number 7 has, of course,
a definite value for each point P on the frequency axis, so long as
we are considering a definite pair of curves corresponding to a
definite temperature.

Now, Planck has pointed out that the ratio AP to CP is
equal to the sum of the series

147/2477/6 +7°/24 + 74/120 + etc. ad infin.

That is not the most elegant way of putting this ratio.
Those of you who have some knowledge of mathematical functions
will recognize this series as

(e” —1)/r
Where e is Naperian base of logarithms.

Of course the ratio varies as we pass along the corve, for r
is a different number at different parts of the curve.

This is a new principle of partition. It has been discovered
that its applicability is not confined to partition of energy in the
ether alone. Indeed it is its application to the distribution of
heat energy among the types of vibration of solid bodies that has
constituted one of its triumphs, and first brought it seriously
into consideration.

To state it once more—when apportioning vibrational energy
among the degrees of freedom of any substance, ethereal or
material, at a definite temperature, one first of all estimates the
amount to be assigned to each narrow frequency range by
the equipartition principle and then divides the result by the
expression. .

(e” —1)/r

where 7 is the frequency temperature number calculated as above.

76 Mi. James Rice on

It appears that if m is small enough or T large enough, the value
of ris so small that the divisor given above is little different
from unity and so for high temperatures or frequencies of
vibration not too great the equipartition principle nearly holds ;
but at low temperatures or high frequencies it is utterly at
variance with the facts. This in itself is but one way of saying
that, under certain restricted conditions, Newtonian dynamics
is an excellent approximation to truth.

It remains for me to give you a brief statement of the
manner in which Planck endeavours to justify this partitioning
of the energy. He does so by introducing the hypotheses of dis-
continuous or spasmodic radiation. Now, this hypothesis can
flnd no secure position in the general framework of electro-
magnetic theory as built on Maxwell’s Equations. According to
modern views as to the structure of the atom, there is no doubt
that the electrons of the atom are the sources of all those high
frequency radiations for which the principle of equipartition
proves such a failure. The result of applying orthodox theory
to the actions between electrons and the ether is to demonstrate
that ‘electrons cannot radiate energy if they are at rest or in
uniform motion. They must be moving with velocities variable
either in speed or direction, or both. Now, such variable motion
is an obvious feature of rotation in the quasi-planetary orbits
around the atomic nucleus ; it is also a feature of electron motion
when they are ejected from the atom by the action of ultraviolet
light or X-rays. At all events, according to classical theory,
electrons whirling in their atomic orbits should be continuously
radiating energy. This constitutes something of a difficulty, for
such continuous radiation of energy must mean a gradual con-
tracting of the orbit and a gradual absorption of all the electrons
mto the necleus with a consequent change in the properties of
the atom which is certainly not justified by facts. The ordinary
phenomena of magnetism, and the action of magnetic fields on
sources of monochromatic light give powerful evidence of the
permanent and undiminished intensity of such electronic whirls

Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation 77

in all atoms, and this permanency is hard to reconcile with the
gradual loss of energy by the electron deduced by theory. True
the full force of the argument can be somewhat abated by pos-
tulating that there are a considerable number of electrons in any
one orbit following each other round in a stable ring ; for under
such circumstances it appears that the rate of radiation is greatly
reduced.

Planck’s hypothesis is this. He assumes that there are
electrons in the atom—‘ resonators” he calls them—which
oscillate without radiating in this continuous way. He also
assumes, to take his later views, that these resonators can absorb
energy in a continuous manner from the energy of the surround-
ing ether by reason of the electrical forces inherent in all radiant
energy according to the electro-magnetic theory of light. Such
absorption without emission could not go an for ever. Radiation
from the resonator must occur some time or other. Planck
postulates that this emission instead of being continuous is jerky
or spasmodic. He assumes that there are certain critical stages
in this loading up of energy when the resonator may suddenly
put out its whole content of energy in one rapid rush as it
were. These critical stages occur when the resonator possesses
exactly a definite multiple of a definite “quantum” of
energy. It is in the amount of this quantum that Planck’s h
constant makes its appearance. The resonator will, of course,
have a definite frequency—n per second, let us say; the
quantum of energy for this resonator is hn erg. Suppose
we conceive the resonator devoid of energy, it begins absorbing
from the surrounding ethereal energy; presently it is loaded
up with a value hn, it may radiate then; it cannot do so
before that moment (according to Planck) ; it may fail to radiate
at this moment; it then keeps on absorbing until it attains an
energy 2 hn; it cannot emit in the interval, but it may radiate
at this moment; again if it fails to do so it keeps on absorbing
and cannot radiate until its energy reaches 3 hn, and so on.
Radiation can only occur at certain well-defined and discrete

78 Myr. James Rice on

states ; the chance of the resonator emitting at the energy hn is
greater than its chance of passing this critical state and radiating
at the energy 2 hn, and so on. Planck assumes a certain law of
chance for the attainment of these successive stages which is
plausible enough ; but one point must be most strongly emphasized ;
for it is vital in his reasoning. At whatever multiple of the
quantum radiation occurs, the whole amount pours out suddenly ;
nothing can check or prevent this total radiation. Here is the
very essence of the discontinuity.

The particular form of the hypothesis which I have outlined
above is not the only one possible, in fact it is not quite the form
first propounded by Planck himself. Also other workers have
abandoned the particular radiating mechanism postulated by
Planck, viz., the resonator, and employed the ordinary orbital
whirls of electrons. But all have to assume somewhere or other
this feature of discontinuous emission of energy from whatever
radiating mechanism they employ. It is possible to do without
discontinuous absorption, but discontinuous emission there must
be and in amounts which must be multiples of the quantum of
energy corresponding to the frequency of the mechanism.
Perhaps you may think that because of the extreme smallness
(compared to our customary standards) of a quantum of
energy even for very high frequencies (an amount equal to
about six billionths of an erg [6 x 107] for a frequency of
1,000 billions [10°], that discontinuous outputs in such exiguous
quantities would practically amount to continuity. Such a view
cannot be maintained. It must be remembered that the scale
of dimensions we are dealing with here is quite distinct from that
of daily phenomena which appeal directly to our senses. It is all
a matter of comparison, and the quantum which I have just
mentioned is certainly 100 times as great as the average heat
energy of a molecule at normal temperatures, and it is this latter
amount which is the natural quantity of energy for us to consider
when we are concerned with the comparative largeness or small-
ness of the amount of energy which is converted from one form

Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiatiou 79

to another in these small scale phenomena. Besides, as I indi-
eated at the beginning of this paper, it is not in the magnitude of
the phenomena nor in its extreme brevity that the discontinuity
arises. In order to obtain by logical reasoning Planck’s partition
of the energy, which is undoubtedly extremely near to the truth,
and avoid equipartition, which is certainly far from it, we are
bound to assume some hypothesis concerning the radiation of
energy for which we have no basis in our fundamental principles.
It seems necessary to postulate a picture of the atom structure
such as the following. Around the positively charged nucleus
of the atom we have negative electrons rotating in orbits. On
the older views the positions of these orbits could change con-
tinuously as the electrons gained or lost energy in a continuous
manner. On the new idea, we must consider the possible orbits
as discrete and well separated from one another. While an
electron moves in one of these stable paths, its motion can be
calculated by the orthodox dynamical rules; thus for a single
electron whirling round a single nucleus (the usual view of the
hydrogen atom), any of these paths would be the usual planetary
ellipse. While in this path the energy of the electron remains
constant ; there is no radiation of energy and no absorption.
Some critical condition arises due to external influences
and the electron leaps suddenly from one orbit to another. As
the energies of the electron in two orbits are different, the
electron must part with or absorb some energy in the transit, the
amount being quite definite and determined by the particular two
stable orbits considered. This amount is emitted or absorbed as
vibrational energy of a definite frequency, and here the significance
of Planck’s constant comes in, for the frequency of the radiation
emitted or absorbed must be such that when multiplied by this
constant the result is the amount of energy in question. This is
a view of atom-structure which is receiving considerablé attention
of late. You will see that it postulates both discontinuous
absorption and emission. Planck, himself, being reluctant
to abandon any more than was necessary of the older theory
contented himself with developing a theory of “resonators ”

80 Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation

which could absorb continuously and radiate discontinuously.
The truth is that there is at present little to choose between the
two views. It should be remarked that the former view could
be pushed still further and interpreted as the result of the fact
that there was an atomicity in energy itself, a speculation that
has been more or less implicit in the recent work of some of the
English school of Physicists, notably Sir J. J. Thomson. How-
ever, there does not appear to be any phenomena yet which
actually compel us to adopt such a revolutionary view ; but it is
doubtful if we will be able to escape from some form or other of
Planck’s hypothesis. In itself it may turn out to be only one
result of a new scheme of dynamics, of which we are now getting
the first inklings in the case of these small scale vibratory
occurrences.

The key-note of the new mechanics is discontinuity. <Ac-
cording to it “ A physical system is only susceptible of a finite
number of distinct states. It leaps from one of these states to
another without passing through a continuous series of inter-
mediate states.” Such a statement bristles with difficulties,
which even the least conservative of minds may well shrink from
facing. Yet it seems that only by solving these difficulties can
real progress in physical science be effected.

It may not be out of place to point out, in conclusion, that
this development in physical theory is almost contemporaneous
with a movement in philosophy, associated with the name of
Professor Bergson, which regards the intellect as unable to grasp
the reality of Life; as being only designed to isolate discrete
states and apply logical principles to their relations one with
another, but unadapted to apprehend the continuous flow of
“becoming things.” It is a well known fact that in any historical
epoch, a central idea seems to permeate all human institutions
and activities ; and the parallelism between Bergson’s view and
the quotation in the previous paragraph, which is H. Poincaré’s
generalised form of the quantum hypothesis, seems sufficiently
striking to call for comment.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1917-18.

The Council in submitting the Annual Report of the Ninety-
seventh Session of the Natural History and Philosophical Society,
desire to express their warmest thanks to the lecturers who
delivered the following lectures throughout the Session :—

10th November, 1917. In Museum, College Square North.
“Some Mopern METHODS OF PROTECTION AGAINST
DISEASE ” :—Professor St. Clair Symmers, M.B.

11th December, 1917. In Museum, College Square North.
“Some ReceENT APPLICATIONS IN CHEMISTRY: I. IN
PEACEFUL Pursuits. IJ. IN WARLIKE PURSUITS” :—
Professor William Caldwell, M.A., D.Sc.

Sth January, 1918. In Museum, College Square North.

“THe Grants’ Rinc, AN ACCOUNT OF THE RECENT Exca-
VATIONS ”:—Mr. H. C. Lawlor, M.R.I.A. Followed
by a short paper on the same subject, by Professor
R. A. S. Macalister, M.A., D.Litt, F.S.A. (Cantab).

12th February, 1918. In Museum, College Square North.
“Foik Lore or PLAcr NAMES” :—Professor Sir John W.
Byers, M.A., M.D.

12th March, 1918. In Museum, College Square North.
“THE PsycHOLOGY OF TELEPHONING” :—Mr. John Lee, M.A..,
Postmaster, Belfast.

9th April, 1818. In Museum, College Square North.
“DISCONTINUITY IN NATURE AS ILLUSTRATED BY THE
PHENOMENA OF RADIATION ” :—Mr. James Rice, M.A.,
Lecturer on Physics, Liverpool University.

The lectures were much appreciated by large audienccs,

82 Annual Meeting

FORMATION OF AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SECTION.

During the Session an Archaeological Section in connection
with the Society was formed, with the object of furthering the
study of Archaeology and Antiquities, more especially in the
neighbourhood of Belfast, by investigation and excavation of
ancient monuments of particular interest, and the recording in
the Society’s journal of proceedings, the results of work done. It
is satisfactory to report that the section is meeting with much
success.

PROCEEDINGS OF KINDRED SOCIETIES.

Reports of the Transactions and Proceedings of Kindred
Societies, both home and foreign, were received during the past
Session, and exchanges have been made in all cases. A list of
the exchanges will be attached to the Report.

MEMBERSHIP.

As a result of the new scheme of membership whereby
subscribers of 10/- annually are admitted to the privileges of
membership, and the formation of the archaeological section, the
roll of membership has been increased. The Council desire to
bring before the members the desirability of introducing new
members, and thus widening the influence and increasing the
Society's resources for the development of scientific and anti-
quarian research. Application for membership, and copies of the
Report and proceedings of the Society for distribution amongst
likely members, can be had on application at the Museum, or
from the Assistant Secretary, 10 Donegall Square East.

OBITUARY.

The Council records with sorrow the death of Mr. William
T. Braithwaite, an old member of the Society, who evinced a

Annual Meeting 83

keen interest in its preceedings; also of Mr. W. H. Patterson,
one of the oldest members, who had frequently contributed to the
Society's proceedings, Dr. St. Clair Boyd, and Mr. Emerson C.
Herdman, D.L.

COUNCIL.

The following members of the Council retire :—Mr. John
M. Finnegan, B.A., B.Sc.; Professor J. A. Lindsay, M.A.,
F.R.C.P. ; Henry Riddell, M.E., M.I.M.E. ; Robert M. Young,
M.A. ; Professor St. Clair Symmers, M.B.

The following were elected at Annual Meeting, held in
Museum, under Presidency of Mr. R. M. Young, M.A., on
Tuesday, 12th November, 1918, on the motion of Mr. Elliott,
seconded by Mr. Lawlor :—Mr. John M. Finnegan, B.Sc. ; Pro-
fessor J. A. Lindsay, M.A., F.R.C.P. ; Mr. Henry Riddell, M.E.,
M.1.M.E. ; Professor St. Clair Symmers, M.B.

The following Statement shows the position of the Funds of
the Archaeological Department at the date of closing of the
accounts. Those funds are merged in the account above given
which appears in the form required by the Local Government
Board :—

Dr. CASH. CONTRA. Cr.

1917.
May 14. May 13.
Surplus from Giants’ H. C. Lawlor,
Ring Fund, collec- for Excavation 6 11 6
ted for exploration Balance ne) 1210
purposes Bee ova ae
Sectional Subscrip-
tion toe LO om O)
Subsidy from parent
Society on forty
new members ... 10 0 O

£49 4 4 £49 4 4

84 Annual Meeting

Cash in hands of Treasurer, £42 12s. 10d. A number of
subscriptions have been paid in since closing the accounts, and
there are certain small liabilities still undischarged. These will
appear in the accounts for current year. The subsidy given above
is calculated for the present purpose on the number of new
members joining the Society.

HENRY RIDDELL,
Treasurer.

‘ST6T ‘Ain 430%
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86
EXCHANGES.

BERGEN (Norway)—Publications of the Bergen Museum.
BricHton—Annual Report of the Brighton and Hove Natural
History and Philosophical Society. 1917.
‘CALcUTTA—Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India.
Records of the Geological Survey of India.
Report of the progress of Agriculture in India.
1916-17. .
CALIFORNIA—Publications of the University of California.
CampripGrk (U.S.A.)—Annual Report and Bulletins of the
Cambridge Museum of Comparative Zoology.
CAMBRIDGE— Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.
EDINBURGH—Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
1916-17.
- GrnoA—Rivista ligvre di Scienze Lettere ed Arti.
GLASGow—Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow.

Proceedings of the Royal Philosophical Society of
Glasgow. 1916-17.

KANSAS—Science Bulletin of the University of Kansas,

Lima (PERv)—Boletin del Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del
Peru.

Lonpon—Continentality and Temperature, by C. E. P. Brooks,
Meterological Office.

:, Quarterly Journal of the Royal Microscopic Society.
i Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society.

5 Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society.

se Report of the British Association. 1917.

LOUSANNE—Bulletin de la Societe Vaudoise des Sciences
Naturelles.

MELBOURNE—PrYroceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria.

Merxico—<Anales del Instituto Geologico de Mexico.

MicnigAN—Annual Reports of the Michigan Academy of
Scienee. 1915. 1916.

New HAven—Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Art
and Sciences. 1918.

bP)

9

9

”

Hachanges 87

New OrLEANS—Sixth Biennial Report of the Board of Curators
of the Louisiana State Museum. 1916-17.
New Yorx—Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.
a The Geographical Review. Monthly.
Oxnto—Bulletin of the Ohio State University.
i The Ohio Journal of Science.
OtrawA—Memoirs of the Canadian Geological Survey.
Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Canada, De-
partment of Mines.
Oxrorp—Report and Proceedings of the Ashmolean Natural
History Society.
PHILADELPHIA—Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia.
ES Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society.
Pusa (Inp1A)—Scientific Reports of the Agricultural Research
Institute. 1916-17.

San Francisco—Proceedings of the California Academy of
Science.

STavANGER (Norway)—Report of the Stavanger Museum.
1916.

Torquay—Journal of Torquay Natural History Society. 1918.
Toronto—Transactions of the Royal Canadian Institute.
W ASHINGTON—Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution.

”

of Annual Report of the United States National
Museum.

rf Bulletins of the Bureau of American Ethnology.

i Bulletins of the Smithsonian Institution.

" Contributions from the United States National
Herbarium.

e Proceedings of the United States National Museum.

. Smithsonian Institution Miscellaneous Collections.

- Year Book of the United States Department of

Agriculture. 1917.

YorkK—Annual Report of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society.
1917,

88

BELFAST NATURAL HISTORY
AND PHILOSOPHICAL e-SOCIIim

Officers and Council of Management for 1918-19.

President :
PROF. W. ST. CLAIR SYMMEBRS, m.s.

Vice=Presidoents :
PROF. GREGG WILSON, p.sc., M.R.1.A.
PROF. JAMES A. LINDSAY, M.a., F.R.C.P.
ROBERT M. YOUNG, m.a., J.P.
WILLIAM SWANSTON, F.«.s.
JOHN HORNER.

‘fbon. Treasurer :
HENRY RIDDELL, M.£., M.1.M.E.

‘bon. Librarian :
JOHN HORNER.

tbon. Secretary :
JOHN M. FINNEGAN, B.a., B.SC

FAlssistant Secretary :
JOHN W. STOREY, B.a.

Council :
SIR JOHN W. BYERS, m.a., M.D.
JOHN HORNER. Retire
WILLIAM FAREN. 1919.
S. W. ALLWORTHY, ™.a., ™.o.
W. B. BURROWES.
E, J. ELLIOTT. | é
H. C. LAWLOR, m.z..a. Bae
WILLIAM SWANSTON, r.c.s.
PROFESSOR GREGG WILSON, p.sc., M-R.1.4. j
JOHN M. FINNEGAN, B.a., B.SC.
PROFESSOR J. A. LINDSAY, m.a., F.R.C.P. :
HENRY RIDDELL, w.x., 1.0.2. me
ROBERT M. YOUNG, m.a., M.R.1.A. id.
PROFESSOR W. ST. CLAIR SYMMERS, m.e.

89

SHAREHOLDERS AND MEMBERS.

[* Denotes Holders of three or more Shares. |

la » Members of Archaeological Section. |
aAcheson, F. W., Clonavon, Dundalk
* Alexander, Francis, B.E., Belfast
Alderdice, W. W., Greenhaven, Malone Park, do.
Allworthy, S. W., m.p., Manor House, Antrim Road, do.

* Anderson, John, J.P., F.G.S (Representatives of),
Holywood, Co. Down

aAnderson, Frank, Tavanagh Weaving Company, Portadown
aAndrews, M. C., 17 University Square, Belfast
aArmstrong, E. C. R., M.R.1.4., National Museum, Dublin
Andrew, John J., L.D.S., R.C.S., Eng., 23 University Square, Belfast
Andrews, Miss Elizabeth, 12 College Gardens, do.
Armstrong, William, Thronemount, do.
aAtkinson, Arthur 8., Dromana, Knockdene Park, do.
Baird, Major William, Royal Avenue, do.
Bigger, Francis J., M.R.1.A., Ardrie, Antrim Road, do.
aBlackwood, W. B., Ebony Grange, Deramore Park, do.
aBlackwood, Reginald, J.p., 24 University Square, do.
aBlake, R. F., F.1.c., 4 Knock Road, do.
Boyd, Thornton, Blackstaff Spinning Company, do.
*Boyd, J. St. Clair, m.pD. (Representatives of), do.
Boyd, John, Holland Park, Neill’s Hill, do.
Brandon, H. B., J.p., Rosemount House, Antrim Road, do.

aBrett, Sir Charles H., Gretton Villa, South, Malone Road, do.
aBrett, Rev. R. H., St. Peter’s Rectory, Antrim Road, do.

aBristow, James R., Prospect, Dunmurry
Bristow, John, Wellington Place, Belfast
aBurrowes, W. B., Ballynafeigh House, . do.
Byers, Prof. Sir John W., M.A., M.D., Lower Crescent, do.
*Brown, George B., Lisnamaul, Ormeau Road, do.

Braithwaite, W. T., 14 Botanic Avenue (The late), do,

90 Shareholders and Members

Campbell, A. A., Drumnaferrie, Rosetta Park, do.
*Campbell, Miss Anna (Representatives of), do.
Campbell, John, Innishowen, Donegall Park, do.
aCarmody, Rey. Canon, M.A., Lisburn
Carr, A. H. R., Donegall Place, Belfast
aCarter, C. S., 25 Donegall Street, do.
*Charley, Phineas H., Mornington Park, Bangor, Co. Down
*Christen, Mrs. Rodolphe, St. Imier, Brig of Cairn, Ballater, N.B.
Clark, Sir George S., Bart., p.L., Dunlambert, Belfast
Clarke, E. H., Notting Hill, do.
Crawford, Sir William, J.p., Mount Randall, do.
Corbett, Miss K. M., Derryvolgie Avenue, do.
Combe, Barbour & Co., Ltd., Belfast
aCunningham, S., Fern Hill, Ballygomartin Road, do.
Davies, A. C., Lenaderg House, Banbridge, Co. Down
aDeane, Arthur, City Art Gallery and Museum,

Royal Avenue, Belfast

*Deramore, Lord, D.L. (Representatives of),
Dixon, Professor, M.A., 8C.D., F.R.S., Hurstwood, Malone

Park, Belfast
*Donegall, Marquis of (Representatives of), Belfast
*Downshire, Marquis of, The Castle, Hillsborough, Co. Down
aDown and Connor and Dromore, The Lord Bishop of,

D.D., Culloden House, Craigavad
Duffin, Adam, LL.D., J.Pp., Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast
Dunleath, Lord, Ballywalter Park. — Ballywalter, Co. Down

Ewart, G. Herbert, M.A., J.P., Firmount, Antrim Road, Belfast

Ewart, Fred W., M.A., B.L., Derryvolgie, Lisburn
Ewart, Sir Wm. Quartus, Bart., M.A., J.P., D.L., Glen-

machan House, Belfast
Elliott, E. J., Donegall Park, do.

aFaren, William, Mountcharles do,

Shareholders and Members 91

*Fenton, Francis G., Paris

aFerguson, G. W., ¢.k., J.P., Carnamenagh, Antrim Road, Belfast

Finlay, Fred W., J.p., Wolfhill House (Representatives of),
Ligoniel, Belfast

Finlay, Robert H. F., 66 Eglantine Avenue, do.
Finnegan, John M., B.A., B.SC., Botanic Avenue, . do.
aFrazer, Kenneth W., Hillmount, Cullybackey
Fulton, G. F., Howard Street, Belfast
Gamble, James, Broadway Damask Co., Ltd., do.
*Getty, Edmund (Representatives of), Belfast
Gibson, Andrew, F.R.S.A.1., Fairfield, Lansdowne Road, do.
Gibson, W. K., 16 Chichester Street, do.
Gordon, Malcolm, Hilden, Lisburn
Gordon, Millar, Carnstroan, 7 Myrtlefield Park, Belfast
*Grainger, Rev. Canon, D.D., M.R.I.A.,

(Representatives of), Broughshane, Co. Antrim
aGreen, W. A., 4 Salisbury Avenue, Belfast
aGreeves, F. M., Garranard, Strandtown, do.
aGreeves, Joseph M., Bernagh, Circular Road, Strandtown
aGreeves, Arthur, Altona, do.
aGreeves, James Theo., Nendrum, Knock
aGreeves, Ridgeway, Holly Park, do.
aGreeves, W. Leopold, Rockfield, Dundonald
*Hall, Frederick H., Waterford
Hamilton, Rev. Thomas, D.D., LL.D., Vice Chancellor,

Queen’s University, Belfast
*Hamilton, Hill, 3.p. (Representatives of), do.
Harland, Capt. W., 38 Chester Ter., Chester Sq., London, S.W.
aHenry, Professor R. M., M.A., M.R.1.A., Crosshill, ‘

Windsor Avenue North, Belfast
aHenry, T. W., Greenbank, Mountpleasant, do.

Herdman, F. S., The Drift, Antrim Road (The late), do.

92 Shareholders and Members

Herdman, E. C., Carricklee House, Strabane
*Herdman, Robert Ernest, J.p., Merronhurst, Craigavad, Co. Down
aHewton, John, Ava Buildings, Ormeau Road, do.
Heyn, James A. M., Strandtown House, Belfast
aHill, Dr., Pound Street, Larne
Hind, John, jun., The Deanery, Carrickfergus
aHyde, James J., Redlands, Adelaide Park, do.
aHogg, A. R., 10 Thorndale Avenue, do.
Hodges, Miss, Glenravel, Co. Antrim
aHorner, John, Drum-na-Coll, Antrim Road, Belfast
*Houston, John Blakiston, D.L., J.P., Orangefield, do.
*Hughes, Edwin, J.p., Dalchoolin, Craigavad, Co. Down
Hunter, William, J.p., Fortwilliam Villas, Belfast

Jackson, A. T., c.E. (Representatives of), Tighnabruaich,

Derryvolgie Avenue, do.
Jaffe, Sir Otto, J.p., LL.D., Kin Edar, Strandtown, do.
aJaffe, W., 10 Donegall Square South, do.
Johnston, Samuel A., J.p., Dalriada, Whiteabhey, Co. Antrim
aJury, P. M., Brooklands, Dunmurry

*Kinghan, John R., Windsor Avenue (Representatives of), Belfast

Kyle, Robert Alexander, Donegall Place, do.
Laird, Professor J., 4 Cranmore Gardens, do.
Larmor, Sir Joseph, M.A., D.SC., LL.D., F.R.A.S., SEC. R.S.,

St. John’s College, ; Cambridge
aLepper, R. S., M.A., F.R.HIST.S., Elsinore, Carnalea, County Down
aLett, Rev. Canon, M.R.1.A., Aghaderg Glebe, do.
Lindsay, Professor James A., M.A., M.D., Queen’s Elms, Belfast
aLindsay, W. A., M.P., Tyrone House, do.
aLawlor, H. C., M.R.1.A., Windsor Avenue, do.
Loewenthal, John, Lennoxvale, Malone Road, do.

*Macrory, A. J. (Representatives of), do.

Shareholders and Members 93

Magill, J. E., Elmwood Avenue, Belfast
aMackie, James, J.P., Hazelbank, Whitehouse
aMcGowan, Thomas, Ann Street, Belfast
Malcolm, Bowman, M.1.C.E., M.I.M.E., Ashley Park,

Antrim Road, do.
Maxton, James, M.I.N.A., M.I.MAR.E., Kirkliston Drive,

Bloomfield, do.
aMay, Robert, 40 Hopefield Avenue, do.
Mayes, William, Deramore Park, do.
Metcalfe, A. W., Hawthornden House, Hawthornden Rd., do.
Milligan, A., 4 Cooke Street, do.
Mitchell, Robert A., LL.B., T.c.D., Marmount, Strandtown, Belfast
aMontgomery, Miss E., 16 College Park, do.
aMontgomery, H. C., Bangor, County Down
aMontgomery, H. H., Malone Park, Belfast.
Moore, James, J.?., The Finaghy, do.
Morton, Professor W. B., M.a., Nottinghuill, do.
Muir, A. H., Scottish Provident Buildings, do.
Mullan, William, Lindisfarne, Marlborough Park, do.
*Murphy, Isaac James (Representatives of), Armagh
*Murphy, Joseph John (Representatives of), Belfast
*Musgrave, Henry, p.L., Drumglass, Malone, do.
aMacalister, Professor, R.A.S., D.LITT., M.A., 18 Mount

Eden Road, Donnybrook, Dublin
McBride, A. H., Ormeau Avenue, Belfast
*McCalmont, Robert (Representatives of), London

*McCammon, Thos. P. (Representatives of), Plaisted,
Woodville, Holywood, County Down

aMcCoy, B., Windsor Park, Belfast
MacColl, Hector, Kirkliston Drive, Bloomfield, do,
*McCracken, Francis (Representatives of),

aMacready, H. L., Myrtlefield Park, x ido:
MaclIlwaine, Dr. John E., 26 College Gardens, do.
McKisack, H. L., M.p., Chlorine, do.

*MacLaine, Alexander, J.P., Queen’s Elms,
(Representatives of), do.

"94 Shareholdsrs and Members

McLaughlin, W. H., D.L., J.P., Macedon, do.
MacKenzie, Dr. W. G., 6 University Square, do.
aMcMeekin, Adam, J.P., Cogry House, Doagh
McNeill, George, 12 Deramore Park, do.
*O’Rorke, Mrs., Tudor Park, Holywood, County Down
Orr, Hugh L., Garfield Street (Representatives of), Belfast
aOsborne, T. Edens, Wellington Place, do.

Patterson, Edward Ferrar, Ballyholme Road, Bangor, Co. Down
Patterson, Mrs. David C., Glenard, Holywood, do.
Patterson, John, Dunallan, Windsor Avenue, Belfast
Patterson, Robert, M.R.I.A., F.Z.S., M.B.0.U., Glenbank, Holywood
Patterson, William H., m.R.1.A. (Representatives of),

Garranard, Strandtown, Belfast
Patterson, William H. F., Stalheim, Knock, do.
Pim, E. W., Ivy Lodge, Knockbreda Park, do.
Porter, 8. C., Chichester Buildings, do.
aRiddell, Henry, M.&., M.1.M.E., 64 Great Victoria Street, do.
aRoden, Countess of, Tullymore Park, Co. Down
Sefton, Burton, 20 Bedford Street, Belfast
Sinclair, Prof. Thomas, M.D., F.R.c.S., Eng., University Sq., do.
aSinelair, Thomas, J.P., Castle Lane, do.
Sinclair, John, Mount Donard, Windsor Park, do.
Smith, John, Castleton Terrace, ~ do.
aSkillen, Joseph, The Lisnagarvey Linen Co., Lisburn
Speers, Adam, B.8C., J.P., Riversdale, © Holywood, Co. Down
aSpence, Thomas, J.P., Portadown
Steen, William C., M.D., Letchwood, Herts
Steen, William, B.L., Northern Bank, Victoria Street, Belfast
aStevenson, John, Coolavon, Malone Road, do.
Stirling, James H., Windsor Avenue, do.

aSteel, Samuel, Millbrook, Larne

Shareholders and Members 95

aStendall, Sidney, Old Museum, Belfast
Stelfox, Arthur W., A.R.1.B.A., Ballymagee, Bangor, Co. Down
Swanston, William, F.G.s., Farm Hill, Dunmurry
Symington, Prof. Johnson, M.D., F.R.S.E., Chlorine Avenue, Belfast

aSymmers, Prof. W. St. Clair, Queen’s University, do.
aTaylor, James, Fairholme, Helen’s Bay
*Tennent, Robert (Representative of), Rushpark, Belfast
*Tennent, Robert James (Representative of), Rushpark, do.
aThompson, Edward, Windsor Avenue, do.
Thompson, John, J.p., Mount Collyer, do.
Torrens, Mrs. S., Edenmore, Jordanstown
*Turnley, John (Representative of), Drumnasole, Carnlough
aWalker, Franklin M., Wynyard, Helen’s Bay, Co. Down
Walkington, Miss Jane A., Osborne Gardens, Belfast
*Webb, Richard (Representative of), Knock, do.
aWhite, J. C., J.p., Lord Mayor of Belfast, Craigavad
Whitla, Prof. Sir William, M.P., M.D., J.P., Lennoxvale, Belfast
Wibberley, Thomas D., Esq., 52 Elmwood Avenue, do.
Wilson, Prof. Gregg, M.A., PH.D., D.SC., M.R.1.A., Queen’s
University, do.
aWilson, Fergus 8., Crofton Hall, Holywood
aWilson, George, 9 Bedford Street, Belfast
.a* Wilson, Alec., J.P., M.R.LA., Croglin, Ballyaughlis, Lisburn
“Wilson, W. Percival (Representative of), Belfast
Workman, Francis, The Moat, Strandtown, do.
Workman, John, J.P., Lismore, Windsor, . do.
*Wolff, G. W. (Representatives of), do.

Workman, Rev. Robert, m.A., Rubane House, Glastry, Co. Down
*Workman, T. (Representative of),

Workman, W., 8 Corporation Street, : Belfast
Wright, Joseph, F.c.s., 10 May Street, do.

a*Young, Robert Magill, B.A., J.P., M.R.L.A., Rathvarna, do.

96 Shareholders and Members

HONORARY ASSOCIATES.

Foster, Nevin H., Hillsborough, Co. Down:
Swanston, William, F.c.s., Farm Hill, Dunmurry
Wright, Joseph, F.G.s., May Street, Belfast

ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF TWO GUINEAS.

Belfast Banking Company, Ltd., Belfast
Northern Banking Company, Ltd., do.
Ulster Bank, Ltd., : do

Belfast Natural History
and Philosophical Society.

Society Founded 182t.

PRESIDENT, PROFESSOR W. ST. CLAIR SYMMERS, IM.B.

NINETY-SEVENTH SESSION.

| The Council of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical
: Society have founded an Archeological Section and a separate
Committee of the Section has been formed. The object of the
Section is to carry out more fully the work that has been done, to
a limited extent, through grants made by the Society for several
years. This work has been the investigation and excavation of
monuments of antiquity in the neighbourhood, and the recording
and publication of the results of such investigations. The pre-
servation or restoration, where desirable, of monuments examined,
and the general encouragement of the study of local Archeology,
and the history, manners and customs of the ancient inhabitants of
the North of Ireland will also form part of the aims of the Section.

The Committee of the Section will be glad to hear from

any persons who wish to recommend objects of antiquity for

__ investigation, and such recommendations will be carefully con-
- sidered.

The Committee especially appeal to members of the Society
and others, to encourage general interest in the objects of the
_ Section. There are undoubtedly many people, especially in
country districts, who have a general interest in Archzeology, but
: have not the opportunity of cultivating their interest and extending
their knowledge owing to the want of a centre such as the
Archeological Section is intended to supply. Members will be
entitled to receive, free of charge, all publications of the Natural
History and Philosophical Society, to enjoy the use of the Library,
and attend all its Lectures and Meetings.

The Subscription has been fixed on a scale to be burdensome
to none, and it is needless to point out that the success of the
Section can largely be assured by those connected with it doing
all in their power to increase the membership and general interest
in its objects.

ARCHAZOLOGICAL SECTION.

Chairman—

Str CHartus]Brert, GRutTton, BELFAST.

Hon. Treasurer— Hon. Secretary—
Mr. Henry Ripprery, M.E., Mr. H. C. Lawtor, M.RB.I.A.,
83 MyYRTLEFIELD PARK, 8 Wrinvsor AVENUE,
BELFAST. BELFAST.

GENERAL RULES.

i. The object of the Archzological Section is to investigate,
illustrate and record particulars of monuments of antiquarian
interest in Ireland, more especially within a radius of 75 miles from
Belfast, and generally to encourage and pursue the study of
Archeology.

2. The Section shall consist of a Chairman, Treasurer,
Secretary and Members, all of whom must be members of the
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society.

3. The management of the business of the Section shall be
entrusted to an Executive Committee of twelve members, of
which the President, Treasurer and Secretary of the Society shall
be ex-officio members. The Chairman, Treasurer and Secretary
of the Section shall also be ex-officio members, and they and the
remaining members of the Executive Committee shall be elected
annually at the Annual General Meeting of the Section.

4. The First General Meeting of the Section shall be held
in February, 1918, and the Annual General Meeting shall take
place each November, on dates to be arranged by the Executive
Committee.

5. Members of the Society shall be admitted to the Section
on election by the Executive Committee, and candidates must
‘secure a majority of at least three quarters of the votes of those
present at the Executive Committee Meeting.

6. The amount of the subscription to the Section (in addition
to the subscription to the Society®) shall be voluntary, but not less
than 5/-, payable on election, and afterwards annually on Ist
November; but nothing in the foregoing shall prevent the
Executive Committee electing members free of subscription if
they deem it advisable.

7. The research work of the Section shall be decided upon
by the Executive Committee, though it will be open to any person
to suggest to the Committee any desirable subject of antiquarian
interest for investigation. | Any objects of antiquity discovered in
any investigation, other than treasure trove, shall be handed over
to the Society for inclusion in their collection in the Museum.

8. The works of investigation carried out under auspices of
the Section shall be recorded in written reports. These reports
will be submitted to the Publication Committee of the Society,
who will recommend to the Council whether, and in what form,
they will be published in their Proceedings and Annual Report.

9. These rules may be altered or amended or added to, but
only by resolution passed at the Annual General Meetings of the
Section; notice of any such alteration must be handed in writing
to the Secretaries of the Society and of the Section, not less than
one or more than six months prior to the Annual General Meeting
at which they are to be proposed.

*The Subscription payable by Members ot the Natural History and
Philosophical Society is 10/- per annum.

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§ DEC 2)
NATURAL

| Report and Proceedings

FOR THE

“SESSION 1918-1919.

aga pie"! ‘BELFAST:
-MAYNE, BOYD & SON, Lrp., 2 CORPORATION STREET
(PRINTERS TO THE QUEEN ’S UNIVERSITY). .

1920.

Report and Proceedings

OF THE

ee LEAST

Natural History and Philosophical Society

FOR THE

SESSION) “1918-1919.

BELFAST :
MAYNE, BOYD & SON, LTD., 2 CORPORATION STREET

(PRINTERS TO THE QUEEN’S UNIVERSITY).

1920.

PeLeAsl! NATURAL HISTORY
fo PHILOSOPHICAL, SOCIETY

Officers and Council of Management for 1918-19.

President:
Pror. W. ST. CLAIR SYMMERS, m.s.

Vice=Presidents :
Pror. GREGG WILSON, pD.sc., M.R.1.A.
Pror. JAMES A. LINDSAY, M.a., F.R.C.P.
ROBERT. M. YOUNG, M.A., M.R.LA., J.P.
WILLIAM SWANSTON, F.«G.s.
JOHN HORNER.

‘bon. Cteasurer :
Councittor HENRY RIDDELL, M.£., M.1.M.E.

fbon. Librarian :
JOHN HORNER.

tbon. Secretary :
JOHN M. FINNEGAN, B.A., B.SC.

Assistant Secretary :
JOHN W. STOREY, B.A.

Council :

Sm JOHN W. BYERS, m.a., M.D.

JOHN HORNER.

WILLIAM FAREN.

ALDERMAN S. W. ALLWORTHY, M.4., M.D.
W. B. BURROWKS.

E. J. ELLIOTT.

H. C. LAWLOR, m.B.1.4.

WILLIAM SWANSTON, F.¢.s.

Proressorn GREGG WILSON, D.sc., M.R.1.A.
JOHN M. FINNEGAN, B.A., B.SC.
PRoressor J. A. LINDSAY, m.aA., F.R.C.P.
Councittor HENRY RIDDELL, M.£., M.I.M.E.
ROBERT M. YOUNG, M.a., M.R.1.4.
Proressor W. ST. CLAIR SYMMERS, m.z.

— Oe ee OO”

Retire
1919.

Retire
1920.

Retire
1921.

Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society.

O

ESTASEISHED te2

O

CONSTITUTION.

The membership of the Society consists of Shareholders, Members
under the new scheme authorized by the Society, Annual Subscribers
(Associates), Honorary Members and Honorary Associates, 2

A holder of one share pays an annual contribution of ten shillings ;.
a holder of two shares (in one certificate) an annual contribution of five
shillings ; whilea holder of three or more shares (in one certificate) is
exempt from annual payments. Shares on which the annual payments as
above are in arrear are liable to forfeiture. The Council retain the right
to decline to consolidate two or more share certificates into one certificate.
Members under the new Scheme are elected by the Council, pay ten shillings
per annum subscription, and have the right to vote on all questions not
affecting the ownership of the property of the Society.

Annual Subscrebers (Associates) pay £1 1s. Od. (one guinea), due Ist
November each year in advance.

A general meeting of Shareholders and Members is held annually in
May or June, or as soon thereafter as convenient, to receive the Report of
the Council and the Statement of Accounts for the preceding year, to elect
members of Council, to replace those retiring by rotation or for other
reasons, and to transact any other business incidental to an Annual
Meeting.

The Council elect from among their own number a President and other
officers of the Society.

Each member has the right of personal attendance at the ordinary
lectures of the Society, and has the privilege of introducing two friends.
for admission to such. The Session for lectures extends from November
to May,

Any further information required may be obtained from the Honorary
Secretary at :—The Museum, College Square North, Belfast.

mC BELFAST.
_ NATURAL HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

PROCEEDINGS,
a No. i. :

A WAR MEMORIAL

— __ BY MR. ALEC WILSON, J.P, MR.LA:

es BELFAST : 3
_ MAYNE, BOYD & SON, LTD., 2CORPORATION STREET
Bis (PRINTERS TO THE QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY).

ee 1OIG © he

Fie. 2.

“srt

AK

PP atiimbs

A CATHEDRAL MALL.

See page 7.
if

10th December, 1918.

A WAR MEMORIAL FOR BELFAST.
By Avec WIxson, M.R.1.A.

I venture to offer to the citizens of Belfast a few suggestions
towards a great and worthy War Memorial for this City. The
suddenness with which the giant conflict has come. to its end has
to some extent taken us all aback. so that we are almost as
unprepared for peace as we were for war. But, I take it that
very shortly the civic authorities will be seeking a design for
something whereby to perpetuate for many centuries the share
which Belfast has taken in the vast struggle.

The loved memory of the dead : the care and restoration of
the wounded and of the sick : the future well-being of those who,
having fought for us, are now soon to return to us uninjured—
these things cannot be separated from each other when we
consider the nature of a true War Memorial—nor can either of
them be separated from the idea of a general rebuilding of our
social organisation.

So far as I am aware, all public memorials of war, hitherto,
have been limited to the honouring, by some statue, archway, or
other monumental group, of the gallant dead: Sometimes such a
monument may itself have been noble and beautiful,—(more often
it has been neither)—but always it has been a dead thing, a
species of glorified tombstone. The opportunity is before us for
creating a war memorial of a new and unique type: and my
present object is to describe a few of the more essential elements
in such a proposal.

It would seem that the present moment is extraordinarily
opportune for a project upon these general lines. | The appeal is
universal, to all classes and to all creeds: there is hardly a
family in Belfast that has not contributed of its men to our
fighting forces: hardly a house which would not respond to the

‘

‘

2 A War Memorial for Belfast.

call that we must make our Memorial worthy of those in honour
of whom it is to be raised. We need something that shall touch
the imagination and the soul of those that will help to create it ;
that shall kindle a fire in them which shall not be quenched so
long as our Memorial shall stand.

A WAR MEMORIAL INSTITUTE.

I suggest that the means whereby such an ideal could most
fitly be embodied would be a War Memorial Institute of noble
architecture, and occupying a commanding site. In its design
and in its decoration, as in its actual working, it would be the
expression at once of our Memory and of our Hope.

Memory. It must contain a permanent record of the
Great War, more especially as it affected Belfast. The names
and services of all our dead should be preserved in it: portraits,
photographs, maps, drawings, letters, books, newspapers, flags,
euns and shells: statuary: regimental records: medals: an
endless variety of relics and mementoes by which future
generations might be enabled; to some extent, to see these days
through our eyes.

Hope. The other essential is a comprehensive plan for a
Greater Belfast. Here would be books, maps, and drawings
about all branches of civic activity : especially, everything dealing
with Belfast should be accessible, past or future, historic or
constructive. I would have a Lecture Hall, and a Publication
Fund: which together should form an open court for the free
discussion of every suggestion towards the betterment of our
city. In this, and many other ways, we would build up a
Town Plan and Survey, not rigid and inexorable,—for a rigid
programme would leave too little room for elasticity and change
of detail, —but upon broad lines, likely to meet the prospective
needs of the community, and embodying the best thought of
those most competent to guide an educated democracy in the
task of its own uplifting,

Fie, 1.

ST (LoweR)

DANEGALL

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ispiece

See Fronti

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BELFAST AS A GARDEN City In 1685.

See p. 8.

A War Memorial for Belfast. 3

As a working example, suppose we begin by choosing a site
for our Institute. It is almost always hard to find a good site
for a new building of any importance in a city. In this case,
our Institute should be within the central half-mile circle: it
should be conspicuous, and it should stand on a main thorough-
fare. Preferably, it should be within easy reach of the Public
Library. This would point towards a site somewhere near the
corner of Royal Avenue and North Street. But, in a good
Town Plan, one would not neglect to make the most of the
immediate surroundings of a big new building, and of any other
important buildings in the neighbourhood :—in this case the
Cathedral. I therefore propose starting from the Cathedral
entrance in Donegall Street, and driving out a wide Mall (Fic. 1)
over the site of the present Church Street, through to Royal
Avenue. I would make this Mall at least 120 feet wide, with
a roadway on either side, and a formal garden in the centre.
(Fic. 2, Fronrisprece). I would pull down the worst of the
slums which still surround the Cathedral, and make room for
more schools, for a residence for the clergy, for a parish hall or
diocesan rooms, and for wide spaces, gravelled or grassed, in which
to plant trees. The corner where this Mall would meet Royal
Avenue would afford a first-rate site for the War Memorial
Institute. It is a site at present occupied chiefly by public houses
and mean little shops.

There is a question regarding the building of such a War
Memorial in Belfast, the answer to which would, of itself, go far
to show whether the true spirit of the scheme had been realized.
The men who should do the actual work (manual or mental) of
designing and building and ornamenting our Institute should be

Irish ; they are the fathers and the brothers and the sons of:

those in whose honour the place is to be built ; they know, as no
strangers could ever know (or care to know), the spirit in which
our Ulster lads of all the creeds and parties went forth volun-
tarily to the war. And, more than this, their love for their own
will inspire their hands to do their best work for the Institute,

4 A War Memorial for Belfast.

while the fact that they have themselves cut the stones or carved
the wood will arouse interest in them regarding the objects of the
Institute itself, and so will help to make them understand that
they themselves are part of the reason why it was built.

A CITY SURVEY AND TOWN PLAN.

Let us presume that it 1s agreed to draw up a plan for the
betterment of our city, and that a strong and representative
committee has been brought into existence in order to carry out
‘a preliminary survey and to suggest a constructive policy. I
propose to sketch, in very brief outline, the work which would
lie before such a committee.

(Ci) =P Aasi

It is rarely possible, and seldom desirable, to discard what
we have inherited from the past. Any plan worth considering
at all will necessarily be built up from conditions as have been
and as they are, and will take into account the history and the
facts, both material and spiritual, which gave rise to those
conditions.

It is, for instance, important, as well as merely interesting,
even in 1918, to study the maps of the city when it was in its
infancy. In 1685 (Fic. 3) Belfast was a little walled town,
with its Bridge, its Castle and its Church. The map shows two
notable features :—(1) a little river flows down the main street,
with a roadway on either side of it, and (2) every dwelling-house
in every street has its garden. So, three centuries ago, Belfast
was a little “ Garden City.” For its size, and within its limita-
tions, it was rather well designed, and this good original plan has
served us down to the present day,—and will indeed not be
wholly lost as long as the city stands. For consider: when
the town grew, and required facilities for increased traffic,
the little “Belfast River” was built over, and so gave us our
wide High Street, which still preserves the old breadth of the

Hien Srreet, BELFAST, SHOWING PORTION OF OLD Dock ABour 1820.

See p. 8.

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See p. 10.

A War Memorial for Belfast. 5

two roads with the stream between them (Fic. 4) and when
the small houses needed more floor space for their trade (in those
days the merchant lived in his shop), the gardens were built over
and became small warehouses and factories. Later on, Donegall
Place was built over the open Castle Gardens, and the wide
tradition of High Street was carried on. Later still, it was
customary to retain the unusual width between house-fronts,
which had become so marked a local characteristic, but to use the
space in front of each house for a little garden.

To this day, we can often trace the old conditions : the odd
ribbon-like strips of building between Donegall Place and Fountain
Street (the Carlton Restaurant is a good instance) retain the
original plan of the small house with the long garden at the
back : to this day, all through the centre of the city, and even in
Donegall Square, there are posts and railings, or breaks in the
pavement, which still indicate the edges of the old gardens.

- It would be easy to enlarge upon these ~ civic fossils.” It is
sufficient for my purposes to show that a design originally good
will serve for many along day without losing all its value: I
wanted especially to show how we derive our wide streets mainly
from the little river which is still flowing underneath High Street,
and to the good lay-out of Belfast three hundred years ago. To
a large extent, the last hundred years have spoiled our good little
plan : certainly we have nothing more to gain from it: and in
this generation we have replaced it, so far, by—nothing. It is a
fact that we owe most of our present and future difficulties in
city improvement to the absence, during the city’s modern
growth, of any order or plan. Not merely was there no city
plan, but for many and many a year nobody in Belfast ever
thought of a plan as being desirable. Yet it is true that, here
and there, small portions of the city were planned, piecemeal—
(notably the neighbourhood of York Street, and the area around
Adelaide Street)—but they were badly planned. They are on
the ancient “ gridiron” principle, as old as Egypt and Assyria,
which has so long disfigured America, and which America

6 A War Memorial for Belfast.

is now trying hard to get rid of. If anyone wishes to see
some of the reasons why the “gridiron” plan is defective, he
need only examine these sections of our own city. It is true,
also, that costly improvements have been made in our streets :
Victoria Street is a new creation: Royal Avenue has taken the
place of the Hercules Street which I remember as a boy ; but
these have been, one and all of them, expensive proofs that a
good original plan is a great economy, for it was the lack of good
planning which made these costly schemes necessary. With a
good plan it should not be necessary ever again to commit van-
dalisms such as we committed when we built a hotel upon the
consecrated ground in which nearly all the old makers of Belfast
he buried.

This lack of plan has often cost us dear, and will long
continue to do so. For lack of it, the floods in the Bog Meadows
still give our gamins an occasional day’s boating in our streets.
For lack of it, we are still without a central railway station. For
lack of it, we have no circular roads to ease the traffic through
the congested centre of the town. For lack of it, Belfast
Cathedral stands in a back street. For lack of it, our population
per inhabited acre is about three times denser than it should
be.

(II.)—FurTuRE.

- But if it is both interesting and important to look backwards
into the past of our town, it is more exciting and of much more
importance to forecast the developments ahead of us, if only
because, to however small an extent, we ourselves can appreciably
influence it. Under God, a community can shape its own Civic
destinies. The Tercentenary Map of 1913 has marked upon it,
roughly, the city limits one hundred years earlier, and two
hundred years earlier. (Fic. 5). Can anyone look at it and
doubt that further changes are coming? We see what the city has
been : we see what it is: can we see what it will be? Assuming
a spirit of progress and civic pride, I think we can prophecy

Fia, 6,

River Lacan, See p. 13:

Saise
} VI U S ey) M
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& DEC 23

Fic. 7.

GREATER BELFAST

Dot & Dasl? Line —-—-Ablaroximate Rypulated Area (1902). |

Heavy Litre ——— Winimany Decessary Extension. © — ~| me —
Dotted Line -— - Areas Destred for Cortrol. oo

Shaded Area @& Reclaimed Land
Hatched Area @8 Original City tgs

GREATER BELFAST.

A War Memorial for Belfast. ie

some of the changes which, at any rate, ought to take place
before this century closes. But for this we need an ordered
scheme, a City Plan.

Of necessity it must be a many-sided Plan. It must be
designed much in advance of the actual needs of the city at any
givenmoment. It must touch the life of the community at many
different points. Among its objects, it would provide for :—

(a) Housing. There is at this moment hardly a vacant
house in the city. Since the collapse of the building “boom”
about 1900, there has been comparatively little increase in the
accommodation available either for rich or poor: yet our
population has been increasing, and, (quite apart from possible
further increase), there is immediate need for great numbers
of new houses. But there is also reason to believe that the
years Immediately ahead will see a large increase in the local
demand for skilled labour,—and therefore for more houses and
more good houses. Messrs. Harland & Wolff alone have told us
that they expect to be able to employ an extra 5,000 or 6,000
men: and the Harbour Commissioners have published their
costly and ambitious scheme of dock extensions. Including all
classes, I think it is fairly safe to say that we shall need at least
1,000 new houses per annum for the next 10 years to come, or,
say, three per day. We have been proud of the fact that our
Belfast housing conditions have been, on the average, good: and
yet we must admit that they are not yet, even nearly, good
enough to satisfy the ambitions of the rising generation of
workers: and that, while our worst is certainly not as bad as the
worst elsewhere, our best falls very far short of what other cities
have recently been doing. Here, as elsewhere, artizans are going
to establish for themselves, during the next twenty years, not
merely a permanently higher scale of wages (out of which they
will be able to pay a higher rent), but, a permanently higher scale
of life: they demand, and will obtain, many opportunities for
reasonable enjoyment, which will, in turn, alter their whole out-
look on life, and which will disgust them with the prospect of

8 A War Memorial for Belfast.

living permanently in endless vistas of identical brick dog-kennels,
which, if they are properly connected to the town sewer, satisfy
our building authorities. In a well-planned city, it would, for
example, be impossible, for 7 would be illegal, to issue an
elaborate scheme of harbour extensions, without including in it
the essential provision for dock-labourers’ dwellings, reasonably
accessible, decently comfortable, and provided with such
necessities as schools, playgrounds and gardens.

(b) Schools. There are far too few schools in Belfast.
lor many years we have been short by about 15,000 seats of
the accommodation considered necessary for a population of equal
size in, say, Birmingham or Glasgow. At least ten, probably
twenty, first-rate primary schools are wanted, and are urgently
wanted, now: and this quite apart from the additional schools
which will be needed if our population is to expand above its
present figure, and, also, quite apart from the certainty that more
and better schooling is going to be demanded than has ever yet
been provided. We are dealing here with the very foundations
of public welfare in the future, for it is our schools which are
repairing the ravages and the destruction of this war, it is in
our schools that our democratic civilisation will grow, or die.
If our primary schools be, as. they often are, insanitary, over-
crowded, insufficient in number, starved in soul or body (by
underpaying teachers or skimping equipment), what sort of
citizens will they turn out to govern our city in future? For,
in the years ahead, the workers are going to hold the reins of
power, not only in the Imperial Cabinet and other parliamentary
institutions, but in municipal government as well.

Similarly, if we need schools, we need playgrounds. The
first city map I would wish to make for our Survey would be a
map of the children’s playgrounds. The need for them, in
scores, is almost appalling. No child should have to walk more
than a quarter of a mile to a playground.

Thus, a compulsory reservation for schools and playground
would be one of the first essentials, in our Town Plan, in every
area undergoing either new development or reconstruction.

Fic. 8.

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A War Memorial for Belfast. 9

(c) “ Amenities.” It is an ugly word, but it stands for the
preservation of all beantiful places remaining in, or close to,
the city: for example, the banks of the Lagan (Fic. 6) from
Ormeau out to Drumbeg. We should have absolute control of all
this beautiful waterway, and should open a drive along it which
would remain for ever a credit to those who had saved it from
the steady destruction which it 1s rapidly undergoing at present.
Again, our parks and public gardens are all too few and too
small. Let us not starve our future city of these lungs. Such
places as Orangefield, Belvoir or Stranmillis, and the pretty
country around the Forth River, by Glencairn and Ballygomartin,
still remain for us to utilise in the public interest. It is
unnecessary to erect mediaeval fortifications upon a hill-slope in
order to make it beautiful :—heather and gorse and daffodils will
do this for us at a tithe of the expense. May we not have a
great wild garden of such simple things on the slopes of the
Cave Hill or the Black Mountain? May we not have, both as
a lung and as an attraction in itself, a good botanical and
agricultural garden and college out Strandtown way? Why
should we not possess a small Zoo? It need not be larger than
the one in Dublin, and there is plenty of room up the Lagan.

- (d) Churches. We need to make further provision for the
religious requirements of the city. The central premises of my
own Church are but dingy and inadequate : the Methodist Church
has none at all: and there is no Roman Catholic Cathedral. The
historic Church of Presbyterianism in May Street is surrounded
by buildings hardly less sordid than those around the Cathedral.
Possibly, some part of these needs would be supplied were the
War Office to decide on abandoning Victoria Barracks in favour
of another suburban site like Holywood, and so release a great
area for schools and playgrounds and the like. The old Lower
Barrack Yard facing Great George's Street would make a fine
location for a Roman Catholic Cathedral.

(e) Traffic—) Roads.—We have done much to improve
our roads and streets for convenience of traftic.—much remains to

10 A War Memorial for Belfast.

be done. Waring Street needs widening: if the Cathedral Mall
were opened, a new street connecting the docks with the Shankill
Road could easily be worked in. Great Victoria Street needs
continuing at its full width down King Street and by Gresham
Street to Royal Avenue. Coming down the Antrim Road, a new
wide street is wanted from Carlisle Circus via Townsend Street
and Durham Street to the Lisburn Road at Sandy Row.
Similarly, a big route is wanted from Bloomfield across to
Ormeau.

(2) Railways.—As regards Railway facilities, it may be
that we have for ever lost our chances :—but would it not be
desirable at least to have an expert re-examination into the
remaining possibilities? A Central Station would be a vast
convenience. It would presumably have to be located somewhere
about the area between the Gas Works and the Albert Bridge, —
and the nest of slums at present occupying most of that section
would: be a very good riddance, in any case, even if the space
were to be used, not for a big Station, but only for an extension of
our markets.

(3) Trams.—The tramway policy of a city is bound up in
the most intimate way with its Town Plan. Our present system
requires consideration in the light of future developments. For
one thing, uniform fares should be established. We should
deliberately continue what we have already begun, driving
our lines far out into the country, on wide roads,—but we should
see to it that working men and working women shall have cheap
and rapid access to their work even from the furthest terminus
of our public conveyance,—else the greatest of all gains from
public conveyance is thrown away. How is it that we have not
yet taken better advantage of the fact that hardly any city in the
world has such easy access to such beautiful surroundings ?
Again, is it not almost time to begin a systematic linking up of
the suburban tram-heads, so that we may ultimately have a full
circular route? It would be easy to begin, by a link from Malone
terminus across Shaw’s Bridge to Ormeau terminus, and the

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A War Memorial for Belfast. jig!

extension would open up a large and beautiful district for new
suburban residences.

(f) Reclamation. A glance at the Map will show that we
have approximately four square miles of slob and shallows along
the sea front capable of reclamation. Doubtless most of this is,
so to speak, ear-marked for docks and shipyards : but, bearing in
mind the direction of the prevailing wind, and the difficulties of
drainage, it would seem to me that most of the new industrial
enterprises which may be suggested in future should be located
on the flat reclaimed lands along the Shore Road. Any that
involve dirt or smoke or smell should assuredly be so limited !

(g) New Boundary. I have made a little sketch map
(Fic. 7) upon which I have indicated, very roughly, four or
five stages in the growth of Belfast. The little central oblong is
the city of 1685, the line around it is the boundary as it was
about 1789: then comes a line which shows the _ present
populated area: outside these lines there is a heavy black
line, with heavy dotted extensions. The first of these
indicates the territory which should be brought under the
control of the city as soon as it is possible to do so: and the
second is meant to suggest the directions in which still further
growth is likely to take place. It would be a principal function
of our Institute Committee to look into a whole series of
questions of this sort, and to suggest when and by how much the
borders of the city should be extended.

(h) Government. One cannot look at a map such as this
without reflecting upon the manner of governing the community
which it represents. We have at least five separate local
authorities in Belfast, each of which is. self-contained, and
each of which acts, to all intents and purposes, independent
of the other: these are the Corporation, the Harbour Board,
the Water Commissioners, the Board of Guardians and the
Commissioner of Police. Is it desirable that these should
forever be separated into the existing watertight compartments ?
Or is it reasonable to hope that the City Government may

12 A War Memorial for Belfast.

be unified and co-ordinated to a single whole? It seems to
me that the value of citizenship, and the dignity of the
city, would be increased by throwing full responsibility upon a
single elected body for controlling each and all of the departments
of civic administration. There are many such details in the art
of clean, efficient and popular government which could with
advantage be studied in connection with proposals for a Greater
Belfast.

SOME HOUSING NOTES.

I have dealt, in a very summary manner, with some eight or
ten sections of the work which would lie before our Institute
Committee. May I refer back to the first of these sections,
(Housing), p. 11, and elaborate it a little further ?

Why is it that our typical new city street is a slum-street
before ever a tenant enters a house in it? Mainly because we
put too many houses upon an acre. Fifty human beings, or, say,
ten houses, is amply enough per inhabited acre: we are accustomed
to a plan which encourages four or five times this figure. Putting
it another way, if Belfast builds 5,000 new houses during the
next five years, it ought to take at least 500 acres of land to
accommodate them. Unless they are prevented from doing it, our
present civic regulations in this matter will probably squeeze
the whole 5,000 houses into about. 100 acres. Then we shall
have a new slum on our hands, which will cost a lot of money
to pull down and reconstruct within thirty or forty years.

What is the remedy? It is twofold. (1) The new work
must be done in a new way, not in accordance with the slum
tradition : and (2) the old work must be gradually reconstructed.

New Housing. The best arguments I can produce are not
so easily stated in words, as in maps and drawings. In Fic.
8 (A) I have shown an estate at Harborne, which the specu-
lative builder had actually planned for “development” (save the
mark!) as it is drawn. In Fic. 8 (8) is seen the same estate as it
was subsequently built over: for a.Co-Operative Tenants’ Society.

Ere. 13:

Wuat WE Hap. See p. 18.

Fic.

Fie. 15.

Wuat Wr Have, See p. 18.

A War Memonal for Belfast. 13

Speaking for myself, I have found that these two small plans give
the key to the whole programme of Town Planning. It is clearly
a damnable and inhuman thing to allow streets like (A) to be
built, when, by the exercise of a little care and forethought,. they
may as easily be built in accordance with (8). Fic. 9 points
the same moral : but illustrates it a little differently by showing
the actual change in operation. The lower part of Fic. 9 is
the Old Style with which we are so unhappily familiar in Belfast :
the upper part is the New, which will, I trust, soon become our
normal method of expansion. We should do an important piece
of preliminary work if we were only to select a typical orowing
edge” of Belfast, say, the top of the Old Park Road, and prepare
a full set of plans and perspective drawings, showing (1) what it
is, (2) what it will be if we do not insist on a change of method,
and (3) what we could make it by the application of Town
Planning principles.

Reconstructing Old Areas. It is much more difficult to
suggest what to do with the wilderness of abominable planless
little streets, where there are no “amenities” to preserve, or
even, apparently, to restore. If we have, as we have, built miles
of mean streets in the likeness of Fic. 8 (A), we cannot
really juggle them into the likeness of Fic. 8 (8). We can,
slowly, and bit by bit, reconstruct them towards a more civilised
set of ideas. But we cannot take them first. We must begin
with the new houses: when we have got the first few thousands
of them built, the existing over-pressure upon the mean streets
would begin to be reduced. We could then afford to take one
area after another, and rearrange it as might seem best in each
individual case, always bearing in mind that i0 dwelling-houses,
or about 50 human beings, is sufficient for an acre of land.*
Sometimes we would clear away a block of houses and make
the site into a school yard or playground: sometimes we

*1f some of the land is occupied by factories or churches; then there
must be a still further reduction in the density ratio,

14 A War Memorial for Belfast.

would reserve a block or two for new warehouses, shops or
factories. Sometimes we would arrange a parish hall or a
cinematograph in place of an insanitary rookery. Occasionally
we would find that we had too many foolish little cross-
streets : then we would take two blocks at a time, pull down
the central rows of houses, wall across one or both of the open
ends, and leave a play ground or an allotment area in the
open quadrangle. Often we could do a good deal by merely
opening a space of light and air around an existing church or
schoolhouse. Occasionally, we might find that the best available
improvement would be simply to abolish one or two houses out
of every four, leaving the sites clear for the benefit of the
remainder. Frcs. 10 and 11 illustrate these suggestions : Fic. 10
being a small piece of Belfast as it actually stands to-day, and
Fic. 11 the same section reconstructed, arbitrarily, to illustrate
the working out of some of the above tentative suggestions* :
doubtless it could very easily be still further improved. Any
large-scale map of any portion of Belfast will afford equally
interesting exercises in the civic imagination: the one here
illustrated was chosen entirely at random.

As this is a matter which many people find it easier to
understand from photographs and pictures rather than from
plans, I have chosen a few characteristic examples for illustration.
Figs. 12 aud 13 show very plainly what we used to be contented
with : they are portions of “congested districts” which have
latterly been removed. Fias. 14 and 15 show what we are still
(officially) contented with : they are new houses and streets quite
recently. erected by the municipal authorities. It is sufficient
comment upon them to point to Fras. 16 and 17 which show
what we shall not be content much longer to do without: they
are workers dwellings erected at Earswick in Yorkshire. Had
space and opportunity offered, these illustrative examples of

* It will come to many of us with a certain surprise that, if all this
were successfully carried out, we should have merely restored our town
to something like its original condition; as proved -by the map of 1685 !

Fie, 16

Fic. 17.

Wuat WE Want. See p. 18.

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A War Memorial for Belfast. 15

housing, good, bad and indifferent, could easily have beenzadded
to: but the principle involved is the vital point, and this principle
can hardly be better stated than in Mr. Raymond Unwin’s
diagram, Fic. 18, in which we can read very plainly the reason
why the official improvements made just before the war are so
very little in advance of the slums which they replaced.

Cost. At this stage, it may well be asked, how is all this
going to be paid for? Obviously, it would be a very costly
business. I take it that the expense would be borne partly by
the State, partly by the Municipality, partly by private enter-
prise. As regards the State, already a huge scheme of national
Housing is afoot in Parliament, involving the erection of anything
up to a_million new houses. Belfast will, of course, have its
share of these. As regards private enterprise, the evils we hope
to cure have been so largely the result of uncontrolled private
enterprise that our aim will probably be to supervise its activities
and check its natural lust after cheap buildings and high rents,
rather than to hand over another generation of our people. to a
fresh group of jerry-builders. But as regards the Municipality,
there is one surprising and hopeful possibility. City develop-
ment, on the lines here indicated, could, to a very large
extent, be made to pay for itself, asswmning that the City
will adopt a very broad and far-seeing policy. The
essential point of this policy is that the City should own, or
control the ownership of, all the unoccupied building land which
could possibly be utilised for thirty or forty years ahead. The
manner of obtaining such ownership or control would be to buy—or
take options to buy—at the official figures which are now recorded
in connection with the Land Values Taxation clauses of the 1909
Budget. If necessary, compulsory powers, to acquire land and
options at these prices, would not be hard to obtain from Parlia-
ment. Let the City begin to buy up its own edges and outskirts,
at least 1,000 acres to start with, and let it obtain options over
other portions, so large that come what may, it will never be
possible for private speculators to stop or check the development

16 A War Memorial for Belfast.

of the city by withholding land from the market for the higher
values which they might obtain after a few years. Having
bought a suitable strip, let the City lease it for building,
under careful supervision, in accordance with the City Plan.
Intelligent planning, on modern lines, will prevent waste of
capital expenditure in a multitude of ways; and the public
ownership of the ground will enable rents to be fixed at a figure
which will not be inflated by private profiteering. Within these
limitations, it seems to me that private enterprise would still have
enormous scope for all the energy it is capable of exerting. In
private enterprise, I include Co-Partnership groups, and Building
Societies, as well as private firms and individuals.

As regards possible alternatives, direct State building and
ownership appear to me to be out of the question: it is
physically impossible for the Board of Works to do it, and I have
not the least expectation that Parliament intends to do anything
of the sort. Municipal building and ownership of the actual houses
themselves might appear more likely, but here again, I do not
believe that our Corporation is likely at present to take over the
building trade of the city as a going concern and run it from Done-
gall Square,—as well as a big rent-agency department. The plan
which has been officially adumbrated seems to be for the State to
lend very large sums of money to local authorities at a low rate
of interest ; and that, in turn, local authorities should lend the
same money to large numbers of property owners. I have only
this comment: unless the State insists upon a proper city plan,
properly supervised, upon the general lines indicated in this essay,
we are likely to find that, after the lapse of a few years, (1) the
property-owners have got most of the cash, (2) the city owns
neither the land nor the houses, and (3) the tenants are paying
high rents for houses little if anything better than they are
occupying to-day.

My claim has been that, to a very large extent, we could
make city development pay for itself. But it is only fair to my
own suggestions to observe that there must necessarily be some

A War Memorial for Belfast. 17

portions of a broad scheme that, taken separately, could not be,
directly, a paying proposition in the strictly financial sense. No
amount of financial genius will extract a profit-rent out of a
child’s allotment garden! But surely, this War has taught us
that “money” and “wealth” are not identical terms? Shall
citizens of Belfast not learn to take more of their municipal
dividend in terms of health and happiness for our youngsters, in
opportunities for activity in mind and body for people who have
nothing to-day outside the narrow grind of their working lives ?
God knows, the world has paid enough since August, 1914, for
pure destruction, in order that life and freedom may be preserved :
may we not, as part of our War Memorial, spend a small fraction
more upon construction, so that, in our own times, we may see
the growth and liberty again at work ?

CONCLUSION.

Our War Memorial shall thus be no mere carven stone upon
a pedestal : it shall be at once a tribute and an inspiration: a
tribute to those who have fought for our freedom, and an
inspiration to us to use our freedom to nobler ends. It may be
that, in days far ahead, men shall learn here of the Great War,
not as we have learned of past wars in our school-books, but by
themselves living in the realization of our War Memorial ideas.

Is this too much to hope for? Rather may we not say that
we shall not have justified all the heroism of our men these four
years past, if we do not see to it that these dreams shall begin to
come true, in our own day, and by our own effort? The gallantry
of Thiepval has already given to July Ist a new significance, a
new historic orientation. Shall we not also give a new meaning
to our old city motto—Pro Tanto Quid Retribuamus ? “For
so much, what shall we give in return?” What shall we give?
I say we shall give to them and to their children a new city, a
new hope for the days to come.

“ats AND. PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

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BALLYMARTIN CHURCH RUINS, AND THE RATH
OF DREEN.

Papers read on the 10th December, 1918, at the Annual
Meeting of the Archcological Section,

By Mr. H. C. Lawtor, M.R&.I1.A.

BALLYMARTIN CHURCH RUINS.

The ancient Church and Churchyard of Ballymartin he in a
picturesque little glen on the north side of the Ballymartin river
exactly a mile and a quarter east of Templepatrick (see O.S. Map,
sheet 51). The Church, the orientation of which is nearly due
east and west, is about 30 yards from the stream, on a slightly
raised knoll, while on the east, north and west can be traced a
now grass grown, but marshy channel, which shows that it was
once an island church. It is rectangular, measuring internally
51 by 17 feet. In the immediate neighbourhood are several
objects of archaeological interest. Leading due north from what
was once the little lakelet in which the island stood, is an ancient
paved road traceable for.several hundred yards until it is lost in
a plantation. Just above where the stream once widened out
into the lakelet is an old ford or row of stepping stones, at a
short distance from which on the south side of the river is an
ancient well, at one time a Holy Well.* Opposite the Church
on the other side of the river is the entrance to the Souterrain,
the investigation of which is described in the Report of this
Society for 1917. 170 yards east of the cave, surmounting a
steep cliff overhanging the river, is a small rath much obliterated
by tillage. The churchyard lies south and east of the church,

* For traditions respecting this well, see Ordnance Survey memoirs
quoted in O’Laverty’s Down and Connor, Vol. I1I., pp. 17-18,

2 Ballymartin Church Ruins

and contains many rugged graves, some of which are marked by
rough uninscribed stones. The site of the church and church-
yard has never been tilled, but the remains of the walls were
barely distinguishable, being overgrown with grass and brambles.

The investigation of this ruin was carried out at various
dates during the summer of 1917, as opportunity and weather
permitted, and in all some 10 days were spent on the work. I
had the assistance of two steady labouring men, and during the
progress of the investigation it was visited by Professor Macalister,
Mr. Andrew Robinson, of the Board of Works, Canon Carmody
and Mr. R. M. Young, whose valuable advice and information I
wish to acknowledge.

Our first undertaking was to clear out the whole interior of
the church, which was filled to a depth of from two to five feet
with the fallen debris of the walls. The removal of this brought
us down to the original floor level, which was covered with the
remains of burned matter, and at the same time exposed the
types of the masonry of what still remains of the walls. The
original stone work apparently had not been built in sunk
trenches, as the foundations were on the level of the charred
surface of the earth floor. The masonry itself was of two
distinct types, dry or clay built and mortar built. In removing
the debris, all stones showing cutting were carefully laid to one
side and will be described separately.

We worked down from the eastern gable, lifting the stones
and debris to the outside. About nine feet from the gable was
a large recumbent pillar stone about 4 feet long, lying east and
west and equidistant from the side walls. It was impossible to
tell whether this stone was originally partly sunk in the floor or
lying on the surface or erect. Beneath it we found in the soil
two skeletons buried in a sitting position facing east.

As we proceeded westward we found human bones at various
depths in the debris, showing that interments had taken place
long after the church had become a ruin.

At the extreme west end under the last of the debris we

Ballymartin Church Ruins 2

found a deep deposit of what is usually described as of the
kitchen midden type. It consisted of wood fire remains contain
ing numerous bones of animals and broken pottery. There were
also hnman bones in places, evidently the remains of one or more
bodies that had been interred at a period much later than the
date of the kitchen midden. We also found one stone of a large
quern here. The midden remains were from 6 to 18 inches deep,
and extended considerably below the level of the bottom of the
foundations of the wall and the floor level of the Church, but not
under the wall; they were piled against the inside of the wall,
thus proving that they were deposited subsequent to the building.

The masonry of the walls is to a considerable extent dry
built, with earth between the stones, indicating a very early date.
It is very dangerous to come to dogmatic conclusions as to the
age of early stone built churches. Petrie discusses the subject
very fully in his “ Ecclesiastical Architecture of Ireland Anterior
to the Anglo Norman Invasion,” and O’Hanlon, in his “ Life of
St. Malachy,” refers to the matter in some detail without arriving
at any definite conclusion. Generally speaking, I think it may
be assumed that, except in the larger and more important
ecclesiastical centres, the great majority of churches in Ireland
prior to the teuth or eleventh century were wooden structures.
If we assign the original date of Ballymartin stone ,church
approximately to the tenth century, we are probably fairly cor-
rect. ‘That it was the successor of a more ancient church or even
pagan place of worship is not improbable from the discovery of
the two bodies buried, facing east, in a sitting position, under the
pillar stone. From the crudeness of some of the pottery found
in the priest’s kitchen, I can hardly think the date of the stone
ehurch can be very much later than the approximate date I
suggest.

Many of the stones show evidence of having endured extreme
heat, while the charred remains over the floor level’ prove that
the church was, at least once, burned. The absence of any sign
of fragments of slates or tiles proves that it was roofed with

4 Bailymartin Church Ruins

thatch. Of the carved stones, some were rough hewn basalt,
while a number were of smooth magnesian limestone, of which
so much was used by the Normans in the building of the churches
of St. Nicholas, Carrickfergus, and the old church at Holywood,
and taken from a now exhausted quarry at Cultra.

The basalt carvings were all fire marked, while the lime-
stone were not, from which it may be assumed that the ancient
native lrish Church was burned, and that it was restored and
partly built during the Norman occupation. It was probably at
this restoration the walls were patched and partly rebuilt with
mortared masonry, and the limestone jambs inset. The western
end of the south wall, for about twelve feet from its junction
with the gable, was entirely gone, but there was one stone in
position where the remaining portion of this wall terminates,
which was evidently the bottom stone of the east jamb of the
entrance door ; the Ordnance Survey memoir referred to above
and quoted by O’Laverty, mentions that the door was in the
north wall, but this is quite wrong, as no gap occurs In any part
of the walls except at the western end of the south wall.

The accompanying rough sketches show cxamples of the
only carved stones found ; they all appear to be portions of the
jambs and mullions of windows, but no fragments of glass
were found in the excavations.

Of the considerable deposit of kitchen midden remains found
at the west end of the church floor, a detailed account may be
given. The half quern of Scrabo freestone was practically per-
fect, measuring 18” in diameter. Of the other half we found
two fragments among the debris of building material, but not in
the kitchen midden remains; they were of Tardree rhyolite. I
assume that the two fragments were of the half quern that had
been originally mated with the other half found in the kitehen
midden, but of course there is no proof of this.

The pottery remains are of much interest. There were not
found sufficient fragments of any one vessel to effect recon-
struction. There appear to be pieces of six vessels, four show

Ballymartin Church Rians 5

ornamentation by scores or dents, one, a thin unsooted vessel,
evidently a milk bowl, had a smoothing surface paste, and one
was wheel turned, and elaborately ornamented both inside the lip
and outside. The last mentioned is of particular interest owing
to its minute resemblance to portions of a vessel found in 1897
by Mr. R. M. Young, in a sandhill settlement near Groomsport*

1 and 2—-Scrabo freestone, not apparently damaged by fire.
3 and 4— Basalt, much burned. there were several examples of 4.

5—Cultra Limestone, undamaged by fire, there were several of
these, and one base of a small window of same.

* Illustrated and described in the Ulster Journal of Archaeology, 2nd
series, vol. iv., p. 46.

6 Ballymartin Church Ruins

and also to a portion of a vessel found in the Rath of Dreen,
Parish of Ahoghill, in our investigations this year, to which I
will refer in a subsequent paper. The exact resemblance of
these three vessels to each other in shape, decoration, finish and
material seems sutticient to prove that they are approximately
contemporaneous. The finding of fragments of a pot of this
particular pattern within a church building of about the tenth
century confirms the conclusion arrived at with regard to the
date of the pottery of this precise type, 11 my papers on pre-
historic dwelling places in the Reports of this Society for 1916
and 1917. We found one piece of pottery, evidently the bottom
of a vessel, showing signs of glaze of mediaeval type, but un-
fortunately I cannot be certain where exactly it was found. I
thought at first these kitchen midden remains were those left
by the original artizans who built the church, but Professor
Macalister informs me that many instances have been noted
in early churches where the priest lived in the west end of
the church, and that this is an example of a priest’s kitchen.

Of the history of Ballymartin Church we have practically
no certain knowledge. The reference to “the church of the old
town” in the taxation roll of 1307, as Dr. Reeves thought, applies
to it; no other mention of it appears in any available record
until about 1600, when it is referred to as “ the church of Bally-
martin in ruin.”*

From various sources we know that for over a century after
the wars of John de Courey. the Normans were firmly settled in
Co. Antrim, but especially in the fertile district, now known as
the valley of the Six mile Water, but anciently as the Tuath of
Magh Linn or Moylinne. Prior to the Norman invasion much
of this territory was the home of the clan O’Flynn. When the
Norman occupation was effected, it was parcelled out among the
followers of De Courey. The Savages obtained the lands round
Donegore and Rathmore, the townland of Ballysavage perpetuating

*See Reeves, Ecclesiastical Antiquities, p. 66.

Ballymartin Church Ruins 7

their memory. The Mandevilles held sway east of Templepatrick,
while the Logans were settled in a large territory with the
present Ballyclare as its centre.

The names of a few modern townlands and parishes seem
to be all that remain to us of the Norman conquest of this part
of Ulster. After the desolation of all this district by Edward
Bruce between 1315 and 1318, and the internal dissentions
culminating in the murder of the Earl of Ulster in 1333 by
the Logan faction, the O’Neills found the conquest of central
and south Antrim and north Down an easy matter; by 1360
they had practically subdued or driven out the native O’Flynns
of Ui Tuirtri, whom the Normans appear to have allowed to
remain in possession of a portion of their lands, and during
the century and a half that followed, all the Norman settlers
in the southern half of Co. Antrim, excepting Carrickfergus,
and in north Down, were similarly dispersed or exterminated.
Ballymartin, with Ballysavage, Ballyrobert, Ballywalter and a
few other townlands, granges and parishes, perpetuate in their
names heroes of the Norman occupation. Ballymartin derives
from Martin de Mandeville, who flourished about the end of
the 13th century ; Ballysavage from one of the Savages, what
particular member of the family we cannot say; but the Savages
were one of the most important of the Co. Antrim Norman
settlers. Ballyrobert perpetuates the memory of Robert de
Logan, a contemporary of Martin de Mandeville; Ballywalter
was once known as Walter de Logan’s town, or Loganstown,
otherwise Vill de Walter de Logan. Walter de Logan was
also a contemporary of Martin de Mandeville and Robert de
Logan, and it is reasonable to assume that these and other
townland names of Norman derivation date from a general
adjustment of the earldom of Ulster carried out by the great
Richard de Burgh, Earl of Ulster, about the year 1305*. It is

S

*See Orpen, ‘‘ The Earldom of Ulster,” Journals of the RS.A.L.,
vol, xliii., pp. 30—46, and 133—143, and xlv., pp. 123—142.

8 ' The Rath of Dreen

interesting to note that of all the great Norman families settled
in County Antrim after the wars of de Courcy only one withstood
the reconquest by the Irish O’Neills, and the later English and
Scottish Chichesters, Hamiltons, and other Elizabethan ad-
venturers: I refer to the grant of the Glynns to the Bissets.
They, through their descendants, the MacDonnells, still remain,
Earls of Antrim, in the proud position of the only Co. Antrim
family of the Norman conquest of Ulster surviving in their
original lands.

THE RATH OF DREEN, PARISH OF AHOGHILI.

The townland of Dreen (the blackthorn) lies between the
villages of Cullybackey and Ahoghill, the Rath being one mile
S.S.W. of the former, but in the Parish of the latter name.

The Rath where our investigations took place may be seen
on the O.S. 6” Map, Sheet 32, a little to the left of, a point 12
inches due south of the letter “C” in the townland named
Cardonaghy. There is another Rath a few hundred yards to the
east of that of Dreen, but it is in the townland of Cardonaghy.

The Rath of Dreen is of the usual shape, but rather larger
than the majority, the airlis or flat enclosure being 110 feet
in diameter. The circular vallum is built of the soil extracted
from the surrounding trench, and the height from the bottom of
the trench to the top of the vallum is about 17 feet. The airlis
is not raised above the level of the surrounding fields. As is
usually the case the Rath is built on a slight slope, which
facilitated the drainage of the enclosed dwellings.

Almost in the centre of the airlis, outlined in the grass were
traceable two contiguous circular hut sites, each about 15 feet
in diameter, slightly raised above the level of the immediately
surrounding ground ; to the east up against the inner side of the
vallum is a cloghan, or earth house of one chamber as shown in

The Rath of Dreen 9

the plan. This is built in the style of the ordinary souterrain,
but is almost completely above the ground level, with soil heaped
over it, a rather unusual form of construction. At some time a
gap was made in the vallum on the east side, and the soil thereby
removed was thrown into the trench to make an easy entrance
for cattle. I fancy that in doing this a second chamber of fhe
earth house was destroyed, as the foundation of the eastern side
wall seems to extend somewhat in that direction. The proprietor
of the farm, Mr. W. J. Kernoghan, gave his consent to, and
otherwise assisted in the investigation of the Rath, and we spent
Easter Monday and the two following days at the work, with
five men.

We first dug a trench round the outside of the vallum in
the hope of finding the midden where refuse might have been
thrown out from the dwellings inside. The depth of the peaty
mud however we found to be from four to five feet, and as. we
dug, water gathered in the excavations, compelling us to abandon
the search in the trench.

We then put some of the men to remove the sods carefully
from the hut sites, while the others dug trenches at regular
intervals over the airlis. Except at one spot near the southern
end of the gap, where we found some coarse pottery, all the
archaeological remains were found in the hut sites.

In these, immediately beneath the sods, the earth was black
and sooty, containing numerous fragments of burned sticks and
bones of animals, a few pieces of iron, too corroded to enable us
to form any idea of their purpose, three stone axes and a con-
siderable number of fragments of pottery. All were lying on or
between a fairly regularly constructed series of hearths made
with ordinary large flat-topped field stones. A few fragments of
flint were turned up, but none of these seemed to belong to even
the crude type of implement generally described .as “worked
flints.” The utility of the iron fragments being so hopelessly
unrecognisable, we are confined to the pottery and the stone
axes in our theoretical deductions as to the age of the hut sites.

10 The Rath of Dreen

The greater part of the pottery was of the crude class
to which in former papers I have given the name “ Souterrain
type,” purely hand made, without ornamentation, not made on
the potters’ wheel, not finished with any surface paste, but
evidently baked in intense heat, and differing in this respect
from the cinenary urn or bronze age pottery, which displays less
evidence of fusion by great heat.

There were fragments of a large number of different
vessels, but out of the whole collection we were only able to
reconstruct, almost completely, one, and partially another. Both
of these were in the loose black soil of the hut sites. The first of
these is a cup or tumbler, without any sign of soot; it is crudely

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ornamented by the potter with dents made by his finger or
thumb nails. It is circular, but not wheel-turned, and measures
35 x 32. The other vessel is a cooking pot, and is heavily
sooted inside and outside. It is wheel-turned and bears a
remarkable resemblance in shape, decoration and material to
Mr. Young’s find in the Sandhill near Groomsport, and_ the
fragments already described as having been found in the priest’s
kitchen of Ballymartin Church. These three pots are so similar
in general form and in every important detail, that one is
compelled to conclude that they are approximately of the same
period.

From deductions arrived at with regard to pottery in my
papers on pre-historic Dwelling Places of Man, in the reports of
the Society for 1916 and 1917, I placed the date of this class of
of vessel later than that of the Souterrain type, probably the 9th
to the 11th century. The finding of a portion of an almost
exactly similar vessel in Ballymartin Church Priest’s kitchen
curiously confirms the deductions arrived at in these articles.

The deposit of refuse, ete., on the hut sides was not at all
deep, perhaps ten or twelve inches, including the hearth stones.
From this we must conclude either that the house refuse was
systematically cleared away by the dwellers, or that the place
had not been occupied as a dwelling for a long period. In many
lake dwellings hearth sites are found superimposed one upon
another, in layers representing many successive periods, showing
long continuous occupation ; this was not the case here however,
and while some of the coarse pottery was found down on the
hard till and round the bottom of the stones, most of it was in
the soft upper level of the black soil. ° This applies in particular
to the drinking cup, the wheel turned pot, the three stone axes,
and the irou fragments, which were all found within a radius of
a few feet, about the centre of the western hut side. We must
conclude that all these articles were in use by the last occupiers
of the hut.

It will doubtless be said that this is impossible, and that

The Rath of Dreen 13

stone axes could not belong to the late iron age settlement ; but
facts are before us. In this connection I may recall that in two
of our excavations recorded in detail in the Reports of this
Society for the years 1916 and 1917, stone axes were found in
immediate association with late iron age remains. I refer to one
found in the souterrain at Donegore, and two, of which one was
quite perfect and the other a fragment, found in the Ballykennedy
Iron Foundry remains. They are illustrated and described in the
Report for 1916. Of the three found together at the Rath of
Dreen, a detailed description may be of interest.

No. 1 is a stone axe of the small thick oval section type.
When left by the hut dwellers where we subsequently found it,
it had ceased to be of use for its original purpose; the cutting
edge is completely worn or chipped away, but the top end bears
unmistakable evidence of its having descended to the purpose of
an ordinary hammer. The difference of the appearance of the
chipped surface of the cutting end and the top is very marked,
and may represent a difference in age of an indefinite period.
This axe, though in use by the hut dwellers as a hammer, may
have been, as an axe, hundreds of years old at the time.

Not so, I think, Nos. 2 and 3. They are both of the thin
flattish type which some theorists regard as the predecessors of
copper and bronze axes of similar shape and the models on
which they were designed ; they believe therefore that they are
what they call late stone or early Bronze Age, say 1800 to 1000
B.C. No. 2 has a few small chips off the cutting edge. No. 3 is
absolutely perfect and presumably unused, as was the very simillar -
axe found at Ballykennedy. It is probable therefore that No. 2
is the axe which was in actual use when hut dwellers left the
hut, and No. 3 a spare tool in reserve.

Ina recent very interesting paper by Mr. E. C. R. Armstrong,
in the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, dealing with
“Associated finds of stone celts in Ireland” he deals with a
great number of Stone Celts found at various times and places in
groups of two or more, now in the Academy’s Museum, It is

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The Rath of Dreen 15

nothing short of calamitous that in not a single instance that
I can find has any record been preserved by the past curators as
to the actual associations and surroundings in which the axes
were found. “Found ina lake,” “ina bog,” “in a field whilst
digging” are examples of all the information now forthcoming.
In the now considerable number of excavations carried out
by this Society during the past four years, I have endeavoured
to chronicle in the most minute detail every material fact in
connection with the excavation and the circumstances and
positions in which remains were found. Without such details,
any mere collection of specimens of prehistoric implements is
robbed of much of its instructive value ; and consequently the
deductions arrived at from their inspection are liable to error.
We have now three instances in which we have found stone
axes in actual and contemporary association with what are
generally known as the late Iron Age remains. These are :—
lst. The Donegore souterrain, where one stone axe was
found of the rather rough thick type; Wilde in his Catalogue
of the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy records the reported
find in apparently the same cave of another axe and some arrow
heads “now lost, and a portion of a vessel richly ornamented
with inscribed scoring, now in the Academy’s collection”; he
does not say, however, whether the vessel is a cooking pot or not,
or if turned on a wheel; I regret I have not yet had an
opportunity of inspecting this in the Museum. Our finds in the
Donegore souterrain have been recorded in the Report for 1916,
and I have endeavoured to show that the age of the building of
these dwellings was between the 6th and the &th centuries.
2nd. The Ballykennedy Foundry where one perfect and one
fragmentary axe were found among the remains of many articles
of iron and glass.*

* In my account of this investigation in the 1916 Report I mentioned
a piece of Bronze slag found close to a small crucible, which seemed to
fit it ; subsequent examination proves that what from its greenness I took
to be bronze slag is actually impure glass, which if purified, is the same
type of glass of which the dumb-bell bead found close by consists,

16 The Rath of Dreen

3. The Rath of Dreen just described, where three axes
were found, apparently just as left by the last occupier of the hut.

These three finds of stone axes in close association with
Iron age remains seems strongly to suggest that these implements
continued to be both manufactured and used to a very much
later date than that usually assigned to them.

We concluded our excavations by clearing out the floor of
the earth house or cloghan. ‘This search was quite unproductive
of results, no fragments of pottery or even charcoal being found.

I have to thank Mr. Sidney Stendall for his admirable
etchings of the pottery and stone axes.

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L: HISTORY. AND. PHILOSOPHICAL ‘SOCIETY. — 9

; PROCEEDINGS ie
ae SESSION 1918-1919. aie | — Nee
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WITH NOTES on “oe : .
“ORESTRY AND AFFORESTATION, =
BY ARTHUR DEANE, .

~ QURATOR, “BELFAST MUNICIPAL MUSEUM. 3 : fs

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Proceedings of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, 1918-1919.

11th March, 1919.

TREES—THE CHARACTERS, STRUCTURE, AND
PROPERTIES OF WOOD, WITH NOTES ON
FORESTRY AND: AFFORESTATION.

Illustrated by Specimens and Lantern Slides.

By ARTHUR DEANE,
Curator, Belfast Municipal Museum.

(Abstract.)

One of the many things the war has done for us is to raise
our regard for timber. Its cheapness and plentifulness in past
years rather blinded us to its value. It has taken the war with
its resultant forest destruction and transport problems to open
our eyes to the necessity of considering our timber supply in
the future in a very different manner from what we have done in
the past.

In 1913 Russia supplied us with almost half our total
imports of timber, followed by supplies from Sweden, France,
and Canada, and there will be a great demand for timber from
the allies for reconstruction purposes, while our enemies will have
an accumulated timber wealth. We are not likely to return to
pre-war conditions, and we cannot afford to rely upon the possible
excess of timber from foreign countries for our industries. In
Ireland alone there will be an increased consumption of timber
for many years to come, and yet there is no reason why the
country should not, in the future, be largely self-supporting in
this direction, even if new wood using industries spring up, which
is probable if areas become afforested. But if forestry in Ireland
is to be successful, it must, from the initial stages, be attempted
on sound business and scientific principles with a long look ahead
policy, and approached with such patriotism that the generations

36 Mr. Arthur Deane on

to come will never have to rely on foreign timber for structural
purposes.

Afforestation in the United Kingdom is no new idea. It
was advocated for many years before the war by pioneers in
forestry like Sir Wm. Schlich, the late Prof. W. R. Fisher,
Mr. A. C. Forbes, and many others. Had they been listened to,
British Forests would have been producing to-day a much larger
yield. We are fortunate in having in Ireland under the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Mr. Forbes, who was a Member of the
Forestry Sub-Committee appointed by the Ministry of Recon-
struction. Just before the war the total yield in the United
Kingdom was less than 15 cubic feet per acre per annum, but
under a proper forest policy it would have yielded about three
times that amount. This small percentage in British woodlands
is partly due to their being too open and the soil covered with
injurious surface growth, and if these woodlands are to yield a
ereater return and a better product in a shorter time, they must,
like the continental forests, be placed under proper scientific
planning and economic management and not left to Nature.

Arboriculture is the art of growing trees singly, or in groups,
to preserve them for aesthetic purposes; direct financial gain is
not considered. Apart from their ornamental effect, trees make
the air fitter to breathe by taking from it the impure carbon
dioxide and increasing the supply of oxygen, and for this reason
they should be planted more than they are in congested neigh-
bourhoods of towns. Many of our city trees show signs of having
been placed on a very meagre ration, which does not agree with
them. The very tips of tree roots are in direct communication
with the uppermost leaves of the foliage, and if roots do not
get sufficient air to breathe, they cannot perform their proper
functions and lead a healthy life. They need, too, an occasional
pick-me-up in the form of nitrate, potash, and phosphate,
especially the first-named, for they have not the fallen leaves to
keep the soil in condition as in a forest. Many of them badly
need serious. surgical operations, which should be performed

Trees—The Character, Structure, &c. 3F

during the autumn and winter months, so that the antiseptic
applied may soak into the wounds, this it fails to do if applied in
spring or summer.

Sylviculture deals with the growth of trees in dense masses
in order to produce timber of high technical quality for knotty or
crooked trees cannot produce good timber. The trained
forester knows that tall cylindrical trees, comparatively free
from knots, can only be obtained in dense forests. | Under such
a condition the lower branches are prevented from thriving, and
so the size and number of knots are reduced when the timber is
cut into boards. It is the dense type of woods we want to see in
Ireland, not the open woods for sporting purposes as in the past.
Sometimes trees are grown in pure forests, consisting of one
species only, or in mixed woods of two or more species which is
more complex. Although trees must have a certain amount of
light, they differ in their requirements. The forester takes
advantage of this, and divides trees into light-demanding species
and shade-hbearing species, and mixes accordingly, as for instance,
Oak with Beech, Larch with Beech or Silver Fir, Scots Pine
with Spruce, according to the soil and climate. Mixed woods
should always contain shade-bearing species which protect the
soil and kill out weeds; especially is this necessary on thin
exposed or peaty soils, or places swept by winds. It is interesting
to note that those trees having a smooth thin bark are usually
shade enduring species, as is the case with Beech, Hornbeam,
Spruce, and Silver Fir, while those species that early in life
acquire a rough bark are usually light demanding, such as Oak,
Pine, Ash, Sycamore, Poplar, Alder, and Willows.

The great difference between the Ireland of to-day and the
Ireland before the Christian era lies in the amount of forest.
Although good progress has been made in afforestation in Ireland
under the Department of Agriculture, she is, comparatively
speaking, a woodless country now, and yet, Ireland is by nature
an ideal country and well adapted with her temperate and
humid climate for growing timber trees. Instead of producing

38 Mr. Arthur Deane on

the highest percentage for Europe as she should, she produces
the smallest. Her hillsides become denuded by water carrying
away a rich burden of soil, choking up rivers and, in some
places, making the lowland soil so boggy as to he unsuitable
for agriculture. Where bogs have encroached, after cutting the
turf, the stumps of ancient trees are sometimes found in situ
standing like small monuments as if to remind us that Ireland
was formerly full of timber (see frontispiece). In fact, we
have shown in such a bog an excellent example that where
a forest had existed and had not been replaced, a change
to an inferior soil and climate resulted. It is for this reason
that we must not suppose that these tree-remains give us an
indication as to what trees should now be grown upon such
sites.

Before a peat bog can be made to support tree growth, it
must be drained, and especially should this be done with live
peat in order to destroy the surface vegetation. The fibrous
covering must also be completely broken up, or better, removed
for a depth of 3 or 4 feet so that the roots may dip into the soil
and the new surface weathered. On such a site one would not
expect to grow large timber, but poles for fencing and pit props.

Soil should be regarded as the greatest natural economic
endowment of a country ; it is the primary source of wealth.
Our very existence depends upon it and yet the loss of soil
capital by water attrition is enormous. Why should this
perpetual waste of soil from hillsides go on when there is such
a demand for softwoods which will grow in Iveland and yield a
quick and profitable return if carried out on a large scale? On
better soils trees such as Oak, Ash and Chestnut might be grown.
Trees are soil builders and soil binders. Their root range is far
and wide, and they act as wedges cleaving the rocky substratum
into the hollows. of which water percolates, carrying with it the
soil particles. The fallen leaves would create a modification in
the soil, which would be shaded and protected from wind,
sun, and surface growth by the continuous canopy formed by

Trees—The Character, Structure, &c. 3

te}

the foliage of the trees. ‘The importance of maintaining a dense
eanopy above and a suitable forest floor below cannot be too
strongly insisted upon. <A constant moisture 1s kept up by
rainfall, the humus, acting like a sponge, absorbs the water
which gradually pereolates to lower levels, to be afterwards
drawn upon if required by the roots, while the surplus emerges
as an even flow into the streams and rivers, freed to a large
extent from its fertile suspended matter. It is on this principle
that many Municipalities afforest portions of the catchment areas
of their water supply.

There is no need to grow timber trees on soils suitable for
agriculture, but there is no reason why vacant land found suitable
for timber crops should be lying idle: it should be put to work-
Mountain sides, rocky and thin soiled, up to an elevation of
1,000 feet should be planted chiefly with softwoods. Perpetual
winds, day and night, high up on mountains, put a limit to the
erowth of trees. In such exposed situations the wind causes
the upper shoots to become wind pruned owing to too rapid a
transpiration, with the result that the juicy shoots wither and
fall off, causing the trees to assume a stunted appearance. It is
partly due to transpiration that many trees shed their leaves in
winter, while some actually shed their twigs, provision being
made beforehand to heal the wounds: Oaks, Poplars, Willows,
Elms, Horsechestnut, are examples.

There are many problems which would have to be faced in
afforesting Ireland. ‘Transport would have to be considered as it
is essential that timber should be put on the market as cheaply
as possible. Rail carriage for round timber would be costly
owing to the demand for other goods, and this is likely to
increase with agricultural development. The demand for the
supply of timber for packing cases, crates, etc., is likely to be
enormous ; quick transit of food to the consumer is imperative,
but timber transport, although it must be at a cheap rate, unlike
perishable goods, need not as a rule be urgent. Hence, con-
sideration should be given to the old canal system which prospered

40) Mr. Arthur Deane on

in Ireland in the 18th century before railways were built. Our
canal system has fallen largely into disuse and would need to be
put in order while other canals should be made. Making new
canals would help to drain much bogland, and in this way a
good deal of land might be reclaimed and made fertile. By
means of a proper water carriage system, Ireland could in the
future transport timber, at a cheap rate, for home consumption.

Forests provide employment in rural districts. They there-
fore contribute to the prosperity of the people, besides having a
good influence upon the social well-being of the rural population,
so lessening the desire to migrate to ‘towns. Forests are good
friends to the farmer. ‘They give him pleasant home surround-
ings ; provide him with timber near at hand for his buildings and
implements ; protect his land from erosion and flooding ; and,
as shelter belts, the trees afford beneficial effect against winds
and storms for his stock and crop.

Agriculture gives a quick return, but with forests there is
a long delay, and the policy should be arranged for a continuous
supply. The quickest return in forestry is provided by osier
beds, and where land exists upon farms too swampy for meadows,
farmers would do well to transform them into osier beds to
replace the decreased imports of osier rods and basket-ware
caused by the war, while the tree willow, Salix cwurlea should
be grown along rivers valleys and ditches to produce wood for
cricket bats. During the war there has been great demand
for willow wood for the manufacture of artificial limbs. Rocky,
or poor dry waste lands should be turned into wood plots, if only
to prevent barren areas being a menace to the rest of the farm.
No farmer can afford to have unprofitable land any more than
he can afford to keep as © boarders” unprofitable cows.

One must not forget the good work which has been
accomplished by private enterprise, especially in Scottish wood-
lands, yet, if forests are to be given the indefinite preservation
that is necessary, afforestation can be better handled by
the State Forests must be regarded as a community asset,

Trees—The Character, Structure, &c. 4]

and if public funds are to be used for afforestation in Ireland, it
is essential that trained men should be provided and_ their
knowledge put to good account Foresters are not empiricists,
as some people imagine, but trained professional men. The
user of timber little realises how much even the mechanical
properties of wood depend upon the control of forests by the
well trained forester. He must be trained in various sciences
which make up what is really a forestry science. He must be a
geologist and soil physicist in order to have some idea as to the
sites most suitable for the different tree crops, preventing, for
instance, ill adapted species on poor sites. Errors in field crops
may be righted in a year, but mistakes made in forest planting
or sowing may mean the loss of many years before they can be
remedied. He must study forest organization, be able to prepare
working plans of forest management and understand thinning.
He must look upon the forest as a living community which will
respond to his care, for by abuse the forest may even vanish.
He must be a plant pathologist and entomologist in order to deal
with fungi and insect attacks and the best means of combating
them, and to do this he must understand the structure and
functions of healthy trees, and the physical and _ structural
qualities of their wood. He must be able to identify those
animals, especially birds, that are useful, and those that are
injurious. He must, in short, be a man with good business
capacity, and a naturalist, while he must not let one trait
overshadow the other.

Every facility in Ireland should be offered to men of talent
to train as foresters and agriculturists. Money should no longer
be a barrier for those who desire to study, and there should be
a greater co-operation between the Universities and the schools,
with special facilities for research and experiment in any subject
of importance to forestry, both in the field and in the laboratory.

XN

49 Mr. Arthur Deane on

THE TIMBER.

Commercially, timbers are divided into “ softwoods” and
“hardwoods,” but this does not, by any means, represent a
scientific classification. Foresters also roughly divide trees into
needle-leaved trees (or Conifers) and broad-leaved trees. ‘To
the former belong the softwoods of commerce—Pines, Firs, and
Larches, while the broad-leaved trees include the hardwoods—
Oaks, Elms, and Chestnuts, although some timbers in the latter
group might be described as softwood, such as the Poplar,
Willow, Lime, and Horsechestnut.

LENGTH AND DIAMETER GROWTH.

Once formed wood never lengthens, and a trunk or
shoot grows in length, only at its extremity, by means of a
bud, and then only during the growing season in which it is
formed ; but a trunk or shoot increases in girth by the annual
increment of a cylinder or wood, or to be more accurate, by the
addition of a hollow cone which is deposited on top of that
produced in the previous year to form a compact mass, appearing
on the cross cut end as rings. A nail or a spike driven into a
trunk used as a fence post will never be higher up, but such
objects will in time become covered by the increased diameter
due to the additional layers of wood.

PARTS OF THE TRUNK.

Cambium.—tThis is a generative layer and is situated between
the outermost or youngest layer of wood and the living bark (bas?).
It is not only important in forming the new rings of wood after
the first year, but it also plays a prominent part in the occlusion
of wounds, and the success of grafting depends largely upon the
joining of the cambium of the scion to the cambium of the stock.

The Cambium is a delicate, juicy, film-like sheet or mantle
which covers the root, trunk, branches and twigs like a huge
glove. It consists of thin walled cells, densely filled with
protoplasm and large nuclei, and divides up to form not only new

Trees—The Character, Structure, &c. 43

wood everywhere on its inner surface, but, to a smaller extent,
living bark (bast) on its outer surface; the latter conveys the
manufactured food from the leaves to the cambium, for it is
important that it should be properly nourished if new zones of
wood are to be produced. It is very sensitive to external
injuries, and is protected by a jacket of corky tissue—the bark,
hence mechanical injuries such as scraping and cutting bark by
boys is one to be deprecated, as it reduces the protection by
exposing the living parts of the trunk to insects and micro-
organisms which cause disease. The zones of wood are repeated
each year, in most trees, in a very definite and characteristic
manner according to the species of tree.

Rings.—Having got some idea of the tissue responsible for
the production of wood, let us now consider the rings of wood
produced annually by the division of the Cambium. These rings,
in many woods, are clearly marked because of the wood formed
early in the year. Springwood as it is usually called, and which
lies nearer the pith in the ring, is of a softer and looser nature,
and therefore lighter in colour than the wood formed later in the
season, and usually known as late or summer wood.

Why is there this contrast in tissue elements at different
seasons of the year in many European woods? ‘To some extent
it must be due to tension caused by the tight bark compressing
upon the increasing growth of wood, which, in its turn, is stretched
and strained by the latter, as is proved by the longitudinal
fissures which appear in the bark of many trees. Smooth bark
is taut and presses upon the increasing girth, and if a longitudinal
incision is made in such bark it will gape, while, if a strip of bark
is cut off and then replaced immediately before it dries, it will
be found impossible to make the edges meet. This means that
bark presses on the growing wood, like a tightened iron band,
which increases until the autumn is reached. This increased
pressure causes the later formed wood elements ta become flat
and thicker walled. If an artificial local pressure is set up in
early spring, by means of an iron band, and allowed to remain

Aa Mr. Arthur Deane on

during the growing season, at that particular place, cells similar
to the summer ones will appear throughout the season, but if the
pressure of the bark is relieved in summer by means of longitudinal
cuts, then at those places, wood like the springwood will be
formed. During the winter months the cambium is inactive,
and this sudden cessation of growth causes a border line between
the rings while the transverse pressure becomes reduced by the
formation of cracks and fissures in the bark. But nutrition is
also intimately associated with the formation of this contrasting
tissue. In the following early spring with the released pressure,
caused by the cracked and fissured bark, the reserve food, which
is chiefly starch, and stored in the trunk, provides the cambium
with its first supply of food and it at once commences to renew
its activity, to form a lax thin-walled loose tissue. Later in the
season with a plentiful supply of rich nitrogenous food the
protoplasm plasters on the inner walls of the cells (except at
certain points, to form pits) thick layers of a peculiar substance
(or substances) which become changed into woody material
known as lignin. What is wanted in structural timber is less’ of
the soft light springwood and more of the closely packed thick
walled summerwood, the latter having considerable influence
upon the hardness of the timber. This, together with the
uniformity in texture and width of the annually formed rings,
are points of importance as to quality. What is wanted in
Softwoods are slow grown narrow rings to reduce the amount of
inner springwood, while in those Hardwoods having a porous
ring such as Oak, Chestnut and Elm, fast grown timber is
stronger and denser.

In some woods the prominent spring and summer zones are
not so clearly defined, and may merge into each other as in
Beech, while in others there is no differentiation discernible.

Care must be taken not to confuse with annual rings coloured
irregular wavy bands or rings which are seen on the cross section
of many heavy Indian and other tropical timbers. (Fig. 3).
These bands, which consist usually of soft tissue (wood cells or

Trees— The Character, Structure, &c. 45

parenchyma), frequently fade out before completely encircling
the log, or they anastomose; this does not occur with annual
rings, however eccentric and close they may be. Sometimes
these bands or lines consist of whitish resin-containing pores,
commonly found in timbers belonging to the Dipterocarpacec.
Timbers with these “false rings” as they are usually called,
frequently have no distinguishable annual rings, and this is
generally attributed to the season of growth not being sufticiently
separated by periods of rest to form sharply marked zones of
wood. Even in these woods, a cessation of growth such as caused
by drought followed by a period of renewed activity may occasion
the formation of rings which are perhaps more appropriately
called “season” rings.

Annual rings show the age of a given section. At the butt
of a trunk, if it includes the first year’s growth, it will give the
age of the tree. The tree may be 40 years old at the base, 25ft.
up the trunk may be only 20 years old. The rings may also
serve as records at different ages of the periods of suppression or
activity.

The number of rings, as an indication of age, is not always
infallible. It occasionally happens in trees that two rings are
produced in one giowing season. The growth of wood is the
result of the physiological activity of the leaves, as they are the
workshops where the food is manufactured, and if the tree is
defoliated, for example, by frost in May, or by insects as some-
times happens to the Oak in July, another crop of leaves from
dormant buds will frequently appear, resulting in the formation of
a second ring.

Heartwood and Sapwood.—If we examine the cross cut
end of any old oak stump, after the trunk has been felled, we
see at once that it is clearly separated into two regions, —a darker,
drier central portion surrounded by a pale moist softer portion.
The deep coloured central part is called heartwood (duramen)
and the outer part is known as sapwood (alburnum) sometimes
referred to as heart” and “sap” respectively. The heartwood
is dead, and is usually the warehouse for storing colouring matter

46 Mr. Arthur Deane on

or tannins, gums, resins, or mineral matter, which serve as
effectual preservatives against decay. The colour often determines
quality, for instance, the darker the heartwood of Larch, the
ereater its durability. Heartwood is heavier than the sapwood,
which is less durable because the living cells of the sapwood
contain starch and other organic foods, and therefore this wood
is more liable to suffer from rot, resulting from the attacks of
wood-destroying fungi.

Although not so durable, sapwood is more pliable than
heartwood and the sapwood of some trees, such as Hickory and
Ash, are valued for their bending quality.

In some trees there is no difference in colour between the
“heart” and “sap” as shown in the old Oak stump, but in these
cases, the © heart,” if present, can frequently be distinguished by
its relative dryness which would become obvious on microscopic
investigation. The living elements of the sapwood (rays and
soft tissue) lose their living contents when the wood becomes
changed into heartwood. Such trees having no distinction
between “heart” and “sap” are more likely to become hollow
than trees having a coloured heartwood. That the absence of
heartwood will not kill a tree, or that its presence is not even
necessary for its life, is proved by the many hollow trunks,
bearing in summer a healthy crop of leaves, the only disadvantages
such trees suffer are want of firmness and stability.

In heartwood trees the more “heart ” the better the wood
when used as timber, and the presence of only a little, or its
absence, is a sign that the wood has been cut from a young tree.

It must not be supposed that all trees possess heartwood.
Many trees have no heartwood, but all trees without exception
must have sapwood, as they could not live without it, seeing
that it is the path travelled by the water containing mineral
matter in solution from the roots to the leaves, there to be
elaborated and manufactured into food. Until that has taken
place, this solution could not be used for the growth of the tree
any more than it could be used as food by a man. The heart-

Trees—The Character, Structure, &c. 47

wood, on the other hand, no longer performs the physiological
function of conducting water and serves the tree only as a
mechanical support.

Sometimes the boundary of the sapwood in the felled trunk
is indicated by the discolouration brought about by fungi and
other agencies, but this in no way prolongs its life as timber,
unless it has been subject to an antiseptic treatment after being
seasoned. The number of rings over which the sapwood extends
is not the same in all trees, nor even in the same species of the
same age.

The sapwood may be sharply defined from the heartwood
as is the case in Yew and Robinia, or they may gradually merge
one into the other.

The presence or absence of heartwood is not characteristic
of all the species belonging to a single genus. In the Aspen
Poplar there is no heartwood, while the White and Black Poplars
have heartwood. Similarly the European Birch is a sapwood
tree, while the American Birch is a heartwood tree. Other
examples of sapwood trees are Hornbeam, Sycamore, Alder and
Lime.

Internal Sapwood.—Douglas Fir and Oak sometimes show
among the rings of coloured heartwood some colourless zones
which are hable to decay. In the Oak specimen exhibited it
should be noted how this colourless portion embedded in the
darker heartwood has become attacked by Anobids while
the heartwood remains untouched. ‘These zones constitute what
is known as “internal sapwood” and, like the outer sapwood,
will take preservative treatment.

Internal Bark.—Sometimes at the butt end of the log there
is an internal bark which also causes a defect. This is due to
the fusion of vertical shoots while young, the number of shoots
present being indicated by the number of piths. Higher up the
trunk there will be only one centre, due to the additional conical
layers of wood enclosing the young shoots. In the specimen of
Lime exhibited there are tivo piths shown.

48 Mr. Arthur Deane on

Wood Rays.—An old Oak stump on the cross-cut surface
shows thin plates of variable length arranged radially (and
vertically) through the wood. Sometimes they are called pith or
medullary rays, two very inappropriate names, as they have no
relation whatever with the pith or medulla, neither from the
historical nor evolutionarystandpoint. Theyarisefromthecambium
ring at irregular intervals during the growth in thickness,
extending into the bast.

No softwood or hardwood is devoid of wood rays, although
they differ considerably in size in different timbers, their number
and size influencing the technical properties of wood, and, in
some species, as in Oak, two sizes are found. In Hornheam
and Alder the broad rays appear to be due to the crowding
together of the finer rays into bundles to form compound rays
or ' false rays.” Rays are more conspicuous in hardwoods than
in softwoods, while in the latter they are so fine and crowded
that they often give quite a silken gloss to planed timber.

The physiological function of wood rays in the tree is to
convey the various food substances, and in winter they usually
act as storehouses for starch and other food substances, ready to
supply the cambium in the coming spring. In fact, the presence
or absence of reserve starch, in some trunks, under certain
conditions serves to determine when the tree was felled.

ANATOMY OF Woops.

Wood may be composed of four different kinds of histo-
logical elements, although all of them are not necessarily present
in the wood of every species. ‘They form the bricks, so to
speak, which build up the body of the tree, and those elements
that are present are always firmly cemented together, the qualities
depending in a large measure upon their character and arrange-
ment. One character of wood which strikes us at once is its
fibrous nature; it is shown clearly by the splintery fracture
of a branch broken across the grain. The elements present in
wood have a very definite arrangement, as everyone, who has

Trees—The Character, Structure, &c. 49

had experience in chopping wood, knows that it is easier to
cut radially than tangentially, or when directed slantingly
across the grain. This means that the elements normally run
parallel to the trunk, and any variation from this straight-grained
character would have a detrimental effect on the strength when
used as structural timber. Spiral grain means that the fibres
run abnormally in an oblique direction instead of vertically, and
if split would show a twisted, fluted surface. It is generally
indicated by the twistings of the bark. Softwoods appear to be
more subject to spiral grain than hardwoods. It sometimes
happens, for instance, in old trees of Tamarack, a species of
Larch, (Larix laricina) that the inner wood is straight-grained
while surrounded by an outer layer of spiral grain several inches
thick.

The tenacity of wood when strained “along the grain’
depends upon the tenacity of the walls of the fibres; when
strained “across the grain” it depends upon the lateral adhesion
of the sides of the fibres to each other. In softwoods, adhesion of
the fibres is small, so that they are more easily split “along the
grain” or torn across the fibres than in hardwoods.

?

Sorrwoops. (PINES, Firs, LARCHES, ETC.).

In softwoods we find the simplest type of tissue. It is this
simple and regular structure which enables softwoods to be more
easily worked and seasoned than hardwoods.

Tracheids.—It is this element which practically makes up
the wood of softwoods. They are tiny elongated fibre-like cells
of varying length, thin walled, and spindle shaped, the tapering
ends “ breaking-joint” with each other. On the walls are
numerous bordered pits arranged in vertical rows that appear in
section under the microscope as double concentric rings. They
form double valves to regulate the distribution of water.

Wood-Cells (Wood parenchyma).—These are thin-walled
isometric cells forming a soft tissue, and are only scantily scattered

“in softwoods, among the tracheids, as in Junipers. In some

50 Myr. Arthur Deane on

softwoods they consist of simple rows of cells, which afterwards
become filled with resin. Yew wood is entirely free from this
tissue. Wood cells always occur around the interior of resin
pores, so characteristic of many softwoods.

Resin Pores appear as dark specks on the cross cut
surface, sparsely distributed, forming long tubular spaces without
true walls of their own, but lined by a cirele of wood cells
(epithelium), rich in protoplasm and large nuclei, which do not
store starch like ordinary wood cells, but exude resin into the
central passage. Resin pores extend to long distances through
the wood, generally singly, but sometimes in groups, and run not
only parallel to the axis of the tree, but also pass horizontally
along the rays when the latter, in surface or tangential section
of the wood, become lenticular or spindle-shaped. In Scots Pine
we find both the linear and lenticular types of ray. These two
kinds of resin pores communicate with one another, explaining
the outpour of resin during the process of resin-tapping, and their
contents have important effect on the technical properties of
wood, such as durability and elasticity. Resin pores have nothing
to do with the vessels or pores found only in hardwood trees,
which are provided with a wall of their own. The irregular
ereyish outline of resin pores on the cross cut end and their
isolated distribution as they appear under a lens should help to
distinguish the two. On the longitudinal surfaces they appear as
fine yellowish or brownish streaks, and occur in Pines, Spruces,
Hemlocks, Douglas Fir, and Larch, but are absent in Silver Fir,
Yew and Cypresses. ‘Their presence or absence help in the
identification of softwoods.

Harpwoops. (Oaks, ELmMs, CHESTNUT, ETC.)

These are much more complicated in structure, most of
them containing all the four elements already referred to. The
most conspicuous are the wood pores, technically called vessels.
These are hollow tubes made up of cells arranged vertically with
open ends set one above the other like empty barrels with their’

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Trees—The Character, Structure, &c. Dil

ends knocked out, and usually having on their walls bordered
pits and reticulated thickenings. A vessel, then, is a cell fusion,
while a tracheid is a cell. They may range from the diameter of
a pin, as in Oak, down to those too small to he seen with the
naked eye, as in Willow. Hardwoods on this account are some-
times called “ porous woods,” while softwoods having no vessels
are frequently called “non-porous woods.”

Among the hardwoods, those forming a prominent porous
ring are sometimes described as “Ring porous woods” such as
Oak, Chestnut, and Elm, while those examples where the pores
are more or less evenly distributed throughout the entire ring
are frequently described as “ Diffuse porous woods” such as Birch,
Hornbeam, Alder, Poplar, and Willow. The rings are best
defined in ring-porous woods and non-porous woods. (Fig. 2).

Tyloses.—These are ingrowths of cells adjoining the pore
(vessel) of some hardwoods or a resin pore of some softwoods, or
more rarely in the tracheids of such hardwoods as sweet gum.
(Liquidamber styraciflua). These cells make their invasion by
pushing their way through the pits or unthickened portions of
the walls into the cavity. They contain protoplasm and in some
cases nuclei, and may divide and completely plug up the lumina
of the elements which they invade, forming partition walls at
irregular intervals throughout the entire length of the tube.

Tyloses occur in many woods, sometimes few and sometimes
in abundance. We have examples in some Oaks, Sycamore,
Robinia, and Snakewood (Brosimum aubletti). Inthe last named
the tyloses become thickened and converted into stone cells.
Tyloses originate under various conditions, but are more usually
found in connection with the transition of the sapwood into
heartwood, especially in those woods with large pores, rendering
the heartwood impervious to water. They are also produced in
the pores of wood wherever local injury takes place, as in cut
branches, and they develop in the cementing tissue during the
progress of engrafting. ‘

Snow points out that air can be readily blown through

52 Mr. Arthur Deane on

several feet of Red Oak, even if unseasoned, because tyloses are
not present in the pores, but a pressure of 100 lbs. per square inch
is sometimes insufficient to force air through a single inch of
unseasoned White Oak, because the pores of this species contain
abundant tyloses. They thus tend to retard the introduction of
foreign fluids such as antiseptics.

Wood Fibres.—These are thread-like cells, not unlike
tracheids in outline, but usually longer and with much thicker
walls, which is a characteristic feature. Sometimes they are so
thick as to show hardly any cell cavity, and they are devoid of
the characteristic bordered pits of the tracheids of softwoods,
the pits being small and slit-like. They are not found in soft-
woods, but they form the principal structure in hardwoods.
These fibres contribute largely to the strength and hardness of
hardwoods, and the more they predominate the better.

According to K.-C. Jeffrey a peculiar kind of fibre is found
in some Oaks and in some leguminous woods, caused by the
inner wall of the fibre becoming mucilaginous. Woods having
mucilaginous fibres are stated to be of special value in cabinet
work on account of their relative immunity from shrinking and
swelling, while the numerous mucilaginous fibres composing the
woods of False Acacia (Robinia Pseudacacia) make the wood very
suitable for trenails in the construction of wooden ships, as they
neither swell unduly in water nor shrink in the sun.

Wood Cells (Wood parenchyma). These are much more
abundant in hardwoods than in softwoods Sometimes they are
scattered in characteristic fashion among the wood-fibres and are
usually lighter in colour than the surrounding tissue. They
often adjoin the vessels and become a useful aid in identifying
timbers. In the Oak they form radial lines in the summer
wood (Fig. 2), while in the Elm they surround the pores
to form tangential lines. In Corkwoods, such as Balsa wood
(Ochroma Lagopus) exhibited, the wood consists in a large part
of wood cells. The wood cell tissue of the sapwood is used
during the resting season as a storehouse for reserve food
material such as starch.

Trees—The Character, Structure, &c. 53

Pith Flecks.—Peculiar patches which have a_ pathologic
origin are sometimes found in wood, and usually appear coloured
and well defined on the cross cut section of logs, or on tangential
boards. In Hornbeam and Cherry they are inconspicuous, owing
to the colour of the wood. They frequently occur in Willow,
Poplar, Alder, Birch, Lime, and many trees belonging to the
Rosaceew, They are the burrows caused by the larvae of a
dipterous insect (7ipula) feeding upon the cambium during the
growing season, and afterwards becoming occluded with wound
tissue of a soft cellular nature. (Fig. 3).

SURFACES OF TIMBER.

In cutting timber there are three surfaces or exposures, and
in order to understand the structure of timber, it is important to
study the three planes of section: (Fig. 4) (1) the transverse
or cross cut section, i.e. at right angles to the long axis; on this
surface the annual layers appear as concentric rings and the rays
as long lines as it shows the latter in longitudinal view from
above or below: (2) the radial cut or quarter-sawed timber,
ie. cut towards the centre of the log parallel with the
rays: the rings then appear as vertical lines, and crossing these
at right angles are the wood rays displaying their longitudinal
view from the side to form flat expanded surfaces known as
silver grain in large rayed woods: (Fig. 5) (3) the tangential
surface or slab cut, which is parallel to the bark and at right
angles to the rays. Here the rays are not conspicuous, but under
a lens appear as short pointed streaks distributed irregularly
among the other tissue, this is a very important surface, however,
when studying timber, because we get some idea as to the height
and breadth of rays as we view them in transverse section. The
rings appear on this surface as ellipses or hyperbolas in the
centre and open stripes at the side. To grasp this, one must
remember that the rings are hollow cones nested one within
another,

54 Mr. Arthur Deane on

Boards cut with the rays (i.e. radial or quartered) are stronger
and less liable to warp and split than those cut across the rays
(tangential) which form the ordinary boards, Tangential cuts
may, however, present a pleasing appearance as in Elms. It is
important to note, as the late Thomas Laslett has pomted out,
that in tangential boards there is an outside and inside to every
board, and especially should this be noted in floor boards with
the strain of traffic. These should be laid so as to expose the
youngest or outermost rings ; otherwise if laid with the older or
innermost rings exposed they will shell out, forming hollows in
the boards. In other words the convex side should be upper-

most.

TIMBER versus METAL.

From the earliest times wood has been used in construction,
and for making implements and utensils wherever it grew, at first
by primitive stone tools; but later, with metal tools, wood was
more extensively used, and to-day, with the advance of civilization,
it is the most widely used material in spite of its replacement to
some extent by iron and stone in buildings.

Timber used in construction has many advantages over metal.

Advantages :—

1. One great feature is that wood, being an organic structure,
can be reproduced. The cutting of forests has advanced
at a greater rate than they have been regenerated, yet,
under a well conducted forest management, forests could
be made to yield indefinitely. With inorganic materials
such as metal and stone, the more extensively they are
utilised, the quicker the supply becomes exhausted with
no opportunity to replace them. ©

2. Timber is stronger than is generally supposed. In tensile
strength (resistance to a pull lengthwise of the grain) a
bar of hickory exceeds a similar bar of iron or steel of
the same weight and height. A 10 ft, bean; of hard

a)

e

el

Trees—The Character, Structure, &c. 55

pine requires considerably more load to bend it by one
inch than a similar bar of iron of the same weight and
length.

Timber can stand a far greater distorsion than metal
without losing its power to regain its original position.
In this way timber gives a warning before reaching
breaking point. In many eases of damage or fracture
it is easier to replace, and it can be shaped and reshaped
with greater ease than metals.

12” wooden beams, though combustible, require a good
deal of heat to destroy them, because the surface
becomes charred and protects the inner portion. ‘Timber
beams will often remain in position, after a fire, and
carry 2 load, while iron and steel under the same heat
would twist out of shape and fall.

Timber does not corrode like metal. It lasts longer, even
without paint, in exposed situations. With metal,
access to moist air must be prevented. Impurities in
iron cause brittleness and weakness. ‘Timber continually
under water lasts longer than iron or steel.

Timber is a poor conductor of heat and electricity ; it is
pleasant to touch, is more artistic, and has a beauty
absent in metal, and has none of the injurious effects
of iron and steel.

Pieces of wood may be strongly glued together. Metals,
on the other hand, would require welding or soldering.
By too frequent reheating and forging, wrought iron is
weakened.

Certain timbers may be used for casks, remaining un-
affected, and imparting no disagreeable flavour to their
liquid contents, where metals would be objectionable or
even poisonous. The elasticity of certain woods renders
them superior to any metal for the resonant parts of
musical instruments,

56 My. Arthur Deane on

So far, we have been considering the advantages of wood
over metal. We must not, however, overlook some of the
disadvantages.

Disadvantages :—

1. Wood cannot be melted or cast. Rods, or thin sheets of

wood, however, can be bent when steamed, and when

reduced to pulp can be moulded into almost any shape.

2. It shrinks and expands with variations of moisture a good
deal more than metal under ordinary variations of
temperature.

S

. Being more easily crushed than iron, it is not so well
suited for bearing the greatest weight or for resisting
heavy blows.

. For commercial buildings greater strength is obtained in
steel, less depth of girder is required, and thus a gain
in height.

Sir T. G. Jackson, R.A., in his book “Reason in Archi-
tecture,’ 1906, p. 171, says: “Iron construction is really still
in an experimental stage; we do not yet know how it will

©

NS

stand the test of time. Meanwhile, all experience hitherto tends
to show that an Architect who wishes his building to go down to
posterity will do wisely to let iron play as small a part as possible
in his construction. It has been prophesied that 30 years hence
no one will employ iron in his buildings, at all events, as the main
element in their fabric. The failure of a single tie-rod seems to
have been the cause of the collapse of the roof at Charing Cross
Station, and it is certain that no monster roof of that kind will
ever be put up again. To say vothing of great railways and other
engineering works, it is disquieting to think of the miles and miles
of streets in London and other towns where the whole of the
upper storeys rest on girders accessible to atmospheric changes,
liable to rust and fatigue and possible injury by vibration, which
no one can examine and which cannot be repainted.”

It would be interesting to know the opinions of our local
architects and civil engineers seeing it is 12 years since these

Trees—-The Character, Structure, &c. 57

remarks were published. Perhaps the best conclusion is a happy
combination of both, because the properties of one so largely
supplement those of the other.

NAMES OF TIMBERS.

The multiplicity of common and trade names of timbers is
so bewildering and misleading that one is forced to wonder why
Architects and others, whose duty it is to draw up specifications,
do not recognize the importance of botanical names in order that
the timber wanted may be properly defined and many difficulties
avoided ; especially is this important now that new kinds of
timbers may be used in place of others. ‘Timbers from different
countries frequently go under different names, making it appear
that they are more numerous than is actually the case, and often
they are brought from afar because the same species nearer at
_hand is not recognized by its local name. Moreover popular and
native names may in the course of time disappear and be replaced
by others.

What we call Pitchpine (Pinus palustris) has something like
30 common names, and in America is usually called Longleaf or
Georgian Pine, their pitchpine being Pinus rigida, an inferior
species. Weymouth Pine (P. strobus) is known on our market as
Yellow Pine, but is called in America White Pine. The wood of
Douglas Fir, (Pseudo-tsuga Douglasiz) if wide-ringed, is usually
reddish and is known as “ red-fir” and “ oregon pine,” and the
popular belief is that these timbers come from different species
of trees whereas the two grades are obtained from the same
species. Intermediate grades are also common. “Southern
Pine” of the United States includes three species. An Architect
specifying for Southern Pine may be supplied with any or all of
the pines in question.

The name “Mahogany” is not now confined, as it originally
was, to a single species, (Swietenia Mahagont) but to a number
of timbers from many different genera and species of trees which
differ widely in anatomical structure. Some 70 kinds of timber

58 Mr. Arthur Deane on

are sold under the name of Mahogany. A good paper on the
recognition of some of the different kinds of Mahoganies, by
Dr. Dixon of Trinity College, which he read before the Royal
Dublin Society, was published in December last. Dr. Dixon
describes some 45 kinds of “Mahogany” which he had the
opportunity of examining. The paper is illustrated by excellent
photographs, the tangential sections being particularly valuable
in displaying the area occupied by the rays in the different woods.

Enough has been said to show that common names are
confusing, which makes it very possible to substitute timber of
poor quality for better timber. This leads to the necessity of a
reliable means of recognizing commercial woods. The wood
design produced by the cambium when viewed in the three
directions offers the most reliable means for the identification of
timbers, although there are accessory characters such as colour,
taste, odour, bark (if present), which may be helpful in conjunction
with structural characters. Even structural character does not
always render identification easy between related species, as in
Oaks. Although an Oak wood is perhaps the easiest to identify,
yet it is one of the most complicated as regards its structure,
while softwoods, although much simpler in structure, are more
difficult to identify than hardwoods, and frequently require the
aid of the microscope for decision.

In attempting the identification of wood, one should not
forget the observations of many good workers, and particularly the
labours of H. Nérdlinger, R. B. Hough, J. S. Gamble, F.R.S., on
Indian Timbers ; the late Professor Marshall Ward, F.R.S., and
Herbert Stone. Many attempts have been made to establish
keys to “run down” timbers, but these generally deal with only
certain woods.

Mr. Herbert Stone, the author of an- excellent book—*‘ The
Timbers of Commerce and their identification,” and other works,
who has examined mauy thousands of timbers, has devoted much
time and thought to the construction of a key. An interesting
account of Mr. Stone’s suggestions for such a key will be found

Trees—The Character, Structure, &c. 59

in a discussion on a paper on ~ Wood: its identification and
mechanical properties,” by W. H. Barling, which appears in the
Aeronautical Journal for May, 1918.

Anyone wishing to take up the study of the identification
of timbers will find in the Museum many examples to commence
with. We have Ceylon timbers presented to this Society by Sir
James Emerson Tennant, British Guiana timbers in the Grainger
collection, Canadian and Australian timbers, and Queensland and
other timbers given by Mr. Herbert Stone of the Forestry School
at Cambridge.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The following books and pamphlets will be found very useful
to those who wish to expand their knowledge on the points.
raised in the lecture. All of them will be found in the Reference
Department, Public Library, and the writer is indebted to the
Authors of many of those mentioned.

Forestry and Afforestation.
Commercial Forestry, Ministry of
Reconstruction. 1919.
Forestry Sub-Committee: Final
Report. Ministry of Recon-
struction. 1918.

Forbes, A. C. ... The Development of British For-
estry. 1910.
Graves, Henry 8S. ... The place of Forestry among Natural

Sciences. Journal Washing-
ton Academy of Science, vol.

5, 1915.
Schlich, Sir Wm. .... Manual of Forestry, 5 vols.
Stebbing, E. P. ... Forestry asa Career. The World’s
Work, February, 1918.
do. ... Afforestation and National Economy-

The World’s Work, Septem-
ber, 1918.

60 Mr. Arthur Deane on

The following in the Journal of Department of Agriculture
and Technical Instruction, Ireland :—

Forbes, A. C.

Henry, A.
do.

Barling, W. H.
Baterden, J. R.
Brown, H. P.

Dixon, H. H.

Groom, Percy
Hanausek, T. F.

Jeffrey, E. C.

Koehler, Arthur

Production and Value of Irish
Timber. 1915.

Profitable Trees. 1913.

The Artificial Production of Vigorous
iiregs, 91914

Avondale Forestry Station. 1907.

Forestry : six articles. 1906.

National Importance of Forestry.
1905.

Position of Larch in Irish Forestry.
1907.

Tree growth on Bog Land. 1910.

Wood Structure, ete.

Timber: its identification and mechan-

ical properties. The Aero-
nautical Journal. 1918.
Timber. 1908.
Pith-ray flecks in wood. U.S. Dept.
of Agriculture. 1913.
Mahogany and the recognition of
some of the different kinds by
their microscopic characters.
Royal Dublin Society, 1918.
Trees and their life histories. 1907.
The Microscopy of Technical Pro-
ducts. 1907.
The Anatomy of Woody Plants.
1917. |
Guidebook for the identification of
woods used for ties and timbers.
U.S. Depart. of Agriculture.
1917.

Trees—The Character, Structure, &c. 61

Sargent, F. L. ... Plants and their uses. 1914.

Snow, C. H. ... Wood and other organic structural
materials. 1917,

Stone, H. .... The timbers of commerce and their

identification. 1904,

=

7 Dai a7 Mi —

a *

Lith January, 1919.

FRONTIERS OF FRANCE.
By Pror. GRANVILLE A. J. COLE, F.R.S., M.R.IA.

(Abstract by the Lecturer.)

Ancient Gaul, the predecessor of France, received its
civilization from the spreading Roman Empire, and in turn
impressed that civilisation, and a speech of Latin origin, on
the Franks and Goths who seized upon the Roman lands.
The Goths sided with the Romans against the barbarous Huns,
and the dwellers in Gaul did much to maintain the traditions
of law and order transmitted to them by Roman rule. The
divisions of- western Europe in the middle ages led to the
struggle between a growing kingdom of France on the one
hand and the English and the Burgundians on the other. The
frontiers of France as we now know them were the dream of
the young peasant girl, Jeanne d’Arc. In her 19th year, by
faith and devotion to a visionary cause, deserted by her king
and martyred by the English, she had laid the foundations of a
united France.

The Phocaeans brought Greek civilization to Massala
(Marseilles) in 600 B.c., and this harbour on the Mediterranean
frontier remained the great port of entry for the Romans. The
Rhone valley west of it gave easy access to the interior, and
to-day Marseilles is the link between Paris and the colomial
lands of France in northern Africa. From it the French have
taken up the mantle of imperial Rome, and their heroic actions
on the Meuse and on the Somme have been discussed on the
steps of Tunisian mosques and supported by Moslem volunteers.

The rampart of the Pyrenees forms a highly effective and
natural frontier between France and the Iberian block, and
checked in critical centuries the progress of the Moorish Cali-

64 Professor Granville A. J. Cole on

phates. From its western end the great confluent delta of the
Garonne and its tributaries spreads northwards, forming the
level country of the Landes, margined by sand-dunes and swept
by the Atlantic winds. This ocean frontier was known to the
Phoenicians, and it is said that the first knowledge of letters
reached Gaul through the estuary of the Seine. ‘The bleak
promontory of Brittany, which gave so many seamen to the
navies of France, is part of “Armorican” Europe, a folded
mass far older than the Paris Basin, the Pyrenees, or the Alps ;
it is repeated in Cornwall and southern Ireland, and can be
traced through the Ardennes and eastward far across the Rhine.

The special “narrow sea” of the old writers, the link
. between the North Sea and the English Channel, completes
the sea-frontier of England, but has allowed of frequent rivalry
between dwellers on the opposing shores. Across it the Nor-
mans converted England into “the most successful colony of
France,” while their anglicized descendants made frequent raids
upon what they claimed as their rightful soil in Picardy. The
holding of Calais by those who held the port of Dover was
long regarded as essential to England’s safety. A permanent
and warm alliance with France offers a far better guarantee at
the present day. Eastward from the narrow sea, the northern
frontier runs across the level lands of Flanders, where natural
boundaries are hard to find. Here nation has warred with
nation for supremacy in western Europe, and the open Nether-
lands have been again and again overrun in struggles with
which they had no immediate concern. It is no accident that
the invaders of France in 1914, and the victorious allies
marching northward in the autumn of 1918, traversed the
ground of Conde’s, Marlborough’s, and Wellington’s campaigns.

The frontier is far better defined when we reach the
Armorican ridge of the Ardennes, which leads us eastward
to the Rhine-trough. The mass of the Vosges forms a natural
rim to France above the Rhine, though the river itself must
be accepted as the actual frontier of Alsace. This country,

Frontiers of France 65

formerly divided among small states and German _ bishoprics,
was annexed to France at the close of the thirty years’ war,
and by the wise treatment of 200 years became thoroughly
French in spirit. The language was not interfered with in the
German-speaking districts, and it was Alsatian-Strassburg in
1792 that Rouget de Il’Isle, a young captain of Engineers,
composed and sang for the first time verses that he called “A
song of the Army of the Rhine.” ‘That army had flung back
the coalised Prussians and Austrians to the natural edge of
France, and the song, renamed the Marseillaise, remains the
anthem of the great French Republic.

France in 1870 paid the price of a rash attempt to cross the
Rhine in arms, and the frontier was broken by the counter-
onslaught of Bavarians and Prussians, who swept their opponents
into Metz and northward along the Meuse vale to Sedan, where
the second French empire fell, five weeks after the opening of the
war. ‘The new frontier that was exacted by the victors in 1871
was determined strategically, and was designed to secure the
iron mines of Lorraine as well as to keep back France from
contact with the Rhine. From unconquered Belfort, the Juras
provide a region very difficult to traverse, where the valleys run
south-westward, parallel with the axes of folding in the range ;
and then we reach, ranging from Mont Blane to the Mediterranean,
the unrivalled frontier of the Alps.

The nature of the superb but little visited region of Haute
Savoie and Dauphiné may be illustrated by the traverse of
seventy miles from Grenoble across the Lantaret Pass, and
through the frontier-fortress of Briangon to the wall of Italy at
Mont-Genevre. Right down to the Maritime Alps, equal
difficulties must be encountered by an invader, and Charles V.
lost two armies in his attempts across the hills on Toulon. Again,
in 1707, Prince Eugene and the Duc de Savoie lost 10,000 men
before Toulon and in their enforced retreat. At Nice and Monte
Carlo, the range is cut across by the sea, so that the road and

66 Prof. Granville A. J. Cole on Frontiers of France

railway into Italy have to find what space they can and often:
tunnel through projecting spurs.

The Alsatian frontier on the Rhine has now been recovered
for the French. The desecrated northern frontier has been
crossed by the armies of the H’ntente at the final collapse of
terrorism after four years of devastating war. The vigour of the
French defence is typified for us by the stand on the Meuse at
Verdun and in the trenches across the open plateaus consecrated
by the home of Jeanne the Maid. It may he illustrated in a
concrete form by the chase of the Zeppelins from Paris southward
on October 20th, 1917, when four of the invading airships were
brought down between Lunéville and the cluse of Sisteron, kept
by the vigilance of defensive aircraft from escaping into German
lands. France has held her frontiers as she held them once
before at Valmy and Jémappes, and it was with a wise fore-
knowledge that M. Driver in 1917 named his fine bust of the
Republic, worn by conflict but confident of right, La Republique
de la Victorve.

eport and Proceedings — |

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FOR THE

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bith ol NATURAL HISTORY
ANP EILOSOPHICAL-SOGIETY.

Officers and Council of Management for 1919-20.

President :
Pror. GREGG WILSON, o.8.£., M.A., D.SC., PH.D., M.R.I.A.

Vice=Presidents :
Str CHARLES BRETT.
S. W. ALLWORTHY, M.A., M.D., F.C.S.
PROF. JAMES A. LINDSAY, m.a., F.R.C.P.
ROBERT M. YOUNG, M.a., M.R.I.A., J.P.
J. M. FINNEGAN, ».4., B.Sc.
WILLIAM SWANSTON, F.«c.s.

tbon. Treasuret :
HENRY RIDDELL, M.&., u.1.M.5.

thon. Librarian :
ROBERT M. YOUNG, M.aA., M.R.1.A., J.P.

‘tbon. Secretary :
ARTHUR DEANE.

Council :

W. B. BURROWES.
K. J. ELLIOTT.
H. C. LAWLOR, M.R.1. A.
WILLIAM SWANSTON, F.a.s.
ProFEssor GREGG WILSON, p.sc., M.R.1.A.
JOHN M. FINNEGAN, B.a., B.sc.
Proressor J. A. LINDSAY, m.a., F.R.0.P.
HENRY RIDDELL, m.&., M.1.M.£.
ROBERT M. YOUNG, M.4., M.R.1.A., J.P.
PrRoFEssor W. ST. CLAIR SYMMERS, m.x.
Str CHARLES BRETT.

~*Sir JOHN BYERS, m.4., M.D., M.A.O.
S. W. ALLWORTHY, .a., M.D., F.C.8.
WILLIAM FAREN.

ARTHUR DEANE.
*Died September 20, 1920.

Retire
1920.

Retire
1921.

Retire
1922.

TF —eeeee

Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society.

O

ESTABLISHED. 1621.

)
CONSTITUTION.

The membership of the Society consists of Shareholders, Members
under the new scheme authorized by the Society, Annual Subscribers
(Associates), Honorary Members and Honorary Associates.

A holder of one share pays an annual contribution of ten shillings ;
« holder of two shares (in one certificate) an annual contribution of five
shillings ; while a holder of three or more shares (in one certificate) is
exempt from annual payments. Shares on which the annual payments as
above are in arrear are liable to forfeiture. The Council retain the right
to decline to consolidate two or more share certificates iuto one certificate.
Members under the new Scheme are elected by the Council, pay ten
shillings per annum subscription, and have the right to vote on all
questions not affecting the ownership of the property of the Society.

Annual Subscribers (Associates) pay £1 Is. Od. (one guinea), due Ist
November each year in advance.

A general meeting of Shareholders and Members is held annually in
May or June, or as soon thereafter as convenient, to receive the Report of
the Council and the Statement of Accounts for the preceding year, to elect
members of Council, to replace those retiring by rotation or for other
reasons, and to transact any other business incidental to an Annual

Meeting.

The Council elect from among their own number a President and other
officers of the Society.

Each member has the right of personal attendance at the Ordinary
lectures of the Society, and has the privilege of introducing two friends
for admission to such. The Session for lectures extends from November
to May.

Any further information required may be obtained from the Honorary
Secretary at :—The Museum, College Square North, Belfast.

Proceedings of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, 1918-1919.

12th November, 1918.

IRISH WOODS AND FORKSTS.
Illustrated by Lantern Slides.

By Proressor AUGUSTINE Henry, M.A.,
Professor of Forestry, Royal College of Science, Dublin.

Professor Henry, in the course of his address, which was
illustrated by many beautiful views, described how trees growing
on bog-land had been killed by the change of climate which the
country had experienced some 3,000 years ago, and how the
bog had since grown above their roots to a considerable depth
which explained the presence of tree stumps and roots being
found twenty or more feet below the bog surface. The lecturer
emphasised the very great repressive effect of wind on the growth
of trees, and showed how important was the proper selection,
not only of sites for tree planting for timber purposes, but the
species of trees best suited to resist wind in exposed situations.
A brief historical account was given of some of the more famous
woods—principally Oak woods—in the North of Ireland, including
the historic “derry,” which was cut down to build the City of
Londonderry. The forests along the Lagan Valley and in the
lower Mourne district were also dealt with. In conclusion, the
Professor said “the reafforestation of those parts of Ireland
which were suitable for the purpose should be approached in a
systematic way, otherwise attempts of this kind would be of little
practical good.”

At the close a vote of thanks to Professor Henry was passed
by acclamation,

68

26th Mebruary, 1919.

“THE STORY OF PORCELAIN.”
By Mr. CHARLES EK. WHITE.

In the course of an interesting address, Mr. White pointed
out that commercial cumpetition had always tended towards
deterioration in the artistic merits of porcelain ; the cheapening
of prices resulting from this competition, and the cutting down of
wages had often made it impossible for an artist to put his soul
into the work. This had helped to bring about the deterioration
in style and the introduction of transfer printing on porcelain.

Several lantern slides were shown of Belleek porcelain,
in which the effect of temperament and national characteristics
were displayed. In addition to a full series of slides Mr. White
illustrated his remarks by beautiful specimens of the potter’s art.

A hearty vote of thanks was accorded the lecturer on the
motion of Mr. H. C. Lawlor, seconded by Mr. R. 8S. Lepper.

69

Sth April, 1919.

“THE ROMANCE OF TUBERCULOSIS.”

By Dr. ANDREW TRIMBLE, D.P.H.,
Chief Tuberculosis Officer, Belfast.

Professor W. St. Clair Symmers presided, and_ briefly
introduced the lecturer, remarking that tuberculosis was the
most dreadful of all human diseases, and he trusted that one of
the results of the lecture would be to reawaken in Belfast that
keen interest which they had in the disease some few years ago ;
he was perfectly certain that the campaign to which he referred
did an untold amount of good.

Dr. Trimble said he had noticed that the history of a
scoundrel was always much more interesting to the bulk of man-
kind than the history of a saint. If he was correct !n his
observation, then the subject of tuberculosis should be of
thrilling interest, for tuberculosis might well be called the diabolus
amongst the demons of disease—the scoundrel amongst the
scourges of humanity. It was hoary with age, and yet had all the
energy of youth. It attacked the prince in his palace, and the
peasant in his hovel—but preferred the peasant as the easier
prey. It neither pitied the young nor honoured the aged,
although it preferred to wait till its victim had come to maturity,
and, just at the moment when life was inviting and hopes were
high, it dashed the cup of youth in pieces to the ground. It
attacked the animal as well as man. It settled in every tissue of
the body, although it preferred the more delicate and vital
parts. It attacked the strong as well as the weak, but preferred
the weak. It observed the lifeboat rule, “Women and children
first,” with an irony that was sardonic. It gave the flush of
health to its victim at the moment when it was about to push
him over into the grave, and instead of warning its victim of his

70 Dr. Andrew Trimble on

impending doom, it blinded his eyes to his true condition and
gave him the false hope of betterment and life. And all that it
did in a manner so wholesale and sweeping thatit killed annually
in the Empire more victims than we lost each year since the
greatest war in history began, and wounded twice as many people
as were wounded in warfare. ‘To be specific, more than 60,000
people died annually in the United Kingdom, while it was com-
puted that there were at least seven actively tubercular subjects
to each one who died, or more than 400,000. The history of
tuberculosis was not a chapter in the history of medicine : it was
part and parcel of history itself. Though the recorded historical
observation and tabulation of symptoms began about the time of
Hippocrates, it was obvious that symptoms of tuberculosis must
have been observed long before, for there was no reason to doubt
that the bacillus showed its activities almost at the dawn of civiliza-
tion. Proceeding, the lecturer sketched the history of the study
tuberculosis in a most interesting manner, dwelling particularly
upon the work of Anenbrugger, Laennec, Jean Antoine Villemin,
Cohnheim, and Koch. The final discovery, by the last-named—
the cause of tuberclosis—-said the lecturer, was not less epoch-
making, or less important to humanity, than was the discovery by
Columbus of America. Let them turn now to the tubercle
bacillus, and hear what he had to say for himself. He had called
him a scoundrel, but if he were a criminal being tried at the bar
of humanity, he would have aright to say what he could for
himself. If they gave him that opportunity, he fancied this was
something like what the bacillus would say in his defence :—
“You have accused me of being the cause of much suffering, and
of innumerable deaths ; of having slain without pity the young
and the old from time immemorial. But I would remind you
that in that respect I have done no more than you yourselves—
the lords of creation—have been doing for the past four and a
half years. If I reproduce myself to the damage of my host, I
would like you to remember that it was not I who put myself in
the position of doing this injury. I can neither walk, swim, nor

The Romance of Tuberculosis. (U3)

fly, and if I find myself in the body of either man or animal I
must have been blown there by the wind, or introduced by the
careless and filthy habits of the individual. For the rest, I have
but obeyed the law of nature, that the fittest survives. But
allow me to point out to you that the death of my host, far from
being my object, is to me an unmitigated calamity. For, being
buried with him in the earth, I soon follow him into decay for
want of warmth and food. I have my place in nature, as you
have yours, and if you will not compel me to enter your bodies,
I am content to remain outside, fulfilling my function in some
other fashion. But after examining all the facts, can you say I
have been an unmitigated evil? I have altered the destiny of
many an individual. I have had an effect, not always for the
worse, but often for the better, on art, music, and literature. I
have called out and developed tender sympathies and loving
devotion that otherwise might have lain dormant, and if now you
understand that I am an accompaniment of poverty, crowded
housing, careless and dirty persenal habits, and of Cain-like
indifference to brotherly feelings, and if, understanding this, you
recognize the necessity for more and better food, for decent
housing accommodation, for parental solicitude for little children,
for personal cleanliness, and if, realizing this necessity, you are
resolved to remedy these evil conditions so far as lies in your
power, you will at one stroke have removed the opportunity of
which I—with a horde of other evil spirits of infectious diseases
—have taken advantage, and you will at the same time have laid
the foundation of a happier and healthier humanity.” The
lecturer went on to say that he thought the jury, having heard
such a speech, would bring in a verdict of “guilty, but with
extenuating circumstances.” It might be well, however, to take
the admonition of the bacillus to heart, and to put his suggestions
into practice. He had mentioned in his speech a circumstance
that had not:commonly been noted—that of the effect which he
had had upon the arts and literature. Might he (Dr. Trimble)
say at once that he believed there was a great deal of

72, Dr. Andrew Trimble on The Romance of Tuberculosis.

truth in what he had said. The tubercle bacillus was a
traitor in that he had not failed to attack royalty—our own
Richard III. apparently suffered from tuberculosis of the spine.
Again he hesitated not to strike down the little Dauphin of
France, “the king who never reigned.” Amongst artists, he laid
his hand on Watteau and Sebastian Le Sage. Amongst poets,
he shortened the lives of Henry K. White, Keats, Elizabeth
Barrett Browning, Sidney Lanier, Henley, and Francis Thomp-
son, while it was on account of tuberculosis that Shelley made
the journey to Italy, where he was destined to meet with so tragic
a death. He stilled the notes of Henry Purcell, Paganini,
Chopin, and Weber. Amongst preachers, he carried off George
Herbert, and attempted, but failed, to carry off John Wesley.
Even famous soldiers fell in combat with him, for he sent to an
early grave one of Napoleon’s most famous Generals—Hoche.
Historians had bowed before his ravages; Green died at 46
dictating the end of his English History from his death-bed, and
Smollett fell before him. Novelists had succumbed to his blows,
two of the Brontes and Robert Louis Stevenson being amongst
his victims. Litterateurs such as Thoreau, John Addington
Symonds, and Heinrich Heine fell in the unequal contest with
him. Wits like Artemus Ward and Tom Hood made the world
laugh while they were dying from his assaults, nor must they
forget the wisdom, so akin to wit, of A4sop, nor the wit, so akin
to wisdom, of our own Mr. Punch—the modern Punchinello.
Finally, it was the tubercle bacillus that drove Cecil John Rhodes
to seek for health in South Afriea, and, incidentally, to lay the
foundations of an empire. Noseriousattempt had yet been made
to assess the influence of disease on intellectual workmanship.
The tubercle bacillus undoubtedly had ou more than one occasion
altered the course of destiny—had been, indeed, destiny itself.

Questions were asked and answered, and at the close a vote
of thanks was heartily accorded Dr. Trimble, on the proposition
of Professor Symmers, who expressed the hope that the doctor
would give an address in the near future on the work upon which
he was engaged in Belfast.

ANNUAL MEETING.

SESSION 1918—1919

Held in the Museum, College Square North, on Tuesday
evening, 11th November, 1919, at eight o'clock.

On the motion of Mr. H. C. Lawlor, the chair was taken by
Professor Gregg Wilson.

The Chairman referred in feeling terms to the death of
Mr. John Horner. On the motion of the Chairman, seconded
by Councillor Henry Riddell, the following resolution was passed
in silence :—

“That this Annual Meeting record its sense of the great
loss the Society has sustained by the death of Mr. John
Horner, which took place on the 25th November, 1919.
Mr. Horner was an active member since the year 1887,
and took a keen interest in all that pertained to the
welfare of the Society. He served as Honorary
Treasurer from 1904 to 1911, and at the time of his
death was a Vice-President and Honorary Librarian.”

The Honorary Secretary was instructed to forward a copy of
this Resolution to Mrs. Horner and to convey to her the Society’s
sincere sympathy in her sad bereavement.

COUNCIL'S REPORT.

The following report of the Council for the year was sub-
mitted by the Hon. Secretary (Mr. J. M. Finnegan) and
adopted :—

The Council of the Society desires to submit its report of
the working of the Society during the past session. Six ordinary
meetings have been held, and it is glad to say that the lecture

74 Annual Meeting.

on each occasion was well attended. The list of the lectures and
lecturers is as follows :—
1918.

Ist. Nov. 12th. — “Irish Woods and Forests.” By Professor
Henry, M.A., Professor of Forestry,
Royal College of Science, Dublin.

2nd. Dec. 10th. ‘A War Memorial for Belfast.” By Mr.
Alec Wilson, M.R.LA.

1919.
OrGe eam bathe “Frontiers of France.” By Professor
Grenville A. Cole, F.R.S., of the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.
4th. Feb. 25th. “The Story of Porcelain.” By Mr.
Charles EK. White.
5th. March 11th. Trees: the character, structure, and

properties of wood. By Mr. Arthur
Deane, Curator Municipal Art Gallery
and Museum, Belfast.

6th. April 8th. “The Romance of Tuberculosis.” By Dr.
Andrew Trimble, D.P.H., J.P., Chief
Tuberculosis Officer, Belfast.

All the lectures were well illustrated by lantern slides, and,
in some instances, further illustration was obtained from
specimens.

PROCEEDINGS.

A new departure has been made in regard to papers intended
for publication : instead of waiting until the end of the session
and printing in the Proceedings, papers intended for publication
are sent to the printers as soon as possible after the lectures have
been given, in order that printed copies may be put into the
hands of members at an earlier date. The Council hope, that
in future, all lecturers will assist in this new arrangement by

Annual Meeting. 15

handing their papers to the Hon. Secretary without delay, so that
they may be submitted to the Publication Sub-Commmittee at
once. A certain number of the printed papers will be hound as
Transactions for distribution.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SECTION.

The Archaeological Section which was formed during the
session 1917-18 under the chairmanship of Sir Charles Brett,
appears to justify its existence. A separate report of its activities
will be submitted to the Sectional Annual Meeting by the Hon.
Secretary of the Section, Mr. H. C. Lawlor, during the present
month. (See pp. 77—86.)

Hon. SECRETARY’S RESIGNATION.

Your Council is sorry to have to report that Mr. J. M.
Finnegan, B.A., B.Sc., who has served the Society as Hon. Sec.
since 1912, has resigned, and that Mr. J. W. Storey, B.A., who
has acted as Assistant Secretary, has also resigned, having been
appointed as Secretary in Ireland of the National Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Children. Your Council has already
recorded on the minutes its thanks to these gentlemen for their
services.

Hon. TREASURER’S STATEMENT.

Mr. Riddell, the Hon. Treasurer, will submit his Statement
of Accounts. He has had some heavy expenditure to meet
owing to the appearance of dry-rot and insect attack in the upper
part of the building. Your Council feels that as long as Mr.
Riddell continues to be Hon. Treasurer the financial interests of
the Society will be carefully watched,

76 Annual Meeting.

EXCHANGES.

Your Council continues to receive publications from
leading Institutions and Societies in exchange for this Society’s
Proceedings, many of those received being of great importance.
A list appears on pages 89 to 91.

CouNCcIL’s THANKS.

The Council wish to place on record its thanks to the
Press for the full reports of the Society’s work from time to
time. The Council’s thanks are also due to the Lecturers for
their assistance during the session.

ELECTION.

Three members of the Council retire from office, all of whom
are eligible for re-election, and the meeting will be asked to fill
the vacancies, as well as that caused by the lamented death of
Mr. Horner already referred to by the President.

TREASURER’S STATEMENT.

Mr. Henry Riddell, Hon. Treasurer, presented the financial
statement, which showed a reduction of £86 in the adverse
balance, not including £21 deposited with the Treasurer by the
Archaeological Section. He thought that in the present year they
would be able to wipe out completely their debt, and urged upon
all members to make an effort to increase the membership under
the new subscription scheme.

ELECTION OF COUNCIL FOR 1919-1920.
Moved by Couucillor Henry Riddell, seconded by Mr. J. M.
Finnegan :—
Resolved ;—That the three retiring members of the Council,

Annual Meeting. 77

namely, Sir John Byers, Dr. Allworthy, and Mr. William Faren,
be re-elected, and that the names of Sir Charles Brett and Mr.
Arthur Deane be added to the list.

Subsequently a meeting of the new Council was held, to elect
officers for the ensuing year. These, together with the new
Council, will be found on page 92.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SECTION.

ANNUAL MEETING.

The third General Meeting of the Section was held in the
Museum on Wednesday, November 26th, at 3-30 p.m. In the
unavoidable absence of the Chairman, Sir Charles Brett, the
chair was occupied by Mr. R. M. Young, M.A., M.R.I.A.

The Hon. Treasurer (Councillor Henry Riddell. M.E.), re-
ported that at the close of the session he had funds in hand
amounting to almost £64 ; about £6 was due to be paid, and the
subscriptions due for the new session and subsidy from the parent
society would bring the amount available for the work of the
Section during the coming session to about £90.

The Hon. Secretary of the Section (Mr. H. C. Lawlor,
M.R.I.A.) reported that from various causes three members of
the Section had resigned, and one, the late and much lamented
Mr. John Horner, had died; four new members had _ joined,
leaving the membership of the Section at 69. He expressed
regret that during the past session a more general interest in the
objects of the Archaeological Section had not been shown, and
that no applications for grants in aid of research had been made
by members or others since last meeting. He read an account of
the investigation of the crannog at Ballygolan (adjoining the
Bellevue Gardens, Antrim Road, Belfast), and of some megalithic
monuments in the sandhills at Portrush. (For details see pp.
71—86.)

Mr. W. A, Green exhibited some interesting pottery frag-

78 Annual Meeting.

ments, bones, and rude flint implements found by him in a newly
discovered sandhill settlement at Portrush.
The office-bearers for the new session were elected as
follows :—
Chairman, Sir Charles Brett.
Hon. Treasurer, Mr. Henry Riddell, M.E., M.I.M.E.
Hon. Secretary. Mr. Henry C. Lawlor, M.R.I.A.
Executive Committee, in addition to the foregoing (ex-
officio) Professor Gregg Wilson, D.Sc., Mr. Arthur Deane ;
(elected) Mr. R. S. Lepper, M.A., F.R.Hist. Soc, Mr. Alec
Wilson, J.P., M.R.LA., Mr. W. B. Burrowes, Mr. T. Edens
Osborne, Mr. John seein the Rev. William Adams, He
Mr. Fergus Greeves, Mr. Robert May.
The Hon. Secretary of the Section, Mr. H. C. Lawlor, read
the following reports :—

I.—INVESTIGATION OF CRANNOG IN THE TOWNLAND
OF BALLYGOLAN.

At the extreme north-west corner of the townland of
Ballygolan (the place of the forked streamlet) is a saucer shaped,
somewhat marshy hollow in which rises a prolific spring. A
channel cut to carry away the water from the spring has drained
the hollow where once was a deep lake. A natural ridge of
eravel soil retained the water of the lake on its eastern side,
while on its western side the steep slopes of the Cavehill and
Colin Ward begin to rise.

The farm in which the site of this ancient lake is situated is
now known as Hazelwood and is bounded on its eastern side by
the Antrim Road and on its northern side by the Bellevue
Gardens.

A little to the east of the centre of the hollow is a circular
knoll some four feet higher than the surrounding ground, seventy
across at its base, sixty at the summit. -The knoll is flat topped,
and no foss or vallum surround it as in the great majority of
raths,

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80 Annual Meeting.

The present proprietor of Hazelwood—Mr. Read, readily
gave his consent to the investigation of the mound, which was
carried out during Easter week of this year. I had the assistance
of five men the first day and three the two following days. We
decided first to search for the remains of a refuse deposit or
kitchen midden outside the mound, and with this object in view
dug a deep trench round the base of the mound, examining
carefully all the soil thrown out. It is of ordinary peat. At a
depth of six feet we had to suspend operations in this direction
owing to the inflow of water, but we probed down the soft
bottom of the trench with crowbars, and found that the peat
extended down at least four feet further, so that the growth of
peat is not less than, and probably more than, ten feet. In
probing we did not come to hard till, so that the original depth
of the lake was not ascertained. The section of the trench
showed that the mound had been built after the usual manner
of early lake dwellings. Asa foundation, large logs and branches
of trees were laid down, weighted down by stones and soil.
When the pile had been thus raised above the water level, it
became a habitable island. The timber branches upon which
the crannog was built are quite rotten and of a soft sponge like
texture : they consisted of hazel, birch, oak and fir. I saw no
sign of upright stakes surrounding the mound as are usually
found in lake dwellings; the branches and logs on which the
island was built seem to have been thrown down horizontally in
haphazard fashion.

In the circular trench we found no remains of implements
or utensils ; as we could not dig deeper than six feet on account
of the inflow of water, we filled in the trench and re-sodded it.

We next proceeded to cut sectional trenches and pits in the
mound itself. The upper surface of the island is composed of
clay soil of a depth of about three feet or more in places. Near
the centre of the island we came upon three distinct hearths, one
above the other, with clay intervening. It is evident these
represent three periods, and that the lowest hearth represents

Annual Meeting. 81

the earliest period of occupation. As the foundations of the
island rotted and sank, the inhabitants found it necessary to
build the island higher by adding another course of clay, with
new hearths on top of the older. Ata later period, a further
sinking of the foundation made another floor necessary, apparently
the last one in the history of the lake dwelling.

Ashes, burned fragments of wood and bones, were numerous
in the immediate vicinity of the three hearths, and here and at
the various places where we excavated were found a considerable
number of fragments of broken pottery cooking vessels. It is
worthy of remark that these pottery fragments were all found
fairly near the surface, not at the level of the lowest stratum of
occupation. The pottery is all of that distinct type which I have
in former papers described as souterrain pottery, and not of the
type usually found in crannogs. None of it showed signs of
having been turned on a wheel, though some of it had thumbnail
ornamentation.

A few years ago Mr. F. J. Bigger made some slight excava-
tions in the form of small trenches in this crannog, and found
some small fragments of the same pots, which he presented to the
City Museum. These and what we found are exhibited together.

Mr. Bigger, in a short account of his investigation (published
in the Ulster Journal of Archaeology, 2nd Series, Vol, VII,
p. 195) states that he also found a “ Danes pipe” which, with
the pottery fragments, he had presented to the Public Museum.
The records of the City Museum show that the pottery was given,
but no pipe, and [ am inclined to be sceptical about the latter.
Mr. Bigger makes the extraordinary error of describing this
crannog as a Dun.

In our investigation we found no implements or fragments of
metal of any sort, and no flints; we found a stone implement, a
flat oval, measuring 53" x 44” x 2”, slightly hollowed in the centre
of each face and chipped at the edges. I cannot suggest for what
purpose this implement served.

From conclusions arrived at in former papers in investi-

82 Annual Meeting. |

gations in connection with souterrains, I think we may be safe
in dating the pottery about the fifth or sixth century, and that
the upper floor or stratum of the crannog is of this date; no
evidence was forthcoming as to the possible age of the lower
strata or of the original date of the construction of the island.

Our investigations were not by any means exhaustive, and a
further and more complete examination might produce interesting
results.

Il—SOME MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS IN THE
. PORTRUSH SANDHILLS.

Some years ago my friend, the late Mr W. H. Patterson,
wrote me when I was staying in Portrush asking me to inspect a
megalithic monument of the type usually called a Giant’s Grave,
situated at a spot he described in the Sandhills, but which was
not marked in the Ordnance Survey Map.

I proceeded to the place indicated, but could find no trace
of the object of my search. Enquiry from some of the golf green
attendants, however, elucidated the reason of my want of success,

When the golf course was being made some thirty years
ago, the giant’s grave was found to be an impediment in laying
out one of the greens, and the committee ordered its destruction.
The larger stones were blasted in pieces and carted into Portrush
for building purposes, and the smaller ones covered over to level
up the surface of the green. My informant told me he had been
one of the men employed to carry out the work.

I reported the matter to Mr. Patterson, who replied saying
that fortunately he had preserved a carefully made plan, drawn to
scale, of the grave as it was when he visited it many years before.
He sent me the plan with a pencil sketch, asking me to lay them
before this society to be recorded, if possible, in one of our publi-
cations. I now have pleasure in placing Mr. Patterson’s plan and
sketch before the archaeological section in the hope that his
request may be acceeded to. (Sketch No. 1).

\
i\Y\

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WS

Sy

PLAN of Meeauituic Monument in Portrusn Sanponis, Co. Antrim.

« N° 1)

THe LATE W.H. Patterson. MRA.

Sy

FROM ROvCHnH SKETCH MADE

84 Annual Meeting.

As accurately as I can ascertain the position of the grave on
the ordnance map, it should have been placed at a point 13°
W.N.W. of the letter B in the name of the townland of Bally-
craig Lower, on sheet No. 6, County Antrim.

Last summer, when again visiting Portrush, I was pointed
out by a resident, Mr. Gaston, of The Warren House, another
somewhat similar though smaller monument at a point on the
map approximately 24” north of the second A in the same
townland name. The stones of which I show aroughly measured
plan (No. 2) are in a low lying part of the sandhills on a grass
covered knoll about 3 feet higher than the immediately surround-
ing ground.

With one exception the stones, of which there were 18, did
not present any notable features, being ordinary basalt field
stones of no great size; the one exception being an elongated
rough pillar stone, in one side of which is a round cup-shaped
hole about two inches across and 14” deep. I could not decide
if this hole was artificial or the work of nature.

With the aid of three men, Mr. Gaston and I made con-
siderable excavations in the knoll. We found that its foundation
rested on an old raised beach of white limestone gravel, into
which we penetrated some depth. Atno point in our excavations
did we find any trace of burned wood, bones or other remains
which would indicate that the knoll had ever been used either
as a place of burial or human occupation.

With our knowledge of the shifting nature of sand in these
hills, it seems most extraordinary that the stones were all at the
surface, none being entirely buried. ‘This fact would seem to
suggest that the stones could not have lain there for the number
of years usually attributed to monuments of the type to which
this one has the appearance of belonging.

While not prepared to assert positively that the stones are,
or are not the remains of a monument of great antiquity, as they
are locally regarded, I think it right to suggest that they may
have been placed there in comparatively modern times as a base

Pian

or Mecautuic Monument

S ANOWILLS ,

SCALE Kea 147.

in Poatrusy
Co. AnTRIN’.

(wea)

86 Annual Meeting.

on which to lay boards or branches of trees on which one or more
hay stacks might have been piled.

Ata point, which on the map would be approximately one
inch north of the letter J in the same townland name of
Ballycraig Lower, I found on an eminence on the east bank of a
small stream which flows and eventually sinks into the sandhills,
another knoll through the surface of which appear the tops of
several apparently large stones. With the negative results of the
foregoing investigation in mind, I did not feel warranted in
making excavations on the spot, but I wish to take the present
opportunity of placing on record the existence of these three
monuments of antiquity in case others should like to pursue
their examination more fully.

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EXCHANGES.

AUCKLAND—Annual Report of the Auckland Institute and
Museum. 1918-19.
BARCELONA—Publications of Barcelona Museum.
BELFAST—Proceedings of the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.
1948-19.
BERGEN (NorwaAy)—Publications of the Bergen Museum.
BIRMINGHAM—Proceedings of the Birmingham Natural History
and Philosophical Society. 1918.
BrighHTtoN—Annual Report of the Brighton and Hove Natural
History and Philosophical Society. 1918.
CatcutraA—Bibliography of Indian Geology. Part I and II.
Records of the Geological Survey of India.
Report of the Progress of Agriculture in India.
1917-18.
Campripur (U.S.A.)—Bulletin of the Cambridge Museum of
Comparative Zoology.
CAMBRIDGE— Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.
EDINBURGH—Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
1917-18.
Transactions and Proceedings of the Botanical
Society of Edinburgh.

%)

”

”

# Notes from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Hdinburgh.
Essex—tThe Essex Naturalist. Vols. VIIJ.—XIX.
Haimrax—Proceedings and Transactions of the Nova Scotian
Institute of Science.

INDIANA—-Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Sciences,
1916-17.

Lima (PERU)—Boletin del Cuerpo de de Ingenieros de Minas del
Peru.

LonpoN—British Museum, Economic Publications,

90 EHxchanges.

LoNDON—Quarterly Journal of the Royal Microscopic Society.
He Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society.

e; Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society.
i Report of the British Association. 1918.
LOoUSANNE—Bulletin de la Societe Vaudoise des Sciences
Naturelles.
MASSACHUSETTS—Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative
Zoology.

MELBOURNE—Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria.

Mextco—Anales del Instituto Geologico de Mexico.

New Haven—Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Art
and Sciences. 1917.

New OrLEANS—Sixth Biennial Report of the Board of Curators
of the Louisiana State Museum. 1917-18.

New YorK—The Geographical Review. Monthly.

NotrrincGHAM—Annual Reports, Nottingham Naturalists’ Society,

1913-1918.
Oxn10— Bibliographical Contributions from the Lloyd Library.
. The Ohio Journal of Science.

Orrawa—Memoirs of the Canadian Geological Survey.
Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Canada, De-
partment of Mines.

PHILADELPHIA— Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences

of Philadelphia.
A Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society.

Pusa (InprA)—Scientific Reports of the Agricultural Research
Institute. 1916-17.

Rio de JANEIRO—Report of the National Museum of Brazil.

SAN FRANcISCO—Proceedings of the California Academy of
Science.

STAVANGER (Norway)—Report of the Stavanger Museum.
1917.

STIRLING—-Transactions of the Stirling Natural History and
Archaeological Society. 1914-1919.

St. Lours—Public Library Monthly Bulletin,

be)

Exchanges. 91

St. LEoNARDS—Report of the Hastings and St. Leonards Natural

History Society. 1917-18.

Torquay—Journal of Torquay Natural History Society.
TorRoNTO—Transactions of the Royal Canadian Institute.
UpsALA—Bulletin of the Geological Institution of Upsala

University.

W ASHINGTON—Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution.

Annual Report of the United States National
Museum.

Bulletins of the Bureau of American Ethnology.

Bulletins of the Smithsonian Institution.

Contributions from the United States National
Herbarium.

Proceedings of the United States National Museum.

Smithsonian Institution Miscellaneous Collections.

Year Book of the United States Department of
Agriculture. 1918.

92

BELFAST NATURAL HISTORY
AND PHILOSOPHICAL SCGLzike

Officer's and Council of Management for 1919-20.

President :

Pror. GREGG WILSON, m.a., D.Sc., PH.D., M.R.LA.

Vice=Presidents :
Sir CHARLES BRETT.

ALDERMAN 8. W. ALLWORTHY, M.4., M.D.,. F.G.S.

PROF. JAMES A. LINDSAY, m.a., F.R.c.P.
ROBERT M. YOUNG, M.a., M.R.1.A., J.P.
J. M. FINNEGAN, B.A., B.Sc.

WILLIAM SWANSTON, rf.«.s.

bon. Treasurer:

CounciLtoR HENRY RIDDELL, M.f£., M.1.M.E.

fbon. Librarian :

ROBERT M. YOUNG, M.A., M.B.1.A., J.P.

on. Secretary :
ARTHUR DEANE.

Council :
W. B. BURROWKES.
E. J. ELLIOTT.
H. C. LAWLOR, m.R.1.A.
WILLIAM SWANSTON, r.a.s.
ProFESSOR GREGG WILSON, p.sc., M.R.1.4.
JOHN M. FINNEGAN, B.A., B.Sc.
Prorsssor J. A. LINDSAY, M.a., F.R.0.P.
CouncILLoR HENRY RIDDELL, m.£., M.1.M.2.
ROBERT M. YOUNG, M.A., M.R.1.A.
Proressor W. ST. CLAIR SYMMERS, m.s.
Str CHARLES BRETT.
Sir JOHN BYERS, m.A., M.D., M.A.O.
ALDERMAN 8. W. ALLWORTHY, m.a., M.D., F.C.8.
WILLIAM FAREN.
ARTHUR DEANE.

:
|
|

Retire
1920.

Retire
1921

Retire
1922.

93

SHAREHOLDERS AND MEMBERS.

[* Denotes Holders of three or more Shares. |

la sf Members of Archaeological Section. |
aAcheson, F. W., Cloneevin, Dundalk
aAdams, Rev. Wm. A., The Manse, Antrim.
* Alexander, Francis, B.£., Belfast
Alderdice, W. W., 9 Malone Park, do.
Allworthy, S. W., m.p., Manor House, Antrim Road, do.

* Anderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. (Representatives of),
Holywood, Co. Down

aAnderson, Frank, Tavanagh Weaving Company, Ltd., Portadown
aAndrews, M. C., F.R.G.S., F.R.8.G.8., 17 University

Square, Belfast
aArmstrong, E. C. R., M.R.1.4., National Museum, Dublin
Andrew, John J., L.D.S., R.¢.S.Eng., 23 University

Square, Belfast
aAndrews, Miss Elizabeth, 12 College Gardens, do.
Armstrong, William, Thronemount, do.
aAtkinson, Arthur S., Dromana, Knockdene Park, do.
Baird, Major William, Royal Avenue, do.
Bigger, Francis J., M.R.1.A., Ardrigh, Antrim Road, do.
aBlackwood, W. B., Ebony Grange, Deramore ParkS., do.
aBlake, R. F., F.1.c., 4 Knock Road, do.
Boyd, Thornton, Blackstaff Spinning Company, do.
*Boyd, J. St. Clair, M.D. (Representatives of), do.
Boyd, John, San Remo, Holland Park, Neill’s Hill, do.

Brandon, H. B., J.p., Rosemount House, Antrim Road, do.
aBrett, Sir Charles H., Gretton Villa, South, Malone Road, do.

aBrett, Rev. Canon, M.A., Montrose, Fortwilliam Park, do.
aBristow, James R., M.A., Prospect, Dunmurry
Bristow, John, 9 Wellington Place, Belfast
aBurrowes, W. B., Ballynafeigh House, Ravenhill Road, do.
Byers, Prof. Sir John W., M.A., M.D., Lower Crescent, do.

*Brown, George B., Lisnamaul, Ormeau Road, do,

94 Shareholders and Members

Campbell, A. A., Drumnaferrie, Rosetta Park, Belfast
*Campbell, Miss Anna (Representatives of), do.
Campbell, John, Innishowen, Donegall Park, do.
aCarmody, Rev. Canon, M.A., The Rectory, Lisburn
Carr, A. H. R., 224 Donegall Place, Belfast
aCarter, C. S., 29 Cedar Avenue, do.
aCarter, H. R., 19 Mountcharles, do.
*Charley, Phineas H., Mornington Park, Bangor, Co. Down
*Christen, Mrs. Rodolphe, St. Imier, Brig of Cairn, Ballater, N.B.
Clark, Sir George S., Bart., D.u., Dunlambert, Belfast
Clarke, E. H., Notting Hill, do.
Crawford, Sir William, J.p., Mount Randall do.
Corbett, Miss K. M., Ardsallagh, Derryvolgie Avenue, do.
Combe, Barbour & Co., Ltd., do.
aCunningham, Right Hon. S., Fern Hill, Ballygomartin

Road, do.
Davies, A. C., Lenaderg House, Banbridge, Co. Down
aDeane, Arthur, Municpal Art Gallery and Museum,

Royal Avenue Belfast

*Deramore, Lord, D.L.

Dixon, Professor, M.A., SC.D., F.R.S., St. Ives, Bladon Drive,
Belfast

*Donegall, Marquis of (Representatives of), do.

*Downshire, Marquis of, The Castle, Hillsborough, Co. Down

Duffin, Adam, LL.D., J.p., Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast

Dunleath, Lord, Ballywalter Park, Ballywalter, Co. Down

Ewart, G. Herbert, M.A., J.p., Firmount, Antrim Road, Belfast

Ewart, Fred W., M.A., B.L., Derryvolgie, Lisburn

Ewart, Sir Win. Quartus, Bart., M.A., J.P., D.L.
(Representatives of), Glenmachan House, Belfast

Elhott, E. J.. The Towers, Donegall Park Avenue, do.

aFaren, William, 454 Waring Street, do.

Shareholders and Members 95

*Fenton, Francis G., Paris
aFerguson, G. W., 6.E., J.P., Carnamenagh, Antrim Road, Belfast
Finlay, Fred W., Mrs., Wolfhill House, Ligoniel, Belfast
Finlay, Robert H. F., 66 Eglantine Avenue, do.
Finnegan, John M., B.A., B.SC., 23 Botanic Avenue, do.
aFrazer, Kenneth W., Hillmount, Cullybackey
Fulton, G. F., Arlington, Windsor Avenue, Belfast
Gamble, James, Broadway Damask Co., Ltd., do.
*Getty, Edmund (Representatives of), do.
Gibson, Andrew, F.R.S.A.1., Fairfield, Lansdowne Road, do.
Gibson, W. K., 16 Chichester Street, do.
Gordon, Malcolm, Dunarnon, University Road, do.
aGreen, W. A., 4 Salisbury Avenue, do.
aGreeves, F. M., Garranard, Strandtown
aGreeves, Joseph M., Bernagh, Circular Road, do.
aGreeves, Arthur, Altona, do.
aGreeves, John Theo., Nendrum, Knock
aGreeves, W. Leopold, Rockfield, Dundonald
*Hall, Frederick H., Waterford
Hamilton, Rev. Thomas; D.D., LuL.D., Vice-Chancellor,

Queen’s University, Belfast
*Hamilton, Hill, J.P. (Representatives of), do.

Harland, Capt. W.. 38 Chester Ter., Chester Sq., London, S.W.
aHenry, Professor R. M., M.A., M.R.1.A., Crosshill,

Windsor Avenue North, Belfast
aHenry, T. W., Greenbank, Mountpleasant, do.
Herdman, E. C., Carricklee House, Strakane
Herdman, F. S., Antrim Road, Belfast.
*Herdman, Robert Ernest, J.P., Merrouhurst, Craigavad,

Co. Down
aHewton, John, M.P.s.1., Ava Buildings, 315 Ormeau Rd., Belfast
Heyn, James A. M., Head Line Buildings, do.

aHill, Dr., 46 Pound Street, Larne

96 Shareholders and Members

Hind, John, jun., 22 Cliftonville Road, Belfast
aHyde, James J., 36 Bedford Street, do.
aHogg, A. R., 10 Thorndale Avenue, do.

Hodges, Miss, 12 Trebovir Road, Earlscourt, London, 8.W., 5
Horner, John (Representatives of), Drum-na-Coll,

Antrim Road, Belfast
*Houston, John Blakiston, D.L., J.P., Orangefield, do.
*Hnghes, Edwin (Representatives of), Craigavad, Co. Down
Hunter, William, J.P., Fortwilliam Villas, Belfast
Jaffe, Sir Otto, J.p., LL.D., Kin Edar, Strandtown, do.
aJaffe, W., 10 Donegall Square South, do.
Johnston, Samuel A., J.p., Dalriada, Whiteabbey, Co. Antrim
aJury, P. M., Brooklands, Dunmurry

*Kinghan, John R,, Windsor Avenue (Representatives of), Belfast

Kyle, Robert Alexander, 15 Wellington Park, do.
Laird, Professor J., 4 Cranmore Gardens, do.
Larmor, Sir Joseph, M.A., D.SC., LL.D., F.R.A.S., SEC. R.S.,

St. John’s College, Cambridge
aLawlor, H. C., M.R.1.4., 8 Windsor Avenue, Belfast

aLepper, R. S., M.A., F.R.AIST.S., Elsinore, Carnalea, Co. Down
aLett, Rev. Canon, M.R.1.A., Aghaderg Glebe, Lough-

brickland, do.
Lindsay, Professor James A., M.A., M.D., Queen’s Elms, Belfast
aLindsay, W. A., M.p., Tyrone House, do.
aLoewenthal, John, Lennoxvale, Malone Road, do.
*Macrory, A. J. (Representatives of), do.
Magill, John E., Eversley, Whitehead
aMackie, James, J.P., Hazelbank, . Whitehouse
Malcolm, Bowman, M.1.C.E., M.1.M.E., Inver, Ashley Park,

Antrim Road, Belfast

Maxton, James, M.I.N.A., M.I.MAR.E., 6 Kirkliston Drive,
Bloomfield, do,

Shareholders and Members 97

aMay, Robert, 40 Hopefield Avenue, Belfast
Mayes, William, 12 Deramore Park South, do.
Metcalfe, A. W., Hawthornden House, Hawthornden Rd. do.
Milligan, A., 4 Cooke Street, do.
Mitchell, Robert A., LL.B., T.c.D., Marmount, Strandtown, do.
aMontgomery, Miss E., 26 College Green, do.
aMontgomery, H. C., Ballyholme House, Bangor, Co. Down
aMontgomery, H. H., 17 Malone Park, Belfast
Moore, James, J.P., Finaghy House, Dunmurry
Morton, Professor W. B., M.A., Glencarse, Nottinghill, Belfast
Muir, A. H., 7 Donegall Square West, do.
Mullan, William, Lindisfarne, Marlborough Park, do.
*Murphy, Isaac James (Representatives of), Armagh
*Murphy, Joseph John (Representatives of), Belfast
*Musgrave, Henry, D.L., Drumelass, Malone, do.
aMacalister, Professor, R.A.S., D.LITT., M.A., 18 Mount

Eden Road, Donnybrook, Dublin
McBride, A. H., Ormeau Avenue, Belfast
*McCalmont, Robert (Representatives of), London

*McCammon, Thos. P. (Representatives of), Plaisted,
Woodville, Holywood, County Down.

aMcCoy, B., 84 Smithfield Belfast
MacColl, Hector, 4 Kirkliston Drive, Bloomfield, do.
*McCracken, Francis (Representatives of),
aMacready, H. L., 104 Myrtlefield Park, do.
aMcGowan, Thomas, 73 Ann Street, Belfast
Macllwaine, Dr. John E., 26 College Gardens, do.
McKisack, H. L., M.p., Chlorine Place, do.
*MacLaine, Alexander, J.P., Queen’s Elms

(Representatives of), do.
McLaughlin, W. H., D.L., J.P., Macedon, Belfast
MacKenzie, Dr. W. G., 6 University Square, do.
aMcMeekin, Adam, J.P., Cogry House, Doagh
McNeill, George, 12 Deramore Park, Belfast

*O’Rorke, Mrs., Tudor Park, Holywood, County Down

98 Shareholders and M. embers

Orr, Hugh L., 17 Garfield Street (Representatives of), Belfast

aQOsborne, T. Edens, Wellington Place, do.
Patterson, Edward Ferrar, 17 Talbot Street, do.
Patterson, Mrs. David C., Glenard, Holywood, County Down
Patterson, John F., 2 Mountcharles, Belfast

Patterson, Robert, M.R.1.A., F.Z.S., M.B.0.U., Glenbank, Holywood
Patterson, William H. F., Auburn, Warren Road, Donaghadee
Pim, E. W. (the late), Ivy Lodge, Knockbreda Park, Belfast

aRiddell, Henry, M.E., M.I.M.E., 64 Great Victoria Street, do.
aRoden, Countess of, Tullymore Park, Newcastle, County Down

Sefton, Burton, 20 Bedford Street, Belfast
Sinclair, Prof. Thomas, M.D., F.R.¢.S., Eng., University Sq , do.
aSinclair, Thomas, J.P., Castle Lane, do.
Sinclair, John, Mount Donard, Windsor Park, do.
aSkillen, Joseph, The Lisnagarvey Linen Co., Lisburn
Steen, William, B.L., Roseberry, Marlborough Park, Belfast
aStevenson, John, Coolavon, Malone Road, do.
Stirling, James H., Ardanreagh, Windsor Avenue, do.
aSteel, Samuel, Millbrook, Larne
aStendall, Sidney, Museum, College Square North, Belfast
Stelfox, Arthur W., A.R.1.B.4., Ballymagee, Bangor, Co. Down
Swanston, William, F.G.s., Farm Hill, Dunmurry

aSymmers, Professor W. St. Clair, Queen’s University, Belfast

aTaylor, James, 6 Royal Avenue - : do.
*Tennent, Robert (Representative of), Rushpark, do.
*Tennent, Robert James (Representative of), Rushpark, do.
aThompson, Edward, Prospect Mills, _ do.
Thompson, John, J.p., Mounteollyer, Malone Road, do.
Torrens, Mrs. S. (c/o T. H. Torrens, Edenmore), Whiteabbey
*Turnley, Francis, Drumnasole, Carnlough

aWalker, Franklin M., Mount Royal,: Whitehead

Shareholders and Members 99

*Webb, Richard (Representative of), Knock, Belfast
aWhite, J. C., Right Hon., J.p., Lord Mayor of Belfast, Craigavad
Whitla, Prof. Sir William, M.P., M.D., J.P., Lennoxvale, Belfast
Wilson, Prof. Gregg, M.A., PH.D., D.SC., M.R.I.A., Queen’s

Uuiversity, do.
aWilson, Fergus 8., Crofton Hall, Holywood
aWilson, George, 17 Bedford Street, Belfast
a* Wilson, Alec., J.P., M.R.1.A., Croglin, Ballyaughlis, Co. Down
*Wilson, W. Percival (Representative of), Belfast
*Wolff, G. W. (Representatives of), do.
Workman, Francis, The Moat, Strandtown, do.
Workman, John, J.p., Lismore, Windsor Avenue do.

Workman, Rev. Robert, m.A., Crusheen, Cadogan Park, do.
*Workman, T. (Representative of),

Workman, W., 8 Corporation Street, Belfast
Wright, Joseph, F.c.s., 10 May Street, do.
a*Young, Robert Magill, M.A., J.P., M.R.1.A4; Rathvarna, do.

HONORARY ASSOCIATES.

Foster, Nevin H., M.R.1.A., F.L.S., Hillsborough, County Down
Swanston, William, F.c.s., Farm Hill, Dunmurry
Wright, Joseph, F.c.s., May Street, Belfast

ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF TWO GUINEAS.

Belfast Banking Company, Ltd., Belfast
- Northern Banking Company, Ltd., do.
Ulster Bank, Ltd., do.

[The Hon. Secretary will be obliged by shareholders and
members notifying him in the event of change of address, or those
whose names are incorrectly set out. Address:—The Museum,
College Square North, Belfast. |

BRITISH

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Mi US. UM

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“PROCEEDINGS,

acs SESSION 1919- 1920.
- Lth and 12th November, 1919.

-Nowri OF IRELAND DURING THE
eS CLACIAL PERIOD.
RTHUR R DWERRYHOUSE, DSc, M RIA, PGS, :

ee - Lectur er im Geology, aus University Belfast.

ueTeATIONS | IN THE FOREIGN
EXcHGES
ROFESSOR F. T. LLOYD-DODD, M.A, D.So. —

of Commer ce Depar ie Municipal Technical Institute, Belfast. . .* me

\} BELFAST: Fone

Proceedings of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society 1919-1920 (1).

11th November, 1919.

Councillor HENRY Ripper, M.E., M.I.M.E., in the Chair.

THE NORTH OF IRELAND DURING THE
GLACIAL PERIOD.

By ARTHUR R. DwerRRyYHOUSE, D.Sc., M.R.I.A., F.G.S.,
Lecturer in Geology, Queen's University, Belfast.

(Abstract).

The subject was introduced by a description of the traces
left by the passage of ice-sheets over a country.

The scratches and grooves impressed upon rock surfaces
were illustrated and their importance as records of the direction
of movement was discussed.

The deposits formed by glaciers next received attention,
and these were divided into (a) Boulder Clay, an unstratified
clay with striated stones, many foreign to the district in which
they now rest; and (b) stratified clays, sands and gravels
accumulated by the action of the running water associated with
ice. ‘The Boulder Clay occurs either in sheets of irregular
thickness or in slightly elongated ridges with smooth contours,
such as those which are so common in County Down, and known
as drumlins. The stratified clays are lake deposits formed in
standing water near the ice-margin, and the sands and gravels
consist of coarse materials, lying in sheets or fans, accumulated
under somewhat similar conditions, or in long tortuous ridges,
called Eskers, the product of streams of water flowing in tunnels
in or beneath the ice.

Accumulations of clay, stones and sand which are formed
along the margins of an icelobe, are known as moraines and
serve to indicate the limits of the ice at its maximum extension
and at various stages of its retreat.

The stones which are carried by the ice for long distances
from the parent rock are called Erratics, and serve to indicate

2 Arthur R. Dwerryhouse on

the main direction of ice flow. These are extremely plentiful
over the district under consideration, and several, including the
Clogh More near Rostrevor, were shown upon the screen.

Attention was next directed to the effect of ice-sheets upon
the ordinary drainage of the country, and it was shown that the
advance of a glacier might interrupt the normal flow of rivers
and cause them to form lakes, which, by their overflow, might
cut channels or gorges in the rocks.. When the ice had retreated
and the lakes been drained, these gorges were left as permanent
records of the levels of the water, and consequently of the
former position of the ice-front.

In certain cases the overflow stream remained in the
temporary channel after the retreat of the ice, thus producing a
permanent diversion of the drainage. Examples of this were
cited in the case of the Bush River and the streams in Glen Aan
and Glen Dun, all in County Antrim.

The lecturer then described his investigations of the glaciation

of the North of Ireland and first referred to the distribution of ©

erratics as being the most trustworthy indication of the direction
of ice movement. In every assemblage of erratics there were
always some of which the origin was difficult or impossible to
determine, but there were usually others with such striking
characters that they could be identified readily. The most
useful of these in the district under consideration were the
fine-grained granite of Ailsa Craig in the Firth of Clyde, and
the granites and pyroxenic rocks of an area extending from
Slieve Gallion in County Tyrone to the neighbourhood of Omagh,
while in the immediate neighbourhood of Belfast, the rhyolites
which occur at Tardree and at several other places on the
Antrim Plateau, were of considerable use.

Some of the more important deposits of Glacial age and the
drainage channels and lake-terraces of the district were then
described and their bearing on the glaciation of the country was
explained.

The North of Ireland during the Glacial Period. 3

The conclusions at which the lecturer had arrived as the

result of his work in the North of Ireland were as follow :—
(a) The district was first glaciated by ice which came down
the Firth of Clyde from the Scottish Highlands, over-rode the
whole of the Counties of Antrim and Down, extended at least as
far inland as the south-west corner of Lough Neagh, and passed
over the Mourne and Carlingford Mountains and so into the
Irish Sea.

(b) At a slightly later stage ice from the mountainous
regions to the west and north of Lough Neagh advanced into
the lowlands bringing with it boulders of the granites and
pyroxenic rocks of the Sheve Gallion area, and gradually pushing
back the Scottish ice.

The western ice-sheet passed south eastward across the
head of the Belfast valley by way of Moira and Hillsborough,
and so out to sea at Newcastle. It formed a continuous sheet
away to the south-west as far as the central plain of Ireland.

A portion of the western ice also flowed into Lough Neagh
and thence northwards by way of the valley of the Lower Bann
as far as Coleraine, but it did not reach the eastern shore of
Lough Neagh except in the extreme South, being held u) by the
Scottish ice, which though in retreat still occupied that part of
the area in sufficient force to hold up the flow from the West.

It would thus appear that the Scottish and Western ice-
sheets were to some extent contemporaneous, and that no
lengthy period elapsed between the two glaciations, as has been
held by some geologists.

The lecture was illustrated by lantern-slides, maps and
relief models of the Belfast District, and the lecturer answered
‘several interesting questions put by members of the audience.
The meeting terminated with a hearty vote of thanks to the
lecturer.

21st November, 1919.

The President, Professor GREGG WILSON, in the Chair.

FLUCTUATIONS IN THE FOREIGN EXCHANGES.

By Professor F. T. LLoyp-Dopp, M.A., D.Sc.
Head of Commerce Department, Municipal Technical
Institute, Belfast.

To the ordinary individual the term “ Foreign Exchanges,”
if it conveys any impression at all, merely brings to mind mystic
columns of figures which appear periodically in the morning
newspaper. If his curiosity is still unsatisfied, he may turn up
the reference in the Encyclopaedia Britanica where it is defined
as “The system by which commercial nations discharge their
debt to each other.” Having read that, he feels that he knows
all that is worth knowing on the subject.

There is, however, a great deal more in it than that!
Foreign Exchange is admittedly a complex subject, and on the
surface is full of appalling pitfalls and intricacies to the unwary.
Once one has delved beneath the surface, he finds it an absorbing
and fascinating study. For those who have not either time or
inclination to study the subject deeply, it is possible, with little
difficulty, to grasp the principle on which foreign exchange is
based, so as to take an intelligent interest in exchange fluctua-
tions.

Stated briefiy, foreign exchange is the buying and selling of
the money of other countries. From our point of view, foreign
exchange is the business of exchanging foreign money into English
money ; and we would naturally expect that the exchange would
be carried out at a fixed ratio of so many dollars or franes for a
sovereign. But this is by no means the case. Money is a com-
modity, and like other commodities is subject to the law of supply
and demand. If there is a large supply of foreign money for sale,
with a small demand, the price goes down. Ifon the other hand
there is a small supply and a large demand, the price rises,

6 F. T. Lloyd-Dodd on

It is necessary for us to grasp, therefore, two things—(1)
the degree of intrinsic value that lies behind the currencies of
different countries ; and (2) the causes of the fluctuations in the
demand and supply of foreign money, which result in the
fluctations of the Foreign Exchanges.

With regard to the first, we find on examination that we can
group the currencies of the commercial countries of the world
into five classes :— .

1. Under the English system money carries the right of being
immediately turned into gold. Inthe United Kingdom sovereigns
are legal tender up to any amount, as are also Bank of England
notes. Bank of Ireland notes are legal tender in Ireland only.
Silver and copper are only token money, silver being legal tender
up to 40/- and copper up to 1/-.. If a Bank of England note is
presented to that Bank, it cannot meet it with another note, but
must pay sovereigns against it. So that normally all the money
we use, except our small change, consists either of gold or of
paper that can be unquestionably turned into gold. I used the
word normally because the use of Currency Notes as a temporary
war measure is a deviation from the usual system.

2. In the second class we may place the currencies of the
so-called gold standard countries, under which money can be
converted into gold when it is convenient to the Central banks of
these countries. German currency is an example of this class.
In theory the notes of the Reichsbank can be turned into
gold on demand. In practice they cannot except when it is
convenient to Germany. In France the Bank of France can meet
its notes in five frane pieces. In the United States “gold
certificates ” can be turned into gold, but there is an enormous
amount of American paper money which does not possess this
right, while silver dollars are legal tender up to any amount. The
American banks keep the gold certificates in hand as far as
possible, and meet demands on them in other forms of legal
tender. So that if it does not suit the convenience of American
bankers to permit gold to leave the country, they can practically
refuse it, and still meet their legal obligations,

Fluctuations in the Foreign Exchanges. rf

3. Thirdly, there are certain countries such as India, Japan,
Mexico, Brazil, and the Argentine, which have a semi-gold
standard They will issue silver or paper currency against gold,
but have no obligations to convert the silver or paper currency
into gold on demand. Such countries usually take measures to
keep the exchange value of their currency at or near the legal
ratio. Thus India maintains balances in London, so that the
Jovernment can supply English money, when the demand for it
in India becomes so great, as to depress the purchasing power of
the rupee to too great an extent.

4. Fourthly, there are the few silver standard countries of
which China is the only important example, and lastly,

5. There are the few purely paper money countries where
gold is simply dealt with as ordinary merchandise, and always
stands at a premium.

We see then that the intrinsic value behind the currencies of
different countries varies considerably. Gold is the international
medium of exchange—acceptable everywhere—and while the
notes of a country are perfectly serviceable in that country, they
are useless for international trade. It is for this reason that the
gold-backing of a country’s currency has such an important
influence on its foreign exchange.

Having considered thus briefly the money of different
countries, which is the subject matter of the Foreign Exchanges,
we must now see how demand for the money of one country
arises in another. A claim for money between nations arises in
exactly the same way as between individuals. An individual may
be regarded as exporting the services, which he renders, in his
business or profession, and for which he is paid in money. He
imports the food, shelter, clothing, amusements, and all the
luxuries and necessaries of life which he enjoys, and pays for them
by cheque or cash. At the end of the year, if he has kept careful
accounts, he can see what he has received, how he has spent it,
and the exact amount of his balance, or overdraft, as the case
may be,

i.e)

F. T. Lloyd-Dodd on

The matter is more complicated in the case of nations. In
any individual pair of trading nations, there are at any time
hundreds of individuals buying and selling commodities and
services, which it is difficult to record. It is this very difficulty
of tracing the exchange of goods and services which is part of the
fascination of the study of foreign exchange. The most carefully
compiled records of a nation’s income and expenditure always
leaves a margin of what must be, at the best, estimated statistics.
The monthly returns of the Board of Trade give us the figures of
our exports and imports, and these figures, though as accurate as
they possibly can be made, yet for various causes leave a margin
of error. These figures, in hundreds of thousands, for 1913.

were :—
1913. Food, Drink Raw Manufactured
& Tobaeco Material Articles
Imports -26) 23902 2,818 1,930
Exports OF 326 699 4,114

Taking the totals, and allowing for the re-export of foreign
and colonial produce, we find that for that year our imports,
which are much larger in the case of England than in that of any
other country, exceeded our exports by £133,900,000. This
huge excess of imports is at first sight alarming. It forms what
the older economists would have called an adverse balance of
trade, and in their view would indicate that the country was
rapidly approaching bankruptcy. Two explanations at once
present themselves. In 1913, we either received goods worth
roughly 134 millions more in value than the goods we gave in
exchange—the difference being clear profit—or we paid for the
difference in gold. The first explanation, if true, would be very
comforting, but unfortunately the other countries have not con-
spired to kill us with kindness and to give us £134,000,000
worth of goods for nothing. Nor did we pay this difference in
gold, for the Board of Trade returns show that we imported
rather more bullion than we exported. <A third and more serious
explanation then presents itself—that the balance was not paid

Fluctuations in the Foreign Exchanges. 9

for, but owed. In this case we would be exporting promises to
pay, which would mean that we were either raising loans abroad
or that other nations were investing in our securities. Though it
is difficult to get accurate figures, yet there can be no doubt that
in 1913 our income from foreign securities was much greater, on
balance, than the amount paid out to foreigners holding our
securities. Sir George Paish, the editor of the “ Statist,” whose
figures are usually exceedingly accurate, calculated that about
that period we were actually increasing our holding of foreign and
colonial securities at the rate of about 160 million pounds a year.
The third explanation, therefore, falls to the ground.

It is evident then, that there must be some other explanation
of the excess of imports, and the matter looks less alarming when
we find that most other nations also import more than they
export. The real explanation lies in the fact that the mutual
relations of nations, particularly when the intercourse is of long
standing, is not all comprised in the actual exchange of com-
modities. Exports and imports are but one element, though a
very important one, in the sum total of the commercial trans-
actions. In order to understand the exact position of a country,
we must consider not merely the equation of reciprocal demand,
but rather the equation of indebtedness between countries. It
is not equivalence of exports and imports that constitutes a
stable condition in trade, but the equivalence in the sum of
debts due to a country and that of debts due by it. In examining
this equation of indebtedness we are simply considering the
various Debtor and Creditor items in a country’s balance sheet.
These items may best be arranged in the following order :——

1. To Exports and Imports, formerly considered the sole
items of the balance sheet, we may give the first place. A
country is clearly Dr. to other countries for the value of its
imports, and Cr. to other countries for the value of its Exports.

2. Next a country is Cr. for all services done by its ships
and traders to other countries. Ships employed in carrying for

10 F. T. Lloyd-Dodd on

foreigners are what is called an invisible export, and might
almost be classed under the first head. On the other hand a
country is Dr. for services rendered it by foreign ships and
traders. When we consider that Britain in 1913 did about
one-half of the ocean carrying trade of the world, the importance
of this item can be realised.

3. The third item on the balance sheet is loans and invest-
ments. Almost every country in the world is a borrower or a
lender. When a country contracts a loan, the lending country
is Dr. for the time being until the loan is carried out, and the
borrower is paid. The borrower exports securities or promises
to pay, and imports in return the goods or services required.

4, The annual Interest on Capital already invested acts in
the opposite direction. The Investing Country is Cr. and the
Borrowing Country Dr. We may regard the lender as exporting
“Coupons” and the borrower has to export goods to meet them.

5. Repayment of aloan previously incurred acts in the same
way as interest on the loan while outstanding. ‘The receiving
country is Cr. and the repaying country Dr. We may take it
generally that young countries, such as Canada which have not
yet fully developed their railways, towns, and lands, are borrowers,
while older countries, with accumulated capital are lenders.

6. The next item is a minor one compared with those
mentioned, but it still makes a considerable aggregate amount.
A country is Cr. for the earnings of its native merchants residing
abroad, so far as they are transmitted home. It is, of course, in
turn Dr. for the earnings of foreigners residing in the country.
It is scarcely necessary to separate from this item, the case of
foreigners or natives resident abroad transmitting money for
benevolent purposes. We have a good example of this in the
remittances sent home from Irish emigrants in U.S.A. and
elsewhere. |

7. The expenditure of a nation’s Government abroad, or of
its citizens travelling abroad, renders a country Dr. for such

Fluctuations in the Foreign Exchanges. 11

expenditure, and conversely it is Cr. for the expenditure of other
governments or of foreigners inside its territory—that is, of
course, as far as they derive their power of expenditure from
their native country.

8. Another type of international payment which is of special
interest at the present time is that of tribute or indemnity
payable by one country to another. The paying country is Dr.
and its receiving country is Cr. for such payments. Last of all
we may include a streamlet, which sometimes swells into a
respectable torrent, in the money carried with them by emigrants
and the amounts sent yearly to “remittance men” and other
undesirables. Of exactly the same nature is the drain of money
caused by the wealthy American heiresses who marry English
and European husbands, and draw yearly, large sums from the
United States as dowries. This “dowry drain,” as it has been
called, makes a fairly serious item in the American balance sheet.

Such then are the principal, but by no means the only items
that determine the balance of indebtedness. It is important to
fix the attention on the cardinal fact that the equation of
indebtedness is the condition to be satisfied in all solvent trade.
Equivalence of exports and imports may or may not exist. There
is no advantage or disadvantage in excess of either. A country
may be prosperous or the reverse in either case, but these are of
importance, because in general the exports and imports are the
most easily altered items in the account, and an adjustment in
the balance of indebtedness will take place through them. An
unfavourable balance will be discharged, in most cases, by a
reduction of imports or by an increase of exports, or by
a combination of both processes.

We have now to consider in what manner the indebtedness
created through the several elements named is discharged. There
are several alternative methods. Payments may be made in gold,
or commodities to the value of the debt may be shipped. In
practice, however, we find that debts are discharged by means of

12 F. T. Lloyd-Dodd on

Bills—Foreign Bills of Exchange. Let us take a very simple
example to illustrate the manner in which this is effected —

LONDON. . PARIS.
AS a
v 4
Dic C

Suppose a merchant “A” in London buys goods value £500
from a merchant ‘B” in Paris; and suppose another man “C ”
in Paris buys goods worth £500 from “D” in London. “B”
now draws a Bill of Exchange on “ A” for £500, and sells it to
“Cc.” -“C” transmits the Bill to ““D” in settlement of his
account, and “A” pays “D” the amount on presentution. Thus
two transactions are settled by the one Bill of Exchange without
the necessity of shipping gold from one country to the other.

In this example we have presumed individual traders, but
individuals may be taken as types of classes. The relations
between these classes are carried out by intermediate dealers who
make foreign exchanges their special business. The exporter of
commodities sells his Bill to a broker, who in turn sells it to an
importer for the purpose of being transmitted to a foreign country
in payment for goods.

So far we have only noted the principle of indebtedness, but
other complicating circumstances are at work. Bills are drawn
hourly, for different periods of time, by persons of varying degrees
of credit, and as a necessary consequence these influences are
shown in the market price of Bills. Again, each country has its
own peculiar currency system, so there is the necessity of
measuring the value of a Bill expressed in one currency in terms
of another. This difference of currencies is perplexing, and
renders calculations more difficult, but it does not create the
system of foreign exchange, which arises from the principle of
indebtedness and the cost of transmitting money from one place
to another.

Owing to the difference in currencies we require a fixed
standard or ratio to enable us to express money of one country in

Fluctuations in the Foreign Exchanges. be

terms of the money of another. This ratio is called the “ Mint
Par of Exchange,” and depends on the intrinsic value of the
currency. The value of the currency unit is taken to depend on
the quantity of pure metal it contains as fixed by law, and the
mint par tells us how much of the currency of the other country
contains the identical quantity of the same pure metal. Thus, for
example, the value of 2,000 new sovereigns is legally the same as
the value of the gold in 2,522 Napoleons, which gives us the value
of £1 Os. Od. = 25-22 franes, and this is the French Mint par of
Exchange. In the same way the United States Mint par is
£1 =4:-86 dollars, The importance of the Mint par lies in the
fact that as the exchange frequently fluctuates above or below
par, we can only tell whether the rate is for or against us by
knowing the par, which is the centre about which it oscillates.
The rate of exchange is very seldom at par, but rises above
or falls below it, according to the variation in the demand and
supply of bills. These varying rates in the currency of one
country which may be obtained for a fixed amount in the
currency of another form is what is called the Course of Exchange.
Or putting it more simply, the Course of Exchange is the price
list at which Bills of Exchange on different countries are selling
at a particular time. ‘The first thing that strikes one about the
Course of Exchange as published in the daily papers, is the fact
that most of the quotations are in foreign money, expressing the
amount of foreign money payable, at the current rate, for one
sovereign. This arises from the fact that the bulk of our
transactions are settled by Bills drawn abroad. Owing to the
magnitude of our trade, the stability of our currency in normal
times, the facility with which credit could be obtained there and
other contributing causes, London became the settling place of
Europe and the world; and the seller of a good Bill on London
is always sure of a buyer at a good price. The foreign importer,
too, would rather pay for imports by remitting, than by allowing
us to draw on him, because the price to be paid depends partly
on his own success in bargaining. This arrangement also seems

14 F. T. Lloyd-Dodd on

to suit our merchants, because the drawing and negotiating of a
foreign Bill requires a knowledge of the Exchanges which they
do not always possess. As a result the settlement of our foreign
trade is largely effected by Bills of Exchange which are drawn
and negotiated abroad, and accepted and paid in London.

This adds a further complication, because it is necessary to
view the Exchange from the foreign standpoint. An increase of
price is not usually desired by the buyer of an article, but in the
case of the foreign exchanges an increase in the rate means that
more foreign money is given for a sovereign.

In the example which we took the debts were equal and
exchange would be at par, but what if they are admittedly
unequal? What happens if more bills are wanted than are
‘offered for sale? Naturally the price rises. As buyers find that
there are not enough bills to go round, they bid against one
another, and the price goes to a premium. As soon as the price
advances sufficiently other means of remittance become available
in the form of Bankers’ Drafts. If the demand still continues,
the balances on which the banker draws become exhausted, so he
must find some way of covering his draft by remittance. What
he does is to buy bills on other countries, send them to his cor-
respondents there, and request that they will remit for his
account in London. So long as suitable bills on other countries
are obtainable, the rise in the London rate will be held in check,
but as they grow scarcer the price must rise, with the result that
the Exchanges of other countries are set moving in the same
direction. The general rule of Kuropean exchange movements is
that the exchanges all rise together or fall together. If the de-
mand for Bills on London continues, the cost of covering drafts
increases, and finally we reach the stage when it is cheaper to
send gold than to buy Bills of Exchange. This point is called the
Export Gold Point, and for France is 25:32. A Gold Point is
simply the point above or below the par of Exchange at which it
becomes cheaper to remit gold, paying the cost of carriage and
insurance, than to buy Bills of Exchange.

Fluctuations in the Foreign Exchanges. 15

Once the circumstances of a rise in the exchanges are clearly
understood, those of a fall present no difficulty. Slackening of
demand or increase of supply forces down the price. The drop is
limited by the anxiety of exchange dealers to pick up bargains.
If the drop is continuous, we arrive at the opposite extreme when
London paper becomes so cheap that it pays to use it to buy gold
at the Bank of England and transmit it to France. The rate at
which this will happen for France is 25-12, which is called the
Import Gold Point.

Many economists would have us believe that the Gold Points
are fixed, and that the rate of exchange cannot rise or fall
beyond the Gold Points without a movement in gold. In practice
however this is not so. The Gold export point for Germany is
theoretically 20 Marks 48 pfennings. In 1907 the Exchange
touched 20 Marks 60 pfennings, and in November 1912 stood
for some weeks about 20 Marks 53 pfennings without in either
case any gold being sent to London. And the same thing occurs
occasionally in other countries, which is simply an illustration of
the power of the State Banks to prevent export of gold when it
is not convenient.

The ordinary rate of exchange, then, simply depends on the
balance of indebtedness between countries, and rises and falls
according to the demand for Bills. In certain of the Exchanges
this is subject to seasonal fluctuations. Thus in the case of the
United States there are usually large amounts owing to it in
the autumn, when cotton and cereals are shipped and sold
abroad. At other times of the year it usually has to make
remittances to meet the interest on foreign loans and investments.
As a result there is a regular ebb and flow in the fluctuations,
and during the last five months of the year the Exchange is in
favour of America, and against it in the first seven.

Apart from such seasonal fluctuations the rise or fall of the
rate of exchange presents a problem which is difficult to solve.
A rate of exchange is the combined result of a variety of facts
and forces, which are so complex and so numerous, as to render

16 F. T. Lloyd-Dodd on

it difficult for us to measure exactly the influence of each. In
most cases the best explanation we can give of an exchange
movement, is to settle upon one or perhaps two prominent causes
which we know to be at work, and to theorize about the
remainder. The question turns on the interaction of supply
and demand, and I would like to remind you here that it must be
viewed from the foreign standpoint. ‘So far as our exchange is
concerned it is the supply of bills drawn on London, as compared
with the demand for such bills, that controls the rate of exchange.
These bills mainly arise from (a) Trade Transactions (b) Stock
Exchange Transactions and (c) Banking Transactions. Bills are
drawn on London against our trade imports, against securities
owned by foreigners and sold in London, or securities bought
abroad by Englishmen ; against loans made to foreign Govern-
ments, railways or companies, and interest on money borrowed
abroad; against bankers’ credits; and for arbitrage and
speculative transactions. The greater the supply of these bills,
the more the exchange moves against us. On the other hand,
there is a demand for these bills by foreigners, in order to pay
for our exports of goods to them, for freight, brokerage, and
commission ; for securities bought in London for foreign account
or sold abroad for London account; for interest ou loans, and
dividends on foreign securities held here; for the creation of
new bank credits or to cover drafts; to pay for arbitrage and
speculative transactions, and for investments. The greater the
demand for bills to make such payments, the more the exchange
will move in our favour. You can see, however, that with such
a variety of payments outwards and inwards, and with such a
complexity of influences on supply and demand, it is difficult
always, and sometimes impossible, to account accurately for the
fluctuations in the Foreign Exchange.

One other influence on the rate of exchange should be
noticed, and that is the Discount Rate. _A low rate of discount
in this country, as compared with that prevailing abroad will set
the Exchanges moving against us; whereas a comparatively high

Fluctuations in the Foreign Exchanges. ines

rate influences them in our favour. We may divide all bills
roughly into two classes—Finance Bills and Commercial Bills.
Both of these classes are affected by the Discount Rate, but of
the two, Finance Bills respond more rapidly, and to a greater
extent, to alterations in the Rate than do Commercial Bills. If
we take the simple form of a Finance Bill—that made by an
operator abroad who wishes to raise money, and does so by
drawing on a correspondent here, and selling the draft so created,
the cash price he will get for the draft in his local market will
depend largely on the current rate of discount here, where the
bill is payable. When the London discount rate is comparatively
low, finance bills can be drawn on us to greater advantage, and
consequently will be drawn in greater volume. A rise in our
discount rates will limit, and may temporarily stop, the drawing
of such bills. The volume of commercial bills is not so readily
influenced, but it zs influenced all the same by the discount rate.
Holders of Bills will wish to secure the extra margin of profit
afforded by a low discount rate, and consequently the supply
offered for sale increases, with the inevitable result that the
price falls. A rise in the discount rate results in bills being
held back for better terms, so that the supply on the market is
lessened and this moves the exchange in our favour.

I have used the terms “in our favour” and “against us,”
and these require explanation. The American par of exchange
is £1 = $4-86 that is £100 = $486, so that we may take it goods
worth £100 are equal in value to goods worth $486. If the
exchange stands at 4:87 or 4:88 it is said to be in our favour.
But it only favours those who have to make payments in U.S.A.,
i.e., British Importers,—as they can pay for goods worth $487 or
$488 instead of for goods worth $486 only, with £100. It is
unfavourable for those who have to receive payments, i.e., British
Exporters—because they will receive less than £100 for $486
worth of goods sold. Again, when the exchange is against us, as
at present, importers who have bought $486 worth of goods have
to pay more than £100 for them, while exporters who have
sold goods to that amount receive more than £100; Thus an

18 F. T, Lloyd-Dodd on

unfavourable exchange tends to encourage exportation, and
discourage importation, and thus automatically adjust the rate
of exchange.

The state of the American exchange is engaging the anxious
attention of many at present. We have already seen that the
par of exchange with U.S.A. is £1=$4:86. The steady down-
ward movement of the exchange is shown by the following
figures :—

1919. Aug. 1 4:35 Oct. 1 4:18 Nov. 15 4-104
a pee 28 Seti eaAwles . 17 s4083
Sept. 1 4:19 Nov. 1 4-162 5. 219 3204

ra US ad by oO Sato

The immediate cause of this drop lies in the recent financial
upheavals in Great Britain and the United States. The root
cause, however, lies in the balance of indebtedness between the
two countries.

Let us compare the balances, at least as far as concerns
exports and imports for the years 1913 and 1918.

VALUE OF EXPORTS AND IMPORTS IN £&
(00,000 omitted).
Twelve Months ended December 31st.

1913. and Tobad Miteiai. ARR cao eee
Imports <525-' 290;,2 281,8 193,0 et
Beports | > B88 69.94) eats be ooeamiee or
1918.

Imports: ... “572,71 458,9 PHO Ze! Pol iss \ .
Exports... 12.1 60.8) 407 Gane ieee

The contrast between the figures is striking. While our
imports in 1918 are almost double the amount of those of
1913, our exports under every heading have decreased. Making
allowance for the re-export of foreign and colonial produce, the
net result is that while in 1913 our imports exceeded our exports
by £133,9 millions, in 1918 the excess of imports was £790
millions. We saw that in 1913 the excess of imports of £1339
millions, represented interest due upon our foreign investments,

Fluctuations in the Foreign Exchanges. 19

and payments for our invisible exports in the services of our
ships and banks. During the war the greater part of our invest-
ments have been sold, and owing to the disorganised state of
international trade the return for the Banking services greatly
reduced. How then are we paying for that £790 millions worth
of excess of imports? A large part of it still represents payment
for the services of our ships, for though the tonnage is greatly
reduced, the freights are much higher. But what about the enor-
mous balance still unaccounted for? Our expenditure has exceeded
our income, and for a nation, as for an individual, that is a serious
matter. We have sold our securities abroad, and we are now
mortgaging our capital assets to pay for imports which we cannot
pay in exports. Worse still, we have raised enormous sums in
the United States and in neutral countries on Treasury Bills and
other short-dated securities. In the case of an individual we
would call them I.0.U.’s, but in National affairs the other term
sounds better, though they amount to the same thing. The
money raised in this way has been used by the Government to
pay for the goods it has bought in the United States and
elsewhere, or it has been lent to the banks which have re-lent it
to importers. In short, the excess of imports has been paid for
by borrowed money. We have, of course, lent large sums to
our Allies and to the Dominions ; but while many of their debts
to us are likely to prove “bad debts” our debts to others must
be made good. In any case, we have borrowed abroad much
more than we have lent, and there is a considerable balance of
foreign debt against us. We have changed from the position
of a Creditor nation to that of a Debtor, and it is only now
when the exchanges are set free to work on normal lines that we
are beginning to feel the serious effects.

Up to March last the Exchanges were regulated by our
Government so as to prevent them moving against us. During
the war we made heavy purchases of war material and supplies
from the United States and other countries, so that, on balance,
we were their debtors. As a result, the foreign exchanges
would move against us, and so, to prevent this the exchanges

20 F.T. Lloyd-Dodd on Fluctuations in the Foreign Exchanges.

were artifically supported. Several agencies were employed for
this purpose.

1. Imports were restricted—partly it is true from shortage
of tonnage—but also to reduce the amount owing by us to other
countries.

2. Exports were encouraged in order to increase the amount
owing to us. As this did not prove sufficient, the next step was

3. To raise loans abroad. At first sight it seems strange
that when the exchange is going against us and because we are
debtors, we try to remedy it by getting further into debt. But
when we floated a loan, say in the United States, the U.S. became
our debtor until the loan had been paid over, and in this way
the balance was temporarily put in our favour.

4. Lastly the Government took over large amounts of
foreign securities owned and held in this country, and employed
them to create credits abroad, thus lessening the balance of
indebtedness.

By these means the exchanges were prevented from moving
too much against us during the war. But in March last this
regulation came to an end, and we are now beginning to see
where we stand. ‘The position is a serious one. We are in the
same case as an individual living beyond his income, and the
remedy is the same—Spend less and earn more. We are a
debtor nation and no juggling with figures can alter the fact.
The situation is so grave that it calls for all-round sacrifice. It
calls upon us for a rigid reduction of consumption, especially of
luxuries, thus setting goods and labour free for the export trade.
It calls on us to go on saving every penny, and thus to cheapen
the supply of capital needed for industry ; and it calls on everyone
engaged industrially to increase production to the last ounce in
his power and thus make a direct-contribution to the liberation
of the nation from its load of debt.

Professor Meredith, Queen’s University; Mr. R. G. Geale,
the City Accountant; and Mr. A. H. Muir spoke to the lecture,
and the proceedings concluded with a vote of thanks to the
lecturer,

AND HILOSOPHICAL. SOCIETY.

PROCEEDINGS,

SESSION 1919- 1920.
No. 2.

11th December, 1919, and
10th February, 1920.

,

BY me ‘KILLEN MACBETH, .M. A.D. Sc, FLC, M.R.LA.

BELFAST:

iN BOYD & SON, LTD., 2. CORPORATION STREET a
TERS £Q! THE QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY).

Proceedings of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, 1919-20.

11th December, 1919.

Professor GREGG WILSON, President of the Society, in the Chair.

THE DYEING OF PURPLE IN ANCIENT ISRAEL.
By Rev. Isaac HeErzoca, M.A., D.Lit., Chief Rabbi of Dublin.

(Abstract.)

Varied as are the meanings of the term purple in modern
usage, to the student of antiquity the word denotes a cloth dyed
with a colouring matter furnished by certain marine snails. And
the tinting of cloth by means of marine animal pigment is still
practised, albeit in a crude, primitive form, by the natives of
certain coasts of Central America.

Our principal authorities as to the species of marine snail
anciently employed in purple-dyeing are Aristotle and Pliny, but
their statements leave much to be desired. Aristotle, in the
fifth book of his History of Animals (chap. 15), states that it is
the genus zopdipa (Purpura) which furnishes the pigment for the
' dyeing of purple. In close association with the Purpurae Aris-
totle also gives some account of a genus called xijpvé (Keryx)
without, however, distinctly referring to its employment in the
dyeing of purple. Pliny, on the other hand, speaks of two
genera utilised for the manufacture of purple, namely, Purpura
and Buccinum. It is assumed by all writers on the subject, at
least as far as my research has extended, that the Heryx of
Aristotle and the Buccinum of Pliny are identical; but in my
work on Tekelet, still awaiting publication, I have shown that
there is very serious ground for questioning the identification.

Modern research on this subject began with the identification
by Guillaume Rondelet (d. 1556), Professor at Montpellier, . of
the Purpura of Pliny with the species now termed Murex

22 Rev. Isaac Herzog on

brandaris ; and the chain of inquiries has been practically
continuous down to the present day. ‘To William Cole, an
Englishman, belongs the credit of having for the first time after
the total extinction of purple-dyeing, re-discovered (1681) the
remarkable properties of susceptibility to light, and of colour-
progression under its action, possessed by the fluids secreted by
certain molluscs. W. R. Wilde, an Irishman, made a substantial
contribution towards the solution of our problem by his discovery
of huge deposits of shells of Murex trunculus on the shore of
ancient Tyre, the home of purple-dyeing. Special mention must
also be made of the striking researches of Lacaze-Duthiers. His
“Mémoire sur la Pourpre” (1857), narrates his experiments on
the secretions of Murex trunculus, M. brandaris, M. erinaceus,
Purpura hemastoma and P. lapillus, and sheds a flood of light
on the statements contained in Aristotle and Pliny.

The net result of the study of the classical texts, combined
with archeological discoveries and scientific experiments, has
been the establishing, beyond a shadow of doubt, that at least
the following species were anciently employed in the manufacture
of purple:—Murex brandars, M. trunculus, and Purpura
heemastoma.

Purple in the Bible and in Talmudic literature is mentioned
under two designations, tekelet and argaman. While argaman
is generally explained as red or violet-red purple, there is less
consensus among translators with regard to tekelet, but the
prevailing view is that, contrary to the traditional interpretation,
it denotes not a dark pure blue, but rather a dark violet,
inclining to blue. In my work on Tekelet, however, I have
shown, I believe conclusively, that if not actually so in the
strictly scientific sense, the tekelet-colour did not, at all events,
appreciablg differ from a dark pure blue, the nuance assigned to
it by tradition. It is generally assumed that both tekelet and
argaman are varieties of purple, or in other words, of stuff dyed
with sea-snail pigment. That argaman was of this nature is
attested by the Septuagint, the oldest translation of the Bible,

The Dyeing of Purple in Aucient Israel 23

Wherever argaman occurs in the Bible it is rendered by rop¢ipa
or one of its derivatives; and zopdvpa without a qualifying
epithet means, of course, purple dyed with the pigment of sea-
snails. Tekelet is rendered in the Septuagint by takivOos, a
designation which does not necessarily imply that the dye is
of molluscan origin. Philo and Josephus, moreover, while
expressly mentioning the conchylian origin of the dyestuff used
for argaman, are silent in regard to the source of the pigment
producing tekelet. ‘Talmudic tradition, however, fills the gap.
A Talmudic text, going back in all probability to a time when
the Second Temple was still in existence, dispels all doubt on
the matter by declaring that tekelet used for ritual purposes
must be of conchylian origin. The Talmud, moreover, contains
a description of the species used for dyeing tekelet, and also
an account of the actual process of dyeing tekelet for the
“fringes”? (Numbers xv).

The exact determination of the species used in ancient
Israel for the dyeing of tekelet and argaman, and particularly
the former, is a task fraught with almost insuperable difficulties.
Various suggestions have been made, but it has fallen to the lot
of Dr. Alexander Dedekind, keeper of the Museum of Egyptian
Antiquities in Vienna, to press Lacaze-Duthiers’ far-reaching
results into the service of Semitic archeology. He maintains
that Lacaze-Duthiers’ researches have once for all furnished the
clue to the identification of tekelet and argaman respectively.
In the fourth book of his Beitrige zur Purpurkunde (p. 226) he
gives the following classification :—

Purpura lapillus f belong to the tekelet variety
Murex erinaceus \ of purple, i.e., violet or blue
Murex trunculus | purple.

( belong tothe argamanvariety
of purple, i.e., red or scarlet
- purple.
He regards Murex trunculus as the tekelet species, but also
names M. ervnaceus as a possible identification, though in view

Murex brandaris
Purpura hemastoma |

24 Rev. Isaac Herzog on

of the minuteness of the dye-secretion in that species its employ-
ment for dyeing was unlikely. His omission of Purpura lapillus
is probably due to the fact that this species is not found in the
Mediterranean.

The identification adopted by Dedekind, be it carefully
noted, is based solely on the tradition of the tekelet nuance: it
does not take into account the description of the tekelet species
as given in the Talmud, and as reproduced by Maimonides, the
greatest authority of Post-Talmudic Judaism. And if we are to
choose between the three species known to have been employed
in Phoenician purple-dyeing (M. trunculus, M. brandaris, and
P. hemastoma) there can be little hesitation so far as tekelet is
concerned. Murex trunculus is the likeliest of the three; but
there is the possibility that tekelet was produced from an
altogether different species.

The description given in the Talmud of the tekelet species
runs as follows :—

(a) Its body (i.e., the colour of its body or shell) is like unto
the sea; (b) its shape is like unto a fish ; and (c) it comes up
once in seventy years, and with its blood tekelet is dyed, and
therefore it is very dear.” (Menahet, 44a). Another ancient text
(Baraita a’Sisit) offers a variant reading: “ What is Hilazon® like
unto? Its shape is like unto that of a fish, and its body (i.e., the
colour of body or shell) is like unto the sky, and it only comes up
once in seven years ; therefore it is very dear.”

Which species of marine snail satisfies the description thus
recorded in the Talmud and the Baraita a’Sisit ?

Before we attempt to answer the question it is essential to
ascertain the import of the three elements constituting the
description in the Talmud.

(a) This presents no difficulty. It refers to a deep blue or
deep violet blue resembling the colour of the Mediterranean or
of the clear cloudless Palestinian sky in bright sunshine.

*Hilazon in general means a shell-snail. In this instance it means the
particular species furnishing the ‘ekelet dye.

The Dyeing of Purple m Ancient Israel 25

(b) The second element offers considerable difficulty. From
the sporadic allusions to the nature and characteristics of fishes
it is exceedingly difficult to evolve a clear idea of the type “ dag”
(fish) in the Talmudic conception, though one gains the impres-
sion that it does not materially differ from the modern conception
of the term fish. Seeing, however, that on the one hand the
Gastropoda and Cephalopoda are probably included in the term
“dag” as used by Maimonides, and that the tekelet species is
described by him as “dag,” we are led to think that the
characteristic (6) in the Talmud description does not exclude
these classes of marine snails.

(c) The last point in the description also offers certain diffi-
culties. Science knows nothing of a comet-like septuagenarian
appearance of any of the denizens of the sea. In reality, how-
ever, ounce in seventy years” is a hyperbolic expression. It
amounts to saying that the species is caught at long intervals
of time.

Murex trunculus fails to satisfy characteristics (a) and (c)
of the Talmud. A_ serious difficulty in the way of the

identification with Murex trunculus is also offered by the fact
that the dye furnished by the latter is of a fugitive nature, while
tekelet, as we know from the Talmud, was exceedingly fast.
This difficulty can partly be met by the consideration that the
tekelet dye used to be mixed with certain drugs, not specified in
the Talmud. They may have served as stiptics for the purpose
of endowing the colour with the quality of durability and
fastness, but I do not think this very probable.

If for the present all hope is to be abandoned of rediscover-
ing the tekelet species among the members of the genera Murex
and Purpura, it might not be amiss to look for the same within
the confines of the genus Janthina. ‘The two species of this
genus that live in the Mediterranean are J. pallida, Harvey, and
J. prolongata, Blainville. These furnish a blue colouring fluid
playing into violet. They live in the high seas, at the surface,
and their colour is of a beautiful violet blue, which might easily

26 Rev. Isaac Herzog on

be confounded with the colour of the sea. Lastly they, like a
great many pelagic animals, abound for some years to an
enormous extent, whereas in the preceding period they had been
rare or even extremely rare. ;

Mention may also be made of the fact that the dye-secretion
of Janthina is fairly abundant in quantity : in J. prolongata the
secretion, in fact, amounts toan ounce. This tends to corroborate
the identification with the tekelet species; for while in the
classical authors the extreme expensiveness of purple is attributed
to the minuteness of the purpurigenic matter in the animal, in the
Talmud the preciousness of tekelet is ascribed solely to the rare
appearance of the species.

Pending further research which, let us hope, will one day be
undertaken along the Palestinian and Syrian coasts by specialists
from the future Hebrew University of Jerusalem, the suggested
identitication with Janthina pallida and J. prolongata is, I
venture to say, deserving of serious examination.

THE PROCESS OF DYEING.

No other material but wool was admissible for tekelet,
argaman, and tolat shani (scarlet) of a sacerdotal and ritual
character, and for the tekelet of the fringes.

In Greek and Latin authors ropdipa, Purpura and their
derivatives stand for woollen or silken stuff dyed with purple
pigment. Silk purple was probably not unknown in Pheenicia
and Palestine, but in the Temple*its use was excluded by
tradition. There can be but little doubt that purple dyeing in
its early stages was confined to wool. Silk purple being a later
extension of the industry, naturally failed to gain admission into
the sanctuary or the ritual. ,

The wool was dyed in its raw state, the spinning, weaving,
&e., forming subsequent processes. This is apparent from certain
stray allusions in the Talmud, and is also corroborated by classical
authority in regard to the manufacture of purple. (Compare also

The Dyeing of Purple in Ancient Israel 20

Exodus XX XV, 23 with v. 25). No account of the mode of dyeing
has been preserved by Jewish tradition in connection with
argaman. Tekelet, however, has fared better, though the
account given in the Talmud by R. Samuel bar Judah leaves
much to be desired. “Abayi” records the Talmud, said to
R. Samuel bar Judah,—“ Now about this tekelet—how do you
dye it?” He said to him, “ We take the blood of the hilazon
(i.e., the dye secretion of the tekelet species) and drugs
(Sanmanim), put them into a kettle, boil the mixture, and
then take out something of the liquid in an egg-shell, and test
the sample with a bit of soft wool.* We then throw away that
ege-shell and burn that sample of wool.” No particulars are
given of the “drugs” employed together with the dye-secretion
of the tekelet species. Commentators differ. The Tosaphists,
the French school of Talmudial exegesis, remark that “it is very
strange that extraneous matter should have been mixed with the
tekelet dye,” “but perhaps,” they add, “it was the combination
of the tekelet pigment with these drugs that constituted the
tekelet dye.” Rashi, the foremost commentator of the Talmud,
would seem to hold that the drugs in question were simply
mordants used for fixing the colour in the fibre, and had nothing
to do with the production of the colour itself. An earlier
authority, Samuel ben Hofni, principal of the Academy at Sura,
Babylonia (d. 1034) would seem to be of a contrary opinion.
In a treatise extant as a unique manuscript at the library of
Petrograd he asserts:— the information has been handed down
to us that tekelet was dyed with the blood of an aguine (marine)
animal called hilazon mixed with another (substance).” This
rather gives the impression that the sammanim or drugs formed
an essential part of the dye, assisting in the production of the
requisite colour. Appearances in the Talmud, I feel, point in
the opposite direction. The absence of all specification of the
drugs in question, tends to indicate that the latter stuffs were
not essential to the production of the colour.

* Cf. Pliny, IX, 38.

28 Rev. Isaac Herzog on

This is really the opinion of Maimonides, the greatest codifier
of Jewish law and ritual. In reproducing the Talmudic account
of the dyeing of tekelet, he states: “The wool is soaked in chalk
and washed until it is clean, and then boiled with ahla and the
like, as is the practice of the dyers, in order to prepare the wool
for absorbing the colour. The blood of the hilazon is then put
into the vat (kettle) together with drugs such as kimonia
(cimolia),* as is usual in dveing; the liquid having been raised to
a boiling heat, the wool is immersed therein, remaining in that
condition until it has the colour of the sky, and this is the tekelet
used for the fringes.”

TESTS FoR DETECTING FRAUDULENT IMITATIONS OF 'TEKELET.

Imitations of purple with vegetable dye-stuff are referred to
in Pliny, Vitruvius and other non-Jewish sources. I cannot,
however, recall any reference to testsin Greek and Latin authors.

For tekelet the Talmud records two testing processes : one
due to R. Isaac V. R. Jehudah, the other to R. Avira in whose
name it was reported by R. Ada. In the first case a sample of
the wool in question was allowed to soak overnight in a mixture
of alumine, fenugrec juice and urine forty days old (or
- according to a variant reading urine of a forty days’ old child).
If the colour remained unimpaired, the tekelet was proved
genuine. The other test consisted in putting some of the wool
into an overfermented dough made of barley flour, and baking the
dough. If after the baking operation was over, the sample on
being taken out showed a change for the better in the quality of
the colour, the wool would be pronounced genuine tekelet ; if
for the worse, it would be rejected.

The tekelet imitations were usually made with indigo,
which being fast to light and washing, could not be easily detected
as a fraud.

In test (1) we miss an indication of the proportions in

*Cimolia is a cleaning substance, a reference to which is often made
in Pliny (XX., 81, etc).

The Dyeing of Purple in Ancient Israel 29

which the several constituents are to be mixed. What is the
value of these tests from the chemical point of view ?

Professor Green, Professor of Tinctorial Chemistry at the
University of Leeds, in reply to this and other questions” states :—
“Tt would seem clear from the quotation given that the tests
prescribed have the object of ascertaining whether the dye is
easily reduced” (hydrogenated). Indigo is more readily hydro-
genated and removed from the fibre in the form of its leuco
compound than is the brominated indigo (of which the purple
probably chiefly consists). In both cases the action probably
depends on the evolution of the hydrogen by the fermenting
organic matter. 2°. It seems likely that tekelet was faster
than indigo. 3°. Indigo like all vat dyes is very fast to soap.
In pale and medium shades it is not very fast to light, in which
respect it 1s surpassed by brominated indigos. 4°. Brominated
indigos are all brighter in shade than indigo itself. 5°. All vat
dyes are fixed on the fibre by oxydation. In the bath the dye
is not present as such but as a soluble leuco or hydro compound.
If the oxydation on the fibre is not complete, the dye will be
easily removed by washing.”

THE USES OF PURPLE IN ANCIENT ISRAEL.

Allusions to the secular uses of tekelet and argaman are very
few. Neither ever appears in connection with the royal apparel
of Jewish Kings in Biblical times. In Canticles the seat of
Solomon’s palanquin is spoken of as being made of argaman.
The virtuous woman is depicted as clothing herself in shesh and
argaman. Tekelet is conspicuous by its absence.

The ritual uses of tekelet are two-fold, (I) for sacerdotal and
cultual purposes, (II) for the sisit or fringes. (See Exodus
XXV, etc., etc., and Numbers XV.) Tekelet appears as occupy-
ing a somewhat higher position than argaman in the ladder of
sanctity.

The account of the First Temple in 1 Kings, 5-7, which of
course is very far from complete, omits all mention of textiles.

* Dated July 29, 1913.

30 Rev. Isaac Herzog on

The parallel passages in Chronicles refer to tekelet and argaman,
but in very general terms.

Ezekiel’s sketch of the Future Temple contains no allusion
to tekelet and argaman.

In the Second Temple tekelet and argaman were, we know,
used not only for the High Priest’s garments, in accordance with
Pentateuchal prescriptions, but also for the thirteen veils hung at
the gates.

The ritual use of tekelet for the sisit or the fringes survived
the Temple by several centuries.

_ The law of sisit (the fringes) occurs twice in the Pentateuch
Numbers XV, 37-41, and Deuteronomy XXII, 12.

The symbolic significance of tekelet is, I think, quite clear
from the text of the Pentateuch itself. The tekelet resembling
the sky-colour is to remind one of heaven, and so raise his feelings
and thoughts to higher planes. This is, in fact, the traditional
view of the significance of tekelet.

Though the rite of sisit is still observed, to some extent, by
professedly orthodox Jews, and in a smail measure even by
reformers, tekelet has long ceased to form part of the sisit.

THE ToTAL EXTINCTION OF TEKELET.

Tradition singles out the territory of Zebulun, which, as we
know, adjoined Phoenicia, as the centre of purple manufacture
in Palestine.

This is significant in view of what we otherwise know of
Phoenicia as a principal centre of the purple industry. A
Talmudic tradition states in connection with Jeremiah, LII, 16
that Nebuzradan left some of the poorest people of the land to
engage in the fishing of the purple-snails on the coast extending
from the ladder of Tyre to Haifa.. This would point to that
stretch of territory as the home of Jewish purple-manufacture in
ancient Palestine. The Hittite City Luz (Judges I, 26) is referred
to in the Talmud as pre-eminent in the manufacture of tekelet.
The reference may well be to a city in the vicinity of the Syrian

The Dyeing of Purple in Ancient Israel 31

coast belonging to the great Hittite Empire in Northern Syria.

In view of the tradition crediting Phoenicia with the
invention of purple-dyeing, and of the high esteem in which
Tyrian purple was universally held in antiquity,* it is rather
startling to find Ezekiel (X XVII, 7) referring to the Isles (or coast
lands) of Elisha as furnishing Tyre with tekelet and argaman.
This sounds like bringing coals to Newcastle. Where are those
isles or coast lands of Elisha 2

I am inclined to agree with Professor Sayce (Hasting’s
Dictionary of the Bible, S.V. Elisha) that Elisha adjoined the
Mediterranean coast land. It may very well have been a
Phoenician settlement, which would seem to have excelled about
the time of Ezekiel, in the manufacture of purple. It would
thus appear that the universally renowned Tyrian pre-eminence
in purple production is subsequent to Ezekiel (died about 571
B.C.).

A classical source? names Sarepta, Caesarea, Neapolis and
Lydda as cities supplying purple, thus indicating that the industry
covered an area comprising the coasts of Syro-Phoenicia, Galileo,
Samaria and Judaea. Migdal-Sabaja in the neighbourhood of
Lydda (Lud) would seem to have contained an important purple
market.

The question in how far the manufacture of tekelet in
particular may have been affected by the imperial edicts issued
from time to time concerning the fabrication of purple, its sale
and use, is discussed at considerable length in my work on
tekelet. For centuries after the destruction of the Second
Temple extra-Palestinian Jewry was wont to procure tekelet
for the “fringes” from the Jewish dye-houses in the Holy Land.
There is a record of the importation of ritual tekelet into
Babylonia about 506 c.E. It may safely be asserted that at
the time of the completion of the Babylonian Talmud (c.¥. 570)
tekelet still continued in practice for the sisit or fringes. On
the other hand in the Sheltot d’ Rabbi-Ahai, a ritual work

* (Cf. for instance, Strabo, XVI, 11).
Tt Geog. Gr. Minores, IT 5-13, 29.

32 Rev. Isaac Herzog on

composed in Palestine about 760 c.&., all mention of tekelet is
omitted. The disappearance of tekelet from the Jewish ritual
thus falls between the final redaction of the Talmud (c.&. 570)
and the composition of the Sheltot (c.n. 760).

The Arab conquest of Palestine about the year 638 entailed
the total destruction of the purple dye-houses administered by
the imperial officials. t The final extinction of tekelet would
also seem to have been one of the effects of the Arab conquest.

The great Jewish traveller, Benjamin of Tudela (C. 1160),
makes mention of the dyeing of red-purple on the Tyrian Coast.
It would thus appear that the industry revived some time after
the Arab occupation. The interval must have been a fairly long
one, seeing that the Jews who in Benjamin’s time played an
important part in the industrial life of Tyre* had made no
attempt to resuscitate the dyeing of tekelet for ritual purposes ;
the chain of tradition must have been too long broken.

The art of purple-dyeing in general, which, dating from hoary
antiquity—the mention of tekelet and argaman in the Cuneiform
texts occurs already about 1600 B.c.—passed through a long and
checkered career, finally becoming extinct, at least in the Old
World, on the fall of Coustantinople, May 29th, 1453.

It is worthy of note that the remarkable researches carried
out by Gentile inquirers from William Cole to Lacaze-Duthiers
found no echo in Jewish circles.

It was not until 1887, some 28 years after Lacaze-Duthiers’
famous experiments that an attempt was made by a certain
Rabbi, Gershon Enoch Leiner, of Radzin, Poland, to restore ritual
tekelet in Israel.

He carried out investigations along the Adriatic coast, and
eventually arrived at the conclusion that the tekelet species was
identical with Sepia officinalis. In 1888 he established a factory
for ritual tekelet in Radzin, dying a few years afterwards. The

tSee Amati, De Restitution Purposes.
*See Benjamin of Tudela’s Itinerary, cd. Asher, pp, 29-30.

The Dyeing of Purple in Ancient Israel 33

dye-house founded by him was still in existence about the time
of the outbreak of the Great War. The tekelet of Radzin has
* failed to obtain general acceptance, and its use is confined to a
small circle of a few thousand families, consisting of admirers of
the late Rabbi Leiner and of his son and successor.

That his identification of the tekelet species is entirely
erroneous is conclusively shown in my work on Tekelet.

At the conclusion of the lecture the sincere thanks of the
audience was conveyed to Dr. Herzog by the Chairman.

10th February, 1920.

Professor GREGG WILSON, President of the Society, in the Chair.

CATALYSIS OR THE SPEEDING-UP OF CHEMICAL
REACTIONS.

By A;. Kitten Macpetu, M-A., D:Sc., F.1.C., MR DAS ire:

( Abstract.)

Para 1.

The word catalysis 1s an unusual one and is doubtless
unfamiliar to many, so at the outset a little space may profitably
be devoted to an explanation of its meaning and application. It
is derived from the Greek and means to wnloosen. The term is
now reserved for the description of those cases in which the pro-
eress of a chemical reaction is accelerated by the addition of a small
amount of another substance, which is itself unchanged at the
end of the reaction ; this may with some justification be regarded
as an unloosening of chemical forces through the agency of the
added material. The influencing agent is called a catalyst. A
particular case will help to make the matter clear. A mixture
of dry hydrogen and oxygen may be kept for a long time without
any apparent union of the gases (to form water) taking place.
The mixture may even be heated considerably without any
appreciable combination resulting. If, however, a piece of clean
platinum foil is added to the gaseous mixture the reaction
immediately commences and sometimes proceeds with such
vigour that the platinum becomes red hot and an explosion
occurs. ‘This isan example of the catalytic effect of platinum—a
normally slow reaction being accelerated by its presence whilst
the catalyst itself undergoes no change.

Catalysis or the Speeding-up of Chemical Reactions 35

A good mechanical analogy is found in the case of a weight
moving down an inclined plane. If the angle is gradually
increased the plane is ultimately sufficiently tilted for the weight
to start off and move slowly down the plane. Such motion may
be regarded as representing a chemical reaction normally proceeding
with small velocity. If the plane is now smeared with oil—the
tilt remaining unaltered—it is found that the weight moves with
a much greater velocity than in the preceding case. So we have
the analogy to the increase in the rate of a chemical reaction by
the addition of traces of a foreign substance. In the case of the
weight moving down the plane it is evident that the oil cannot
affect the actual force causing the weight to slide down the
plane. It does, however, alter the resistance to the motion by
decreasing the friction and so the velocity of the weight is
increased,

Force
Resistance

since Velocity =

In the same way a catalyst cannot be regarded as increasing the
actual chemical affinities in a reaction but merely as acting in
some way to decrease the resistance.

Many examples of catalytic action are known, but at this
stage we may refer to two common cases. Potassium chlorate
on being heated decomposes and gives off oxygen. If a little
manganese dioxide is added to another quantity of the chlorate
it is found that on heating, the oxygen is liberated much more
rapidly and at a much lower temperature than in the first
experiment. The manganese dioxide, moreover, may be recovered
unchanged at the end of the reaction. Again, if a solution
containing oxalic acid is heated with some nitric acid, little
decomposition occurs. If a trace of a’ manganous salt is added
the reaction proceeds briskly and the oxalic acid is broken down
into carbonic acid gas. In these examples we see two criteria
for catalysis, namely, (1) a catalyst can assist the course of a
chemical reaction and itself remain unchanged and (2) a small

36 A. Killen Macbeth on

amount of the catalyst is sufficient to effect the reaction between
large amounts of the reagents.

Before passing from the inclined plane analogy attention
may be called to a further point. We can conceive the case of
the plane being tilted to an angle much greater than that required
to set the weight in motion. But if the weight is held by a clip
it will not move until such an obstacle is removed. We find a
parallel to this in what are known as “ trigger” reactions: and
just as no amount of oil will start the movement of the weight
when it is held up by an obstacle, so trigger reactions are not
recognised as catalytic phenomena. Examples of trigger reaction
are found in the super-heating of water out of contact with dust
and air and the crystallisation of supersaturated solutions. There
is, therefore, an additional criterion for catalysis that is generally
advocated, namely, that (3) a catalyst only affects reactions that
are normally proceeding at a slow rate—in many cases at an
immeasurably slow rate.

Substances which may act catalytically. In the early
days of the subject it was thought that catalysis was the exception
rather than the rule, but with increasing experiment the
observations quickly reversed the belief and it would now appear
that there are few reactions incapable of being materially assisted
by the introduction of a suitable catalyst. The substances which
act as catalysts range from the commonest to the rarest—from
water to osmium, platinum, ete. .Water, indeed, is a very
general catalyst, bringing about the interaction of many gases that
would not react if perfectly dry. For example, if sulphuretted
hydrogen (dried by its passage over calcium chloride) is passed
into a flask along with sulphur dioxide (dried by sulphuric acid)
no reaction occurs : on adding a little water to the flask the gases
immediately interact and sulphur is deposited. Again, carbon
monoxide burns to carbonic acid gas, uniting with the oxygen of
the air: but a jet of the dry gas will not burn in dry air. These
are particular examples illustrating the catalytic action of water,

Catalysis or the Speeding-up of Chemical Reaction 37

Of the metals, platinum and nickel are the most effective
catalysts, and their efficiency is greatly increased as their fineness
of division increases. Thus colloidal platinum and _ platinum
black are incomparably more effective than platinum wire or
platinum foil.

Theories of catalytic action.—Many views have been pre-
sented to account for the action of catalysts, and of these two
deserve mention. The first—which may be regarded as the
chemical view—supposes the catalyst to form transitional
chemical compounds. Here the catalyst acts as a kind of middle-
man, inducing reaction between the two main reagents. ‘The
hypothesis may best be supported by reference to the reaction of
sulphur dioxide with oxygen to form sulphur trioxide. This
addition takes place but slowly in the absence of a catalyst. In
the presence of a trace of nitrogen peroxide the difficulties
disappear and the reaction proceeds quickly. This is explained
by the nitrogen peroxide first parting with some of its oxygen
to the sulphur dioxide to convert it into the trioxide. The
resulting nitric oxide quickly takes up oxygen and is again
converted into the peroxide, which is available for further
reaction with sulphur dioxide. Thus a small amount of nitrogen
peroxide is sufficient to bring about the union of large amounts
of sulphur dioxide and oxygen. The transition of the catalyst
into a lower oxide during the course of the reaction supports the
view of catalytic action mentioned above.

There are many cases in which the intermediate compound
view is untenable, notably in reactions which are accelerated by
catalysts such as platinum or other finely divided metals. In
such cases it is assumed that the catalytic power of the substance
is connected with some physical property. The chief property
that has been emphasised is that known as adsorption. Most
substances have the power of condensing other compounds on
their surface, and this is known as adsorption. Charcoal, for
example, can take up about 170 volumes of ammonia gas; it can
also remove substances from solution, as is seen in the case of the

38 A. Killen Macbeth on

filtration of coloured solutions through layers of charcoal. This
is purely a surface effect, and when it is recollected how large a
surface is presented by the finely divided or colloidal metals, ‘the
probability of adsorption as a factor in catalysis is apparent. It
has been calculated that if a sphere of gold with a radius of
1 m/m (about the size of a lead shot) were broken down into the
colloidal state the particles would present a surface of nearly
1,000 sq. feet. On the adsorption view the reacting substances
are condensed on the surface of the catalyst, and so are brought
more closely together. There is therefore a greater chance of
their reacting : and so the velocity of the reaction is increased.

These are the outstanding views that have been presented
to account for the action of catalysts in speeding-up chemical re-
actions. Whether they are a correct representation of the state
of affairs matters but little, as the application of catalysis to
commercial operations is fortunately not dependent on such
explanations. So without further enquiry we may proceed to
examine some of the outstanding uses of catalysts in industrial
processes.

Part II.
THE CATALYSIS OF COMMERCIAL CHEMICAL PROCESSES.

In introducing the second part of the subject, we may first
look at a particular case illustrating the effective application of
catalysis to a commercial problem. In the manufacture of
carbonate of soda (washing soda) from cominon salt, two great
difficulties were encountered in connection with bye-products
formed during the process. In the first place large amounts of
hydrochloric acid were produced during the course of manufac-
ture, and as there was no great demand for this, it was allowed
to escape into the air through tall chimneys. The acid which
thus escaped was carried down by rains and had a very
harmful effect on the vegetation of the surrounding country.
This and other public inconveniences gave rise to widespread
grievance, and the manufacturers were compelled to dispose of

Catalysis or the Speeding-up of Chemical Reactions 39

the acid otherwise. They made use of the great solubility of the
acid in water, and discharged it into neighbouring streams: but
the streams so polluted were the cause of the destruction of fish,
and in consequence this practice also had to be abandoned. After
some study of the question it was found that if the hydrochloric
acid fumes were mixed with air, and passed over heated bricks
which had previously been moistened with a solution of cuprous
chloride, a reaction took place, and chlorine was produced. The
chlorine was absorbed by lime, yielding bleaching powder, for
which there was a brisk demand. Thus by the catalytic action of
cuprous chloride, a bye-product which had previously not only
been a loss but also a nuisance to the manufacturers, was trans-
formed into a valuable compound which proved a very welcome
source of revenue to the companies.

The second bye-product in the process was a substance
known as ‘ black ash,’ consisting largely of calcium sulphide. For
this there was no demand, and it was therefore tipped-up outside
the works. In course of time mountains of this waste material
had accumulated and proved a vexatious question to the manu-
facturers, not only on account of the space it occupied, but also
because of the offensive smell. It was found that the calcium
sulphide could be made to yield its sulphur in a very pure state,
and as this was a good marketable substance the question of the
profitable disposal of the black ash was settled. The calcium
sulphide is decomposed by carbonic acid gas, yielding calcium
carbonate (chalk) and sulphuretted hydrogen : the latter is con-
verted by the catalytic action of iron oxide into sulphur and
steam when a mixture of it and air is passed through a kiln
packed with iron oxide. Thus the discovery of suitable catalysts
gave a new lease of life to the Leblanc alkali process and enabled
it to compete successfully with newer rivals.

Sulphuric Acid Manufacture.—In the further study of the
bearing of catalysis on manufacturing questions the difficulty is
not one of dearth of material, but is rather a question of making
a judicious selection that may prove both interesting and instruc-

40 A. Killen Macbeth on

tive. A prior place may be given to the process of acid
manufacture. It has been said that the wealth of a nation may
be gauged by studying its consumption of sulphuric acid. This
acid is extensively employed in manufacturing operations and so
the quantity used gives an indication of the commercial activities
of a nation. The acid results from a solution of sulphur trioxide
in water. When sulphur (or an ore containing a high percentage
of sulphur) is burnt in air, a gas known as sulphur dioxide is
obtained. This unites with oxygen to form the trioxide. The
manufacture of sulphuric acid therefore centres round the
question of an effeetive process for combining sulphur dioxide
with atmospheric oxygen. This is brought about by two
processes, both of which involve the use of a catalyst. The
Chamber Process depends on the catalytic power of nitrogen
peroxide which has already been referred to. The Contact
Process rests on the action of various agents, which promote the
union of the gases when the mixture is passed over layers of the
catalyst. Iron oxide is found to induce a sixty per cent. union
of sulphur dioxide and oxygen if the temperature is about 600°C.
Asbestos impregnated with a solution of platinic chloride (known
as platinised asbestos) is a much more effective, but more
expensive, agent. An interesting point may be noted in this
connection. If the gaseous mixture contains certain impurities—
notably arsenic—the efficiency of the catalyst rapidly decreases
and in time its power disappears completely. This is referred to
as poisoning of the catalyst and is a point which demands much
attention in all catalytic processes.

The Nitrogen Question—The. next operation which may
be described deals with the manufacture of ammonia and nitric
acid. It has been said that the fate of-a nation probably rests
on two simple compounds of nitrogen—ammonia and nitric acid.
This seems a very remarkable statement and deserves examination.
Taking a wide view of the matter we might say that the three
chief factors in a nation’s life are her commerce, her armaments
and her food production. Without her commerce she must

Catalysis or the Speeding up of Chemical Reactions 41

decline; without her armaments her defensive and offensive
powers vanish; and without suflicient foodstuffs her population
cannot carry on the necessarily unequal contest. In all three of
these we find ammonia and nitric acid, but especially the latter,
play an important part. Nitric acid is extensively used in
industries, such as the manufacture of dyestuffs and other
chemical products. All explosives are derived from it or its
salts. Food production is also intimately connected with it. In
this connection we must briefly examine our needs. The animal
body is largely composed of proteins which in the wear and
tear of daily life are undergoing incessant wastage and so stand
in need of continuous repair. The proteins are largely com-
posed of combined nitrogen, so animal diet must include a fair
amount of nitrogenous material. Animals are unable to make
use of free nitrogen, such as might be obtained from the air we
breathe ; in addition animals are unable to assimilate simple
compounds of nitrogen, such as nitrates or ammonium salts. The
nitrogen diet must be composed of organic compounds already
built up to the protein stage by plants or derived from other
animals. It is thus evident that animals are ultimately dependent
on the plant world for their supplies of nitrogen. Plants can
take in nitrates from the soil and convert them into vegetable
proteins, such as gluten of wheat. Now there are not great
amounts of nitrates in the soil. Some compounds containing
nitrogen are present in the humus of the soil; others are carried
down by rains. Plants are, therefore, mainly dependent for
their supplies of nitrogen on the humus of the soil, which results
from the residues of preceding crops and the introduction of
animal manures.

There is a profit and loss account on the farm, and so the
land gets exhausted. There is a steady drain ou the farm, the
crops produced being diverted to the centres of keenest demand ;
and so most of the foodstuffs raised, instead of being consumed on
the farm, are sent to the cities. Stock raised is also sold off.
So it is evident that there is a steady export of nitrogenous com-

42 A. Killen Macbeth on

pounds which necessarily exhausts the soil. To carry the story
on, it need but be stated that the nitrogenous compounds sent
into the city for consumption ultimately find their way in
sewage to the sea, and so are lost. .
The researches of Lawes and Gilbert and other agricultural
chemists showed that the application of nitrate of soda or sul-
phate of ammonia greatly increased the yields of crops. The
practice so introduced was greatly extended, and an enormous
demand grew up for these artificial fertilisers. The chief source
of sulphate of ammonia is the bye-product produced in the gas
works throughout the country, and this is very limited. The
chief source of nitrates was the nitre beds in Chili where sodium
nitrate deposits were found. The amount of sulphate of
ammonia is small, and it was found that the demand on the
Chili beds was so great that calculations predicted that they
would be exhausted in the year 1923. Considerations of this
nature gave rise to what was known as the nitrogen question ;
and Sir William Crooks, speaking at the British Association
at Bristol in 1898, for reasons such as we have hinted at
above, said: “England and all civilised nations stand in deadly
peril of not having enough to eat. As mouths multiply food
resources dwindle.” And further he added: “I hope to point a
way out of this colossal dilemma. It is the chemist who must
come to the rescue of the threatened communities. It is through
the laboratory that starvation may ultimately be turned into
plenty.” :
Efforts then were made to prepare nitrates and other com-
pounds of nitrogen on a commercial scale. In the atmosphere
there are practically unlimited amounts of nitrogen ; but nitrogen
is a very sluggish element, combining but slowly with most other
elements. It can be made to unite with oxygen under the in-
fluence of electrical discharge, but this is not a catalytic process,
and so does not concern us here. It can, moreover, be made to
combine with hydrogen by the influence of certain metals, and
this forms the basis of the Haber process for producing ammonia.

Catalysis or the Speeding-up of Chemical Reactions 43

Nitrogen obtained from air is mixed with hydrogen and forced at
a pressure of some 200 atmospheres (3,000lb. per sq. inch) over
heated osmium or other catalyst. Ammonia is produced, which
is condensed by means of a freezing mixture, and collects in a
special receiver. The process is very efficient, and other cheaper
catalysts may be substituted instead of osmium, which is very
expensive. Iron, it would seem, acts as a very suitable catalyst.

A very old experiment—shown to illustrate the oxidation of
ammonia to nitric acid—consists in bubbling oxygen through a
moderately strong solution of ammonia and introducing a heated
spiral of platinum wire into the vapour. The platinum con-
tinues to glow, and white fumes of ammonium nitrate are formed,
due to the oxidation of some of the ammonia vapour. After
many years Ostwald gave a modern application to this experi-
ment, and built up the commercial process for preparing nitric
acid by the oxidation of ammonia. Platinum acts as a catalyst
in the process, and a mixture of air and ammonia is passed rapidly
over a layer of half an inch of the catalyst heated to 300°C. The
velocity of the mixture must be great, as otherwise the process is
not effective. Stoneware vessels are used in the manufacture, as
the hot nitric acid would attack any metal with great vigour.

By methods such as we have outlined atmospheric nitrogen
is converted at a reasonable cost into ammonia and nitric acid :
and the Nitrogen Question is thus solved.

Hardening of Oils. Another application of catalytic action
which in recent times has become important deals with the
hardening or hydrogenation of oils. Most vegetable oils are fluid
or semi-fluid under ordinary conditions. Such oils are of much
less value than hard fats, as they are not suitable for commercial
processes such ‘as the manufacture of margarine, candles or soap.
On examining these vegetable oils it is found that they differ
from the fats in having a lower hydrogen content. They are
unsaturated, and are capable of taking up additional hydrogen
atoms. The problem of converting an oil into a more valuable
fat therefore centres round the most effective way of causing it

44 “A. Killen Macbeth on

to add on further hydrogen atoms. Finely divided metals prove
to be effective catalysts, and finely’ divided nickel is a most
effective agent. The general method now practised is to pass
steam over hot coke. Water gas—which is a mixture of hydro-
gen and carbon monoxide—is formed. The water gas is then
passed over nickel heated to about 100°C., and the carbon
monoxide reacts with the nickel, giving a volatile compound
known as nickel carbonyl, which, together with the hydrogen, is
passed into the hot oil. The nickel carbonyl is decomposed,
giving off carbon monoxide again and depositing nickel in a very
fine state of division. This finely divided nickel acts as the
catalyst causing the hydrogen to combine with the oil. By this
method an oil may be hardened to any desired degree. Oils so
hardened are employed in the manufacture of soap and candles ;
they are also largely used in the manufacture of margarine. In
this latter connection it is interesting to point out that traces of
nickel remain in the hardened oils, and might have a harmful
effect if the oils are used for human consumption. No limit to
the permissible amount present has yet been fixed, but actual
experiments have been conducted with a view to examining the
effects of nickel compounds on health. As much as half a gram
of nickel oxide has been given daily in a diet without ill-effects,
99-8 per cent. of the metal being rapidly excreted : and hardened
oils contain very much less nickel than this, in fact, about one
hundreth of this quantity per pound.

Synthetic Rubber. Since the introduction of the pneumatic
tyre the demand for rubber has gone forward by leaps and
bounds. The supply is derived from the sap exuded from the
barks of certain trees in the rubber plantations of Ceylon, Java
and elsewhere. It is not surprising that efforts were made to
produce rubber synthetically—that is, to prepare it by purely
manufacturing processes from simpler substances. Rubber, on
being decomposed by heat gives, amongst other products, a liquid
called isoprene. ‘This liquid is also obtained from other sources,
notably turpentine. Sir William Tilden made a comprehensive

Catalysis or the Speeding-up of Chemical Reactions 45

study of isoprene and established its structure. In the course of
a paper read at Birmingham in 1893 he said: “I was surprised a
few weeks ago at finding the contents of the bottles containing
isoprene from turpentine entirely changed in appearance. In
place of a limpid, colourless liquid, the bottles contained a dense
syrup in which were floating several large masses of solid of a
yellowish colour. Upon examination this turned out to be india-
Up Der . 6s. ‘i

This then represents the first artificial production of rubbers
Efforts were made to accelerate the polymerisation of isoprene to
rubber and many agents were found to promote the change. In
1910 Matthews discovered that sodium had a very pronounced
catalytic effect and by varying the conditions the change could be
completed in a few hours or a few days. The condensation of
isoprene to form rubber can therefore be accomplished and the
next step in the process to make it a commercial proposition is to
ensure large supplies of isoprene at a low cost. Turpentine is
out of the question, not only on account of its price, but also
because only very limited amounts of it are available. A
fermentation process was devised whereby starch, obtained from
potatoes or grain, could be converted into fusel oil, consisting
largely of butyl aleohol. This, by the action of hydrochloric acid
and the subsequent action of chlorine, is converted into a
dichloro-derivative, and when the latter is passed over heated
lime it is broken down into butadiene—a substance which
resembles isoprene in its main chemical properties. By the
agency of sodium the butadiene is polymerised to form an artificial
rubber. It was claimed that rubber could be produced by this
method at a cost (pre-war) of about sixpence a pound. It is too
early yet to give a pronounced opinion about the process, but it
seems to have great possibilities. The scarcity of rubber in Ger-
many during the war might perhaps be taken as an adverse
criticism of the manufacture of artificial rubber, or of the value
of the rubber so produced.

46 A. Killen Macbeth on

Parr. “Il:

NATURAL CATALYSTS OR ENZYMES.

Having examined the behaviour of catalysts and reviewed
some cases of the application of catalysis in manufacturing
operations, association of ideas carries one on to ask the question,
Are any substances found in nature which function, or can
function, as catalysts? Many substances are found elaborated in
the presence of living organisms which assist definite chemical
reactions occurring in the animal body, and doubtless also
effect the changes that take place during the plant growth.
Grain is largely made up of starch, but there is also present a
substance known as diastase. The diastase can be developed
by moistening the grain and allowing it to sprout. If the grain
is subsequently crushed and allowed to stand in contact with
water the diastase assists the breakdown of the starch into
sugars. This is known as hydrolysis, water being added on to
the starch, thereby converting it into sugar. This conversion of
starch into sugar does not ordinarily take place, but it may be
brought about in the laboratory by boiling the starch for some
time with dilute sulphuric acid: the acid acts as a catalyst,
inducing the addition of water. We are, therefore, brought face
to face in these changes with the great contrast between the
violent action of an inorganic catalyst and the quiet, steady
working of the natural ferment, diastase.

Another example of natural ferments——or enzymes as they
are called—is seen in the case of almonds. Almonds, when
freshly ground, do not possess their characteristic odour. ‘This,
however, develops in the course of time and is due to the chemical
change brought about by the enzyme emulsim which is present.
From the almonds a substance known as amygdalin can be
extracted which, when moistened and treated with emulsin,
breaks down into sugar (glucose), prussic acid and oil of bitter
almonds (benzaldehyde) to which is due the characteristic smell.

Catalysis or the Speeding-up of Chemical Reactions 47

Another good example of enzyme action is found in the case
of the extraction of indigo from the indigo-plant. This plant
contains a compound izndican which is a combination of the
active principle of indigo with glucose. On steeping the plant
in tepid water for 12-15 hours an enzyme acts on the indican
and the indigo principle passes into solution from which it
subsequently settles out on oxidation by atmospheric oxygen.

In the case of the animal organism enzymes are found to be
very abundant. These natural catalysts have each a specific action.
‘One set assists a particular reaction, another induces a different
chemical change, and others accomplish hydrolysis of different
types. In the saliva, for instance, an enzyme ptyalin is found
which acts on starch to break it down into sugars. In the
stomach pepsin is present which acts in the acid solution of the
gastric juice to break down proteins into simpler bodies. In the
alkaline pancreatic juice another enzyme trypsin occurs, which
also acts on proteins. Fat-splitting enzymes are also present.
So the work of the digestion and assimilation of food goes on,
being accomplished by the agency of these catalytic compounds.

Attention might again be drawn to the gentle way in which
the enzymes bring about the chemical changes for which they are
responsible. <A fatcan be split into two parts in the laboratory
by hydrolysing it (causing it to add on water). This is only
brought ahout by boiling for a considerable time with dilute
sulphuric acid or strong caustic soda solution. (The latter re-
action is the basis of the change that takes place in soap manu-
facture). On the other hand a fat may be broken down into
glycerine and the fatty acid by the action of the enzyme, lipase.
This change goes on without appreciable rise of temperature,
whereas with the inorganic catalyst considerable boiling is
necessary.

The action of an enzyme has been compared to thé unlocking
of a door by a key: in contradistinction the action of an inorganic
catalyst has been likened to the breaking down of the door by
shatterings and smashings. In this we get the contrast between

48 A. K. Macbeth on Speeding-up of Chemical Reactions

the harmonious working of natural catalysts and the discordant
work of artificial agencies.

The lecture was illustrated by experiments and lantern

slides, and at the close on the motion of the Chairman a hearty
vote of thanks was passed to the Lecturer, and to Mr. J. K.

Marsh, B.Sc., who assisted with the experiments and the lantern..

—
aS =< BELFAST
_ NATURAL HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

~ PROCEEDINGS,
No. = :

18th January,
12th March, and 25th March, 1920.

s THE GREAT CHEMIST, JOSEPH BLACK: — .
Ms BELFAST FRIENDS AND FAMILY CONNECTIONS.

By HENRY RIDDELL, M.E., M.L Mech. oe

| - THE USE OF COLLOIDS IN DISEASE

By ALFRED B. SEARLE.

Sox

A NATURALISTS WANDERINGS IN NYASALAND.

By pines eg ROBERT NEWSTEAD, F.R.S,

an ates A ee
i a 2h ig

= aoe
\ Ge Rares ao,
GR AL RIS
BELFAST :

aS MAYNE, BOYD & SON, LTD., 2CORPORATION STREET
aa ~ (PRINTERS TO THE QUEEN’S UNIVERSITY).

1920.

ee

ate, ee aatal
"St naawamce i 10887 en

Dr. JOSEPH BLACK. .

From an Engraving in the Belfast Municipal Musewmn, published in 1803.

Proceedings of Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Socsety, 3.—1919-1920

18th January, 1920.

Professor Grecc WILSON, President of the Society, in the Chair.
“THE GREAT CHEMIST, JOSEPH BLACK, HIS BELFAST
FRIENDS AND FAMILY CONNECTIONS.”

By Henry Rippett, M.E., M.I.Mrcu.E., Hon. Treasurer
of the Society.

(Abstract.)

I make no apology for devoting the time available to-night
to giving some account of the life and work, as well as of the
family and friends, of one of the many remarkable men whom
- Belfast has given to the world for the development of scientific
thought, a man held worthy to be mentioned along with Newton,
and a tit member of that long list of great Irishmen, holding
such names as Boyle and Kelvin and Stokes. Sir James Dewar
has said that “the great Joseph Black was the first founder of
modern chemistry ; he was the first man to apply the balance ;
he was the first man to reveal and explain those interactions of
heat and cold which were a mystery until his time.”

It is true he was born at Bordeaux, where his father had
gone into trade as a factor and wine merchant, much respected
by the community and on terms of intimate friendship with the
great Montesquieu. But his Ulster connection is incontestable,
and will be dealt with later.

I am going to adopt an eccentric arrangement of my subject
to-night, and bring first before you the great work done by Black
as a chemist and physicist, partly by way of justifying my interest
in himself, his family and friends. [ shall try to interest you also
in these friends and relations as I see them, and to speak some-
thing of the old town of Belfast as it existed one to two hundred

50 _ Henry Riddell on

years ago, till the end of the first quarter of the 19th century. I
shall finish up by a short biography of Joseph Black as a man,
and I hope to leave you feeling as I do, that he passed through
life as a gentleman, thoughtful for his students, his patients and
his friends ; a loving son and brother and a faithful comrade.

To understand Black’s services to science it is necessary to call
to mind the condition of learning in physics and chemistry at the
time his work was done, say, from 1750 to 1770. In those days ©
Natural Philosophy was a term which covered all such branches
of science as Physics, Chemistry, and those almost quite un-
developed studies, Geology, Biology and Zoology, and it is there-
fore not at all surprising to find that, as professor of chemistry,
Black lectured upon the earth and the theories developed by his
great crony, Hutton, and that his experiments in heat were also a
chief part of his work. I, of course, remember that my great
teacher, Dr. Thomas Andrews, really was a physicist teaching
chemistry, rather than a chemist experimenting in physics. |

In Black’s earlier days there was little understanding of the
relation between elementary bodies. The birth of Dalton, the
originator of the conception of atomic weights, took place twelve
years after Black had presented the famous Thesis written for his
degree. It was in 1754 that Black wrote this thesis, while it
was in 1766 that Cavendish discovered hydrogen; in 1772
Rutherford separated nitrogen, and in 1774 oxygen was dis-
covered by Priestly, the discovery which is really the foundation
stone of modern chemistry. There were some observations earlier
than Black’s that might have given the clue, but they were not
followed up, and till his time the fact that a gaseous element
might exist in a solid form in a stone was totally unsuspected.
Chemistry was then chiefly taught as a medical subject, and
inseparably connected with the study of medicine, so that it is
not strange to find the professorship of Anatomy and Chemistry
held by the same man. Black was instituted professor of
Anatomy and lecturer in Chemistry in Glasgow in 1756, and began
there that long period of teaching chemistry which exercised such

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 5l

an influence upon the world of science. Anatomy and Chemistry
were not similar studies, and it is not surprising that Black soon
managed an exchange of the chair of Anatomy for that of
Medicine. In his medical lectures he distinguished himself by
the perspicuity and simplicity of his work, and by the cautious
moderation of all his general doctrines. We are really little con-
cerned about his medical professorship, and only note it in
passing as typical of the man as a teacher. Black’s fame as a
chemist depends on the work done while a student and while
lecturing inGlasgow. After his removal to the chair of Chemistry
in Edinburgh, his original research almost ceased. Teaching
became his life work, and his exceedingly conscientious nature
combined with feeble health prevented him from doing more than
was necessary to keep his lectures abreast of the growth of
chemical knowledge, and prepare the necessary experiments with
which he illustrated his teaching.

His work was known and its value recognized everywhere.
Later in the century, in 1791, when Black had finally accepted
Lavoisier’s ideas and the French system of nomenclature, and was
so teaching his pupils, Lavoisier wrote him expressing his
appreciation in a letter which I translate :—“I learn with joy
more than I can express that you are so good as to grant merit
to the thoughts and ideas which I have been the first to put
forward against the doctrine of Phlogiston. Paying more atten-
tion to your ideas than to my own, accustomed to look upon you
as my master, I mistrusted myself in that I had departed so far,
without your approval, from the road which you had so gloriously
followed. Your approbation disperses my scruples and gives me
new courage. I shall not be content until circumstances allow
me to bring to you myself the proof of my admiration, and to
show myself among the number of your pupils.”

So a reputation made by his great advances in science
was maintained by the remarkable success of his teaching as a
professor, to whose classes came pupils from many nations to
spread his fame in France, Germany, Sweden and even in Russia,

52 Henry Riddell on

I cannot forget the great admiration which our own Andrews had
for Black’s work, nor do I forget that it was in Andrews’ address
to the Chemical Section of the British Association in 1871 that
Lavoisier’s three letters to Black were first printed. Andrews
himself had followed up Black’s work by a remarkable series of
investigations upon the latent heat of vapours, followed later by
his world-famous enquiry into the relation between the liquid
and gaseous states of matter. It is scarcely too much to say
that these great advances in science were suggested by and
partially at least due to the original labours of Dr. Black. Anyone
who will read Black’s lectures as edited by Robison and published
in 1803, will agree that they are models of what such lectures
should be. It is really hard to say whether science has lost or
gained by Black’s devotion to his teaching duties. It is certain
that, relieved from this constant strain, he would have gone on
from discovery to discovery, and perhaps some of those great
results afterwards obtained by other chemists would have been
the fruit of his genius. The great clearness of teaching, combined
with the care to state nothing as proved which seemed in any way
hypothetical ; the fact that all knowledge lying within the scope
of his lectures was carefully studied, digested and taught in the
plainest and simplest language, had such an effect in inspiring his
pupils that it is possible that the seeds thus sown brought a
greater crop than could ever have come from the brain and
exertion of one man devoted to research. Surely a great teacher
is as great an asset to the world as a great investigator, and in
Black’s case the two could not be combined. I shall speak a little
further about this when I deal with his life as a man, and will
leave the personal now to say something about the actual
researches which first brought him fame, and the circumstances
under which they were made.

Black left school in Belfast in 1746 and entered Glasgow
University at the age of 18. It was not an early age as matters
went then. Those were the days of precocious youth, though
not so generally precocious as was William Thompson many years

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 53

later when he entered the University at the age of ten. Perhaps
you remember Kelvin’s views as to the education a boy should
have— ‘Every boy should ‘be able by the age of twelve to write
his own language with accuracy and some elegance, he should
have a reading knowledge of French and be able to translate
Latin and easy Greek authors, and have some acquaintance with
German. Having thus learned the meaning of words a boy
should study Logic so as to apply his words sensibly.’

Black was certainly not so precocious as this would require
when he entered at the age of eighteen.

It was after the completion of his Arts course that he was
required by his father to choose a profession, and selected that of
medicine, as being more in consonance with his favourite studies,
and at once began his work by attending the lectures of the
Professor of Anatomy and of Dr. Cullen, then Professor of
Medicine at Glasgow.

Dr. Cullen was really the first teacher of Chemistry in
Glasgow University, and during Black’s residence there began
the lectures which were to have such an influence later. Black
was selected as his assistant, and immediately began those
researches which reached fruition in the thesis offered for his
degree. Surely never was degree earned by such an epoch-making
thesis. In its English form, as read a year or so later before the
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh, its title, ““ Experiments upon
Magnesia Alba, Quicklime, and some other Alcaline Substances,”
does not seem to have much connection with medical research.
In reality, however, it was originally a true investigation for
medical purposes, and this appears in the Latin title of the degree
thesis, ““De Humero Acido a cibis orto et de Magnesia Alba.”
Since I began my study of Black and his friends, his “Life and
Letters” has been published, written by Sir William Ramsay,
and the true begetting of Black’s researches has been there
explained at some length.

Sir Robert Walpole, and his brother jaahaoe afterwards
Lord Walpole, were troubled with the stone. They imagined they

54 Henry Riddell on

had received benefit from a medicine invented by a Mrs. Joanna
Stephens, and through their influence she received five thousand
pounds for revealing the secret, which was published in the
London Gazette of 1739. Any of you anxious to know this
medicine in all its details can study it in Ramsay’s book ;
sufficient to say that it was mostly compounded from such things
as egg shells, snails, calcined soap, honey, wild carrot seeds, &c., &e.,
all burnt to a blackness. Doctor Cullen and his colleagues held
opposing views as to the efficacy of such remedies. It must be
remembered that the medical treatment of calculus at this time
depended upon the use of caustic alkalies, and Black began his
experiments on magnesia with the object of obtaining a “milder”
alkali, which would yet be more efficacious than those then in use.
Chalk itself had no caustic properties, but when burnt its nature
was completely changed. This was a common-place of the know-
ledge of the day, but the reason of the change was completely
misunderstood. It was the day of the material theory of heat
complicated by the extraordinary doctrine of Phlogiston due to
Stahl, a doctrine which gave to Phlogiston a set of very puzzling
properties.

Caustic Lime, obtained by burning the so-called calcareous
earth, was looked upon as having received its causticity from
something added by the fire used to obtain it. Then again, such
Caustic Lime, mixed with the fixed or mild alkalies, became itself
again mild calcareous earth, while the fixed alkali became caustic
in its turn. What more natural explanation than the lime parting
with the igneous matter it had received from the fire, and
the alkali taking it up? It was known also that the Caustic
Lime when exposed to the air gradually lost its causticity,
becoming again a substance indistinguishable from the calcareous
earth from which it had been obtained. What more certain, then,
than that the igneous matter, the cause of the causticity, had
escaped into the air, and the lime thus become reduced to its
original state? And yet it had been long known that loss of
weight had taken place in the actual calcination, and a curious

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 55

hypothesis was framed to account for this. The idea of an
imponderable in Chemistry was common enough, but for the
then purpose the facts required that the weight of the Phlogiston,
or whatever name the caustic principle might be called, should
be negative, surely something so contrary to the usual experience
of matter that it might have given rise to more than doubt in the
minds of the observers.

At first Black held the common view. He seems to have
thought of the possibility of catching this caustic substance as it
escaped into the air while the caustic lime gradually became
transformed to calcareous earth. In his note books a couple of
years before his degree thesis, experiments are mentioned with
this object. He placed some caustic lime in a saucer floating in
water and inverted a glass vessel over it. He notes the fact that
nothing escapes, not only does the water not fall in level by
increase of occupied space in the cover glass, but it actually rises
slightly. Thus early is he upon the track of the solution. I
need not follow his experiments in detail, but he succeeded in
proving conclusively that causticity was due to the loss of a
constituent in the gaseous form, which he named “ fixed air.”
He showed the transfer of this fixed air from one alkali to
another. He weighed and measured approximately the mass and
volume of the fixed air, and showed that it maintained an
unalterable relation to the mass of the particular alkali employed.
He inferred its possible identity with the iixed air obtained by
combustion of vegetable matter, and with a constituent of the
air expired from the lungs of living beings. In fact he really and
truly discovered carbonic acid, even to the extent of teaching
that its compounds with the alkalies were exactly analogous to
those formed by the mineral acids. This was the first time it
had dawned upon chemists that a substance which when alone
existed only in the gaseous form, might in combination be a solid
and appear as a stone. The advance in chemical knowledge was
inconceivable, and it is no wonder that he is looked upon as the
father of Pneumatic Chemistry, or that the great Lavoisier should

56 Henry Riddell on

have written with the copy of his book on respiration which he
sent to Dr. Black—“‘It is but just that you should be one of the
first to receive information of the progress made in a career which
you yourself had opened and in which we consider ourselves your
disciples.” A very human touch is added by the fact that Black
sent some copies of his thesis to his father who forwarded one to
Montesquieu. After a few days the great president called on
him and said—* Mr. Black, your son will be the honour of your
name and family.”

Robison, who edited Black’s lectures in 1803, writes :—
“What could be more singular than to find so subtle a substance
as air existing in a hard stone, and its presence accompanied by
such a change in the properties of that stone? What bounds
could be reasonably set to the imagination in supposing that other
aerial fluids, as remarkable in their properties, might exist in a
solid form in many other bodies which at present attract no
notice, because of our ignorance of their nature and their com-
position ?”

The other great discoveries to which I direct your attention
are those known as ‘latent heat” and specific heat. In modern
teaching “latent heat” is known rather as the heat upon which
the state of a body depends. Perhaps the most important
example is found in water, which exists in the three distinct
forms of solid, liquid and gas. Before Black’s time it was
believed, of course, that upon the temperature of the body
depended its state, that as soon as ice reached the temperature of
32°F. it melted. It was assumed that the smallest addition of
heat to the ice at 32° was sufficient, by raising its temperature
slightly above 32°, to cause the ice to melt. It was also implicitly
assumed that whatever quantity of heat was required to raise the
water through one degree, the same qnantity, added to ice at 32°,
resulted in water at 33°. Similarly it was believed that the
smallest addition of heat to water at 212° resulted in its conver-
sion into steam. ‘To Black the mere fact that ice took a long
time to melt, and that the kettle on the fire was long in boiling

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 57

away all the water, seemed to indicate something very different
from the common view.

It had also been assumed that equal quantities of heat were
required to raise equal masses of every substance through the
same range of temperature, and when it became clear from
certain experiments that this was a mistake, it was suggested
that “volume” should be substituted for ‘‘mass.” Dr. Black
showed that every substance had its own capacity for heat,
dependent on its material, and laid the foundation of the doctrine
of Specific Heat, which afterwards developed into the so-called
law of Dulong and Petit, that the atoms of all elements in a
gaseous state had the same heat capacity. He also showed that
there were numerous cases in which large quantities of heat were
added to bodies without any change in the temperature, such as
_ that already mentioned in melting ice and in evaporating water.
Thus for the first time the scientific world was provided with the
idea now known as “ heat consumed in, or arising out of, change
of state.” For perhaps all his life Dr. Black held the opinion
that heat was some kind of substance, though he recognized the
difficulties, and that the liquid state of water, as of other fluids,
was due to the actual combination of this substance of heat with
the material which became liquid, and in the combination ceasing
to be recognizable by the thermometer, just as the gas or fixed
air could not be recognized as forming part of the calcareous
earth by any of its visible properties. It is really curious that
when, as a schoolboy, nearly sixty years ago I began to study
natural philosophy, the doctrine of latent heat was still taught in
terms of combination of caloric, although the substantial
character of heat was then rejected by almost every authority.

Black’s first experiment was made by hanging in a large
room, very little subject to change of temperature, two globes of
thin glass, one containing water and the other ice. He assumed
that heat was being constantly supplied by the air of the room to
both globes. When the ice was almost all melted the temperature
of the water and ice contained in the globe was still 32°, while

58 Henry Riddell on

that of the water in the other globe had risen considerably.
Further experiments were made by the method of mixing a
known* quantity of warmed water with a weighed mass of ice,
and observing the resultant temperature, making due allowances
for losses by radiation during the time occupied in mixing.
Considering the difficulty of an unknown operation and the
roughness of the apparatus available his results are extraordinarily
accurate. Read in modern terms the latent heat of melting ice,
as measured by him, is equal to 143 B.T.U. or a quantity of heat
equal to raising the same mass of water, at say 40° to 183°, or
through 143° approximately. The agreement is as exact, possibly,
as the modern measure of 142:65 B.T.U. In estimating the
same quantity for transformation of water into steam Black was
assisted by James Watt, whose best results are given as between
900° and 950°. At 950° he was nearer than Lavoisier with
intricate apparatus, who estimated the figure at 1,000° against
the now accepted value of approximately 966°. I need not
follow the matter further, but quote Robison—‘‘ Fahrenheit,
Boerhave, Mavian, De Luc, and all the inquisitive meteorologist
of the two preceding centuries, though incessantly contemplating
and employing the same facts in their disquisitions, never mention
having such a thought.” “It is the undivided property of my
ingenious and acute preceptor.”

This perception of the latent heat of water and of steam
was one of great importance in science and pregnant with great
possibilities.

An ingenious explanation, no doubt partially true, was offered
by Dr. Irvine who had been a pupil. of Black’s, and was seeking
some method of finding absolute zero of temperature, now assumed
as about 492° F. below freezing point. Irvine assumed that the
total heat in any substance was proportional to the specific heat,
That of ice is not much more than half that of water, so that the
total heat of the ice was only about half that of the water, and
the heat disappearing into the water when the ice melted was
that required to bring up the total heat of the water to that

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 59

calculated by its specific heat. Of course this reasoning required
the whole law of specific heat from ultimate zero to present
conditions to be constant, or in an altered form, that this law
should at least be known in all its steps. The results to science
were not more remarkable than those to be found in another
. sphere. The steam engine, used chiefly in draining mines, was
at that time a very uneconomical tool. For example it is stated
that—“‘an engine having a cylinder of three feet diameter working
continually consumes almost 3,000 tons of coal in a year.”
Fortunately for the world Dr. Black had a friend and pupil or
assistant at the time in the person of James Watt, himself an
experimentor of supreme merit and an acute reasoner. It is
hardly too much to say that to these experiments of Black’s,
studied, and repeated and varied as they were by Watt, is due
much of the great advance made by the latter in the construction
of the Steam Engine, more particularly the Separate Condenser.
Watt was then employed in fitting up the instruments in the
McFarlane observatory, and got into his hands a small model of
Newcomen’s steam engine, and we all know the result of the
combination of Black’s suggestions with Watt’s skill and imagina-
tion. Curiously enough, but also naturally enough, Black’s
discoveries reinforced for a time the material theory of heat, so
that in 1803 we find Robison lecturing as follows :—‘‘Here we
observe another combination of heat or fire, the mighty agent by
whose operation all these changes are affected. Heat, or the
cause of heat, seems now to put on a real form, and as no longer
to be considered as a mere condition or state, into which other
matter can be brought, as noise or sound is known to indicate
merely a certain undulating or tremulous motion of the air.
But we now see heat susceptible of fixation, of being accumulated
in bodies, and, as it were laid bye till we have occasion for it,
and we are as certain of getting the stored-up heat out of the
steam or water, by changing them into water or ice, as we are
certain of getting out of the drawer the thing we laid up in it.”
This remained the common doctrine until 1840, and the singular

60 _ . Henry Riddell on

discovery with regard to radiant heat, that its rays were reflected
and refracted in the same manner as those of light, was held to
be a strong argument in its favour. It must be remembered
that the emission theory of light was still in force, and that
Newton’s explanation of refraction was absolutely consistent with
the then known facts, the constant relation between the sines.
of the incident and emergent ray. You remember Newton’s
calculation as to the force with which one grain of glass attracts
the ight which it refracts, that it is not less than the force with
- which a wire would be stretched by a hundred millions of millions
ot pounds of matter hanging by it. In one of his notes to Black’s
lectures Robison says—‘‘ This observation of the constant ratio
of the sines of incidence and refraction, is the strongest argument
that has yet been obtained for the materiality of heat. For this
law of motion is competent only to a material particle, having
mobility and inertia, and acted on by transverse accelerating
forces, in the same manner that a cannon ball is acted on by
gravity and by the force of projection.” It is now universally
accepted that heat is a form of energy, but what energy is
independent of matter is a difficult conception. Radiant heat
comes from the sun exactly as light, and it would seem clear that
a vibration which our theories tell us exists in the ether of space,
must be transmitted to and taken up by material bodies. The
possible relations between the ether and matter are still to
explain.

As has already been said there are no other great original
investigations of Black’s to be mentioned, but much good, if
rather routine work was done. The most outstanding example
was the analysis of water from a hot mineral spring, in which the
methods employed were very novel and greatly in advance of the
practice of the time. He was often invited to advise on problems
of industrial Chemistry, and offered many acute suggestions.

It has been quite impossible to go into Black’s work in
detail, and it is fully time to say something of his family and
friends.

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 61

Buack’s FAMILY AND FRIENDS.

It is quite impossible to give in complete detail the histories
of the many families in Belfast with which Joseph Black was
connected ; they include those of Eccles, Black, Wilson, Legge,
Clarke and others; I must therefore confine myself to the closer
relatives and most interesting personalities, aud to the more
curious results of the constant interlacing of the families of old
Belfast.

John Black, of Belfast, the Grandfather of Joseph, was
sworn in a Burgess of the town before Hugh Eccles, who was
sovereign in 1675, and was, I have reason to believe, an uncle of
John Black’s wife.

John tells his own story in a letter to the head of the
Lamont Clan, with which he claimed and -was admitted to
relationship.

The letter is written from Belfast in 1723 and from it I
extract the following—‘I have been an inhabitant of this place
for about 60 years, except some intervals when I went abroad to
France, Holland and the West Indies, &c., all which time I have
been engaged in Merchandysinge . . . I was comfortably marryed
to one of the name of Eccles, by whom I have five sons and two
daughters yet alive, all the former brought up in France and
Merchandysing, one of them settled a factor and marryed in
Bordeaux and hath a family of six children, another is honoured
to be King Georgs Consul at Cadiz, in Spain, where he enjoys
both great honour and riches.” —So that even two hundred years
ago the natives of Belfast had developed that wandering instinct
which has never left them. The factor at Bordeaux was his
eldest son John, born 1681, and from a power of attorney issued
by him in 1761 to his sons, we have a few words more as to his
father and himself. “I, John Black, native of this town of
Belfast, born in or about the year 1681 or 1682, son to John
Black and Jane Eccles, his beloved and virtuous spouse, educated
here, was in or about the year 1696 or 1697 accompanied by his

62 _ Henry Riddell on

father taken up to Dublin and there bound apprentice to learn
trade to his uncle Alderman John Eccles, afterwards Sir John
Eecles who, with his father Mr. John Black, of Belfast, sent John
Black, Junr., to go and reside at Bordeaux, in France, where he
arrived in the year 1699, and remained some years as compting
house servant, and clerk with Mr. George Boyd, of Coleraine, a
distant relation of the family settled there a factor, who discon-
tinuing the business young John Black from low circumstances
and small beginnings acquired friends, acquaintances and a little
good reputation and credit so as to commence there a factor for
captains of ships, super cargoes and merchants in Great Brittain
and Ireland who, giving him a good character for his sobriety,
care and honest application and industry in business recommended
correspondency with him to others and getting acquainted with
worthy Robert Gordon, there a factor from Aberdeen and _ his
spouse and family, did become enamoured of the _ person
accomplishment and virtues of Mistress Margaret Gordon and
desiring her in marriage their nuptial benediction was given in
the year 1716, from whence is descended a numerous issue of
eight sons and four daughters yet alive in 1761,” The Jane
Kecles mentioned was the daughter of John Eccles, of Cranmore,
and sister of Sir John Eccles, afterwards Lord Mayor of Dublin.
Cranmore was the house where John Eccles entertained William
III on his way from Carrick to Drogheda. Eccles blood has
flowed in so many channels that any resident of Belfast tracing
his descent from one of the merchant families of the 17th and
18th centuries in our city, may with great confidence assume that
he has a share. John Eecles had three daughters, of whom Jane
married John Black, Mary became the wife of William Legge, of
Malone, and the third married John Clarke, the ancestor of the
Clarke family. In his journal in Bordeaux, dated December,
1754, John Black gives us more personal and family reminiscences.
Joseph Black was at this time twenty six and the occasion is the
birth of an heir to John Black’s eldest son, also John, who had
married in 1750 Jane Banks, a member of one of the leading

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 63

families in Belfast. Stewart Banks was five times sovereign
between 1755 and 1788, and in the diary John Black registers
his satistaction— On my coming over the river from Blamont to
the Charterhouse, on Wednesday, the 14th December, 1754, to
assist in our family devotions on Sunday, I was agreeably
surprised with the welcome news of my daughter-in-law’s Jane
Black, safe delivery of a brave lusty boy christened the same day
at St. Andrew's Church by the name of Jo John Black, the fifth
so called in a direct line in a lineal descent of eldest sons in our
family, originally of Scotland, of those invited over thence by
James the First to colonize Ulster in Ireland, which had been
laid waste and depopulated by the wars amongst the chiefs and
their clans. My grandfather, John Black, born about Bally-
menagh, in the County of Antrim, had been a trooper against
Cromwell; my father, educated a merchant by Mr. Pottinger, of
Belfast, had been often super cargo in the West Indies, at Cadiz,
here at Bordeaux, at Danzick, Holland, England, Rouen, &c.
myself at school in Air, returned to Belfast, 1690, at Latin and
Greek until 1697.”

The mention of the Pottinger family recalls a memory which
Belfast ought not to let die. There is now no member of the
family resident in Belfast, where once the name was so powerful.
We find it now only in Mount Pottinger and in Pottinger’s Entry,
and yet members of the family made their mark in the commer-
cial history of Belfast, and in the political history of the Empire.
In China and in India their work brought changes even in
world politics, but it would be outside my subject to do more
than mention the name, and remind you that the life of Eldred
Pottinger especially is a study full of intense interest. It is
curious how many of Ulster blood have left their mark upon
India—the Lawrences, Richardson, Pottinger, Gillespie, Dufferin
and many others.

John Black was greatly respected in Bordeaux, and was on
terms of the most intimate friendship with the great Montesquieu,
who wrote him when his intention of returning to Ireland became

64 _ Henry Riddell on

known :—‘‘I cannot be reconciled to the thought of your leaving
Bordeaux. I lose the most agreeable pleasure I had, that of
seeing you and forgetting myself with you.” The son John, who
married Jane Banks, had issue by her, among other children a
daughter, Eliza, born in 1751, whose second husband was Walter
Bagenal, of Bagenalstown. A daughter, Maria, of this marriage -
became the wife of Lord Downs, and from them sprang two girls,
Ann and Charlotte, who married respectively Lord Clonmel and
Lord Seaton. There are four other children of John of Bordeaux,
- in addition to Joseph, which I should certainly mention. Isobel,
who married James Burnett, of Aberdeen, and whose daughter
became the wife of Adam Ferguson, the famous Moral Philosopher
and intimate friend of Joseph Black. Ferguson was already
related, being a cousin of Joseph’s, his mother being one of the
Gordons of Aberdeen. Then there was Katherine, born 1736,
who married Francis Turnley of Newtownards. Her daughter,
also Katherine, was wife of Ezekiel Boyd, and from this marriage
sprang still another Katherine, who married the Rev. R. Gage,
of Rathlin, and their daughter Dorothea, in 1864, became the
wife of Prince Waldeck and Pyrmont. Black’s two sons, Samuel
and George, came to Belfast, where they became leading men
among the merchants, holding the office of Sovereign between
them no less than seven times from 1772 to 1789. John of Bor-
deaux died in Belfast in 1767 while on a visit to his son, and was
buried in the family tomb in the old Corporation Church ground.

Samuel died in Belfast in 1792. George married in Belfast
in 1753 Arminella, neice of Hill Willson of Purdysburn, and
widow of a Mr. Campbell. He purchased Stranmillis and on it
built a cottage for a summer residence, which was afterwards
rebuilt by his son George in 1802. ‘This son George was born in
1763, and in 1801 married Ellinor Stewart, a daughter of Robert
Stewart of Ballydrain, a family with which the Blacks were
already related by common ancestry. Before George could get
married, however, he necded a settled position not dependent on
his father, and he became. Landwaiter, or Officer of Customs, in

“MARYVILLE” MALONE, BELFAST,
BY J. KNOX VINYCOMB.

“CRANMORE” MALONE, BELFAST,
BY J. W. CAREY.

Maryville—See pp. 67, 70 and 74.

ND
we

Cranmore—See pp. 62 and

From Sepia Drawings presented by Mr. A. Basil Wilson in Belfast Municipal Museum.

ASSES

GORDON A. THOMPSON.

An early and frequent donor to the Society's Musewm Collections.

From an Oil Painting by T. Flintoff in Belfast pal Musewmn.

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 65

Belfast, by the influence of the great Macartney family, whose
agent his father had been.

The following letter from George’s Dublin Uncle Thomas,
dated 31st December, 1796, deals with this affair :—

“My Dear Brother,

I am conscious of the length of time elapsed since I last
wrote to you, which was, I believe, the 24th October, and I
am longing to hear how youare. . . . George Black,
junior, has just left for Belfast, after having been a fortnight
here attending His Excellency the Lord Lieutenant, this
being the time his Lordship fixed for determining the business
George had in view, of which you are not unacquainted.
George had the honour of an audience from his Lordship on
two different times, and had the satisfaction to find he had
not forgot the promise he made to Lord Macartney in
providing for George by appointing him a Landwaiter in
Belfast, in the room of the person who wishes to resign in
favour of George, on being allowed an-annuity by George.
This last circumstance has thrown ‘such difficulties in the
way as to retard the business for some time longer. There
is an oath which cannot possibly be dispensed with, and
from the nature of the agreement between George and his
friend he could not comply with it. Lord Camden assured
George there was no instance in which it had been dispensed
with, and that he could not break through a regulation which
has been so strictly adhered to.”

This hesitation on George’s part to commit perjury was very
unusual in an office seeker of that day, the oath being regularly
taken and as regularly evaded some how. The difficulty was
got over later, aud George received the appointment and did
his duty in it for many years. It is evident that his marriage
was a happy one, and I shall quote a letter written by him from
Dublin to his wife, dated 15th June. 1802,

66

Henry Riddell on

“My Dearest Ellen,

This is no doubt a busy day at Stranmillis, for from the
excessive heat all the bees will swarm—every hour I stay
here renders me the more anxious to get away, this day it is
the climate of Calcutta. Our journey proved very pleasant,
the first day I spent at my uncle’s, fashion and folly prevail
there more than eyer. They have a country lodging for my
uncle which all the family enjoy except himself—Mrs. A.,
the very reverse of what she should be, dressed in all the
frippery of finery, and her child 25 years old never brought
from nurse. She seemed to feel shame when remarking
that her child did not know her, to hear that your little
cherub was already acquainted with you.”

He describes a visit to the theatre:—° Butler and I
paid 5/5 for being squeezed into the pit. Age has no visible
effect on Mrs. Siddons. She has certainly greater command
of looks and tone than any other person. She represented
the Princess Hermione, deserted by her lover Pyrrhus,
and expressed the passions of love and jealousy in a most
remarkable manner.”

He has accomplished all the messages:—‘ I have made
all my purchases, dimity, paper, bacon, and a pair of black
b-c-h-s, the latter at your request. . . . That health

and happiness ever may attend my dearest Ellen is the
sincere and ardent prayer of her affectionate
Gees

There are many descendants of George Black still living,

none in the male line, however, about Belfast. The little
cherub mentioned in the letter was George Macartney Black,
who took holy orders. He left a number of successors, a
daughter, Emily Marguerite, becoming Mrs. Richardson of Lambeg,
who died not very long ago, leaving several sons and daughters.
The Blacks and Clarkes were again united by the marriage of
Ellen with E. H. Clarke, who died in 1889, leaving a number of
descendants,

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 67

Ellinor Stewart, George Black’s wife, had four sisters; Jane,
who married Walter Wilson, grandfather of Walter and Basil
Wilson, both well known in Belfast. Walter Wilson was at one
time the tenant of Stranmillis, thus occupying an estate which
had many family memories. Mr. A. Basil Wilson remained in
Maryville, where I knew him well; as also in his profession of
engineer before, during, and after his management of the old
Rowan Foundry in York Street. I shall have something to say
later of the Wilson family. The sister, Mary Stewart, became
the wife of the Rev. John Clarke, curate of Belfast, who died in
1799, worn out by his labours on behalf of charity and the people
of Belfast. Thesister, Annabella, married Rev. J. Trail Sturrock,
of Seapatrick, near Banbridge, and this family were progenitors
of the Reades of Wilmont, so well known in the life and trade of
Belfast.

It is time now to say something of these Stewarts, as the
Ballydrain family is one of the most interesting of old Belfast.

THE STEWARTS OF BALLYDRAIN.

The Stewarts were believed to be of the family of Lord
Garlies, but the several versions of the connection are incon-
sistent. One of the Stewarts of Garlies, John, grandson of Sir
Alex. Stewart of Garlies, came to Ireland and settled in Bally-
moran, which property was afterwards purchased by his family.
Upon the Ballymoran ground was the townland of Ballydrain, the
townland of the black-thorn, and it is really probable that the
name Ballydrain was adopted for the present property by the
Stewarts, who built the bawn in 1608, as belonging to family
tradition. It-is almost certain that the ancient Ballydrain was
that at Ballymoran, and is that connected with the legend of St.
Mahee, which may be briefly told as follows (see page 36 of
Father O’Laverty’s book on the diocese) :—

Mahee was cutting timber, and when his load was finished
sat down to listen to a bird singing on a blackthorn. He entered
into conversation with the bird for a time which seemed an hour,

68 Henry Riddell on

At the end of the hour he took up his load of wood, and soon
after found that his conversation had lasted 300 years.

George Stewart, in 1738, tells the story of the family as
follows :—

“My grandfather, William Stewart, settled at Ballydrain in
the year of our Lord 1608. When the forty-one warre broke out
his eldest son, William Stewart, livedin Tyrone with Sir William
Stewart, great-grandfather of Lord Mountjoy. My uncle was the
first express who was sent from this Kingdom to give an account
of affairs to King Charles I, who was then at Edinburgh. The
King sent him commissions for raising five regiments to Lord
Hamilton, Montgomery, Lord of Ards, Sir William Stewart and
Sir James Stewart. Sir William Stewart lost his life at the
Break of Dunbar ; at that time the armye made use of match-
locks. General Leslye treacherously sold the King’s armye to
Cromwell. The evening before he gave orders to all the armye to
put out their matches, which was done by all except Colonel
Ladin. This narrative I have from my own kinsmen, who were
there.

Belfast, 1738. G. STEWART.”

The following is another extract from the recerds of Bally-
drain, which seems to be in the handwriting of Mrs. Sturrock:

“About the year 1640 Miss Anna Wilson, daughter of the
Laird of Croglin (near Dumfries) came on a visit to some relative
in Ireland, attended by a trusty servant. She landed at
Donaghadee, and on her way to Dublin reached the small Inn of
Drumbeg intending to pass the night there. But not finding
accommodation the landlady proposed that she should go to Mr.
Stewart’s of Ballydrain, who she knew was absent from home at
that time, and that she would apply to his housekeeper who she
knew would oblige her. They proceeded accordingly and met
with every kindness. But in the middle of the night the young
master of the house unexpectedly returned and on being told of
what had taken place desired to see the young lady though

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 69

asleep. This one vision in those days of romance was suflicient
to determine him to follow her, which he did and brought her
back to be his wife.”

This is the first introduction of the Wilsons of Croglin into
the Stewart family, afterwards completed by a marriage to be
described as happening a hundred and fifty years later.

The Stewart mentioned above was John, the son of the
William who built Ballydrain. He was born in 1621 and died
in 1691. His wife Ann Wilson, was two years older and died
in 1682.

Their son, Thomas Stewart, of Drumbeg, who was born in
1660 and died in 1715, was the member of the family who passed
Ballydrain property to his descendants. His son, John Stewart,
of Drumbeg, Linen Merchant, was born in 1701 and died in
1784. He married Jane Legge, of Malone, and a short notice of
her ancestry may be interesting.

The Legges were an English Family of some consequence, one
of whom came to Ireland with Sir Arthur Chichester, leaving
Devonshire to take this service. I quote the family tradition :—
“The Legges had been of service to King Charles J, and on this
account King Charles II wished to reward the Legge who had
settled in Ireland, but he declined to return to England. A
younger member of the family, however, crossed over, and was
created Lord Dartmouth, from whom the Dartmouth family is
descended.”

From the union of William Legge and Mary Eccles there
were born a son and two daughters, who come into our story.
The daughter, Elizabeth, married her cousin, William Clarke, in
the direct line of the Clarke family. Elizabeth died in 1724,
leaving a son, John, who in 1760 married Catherine Coates, a
granddaughter of Edward Harris, and brought this name into the
Clarke family. Elizabeth Legge’s brother, Alexander, was great-
grandfather of the Miss Legge of Malone, who became Vis-
countess Harberton. ‘The first house of the Legges at Malone
was built upon the ground then known as Castle Hill, which had

10 Henry Riddell on

been the site of one of the forts, or rather bawns, which had been
erected in Chichester’s time around the two counties. Another
sister of the old Legge family, born in 1698, married John
Stewart, three years younger than herself, and became the
mother of several sons and daughters. Thomas, born in 1728,
married Sarah Harris, a daughter of the Edward Harris already
mentioned in connection with the Clarke family, and lived at
Whitehouse. Ellinor, born in 1726, died unmarried. She built
Windsor, Maryville and Myrtlefield, and at her death left the
Maryville property to her niece, Ellinor, who had married George
Black. Robert Stewart, born in 1742, married in 1769 Mary
Isabella Mitchell, and passed on the Stewart inheritance of Bally-
drain, while Martha, born in 1731 married Israel Younghusband,
whose daughter Jane became the wife of Nathaniel Magee of
Newbridge, now Lismoyne, who has been mentioned in a
pamphlet published lately by Mr. F. J. Bigger.

Mary Isabella Mitchell, married at eighteen, seems to have
been a most lovely and charming girl, and a most amiable wife
and loving mother.

The following notice of the marriage appears in the Public
Gazetteer of December 19th—23rd, 1769 :—

‘Married last week, Mr. Robert Stewart, of Ballydrain, Co.
Down, to Miss Mary Mitchell, daughter of Mr. George Mitchell,
an eminent tobacconist of Skinner Row.”

The beauty and grace of the young girl called forth an
acrostic dated May 20th, 1768, from the Rev. Joseph Weld,
Archdeacon of Ross.

“Much boasts the world of Spartan Helen’s charms
A fatal fair that set the world in arms.
Rejoice, lerne, here we see combined
Youth, wit and beauty with a manly mind.”
Mildness and sense well tempered mark the fair,
In vain the flatterer’s voice assails her ear.
Truth, simple truth, with tenfold charm appears,
Chaste as that truth itself which she reveres.

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 71

Her breast can no transparent crystal need ;
Each heavenly virtue’s seen in every deed.
Let others boast of some new conquest chained ;
Let hers be to retain those hearts she’s gained.”
Mary Isabella Stewart died early, aged only 34, but was
long held in remembrance by her many friends. From a Belfast
paper of 6th December, 1785, I extract this notice of her death :

‘Died, on Friday last, after a tedious illness, which she
bore with uncommon resignation and fortitude, Mrs. Mary
Isabella Stewart, of Ballydrain, leaving her friends and all
who knew her to lament the loss of a woman who stood
unrivalled in everything that makes the sex beloved and
admired, possessed of every virtue that could adorn human
nature. She has left to the world an example which the
few can equal, all should endeavour to imitate.”

“Fair like the snowy beauty of thy mein,
The unsullied whiteness of thy soul within.
Oh, thou hadst all that can the soul engage,
The face of youth, chastened with sapient age ;
Gay without lightness ; grave yet not severe,
Polite as courts are and as truth sincere,
Perfection all (as far as mortals can),
As soft as woman and as wise as man.”

The foregoing is taken from a copy by Annabella Sturrock,
then in the possession of the late R. H. Reade.

The “blind engineer,” Alexander Mitchell, the inventor of
the screw pile, was a nephew of this lady.

Robert Stewart left only one son and five daughters. The
son, George Alexander, married Matilda Rainey, of Greenville.
After his uncle’s death he sold Ballydrain and removed to
Macedon, which he had inherited from him. He died in
1805, and his widow afterwards became the wife of
Hamilton Rowan. Four of his sisters have already been
mentioned; a fifth girl, Mattie, otherwise Helena, died unmarried,

72 Henry Riddell on

I print one or two of her letters, showing her charming
personality. Good hearted, lively, sharp-tongued Mattie Stewart,
alive to me though she died in Bath 115 years ago.

Robert Stewart’s brother, William, built Wilmont, but it
only remained a Stewart possession for two generations, his
successor having to sell it owing to financial reverses. It later
came. into the family of the Reades, descendants of a daughter
of Sturrock, so that it came back to the blood but not to the
name. The Reades were and are well known in the city, the
late R. H. S. Reade, Esq., bearing the memory of the family in his
name. One of William Stewart’s daughters, Eliza, married John
Bellingham, of Castlebellingham, and after her death her husband
chose her cousin Kate Clarke as her successor.

James Templeton, the father of John, married Eleanor
Legge, one of the family we are concerned with, and thus John
Templeton comes into the singular chain of family connection.
John Templeton was one of the great botanists and naturalists of
the time. He lived at Cranmore, where he acclimatised very
many rare plants, shrubs and trees. John was born in Bridge
Street in 1766, and was educated by the famous David Manson.
He began to study plants in 1790, after his father’s death, chiefly
concerned with problems of cultivation in Cranmore, in which
he was always singularly successful. In 1793 he laid out an
experimental garden. Later on he became the familiar friend of
all the great botanists of the day. It was in 1795 that he dis-
covered the Irish Rose—“ Rosa Hibernica,” and got a five-guinea
prize from one of the Dublin Societies. So well was he thought
of that he was offered by Sir Joseph Banks what was then a large
salary and a free grant of land to go out to Australia for work
there. Dr. Thomas Taylor says of him—“I believe thirty years
ago his acquirements in the natural history of organized beings
rivalled that of any individual in Europe.” He had a singular
facility, with pencil and brush, and his delineations of plants and
birds were surprising in their fidelity. He contributed the notes
on Natural History to the Belfast Magazine, started in 1808

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 73

He was our first honorary member when our Society was founded
in 1821, and on his death a medal was struck in his honour and
awarded as a prize. He married in 1799, Katherine Johnston,
of Seymour Hill, and left a son Robert, a medical man, deputy
inspector of hospitals, and an entomologist who contributed
several papers to the Magazine of Natural History.

The Clarkes have already been mentioned as descendants of
the Eccles family. The present Clarkes trace descent through
Mary Pollock, their grandmother, to Jeremy Taylor, through
their mother to the Blacks, and by their father’s family also to
the Legges. Some interesting and historical connections are found
in the family of which their grandfather William Clarke was a
son. His sister Elizabeth married Dr. James MacDonnell the
famous Belfast Physician, and one of the principal members of
the old Belfast Literary Society, the father of another well known
Belfast man Dr. John MacDonnell. Another sister married a
Mr. Carson, and was grandmother of the Miss Cunningham who
married James Thompson, of Macedon. A third sister Grace,
married the rather notorious Councillor William Sampson, and
a daughter of this marriage became the wife of Theobald Wolfe
Tone. One of the brothers, Rev. John Clarke, was the husband
of Mary Isabella Stewart, whose daughter Katherine, as I have
already said became the second wife of John Bellingham. There
are many other family relations to Lindsays, Stewarts, Corrys
and Thompsons which I cannot deal with. Another of the Legge
sisters, Jane, married Robert Thompson and became ancestress of
the Thompsons of Jennymount, to whom I shall refer later.

I come now to the Jane Stewart who married Walter
Wilson. I have already told you of the old connection, between
1740 and 1750, between the Stewart and the Wilson families.
Robert Stewart and his wife were visiting Scotland, and as they
were near the Wilson property they sent to the house asking for
the Laird of Croglin. He was out at the time, but hearing later
of the matter, he followed the Stewarts, and found them
exceedingly agreeable friends. Some of his daughters were

74 Henry Riddell on

invited to Ireland, and on the death of the Laird the young heir
Walter was brought over to learn the linen trade at Ballydrain.
While there he was lodged at Newbridge, afterwards Lismoyne,
where he was an especial favourite of Nathaniel. Magee’s first
wife, who was Stewart by blood through her mother. He fell in
love with and five years later married Jane, living first at Bally-
drain and afterwards at Maryville. I have already mentioned
his descendants Basil and Walter, and we have as a member
of the Society Mr. Alec Wilson, of Croglin, the son of the
second Walter and the great-grandson of Jane Stewart.

I propose now to read you a few of the old family letters,
-and shall choose first, as showing the nature and difficulty of
travel at the time, a letter of Mrs. Mary Isabella, wife of Robert
Stewart, written from Whitehaven and dated—-

“Sunday, 29th August, 1784.

My Dear Sister Ellen (Miss Ellinor Stewart, of Bally-
drain).—I make no doubt you received an account of our
jaunt to Donaghadee from John, and of our very uncomfort-
able situation there in the worst inn in Ireland. Mrs.
Moorehead came to visit us and invited us to tea, where we
went, but we were scarcely half-an-hour in the house when
we were summoned aboard. We made ready as fast as
possible and embarked about 8 o’clock.

I very soon grew sick. As the cabin was very small I
determined to keep the deck; accordingly, I had a bed made
with some hay covered with an old sail. On this I lay until
about 12 o’clock, when the wind increasing Robert insisted
on my going down below into the hold, where Mrs. Turnley
and M. T. G. had been for some hours. As I was by this
time totally unable to assist myself either with hands or feet,
Robin and one of the men lifted me up and deposited me in
the hold like a sack. But, my dear Miss Stewart, if I could
give you an idea of the place where I was put by way of
being comfortable—only conceive a parcel of large cobble

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 75

stones, on which was shook a little hay. On this soft bed I
was laid down, and there continued in a state not to be
described during the remainder of the voyage; but the worst
is yet to come.

We arrived at Whitehaven after just 18 hours, and
were there obliged to lie at anchor five hours waiting for the
tide to bring us in to the pier. To give you a description of
the last scene is impossible, for the tide coming in made the
vessel roll and toss with double velocity, which you. may
well judge did not settle our stomachs. Robin had prepared
two of the men to carry me, but the view I got of the long
flight of narrow stone steps which we had to ascend to the
quay made me exert myself to try my own limbs, and, thank
God, I was able to walk safely to the inn.

As for my companions I do not know which was worsts
Robin alone was able to keep his feet though he was some-
times extremely sick. Indeed, if you can imagine how busy
he was in attending to us poor objects, and ordering the
men by turns, you would think he never should have arrived
here but for his exertions. Poor Mr. Turnley was like a
dead person the whole time: he got into a small boat which
was on the deck and lay on one side without stirring or
speaking for 23 hours. Mrs. T. and Jenny Gairey were
both so frightened that it frequently drove away their sick-
ness; the former in particular often surprised me by bouncing
up out of a severe fit and calling them to lower the sails
and various directions which I now forget. Indeed she put
me much in mind of the description you gave of her when
the French landed.

I can’t tell you how I am this morning, I am as sore as
if I had been pounded in a mortar, and so weak that I can
hardly walk, but Mr. Turnley and Robert are so entertaining
they just keep me alive.”

The rest of the letter is interesting, but we have no time to
give to it. The Turnley family was of Drumnasole, near Cushen-
dall, and the name remains yet among our shareholders,

76 Henry Riddell on

In 1798, at the first occurrence of trouble Walter Wilson
carried off to Scotland his wife and children and some of the
Stewart girls to get them out of the way. Permits for travelling
had to be obtained and Mr. Alec Wilson has that issued for this
journey by General Goldie. It reads as follows —

“Permit Mr. and Mrs. Wilson and family with Miss
Stewarts, who are of Mr. Wilson’s family, to pass into Belfast,
whence they wish to go to Scotland where Mr. Wilson’s
property is

Permit Mr. Wilson’s baggage to go with him.

Lisburn, 9th June, 1798. THOMAS GOLDIE, M. GENERAL.’

I quote from the letter written by Helena Stewart to her
aunt on her arrival in Scotland.

“Stranraer, 13th June, 1798.
My Dear Aunt,

We are safe and sound in this town, but, our great
trouble is about our friends in Ireland. We have heard
good news to-day that Belfast and the County of Antrim is
all Qiaiet, visas e none of us was sick but me and nurse
and the children. We have met a good many acquaintances
here. Mr. and Mrs. Black are staying here now and the
Younghusbands. The town is so crowded that it is almost
impossible to get any sort of a lodging. We intend to stay
here for a few days as it is near Portpatrick and we can
hear news from Ireland sooner. I hope you and uncle will
take care of George ; before we left home he promised to go
into Belfast till the country would settle. I trust the Great
Guardian will protect him in the hour of danger.”

George was her brother, 20 years of age, whoa year later
married Matilda Rainey, and family affection between brother
and sisters was exceedingly strong.

Three weeks later George is writing from Belfast to his
sister Ellen.

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 77

‘New Grove, 5th July, 1798

Although I have not received a letter from you, my
dear Ellen, since I wrote to you, I cannot deny myself the
gratification of addressing a few lines to you, as I am sure
you will be wanting to hear about the state of the country.
It is now, thank God, perfectly quiet in the North, but I
believe not so much so in the South. There have been great
numbers of rebels killed there. I believe they are beginning
to open their eyes and see that they have been deluded by
designing men. In a letter which Mr. Younghusband has
had from James Butler since he went home, he mentions
that a plot was discovered by which all the Protestant
families in Carlow were to have been unmercifully butchered,
including his uncles. There were parties of rebels to have
come in at a certain hour by all the avenues leading into the
town, and 600 actually did come in, but they were about
ten minutes too soon. Out of the 600 only about ten
escaped the slaughter, and they were taken prisoners. The
other parties who were advancing when they heard the firing
retreated in great confusion.

I think Dr. Birch’s case is truly pitiable. His brother,
the clergyman, was tried last week in Lisburn for sedition,
and I believe had it not been on his brother’s account he
would have been hanged. He is only to transport himself
with all his family out of the British dominions for ever.
The Doctor’s eldest son, I hear, was shot in the engagement
at Saintfield at the head of a party of rebels; and George
was there, too, but he escaped to England and was taken
prisoner at Carlisle in the dress of a young lady, accompanied
by his mother and one of his sisters. . . . Only conceive
the father, who is in the Yeomanry, fighting on oné side and
his two sons on the other. It is enough to make hnman
nature shudder at the thought.”

78 Henry Riddell on

George was now 20 years old, and rumour begins to fit
him with a wife. His sister Matty, otherwise Helena, has
returned from Scotland, and tells the news of the place to her
sister Ellen, who is in Bath with another sister, Mrs. Clarke.

“ Ballydrain, August 26th, ’98.
My Dear Ellen,

We are once more in a fair way of being murdered. I
suppose you have heard before now of them reptiles of the
French being landed in the County of Mayo. It was only
yesterday we heard it and all the military went past to-day,
I hope there is no reason to fear now for there is such a
small number of French they would be entirely subdued .. .
If it was not for the thoughts of what is going forward in
the world, and the stories we hear (one twentyninth part of
which is not true), we are all very well and quiet, nobody
ever attempts to molest us. We won't make fools of our-
selves this time and run away though Walter wants us to
Oa Ae eee Many a time I wish you were here, but that
is just selfishness that I immediately check myself and think
how much happier you are there and how pleasant it is for
Mary to have you. . She is alarmed about an intimacy
between her beloved brother and a young lady she deems
undesirable, and does not mince her language, “ that nasty
little plague, for I can call her nothing else and her beastly
mother, how I do hate them both. I am quite sure it is a
scheme laid between them to get George, and they do stuff
his head with such notions that if he goes into any mischief
it will be entirely owing to them.”

She manoeuvres to keep him from such company.
“we have got him kept at home this week past. One day
when Mr. Y. would keep him busy in the office, another my
aunt would engage him and a third we would contrive to
keep him amused, but in spite of our hearts he has gone to-
day on pretence of bearing news to Belfast, for Miss C-——

”

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 19

is staying at Mr. Ferguson’s, no great credit to her. We
have a very pleasant neighbour now, a Mr. Ouzley, curate of
Ballylesson, (he is a cousin to the one that preaches so well)
he will be of great use to George. He is an uncommon
good young man and George seems very fond of him, he
never swears a word and hates drinking. He is here very
often, and plays very well on the fiddle and understands
music uncommonly well. He is in the secret also and
schemes as well as any of us.”

But this philandering did not last long, for in October 31st
George has struck the real thing and is pressing hard to marry
Matilda Rainey of Greenville, who afterwards became his wife.
I am sorry time prevents me from quoting any more of these
letters, full of gaiety, family feeling and tenderness, but I must
turn elsewhere and let you know something of the memories of
Miss Mary Isabella Wilson, daughter of the Walter who married
Jane Stewart, and grand aunt of Mr. Alec Wilson. I regret
exceedingly that so few of these memories are available. There
is a tender, simple, and graphic style about them very striking
and attractive. She was born in 1799, and died in 1900, and
her memory ran back till she was two years old, and was well
stored with events affecting her friends. Listen to an early page.

“The longest back I can remember was walking on the
track line with my mother and my Aunt Helena’s maid from

Newbridge (now Lismoyne) to Maryville, and some one said:

“it’s a long walk for a child of two.” I know the look of

the spot where this was said. Aunt Helena went to England

with her sister, Mrs. Clarke, after this, in 1803. My two
brothers and I got little silver knives to give our three cousin

Clarkes the day they left Stranmillis for Bath, where Aunt

Helena died after a short illness. I can recollect her playing

on the organ at Maryville and the muslin dress she had on,

which she afterwards made into frocks for me, to my great
delight. I remember being at Ballydrain, and Matty Rainey
took me out by a glass door to look at the weather cock

80 Henry Riddell on

upon top of the house. The sweet smell of the greenhouse
at Windsor as you opened the north door I can never forget,
and old Miss Ellinor Stewart in her chair at the drawing-
room fire. One window looked into the greenhouse, another
at the lake; from the third you could see Drum Church,
where I first went to Church, holding my father’s and
-mother’s hands, as I jumped along the Bell hill and heard
the Church bell on a bright, Sunday morning. I was put
upon a high straw stool in the Ballydrain seat, and looked
over at the Malone seat where Miss Marcella Legge, after-
wards Mrs. Temple, sat.”

There is a curious touch of character-drawing in the follow-
ing :—

“Miss Stewart, of Windsor, died in 1805, also her
eldest brother, Mr. Tom Stewart, of Castle Street and
Whitehouse, who gave my mother some silver, two large
spoons, a tankard and two salvers in an old rubber, which
he bade her return. He often drove to Maryville with old
Mick, standing at the back of the carriage with his gold-
headed cane. I can remember Mick pushing his fat old
master into the carriage.”

There is a description of a death in Jennymount, which
belonged to the Thompsons, doubly related to the Wilsons.
They were descended from one of the Legges, and their mother
was a sister of Walter Wilson, whose mother was one of the
Gordons of Traquir. I quote it because of its historical interest.
After the death of her sister, who had married Captain Selby
Smyth and died abroad, Jane Thompson had fretted herself into a
state of weakness, so Miss Wilson tells us.

‘Jane was so sad that she became very delicate, and
they thought the greenhouse between the sitting-rooms bad
for her health, and took it away in a few years, but not
until Mrs. Maule came there in 1821, on a visit and died
eleven days after she arrived, As she passed through the

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 81

greenhouse she said “Oh, how beautiful,” and went up to

her room, never to come down. My mother sat up with her

and she bade her bring her minister to visit her, which
brought her comfort. She was a very holy and lovely
woman. I remember the sweet smile upon her face after

her death, and while my mother held her beautiful head I

held her feet while she was laid in her coffin. Her eldest

son and daughter were with her. She had been a play-fellow
of my father, and used to say she always liked Walter

Wilson. Her mother and my grandmother were first cousins,

Gordons of Dumfriesshire. I only remember one of my

grand aunt Gordons of Dumfries. After Uncle Thompson’s

death Fox Maule and his sister, Patricia, returned to Jenny-

mount for John Thompson’s wedding, in February, 1824.

The crowd at St. Ann’s was so great that my mother and I

could not get in, and we declined to go to the wedding

breakfast. Miss Maule came to Maryville for a few days.

She was not present at the wedding, but staid with poor

Jane. Ido not know who was best man, Robert Thompson,

Alex. Wilson or Fox Maule.”

Mrs. Maule’s husband was a Ramsey, and had taken the
name of Maule with property left by General Maule in 1787.
Fox Maule became by inheritance Lord Panmure, and was the
much blamed Secretary for War in the Crimean campaign. I
think, myself, that his work was conscientious and hard but that
he was killed by the system, which was about as rotten as could
be. Patricia became Lady Patricia Young, and finally Lord
Panmure, on the death of the great Indian Viceroy, became
Earl of Dalhousie.

One other memory, because it introduces a name of singular
interest.

“Aunt Mary Gordon’s brothers died in the West Indies:

Robert, the last survivor, lived until after Gordon Thompson

went out to see him in 1828. If Gordon had not gone my

brother had intended to go, as Uncle Gordon wrote tu ask a

82 Henry Riddell on

grand nephew to go to St. Vincent’s from Belfast. His

brother Alexander was Governor of Montserrat, where he

died. He left all his property in Prince Edward’s Island to
his brother Robert.”

Mrs. Marshall, a daughter of Alex. Wilson’s, continues the
story a little—

“Gordon Thompson returned to Belfast after twelve
years travel. . . . He came to Maryville one evening
every week, and delighted us all with his stories of the
Rocky Mountains, Andes, &c. It was rumoured that Lady
Christian Maule had refused him. Gordon Thompson was
in the Belfast Town Council, and received the Queen in
1849.”

I may now leave these family histories and finish by saying
something about Joseph Black as the man, the teacher, and the
friend.

Joseph Black was born in 1728, the fourth son of the factor
and wine merchant, and, up to his twelfth year, was educated by
his mother. He was then sent home to Belfast, and became a
pupil, it is said, in the old Latin School which had been established
and endowed by the then Earl Donegall about 1666.

This old school was built on ground belonging to the old
Corporation Church, which stood practically on the river side, on
the site now occupied by St. George’s Church. The school stood
where is now the junction of Ann Street and Church Lane, in
early days known as Schoolhouse Lane. In this school many, if
not indeed most, of the well-known early citizens of Belfast were
educated. Mr. A. A. Campbell has drawn my attention to an
article in the old Belfast Magazine of 1809, in which a friend of
the family tells us that Joseph Black was entrusted for his educa-
tion to “Mr. Sprott, connected with the well-known family of
Maxwell, in Comber, who had educated many of the learned
men of Belfast.” While this is not contradictory of the tradition
as to the Latin School, it at least raises a doubt which I have,
up till the present, been unable to solve. I should welcome any

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 83

information which will settle a point, in itself interesting in the
history of education in Belfast.

The Latin School remained in existence until the establish-
ment of the Belfast Academy in 1786.

Whether in the old Latin School, then, or under the care of
Mr. Sprott in another place, Joseph remained in Belfast until
1746, when he entered the University of Glasgow.

In the “Matriculation Album” of Glasgow University the
following reference is found, under date of 1746:—“ Josephus
Black, filiuns natu quartus Joannis Black, Mercatoris in Urbe
Bordeaux in Gallia, ex Urbe de Belfast in Hibernia.”

Attached to the above is an editor’s note, which reads :—
“Born at Bordeaux in 1728, M.D. Edin. 1754, Member of
Faculty of Physic and Surgery Glasgow 1757, President of that
Faculty 1759-1761 and 1765-1766. Lecturer in Chemistry in
the University of Glasgow 1756-1766, Professor of Anatomy
therein 1756-1757. Professor of Practice of Medecine 1757-1766:
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh 1766-1799.
The discoverer of Latent Heat. Was chosen in 1789 one of the
six Associes Mtrangeres of the Royal Academy of Sciences in
Paris, the greatest literary honour in Europe. Died at Edinburgh
unmarried, 6th December 1799.”

When Joseph Black entered Glasgow University he had the
good fortune to come under the influence of two men who were
well qualified to direct the studies of such an enquiring and
ingenious intellect, the Professor of Natural Philosophy, Dr. Dick,
and later on Dr. Cullen, the Professor of Medecine and Chemistry.

Regarding his choice of a profession, Dr. Robison, who edited
his lectures published in 1803, tells us “he preferred that of
Medecine, as the most suited to the general habit of his studies,
not foreseeing, during the happy gaiety of youth, how much he
would suffer by anxious solicitude and fears in the practice of this
noble art.” ‘

Black was fortunate also in his relations and friends, The
mother of James Russell, the Professor of Natural Philosophy in

84 Henry Riddell on

Edinburgh, was a sister of his own mother, while the mother of
Dr. Adam Ferguson was also an aunt, and Ferguson made the
connection closer by marrying the daughter of Black’s sister. Of
his friends later in life the more remarkable were James Watt,
David Hume, John Home, Clark of Elden, and Dr. James Hutton,
the real and true begetter of the Science of Geology.

After beginning the study of Medecine in Glasgow, Black
proceeded to Edinburgh to complete his work there. He does
not seem to have availed himself of the time in Glasgow to
shorten his studies in Edinburgh, but to have taken the full
classes and courses prescribed for the degree.

The thesis offered for his M.D. degree was probably the
most important contribution to scientific literature ever presented
on such an occasion.

The results obtained were so very surprising in their
novelty and importance that appreciation was immediate, and
the publication of the paper in an English form rendered it
generally accessible to those interested in scientific learning. On
the Continent his experiments were soon repeated and_ his
conclusions verified, though there were some who attempted to
question their accuracy, and it became evident that a new era in
Science had opened. It is no wonder that, in later years, his
classrooms were filled by earnest students.

Shortly after Black obtained his degree Dr. Cullen was
called from Glasgow to take a professorship in Edinburgh, and
there was a vacancy in the Chair of Chemistry in Glasgow. The
choice of the authorities naturally fell upon Dr. Black, and he
was appointed Lecturer in Chemistry. Ten years later he left
Glasgow to become Professor of Chemistry in Edinburgh, suc-
ceeding Cullen, who was appointed to the Chair of Medicine.

During his term of office in Glasgow he had a great. reputa-
tion as a teacher, and was a very favourite physician of that city.
I cannot help quoting his editor, Robison—“ His countenance
at that time of life was equally engaging as his manners were
attractive, so that I do not wonder that, in the general popularity

The Great Chemist, Joseph Block. 85

of his character, he was in particular a favourite with the ladies.
I could not but remark that they considered themselves honoured
by the attentions of Dr. Black, for these were not indiscriminately
bestowed, but exclusively paid to those who evinced a superiority
in mental accomplishments or propriety of demeanour, and in
grace and elegance of manners.”

Dr. Black was always of a very delicate constitution, and on
every occasion of a chill or cold subject to spitting of blood, yet
by care and abstemious attention to diet he maintained an equable
state of health until his seventy-first year. ‘“The sedentary life
to which study confined him was manifestly hurtful, and he never
allowed himself to indulge in any intense thinking, or puzzling
research without his complaint being seriously increased.” He
found his chief recreation in the society of his friends, and the
influence of these conversations is seen in the work of Dr. Black,
and also in the writings of those friends. In the earlier part of
my paper, for example, I have explained the relations between
the Doctor and James Watt, as well as Dr. Hutton. The man
had a genius for friendship, and many tokens of feeling were
lavished upon him by his associates.

Joseph Black was an artist at heart. Robison tells us that
—“He had a fine accurate musical ear, and a voice that would
obey it in the most perfect manner. He was a very intelligent
judge of musical compositions, and I never heard any person
express so intelligibly the characteristic differences of some of the
national musics of Europe. Without having studied drawing he
had obtained a considerable power of expression with his pencil,
both in figures and in landscape. His memorandum books are
full of studies of this sort, and there is one drawing of an iron
furnace, fitted up with rough hewn timber, that is finished with
great beauty, and would not disgrace the hand of a Woolet.”

I cannot omit the following naive remark, so characteristic
of Robison—‘‘ Naturally, therefore, the young ladies were proud
of Dr. Black’s approbation of their tastes in matters of orna-
ment.”

86 Henry Riddell on

We do not follow Black year by year of his life. The
characteristic habits and features of his life have been described,
and we need not expand into a biography specially dealing with
the thirty-three years in Edinburgh. Some have said that he
frittered away on general medical practice the time and attention
which would have given to the world many great discoveries. It
is not necessary to take this view. It seems apparent that, as
Black grew older, the reserve of strength and of intellectual
vigour beyond what his teaching required became less and less,
and it was simple wisdom to confine himself to what he felt able
to perform, and leave to others to press forward upon the road
which he had opened.

As to the closing years of his life I again fall back upon
Robison, as his description cannot be improved——“ My narrative
draws to a close. ‘The infirmities of advanced life bearing more
heavily on a feeble constitution gradually curtailed those hours of
walking and gentle exercise which had always been necessary for
Dr. Black’s case. Company and conversation began to fatigue;
he went less and less abroad, and was visited only by his intimate
friends. His duties at College now became too heavy a task and
he got an assistant. But at length even this was more than
enough for his diminished strength and he was compelled to give
up lecturing altogether. His only apprehension was that of a long
continued sick bed; and this, perhaps, less from any selfish feeling
than from the humane consideration of the trouble and distress
occasioned to attending friends, and never was this modest and
generous wish more completely gratified.”

His great friend and relative, Dr. Adam Ferguson, tells us
that, ‘‘on the 26th November, 1799, and in the seventy-first year
of his age, he expired without any convulsion, shock or stupor, to
announce or retard the approach of death.”

“So ended a life which had been passed in the most correct
application of reason and good sense to all the objects of pursuit
which providence had prescribed to his lot.”

“He had long enjoyed the tender and affectionate regard of

The Great Chemist, Joseph Black. 87

parents whom he loved, honoured and revered ; with the delightful
consciousness of being a dutiful son, and being cherished as such;
one of a family remarkable for sweetness of disposition and
manners, he had lived with his brothers and sisters in terms
of mutual love and attachment. He had never lost a friend but
by the stroke of mortality.”

May we all receive such an epitaph from our friends, and
may we all deserve it as well as did Dr. Joseph Black.

NOTES UPON SOME OF BLACK’S FAMOUS GLASGOW
AND EDINBURGH FRIENDS.

John Robison, Editor of Black’s lectures, born 1739,
studied at Glasgow, accompanied Wolfe on the expedition to
Quebec, was rated as midshipman, and employed in surveying the
St. Lawrence He went to Jamaica in charge of the chronometer
invented by Harrison, on the voyage to test this instrument. He
became lecturer in Chemistry in Glasgow on Black’s removal to
Edinburgh, but went to Russia four years later, and was
appointed Inspector of the Marine Cadet Corps at Cronstadt,
leaving this employment to become Professor of Natural History
in Edinburgh in 1773. He wrote many valuable papers for the
scientific journals, but his most interesting work was a pamphlet
blaming the Freemasons for all the unrest following the French
Revolution.

Adam Ferguson, from 1724, studied at St. Andrews, after-
wards going to Edinburgh to study Divinity. In 1759 he became
Professor of Natural Philosophy, but later changed to the chair
of Moral Philosophy. His chief works were the “ Essay on Civil
Society ” (1769), and his “History of the Progress and Ter-
mination of the Roman Republic” (1783). He died in 1816,
aged ninety-three.

Adam Smith, author of the “ Enquiry into the Nature and

88

Causes of the Wealth of Nations” (1776), only needs mention, as
he is so well known.

The same may be said of James Hutton, whose great book,
“The Theory of the Earth,” appeared in 1795.

Many of his conclusions have been disproved by later
investigation, but he was the first who systematically stated the
theory of the Earth, founded on observation and developed by
logical deduction from the observed facts.

David Hume, the Historian, also only requires mention.
His History of England was long a standard, but is not free from
prejudice and inaccuracy, and is not now quoted as authoritative.

John Clerk of Eldin, was the inventor of the system of
Naval Tactics known as “ breaking the enemy’s line,” first put in
action by Rodney in his famous victory over De Grasse in 1782,
though Clerk had himself never ventured further to sea than a
sailto Arran. This nianceuvre was afterwards used with complete
success by Howe, St. Vincent, Duncan, Nelson and others.

Many others might be mentioned, such as John Home,
author of Douglas ; Hugh Blair, whose treatise on Rhetoric was
long a favourite study of Scotch divines ; Dr. Alexander Carlyle,
and many more for which there is no space. It is sufficient to
say that all the most eminent men in Scotland were proud to
reckon themselves among the friends of Joseph Black.

89

12th March, 1920

Professor GREGG WILSON, President of the Society, in the Chair

THE USE OF COLLOIDS IN DISEASE.

By A. B. SEARLE.

An interesting lecture on “ The Use of Colloids in Disease,”
was given by Mr. A. B. Searle of Sheffield, at the Queen’s Uni-
versity, Belfast, under the auspices of the Society. The lecture
was attended by a good gathering of local medical men and phar-
maceutical chemists, as well as by a number of other people. The
nature of colloids was described and illustrated by a series of
experiments, in which it was shown that colloidal particles are so
minute that they pass readily through the finest filter papers.
Some very interesting lantern slides were exhibited, these show-
ing the remarkable germicidal properties of some colloids as well
as of metals commonly supposed to be inert.

The Lecturer said medical men and chemists had long sought for
a series of medicines and disinfectants which were deadly in their
action on bacteria and other germs, but were quite free from any
risk of poisoning human beings. In searching for this desideration
very remarkable results had been obtained during the past few
years of the study of a state of matter which was intermediate
between that generally recognised as “suspended” in a fluid and
that in a true solution, and known as the colloidal state. Many
substances of widely different composition and characteristics
could be obtained in this state, and their properties then differed
in many ways from what would be anticipated. The particles of
colloidal matter were so minute that in many instances they could
not be seen with the most powerful microscopes, but by means
of an instrument known as the ultra-microsope they might be

90 A. B. Searle on

recognised as endowed with violent motion. Many factors
conducive to health depended on the possession of a colloidal
character; thus the purification of sewage depended almost
wholly on its ability to form colloidal solution with grease and
dirt. The researches of the late Henry Crookes—a son of
Sir Wm. Crookes—had proved the very effective germicidal
powers of elementary colloids. This was strikingly shown
by a number of lantern slides of cultures of bacteria. This
germicidal property soon led to their being employed as medicines
as well as germicides with remarkable results. Crookes’s work
has been followed up by further investigations, and these have
resulted in the preparation of certain well-known metals such as
silver, copper, mercury, manganese, and palladium, and of such
non-metallic elements as iodine and arsenic in the form of
colloidal sols which are isotonic with the fluids of the human body.
These researches have made available a new series of liquids of great
importance in the treatment of some of the most serious diseases,
including malignant disease, syphilis, rheumatism, boils, various
skin diseases, etc., as well as effecting great improvement in many
minor complaints. The nature and use of these new medicines was
fully deseribed and their many advantages explained. Amongst
their most striking characteristics are their freedom from poison-
ing properties which render the same substances risky when
administered in the form of ordinary solutions. On this account
large doses of colloidal sols may be given with impunity, under
proper medical supervision, and cures which are ordinarily
prolonged are effected rapidly. One marked difference between
elements in solution and in the colloidal state is clearly seen in
the case of silver and iodine. Both the pharmaceutical prepara-
tion of the substances in common use stain the skin badly ; but
the colloidal preparation of silver and iodine are quite stainless,
whilst of equally effective and often greater therapeutic value.
The advantages of such simple, powerful and yet stainless
agents are obvious ; and yet these are only two instances of typical

91 The Use of Colloids in Disease.

colloids. Although the first remedial germicidal colloidal metals
were first prepared in 1910, the rapidity with which they and
other colloidal sols have been adopted, and their extensive use in
military, naval, and private medicine practice is a certain indicator
of their value and of the promptitude with which the medical
profession makes use of new remedies when once their value has
been clearly established. Attempts to produce similar prepara-
tion were made by several German chemists, but most of the
foreign preparations lack stability and are decomposed before
reaching the seat of disease they are designed to cure. Some
British colloidal sols, on the contrary, are quite stable and
effective. It is, however, of the utmost importance that medical
men should either examine the colloidal preparations for them-
selves or send them to some competent and wholly independent
person. Various simple, yet effective, tests were demonstrated
in the lecture.

The success which has attended investigations on the use

of colloids as remedial agents is so great as to call for the
sympathetic interest of all who can appreciate what has been
accomplished, and affords a basis of hope that further developments
will be still more beneficial to suffering humanity. It is probable
that serum and vaccine therapy will ultimately be resolved into
questions of colloidal chemistry, but in the meantime the use of
colloidal solutions of certain elements appears to offer a means
whereby they can be accurately prepared and administered with a
higher degree of efficiency than is possible with some of the more
complex synthetic compounds at present in use.

At the conclusion of the lecture, the Chairman moved a
vote of thanks to Mr Searle for his interesting address and
demonstration and this was cordially passed with acclamation.

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93

25th March, 1920.

Professor GREGG WILSON, President of the Society, in the Chair.

A NATURALIST’S WANDERINGS IN NYASALAND.

By Professor RopERT NEWSTEAD, F.R.S.

Under the auspices of the Society a most interesting lecture
entitled ‘ A Naturalist’s Wanderings in Nyasaland” was delivered
in the Wellington Hall, Y.M.C.A., by Professor Robert Newstead,
F.R.S., the distinguished author and lecturer.

The Chairman said they were exceptionally favoured in
having such a distinguished man of science to talk to them as
Professor Newstead. He was distinguished as a great worker and
a great writer on zoological subjects. His monumental work on
the Coccidz was the standard book on the subject, but he had
published scores of other books less in size, but many of them
not less in competence. Then he was distinguished as a traveller
in Jamaica and Nyasaland, and everywhere his work had been
brilliant. Asa public servant he had done great work of a
scientific nature at the front. ( Applause.) He was largely
responsible for modern methods of combating one of their great-
est enemies in peace and war—the fly. It was part of his duty
during the war to attack the fly and solve many problems of
sanitation. Lastly, he took an enthusiastic interest in archeology.

Professor Newstead said it had been long his desire to come
to Belfast to meet the members of that old society, whose cen-
tenary was to be celebrated soon. Proceeding with his lecture
which was illustrated by unique and interesting lantern slides
made from the lecturer’s own photographs. Professor Newstead
referred to Nyasaland as the country in which Dr. Livingstone

94 Prof. Robert Newstead on Wanderings in Nyasaland

travelled and did so much of his work. Having explained the
geographical position of the country, he next described the
methods of travel to get there, and then dealt in detail with the
natives and the animal, vegetable, reptilian and bird life of the
country. The tetze fly was the principal subject of his investiga-
tions. This fly was the earrier of sleeping sickness, of which
there were three types, that in Nyasaland being rapid, and
invariably fatal. ‘There were four factors concerned in the
spread of sleeping sickness. There was the organism which
caused the disease, the tetze fly which transmitted it, the big
game, which acted as natural reservoirs for the parasite, though
these animals did not themselves suffer by reason of its existence
in their blood. Then there was man, who almost invariably
succumbed, and that was a remarkable cycle.

Councillor E. J. Elliot moved a hearty vote of thanks to the
lecturer for an interesting, attractive, and fascinating lecture.
Tho Society was to be congratulated for having been able to
induce Professor Newstead to come and deliver that lecture, and
the large attendence proved that Belfast people appreciated a
lecture given by a gentleman of such eminence.

Mr. Nevin H. Foster, M.R.I.A., F.L.S., seconded the motion,
which was heartily carried, and suitably acknowledged by Professor
Newstead.

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REPORTS.

nae BELFAST: f

PON INUAL WEE Ee PING:

9077 SE SSlOny 1919-20.

The Annual Meeting of the Society was held in the Museum,
College Square North, on Tuesday evening, November 9th, 1920,
the President, Professor Gregg Wilson, O.B.E., M.A., D.Se.,
presiding.

The Hon. Secretary submitted the following report :—

The Council has pleasure in submitting its report for the
99th Session.

Seven lectures have been given during the year. The list
of the lectures and lecturers is as follows :—
O19.
lst November. Jn Musewmn, College Square North.
“The North of Ireland during the Glacial
Period,” by Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse,
M.R.LA., Lecturer in Geology, Queen’s
University, Belfast.
2ist November. In Musewm, College Square North.
“Fluctuations in the Foreign Exchanges,” by
Professor F. T. Lloyd-Dodd, M.A., D.Sc.,
Head of the Commerce Department,
Municipal Technical Institute, Belfast.

llth December. In Museum, College Square North.
“The Dyeing of Purple in Ancient Israel,”

by Rey. Isaac Herzog, M.A., D'Litt., Chief
Rabbi of Dublin,

98 Annual Meeting.

1920
13th January. In Museum, College Square North.
“The Great Chemist, Joseph Black, his
Belfast friends and family connections,” by
Mr. Henry Riddell, M.E., M.I.M.E., Hon.

Treasurer of the Society.

10th February. In Queen's University.
“Catalysis, or the Speeding up of Chemical
Reactions,” by Dr. 8S. Killen Macbeth,
M.A., F.1.C., M.R.I.A., Lecturer on Organic

Chemistry, (Jueen’s University.

12th “March. In Queen’s University.
“The Use of Colloids in Disease,” by Mr.
Alfred B. Searle, of Sheffield.

25th March. In Wellington Hall, Y.M.C.A.
‘A Naturalist’s Wanderings in Nyasaland,”
by Professor Robert Newstead, F.R.S.,
Professor of Entomology in the Liverpool

School of Tropical Medicine.

Where possible, the lectures were illustrated by Lantern
and Microscopic Slides, Specimens and Experiments.

CounNcIU’s THANKS.

The Council tenders its thanks to the Vice-Chancellor of
Queen’s University (The Rev. T. Hamilton, M.A., D.D., LL.D.),
for his continued interest and for the facilities which he so
willingly affords by granting accommodation in the University
for lectures requiring apparatus and experiments.

The Council also desires to express its best thanks to the
local Press for the reports of the various meetings, and to the
Lecturers for their assistance during the session.

Annual Meeting. 99

New MEMBERS.

Some sixty new members have joined the Society, either
during the year or for the coming session. The Council wishes
to thank Mr. Thomas Edens Osborne for his efforts in bringing
into the Society, under the new subscription scheme, a number of
townsmen having interests in science, art or literature.

DEATHS.

The Council has to record, with regret, the death of four
members: Mr. Blakiston-Houston, D.L., of Orangefield, formerly
Member of Parliament for North Down, on February 27th, 1920,
at the age of 90 years ; Mr. Hector MacColl, who died on April
22nd, 1920; Mr. W. H. McLaughlin, D.L., J.P., of Macedon,
who died on July 18th last; and Sir John Byers, a _ past
President (1908-1911) of the Society, who died as recently as
September 20th last. Sir John took a warm interest in all that
pertained to its welfare. He delivered six lectures before your
Society, dealing with Ulster dialects and folk-lore. His first
lecture was given in 1905, and his last in 1918.

IrtsH Mss.

A grant of £15 Os. Od. has been paid to Miss Madelaine
Dempsey for cataloguing the Irish MSS. in the possession of the
Society. The manuscripts referred to were deposited on loan on
18th December last, in the Reference Department of the Central
Public Library, where they have been much utilised by students.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SECTION.

The Archaeological Section, which is now entering its fourth
year of existence, under the chairmanship of Sir Charles Brett,
continues to justify its formation. Extensive excavations were
made during the summer at the Mound at Downpatrick, and in
Rathkeltchar, and a report of these investigations will be read by

100 Annual Meeting.

the Honorary ‘Secretary, Mr. H. C. Lawlor, M.R.I.A., at the
annual meeting of the Section to be held towards the end of the
month. The membership is considerably increased, now num-
bering over eighty.

Hon. TREASURER’S STATEMENT.

Mr. Riddell, the Hon. Treasurer, will submit the financial
statement, which has been passed by the Local Government
Board Auditor. It will be seen that the debt brought about by
the repairs, due to dry rot in the upper part of the building, has
been wiped out.

EXCHANGES.

Your Council still continues to receive, in exchange for this
Society's proceedings, a number of publications, both home and
foreign, from kindred Societies and Institutions, many of them
being of great interest and importance. A list of these will be
attached to the Society’s report (see pages 123—125).

PROCEEDINGS.

The method recently adopted of printing the papers periodic-
ally has been continued during the year. Copies of these are
bound up at the end of the year, as Transactions of the Society
tor Exchange.

ELECTION OF COUNCIL.

In accordance with the constitution of the Society, the five
following members retire by rotation from the Council :—-Messrs.
W. B. Burrowes, E. J. Elliott, H. C. Lawlor, William Swanston,
and Professor Gregg Wilson, all of whom are eligible for re-
election, and the meeting will be asked to fill the vacancies, and
to co-opt a member in place of Sir John Byers, deceased.

The Hon, Treasurer (Mr. Henry Riddell), when submitting

Annual Meeting. 101

his Statement of Accounts said he would like to draw attention
to the fact that the Accounts were presented in the form pre-
scribed by the Local Government Board, and that they include of '
course the finances of the Archaeological Section, which possesses
a credit balance of considerable amount, thus rendering the
ordinary balance of the Society apparently more favourable than
in reality. It has also to he said that the Society’s Printers have
this Session furnished no account, which will be fairly large, so
that if this account had been included there would have been
still a debit balance against the Society. Considering, however,
the very heavy expeuse due to the extensive repairs of the build-
ings a year or two ago, the present condition of the finances must
be considered very favourable. A copy of the Archaeological
Section Account will be found on page 122.

ADOPTION OF REPORTS.

The President (Prof. Gregg Wilson), in moving the adoption
of the reports, said that although they were commencing their
hundredth year they were showing no signs of decay, but on the
contrary were in a healthy flourishing condition. They could
congratulate themselves on the fact that they had a good session,
and at the same time congratulate themselves and more especially
Mr. Deane, on the fact that they were likely to have a more
successful session this year. He was delighted to know of the
success of the Archaeological section, which was making a great
effort to acquire the Knowles collection of antiquities. The amount
of money required was rather overwhelming, but the section
was going at it with vigour.

Mr. Henry Riddell seconded, and the reports were adopted.

THE Late Sir JoHN Byers, M.A., M.D., M.A.O.

The President said in view of the very special interest Sir
John Byers took in the society and the great help he was to it,

102 Annual Meeting.

it was only right that they should pass a vote of condolence to be
sent to Lady Byers and family. Ever since he (Professor Gregg
Wilson) came to Queen’s, Professor Byers was a prominent
member of the society, and was always interested in its doings.
He moved the following resolution :—

“That at this first meeting assembled since the death of
Sir John Byers on 20th September, 1920, we desire to
place on record our sense of the great loss the society
has sustained by his death. Sir John took a deep
interest in all that pertained to the welfare of the society
and, during his Presidency (1908-11), the transfer of the
society's museum collection to the Corporation was
completed. That a copy of the foregoing resolution be
forwarded to Lady Byers by the hon. secretary, and that
he convey to her the society’s sincere sympathy.”

Mr. J. M. Finnegan, B.A., B.Se., seconded the motion which
was passed in silence, the members standing.

LIFE MEMBERSHIP.

The Hon. Secretary read letter dated 11th October, 1920,
from Mr, Thomas Edens Osborne, suggesting the propriety of
creating Lite Members and after some discussion it was decided
to leave the matter in the hands of the Council for the coming
Session, to deal with.

ELECTION OF COUNCIL MEMBERS.

The following five members .of Council, who retired by
rotation, were re-elected on the motion of Mr. William Faren,
seconded by Mr. T. Edens Osborne—Messrs. W. B. Burrowes, E.
J. Elliott, H. C. Lawlor, William Swanston, and Professor Gregg
Wilson.

Mr. Deane moved the co-option of Mr. T. Edens Osborne on
the Council in place of the late Sir John Byers, and the motion,

Annual Meeting. 103

which was heartily passed, was seconded by Mr. H. C. Lawlor
M.R.1.A.

In moving a vote of thanks to Professor Gregg Wilson for his
services during the past year Mr. Henry Riddell said he wanted to
emphasise the intimate connection between that society and
(Queen's University. ‘They numbered amongst their membership
some of the most famous men who were also connected with the
University—men whose names were known wherever the English
language was spoken. ‘Their lectures were open to the public on
application to the hon. secretary or members, and the society was
most anxious to accommodate the Workers’ Educational Associa-
tion, for which personally he had the highest admiration. One of
the leading workers in that association was always a lecturer in
Queen’s University, and that made a practical connection between
the two.

Councillor E. J. Elliott seconded the motion, which was
passed with cordiality, and acknowledged by Professor Gregg
Wilson.

At a subsequent meeting of the New Council the Officers
were elected for the 100th Session. These together with the
Members of Council will be found on page 126.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SECTION.
ANNUAL MEETING.

The fourth Annual General Meeting of the Section was held
on Wednesday, November 24th, at 4-15 p.m., at 8 Windsor
Avenue, Belfast, the residence of Mr. and Mrs. Lawlor, who very
kindly entertained the large attendance of members to tea. The
chair was occupied by Sir Charles Brett, who referred to the
gratifying increase in the membership of the Section, which
now consisted of 82. He also expressed gratification at the
increased interest that had been manifested in the work of the

104 Annual Meeting.

Section during the past season. He regretted the unavoidable
absence of the Hon. Treasurer, Mr. Henry Riddell, M.E., and
some other members, who had sent apologies. Mr. T. Edens
Osborne, acting for Mr. Riddell, read the Treasurer’s report
which stated that after all expenses had been met, and the
remainder of the annual subscriptions had been paid, he estimated
that there would be a balance of about £75 available for the work
of the Section during the coming year.

The Hon. Secretary, Mr. H. C. Lawlor, M.R.I.A., read his
report. There had been three meetings of the Executive Com-
mittee held since last annual meeting. Only one application for
a grant had been received, namely, one for the purpose of
excavation in the Mound of Downpatrick, towards which £50
had been voted: the actual cost had been about £42. A large
number of members had been present during these excavations,
which had taken place in July, and to a small extent in October.

The Executive Committee had taken an active and important
step towards securing for the Belfast Municipal Museum the
world-famed collection of Irish antiquities of Mr. W. J. Knowles,
M.R.I.A., of Ballymena. Owing to his advanced age, Mr.
Knowles had come to a decision to realize this collection, and the
Executive Committee have only given practical effect to the
general feeling that this magnificent collection should not be
allowed to leave the home of its creation. The Committee had
taken the initial steps towards raising a sum sufficient to acquire
the collection for Belfast, or at least preventing it being scattered
by auction. The Hon. Secretary could not at this early stage—
the circular explaining the matter having only been issued a few
days—make any forecast as to the success of the effort.

The election of Office-bearers for the ensuing year was then
proceeded with, with the following results :—

Chairman, Sir Charles Brett.

Hon. Treasurer, Mr. Henry Riddell, M.E.

Hon. Secretary, Mr. H. C. Lawlor, M.R.I.A.
Kixecutive Committee, in addition to the above, (ex-ofticio)

?

Annual Meeting. 105

Professor Gregg Wilson, D.Se., M.R.I.A., Mr. Arthur Deane ;
(elected) Mr. R. S. Lepper, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc., Mr. Alex: °
Wilson, J.P., M.R.I.A., Mr. Thomas Edens Osborne, Mr. W. B,
Burrowes, The Rev. William Adams, M.A., The Rev. Canon
Carmody, M.A., Mr. Fergus Greeves.

The Hon. Secretary (Mr. H. C. Lawlor, M.R.1.A.) read a
report upon the investigations at the Mound of Downpatrick and
Rathkeltchar, already referred to, and exhibited a number of
articles of great antiquarian interest discovered therein. (See
pel 0a— 120).

EXCAVATIONS AT THE MOUND, AND ON THE SITE
OF RATHKELTCHAR, DOWNPATRICK.

About a quarter of a mile to the N. of the Cathedral of
Down lies the remarkable fortified hill, to-which only in recent
years, the name “Rath Keltchar” or ‘“ Dunkeltair” has
erroneously been applied. It will not be without interest if I
briefly trace backwards in chronological order references to this
mound, showing what I may call the gradual growth of this
misnomer.

In an admirable and instructive little book called “The
Official Guide to County Down and the Mourne Mountains”
by Mr. R. Ll. Praeger, it is stated that the place is referred to
as early as the year B.C. 1030, in its early form Aircealtair or
Aras Cealtair, the habitation of Celtchar : but a few lines further
on it states that Celtchar, or Celtchar of the battles, as he
was called, was one of the heroes of the Red Branch of Ulster,
and a companion of Conor McNessa, King of Ulster. Now
Conor MeNessa lived in the first century, A.D, so that there
seems to be some confusion among the authorities as to the
real origin of the name. This remarkable confusion occurs,
though not in quite so pronounced a manner, in Father
O’Laverty’s “ Diocese of Down and Connor” (vol. 1, pp. 266-7).
Reeves also attributes the name to Celtchar of the battles,

106 Annual Meeting.

but fails to explain the name as having appeared in the form
of Aircealtair in 1030, B.C. (Annals F.M.). Reeves, so far
as I can find, seems to have been the first writer who actually
states that the Mound of Downpatrick was the Rath of Celtchar
(Keclesiastical Antiquities p. 142).

Comparing the several editions of the ordnance maps, the
recent editions print the name Rathkeltchar as applying to the
mound ; the edition of 1857 calls it “Mount,” while that of
1834, the first, merely marks it “ Fort.”

The Act of Parliament of 1882, dealing with the establish-
ment of the county councils, gives the council of Down power to
preserve as an Ancient Monument Dunkeltair, referring to the
mound. Lewis, in his topographical Dictionary, 1837, merely
refers to the mound as “the ancient doon or fort, near the
church founded by St. Patrick”; he does not associate it with
Dunlethglas or Rathkeltchar, from which it seems evident the
confusion had not arisen in his time.

Going further back to Harris, who wrote in 1747, no sign of
the confusion can be found in his account; but perhaps the
clearest evidence of rather more ancient times as to the real
nature of the mound can be found in an estate map drawn out in
the year 1729, where the mound is marked, as then known,
“The English Mount,” and in the inquisition of 1662, where it
is recorded that Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Ardglass, had been
seized at the time of his death in 1650, of, inter alia, “ Hoggs
Island, Le Roundmount als Donecoscue, Courtground, &e. . .
all in-or near Down.”*

There can be no doubt that the English Mount, Le Round-
mount, otherwise Donecoscue, in or near Down, applies to the
Mound as it was familiarly known in the years 1729 and 1662
respectively. In the earlier date the Norman-French name still
adhered, evidently transcribed by a clerk with no accurate

*Orpen ; Journal of the R.S.A.I., vol. xxxvii (1907), ‘‘ Norman Motes
in Ireland.”

Annual Meeting. 107

acquaintance with the ancient spellings ; butit is easy to interpret
his meaning as the Round Mound, otherwise Dun de Courey, or
de Courcy’s Fort.

I can find no further direct reference to the Mound of
Downpatrick until we get back to the entries in The Annals of
the year 1177. In the Four Masters the following occurs :—
“An army was led by John de Courey and the Knights into
Dalaradia and to Dundaleathghlas; they slew Donnell, the
grandson of Cathasach (this is possibly a mistake, or another
name for McDunlevy), Lord of Dalaradia. Dundaleathghlas was
plundered and destroyed by John and the Knights who came in
his army. A castle was erected by them there, out of which
they defeated the Ulidians twice, We.” The annals of Innis-
fallen, however, give us more particulars of this castle of de
Courey. They record: “John de Courcy on this occasion erected
a strong fort of stones and clay at Down, and drew a ditch or
wall from sea to sea.”* This account exactly describes the
mound as it was before the flood gates at the mouth of the
Quoile were erected, when the sea came round three sides of the
mound ; the existing outer trench and vallum exactly correspond
with “a ditch or wall from sea to sea,” while the inner trench
and motte and bailey are clearly the “strong fort of stones and
clay.”

In the following notes I adopt the terms ‘motte’ and
‘bailey,’ following the lines laid down by Mrs. Armitage in her
‘Early Norman Castles of the British Isles.” A motte is still
the French word meaning a lump or ball of earth. . In Doomsday
it is used to designate the mound which was always a feature of
an early Norman castle, and on which a wooden tower or
bretasch was built. These mottes were usually atone side of and
within a circular or oval enclosure, leaving the remainder of the
enclosure crescent-shaped, as in the present instance. This flat
crescent-shaped enclosure was called the bailey, and corresponded

*Annals F. M., O'Donovan ; anno 1177, note k.

108 Annual Meeting.

to the courtyard of later castles. In some cases, as in Dromore,
the bailey wasa rectangular entrenchment with the motte outside
and detached. The motte was usually built of the clay or rock
excavated from a circular trench of which it became the centre.
Thus the word motte or mote, latterly spelled phonetically m-o-a-t,
became applicable to either a circular trench or foss, or the
enclosed mound made from the soil extracted therefrom, or to
the two combined. Mrs. Armitage restores the original meaning
of motte, a lump of earth or artificial mound: while the moat
is now more generally accepted as the trench, either full of
water or dry, surrounding a habitation, such as a moated
grange. The bailey or courtyard corresponds to the Irish bawn.
The name is still well preserved in the Old Bailey of London,
originally a courtyard of a Norman fortification. It seems to be
also analogous to the Irish bally, now loosely translated as a town
or townland, but really seeming to mean a populated centre or
assembly of dwellings.

The accounts of the events immediately following the
erection of this castle differ in the various annals and the account
of Giraldus Cambrensis; but one thing seems to be clear, that
de Courcy having once entrenched himself here, “ dug himself in,”
as the modern phrase is, used this fort as his rallying point. He
may have suffered the defeats referred to in the annals of Innis-
fallen, but in the end he undoubtedly conquered Dalaradia, at
first fortifying the mound as an impregnable fortification on which
to fall back. This does not at all imply that his army stayed
here continuously ; the Four Masters and Giraldus clearly convey
that he was continuously on the move, raiding here and there,
gradually increasing his hold on Down and Antrim, until finally
he had the whole in subjection and “ encastellated,” as Giraldus
relates. One thing seems to loom out clear from all accounts :
de Courcy set out from Dublin with a force of a few hundred
knights and well armed foot soldiers ; in four days they arrived
at Downpatrick, which, all unprepared, they captured at once,
erecting immediately “the strong fort of stones and clay, en-

Annual Meeting. 109

trenched from sea to sea.” How long or how continuously they
camped here, or how soon their headquarters were removed to
the stone and lime built fortifications in the centre of the present
town, the documentary evidences forthcoming do not say ;
tradition indicates that de Courey built four strong stone towers
joined by curtain walls, one of these towers only now surviving,
in the tower of the parish church ; another stood on the site now
occupied by the post-office ; the two others, long since pulled
down, would, with the curtain walls, have formed a large square
with a strong tower at each angle.

The plan and section drawn out by Mr. Stendall, the
former from the O.S. map, the latter from my measurements
taken in conjunction with the map, will give an idea of the
mound as it now stands. I have made a dotted line on
the plan showing roughly where the tidal waters came to before
the Quoile flood gates were made, as the place was in de
Courcy’s time. From these the importance of the particulars
mentioned in the annals of Innisfallen will be apparent. The use
of “the wall and ditch from sea to sea” will become evident
especially to those who have studied the place in situ, bearing in
mind the ancient level of the water.

It must be remembered that the Normans under de Courcy
were well armed, mail clad soldiers, expert in deadly archery,
while the Irish used no armour and were ignorant of the use of
the bow and arrow in warfare. The absolute impregnability of
of the fort under these circumstances can be imagined. To this
impregnability of the mound, scarped and countersearped and
surrounded on all sides by deep water, is probably due to the
ultimate conquest by de Courey and his knights, of the whole of
Dalaradia.

In accordance with the resolution of the Executive Committee

passed on 20th June, 1920, I made arrangements for excavations
to be conducted in the mound. Through the active interest of
Dr, T. M. Tate and Mr. 8, R. Hastings of Downpatrick, a local

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12 Annual Meeting.

committee was formed; the landlord, Lord Dunleath, gave his
consent and that of the occupying tenant was also readily given.

Through this local committee a band of ten able labouring
men was engaged for the investigation, and work was started on
the 13th July. Deeming the motte to have probably been the
centre of activity of the fort when in occupation, we detailed four
men to excavate a trench three feet wide round the crescent-
shaped toy; the other six men were set to work digging a
trench in the bottom of the inner fosse which surrounds the motte.
When these excavations were completed, aud the trenches filled
in and resodded, we put six men to the work of sinking pits in
the bailey, and four to excavating in the neighbourhood of what
was evidently a landing stage or pier on the north side when the
water was at its old level. In the bailey nowhere were there the
smallest indications of irregularities on the surface to indicate
where hut-sites might have been ; so the pits were made at random,
some close to the motte, others near the enclosing vallum.

In all places the finds were few and disappointing. The
total of our finds here are displayed. It is worthy of note that
notwithstanding that the sides of the motte and the trench
surrounding it are exceedingly steep, the topsoil lying on the
bottom of the fosse 1s in no place more than twelve to eighteen
inches deep, showing that centuries of rain and weather have not
obliterated the original shape of the fort to any appreciable
extent. In the bailey the topsoil averaged about eighteen inches ;
it was of the ordinary brown earth usual in the district, and was
to all intents and purposes virgin soil, probably never tilled. At
some fairly recent date it has been top-dressed, to improve the
grass, and we found fragments of pottery, &c., from an ordinary
modern midden or farm-yard manure heap. Such we cast aside,
and the collection displayed represents all the finds exclusive of
these.

On the top of the motte only a few much corroded small iron
nails were turned up. In the surrounding trench were found a
few pieces of late mediaeval, or even seventeenth century glass, an

Annual Meeting. 113

antiquated iron horse shoe, some fragments of pottery of uncertain
age, a few bones of large animals’ and horses’ teeth, the bowl and
part of the stem of a pipe of early 17th century. In the bailey,
where we excavated extensively, a few fragments of pottery and
a few iron nails were found. At the boat quay, where we
searched carefully for a refuse heap or dumping ground for waste
from the cam}, we found nothing but a few large nails and frag-
ments of comparatively modern bricks and a few bits of coal. It
is very remarkable that in all our excavations, either on the motte,
in the trench surrounding it, or in the bailey, we found not the
slightest trace of hearths, chareoal, charred wood, or soot;
evidences of continued occupation were everywhere conspicuously
absent.

With regard to the various articles collected during our
excavations, the few iron remains convey no indication as to age,
nor can we, I think, derive any information from the bones and
horses’ teeth ; the glass is comparatively modern ; there remain
only the pottery fragments. I sent these to the South Ken-
sington Museum for expert opinion, and had a courteous reply
saying that the curator considered it advisable to obtain the
opinion of the Department of Mediaeval Antiquities, British
Museum, and that he had forwarded the collection to them. Mr.
Dalton later reported that in the collection which he had
examined none of the pieces seemed of earlier date than, at most,
early 17th century.

I then forwarded the collection to the National Museum in
Dublin, where they were carefully examined by our distinguished
member, Mr. E. C. R. Armstrong, and Mr. Dudley Westropp,
whose report in every respect and quite independently, confirmed
that of the Department of Mediaeval Antiquities of the British
Museum.

The natural deduction from the foregoing must be that the
mound, fortified-as it is, was never occupied to any extent
by dwellers. The few articles discovered may indicate that for a
brief period it may have been occupied, possibly as a camp, in the

114 Annual Meeting.

17th century ; it may have been temporarily used during the
rebellion of 1641; whocan say? But why did we find absolutely
nothing to show ancient occupation, early mediaeval, Celtic or
prehistoric? Not a trace of a hearth, not a fragment of burned
wood, soot, or ash, not a flint-flake or stone weapon 2
-Rathkeltchar, or as it was better known, Dundalethghlas, has
been a populous centre for probably 3,000 years. Our excavations
in the Mound prove that it at least is not the site of an ancient
settlement, and therefore cannot be Rathkeltchar, if other proof
were needed. However, those who have read Mr. Goddard H.
Orpen’s article above referred to, and Mrs. Armitages’ “ Early
Norman Castles in the British Isles,” will have already been
convinced, without our investigations, that the Mound of
Downpatrick is not Rathkeltchar. It may be asked, if this is de
Courcy’s castle, why did our investigations discover no relics
contemporary with his time? I think a remarkable feature in
the motte helps to answer this: it was never even completed.
The completed Norman motte was always a platform capable of
holding a bretasch or wooden tower. In the Mound of Down-
patrick the motte was only half made when work was suspended,
leaving no place on which the bretasch could have stood.
Extracts from the several annals throw some hint as to the
probably very short occupation of the mound by de Courcy. On
his sudden arrival at Down, McDunlevy fled, leaving the town to
be plundered by the invaders ; the Irish chief hastened towards
Armagh to seek ior aid, and shortly returned with an army,
estimated by some at as high as 10,000 men, including many
clergy with sacred relics ; that a battle was fought in the marshes
near the town, and the Irish army disastrously defeated and
dispersed, the sacred relics captured, and the clergy and many
others taken prisoners, seems to be well founded. This story has
been discredited and attributed to an exaggeration of Giraldus
Cambrensis. I can see no reason to doubt its accuracy : the fact
that the battle was fought in the marshes clearly indicates that
the Irish army attacked de Courcy in his fortress, where, armed

Annual Meeting. 15

as his comparatively few followers were, with the deadly bow and
arrow, and clad in mail, of which the Irish had neither, he could
have defeated twice as many. There seems to be no reason to
think that de Courcy used the Mound for any length of time ; in
the interval between the flight of McDunlevy and his return, the
natural place for de Courcy and his followers to camp was the
deserted town round the church; on the return of McDunlevy
with the army, de Courcy shut himself up in his fort, around
the land side of which the battle took place. After the battle,
the defeat of the Irish was so complete that probably de Courcy
had no further immediate need for the fort, never finished it in
detail, and had leisure to pursue adventures elsewhere.

McDunlevy seems to have been forced to make the best of a
bad situation, and made peace with de Courcy, as we find indica-
tions a little later that he was in alliance with the latter in some of
his raids. It is probable that it was during the period after the
battle and during the peace with McDunlevy that de Courcy
erected the stone castle in the centre of the town, of which the
one corner tower, traditionally attributed to him, still remains.

Some three miles almost due south of Downpatrick is
Castlescreen, also built by de Courcy prior to 1180. It is of
almost the same design as the Mound of Down, with motte and
bailey, but completed ; the oval platform of the motte measures
90 x 27’; it is smaller than the Mound. About a quarter of a
mile to the east of it is the stump of a stone tower of very early
masonry, apparently the gate tower.of a later Norman castle,
where the stone tower takes the place of the early motte and
bretasch.

During the progress of the excavations in the Mound I took
the opportunity of examining the site of the Cathedral of Down and
the surrounding ground. I was much struck with the black appear-
ance of the earth everywhere near the cathedral, contrasting so
strikingly with the natural virgin soil found on the Mound; it
seems to be thoroughly permeated with soot and small fragments
of charred wood, in many places intermixed with bones. This

116 Annual Meeting.

black soil extended not only in the immediate vicinity of the
cathedral but over the fields to the south-west, west and north-
west, and to the plantation on the slope to the south of the
churchyard. In the field south-west of the cathedral, beyond
the new churchyard extension, can still be seen remains of the
old cireular vallum, of which the apparent centre seems to have
been near the tower of the present cathedral. This vallum is
not apparent in the field to the north of this one, but can be
indistinctly traced in the next field, lying N.-E. of the cathedral.
Due east of the cathedral a broad roadway has been made by
filling up the valley with a raised embankment ; to the S.-E. of
this, and south of the churchyard, lies the old plantation, separated
from the churchyard by a massive wall, built, according to
local tradition, during the restoration of the cathedral in 1790
from stones removed from the old ruins. It is quite impossible
now to trace the remains of the ancient vallum anywhere except
in the field to the S.-W. and to a slight extent to the N.-E. ; but
enough remains to show that a vallum at one time existed round
the summit of the hill, with a centre somewhere near the present
tower, having a radius of between four and five hundred
feet. ‘This would indicate an ancient rath with the unusually
large diameter of something like three hundred yards. I learned
from local enquiries that a few years ago, 1913 or 1914, I believe,
immediately to the north of the present cathedral enclosure Mr.
Martin, the lessee of the ground, removed a slight hill in the
construction of a tennis ground, removing in the process some-
thing lke an average depth of from 6 to 8 feet over an area of
about three-quarters of an acre. At the time the tennis ground
was being made, the County Council were engaged in raising the
level of the Ballydougan Road, and arranged with Mr. Martin to
remove the excavated soil to assist in constructing the necessary
embankment through the marsh. During the process of the
excavation, unfortunately, no detailed accounts of the many
“finds” that were made were taken, and probably much that
might have been of supreme interest has been hopelessly lost,

Annual Meeting. Le

However, Mr. S. R. Hastings, Dr. T. M. Tate, and others,
fortunately succeeded in preserving some of the finds, and a few
items are in the possession of the cathedral verger and in the
garden of Mr. Harley, which lies close to the cathedral on the
N.-W. side. Mr. Hastings kindly supplied me with some notes
of what he knew of the excavation, and collected together for
exhibition such of the portable finds as he could now bring
together. ‘To enable us to have the account more comprehensive,
we deemed it advisable to make some slight experimental
excavations to find out if the foss S.-W. of the cathedral were
ancient, or merely composed of refuse from the old cathedral
ruin, as some supposed it to be, and also to examine more
minutely the black soil, and obtain some knowledge of its nature
and extent. I was not able except on one afternoon to superin-
tend this work myself, but Mr. Hastings did so during several
days in October, as weather permitted and as he could get the
necessary labour.

Ina most valuable Historical Sketch of the Cathedral of
Down, published in 1904 by “The Down Recorder,” and edited
by Mr. Edward Parkinson, is a conjectural sketch of the original
plan of the 13th century Benedictine Abbey of Downpatrick, by
Mr. J.-J. Phillips, architect. It will be of much interest to
contemplate the vast extent of ground covered by the Benedictine
Monastry and Church, of which only the chancel is now remain-
ing, forming the existing cathedral, the tower being new. The
foundation is ascribed to John de Courcy, during the quarter of
a century he held sway in Downpatrick. It existed with
fluctuating prosperity for some 350 years, from about 1188 to
1538 ; in the latter year it was absolutely destroyed by the
English, whether by Lord Leonard Gray or Thomas Cromwell,
Earl of Ardglass, matters little.

The excavation of 1913-14, when the tennis ground was
made, was on the place marked “chapter house ” ‘and part of
“the cloisters.”

The results that can now be gathered of the excavation of

118 Annual Meeting.

1913-14 together with those of our slight excavation are of
immense interest. The hillock where is now the tennis ground,
was composed, as to its upper layer, of refuse cast up from the
ruins of the Benedictine Abbey cleared in restoring the old chancel
to make the present cathedral. Many carvings in Serabo and
Dundonald sandstone and in Castleespie limestone were found ;
these comprise bases and capitals of pillars, mullions, &e ; half of
a piscina and various fragments of carved work. Most of these
are to be seen in Mr. Harley’s garden adjoining the cathedral. In
this level of the hill were also found many flooring tiles of
apparently early 13th century, a number of which are on exhibition.
The designs are interesting, some being purely Celtic in idea;
others are early Norman. The lion rampant facing either to the
dexter or sinister is much in evidence. Beneath the level of the
deposit of building refuse the workers came upon the foundations
of the walls of the chapter house, and it is a remarkable tribute
to the accuracy of Mr. Philip’s conjectural plan, that this wall
was found within 6 inches of the position conjectured by him.
Beneath the apparent level of the chapter house floor, immense
quantities of bones, mostly, if not all, human were removed,
showing that a very ancient cemetery nad existed here prior to
the erection of the Abbey. How ancient was this cemetery,
cannot of course be accurately conjectured, but that it went far
back into Pagan times was proved by the discovery of three
circular drybuilt graves measuring about 5 feet deep, by 3’ 6”
wide, containing skeletons buried in a sitting position with the
knees drawn up to the level of the chest. A number of bronze

rings were found in or near these graves, but their exact position
unfortunately was not noted down. In the tennis ground

excavation no fragments of domestic.or other pottery except the
tiles from the Abbey debris are recorded to have been found.

In the experimental trench beginning to the east side of
Hogg Island lane, and at about a right angle thereto, much of
great interest was found. At the upper end the debris resembled
what had been found on the surface layer of the tennis ground

Annual Meeting. 119

site, comprising flooring tiles, roofing tiles and roofing slates from
the old Abbey. With these were mixed bones and horns of
domestic animals, including boars, deer and fowl, with broken
pottery of the ordinary domestic, apparently mediaeval, type.

As the trench proceeded further away from the lane, the
Abbey debris seemed to stop; the soil was everywhere permeated
with soot and decayed vegetable matter, and very black; the
depth of the black soil varied from about three feet to, at places,
five or six feet or more, resting on the gravel subsoil in the
neighbourhood. About 40 feet from the lane the trench cut
through what appeared to be superimposed hearths showing two
layers of soot or fire remains. These were traced laterally for a
few feet, exposing fragments of pottery cooking vessels and
several pieces of broken quern stones. The pottery of which
specimens are shown is of the crude hand-made class to which I
have applied the name “ souterrain type”; it is the class of
which about 90 per cent. of the souterrain pottery consists, and
dates probably between the 4th and 8th centuries. One or two
fragments of early wheel-turned pottery were also found in the
black soil, but not in the hearth sites ; these I believe to be of
8th to 10th century. Among the other interesting items found
were two remarkable stones: one is a quartz nodule perforated
by five circular polished holes; of its use I can form no con-
jecture. The other is an artificially rounded stone of about 2”
diameter. This is one of the hurling stones used by the Irish in
warfare in the 12th century in place of the bow and arrow. Of
these stones Giraldus Cambrensis says: “ Handstones (Lapides
pugillares), when other weapons fail, they hurl more dexterously
than any other nation, soas to inflict great loss on their enemies.”
O’Curry, in his “Manners and Customs ” (Vol. ii, p. 263), says
that the Irish of this period retained these stones in the hollow
of their shields for use when required.

The experimental excavation of the trenches just referred to
was made in the latter half of October ; the weather was broken
and the days getting very short, so we deemed it wiser to dis-

120 Annual Meeting.

continue further work and report the result of what we had found
to the Archaeological Section for future consideration.

In conclusion I would say that from historical records
coupled with what has been found by excavations, certain facts
are established, which facts I may tabulate as follows :—

1. The hill on which the cathedral is situated has been a
place of almost constant human occupation for at least 2,000
years.

2. It has through time been subjected to important alter-
ations in its contour on at least four occasions, namely :—

a. The enclosure of the Rath by a vallum of which
traces still remain ; date unknown.

b. The levelling of a vast area of the top for the
erection of the great Benedictine Abbey, about the
year 1188, when much soil was removed from the
site and apparently cast over the side of the hill.

c. The clearing of the debris of the Benedictine Abbey
for the creation of the present cathedral in 1790:
this debris was scattered in various places near the
cathedral raising the ground considerably where it
was dumped.

d. The levelling of the tennis ground on the north side
of the cathedral, when about 8 feet was cut off an
area of about three-quarters of an acre. The soil
removed in this operation was used for raising the
level of the Ballydougan Road.

3. As the hill now exists, excavations prove that its summit
and to some extent its sides constitute a veritable midden of
refuse of all ages from the late bronze or early iron age to the
present date.

4. The hill is undoubtedly the site of the ancient Rath-
keltchar, Araskeltchair, Dunkeltchair, otherwise Dunleathghlas
or Dundaleathghlass.

5. The Mound is actually the entrenchment or castle made
by John de Courcy in 1177 and should not be confused with
Rathkeltchar.

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123

EXCHANGES.

AUCKLAND—Annual Report of the Auckland Institute and
Museum, 1919-20.
BASEL (Switzerland)—-Verhandlungen der Naturforchenden Ge-
sellschaft in Basel, 1918-19.
BELFAST—Proceedings of the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club,
1919-20.
BerGEN (Norway)—Publications of the Bergen Museum.
BIRMINGHAM—Proceedings of the Birmingham Natural History
and Philosophical Society, 1919-20.
CaLcutTtA—Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India.
Hs Records of the Geological Survey of India.
a Report of the Progress of Agriculture in India,
1918-19.
CAMBRIDGE (U.s.A.)—Bulletins of the Cambridge Museum of
Comparative Zoology.
CAMBRIDGE—Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.
DuBLIN—Economic Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society.
EASTBOURNE—Transactions and Journal of the Hastbourne
Natural History Club, 1914-19.
EDINBURGH—Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society.
Re Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,
1918-19.
* Transactions and Proceedings of the Botanical
Society of Edinburgh.
Essex—The Essex Naturalist. Vol. XIX, Parts 2 and 3.
GLascow—Proceedings of the Royal Philosophical Society of
Glasgow, 1917-18.
- Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow,
1917-18. /
GoTEBorG (Sweden)—Proceedings of the Societas Scientiarum et
Litterarum Gotoburgensis, 1911-17.

124 Exchanges.

HatrrAx—Proceedings and Transactions of the Nova Scotian
Institute of Science.

HuLL—scientific and Field Naturalists’ Club. Vol. 1V—part V.

InpDIANA—Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Sciences,
1916-17.

Lima (Peru)—Boletin del Cuerpo de de Ingenieros de Minas

del Peru.
LonbDON— British Museum, Economic Publications.
-" ~ Quarterly Journal of the Royal Microscopic Society.

n Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society.
ae Proceedings of the Royal Institute of Great Britain.
f Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society.
. Report of the British Association, 1918.
LOUSANNE—Bulletin de la Societe Vaudoise des Sciences
Naturelles.

Mapras—Report of the Government Museum of Madras, 1918-19.
Matnx—Bulletins of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station.
MANCHESTER—-Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
MELBOURNE—Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria.
Merxitco—<Anales del Instituto Geologico de Mexico.
Micut1GAN—Report of the Michigan Academy of Science.
New Haven—Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Art
and Sciences, 1920.
New. YorK—Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.
. The Geographical Review (Monthly).

On10— The Ohio Journal of Science.
OtrawA—Memoirs of the Canadian Geological Survey.

, Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Canada, Depart-

ment of Mines.
PApova (Italy)—Atti della Accademia Scien tifiéa.
PHILADELPHIA— Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia.
- Pisa (Italy) —Atti della Societa Tescana di Siibnze Naturali.
ReIGATE—Proceedings of the Holmesdale Natural History Club
1914-19.

Exchanges. 125

Rio DE JANEIRO—Report of the National Museum of Brazil.

SAN Francisco—Proceedings of the California Academy of
Science.

St. Lours—Publie Library Monthly Bulletin.

Torguay—Journal of Torquay Natural History Society.

Toronto—Transactions of the Royal Canadian Institute.

UpsaLta—Bulletin of the Geological Institution of Upsala

University.
W ASHINGTON—Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution.
Mi Annual Report of the United States National
Museum.
ff Bulletins of the Bureau of American Ethnology.
; Bulletins of the Smithsonian Institution.
a Contributions from the United States National
Herbarium.
=f Proceedings of the United States National
Museum.
mi Smithsonian Institution, Miscellaneous Collections.
x Year Book of the United States Department of
Agriculture, 1919.
‘ Bulletins of the United States Geological Survey.
YorK—Annual Report of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society,
1918-19.

ZuricH (Switzerland)—Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforchenden
Gesellschaft in Zurich.

126

BELPEAST™ NATURAL HiSTORs
AND PEE_OSOrPTMCAL - SOC LEI.

Officers and Council of Management for 1920-21.

President :
Pror. GREGG WILSON, m.a., p.sc., PH.D., M.R.I.A., 0.B.E.

Vice=Presidents :
Str CHARLES BRETT.
S. W. ALLWORTHY, M.A., M.D., F.C.S.
Pror. JAMES A. LINDSAY, .4., F.R.C.P.
RQBERT M. YOUNG, M.A., M.R.1.A., J.P.
J. M. FINNEGAN, B.A., B.SC.
WILLIAM SWANSTON, F.a.s.

fbon. Treasurer :
HENRY RIDDELL, M.t., M.1.M.x.

fbon. Librarian :
ROBERT M. YOUNG, m.a., M.R.I.A., J.P.

‘thon. Secretary :
ARTHUR DEANE.

Council :

JOHN M. FINNEGAN, B&.A., B.SC. \
Proressor J. A. LINDSAY, M.A., F.R.C.P. | ;
HENRY RIDDELL, M.4£., M.1.M.8. pic
ROBERT M. YOUNG, M.A., M.R.1.A.

ProrEssor W. ST. CLAIR SYMMERS, m.s.

Sir CHARLES BRETT. \

T. EDENS OSBORNE. | :
S. W. ALLWORTHY, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. ae
WILLIAM FAREN.

ARTHUR DEANE. |

W. B. BURROWS.

CouncrLitor K. J. ELLIOTT. é
H. C. LAWLOR, .R.1.a. pk:
WILLIAM SWANSTON, F.4.s. aa
Prorrsson GREGG WILSON, p.sc., M.R.1. A,

127

SHAREHOLDERS AND MEMBERS.

[* Denotes Holders of three or more Shares. |

la Fe Members of Archaeological Section. |

NOVEMBER 30TH, 1920.

aAcheson, F. W., Cloneevin, Dundalk
aAdams, Rev. Wm., M.A., The Manse, Antrim
* Alexander, Francis, B.E., Belfast
Alderdice, Richard Sinclaire, 124 Linenhall Street, do.
Alderdice, W. W., 9 Malone Park, do.
Allworthy, S. W., M.p., Manor House, Antrim Road, do.

* Anderson, John, J.P., F.G.8. (Representatives of),
Holywood, Co. Down

aAnderson, Frank, M.B.E., Willoughby Terrace, Portadown
aAndrews, M. C., F.R.G.S., F.R.G.S.S., 17 University

Square, Belfast
Andrew, John J., L.D.S., R-C.S.ENG., 23 University Square, do.
aAndrews, Miss Elizabeth, 12 College Gardens, do.
Armstrong, Hamilton, Corlea, Ashley Park, do.
Armstrong, William, Thronemount, do.
aAtkinson, Arthur S., Dromana, Knockdene Park, do.
Baird, Major William, Royal Avenue, do.
Beaumont, Ivor, A.R.C.A., School of Art, do.
aBennett, S. A., B.A., B.SC., Campbell College, do.
aBerry, Colonel, m.R.1.4., Ardluin, Newcastle
Bigger, Francis J., M.R.1.A., Ardrigh, Antrim Road, Belfast
aBlackwood, W. B., Ebony Grange, Deramore Park S., do.
aBlake, R. F., F.1.c., 4 Knock Road, do.
Boyd, Thornton, Blackstaff Spinning Company, do.
*Boyd, J. St. Clair, m.p. (Representatives of), do.
Boyd, John, San Remo, Holland Park, Neill’s Hill, do.

Brandon, H. B., J.p., Rosemount House, Antrim Road, do,

128 Shareholders and Members.

aBrett, Sir Charles H., Gretton Villa, South, Malone Road, Belfast
aBrett, The Very Rev. Archdeacon, M.A., Montrose,

Fortwilliam Park, do.
aBristow, James R., M.A., Prospect, Dunmurry
Bristow, John, 9 Wellington Place, Belfast
Brown, J., M.A., B.SC., 30 Marlborough Park (centre), do.
Burden, 8. Hall, 8 Alfred Street, do.
aBurrowes, W. B., Ballynafeigh House, Ravenhill Road, do.
*Brown, George B., Lisnamaul, Ormeau Road, do.
Campbell, A. A., Drumnaferrie, Rosetta Park, do.
*Campbell, Miss Anna (Representatives of), do.
Campbell, John, Innishowen, Donegall Park, do.
aCarmody, Rev. Canon, M.A., The Rectory, Lisburn
Carr, A. H. R., 224 Donegall Place, Belfast
aCarter, C. 8., 7 Knockbreda Road, do.
aCarter, H. R., 18 Mountcharles, do.
*Charley, Phineas H., Mornington Park, Bangor, Co. Down
*Christen, Mrs. Rodolphe, St. Imier, Brig of Cairn, Ballater, N.B.
Clark, Sir George S., Bart., D.L., Dunlambert, Belfast
Clarke, E. H., 69 Marlborough Park S., do.
aCleland, A. MclI., Macedon, Green Road, Knock, do.
Crawford, Sir William, J.p., Mount Randal, do.
aCrawtford, W. M., Orissa, Marlborough Park, do.
Corbett, Miss K. M., Ardsallagh, Derryvolgie Avenue, do.
Combe, Barbour & Co., Ltd., do.
Craig, Humbert J., Craigalea, Bangor
aCromie, Thomas, M.D., ° Clough, Co. Down
aCunningham, Right Hon. S., Fern Hill, Ballygomartin

Road, Belfast
Dalzell, James, 4 Tokio Gardens, Chichester Park, do.
Davies, A. C., Lenaderg House, Banbridge, Co. Down
aDavies, Colonel, R.£.S., 21 Malone Park, Belfast

Davison, A. H., F.A.1., 32 Wellington Place, do,

Shareholders and Members. 129

aDeane, Arthur, Municipal Art Gallery and Museum,

Royal Avenue, Belfast
*Deramore, Lord, D.t.
Despard, Y. D., 10 Academy Street, do.
Dickson, S. E., 9 Donegall Square West, do.
Dixon, Professor, M.A., SC.D., F.R.S., St. Ives, Bladon Drive, do.
*Donegall, Marquis of (Representatives of), do.
Doran, Councillor J. A.. 5.p., Ardavon, Antrim Road, do.
*Downshire, Marquis of, The Castle, Hillsborough, Co. Down
Duffin, Adam, LL.D., J.p., Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast
Dunleath, Lord, Ballywalter Park, Ballywalter, Co. Down
Dwerryhouse, Dr., Queen’s University, Belfast
Karls, Professor J., B.A., Municipal Technical Institute, do.
Klliott, A., Englewood, Marlborough Park, do.
Ewart, G. Herbert, m.4., J.p., Firmount, Antrim Road, do.
Ewart, Fred W., m.A., B.L., Derryvolgie, Lisburn
Ewart, Sir Robert, Bart., Glenmachan House, Belfast
Elhott, E. J.. The Towers, Donegall Park Avenue, do.

- aFaren, William, 454 Waring Street, do.
*Fenton, Francis G., Paris
aFerguson, G. W., C.k., J.P., Carnamenagh, Antrim Road, Belfast
Finlay, Fred W., Mrs., Wolfhill House, Ligoniel, Belfast
Finlay, Robert H. F., 66 Eglantine Avenue, ) do.
Finlay, W. J., 10 High Street, do.
Finnegan, John M., B.A., B.SC., 23 Botanic Avenue, do.
Fisher, Ernest, 2 Chichester Park, do.
Fitzsimons, N., 92 Myrtlefield Park, do.
Forsythe, J., Lisadell, Cliftonville Road, do.
aFrazer, Kenneth J., Hillmount, Cullybackey
Fry, W. Arthur, High Street, Holywood
Fulton, G. F., Arlington, Windsor Avenue Belfast

Gamble, James, Broadway Damask Co., Ltd. (Reps. of), © do.
Geale, R. G., City Hall, ‘do.

130 Shareholders and Members.

*Getty, Edmund (Representatives of), Belfast
Gibson, Andrew, F.R.S.A.!., Fairfield, Lansdowne Road, do.
Gibson, W. K., 16 Chichester Street, do.
Gilmore, William E., 114 Somerton Road, do.
Goldsbrough, J. B., Central Public Library, do.
Gordon, Malcolm, Dunarnon, University Road, do.
Gourley, J. R., Central Publie Library, do.
Green, H. Percy, Limehurst, Holland Park, Knock
aGreen, W. A., 4 Salisbury Avenue, Belfast
aGreeves, F. M. Garranard, Strandtown
aGreeves, Joseph M., Bernagh, Circular Road, do
aGreeves, Arthur, Altona, do
aGreeves, John Theo., Nendrum, Knock
aGreeves, W. Leopold, Rockfield, Dundonald

Gullan, H. F., M.1.c.n., Mount Pleasant, Stranmillis Road, Belfast

Hale, W. Barcroft, 6 Salisbury Gardens, do.
* fall, Frederick H., Waterford
Hamilton, Rev. Thomas, D.D., LL.D., Vice-Chancellor,

Queen’s University Belfast
*Hamilton, Hill. s.p. (Representatives of), do.
Harland, Capt., W., 4 Psalter Lane, Sheffield
aHarrison, W. J., Waringfield, Moira, Co. Down
aHastings, S. R.; J.p., Church Street, Downpatrick
Hastings, Archibald, 7 Cavehill Road, Belfast

Hawthorne, John, B.A., PH.D., F.1.C., 16 Donegall Square S., do.
Hayward, Harold R., Hopefield House, Antrim Road, do.

Henderson, J. W., M.A., Methodist College, do.
aHenry, Professor R. M., M.A., M.R.1.A., Crosshill,

Windsor Avenue North, do.
aHenry, T. W., Greenbank, Mountpleasant, do.
Herdman, E. C., Carricklee House, Strabane
*Herdman, Robert Ernest, J.p., Merronhurst, Craigavad, Co. Down
aHeron, F. Adens, Maryfield, Holywood

aHewton, John, M.P.S,1., Ava Buildings, 315 Ormeau Rd., Belfast

|

Shareholders and Members. 131

Heyn, James A. M., Head Line Buildings, Belfast
Higginson, R. E., 20 Waring Street, do
aHill, Dr., 46 Pound Street, Larne
Hind, John, jun., 22 Cliftonville Road, Belfast
aHyde, James J., 36 Bedford Street, do.
aHogg, A. R., 10 Thorndale Avenue, do.
Hodges, Miss, Old Spout Farm, Rotherfield, Sussex
Hoskins, A. Percy, F.1.c., 14 Rosetta Park, Belfast

*Houston, John Blakiston, D.L., J.P. (Representatives of),
Orangefield, Belfast

*Hughes, Edwin (Representatives of), Craigavad, Co. Down
Hummel, Professor, Queen’s University, Belfast
Hunter, Dr. J. A., 6 Stranmillis Road, do.
Hunter, William, J.p., Fortwilliam Villas, do.
Irwin, A., Cripples’ Institute, Donegall Road, do.
Jaffé, Sir Otto, J.P., LL.D., Kin Edar, Strandtown, do.
aJaffe, W., 10 Donegall Square South. do.
Jamieson, Andrew (Andrew Jamieson, Ltd), Sandy Row, do.
Jenkins, J. C., 86 University Road, do.
Johnston, Samuel A., J.p., Dalriada, Whiteabbey, Co. Antrim
Jones, Stanley, 4 Donegall Square North, Belfast
aJury, P. M., Brooklands, Dunmurry
Kennedy, W. Charles, Plasmerdyn, Holywood
aKendall, S. O., 47 Adelaide Park, Belfast
aKing, Travers W., Mazoé, Ballymena
*Kinghan, John R., Windsor Avenue (Representatives of), Belfast
Kyle, Robert Alexander, 15 Wellington Park, do.
Laird, Professor J., 4 Cranmore Gardens, : do.
Larmor, Sir Joseph, M.A., D.SC., LL.D., F.R.A.S., SEC. RB.S.,

St. John’s College, Cambridge

aLawlor, H. C., M.R.1.4., 8 Windsor Avenue, Belfast

132 Shareholders and Members.

aLepper, R. S., M.A., F.R.HIST.S., Elsinore, Crawfordsburn,

Co. Down

aLett, Rev. Canon, M.R.1.A., Aghaderg Glebe, Lough-

brickland, do.
Lindsay, Professor J. A., M.A., M.D., Queen’s Elms, Belfast
alindsay, W. A., M.P., Tyrone House, do.
aLoewenthal, John, Lennoxvale, Malone Road, do.
Lowry, David E., Oakley, Strandtown
*Macrory, A. J. (Representatives of), Belfast
Magill, John E., EKversley, Whitehead
aMackie, James, J.P., Hazelbank, Whitehouse
Malcolm, Bowman, M.1.C.E., M.I.M.E., Inver, Ashley Park,

Antrim Road, Belfast
Malcolmson, Herbert, Riverside, Holywood
Maxton, James, M.I.N.A., M.I.MAR.E., 6 Kirkliston Drive,

Bloomfield, Belfast
aMay, Robert, 40 Hopefield Avenue, Belfast
aMayes, William, Kenmuir, 12 Deramore Park South, do.
Mayne, H. Horner, 24 Elmwood Avenue, do.
aMercier, Ald., S. T., J.p., Cliftonville Road, do.
Metcalfe, A. W., Hawthornden House, Hawthornden Rd., do.
Milligan, A., 4 Cooke Street, do.
Mitchell, Robert A., LL.B., T.0.D., Marmount, Strandtown, do.
Moneypenny, Sir Frederick, ¢.B.E., M.v.o., City Hall, do.
aMontgomery, Miss H., 26 College Green, do.
aMontgomery, H. C., Ballyholme, House, Bangor, Co. Down
aMontgomery, H. H., 17 Malone Park, Belfast
Moore, Harold M., 26 Wellington Place, do.
Moore, James, J.P., Finaghy House, Dunmurry
aMorton, Professor W. B., M.A., Glencarse, Nottinghill, Belfast
Muir, A. H., 7 Donegall Square West, do.
Mullan, William, Lindisfarne, Marlborough Park, do.
*Murphy, Isaac James (Representatives of), Armagh

*Murphy, Joseph John (Representatives of), Belfast:

Shareholders and M. embers. 133

*Muserave, Henry, p.L., Drumglass, Malone, Belfast
aMacalister, Professor, R.A.S., D.LITT., M-A, 18 Mount

Eden Road, Donnybrook, Dublin
McBride, A. H., Ormeau Avenue, Belfast
*McCalmont, Robert (Representatives of), London

*McCammon, Thos P. (Representatives of), Plaisted,
Woodville, Holywood, Co. Down

McCance, Stouppe, 4 Markham Square, London, 8.W.3
McCloskey, Charles, Clanbrassie, Cultra
aMcCoy, B., 84 Smithfield, Belfast

McClintock, Major 8. A., M.D., D.A.D.H., R.A.M.C., Co. Donegal
*McCracken, Francis (Representatives of),

aMacready, H. L., m.A., 104 Myrtlefield Park, Belfast
‘aMcGowan, Thomas R., 73 Ann Street, do.
Macllwaine, Dr. John E., 26 College Gardens, do.
aMcKisack, H. L., M.p., Chlorine Place, do.
*MacLaine, Alexander, J.P., Queen’s Elms

(Representatives of), do.
MacKenzie, W. G., A.R.H.A., The Studio, Clarence

Place Hall, do.
MacMillen, Rev. J., M.A., D.D., 151 Ravenhill Road, do.
aMeMeekin, Adam, J.p., Cogry House, Doagh
McNeill, George, 12 Deramore Park, Belfast
Napier, N. J. F., M.1.c.n., City Hall, do.
Nelson, Captain G. M., 2 Howard Street, do.
Newel, J. S., 25 Lombard Street, do.
aNolan, Dr. M. J., Asylum, - Downpatrick
O’Neill, J. B., 26 Cromwell Road, Belfast
O’Rorke, Mrs., Tudor Park, Holywood, Co. Down
Orr, Dr. Gawin, Ballylesson, ; Belfast
Orr, James, 17 Garfield Street, do.
aOsborne, T. Edens, Wellington Place, do.

Owen, D. J. Harbour Office, do,

134 Sirareholdens and Members.

Patterson, Mrs. David C., Glenard Holywood, Co. Down
Patterson, John F., 2 Mountcharles, Belfast
Patterson, Robert, M.R.1.A., F.Z.S., M.B.0.U., Glenbank, Holywood
Patterson, William H. F., Auburn, Warren Road, Donaghadee
aPercival, R. D., J.p., Kareyhill, Downpatrick
Pomeroy, A. G., Arnside, Dundonald

aRiddell, Henry, M.E., M.1.M.E., 64 Great Victoria Street, Belfast .

Roberts, J. R., 48 Fitzwilliam Street do
Robinson, E. G., 1 Ashville, Inver Avenue, Antrim Road, do

aRoden, Countess of, Tullymore Park, Newcastle, County Down

Rutherford, Rev. J. C., B.A., 18 Lisburn Road, Belfast
Scott, James, B.E., Craigtara, Annadale Avenue, do.
Sefton, Burton, 20 Bedford Street, do.
Sinclair, Prof. Thomas, M.D., F.R.¢.S., Eng., University Sq. do.
aSinclair, Thomas, J.P., Lisburn
Sinclair, John, Mount Donard, Windsor Park, Belfast
aSkillen, Joseph, The Lisnagarvey Linen Co., Lisburn
Small, Professor James, D.SC., Queen’s University, Belfast
Stanley, Major Rupert, Municipal Technical Institute, do.
Steen, William, B.L., Roseberry, Marlborough Park, do.
aStephens, Capt. J. K., 13 Donegall Square, do.
aStevenson, John, Coolavon, Malone Road, do.
Stirling, James H., Ardanreagh, Windsor Avenue, do.
aStendall, Sidney, Museum, College Square North, do.
Stelfox, Arthur W., A.R.1.B.A., 14 Clareville Rd., Rathgar, Dublin
Stewart, Prof. S. A., M.A., D.Sc., Queen’s University, Belfast
Stoddart, J. Rutherford, 10 Donegall Square S., do.
Swanston, William, F.c.s., Farm Hill, Dunmurry

aSymmers, Professor W. St. Clair, Queen’s University, Belfast

aTate, T. M., M.p., Infirmary House, Downpatrick
aTate, Dr. W: P., . do.
Taylor, A. E., 20 Cranmore Gardens, Lisburn Road, Belfast

Shareholders and Members. 135

aTaylor, James, 6 Royal Avenue, Belfast

*Tennent, Robert (Representative of), Rushpark, do.
*Tennent, Robert James (Representative of), Rushpark, do.
aThompson, Edward, Prospect Mills, do.
Thompson, John J.p., Mountcollyer, Malone Road, do.
aThompson, Joseph Altorf, Holywood Road, do.
Thompson, J. M., 4 Milton Terrace, Wolsey Street, do.
Thomas, Trevor C., 6 Chichester Street, do.
Houten. t., BAL, B.SC., F.1.C., 16 Donegall Square S., do.
Torrens, Mrs. S. (c/o T. H. Torrens, Edenmore), Whiteabbey
Trimble, Dr. A., J.P., Tyn Owen, Downview Avenue, Belfast
Todd, Robert G., 1 Mount Easton, Cliftonville, do.
Turnley, Francis, Drumnasole, Carnlough
Wales, W. E., Ardmore, Holywood
aWalker, Franklin M., Mount Royal, Whitehead
Ward, William C., Adyar, Old Cavehill Road, Belfast
aWallace, Colonel, Myra Castle, Downpatrick
*Webb, Richard (Representative of), Knock, Belfast
White, Charles E., 10 Donegall Square West, do.
White, G W., Chatsworth, Balmoral Avenue, do.
aWhite, J. C., Right Hon., J.P., Craigavad

Whitla, Prof. Sir William, M.P., M.D., J.p., Lennoxvale, Belfast
Wilkinson, A. H., Mulroy Lodge, Ballymenock Park, Marino
aWilson, Prof. Gregg, M.A., PH.D., D.SC., M.R.L.A., Queen’s

University, Belfast
aWilson, Fergus S., Crofton Hall, Holywood
aWilson, George, 17 Bedford Street, Belfast
a* Wilson, Alec., J.P., M.R.I.A., Croglin, Ballyaughlis, Co. Down
Wilson, W., J.p., Chamber of Commerce, Belfast
*Wilson, W. Percival (Representative of), do.
*Wolff, G. W. (Representatives of), . : do.
Workman, Francis, The Moat, Strandtown, do.
Workman, John, J.p., Lismore, Windsor Avenue, do.

Workman, Rev. Robert, M.A., Crusheen, Cadogan Park, do,

136 Shareholders and Members.

*Workman, T. (Representative of),

Workman, W., 8 Corporation Street, Belfast
Wright, Joseph, F.G.S., 10 May Street, do.

a*Young, Robert Magill, M.A., J.P., M.R.I.A., Rathvarna, do.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Foster, Nevin H., M.R.1.A., F.LS., Hillsborough, Co. Down
Swanston, William, F.G.s., Farm Hill, Dunmurry
Wright, Joseph, F.G.s., May Street. Belfast
Stendall, J. A. S., Museum, College Square, do.

ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF TWO GUINEAS.

Belfast Banking Company, Ltd., Belfast
Northern Banking Company, Ltd., do.
Ulster Bank, Ltd., do.

(The Hon. Secretary will be obliged by shareholders and
members notifying him in the event of change of address, or those
whose names are incorrectly set out. Address :—The Museum,
College Square North, Belfast. |

PRE SUN TED
a6 APR. 1921

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roceedings and Reports

SE PAS Tt

Natural History and Philosophical oociety

FOR THE

SESSION 1920-21.

BELFAST : .
MAYNE, BOYD & SON, LTD., 2 CORPORATION STREET
(PRINTERS TO THE QUEEN’S UNIVERSITY).

1922.

lil
BELFAST NATURAL HISTORY and PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

[ESTABLISHED 1821 ].

CONSTITUTION.

The membership of the Society consists of Shareholders,
Annual Subscribers, and Honorary Members.

Shareholders holding more than two shares are not liable
for an annual subscription, but shareholders of two shares pay
an annual subscription of five shillings, and holders of one pay
ten shillings,

In 1914 a new class of membership was created
including persons of either sex, to be elected under the bye-laws
of the Society, and admitted by the Council on payment of
ten shillings per annum. Such members have all the privileges
of the Society, and take part in any business of the Society not
affecting the ownership of the property of the Society. In 1917
an Archeological Section was founded. Persons wishing to join
the Section must be members of the Society and pay an additional
minimum subscription of five shillings per annnm. An Appli-
cation Form for Membership to the Society and to the Section
will be found on page vii.

A general meeting of Shareholders and Members is held
annually in June, or as soon thereafter as convenient, to receive
the Report of the Council and the Statement of Accounts for the
preceding year, to elect members of Council, to replace those
retiring by rotation or for other reasons, and to transact any other
business incidental to an Annual Meeting.

The Council elect from among their own number a Presi-
dent and other officers of the Society.

Each member has the right of personal attendance at the
Ordinary lectures of the Society, and has, the privilege of
introducing two friends for admission to such. The session for
lectures extends from November to May.

Any further information required may be obtained from the
Hon. Secretary at :—The Museum, College Square North, Belfast,

CONTENTS.

Beatty, R. T,
Beaumont, Ivor

Carter, H. R.

Foster, Nevin H.

Riddell, Henry

Small, Professor James ...

Stewart, Professor A. W.

Thomson, Professor J Arthur
Ward, John J.
Wilson, Professor Gregg

Annual Meeting of Society

”? 3)

List of Exchanges

List of Lectures

List of Members

List of Past Presidents ...
Membership Application Form

70;

Officers and Council of Management,

1921-22

Statement of Accounts ...

The Perception of the Invisible.
No. 2, pp. 83-84.

Art and Workmanship. No. 4,
p. 142.

The decortication of Fibrous
Plants, with special reference
to Flax Retting and Scutching.
No 4, pp. 143-144.

The Birds of Hillsborough.
pp. 20-38.

Dr. Thomas Andrews: The Great
Chemist and Physicist. No. 3,
pp. 107-138.

Some Chapters in Modern Botany.
No. 2, pp. 85-106.

The Groundwork of the Universe
from a Chemical Standpoint.
No. 2, pp. 41-81.

Many Inventions—a Study in
Natural History. No. 1, pp. 1-4.

The Wonderland of the Wasps.
No. 4, pp. 139-141

The Trend of Evolutionary
Thought. No. 1, pp. 5-19.

No. 4, pp. 145-152.
Section, No. 4,

No. 1,

Archaelogica!
pp. 152-157.

No. 4, pp. 163-166.
No. 4, pp. 158-159.
No. 4, pp. 167-177,
No. 4, p. vi.
No. 4, p. vii.

No 4, p. 162.
No. 4, pp. 160-161,

V

mer AST NATURAL HISTORY
Pee PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY:

Officers and Council of Management for 1920-21.

President :
Pror. GREGG WILSON, o.B.£., M.A., D.SC., PH.D., M.R.I.A.

VicezPresidents :
Str CHARLES BRETT, t1.p.
S. W. ALLWORTHY, m.a., M.D., F.c.S.
Pror. JAMES A. LINDSAY, .a., F.R.¢.P.
ROBERT M. YOUNG, M.a., M.R.1.A., J.P.
J. M. FINNEGAN, B.a., B.sc.
WILLIAM SWANSTON, f.«a.s.

thon. Treasurer :
HENRY RIDDELL, m.t8., m.1.Mech.k.

fbon. Librarian :
ROBERT M. YOUNG, M.a., M.R.1.A., J.P.

‘bon. Secretary :
ARTHUR DEANE, M.R.I.A,

Council :
JOHN M. FINNEGAN, B.a., B.sc.
Proressor J. A. LINDSAY, m.4., F.R.€.P.
HENRY RIDDELL, m.&., M.1.mech.k.
ROBERT M. YOUNG, m.4., M.R.1L.A.
Prorrssor W. ST. CLAIR SYMMERS, m.z.
Str CHARLES BRETT, Li. p.

Retire
T. EDENS OSBORNE, F.R.5s.a.1. |

1921.

Retire
1922.

S. W. ALLWORTHY, M.a., M.D., F.C.S.
WILLIAM FAREN, F.n.s. 4.1.

ARTHUR DEANE, m.p.1.4.

W. B. BURROWES, F.R.5. 4.1. \
CouncriLtor E. J. ELLIOTT.

H. C. LAWLOR, m.R.1.4.

WILLIAM SWANSTON, F.«.s.

Prorrssorn GREGG WILSON, o,8.4., D.sc., M.R.L.A,

Retire
1928,

1821-22.

1822-27.
1827-4-.

1843-52.
1852-54.
1854-56.

1856-58.
1858-60.
» 1860-61.
1861-63.
1863-64.
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PAST PRESIDENTS.

James L. Drummond,
M.D.

Rev. T. Dix Hincks.

James L. Drummond,
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*Wm. Thompson.

Robt. Patterson, F.R.S.

Thomas Andrews, M.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.I.A.

John Stevelly, LL.D.
George C. Hyndman.
*James McAdam, F.G.S.
Robt. Patterson, F.R.S.
Prof. Wyville Thomson.
Prof. James Thomson.
Joseph John Murphy.
Robt. Patterson, F.R.S.
Prof. Wyville Thomson.
Robt. Patterson, F.R.S.
Joseph John Murphy.
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President 1921:
Henry Riddell, M.£., M.1. MECH. 5,

Prof. R. O. Cunning-
ham, M.D.

W. H. Patterson,
M.R.LA.

Prof. EK. A. Letts.

J. H. Greenhill,
MUS. BAC.

Prof. M. F. Fitzgerald.

Sir R. Lloyd Patterson,
F.L.S.

Prof. J. D. Everett,
F.R.S., D.C.L.

. “Thomas Workman, J.P.
1900-03.
1903-06.

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Prof.. J. Symington,
M.D., F.B.S.

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Sir John Byers, M.A.,
M.D., M A.O.

Prof. J. A. Lindsay,
M.D., F.R.C.S.

Prof. W. St.Clair
Symmers, M.B.
Prof. Gregg Wilson,

0.B.E., M.A., D.SC.,

PH.D., M.R.I.A.

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ways 2

Proceedings of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, 1920-1921.

5th October, 1920.

Professor GREGG WILSON, President of the Society, in the Chair.

Pusiic Lecture by Professor J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A., LL.D.,
Entitled :
“MANY INVENTIONS: A STUDY IN NATURAL
HISTORY.”

(Abstract).

Professor Thomson, in the course of his very interesting and
instructive lecture, said there is a quality of endeavour in the
majority of living creatures. They are always attempting the
apparently impossible and achieving it. Of some, it may be said
that they seek the line of least resistance, and drift into a
parasitic or saprophytic life of ease, but that is not the way of
the majority. Of animals especially it must be admitted that
they have the will to live, and to live in a particular way, which
is oftener against the stream than with it. We see this quality
in prolific multiplication (one of our British starfishes has
200 million eggs) ; in the multitude of different species (quarter
of a million backboneless animals named and known) ; in longevity
(the centenarian parrot and the Big Tree that lived for over
two thousand years); in the conquest of space (Arctic Terns
within the Antarctic Circle); in circumventing the seasons (by
migration or by hibernation); in exploiting inhospitable areas
such as the dark abysses of the ocean.

But there is another quality of living creatures for which it
is difficult to find a name unless it be cnventiveness. They show
what look like ingenious ways of meeting difficulties, what look
like devices and inventions. The puzzle is that these are often
exhibited at levels where we dare not suppose we are dealing
with deliberately-thought out devices, An example of the

2 Professsor J. Arthur Thamson on

biological problem may be found in the case of the partnership
between hermit-crab and sea-anemone. ‘The hermit-crab, having
a fairly well-developed brain may be appreciatively aware of what
he does when he puts a partner, sea-anemone, on his back, but
what are we to say of the more than acquiescent partner which
has no nerve-ganglia at all?

_ At the lowest level we have the behaviour of the Bryony
binding itself to the hedgerow, the Venus Fly-Trap shutting on
the insect, the starfish surrendering an arm and thus saving its
life, or the sea-anemone creeping up the hermit-crab’s leg. There
are inborn structural and functional adaptations which work
effectively when the trigger is pulled. In the absence of any
nerve-ganglia, we dare not use any big psychological word like
perception or inferring.

At the highest level we have Rooks breaking freshwater
mussels by letting them fall from a height, or the Thrush breaking
the snail’s shell on a stone, or the skua chivying other gulls and
forcing them to disgorge, where it is perhaps warrantable to speak
of deliberate intelligence, of experimental inference. But it is
difficult to decide how many apparently bright ideas, like the
mole’s cache of decapitated earthworms, are as clever as they at
first sight seem. It is difficult to know how far down in the scale
we can get presumptive evidence of intelligent invention. To
what extent did real inventiveness enter into the sea-swift’s
making of a nest out of its salivary juice, or into the neat device
by which the snake, Dasypeltis, breaks the birds’ eggs which it
swallows, or into the extraordinary fashion in which Darwin’s
frog rears its young ones in its croaking sacs, or into the way in
which the male of the New Guinea Fish, Kurtus, carries his
family on the top of his head. The testing and trying of new
peculiarities of structure and of function—new departures arising
as germinal variations, might lead to the racial establishment
of inventive devices which were intelligently appreciated and
approved of by the animal, though they were not intelligently
thought out or devised,

Many Inventions : A Study in Natural History. 3

But between the lower level, covered perhaps by the
concepts of structural adaptiveness and general endeavour to find
equilibrium and satisfaction, and the higher levels where plastic
intelligence holds the reins, or did in the past play the cards
supplied by germinal variations, there is the large and puzzling
field of what may be called imstinective inventiveness.

The tailor ants use their larve to supply the thread for their
sewing ; a common harvesting ant of South Kurope makes biscuits
of chewed seeds ; a few ants go far in the direction of domesticating
Aphids; many Termites grow moulds on specially constructed
beds; the cuckoo-spit saves its life by blowing soap-bubbles ;
many Digger-Wasps store paralysed caterpillars for their young,
which they do not survive to see; one of them sometimes uses a
pebble (like a tool) in her mouth to close the mouth of the
burrow smoothly; some ants and wasps have entered into a
strange nutritive give-and-take relation with the larve of the
nest; the larval tiger-beetle has an ingenious way of smashing
the small insects that rest on the living trap-door of its burrow ;
the water-spider makes a web at the foot of the pool, though it
is a member of a thoroughly terrestrial race, breathing dry air ;
the trap-door spider invented the hinge; the gossamer spiders
make aerial journeys without wings. It certainly looks as if
animals thought out many inventions.

If we can accept the view that the gains of novel individual
experience, registered in the structure of the nervous system
during the individual lifetime, are entailed, even in some repre-
sentative degree, on the progeny, then the puzzle of accounting
for the apparent inventions below the level of dominant intelligence
would be lessened.

If we cannot accept the Lamarckian or Neo-Lamarckian view
of the entailment of the structural results of novel or peculiar
individual experiences, what then? The following theory is
suggested: (1) In the germ-cells, which somehow epitomise the
past, novelties or variations or mutations are of frequent
eceurrence,—not “anyhow” variations, however, but new

4 Professor J. Arthur Thomson on Many Inventions, &e.

departures more or less consistent with the past. (2) These
new departures, usually improvements on previous new departures,
find expression in the structure and function of the embodied
organism—the player, into whose hands the germinal cards are
put. It is for the embodied or explicit organism, mind-body and
body-mind in one, to play these cards, to test their worth, even
to find the environing conditions where they will be of most
avail. Unprofitable tentatives, coming from the implicit organism
(the germ cell) will prove fatal in the experience of the explicit
or embodied organism (the animal) and that will be an end of
them. But when variations or mutations on the inclined plane
of behaviour (and of course its subjective or psychical side) prove
profitable when tested by the individual creature, then they will
bring success which is likely to mean their entailment, for the
heritability of many germinal novelties is now certain.

“Tt is in this way that the lower animals have profited by
inborn inspirations never clearly thought out, and just as it may
have taken a million years to fashion the feathers of birds, so it
may have taken ten millions to endow the tribe of ants with
their marvellous repertory ‘of apparent inventions.” (From
“More Secrets of Animal Life,” unpublished).

A hearty vote of thanks was accorded Professor Thomson,
on the motion of Councillor EH. J. Elliott, seconded by Mr. Henry
Riddell, M.E.

9th November, 1920.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

~ THE TREND OF EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT.”
By Professor GREGG WILSON, O.B.E., M.A., D.Sc., M.R.I.A.

The doctrine of evolution is no new idea, nor is the chief
modern controversy in connection with it new. I refer to the
dispute between “ mechanists ” and “ vitalists.”

The ancient Greeks had more or less clear beliefs as to the
fact of evolution®, and differed fundamentally among themselves
as to explanation of the fact, just as we of the twentieth century
do. Empedocles of Agrigentum (495—435 B.c.), who has been
ealled “the father of the evolution idea,” may be named as a
type of those who explained things largely by chance. He
believed in spontaneous generation of the living from the not-
living ; that plants came before animals; that parts of animals
appeared before entire animals; and that, as a result of the
triumph of love over hate, these parts united, but purely
fortuitously. Most of the resulting monstrous combinations, he
supposed, were unfit to live, but in time there arose by chance
forms that were able to maintain themselves and multiply. It
was a crude beginning, but it served as a foundation, on which
Epicurus and others built up a purely mechanical conception of
nature. Aristotle (384—322 B.c.) givesan account of evolution
that is much more modern in character, and his explanation is
distinctly vitalistic. He believed in a progressive development
from a primordial soft mass of living matter to the highest forms
of animals. He adopted the doctrine (now specially associated
with the name of Lamarck) that characters acquired by an animal

*See H. F. Osborn: ‘‘ From the Greeks to Darwin.” Macmillan
& Co., 1908.

6 Professor Gregy Wilson on

in the course of its life may be transmitted to its offspring. He
actually considered the possibility of the origin of new characters
and new species by chance variations and the survival of the
fittest varieties ; and he rejected this Darwinian theory, and
preferred to give credit to “an internal perfecting tendency,”
which was capable of driving organisms forward to give rise to
more perfect types.

For many centuries the views of Aristotle were accepted.
Even in the early Christian Church his ideas prevailed, and
Augustine (353—430 A.D.) expressly states that the story of the
Creation in Genesis should not be taken literally ; that evolution
had been gradual ; and that even the bodily structure of man had
been a product of natural development. For something lke
twelve centuries there was no important change in the Church’s
teaching on this subject ; but in the 16th century Suarez and
others taught that the entire work of creation took place in six
days of twenty-four hours ; and till the middle of the nineteenth
century this was the prevalent opinion. Then came another
revolution in thought, largely due to the brilliant labours of
Charles Darwin; and now there is practical unanimity among
educated men as to the fact of evolution. Our study of com-
parative anatomy ; of the history that is recorded in the rocks ;
of the facts of adaptation to environment; of variation and
heredity, all convince us of the mutability of species and the
truth of the great doctrine of evolution. But as to the how and
why of evolution there is very little certainty. As Driesch says :
“In this field we are just at the very beginning of what deserves
the name of exact knowledge.”* |

Modern thought on Evolution may be said to have started
with Buffon (1707—1788), whose merit is that he “inspired
later writers to consider the great problem.”t He first pointed
out on a broad scale the mutability of species in relation to
changes of environment; and he laid stress on modifications

ld Wy

he Science and Philosophy of the Organism, p. 21.
+ Osborn : From the Greeks to Darwin, p. 137.

~}

The Trend of Evolutionary Thought.

induced by the direct action of the environment. He knew
about the struggle for existence and elimination of the least
perfect. He also referred to the formation of new varieties of
animals by artificial selection, and showed that similar results
might be produced in nature by migration.

Erasmus Darwin (1731—1802) is the next writer who
interests us greatly. He was grandfather of Charles Darwin, and
was not less enthusiastic about evolution than his famous grand-
son. He wrote much in prose and verse, and in his writings he
anticipated Lamarck in teaching that organisms vary because of
their doings, and that the results of their exertions are transmitted
to their posterity. He did not, like Buffon, lay stress on the
direct action of the environment, but rather emphasized the idea
that modifications spring from within, as a result of the strivings
of the organisms during many generations. Even plants,
according to him, make efforts towards certain ends.

Lamarek (1744—1829) came after Erasmus Darwin, and
apparently without having read the latter’s works, gave expression
to the same general ideas on the evolution of animals that had
been put forward by Darwin. Rather curiously, he followed
Buffon in regard to the evolution of plants, believing that they
were evolved by the direct action of the environment. But as
regards animals he took the same view as Erasmus Darwin,
holding that environment did not act directly to produce modifi-
cations, but only indirectly, through the nervous system. The
essential cause of new structures was the striving of the animal.
A felt want (besoin) led to action, and that to modification. The
second great doctrine of the Lamarckian creed was that acquired
characters are transmitted to offspring.

Lamarkism is regarded as vitalistic- because of the psychical
factor implied in the want that gives rise to activity ; but
Lamarck was strongly opposed to the old Aristotelian idea of a
perfecting tendency in nature. He rather ascribed the variety
and perfect adaptation of animals to the fact that the species,
while spreading in all the habitable regions of the globe, have—

8 Professor Gregg Wilson on

under the influence of environment—developed new habits and
consequent modifications. We shall find, when we come to
consider more recent views of evolution, that this belief in the
striving of the organism in response to environmental stimulus
has been revived.

A second epoch in the history of modern thought on
evolution begins with Charles Darwin, whose work on the “ Origin
of Species ” appeared in 1859. He may be said to have converted
the world to belief in the fact of evolution. In his explanation
of the change of species, he accepted the Lamarckian doctrines,
but he added the idea of the survival of the fittest or most
favourable variations in the struggle for existence. He regarded
the slight differences that appear among members of a family as
the determiners of life or death ; and he dwelt on the fact that a
variation that secured survival of an individual at the same time
provided a chance that there would be offspring of that individual,
with its useful characteristics. He changed the point of view of
the scientific world, for whereas Lamarck had laid stress on
modification of the body of the adult animal, Charles Darwin
emphasized the importance of variations in the egg. He regarded
these congenital variations as heritable, and he showed how
useful modifications might be bwilt up by successive additions,
generation after generation.

Weismann (1834—1914) out-Darwined Darwin. He pro-
claimed the “‘all-sufficiency of natural selection ”* and discredited
Lamarckism. He maintained that there was no proof of the
transmission of acquired characters, and that owing to the
isolation of the germ-plasm such transmission was inconceivable.
His work on the nature of the germ-plasm was most important. Tt
He strove to show that hereditary characters are represented by
definite “determinants” in the chromosomes of the germ
nucleus, and that development of the egg is essentially an

* Contemporary Review, September and October, 1893.
+ “* The Germ Plasm: a Theory of Heredity.” 1893.

The Trend of Evolutionary Thought. 9

evolutio or distribution of these determinants. Variation,
according to him, is brought about by the mingling of germ-
plasms.

The work of Gregor Mendel, published in 1865, but lost
sight of till it was confirmed by three independent workers in
1900, was of supreme importance in connection with Weismann’s
theory. Mendel worked with peas, and showed how characters,
such as yellowness or greenness, tallness or smallness, do not
blend, but are alternative in inheritance ; and he further proved
that such characters are represented singly in the germ-cells.”
The great fact that he established, and that has been confirmed
time after time, alike for plants and for animals, is that there are
definite representatives (which we may call “ determinants ”) of
certain unit characters in the germ-plasm. His work, then, may
be taken as so far confirmatory of the Weismannic theory of the
structure of the germ-plasm. It has thrown light, too, on the
formation of new species by combination of characters or by the
dropping out of characters.

To be associated with the Mendelian view of inheritance is
the recent work on heredity of sex. From this it appears that
there is good evidence that in some insects one particular
chromosome of the germ nucleus can be recognised as “sex
determining” in character. In the bug Protenor, for example,
the cells of the male have thirteen chromosomes, while those of
the female have fourteen, and one of the thirteen is larger than
the other twelve, and can be identified as “sex determining.”
As a result of the usual maturation processes the male germ-cells
yield two types of spermatozoa, one with six chromosomes, all
alike, and the other with seven chromosomes, six small and one
large. The mature egg-cells, on the other hand, have all seven
chromosomes, six small and one large. If a spermatozoon with
six chromosomes fertilises an egg-cell, the result is a male with
thirteen chromosomes in its cells. But if a spermatozoon with
seven chromosomes fertilises an egg-cell, then the consequence is

* See ‘‘ Mendel’s Principles of Heredity,” by Professor W. Bateson.

10 Professor Gregg Wilson on

the formation of a female with fourteen chromosomes in its cells,
and in every cell two are of the large type. Much evidence of
this nature goes to show that sex is determined just as the
Mendelian greenness or yellowness in peas are inherited.

The Darwin-Weismann school certainly is mechanistic in
tendency. Its extreme disciples regard all nature as the necessary
result of the “mutual interaction, according to definite laws, of
the forces possessed by the molecules of which the primitive
nebulosity of the universe was composed.”* The present is an
unfolding of the past, and the future is a certainty, and is
determined by the present. The development of the individual
is a mere displayiug of characters contributed by the parents to
the egg ; but these characters depend for survival und unfolding
on environmental conditions, such as nourishment, temperature,
&e. Similarly the evolution of the race is an outcome of com-
binations of characters, fostered by natural selection. Even
psychical qualities are given a mechanistic interpretation : for
example, Loeb says: “I consider consciousness the function of a
definite machine or mechanism, which we may call the mechanism
of associative memory.” t

Weismann found many followers, especially, perhaps, in
Britain ; but there were always many zoologists who had difficulty
in accepting the rigidly mechanical account of the germ-plasm
associated with his name ; and others were unwilling to give up
belief in the old doctrine of transmission of acquired characters.

This century seems to me to be specially marked by the
perception of difficulties in the mechanistic view, and by a
tendency to a revival of Lamarkism or other form of vitalism.

The first adverse criticism of the “Natural Selection ”
school that I would mention refers to the casual variations, which

* Huxley.

tProfessor J. Loeb: ‘‘ The Dynamics of Living Matter.” 1906. page 6.

+ The notes that follow are not put forward as a reasoned criticism of
the mechanistic school, but rather as jottings indicating generally the
nature of some of the difficulties felt with regard to its teachings, and some
of the recent suggestions that are on vitalistic lines.

The Trend of Evolutionary Thought. 11

Darwin regarded as the basis of evolution. Not a few workers
have found it difficult to imagine the success of such ; and
Herbert Spencer, in particular, held that it was incredible that
without transmission of acquired characters there should be
harmonious variation of the different parts that co-operate to
produce one physiological result.

But de Vries and the Mendelians go further, for they
challenge the heritability of the Darwinian variations. De Vries
maintains that casual variations or fluctuations such as one finds
in every family, are swamped in cross-breeding ; and he argues
that new species appear all at once, by what he calls ““ mutation.”
The Mendelians provide a reason for this: they say that each
individual characteristic of a species is represented by an
individual determinant in the germ-plasin, and the transition from
one form to another is only possible through the addition or dis-
appearance of one or more of the characteristics. They hold that
“the conception of evolution as proceeding through the gradual
transformation of masses of individuals is one that the study of
genetics shows immediately to be false.”

So there is a considerable body of opinion hostile to the
Darwin-Weismann view of the basis of evolution.

But, secondly, the Natural Selection theory does not explain
the origin of the distinctively new. As Arthur Thomson says,
biology seems justified in holding “that there has been a frequent
epigenesis or new formation, a frequent outcrop of genuine
novelties. . . . There was a time when there were no insects ;
they came into being, and they were new ideas.”t But Darwin
offers no explanation of the new, and Weismann has not carried
conviction by suggesting that the new is merely a combination of
the old. T. H. Morgan puts the case fairly} as follows : “There
is evidence to show that the germ-plasm does sometimes change

* Hugo de Vries : Species and Varieties: Their Origin by Mutation.

1905.
tT ‘‘ The System of Animate Nature,” vol. II,, p. 367.

{ ‘‘ Sex and Heredity,” p. 17.

ig Professor Gregg Wilson on

or is changed. Weismann’s attempt to refer all such changes to
re-combinations of internal factors in the germ-plasm itself has
not met with much success. Admitting that new combinations
may be brought about in this way, yet it seems unlikely that the
entire process of evolution could have resulted by re-combining
what already existed ; for it would mean, if taken at its face
value, that by re-combination of the differences already present
in the first living material, all of the igher animals and plants
were fore-ordained.”

In this connection it is worth while to quote Bateson, our
ereat Mendelian worker, who writes: “As to almost all the
essential features whether of cause or mode by which specific
diversity has become what we perceive it to be, we have to
confess an ignorance almost absolute.”

A third difficulty in the way of believing in the “all-
sufficiency of natural selection” is found in the fact that the
mechanistic theory of development by “evolutio” makes no real
attempt to explain the orderly arrangement of the wonderful
units that are supposed to exist in the germ-plasm. As Child
says:* “The combination of these units into the individual is
assumed to occur as the facts demand, and although the problem
of the control and ordering of millions of such units through all
the changes involved in the development of a complex organism,
say the human body, is one which staggers human intelligence, it
is practically ignored.”

But a fourth difficulty arises from the fact that there 1s now
good reason to say that development is not an “ evolutio.” And
Weismann’s whole system depends on this doctrine. Roux at
one time seemed to have confirmed the view that the germ-plasin
is a mosaic and development a mere displaying of characters that
were localised in the egg. He destroyed one cell of a two-cell
stage in a frog’s development, with the result that a half-embryo
developed. But with sea-urchin eggs Driesch got opposite
results: one cell of a two-cell stage, or even of a later stage, was

* “ Tndividuality of Organisms,” pp. 22-23.

The Trend of Evolutionary Thought. 13

shown to be capable of building an entire larva. And even the
frog’s egg, when suitably manipulated, yields an entire embryo
from one cell of the two-cell stage. Many other experiments
have been made by many workers, and the result is abundant
evidence in favour of the resourcefulness of the embryo and
against the idea that development is to be regarded as a mere
mechanical unfolding or “evolutio.” As Russell says in his very
suggestive volume on “ Form and Function,” p. 346 :—** Experi-
mental work opened men’s eyes to the fact that the developing
organism is very much a living, active, responsive thing, quite
capable of relinquishing at need the beaten track of normal
development which its ancestors have followed for countless
generations, in order to meet emergencies with an immediate and
purposive reaction.”

Even modern mechanists have given up Weismann’s view of
evolutio, and some of them lay stress, not on local determinants,
66 woe Jj
but on “the capacities of the reaction system.”

A fifth difficulty in regard to the mechanistic view is seen in
the wondertul resourcefulness of the adult organism in circum-
stances that could not apparently have been provided for by
natural selection. Many experiments have brought home to us
the fact that organisms can deal successfully with new conditions.
The well-known power that the newt has of regenerating an
amputated limb might be accounted for by supposing there was a
considerable reserve of supplementary determinants placed at
convenient intervals along the member, but other cases are not
susceptible of such simple explanation. In the case of the
hydroid Tubularia, for instance, Miss Bickford has shown that
the combined work of many parts 1s involved in the restoration
of a decapitated head. And Driesch shows how the branchial
apparatus alone, or even half of the branchial apparatus of
Clavellina, may form a sphere, and then re-construct a small
complete ascidian. And again we have the classical case of
regeneration of the lens of an eye, not from the normal foun-

14 Professor Gregg Wilson on

dation, but from the edge of the iris. Such facts certainly tempt
one to conclude that organisms possess a definite purposiveness
that cannot be explained by natural selection.

Lastly, I would lay stress on the fact that the mechanistic
theory of natural selection does not explain the individuality of
organisms, and particularly of multicellular organisms. There is
an individuality which, as C. M. Child says,* “is distinctive of
the living organism, which determines harmonious development
and functional unity throughout the continuous dynamic change
which constitutes life.” Child attempts to explain this as ulti-
mately resulting from the relations between living protoplasm and
the world external to it; but he also regards this individuality
as the dominant not the subordinate or casual. He recognises
that the organism is a unit in inheritance and development.—not
a mere assemblage of cells. And it is because of this recognition
that he says we must expect to find that so-called ‘acquired
characters’ may be impressed on the organism to such a degree
that sooner or later the reaction system may give rise to these
characters without the action of the particular external factor
which originally produced them. An individuality of this kind
is certainly not accounted for by the orthodox mechanistic
philosophy.

It is not surprising that there are numerous rival theories
to the Weismannic one. Oscar Hertwig has all along seen the
difficulties of Weismann’s view of the germ-plasm and of develop-
ment, and has given credit to position as determining the fate of
a cell in development ; and others have held similar views. But
while there probably never before was such appreciation of the
perfection of mechanisms in the organism? there seems to be an
even fuller recognition of the distinctiveness of organisms.

Some thinkers, like the metaphysical physiologist Haldane, }
eo the length of proclaiming that this world, with all that is

* © Tndividuality in Organisms.” Chicago, 1915.
+ See Prof. D’Arcy Thompson : ‘‘ Growth and Form.” 1917,
¢°* Mechanism, Life, and Personality.” 1913,

The Trend of Evolutionary Thought. 15

within it, is a spiritual world. He urges that there is not the
remotest possibility of deriving the organic from the inorganic,
but that in tracing life back and back towards what at first
appears to be the inorganic, we are really seeking to reduce the
inorganic to the organic. Professor Frederick Soddy, who looks
at things with the eyes of a chemist and physicist, is equally
emphatic as to the impossibility of explaining the world of life
and personality as a result of the study of the world of
mechanism. He regards the two as distinct. He says: “ Apart
from extreme opinions on such a point, I think there is a growing
tendency to distinguish between the mechanism of life and its
conscious regulation.” And he emphasizes the fact that our
knowledge of the mechanical world is of such a nature that
“from this world mystery in any real sense has been banished.”
And he adds: “One’s scientific sense of direetion tells that the
further one advances towards the ultimate insoluble problems of
physics, the more completely one leaves behind the phenomena of
life and all its mysteries.” He compares the organism to Niagara
under control, with some of its water working turbines to which
are geared dynamos : and he points out that “ Niagara to-day is
a mechanism as before, but it has been linked to an external
intelligence capable of guiding and varying its action at will.”*

Many zoologists have also emphasized the distinctiveness of
the living. KE. B. Wilson, for example, in his great work on
“The Cell,” says: “The study of the cell has, on the whole, °
seemed to widen rather than to narrow the enormous gap that
separates even the lowest forms of life from the inorganic world.”
Even in the humblest manifestations of life the student discovers
traces of an effective psychological activity. And physiologists
tell us how many of the mechanisms of the body are regulated.
“The idea,” says Haldane, and others agree with him, “ which
gives unity and coherence to the whole of the physiology of
respiration is that of the organic determination of the pheno-
mena.”

* Professor Frederick Soddy : ‘* Science and Life.” London, 1920,

16 Professor Gregg Wilson on

Professor Arthur Thomson, in his recent Gifford Lectures,
strives to show that mutations are “expressions of the whole
organsm, . . . comparable to experiments in practical life,
solutions of problems in intellectual life, or creations in artistic
life. These are accomplished, as everyone knows, by molecular
activities in the brain and body, but they are not intelligibly
thought of unless we conceive of the organism as a psycho-
physical individuality, a mind-body or body-mind, as we will.”
And Thomson and Geddes, in their manual on “ Evolution,’
say: ~ The living organism differs from any machine in its greater
efficiency ; and especially in this that the transfer of energy into
it is attended with effects conducive to further transfer and
retardation of dissipation. Again in this that itis a self-stoking,
self-repairing, self-preservative, self-adjusting, self-increasing, self-
producing engine.” And later on they add: “ We feel compelled
to recognize the persistence of some originative impulse within
the organism, which expresses itself in variation and mutation,
and in all kinds of creative effort and endeavour.”

Another protest against the view that mechanism is the
explanation of the organism is that of A. D. Darbishire,* who
maintains that “ matter is subservient to spirit ; that structure is
the result of activity and not activity the result of structure.”
“Those who hold this view do not think,” he says, “that the
mechanistic explanation is false ; they believe that it gives a very
‘true picture of the proximate causes of the mechanical devices
made use of by life.”

But perhaps the best known advocate of vitalism is the great
experimenter, Driesch, who has come to the conclusion that there
is in life a great controlling and ordering principle, which he calls
‘“entelechy.”’t By this he attempts to explain individuality, and
development, regulation of the organism, regeneration, &c., &e.
It is regarded as constructing the organism as a man constructs a
machine, making use of things physical and laws physical.

* Tntroduction to a Biology.” London. 1917.
} See Driesch’s Aberdeen Gifford Lectures on ‘‘ The Science and Philo-
sophy of the Organism,”

The Trend of Evolutionary Thought. 1%

Among those who have done much to popularise vitalism
Samuel Butler deserves special mention. He is best known as
the exponent of the “memory” theory of development.* He
was not the first to put forward this theory, as Hering, Semon,
and others had adopted it, but Butler made an effective appeal
to the public. He shows that consciousness and volition have a
tendency to vanish when practice has rendered any habit
exceedingly familiar; and says if we admit that the mere
presence of an elaborate but unconscious performance carries with
it a presumption of infinite practice, we shall find it impossible
to draw the line at those actions which we see acquired after
birth. “The developing chick,” he maintains, “ works with such
absolute certainty [making flesh, bones, feathers, &c.], and so
vast an experience that it is utterly incapable of following the
operations of its own mind-—as accountants have been known to
add up long columns of pounds, shillings and pence, running the
three fingers of one hand, a finger for each column, up the page,
and putting the result down correctly at the bottom, apparently
without an effort.”

Many others have adopted the theory that development is
guided by memory, and among the most important of its
advocates is Sir Francis Darwin, whose presidential address to
the Botany Section of the British Association (1908) urges its
importance. Darwin says: “It seems to me certain that in
development we have an actual instance of habit.” And he
adds : “If this be so, somatic inheritance must be a vera causa.”

Yet another supporter of neo-vitalism is Bergson, who has
done much to interest thinking people in life and heredity. He,
like Butler, lays great stress on memory, which he regards as one
of the marked characteristics of life. But his great idea is that
there isin life a great impetus, that flows like a stream from
generation to generation, gathering experience as it flows
onwards, perpetually adapting itself, constantly creating some-

*See his ‘‘ Life and Habit,” ‘*‘ Unconscious Memory,” and other
works,

18 Professor Gregg Wilson on

thing new. This view is intended to explain how we carry with
us all of our past, and how this past is always liable to crop up
in our psychic life. Like the Weismannic view, this of Bergson’s
recognises that the past remains present to us; but it gives to the
living organism an effective power to modify and shape.

In conclusion, I should like to say that it seems to me that
we are still far from clear vision in the realm of evolution. We
can only as yet get partial views, and much of our argument is
by vague simile. But I believe that for practical purposes it is
wise still to accept a kind of dualism in the organic world. We
seem to have failed completely to make things plain by mechan-
istic monism, and the ordinary citizen gets lost in the maze of
the metaphysical monism advocated by Haldane and others. We
can safely say that while there is much in the organism that can
be weighed and measured, and is fully and satisfactorily explained
as mechanism, there is also much that cannot be so explained,
and that may be regarded as outside space, and as distinctive of
life.

Such a conclusion does not suggest that the réle of natural
selection is abolished, but rather indicates that natural selection
is not ‘all-sufficient.” Instead of playing the part of creator,
it may be regarded as active in pruning away the unfit—a far
from unimportant task.

And the effect of adopting the definite dualistic view need
not be, as not a few have suggested, the end of all scientific
inquiry. On the contrary, it may be that this view will add
zest to the pursuit of knowledge. Darbishire found it so, as we
gather from his description of the effect of his reading Butler’s
work. “We read ‘Life and Habit,’” he says, “in 1909. We
had been brought up in the school of Natural Selection ; our
lectures on Evolution began with Charles Darwin. Evolution as
explained by natural selection was a drab thing, in which we had
to believe. The change wrought in us by reading ‘ Life and
Habit’ was miraculous. An extraordinary change had also come
over the living things we saw. They appeared as they had

The Trend of Evolutionary Thought. 19

never appeared before. They wore an uncouth aspect which was
unfamiliar and yet strangely familiar to us. They were alive.
Evolution from that time became a thing in which it was not a
necessity but a joy to believe.”

Do we not also realize that the thought-of a common vital
impulse, such as Bergson suggests, brings with it a wider outlook
for man? ~*~ An organic being,” writes Charles Darwin, “is a
microcosm, a little universe formed of a host of self-propagating
organisms inconceivably minute and numerous as the stars in
heaven.” And Samuel Butler adds: “As these myriads of
smaller organisms are parts and processes of us, so are we but
parts and processes of life at large.” And Haldane has the same
thought when he says: “The individual organism, like the
individual cell in a complex organism, belongs to a wider organic
whole, apart from which much of its life is unintelligible.”

20 Nevin H. Foster on

December 14th, 1920.

a EDENS OSBORNE in the Chair.

“THE BIRDS OF HILLSBOROUGH.”
By Nevin H. Foster, F.L.S., M.R.I.A., M.B.0.U.

The district to which this paper refers may be taken as a
circular area, 8 miles in diameter, having the village of Hills-
borough as its centre; its circumference just reaching to
Larchfield, Legacurry, Lisburn, Lissue, Broomhedge, Spence’s
Bridge, Shankerburn, Dromore, Lough Aghery and Ballyerune—
this area embracing about 32,160 acres. Almost all of it is
situated in County Down, but it extends for about a mile on the
north into County Antrim. The altitude in its lowest portion at
the River Lagan is about 100 feet above sea level, rising to 596
feet in the townland of Clogher, a little over a mile south of the
village. For the most part the land is in a high state of culti-
vation, but it contains one rather large peat moss (Drumlough)
and numerous small patches of mossy, moory or marshy ground.
Its lakes include Lough Aghery (formerly spelt, Achray), Lough
Erne, Hillsborough Park Lake, Hillsborough Demesne Lake and
McKee’s Dam, but in addition to these there are several
smaller lakes or ponds. Through its northern part runs the
River Lagan and a portion of the Belfast to Lough Neagh Canal,
and there are numerous streams. Though no extensive woods
occur there are many groves and plantations, and all through the
district deciduous and coniferous trees are numerous. The
modern practice of cutting down high hedges has no doubt
militated against our hedge-frequenting birds, but there still
remains ample cover of this class. In a district with such varied
topography one would expect the Ornis to be comparatively rich,
and such we find to be the case,

‘poet DD) ORO cl
‘ANSUNA(, HOMOMOASTILY ‘SLANDAD ONY SNV.MG GLOATY

“1Z-0Z6L ‘AJa|HOG [vorydosopiyg puv ALOASTHY [VANQVN JSVITOT

rBeITISH
MUSEUM

15. FEB 23

NATURAL
ay ISTORY.

The Birds of Hillsborough. 21

For the purposes of this paper all the available avifaunal
records have been consulted and included, but the major part
has been compiled from the writer’s notes since 1902.

The subjoined list of the Birds of Hillsborough embraces
109 species (exclusive of those cited in square brackets whose
status is doubtful), of which 76 have been known to breed in the
district. In the course of a series of monthly notes from 1902
till 1918, the following shows the average numbers of bird species
actually observed by the writer in each month :—

January, is wm 45. species.
February, ie Ae: 45-7 =A
March, aoe a 48-5. _
April, ee nad 52-9 i
May, sae Biche 58 “
June, oe oe ema
July, so es 56 hin
August, Sat ete 52-1 CoM,
September, ee te $
October, eee te i al Rens:
November, is dos > MAG MOR e eS
December, an ae 47-6 =
The yearly average being 74:69 ,,

Needless to state this list cannot be regarded as complete ;
for doubtless many casuals may have visited the district unnoted.
As an instance of this may be cited the observation of an Oyster-
catcher—a bird one would not expect here—and it was a mere
matter of luck that the writer in passing Munroe’s Dam chanced
to see it. However, this paper may be taken as a basis to which
future workers in detailed ornithological distribution may add.

The measurements of eggs cited are the greatest length aud
greatest breadth of the egg and are stated in millimetres. The
weights—in grammes—of full eggs are those of fresh eggs, it
being recognised that eggs lose some 15/ in.weight during the
process of incubation. Measurements and weights are given only
for eggs taken in the district.

tS
to

Nevin H. Foster on

ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BIRDS OF HILLSBOROUGH.

The order and nomenclature here adopted is that of
the B.O.U. List, 2nd Edition, 1916.

Order PASSERIFORMES.
Family CORVIDA.
[Corvus corax. Linné. Raven.

Local tradition asserts that the Raven formerly bred in Hillsborough
Park, but no reference to this can be found in any authoritative work.
It is possible that this statement should be referable to the following
species, |

Corvus cornix Linné. Hoovrpn Crow.

Thompson states* that grey crows bred on a wooded islet in Lough
Aghery. This may be taken as authentic, but for many years past this
bird has not been seen in the district.

Corvus monedula Linné. Jackvaw.

Resident and common, usually breeding in disused chimneys, but
often in trees, particularly those clothed with ivy. Numbers formerly
bred in rabbit holes in Hillsborough Park.t Average size of eggs 34°39 x
25°66 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 11°91 gr, of empty shells °8 gr.

Corvus frugilegus Zzuné. Rook.

‘Resident and common. Several rookeries occur in the district, the
largest of which contains annually about 120 nests. Average size of eggs
39°29 x 2797 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 16°07 gr., of empty shells
1045 gr.

Pica pica (Linné). Macrin.

This bird was first observed in lreland towards the end of the 17th
century but is now resident all through the country as obtains in this
district. The nest is usually placed in the upper part of a tall tree but
the bird also utilises high Whitethorn (Crategus Oxyacantha) hedges.
From such a situation a nest now in the Belfast Municipal Museum was
obtained. When fresh taken this nest weighed over 70 lbs. Average size
of eggs 33°53 x 23°62 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 9°76 gr., of empty
shells “5958 gr. :

Garrulus garrulus hibernicus. Witherby & Hartert. Inisn Jay.

The Jay can only be regarded as an occasional wanderer to the
district. A pair was observed in the Demesne about 1900, and a single
bird in the same place in December, 1907.

* Nat. Mist. of Iveland, Vol. U1, p. 146.
+ Nat. Hist. of Ireland, Vol. 1, p. 324.

The Birds of Hillsborough 23

Family STURNID 4%.
Sturnus vulgaris Linné. STar ine.

Resident and numerous, but becoming less so in the Autumn and
Winter months. At this season it is probable that many of our Starlings
betake themselves to the sea coast, for at this time countless nnmbers may
be seen each evening at sunset coming in to roost on the Technical Institute

and Assembly’s Buildings, Belfast. Average size of eggs 28°79 x 21°34 mm. ;
average weight of full eggs 7 gr., of empty shells 497 gr.

Pastor roseus (Linné). Ross-coLourED Pastor.

The only recorded instance of this species in the district is one shot
here in July, 1836.*

{A GoLpEN ORIOLE (Oriolus oriolus (22772) ) was said to have been
seen about 2 miles north of the village in September, 1911. ]

Family FRINGILLID 2.
Chloris chloris (Linné). GRreenFincn.

The Greentinch (locally called Green Linnet) is resident and numerous,
packing into large flocks in Autumn. Average size of eggs 20°13 x 13°88
mm.; average weight of full eggs 1°94 gr., of empty shells ‘1019 gr.

Coccothraustes coccothraustes (Linné). Hawrincn.

Thompson statest that a very fine specimen was shot near Hills-
borough about the year 1829. One said to have been shot in Park about
1899. Rev. Allan Ellison, when here on a visit in July, 1905, thought he
detected a pair flying overhead.

Carduelis carduelis britannica (Hartert). GoLDFINCH.

Formerly common, this bird has now become very rare. In 1901 Mr.
R. J. Pack Beresford released 24 birds obtained from Co. Carlow, but this
did not seem to have any appreciable effect on the population. In May,
1905, a nest of this species was found in a high beech hedge, from which
the young were duly reared.

Spinus spinus (Linné). Siskin.

Resident in the district in small numbers, but the local population is
augmented in Winter by flocks of migratory birds. The nests, so far as
discovered, are always placed far out on a branch of Douglas Spruce and
at a high elevation.

Passer domesticus (Linné). Housn-Sparrow.

Resident and abundant. As obtains elsewhere, the nests are of two
kinds (a) a domed structure among the finer branches of the upper part of
a tree, or (b) a cup-shaped nest in a hole in a tree or building or in the
thatch of houses. Average size of eggs 21°22 x 15°02 mm.; average
weight of full eggs 2°635 gr., of empty shells *1712 gr.

* Nat. Hist. of Ireland, Vol. I, p. 296.
+ Nat. Hist. of Ireland, Vol. I, p. 259.

94 Nevin H. Foster on

Fringilla celebs Linné. CuHarrincu.

Resident and probably the most abundant of our small birds, whose
song may be heard from the middle of February till about the end of June.
A specimen almost pure white in colour was shot a short distance from the
village a few years ago. Average size of eggs 18°98 x 14°12 mm. ; average
weight of full eggs 2°024 gr., of empty shells *1211 gr.

Fringilla montifringilla Zinné. Brampuine.

An irregular Winter visitant—a few probably visiting the district
nearly each year, when they may be found consorting with Chaffinches
generally in the neighbourhood of beech trees.

Acanthis cannabina (Linné). Linnev.

A not numerous resident. Average size of eggs 18°23 x 13°49 mm. ;
average weight of full eggs 1°667 gr., of empty shells ‘08 gr.

Acanthis linaria cabaret (7. L. S. Miller). Lrsser REDPOLL.

Resident in considerable numbers. A seasonal movement is observable,
most of these birds deserting the higher parts of the district in Autumn
and spending the Winter in the lower lying portions. Average size of eggs
16°16 x 12°22 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 1°289 gr., of empty shells
0643 gr.

Acanthis flavirostris (ZLinné). Twrrr.

Resident in small numbers but usually keeping to the higher lying
portions of the district, 7.¢., Drumlough Moss, where it breeds among the
ling (Calluna vulgaris). Average size of eggs 17°1 x 13°24 mm. ; average
weight of full eggs 1°396 gr., of empty shells ‘0833 gr.

Pyrrhula pyrrhula pileata MacGillivray. British BULLFINCH.

A not uncommon resident, doing a considerable amount of damage to
the buds of fruit trees in Spring but later destroying seeds of noxious
weeds. Average size of eggs 18°66 x 13°55 mm. ; average weight of full
eggs 1°813 gr., of empty shells ‘118 gr.

Loxia curvirostra Linné. CrossBiLu.

Thompson records* this bird from Hillsborough Park in January and
February, 1838. It is probable that Crossbills bred here in 1901 as a
small party was observed for several months in the early Summer
frequenting a plantation of Douglas Spruces in the Park. A flock of
about a dozen was seen feeding on the seeds of the Douglas Spruce in
July, 1909, and Crossbills were noted several times in the succeeding
Autumn and Winter. It appears to be here as elsewhere in Ireland a
somewhat erratic visitant.

[On the evening of 12th June, 1920, and on the following morning
a bird was observed feeding among potatoes, &c., in some of the gardens
at the south end of the village. The writer had only a momentary vision
of it, but others saw it for longer or shorter periods. The bird appears to
have been the DominicaAN CarpDINAL, Paroaria larvata Boddaert, a
native of Brazil, which is imported in considerable numbers to this country
and kept in confinement, from which undoubtedly this bird had escaped.
It is the ‘* Pope” of dealers. ]

* Nat. Hist. of Ireland, Vol. I, p. 278.

The Birds of Hillsborough. 25

Emberiza calandra Linné. Corn-Buntina.

Resident in small numbers and very locally distributed in the
neighbourhood. Average size of eggs 22°72 x 16°54 mm. ; average weight
of full eggs 3°175 gr., of empty shells "194 gr.

Emberiza citrinella Zinné. Yrrtow Hammnr.

Resident and common. Average size of eggs 20°34 x 15°78 mm. ;
average weight of full eggs 2°702 gr., of empty shells "1581 gr,

Emberiza scheeniclus Linné. Reen-Buntinu.

Resident and common. Forsaking its Summer habitat—marshes and
rushy meadows—it frequents stubble and potato fields in Winter, and
may frequently be seen following the plough. The Cuckoo frequently
utilises the nest of this species for the depositing of its egg. Average
size of eggs 19°14 x 14°28 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 2°102 gr.,
of empty shells ‘1211 gr.

Family ALAUDID.
Alauda arvensis Linné. Sky-Lark.

Resident and common, particularly in the lower-lying portions of the
district. The song may be heard as early as January, and in the early
season it is frequently uttered whilst the bird is on the ground. In 1920
nany were heard singing on the afternoon of 10th October. Average size
of eggs 24°5 x 17°07 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 3°618 gr., of empty
shells ‘22 gr.

Family MOTACILLID%.
Motacilla lugubris Z'emminck. Prep Wacratt.

This bird is said to be less numerous in the district than obtained
formerly. During the Winter months one can scarce fail to see one or a
pair in the village street, but by March they change their habitat. <A
Cuckoo’s egg has more than once been found here in the nest of this
species. Average size of eggs 18°99 x 14°56 mm, ; average weight of full
eggs 2 gr., of empty shells "1286 gr.

Motacilla cinerea Tunstall. Grey Wacratn.

A few pairs are resident in the district, being principally seen by the
side of streams or lakes. The nest, however, is by no means always near
the water edge, but is frequently placed in holes in walls or buildings at a
considerable distance from water. Average size of eggs 19°44x 13°8 mm. ;
average weight of full eggs 1°912 gr., of empty shells *105 gr.

Anthus pratensis (Linné). Muapow-Pipert.

Resident and common. This bird is most frequently victimised by
the Cuckoo, as appears to be the case all through Ireland. Average size
of eggs 19°51 x 14°48 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 2°157 gr., of empty
shells .125 gr.

26 Nevin H. Foster on

Family CERTH1DAs.
Certhia familiaris britannica Ridgway. British TREE-CREEPER.

Resident in small numbers. Average size of eggs 16 x 12°06 mm. ;
average weight of full eggs 1°177 gr., of empty shells ‘0633 gr.

Family REGULIDA.
Regulus regulus (Linné). Goinorssr.

This species—smallest of Kuropean birds—is resident and common.
The severe winter of 1916-17 practically exterminated it in the district,
but it is again becoming very numerous. The nest is usually attached to
and hanging from the under side of a Douglas Spruce branch but has been
observed far out on the top of a Yew branch and once on the top of a
Spruce branch close to the trunk. Average size of eggs 13°61] x 10°21 mm. ;
average weight of full eggs ‘74 gr., of empty shells ‘0357 gr.

Family PARID/L.
Parus major newtoni Prdzk. Brirish Great Titmouse.

Resident and common. Average size of eggs 18°22 x 13°78 mm. ;
average weight of full eggs 1°843 gr., of empty shells ‘102 gr.

Parus ater britannicus Sharpe & Dresser. BrrrisH Coau-Trrmovuse.

Resident and common. All the specimens obtained in the district
proved of this sub-species, and although closely looked for P. a. hibernicus
has not been observed here. Average size of eggs 17°86 x 12°33 mm. ;
average weight of full eggs 1°415 gr., of empty shells ‘0633 gr.

Parus czruleus obscurus Prazdék. British Biuurn Titmouse.

Resident and by far the most numerous species of the Titmouse family
in the district. Average size of eggs 15°2 x 11°52 mm. ; average weight of
full eggs 1°06 gr., of empty shells ‘0633 gr.

Egithalus caudatus roseus (Slyth). BririsH LonG-TaILED TITMOUSE.

Up till the severe Winter of 1916-17 this bird was resident and not
uncommon, but its presence since then has not been detected in the
district until November, 1920, when Mr. Horsbrugh saw two of these
birds in his garden. Although this bird generally builds its nest in a
shrub or bush within ten feet of the ground, a nest has been noted in the
fork of a slender branch at an elevation of about 60 feet.

Family LANID.

Lanius excubitor Jinné. GREAT GREY SHRIKE.

Ussher records* a male of this species shot near Lisburn, in Co. Down,
27th December, 1886, which is the only note for this district of a bird of
the Shrike family.

* Birds of Iveland, p. 44.

The Birds of Hillsborough.

lo
~y

Family AMPELID AH.
Ampelis garrulus (Lind). Waxwine.

An irregular Winter visitant. One shot in Lissue, Co. Antrim, and
another seen in Hillsborough Demesne in December, 1903 ; one shot near
St. John’s Church, 3rd February, 1917, are all that have been observed in
the district.

Family SYLVIIDA.
Sylvia communis Latham. Wuitrernroar.

A regular Spring migrant usually appearing about the first of May
(earliest 24th April, in 1902). The presence of the male is soon detected
by his almost continuous singing, which ceases early in July; but on the
morning of 6th August, 1909, one was heard in full song. Average size
of eggs 18°8 x 13°82 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 1°886 gr., of empty
shells “102 gr.

Locustella nzvia (Boddaert). GRAssSHOPPER-WARBLER.

A Spring migrant whose visits to the district appear to be somewhat
irregular ; in some years plentiful, whilst in others it is not seen or heard.
Average size of eggs 18°03 x 13°97 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 1°782
gr., of empty shells ‘1 gr.

Acrocephalus schcenobzenus orientalis (Linné). SmpGn-WaARBLER.

This species usually arrives about lst May, and is always numerous.
The late John Cottuey maintained that the male never sang in the
proximity of the nest. Average size of eggs 17°13 x 12°75 mm. ; average
weight of full eggs 1°501 gr., of empty shells ‘075 gr.

Phylloscopus trochilus (Linné). Witt0ow-WaRBLrER.

Probably the most numerous of the warblers, this bird usually arrives
about the middle of April (earliest 8rd April, in 1906 , and from this time
till the middle of July one can scarce go about without hearing its
melodious if somewhat plaintive song. Occasionally the song is resumed,
but much more faintly, inthe Autumn. Average size of eggs 15°09 x 12°11
mm. ; average weight of full eggs 1°162 gr., of empty shells ‘059 gr.

Phyllosocopus collybita (Vicillot), CuirrcHarr.

The earliest of the regular Spring migrants to arrive in the district,
generally appearing in the last week of March (earliest 23rd, in 1918).
Like the preceding species the song ceases about mid July, but is resumed
in August and uttered occasionaliy during September. Average size of
eggs 14°53 x 11°58 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 1°021 gr., of empty
shells ‘07 gr.

Family TURDID.
Turdus viscivorus Linné. Missei-Turvusn.

The Missel-Thrush or Mistle-Thrush was first noticed in Ireland about
1808, but is now widely distributed and common. Here it is known as
the ‘‘ Jay ” ov ** Jay-Thrush.” It is said to be anearly nester, but in this
district it does not appear to be specially so. Average size of eggs 30°33
x 21°49 mm.; average weight of full eggs 7°63 gr., of empty shells
4566 gr.

e
28

os

Nevin H. Foster on

Turdus musicus clarkii (Harter/). British Sonc-THRUSH.

The song of this bird may be heard in every month of the year, with
the possible exception of August. Its nest has been seen early in March.
As a rule this thrush lines its nest with a waterproof coating composed of
rotten wood, dung, &c., but one found in 191] had only a very flimsy
plastering of such substance inside which was a profuse lining of dead
leaves. As the three eggs in this nest were below normal size—they
averaged 25°82 x 20°32 mm.—it is probable it was the first attempt of a
young bird. This nest and eggs passed into the collection of the late
H. L. Orr. Average size of eggs 27°28 x 20°45 mm. ; average weight
of full eggs 6004 gr., of empty shells °3615 gr.

Turdus iliacus (non Linné). Repwine.

Fairly large flocks frequent the district every Winter. Their arrival
is usually about the end of October, but an exceptionally early date is the
26th of August in 1819 when six of these birds were observed. On their
arrival they appear to devote their attention to Yew berries (which are
plentiful in the Demesne) till they are consumed, afterwards spreading
themselves over the fields and frequently consorting with Starlings. ‘They
are seldom seen after the beginning of April.

Turdus pilaris Linné. Frecprare.

Formerly known as a numerous Winter visitant but for the past 5 or
6 years it has become very scarce. It usually arrived from the middle to
end of October and remained later than the Redwing, the latest noted
date being 10th May in 1910.

Turdus merula Linné. Briackeirp.

By far the most numerous of the Thrush family in the neighbourhood.
Partial albinos of this species are not uncommon. Average size of eggs
29°54 x 21°2 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 7°024 gr., of empty shells
44 or.

Erithacus rubecula melophilus /Hartert. British RepBreast.

Resident and very common. Like the Song-Thrush its song may be
heard throughout the year except in August. Average size of eggs
19°56 x 14°48 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 2'296 gr., of empty shells
‘15 gr.

Saxicola rubicola (Linné). Stronncuar.

This species is resident in small numbers but is very local in its
habitats, being usually confined to the neighbourhoods of Drumlough Moss,
Maze and Canal banks. Like the Goldcrest and Long-tailed Tits its
numbers appeared to have been much reduced by the eevere Winter of
1916-17. Average size of eggs 18°73 x 14°2 mm. ; average weight of full
eggs 1°989 gr., of empty shells °105 gr.

Saxicola rubetra (Linné). WuHincuat.

A Summer visitant and one of our rarest migrants. The only
observations of this bird in the district being in July, 1907, and September,
1908, both in a meadow adjacent to the Maze racecourse.

The Birds of Hillsborough. 29

CEnanthe cenanthe (Zinné). WHratrar.

Can only be regarded as an occasional Summer visitant. Has been
observed at Maze and in Hillsborough Park, generally in the early part of
its season in this country.

Family ACCENTORID A‘.
Accentor modularis (/inné), HepGn-Sparrow.

Resident and very common. Average size of eggs 19°86 x 14°25 mm. ;
average weight of full eggs 2°096 er., of empty shells "133 er.

Family CINCLID.
Cinclus cinclus hibernicus /artert. Irisu Dierer.

For a number of years a pair constantly frequented the stream
(‘‘Conn’s River”) in and below Hillsborough Demesne, where they
regularly nested. Since 1909 they seem to have deserted the place.
Average size of eggs 22°62 x 16°37 mm. ; average weight of full eggs
4°007 gr., of empty shells ‘24 gr.

Family TROGLODYTIDA‘.
Troglodytes troglodytes (Linné). Wren.

Resident and very common. Locally known as ‘‘ Chitty Wren” or
““Chit.” Average size of eggs 16°72 x 12°31 mm. ; average weight of full
egos 1.361 er., of empty shells ‘075 gr.

Family MUSICAPIDAL.
Musicapa grisola Linné. Srorren FiycatcueEr.

This migratory species does not usually arrive till about mid May,
but has been observed as early as 2nd May in 1912 aud 1916. Average
size of eggs 19°13 x 14°11 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 2°02 er., of
‘empty shells ‘1 gr.

Family HIRUNDINID.E.
Hirundo rustica Linné. Swariow.

Apparently now not so plentiful as obtained some years ago, yet
considerable numbers arrive yearly about mid April. The earliest record
for the district is Ist April, in 1918, and the latest 22nd November, in
1907. Average size of eggs 19°3 x 13°69 mm. ; average weight of full eggs
1°912 gr., of empty shells *104 gr.

Delichon urbica (Linné). Marry.

f Up till the early nineties a small colony of Martins (often spoken of as
‘* House-Martins”’) yearly arrived and bred in Hillsborough Village, but
afterwards deserted the place. In 1903, however, a few appeared, and
since they have resorted to us in increasing numbers. They usually arrive
about Ist May, but an exceptionally early appearance was noted in 1906,
on 12th April. Their departure usually takes place about mid September,
but they have been observed feeding their young in the nest in the last
week of this month, and the latest observation was on 3rd October in

30 Nevin H. Foster on

1907. Perhaps the cause of this disappearance from about 1893 till 1903
was the destruction of their nests by citizens, who objected to having
their walls disfigured. That such a practice did not obtain of old is
recorded by Thompson, who says* he observed that in Hillsborough, as in
Antrim, the inhabitants were unwilling to disturb their friends, and for
the sake of uniformity whitewashed the Martins’ domiciles when per-
forming this annual process in their own houses. Average size of eggs
19°24 x 13°91 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 1°993 gr., of empty shells
1066 er.

Riparia riparia (Linné). Saxp-Martin.

An annual visitant in large numbers and breeding in banks of sand-
pits at Mave. Average size of eggs 17°02 x 12°24 mm. ; average weight of
full eggs 1°38 gr., of empty shells ‘078 gr.

Order COCCYGES.
Family CUCULID AL.
Cuculus canorus Linné. CucKoo.

The latter half of April is usually the time of the Cuckoo’s arrival in
the district, the earliest note being 11th April. This bird’s parasitic habits
are well known and here its victim is generally the Meadow-Pipit, but its
egg has also been seen in the nest of Redbreast, Hedge-Sparrow, Pied
Wagtail and Reed-Bunting. Average size of eggs 22°44 x 16°42 mm. ;
average weight of full eggs 3°294 gr., of empty shells °1728 gr.

Order CORACIIFORMES.
Family CYPSELIDAL.
Micropus apus /fartert. Swirv.

The most regular migrant in its times of arrival and departure, the
former occuring on or near the lst of May (earliest date 20th April in 1909).
By the middle of August the bulk of the Swifts depart but a few may be
seen for a week or so afterwards. The latest recorded date by Thompsont
is llth September in 1836, but in 1918 the writer saw one on 15th
September. The latest recorded occurrence in Irelandt is at Glenarm,
Co. Antrim, on 8th October, 1903. It may be emphasised that the Swift
is a bird of little affinity with the Swallow, in fact belonging to a far-
removed OrpeER of birds. Its nearest relations are the Humming Birds of
America. Average size of eggs 24°67 xX 16°13 mm. ; average weight of full
egos 3 or., of empty shells “23 gr.

[An observant farmer informed me that on one occasion a bird had
quickly flown past him at close quarters. The bird, he said, was just hke
a Swift but much larger and with its upper parts the colour of a Sand-
Martin. Possibly this bird may have been an ALPINE Swirt, Micropus
melba Hartert. This bird has been recorded four times from Ireland,
the last of which was a dead bird found near Lough Neagh in May, 1866. ]

* Nat. Hist. of Ireland, Vol. I, p. 394.
+t Nat. Hist. of Ireland, Vol. I, p. 417.
{ Irish Naturalist, Vol. XII, p. 320.

The Birds of Hillsborough. 31

Family CAPRIMULGID.®.

Caprimulgus europzus Linné. Nicutsar.

Though the Nightjar is known to nest on the Autrim Hills a few miles
morth of the district, and on Slieve Croob, some 5 miles to the south, the
only record of its occurrence here is that given by Thompson* of one shot
in Hillsborough Park on 25th September, 1835.

*

Family ALCEDINID%.
Alcedo ispida Linné. KinerisHer.

Several pairs of these birds reside and breed with us. Average size
of eggs 22°5 x 17°78 mm. ; average weight 3°554 gr., of empty shells
2166 gr.

Order STRIGIFORMES.
Family FLAMMEID.
Flammea flammea (Linné). Barn-Owt.

A not uncommon resident, but owing to its nocturnal habits seldom
observed. ‘‘ Pellets” from its nesting place in.a pigeon loff in Hills-
borough Park yielded bones, principally Rats and Mice, but also of one
young Rabbit and one bird—a Greenfinch. Surely one of our most useful
birds !

Family STRIGID.

Asio otus (Linné). Lone-Earen Own,

Like the preceding species this bird is seldom observed, but is not an
uncommon resident, nesting in Fir trees.

‘(The Short-eared Owl (Asio accipitrinus Pal/as) doubtless occurs
in Winter, but no definite information as to this is forthcoming. |

Otus scops (Linné). Scors Own.
A bird of this species was shot at Hillsborough about March, 1853.
It is preserved in the Dublin Museum. +
Order ACCIPITRIFORMES.
Family FALCONID%.
Buteo buteo (Linné). Buzzarv.

Formerly resident in the district, this bird has long since ceased to be
a member of our local Avifauna. Thompson states} that several specimens
from Hillsborough Park had come under his observation ; and Knox$§ says
that this bird bred in trees in Hillsborough Park.

*Nat. Hist. of Ireland, Vol. I, p. 421. \
tUssher’s Birds of Ireland, p. 119.

{ Nat. Hist. of Ireland, Vol. I. p. 75,

$ Hist, of Co, Down, p. 647. (1875),

$2 Nevin H. Foster on

Buteo lagopus (/. F. Gmelin). Rovcu-Lecerp Buzzarp.

A female of this species, the 13th obtained in Ireland, was shot about
a couple of miles from Hillsborough in October, 1903. This specimen was
in existence until recently, but unfortunately seccumbed to the ravage of
moths.

Accipiter nisus (Linné). Sparrow-Hawk. :

A common resident, nesting in trees and, unlike the Kestrel, con-
structing its own nest. Average size of eggs 39°37 x 32°52 min. ; average
weight of full eggs 23°409 er., of empty shells 1°$21 gr.

Falco tinnunculus Zee. KestrRec.

Probably the commonest of our “* Birds of Prey’ resident and nesting
in the district. Average size of eggs 39°37 x 31°23 mm. ; average weight
of full eggs 21°148 gr., of empty shells 1°6 gr.

Order PELECANIFORMES.
Family PHALACROCORACID AL.

Phalacrocorax carbo (L712). CoRMORANT.

Annually from November till March a bird, sometimes 3 or 4, of this
species may be seen perched on a tree in the island in Hillsborough Park
Lake or fishing in the water. These birds generally wear the white breast
feathers of inmaturity.

Order ANSERIFORMES.
Family ANATIDAL.

Wild Goose. sp. mc. Gaggles have frequently been seen flying
overhead, too high for identification.

Branta canadensis Salvadori. Canxapa Goose.

In the early nineties a pair of these birds came to Hillsborough Park
where they have been comparatively little-disturbed and have increased in .
numbers and regularly nest. Average size of eggs 88°26 x 60°73 mm. ;
average Weight of full eggs 163°164 gr., of empty shells 17°32 gr.

Alopochen zgyptiacus (/7ne). Eayerian Goosn.

Thompson states* that one was shot near Moira in the middle of
January, 1833, and*in the succeeding page he says that formerly these
birds were kept in numbers in the lakes in Hillsborough Park. There
were still a few there about the year 1889 but they have since disappeared.

* Nat. Hist. of Ireland, Vol. II, p, 64,

ApoalooW “DY > 070Uq
‘ANSUWA( HOAOMOASTTIIT “ISHN NO MON GITAA WIVWNGT

‘16-0261 ‘AJoWOg [vorydosopiy_ pur ALOgSIFT [BVANIVN ISeI[OR.

The Birds of Hillsborough. 33

Cygnus cygnus (/717¢). Wuoorrr Swan.

Thompson states* that Wild Swans have occurred at Lough Aghery
and Hillsborough Park but as at that time the difference between the
W hooper and Bewick’s Swan does not appear to have been appreciated it is
doubtful to which species these records should be relegated. However on
lst December, 1912, tive birds were noted on Hillsborough Park Lake
which were undoubtedly Whooper Swans.

Cygnus bewicki Yarre//. Brwick’s Sway.

In December, 1919, a mature female with two inmature birds of this
species came to McKee’s Dam. The mature bird was shot a few days
afterwards, but the two cygnets remained for about a fortnight, when
they took their departure.

Cygnus olor (Gmelin). Mute Swan.

Scarce a lake or pond in the district does not provide habitat and
breeding place for a pair of these birds in a truly feral condition. On
Lough Aghery, which is a mile in length, 2 or 3 pairs nest, but on this
lake in Winter it is not unusual to observe as many as 100 of these birds.
Average size of eggs 107°62 x 73-36 mm. ; average weight of full eggs
315.636 gr., of empty shells 38°943 gr.

Anas boschas Zzuné. Wr.p Duck or Mauuarp.

The Mallard is resident and nests in the district in fair numbers. In
Winter large flocks of immigrant birds swell the local population.
Thompson records} a nest of this species in Hillsborough Park, formed in
the old nest of a Magpie about 40 feet from the ground ina Silver Fir
tree. This nest contained 15 eggs, and he was of opinion that the young
birds had been successfully brought out. Average size of eggs 56°82 x
41°33 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 50°273 gr., of empty shells
4°783 or.

Querquedula crecca (/2nné). Common Trt.

Resident and breeding in small numbers.

Mareca penelope (2772). Wicnon.

From 1905 till 1909 numbers of this species frequented the lakes in
the Park and Demesne throughout the Winter, but before and since this
period they have not been observed. A male in fine plumage was seen on
“The Cuts” by the side of the railway a little over a mile from Hills-
borough on 21st May, 1906.

Dafila acuta (Zine). PrINTAIL.

A female of this species was observed on the lake in the Demesne on
Ist February, 1909, but on the following day it had disappeared.

* Nat. Hist. of Ireland, Vol. III, pp. 9 and 20,
+ Nat, Hist, of Ireland, Vol, ITI, p. 76,

34 Nevin H. Foster on

Nyroca ferina (Zz). PocHarp.
A few of these birds spend the Winter on the lakes in the district.

Nyroca fuligula (Zzvné). Turrep Duck.

Frequents the lakes annually in Winter in larger numbers than the
preceeding species.

Glaucion clangula (Zzné). GoLDEN-EYE.

All through the month of June, 1916, a female or inmature bird of
this species (probably a cripple) frequented the lake in the Demesne.
During December, 1918, and January, 1919, a pair were seen on the lake
in the Park.

Order ARDEIFORMES.
Family ARDE1DAi.

Ardea cinerea Ziuné. Heron.

This bird which formerly bred in the district has now apparently
ceased to do so. It is common, however, except perhaps in the nesting
season. ‘Thompson states! that the heronry in Hillsborough Park contained
about 50 nests and it still nested these up to about 1900. The same author
tells us* on the authority of Rev. J. Dubourdieu that up till about 1803
Herons nested on the ground in an island in Lough Aghery. It may be
stated that the usual nesting site of this species is high up on tall trees.
Its local name is ‘‘ Heron-Cran” or ‘‘Cran.” A nest seen in May, 1920,
on a tree in one of the islands in Lough Aghery from which evidently
young had been hatched is doubtless referable to this species.

Order CHARADRIIFORMES.
Family CHARADRIIDA

Scolopax rusticola Zzz2é Woopcock.

The Woodcock has been known to breed in Hillsborough Park since
1844 and still nests there in considerable numbers. In Winter many
immigrant birds inhabit the district. Size of eggs 43°51 x 33°49 mm. ;
average weight of full eggs 25°157 gr., of empty shells 1°4 gr.

Gallinago gallinago (Zzzne). Common SNIPE.

A common breeding species, nesting as a rule in comparatively dry
situations, 7.e., in rushy meadows or bracken-clad uplands. Average size
of eggs 39°81 x 27°69 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 14°477 gr., of
empty shells ‘8357 gr.

Limnocryptes gallinula (/zc). Jack SNIPE.

A regular Winter visitant, as obtains elsewhere in the British
Islands.

Nat. Hist. of Ireland, Vol. 1, p. 141. 2 Ibid, p. 146.

Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, 1920-21.

-

Was
x Re”,

Woopcock on Nest, Hittsporoucn Park.

G. G. McCready.

Photo :

The Birds of Hillsborough. 35

Totanus totanus (Zinné). RepsHanK.

The Redshank nests in small numbers in meadows adjacent to Lough
Aghery, and occurs in the lower-lying northern portion of the district
oceasionally in Winter. Average size of eggs 46°41 x 31°75 mm. ; average
weight of full eggs 22°612 gr., of empty shells 1°23 gr.

Totanus hypoleucus (Z2é). Common SANppieEr.

A regular Spring migrant, arriving about the Ist of May, and nesting
in small numbers. Average size of eggs 37°85 x 26°67 mm. ; average
weight of full eggs 13°258 gr., of emipty shells °58 er.

Numenius arquata (Z7vn2é). CuRLEW.

The Curlew’s whistle as it flies overhead has been here noted in every
month of the year except January. It is also not uncommonly seen feed-
ing in the fields.

Charadrius apricarius Ziuné. GoipEN Plover.

A regular Winter visitant in small numbers, usually consorting with
flocks of Lapwings.
Vanellus vanellus (Z27¢). Larwina.

The Lapwing, Peewit or Green Plover, is a resident'and numerous
species breeding both in the higher southern and lower-lying northern
parts of the district, but in Winter for the most part forsaking the former
regions. Average size of eggs 47°19 x 32°97 mm. ; average weight of full
eggs 25°819 gr., of empty shells 1°478 er.

Hzematopus ostralegus Ziuné. OysTeR-CATCHER.

An unexpected incident was the sight of an Oyster-catcher at Munroe’s
Dam on 26th June, 1919, where also a few days previously a Redshank
had been observed. ‘This bird nests at Lough Neagh, and it may well be
that the one seen was on passage from thence to the sea coast.

Order LARIFORMES.
Family LARIDD.
Larus canus Linxwé. Common GULL.
A regular Winter visitant (October till May), feeding in the fields and
often following the plough, but has also been observed in July and August.
Larus argentatus Pontoppidan. HeERRING-GULL.

The Herring-Gull has been seen in every month of the year but is
much more numerous in Winter. The majority of the birds frequenting
the district are in immature plumage.

Larus fuscus affinis Reinhardt. Brirish Lesser BLACK-BACKED GULL.

A single bird of this species seen in 1903 constitutes the only record
for the district. This is somewhat strange as this bird may constantly be
observed at Lough Neagh only some 10 miles distant.

36 Nevin H. Foster on

Larus ridibundus JZzuré. Buack-HEADED GUEL.

The Black-headed Gull may be seen in the district the year round and
in Winter in large numbers. Thompson states* that about the year 1803
a number of these birds took possession of an islet in Lough Aghery as a
breeding place and drove out the Herons and nested for several years
afterwards to the number of many hundreds, their nests almost covering
the whole islet. This apparently continued till about 1832 when they
were in their turn evicted, it is said, by the persecution of Hooded Crows.
In July, 1905, the Rev. Allan Ellison and the writer found on the Willow
trees overhangiug the water of Hillsborough Park Lake about 20 nests
built of sticks and placed on the branches usually about a foot above the
surface but some almost touching the water, which they believed belonged
to this species. Certainly at the time there were about 100 Black-headed
Gulls about the lake, the majority of which were birds of the year. The
gamekeeper informed us that two pairs had nested there the previous year.
Since then they have not bred there.

Sterna hirundo Zizxé. Common TERN.

A pair, sometimes three, of these birds usually frequent Hillsborough
Park from May till July, and may occasionally be seen at this season on
some of the ponds in the district. These do not appear to be breeding
birds as no nest could be found, nor were any immature birds ever seen.

Order PROCELLARIIFORMES.
Family THALASSIDROMID.
Thalassidroma pelagica (Zzzé). Srorm-PErTRet.
Thompson records} that after a hurricane on 7th January, 1839, two
of these birds were found dead near the Castle, Lisburn.
Oceanodroma leucorrhoa Salvin. LeEAcH’s PETREL.

For the inclusion of this species we are indebted to Thompson, who
Statest that in the Winter of 1831 a specimen was found dead—but in
excellent condition and plumage—near Lisburn.

[It may here be stated that the second example found in Ireland of
the American Wilson’s Petrel, Oceanites oceanicus (Kuhl), was taken
alive after the great storm of September, 1891, near Dunmurry, only a
little more than two miles outside our district. |

Order PODICIPIDIFORMES.
Family PODICIPID Ad.
Podiceps cristatus (Ziuné). Great Crestep GREBE.
To the district we can only regard this bird as a Summer visitant,

though Thompson says§ that a pair of them remained on the lake in Hills-

* Nat. Hist. of Ireland, Vol. Il, p. 146.

+t Nat. Hist. of Ireland, Vol. Il, p. 428.
{ Nat. Hist. of Ireland, Vol. 111, p. 415.
§ Nat. Wist. of Ireland, Vol. i, p. 175,

The Birds of Hillsborough. 37

borough Park during the Winter of 1847-48. Usually arriving in March,
it has been known to nest on Hillsborough Park Lake, Lough Aghery and
McKee’s Dam. It appears probable that in some years it does not visit
the district. Average size of eggs 51°33 x 34°5 mm. ; average weight of
full eggs 32°14 er., of empty shells 3°375 gr.

Podiceps fluviatilis Tunstall. Lirrne GREBE.

A common resident, only leaving the district when severe frosts cover
its haunts with ice. It is locally known as the ‘‘ Diver.” Average size of
eggs 38°58 x 25°78 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 13°063 gr., of empty
shells 1°1917 gr.

Order RALLIFORMES.
Family RALLID 2.
Rallus aquaticus Zizné. Warrr-Ratn.

A resident in considerable numbers, though seldom observed owing to
its skulking habits. The nest of this species is well concealed and is
almost invariably placed among wet surroundings. In December, 1908,
and again in February and November, 1909, the unusual sight was
witnessed of one of these birds perching in a Willow tree growing at the
margin of the lake in Hillsborough Park. Average size of eggs 35°28 x
25°93 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 12°408 er., of empty shells
9122 or.

Crex Crex (/zuné). Corn-Crakk or Lanp-Ratn.

A common Spring migrant arriving about the middle of April (earliest
14th April, in 1918). A specimen of this species was shot near Hills-
borough on 20th February, 1905, and is in the writer’s possession. Average
size of eggs 36°86 x 26°47 mm. ; average weight of full eggs 13°539 gr., of
empty shells “834 gr.

Gallinula chloropus (Zz). Moor-Hey.

Resident and very common. Locally known by the more appropriate
name of “‘ Water-Hen.” Although its usual nesting place is on the ground,
or in vegetation growiug in or extending over and close to the water, its
nest has more than once been seen here in a high hedge or in an Alder tree
at an elevation of about 15 feet. Average size of eggs 44°04 x 31°22 mm. ;
average weight of full eggs 23°085 gr., of empty shells 1°9447 gr.

Fulica atra Linné. Coor.

Usually called ‘“‘Bald Coot” this bird is resident and eommon.
Average size of eggs 51°94 x 36°04 mm.; average weight of full eggs
39°8795 gr., of empty shells 3°4 gr.

38 Nevin H. Foster on

Order COLUMBIFORMES.
Family COLUMBID i.
Columba cenas Liuné. Srock-Dove.

vesident in small numbers. Average size of eggs 36 x 28°6 mm. ;
average weight of full eggs 17°142 gr., of empty shells 1°25 gr.

Columba palumbus Z7zzzé. Rixe-DovE or Woop-PiGcEon.

Resident and common. In some Winters large flocks of immigrant
birds frequent the district. Average size of eggs 39°78 x 28°65 mm. ;
average weight of full eggs 18°13 gr., of empty shells 1°261 gr.

Streptopelia turtur (Zévné). Turrin-Dovn.

A specimen (in the writer’s possession) was shot about 2 miles from
Hillsborough on 24th May, 1904. On dissection it proved to bea female
‘with eggs in the ovary.

Order GALLIFORMES.
Family PHASIANIDAL.
Phasianus colchicus Zzzné. Pupasant.

The Pheasant is listed as P. colchicus, though since the introduction
of the Chinese Ring-necked, P. torquatus, into the British Islands, about
a century ago, these species have been bred together, and being perfectly
fertile ante se, it is evident that the present race is mongrel. It may be
stated that there is no mention of the Pheasant in Ireland before 1589.

In pre-war times large numbers of Pheasants were artifically hatched
in Hillsborough Park, but numbers bred naturally in the Park and in the
adjoining fields. Not infrequently a blue egg may be found in a nest of |
normally-coloured eggs. Average size of egg, 43°74 x 36°17 mm. ; average
weight of full eggs 31°095 gr., of empty shells 3°05 gr.

[For many years a few Golden Pheasants, Thaumalea pieta, existed in
a semi-feral condition in Hillsborough Park. Since about 1910 they have
disappeared, but at present there are in aviaries in the district examples
of this species, and also of the following :—Lady Amherst’s 7. amherstie ;
P. versicolor ; Elliott’s Phasianus elliotti; Reeve’s P. reevesii; Silver
HLuplocomus nycthemerus; Swinhoe’s #. swinhoit; Mantchurian Kared,
Crossoptilon mantchurinum ; and Impyean or Monal, Lopophorus impey-
anus ; some of which have bred in captivity here. It is hardly probable
that any of these birds may escape and become acclimatised natives of the
country. Should such occur the future historian may have the opportunity
of including their names in the local avifauna. ]

Perdix perdix (Zzzné). PARTRIDGE,

Formerly not uncommon, it is probable the Partridge does not now
inhabit the district. The last known nest was in 1904.

Coturnix coturnix (Zzzze). QUAIL.

Resident and common up till about 1870 the Quail or ‘‘ Wet-my-foot ”
can now only be regarded as an irregular Summer visitant. For several
years its presence had not been detected, but in 1896 its distinctive call
was heard. In 1904 it appeared in considerable numbers, and since it has
occasionally visited us. Average size of eggs 31°71 x 23°84 mm. ; average
weight of empty egg-shells ‘8286 gr.

_ PROCEEDINGS,

c= 100TH SESSION 1920-1921.
; No. +

= COURSE OF —— ‘LECTURES Of

CHEMICAL STAN DPOINT..

_BY PROFESSOR A. Aoi STEWART, D.Sc.

“aie PERCEPTION OF THE INVISIBLE,

pes 1 BYE BEATTY, M.A., D.So.

A COURSE ¢ OF FOUR LECTURES. ON

ae

Proceedings of the Belfast’ Natural History and Philosophical Society, 1920-1921.

19th and 26th November, 2rd and 10th December, 1920

PROFESSOR GREGG WILSON, PRESIDENT OF THE SOCIETY,
IN THE CHAIR.

A CouRSE OF FOUR LECTURES ON

THE GROUNDWORK OF THE UNIVERSE FROM A
CHEMICAL STANDPOINT,

By Proressor A. W. Stewart, D.Sc.,

Professor of Chemistry, Queen’s University, Belfast.

In CHEMICAL LECTURE THEATRE, QUEEN’S. UNIVERSITY.

I.—THE FOUNDATION STONES OF MATTER.

One of the common actions of the human mind is the search
for intrinsic resemblances between things which on the surface
exhibit differences in character. ‘Thus the chemist seeks to
identify common characteristics in a group of materials, each of
which differs from the others in its surface appearance. The
great aim of the chemist is simplification, the breaking up of
matter into forms which cannot be further decomposed. Thus
water can be decomposed into two gases, oxygen and hydrogen,
and neither of these gases has been further decomposed, so they
are called “Elements,” and to-day we recognise ninety-two such

“Chemical Elements” as capable of existence. These elements

are built up of particles called atoms, almost indefinitely small,
the atoms in any one element being all alike in chemical properties;
but the different chemical elements vary because of the different
characters of the atoms from which they are formed.

Since these atoms are material bodies, they must have definite

49 A. W. Stewart on

masses and occupy definite volumes, so that we speak of the
‘atomic weight” and the “atomic volume” of an element.

In 1815 Prout suggested that the atoms of all elements are
built up from those of hydrogen, which is the lightest known
body. For almost a century Prout’s views were rejected by the
scientific world, but recent work tends to establish this hypothesis
upon a more solid basis.

Towards the classification of these ninety-two elements the
earliest definite work was due to the English chemist, Newlands,
while at a later date, and apparently independently, Mendeléef
and Lothar Meyer developed the system into its present form.

Suppose that the elements are arranged in ascending order
of the weights of their atoms, and that alongside the names of
the elements we place first the nature of the element and second
the number of hydrogen atoms which one atom of the element
will combine with or will displace from combination. We then
get the following arrangement :—

TABLE I,
Number of Hydrogen
Atomic Weight Atoms combined with
correct to the Element. Nature of Element. or displaced by one

nearest unit. atom of the element.

4 *Helium Inert gas 0

7 **Tithium Light soft metal 1

9 ***Beryllium Heavier tough metal 2

el Boron Non-metal 3

12 Carbon Non-metal 4

14 Nitrogen Gas, not reactive 3

16 Oxygen Gas, reactive 2

1S Fluorine Gas, very reactive i

20 *Neon Inert gas like helium 0

23 ** Sodium Metal like lithium i

24 ***Maenesium Metal like beryllium 2

An examination of the above Table brings to light a certain
order in the arrangement. Thus helium, the first element, has
properties similar to those of the ninth element, neon ; the second

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. 43

element, lithium, shows an analogy with the tenth element,
sodium ; whilst the third and eleventh elements, beryllium and
magnesium, also show a close resemblance in properties. (The
similar elements are indicated by one, two and three asterisks).
Thus we can say that every eighth element in the series will have
similar chemical properties, and that by such an arrangement we
obtain a regular periodicity. The same type of element recurs
at regular intervals in the series as in the notes of the musical
scale, from which analogy Newlands called his system the ‘* Law
of Octaves.”

A further periodicity is seen in the number of hydrogen
atoms which one atom of an element will displace from combination,
the figures rising regularly from zero to four and thence falling
as regularly again to begin a new series with another zero. The
following Table shows the system of classification now adopted :—

‘sotqaadoad [ROW [VdI1}UApT IAB] TOLYA JO [TV ‘wntuyo.e
-OIpel pus ‘1 Y-UINTURAN “tUNLOT}-OIpRl SUMITOL StuNnLIoTy :dnoas oy} syueseadesr tuntaoyy snyy, ‘sedoyost jo duoas yore Fo sroquam ay
[1% epujour 07 aovds yonut 003 Kdnos0 ppnoa 41 se ‘oTquy, ey} Jo Javed aamoy oy] Ut sovjd Yova 10F UMOYS SI JOU eAtqovoIpeaA oUO KTACG,
“QUIJONY YIM SUOTL UOLYROYISSLO S}L OF PRET FYSLUU YONA poonppe Noeq savy suosved YSnoY} ‘tuniygl] eoqe peov]d souttzoruos st TOT A
‘uasoapAy 0} pausisse usaq svy uorgtsod ON ‘sOze aI} JO SIYSIomM aavyed oyZ ATozvartxoadde or1d saurvu oy} dopun sssquuu oyy, _—F

@ 8EG 4 V G&G 4 9GG GCG
= = — — UNIURAQ Z—XQ| wanoyqy) unmpoy! wnipey — UOLNT
0806 G LOG 0 V0G 9006 G LOI
— umniuopog | ygnusiq | prey wniyyeqy, | fanosapy | ploy
6 C61 T1661 6061 OFST Gist erie LET S'GEL G OSI
ways, = warply TUNIS) -— uayssung, | wnzeqguey, | ¢90d9 HLYVd Sava AHL) = wuniieg | wniseseg| uousy
6941 CLE GO0GI L Sit STII Pell 6°LOT
aurpoy =| umes, |Auowmuy | ary, tunipuy = | warped | aeaqtis
L901 6 GUI L101 96 1 cis) 9°06 L’88 9°18 G°g8 6°GS
wMIpryed = warpoyyy,— wanuayyNy — |unuepysopy fmiquinjog} tuntaoarz | wnt 4 | wus | wurpiqny | uojd&axyy
6°6L G'6L OGL Gol 6°69 VS9 91S9
auiuoarg =| wmiuaTag otuasay — fluntueiudey| MTR) — | OUT saddog
L’8S 06S 8'°G¢ 6 FS O'GS 01S LSP LPP 0'OT 168 66E
[PON qBqOD uoay jaseursuryy| weimoayy} warpeur, | wniuegip | warpuesg| umrore9 | wurssejog | uotay
GGe 0'CE OTE £86 T'Lz 6G 0°&¢ G06
dULIOTYO anyding = |snaoydsoyg) uooipig § ftuntotwnpy|untseasepy}| uinrpog uoaN
061 09T OFFI OGI OTL 16 69 OFT
ation iy uaBAxQ uasoaqginy | uoqaed uoiog =| wuqpsaog | wayyy | wniyay
TIA TULA TA “A “AI Ti ut 1 0
NOU) taowy AOU) adn0u') anor) IN0Uy) In0ury anouy dou

‘SENGNGIG HHL JO INGNMONVULY OIGOMAd AH,
Tl WIavi,

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. 45

Hydrogen has been omitted from the table on account of the

difficulty in placing it properly. From its chemical properties it

should be situated above lithium, but for physical reasons it
seems allied to fluorine at the other end of the line.

The table is so arranged that the vertical columns contain
those elements which show a family resemblance to each other in
their properties. Thus the inert gases are ranged together, and
in the next column we find lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium
and caesium showing close family likenesses, while with them are
copper, silver and gold which have many chemical characteristics
in common with the other five.

This periodicity is also found in the volumes of the atoms.
The curve at the end of this section shows a regular periodicity
in volume and in other physical properties, when arranged in the
same order as in the Table.

From this arrangement we get the conception of an ‘atomic
order” in which hydrogen is the first element, helium the second,
lithium the third, and so on to uranium, which is the ninety-
second. The place which the element occupies is called its
atomic number.

When the rays from the cathode of a Crookes’ vacuum tube
are allowed to fall upon a specimen of an element, an X-ray is
produced, and the wave-length of this ray is characteristic of the:
element. Moseley has shown that the wave-length is reciprocally
proportional to A(V—1)*, in which A is a constant and N the
atomic number of the element used. We can thus calculate the
atomic number of the element and establish its place in the
periodic system by this measurement alone. If from a complete
series of such measurements we find any blanks in our table, we
are able to say where the corresponding unknown elements will
take their places when actually discovered. Moseley found there
were five blanks upon the roll: (1) between molybdenum and
Ruthenium; (2) between tungsten and osmium; (3) between
polonium and niton; (4) between niton and radium; (5) one
in the rare earth group, which is not shown in Table II. When

46 A. W. Stewart on

this result is compared with Mendeléef’s table it is seen that
blanks were actually left by Mendeléef at these very points.
Thus two lines of evidence, chemical and physical, indicate that
there are still tive elements to be discovered.

In support of such forecasts we know that in 1871 scandium,
gallium and germanium were unknown, but Mendeléef, from the
gaps in his table, predicted the fact of their existence and even
their very properties with amazing certitude.

TABLE III.

Prediction (1871). Properties of Germanium (1886).
Atomic Weight = 72. Atomic Weight = 72:5.

Grey Metal, hard to fuse. Grey Metal, fuses 900°c.
Specitic Gravity = 5-5. Sp. G. =5:469.

Density of Oxide = 4:7. Density of Oxide = 4-703.

Volatile liquid Chloride, boiling Chloride is a volatile liquid,
at 90°C. with density of 1-9 boiling at 86°C. density 1-887.
Easily forms volatile Fluoride. Fluoride volatile.

Thus from consideration of his periodic table Mendeléef was able
to predicate the existence of an unknown element and even to
forecast its properties with wonderful accuracy. He was equally
successful with the other two elements, scandium and gallium.

These examples show the extreme importance of the
classification in the Periodic Table. The actual causes of these
variations are not yet known, but in the future we may learn
something of the laws which have been thus revealed.

[To indicate the resemblances between members of the same
group of elements many experiments were shown, among them
vacuum tubes of the rare gases, tints imparted to a Bunsen flame
by the presence of lithium and its congeners, while other
resemblances were illustrated by the formation and non-formation
of precipitates on the addition of certain reagents. |

HIG.

REFRACTN Soon
10 ad oe

~~ pe
M.P. aBo
.. BEG WE 8S G
[Se eae ag a |
; : y
{
Me Am
} \
! \ iz
/ \
ri \
¥) '
y | / \
= :
! 1
S 1
| \
S j sf
! 1
; \
A |
| : ; \ :
\
® i \
NX !
S Bi Th :
NY UX>
X ih
(Col Salts :

8| 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92

tydroxides
clectro ne

wale Sih Se NY) SRA a, eae See oe

Low

Malleable Brittle Malleable Brittle Malleable Brittle Malleable Brit
tle Malleable Malleable Bri
ttle Malleable Malleable
e 2 Brittle Malleable

MP.apove 1000°Abs. = s
WP.eeLowi000°Abs. 3 ———_——————— —SSSSS====

Se =

_ a | ————— | — —

From “Recent Advances in Physical and Inorganio Chemistry,” by Professor A, W. Stewart, DS

Col Salts
be

70

60
y
N 50
N 40

30F
\
= 20
8
K
X 10

0

Coloured Salts Coloured Salts Coloured Salts Col Salts: Coloured Salts
bese | _—— los sere!
NOMIC NUMBERS 123456789101 2 8 4 & [6 17 16 19 2021 22 2 2% 25 26 27 26 29 30 3) 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43.44 45 46 47 48 49 50 SI S253 S455 56 ST S859 60 Gl 62 63 GF 65 66 67 68 69 70 7] 72 73 74 TS 16 77 7879 BIN 82 83 8 8S 86 87 6B 89 90 91 92
= = —_- =z == SS EEE a ool
7 both acid and alkali ma ZEEE [iscscocevesorasecsscsisissesssert) [oss)

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. 47
I.—THE RISE OF RADIO-ACTIVITY.

The beginnings of the science of radio-activity must be dated
from 1879, when Sir William Crookes published the results of
his investigations upon the passage of an electric discharge through
highly evacuated tubes. Previous to this time it was known that
a spark passed between two electrodes at atmospheric pressure
became broadened out into a columnar formas the pressure became
reduced, so that when a discharge was passed between the
electrodes of a tube containing a gas at a moderately low pressure,
the whole tube glowed brilliantly.

Crookes showed that when the evacuation is carried to a
very high degree and only a very slight amount of residual gas
remains in the tube, the glow vanishes and the interior of the
tube becomes almost non-luminous. At the same time a green
fluorescent light makes its appearance on the glass of the tube
opposite the cathode.

Certain “rays” originate at the cathode, leave its surface
at right angles and travel in straight lines through the tube until
they impinge upon the glass, the green fluorescence occurring at
the points of impact. The following evidence determines the
character of these rays. They leave the cathode only on the
side nearest the positive electrode, and do not spread in all
directions like the radiations froma heated body. If an aluminium
cross be interposed in the path of the “rays” a shadow of the
cross is thrown on the patch of green fluorescence, showing that
the “rays” are either vibrations like light or are streams of
particles. If a tiny windmill be placed in the path of the “rays”
it spins with great velocity, in a manner not to be explained by
“light pressure,” but easily understood if there be a stream of
particles. But the “rays” can be deviated from their straight
path by means of a magnet or an electric field, which indicates
that they are jets of particles each carrying an electric charge.
These charges are negative when examined by an electroscope.
Finally, investigation shows that these particles have, almost

48 A. W. Stewart on

certainly, a mass seventeen hundred times smaller than a hydrogen
atom, and that they are really corpuscles of negative electricity
which we call electrons.

But another set of phenomena has been observed in the
Crookes’ tube.

If the cathode be pierced with a series of apertures, a second
set of “rays” makes its appearance, travelling in the direction
opposite to that of the cathode rays. These are shown to be —
streams of the molecules of the gas in the tube, each carrying one
or more positive charges, being named for this reason “ Positive
Rays.” In the dark they can be seen as faint pencils of light
traversing the tube.

There is still a third type of “ray” observable, the X-rays.
These are rays of light of extremely short, wave length, related
to ordinary light as a note in the treble of a piano is to a note in
the bass. They are produced by the impact of electrons upon
matter, and in the Crookes’ tube they originate where the
cathode rays strike the glass of the tube. They have the power
_ of making the air through which they pass a good conductor of
electricity.

Both Dr. R. Beattie and Dr. P. T. Crymble, of the Queen’s
University, have made valuable contributions to our knowledge
in this sphere, the one in pure Physics, the other in the applica
tion to medical and surgical problems.

In 1896, the French scientist, Becquerel, was struck by the
resemblance of the green fluoresence of Crookes’ tubes to the
fluoresence of certain salts of uranium, and it occurred to him
that these salts might be emitting ‘X-rays. We know now that
his analogy was erroneous ; but when he tested these salts by the
photographic method, he found that there actually was an
emission of X-rays. This discovery by Becquerel opened up an
entirely new field of research, lying within the borders of both
Chemistry and Physics ; and at once there was a rapid extension
of our knowledge. Other elements, such as thorium, were found
to be radio-active, this being easily demonstrated by laying a

49

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c.

SQOHLVD As0NTZId

SAVY BAILISOd

SAVY JGOHLVDS

SAVY -X -

50 — A. W. Stewart on

broken fragment of an incandescent mantle, containing oxide of
thorium, upon a photographic plate and leaving it in the dark for
a week, On development the plate will show the reticulations
of the mantle. Soon the new element actinium was discovered,
and Mme. and M. Curie isolated the salts of radium from pitch-
blende.

After months of laborious work it was shown that radium
was chemically closely related to barium, since it was extremely
difficult to separate these two elements, though it was com-
paratively easy to isolate the radium-barium group from all the
other elements in pitch-blende. Some idea of the labour involved
may be got from the fact that from one ton of the material less
than the thirtieth of an ounce of very impure radium salt was
obtained.

The chemical resemblance between radium and _ barium
shows they belong to the same group in the Periodic System, and
itis seen that radium les just below barium in Group II of this
classification. The other radio-active elements have positions in
the table between lead and uranium, so that their atomic
weights are all high. Potassium and rubidium form exceptions,
and investigation in their case is still incomplete.

It is found that radium compounds have properties different
from those of other elements. They break up water just as
electricity does ; their temperature is always slightly higher than
that of their surroundings ; they colour glass vessels in which
they are kept, and they give off the “rays” which are called
Becquerel rays. Finally, radium salts emit a radio-active gas,
niton, which will be dealt with in the next lecture.

A simple experiment shows that no less that three types of
“ray” are emitted by radio-active materials. A sample of a
radio-active salt is allowed to radiate upon an electroscope, and
the rapidity of discharge of the electroscope is observed. If,
now, a sheet of cigarette paper is wrapped about the salt, and
the observation repeated, it is found that there is a marked
diminution in the rate of discharge. Thus a fraction of the

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. il
“rays” has been trapped and prevented from reaching the
electroscope. Ifa second sheet of paper is added, it is found
that the rate of discharge is unaltered, so it appears that the
first sheet of paper screened out entirely some constituent parts
of the “rays,” and that the part passing the paper penetrates a
second sheet just as easily as the first.

Thin lead foil causes stoppage of much of the radiation which
passed the paper, but a second thin sheet has no further action.
A heavy lead block, however, cuts off all the “rays.” Thus there
are three constituents: one which passes the paper but not the
lead foil, one which is stopped by the heavy lead block after
passing through the lead foil, and finally those “rays” which
failed to pass through even the paper.

The component stopped by thin paper is called the Alpha-
ray, that stopped by lead foil after passing through the paper,
the Beta-ray, whilst the most penetrating component is the
Gamma-ray.

To put the matter in the form of a diagram we have some-
thing like Fig. II as a representation of the experimental results.

TISSUE PAPER. LEAD FOIL. LEAD BLOCK

D
>
g
ce)
>
a
es
<
nm
wo
fe)
c
be)
0
m

A. W. Stewart on

or
bo

When a magnetic field is applied to a thin pencil of the
Becquerel rays the pencil is split up into three different sprays as
shown in Fig. III.

J -rays

&- rays

B-rays

LEAD PLATE

RADIOACTIVE SOURCE

The Gamma-rays are almost unaffected by the magnetic
field ; the Alpha-rays are slightly deviated, while the Beta-rays
are more strongly affected.

The Alpha rays are deflected on to the right, the Beta

to the left of the original direction, which the Gamma-rays
continue to pursue, unaffected by the magnetic field.

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. 5p

Recall now the three types of ray from the Crookes’ tube, the
Cathode-ray, the Positive-ray, and the X-ray. Each of these has
the same qualities as one of the constituents of the Becquerel
rays, corresponding as below :—

Zecquerel Rays. Crookes’ Tubes.
Alpha-rays, Positive-rays,
Beta-rays, Cathode-rays,
Gamma-rays, X-rays.

The Alpha-rays are atoms of helium, each atom carrying two
charges of positive electricity; the Beta-rays are streams of
negative electrons, while the Gamma-rays are really X rays having
a penetrating power far in excess of any we can_ produce arti-
ficially. Some idea of the enormous velocities of emission may
be got from the following figures :—

Alpha particles vet 20,000 miles per second.
Beta KS eM Ash FORO OEs ge 5
Light MOLSGOOO'' ef

A little reflection will suggest the reason of the phenomena
observed in radio-active centres. The Alpha particle, ejected from
the radio-active atom ata very high velocity soon strikes some
heavier matter in the form of atoms in the radio-active mass and
heat is thus generated, so that these helium atoms will tend to raise
the temperature of the material with which they collide, and keep
it permanently above that of surrounding bodies. Again, radio-
active materials eject showers of electrons travelling much faster
than the Alpha particles. When these strike matter they generate
X-rays, as the cathode stream of a Crookes’ tube did at its point
of contact with the glass, so that there is a complete parallel
between the action of the Becquerel rays and that of the Crookes’
tube.

To sum up the properties exhibited by the Becquerel rays as
a whole—They have the power of ionizing gases and making

54 A. W. Stewart on

them conduct electricity readily ; they produce photographic
effects upon sensitive plates, even through cardboard ; they cause
zine sulphide to glow strongly, as is seen in the ordinary luminous
watch or compass ; they colour glass violet or brown according to
its chemical composition, and they have a powerful disintegrating
action on vital tissue.

This last property is utilized in radium therapy, which is
successful in the case of rodent ulcer and similar diseases. The
radio-active material, usually the gas iiton, is enclosed in a tiny
tube within a silver sheath and introduced into the wound. The
violent action of the rays destroys the diseased tissue, and it is
possible for fresh healthy tissue to grow in its place.

There is another property of radium which requires atten-
tion. The radium atoms are constantly breaking up, so that,
although radium is an “ element,” it is not a permanent body.
Half disappears in 1,350 years, so that in 2,700 years only one-
fourth will be present, and in another 1,350 years only one-
eighth. If, then, there is now in existence one gramme of
radium, and if it be the descendant of a pre-existing mass, this
mass, no longer than 140,000 years ago, must have been as large
as the earth, a conclusion which all the facts of geology show to
be absurd. It must therefore be assumed that radium has a
parent, from which it is being continually derived. Just as the
gas niton is a descendant of radium, so is radium itself a
product of ionium, which is in turn descended from yet another
elementary form of matter.

Thus a certain family relationship among the radio-active
elements can be traced, which will be dealt with in the next
lecture.

In conclusion, it seems worth while to draw attention to the
immense practical benefits which have followed the investigations
in this one field of research, investigations which have their
origin in University laboratories, and which were undertaken
only from a pure love of knowledge for its own sake.

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. 55

The discovery of the X-rays, with all their modern applica-
tious to medical and surgical problems, arose directly from Sir
William Crookes’ desire to know what results follow from the
evacuation of tubes to a higher degree than had ever been tried
before. The whole investigation of radium therapy arose from
Becquerel’s study of the uranium salts, again a problem of a purely
scientific nature, seeming then to have no practical bearing. The
self-luminous compass, serving to guide our airmen in their night
flying, and to permit our battleships to cruise in the darkness
without showing a light, was the result of Sir William Crookes’
invention of the spinthariscope, designed to make visible the
impact of the alpha particles by their action on zine sulphide.

The search of knowledge for its own sake and without
ulterior motives actually lays the foundation for the most
unexpected and valuable practical applications. | No applied
chemist would ever have dreamed of searching for a radio-active
material before Becquerel’s discovery, nor would he have thought
of devising an apparatus by means of which the bones of the
living hand could be examined, until the X-rays were actually
discovered in a laboratory.

The words of Huxley are true to day as when spoken, “I
would make accessible the highest and most complete training
the country could afford. Whatever might be the cost, depend
upon it the investment would be a good one. I weigh my words
when I say that, if the nation could purchase a potential Watt,
or Davy, or Faraday, at a cost of a hundred thousand pounds down,
he would be dirt cheap at the money. It is a mere commonplace
and every day piece of knowledge that what these three men
did has produced untold millions of wealth, in the narrowest
economical use of the word.”

With this in view it is right to acknowledge with gratitude
the generosity of Mr. F. A. Heron, who has presented to the
Queen’s University a most munificent gift for the proper equipment
of a department for Physical Chemistry, and has thus enabled
the University to furnish Ulster students with a training in this

56 A. W. Stewart on

most important branch which will allow them to compete on
even terms with graduates from other Universities. It is especially
appropriate that the Heron gift should have been devoted to a
branch of Chemistry with which the name of Belfast is connected.
through the fame of Andrews.

II.—THE TRANSMUTATION OF THE ELEMENTS
AND KINDRED PROBLEMS.

In the first of this series of lectures, it was tacitly assumed
that what we call “chemical elements” are forms of matter which
exist unchanged through their history and which are not capable
of decomposition into simpler materials. With the second lecture
in the course, following the historical development of the subject,
it was found necessary to modify this view in order to bring it
into line witb modern work on the radioactive elements: for these
forms of matter have been found to disintegrate spontaneously
into simpler substances, though the experimental resources at
our disposal fail to initiate such decompositions among the non-
radioactive elements or even to influence the rate at which
the radioactive elements disintegrate. In the present lecture,
the subject will be brought up to date and the discoveries of the
past year will be described, which show that even this voluntary
break-down of certain elements is possible at the present time.
But before entering upon this field, it may be well to go back to
the beginning of the century, when Sir William Crookes was
investigating the radioactive properties of the element uranium.

Crookes found that a certain specimen of uranium showed
marked radioactive character ; but when he applied the processes
of chemical analysis to it, he was able to separate it into two parts.
The one portion showed strong beta-ray activity (like the parent
specimen) ; but the second portion exhibited no beta-ray activity
whatever. After being left aside for some months, however, the
non-active specimen was found to have acquired radioactive pro-

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. 57

perties and to display considerable beta-ray activity. These
results are expressed in the following scheme :—

ORIGINAL — URANIUM.”
(Gives off B-rays)

| |

URANIUM-1 URANIUM-X,
(Emits no B-rays) (Emits B-rays)
On
standing

\

URANIUM-Xy
(Emits B-rays)

There is nothing abnormal in the separation of “ uranium ”
into two fractions, one of which is radioactive whilst the other
is inactive ; for the radioactive material might be there as an
impurity in the original mass of “uranium.” What ds extra-
ordinary is the fact that after all the racioactive impurity is
removed, the remaining inactive material gradually becomes
again radioactive. This is practically parallel to the complete
removal of silver from a lead-silver alloy and the slow reappear-
ance of silver after a time in the carefully purified lead. It can
be accounted for only by assuming that the substance uranium-1
is breaking up and giving rise to a new element, uranium-X,,
which possesses beta-ray activity.

The phenomena mentioned in the last lecture in connection
with radium throw further ight upon the matter. Radium, it
was found, gave off continually a gas, niton, which has radio-
active properties different from those of radium itself. Here,
obviously, since both radium and niton are known to be ele-
mentary forms of matter, we have the case of one element giving
birth to another ; and the older idea of the permanence of the
elements has received a severe shock.

When the chemical properties of niton were investigated by
Sir Ernest Rutherford and Mr, Soddy, it was found that they

58 A, W. Stewart on

formed an,exact parallel to those of the inert gases of the atmos-
phere discovered by Sir William Ramsay. Niton refuses to com-
bine with any other element, even when heated to a red heat in
the presence of reactive metals. It thus shows itself akin to
argon and its congeners of the Zero Group in the Periodic Table.

But while thus chemically inert, niton is very powerfully
radioactive. When it is dissolved in water, it decomposes the
liquid into oxygen and hydrogen, just as the electrodes of a
battery do. It sends out a very intense stream of alpha-particles,
with all the properties which such emitted particles ordinanly
display. It affects a charged electroscope when brought near to
it ; and it causes a fluorescent screen to glow brightly when the
gas is blown across the surface.

In order to handle niton, special precautions had to be taken.
In the course of the fundamental experiments of Sir William
Ramsay and Mr. Soddy, the largest volume of niton obtainable
was about 0-000,000,32 cubie inches; and the manipulation of
this tiny bulk of gas was extremely difficult. In order to trans-
fer the niton from vessel to vessel, it was necessary to mix the
radioactive gas with a large bulk of air and then drive the mixture
from its reservoir to the place where it was required. In this
way the loss of a fraction of a cubic inch of the mixture only
represented the mislaying of an immeasurably small quantity of
niton.

Sir William Ramsay, however, actually manipulated pure
niton, unmixed with air. Working merely with the almost in-
visible volume mentioned above, he and Dr. Whytlaw-Gray were
able to liquify and solidify niton, determine its critical temperature
and pressure, and study its behaviour under the microscope as it
passed from state to state.

In order to fix definitely the place of niton in the Periodic
Table, it was necessary to determine its atomic weight ; and the
only way in which that could be done was by the determination
of the gaseous density of the element-——i.e., by weighing a known
volume of the gas. The experimental difficulties in the way of

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. ag

this were so great that it was generally assumed to be an
impossible task ; but Sir William Ramsay and Dr. Whytlaw-Gray
were not deterred by this idea: and they proceeded to construct
a “microbalance” capable of weighing the extremely small
quantity of niton available. This balance, when eventually con-
structed (from quartz fibres) was so delicate that it turned with
the weight of 0-000,000,04 ounces. Its construction marks the
high-water mark of accuracy in weighing ever successfully per-
formed. Of course, no weights could be prepared of sufficient
refinement to use on a balance of this accuracy ; but Sir William
Ramsay overcame this difficulty by utilising as his weight a glass
tube filled with air at ordinary pressure, and by making his
balance-case air-tight and capable of evacuation. When the air
in the balance-case was at ordinary pressure, obviously the air in
the “weight” had no effect ; but when the air was pumped out
of the balance-case then the “weight” depressed the beam,
because the air inside the glass “ weight ” was no longer equi-
poised with the air outside the “weight.” Thus by measuring
the pressure of the air in the balance-case, it was possible to
calculate the exact “ weight” of the glass tube, plus the air inside
it. By means of this balance the exact weight of the tiny
quantity of available niton was ascertained ; and when its atomic
weight was calculated froin this it was found that the atom of
niton was 222 times heavier than a hydrogen atom—a figure
which brings niton into the bottom of the inert gas column of the
Periodic Table.

It will be noticed that the word Niton has the same ter-
mination as most of the other elements of the group. The name
was given to it because of its luminosity. In the dark a tube of
niton glows with a greenish-white lustre; and on this account
Ramsay called it Niton—the shining one. It was originally
termed “radium emanation.”

The decay of the element niton is extremely rapid. In
ninety-four hours half of it disintegrates, no matter what quantity
we start with at first, In the next ninety-four huurs it falls again

60 A. W. Stewart on

to half its quantity. Thus, if at the start there were sixteen
grammes of niton present, the following figures give the amounts
remaining in existence after various periods :—

Start baie 16 grammes.
After 94 hours a 8 grammes.
After 188 hours 7 4 grammes.
After 282 hours sa 2 grammes.
After 376 hours ie 1 gramme.

It is now necessary to deal with the work of Sir William
Ramsay and Mr. Soddy upon niton. Hitherto, though the change
of one element into another had been well-established—as has
been described above—both the parent and the descendant ele-
ments had belonged to the radioactive group, which at that time
were regarded as forming a class apart from the ordinary chemical
elements. Sir William Ramsay and Mr. Soddy, however, brought
the matter into a new orientation by proving that niton, in the
course of its disintegration, produced a perfectly well-known
element, helium. This formed the first link connecting the
radio-elements with the common non-radioactive series of ele-
mentary materials known to chemists.

Suppose that we had, enclosed in a glass tube, some niton,
and that we were able to measure the pressure of the gas within
the tube from day to day. ‘This was actually done by Sir
William Ramsay and Mr. Soddy ; and, somewhat to their astonish.
ment, they found that the pressure diminished as time passed.
Finally, on examining the spectrum of the contents of the tube,
they observed that the niton spectrum had disappeared completely,
and had been replaced by that of helium.

Further investigation shows that the walls of the tube have
acyuired radioactive properties. That these properties are due
to a solid deposited on the glass can be proved in various ways.
For example, if the glass be scraped with a metal point, the metal
in turn acquires the power of discharging an electroscope ; or
again, by means of acids it is possible to dissolye from the glass

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. 61

some material which displays radioactivity. Thus niton clearly
disintegrates and gives rise to some solid material, Radium A,
which is also radioactive like its parent.

The next question which arises concerns the helium found in
the tube. Where does it come from? To discover this we must
go back to the alpha-particles which form part of the Becquerel
rays. These alpha-particles are helium atoms carrying two
charges of positive electricity ; and since niton shows very strong
alpha-ray activity, it is not hard to deduce that the helium found
in the tube by Ramsay and Soddy was simply a collection of the
helium atoms ejected from the niton in the course of its disin-
tegration. Thus we may symbolise the break-down of radium
and its descendants in the following way :—

TABLE III.

Solid RADIUM > HELIUM Gas
Atomic Weight Atomic Weight
226 4
t
Gas NITON > HELIUM Gas
Atomic Weight Atomic Weight
999 4

od hed ead

Solid RADIUM-A
Atomic Weight
218
Thus the atom of radium, in disintegration, gives rise to an
atom of helium and an atom of niton ; and the atom of niton is
four units lighter than the radium atom, since the remainder of
the weight of the radium appears in the helium atom, with atomic
weight 4. In turn, the niton atom throws off four units of
weight in the guise of a helium atom and the remainder of the
exploded atom is the atom of radium-A, with atomic weight 218.
The diagram above gives us the idea of a “ radioactive
series,” that is, a series of elements each of which is born from
one heavier than itself, and may give rise in its turn to some

62 A. W. Stewart on

lighter element. Originally three of these series were assumed
to exist, one starting from uranium, another from the element
actinium, aud a third from thorium; but recent work by Pro-
fessor Soddy has proved that there are only two, since actinium
itself is a descendant of radium.

The following Table IV shows the relations of the radio-
elements, and gives some idea of the number of these unstable
materials now known :—

TABLE LY.
THE RADIOACTIVE SERIES OF ELEMENTS.

I.—TuHrE THORIUM SERIES.

Atomic Average Rays

Klement Weight Life Emitted
Thorium 252 2-6 + 10'° years a
Mesothorium-1 228 7:9 years B
Mesothorium-2 228 8-9 hours B
Radiothorium 228 2-91 years
Thorium-X 224 5-25 days
Thorium emanation 220 78 seconds 0.
Thorium-A 216 0-2 seconds a.
Thorium-B 212 15-4 hours B
Thorium-C 212 87 minutes a and
Thorium -C! ate) 10-1" seconds a.
Thorium-D 208 4-5 minutes B
End-product 208 Permanent No rays

Norr.—Thorium D and Thorium C! are both disintegration products of
Thorium-C which decomposes in two different ways.

Il.—TuHrE URrANIUM-RADIUM SERIES.

Atomic Average Rays
Element Weight Life Kmitted
Uranium-1 238 8 x 10° years a.
Uranium-X, 234 35°5 days B
Uranium X, 234 1:65 minutes B
Uranium-2 234 3x 10° years a.

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. 63
Atomic Average Rays

Hlement Weight Life Kmitted
Tonium 230 2 x 10° years a
Radium 226 2,440 years “
Niton 222 94 hours a
Radium-A 218 4:3 minutes ‘pi tl
Radium-B 214 38:5 minutes B
Radium-C 214 28-1 minutes a and B

At this point a branching occurs in the series. Radium-C disintegrates
by two different processes, yielding respectively Radium-C' and
Radium-C2. Each of these then disintegrates as shown below.

Radium-C! 214 107° seconds a.
Radium-D 210 24 years B
Radium-E 210 7:20 days B
Radium-F 210 196 days a.
End-product 206 Stable No rays
Radium-C, 210 1:9 minutes B
End-product 210 Stable No rays
II].—TuHE URaANiIUM-ACTINIUM SERIES.
Average Rays

Element Life Emitted
Uranium-Y 2-2 days B
Uranium-Z (Eka-tantalum) q a.
Actinium 5,000 years B
Radioactinium 28:1 days a.
Actinium-X 16-4 days a.
Actinium emanation 5:6 seconds
Actinium-A 0-003 seconds a
Actinium-B 52-1 minutes B
Actinium-C 3:1 minutes a.
Actinium-D 6-83 minutes _ B
End-product Stable No rays

Norre.—Uranium-Y is believed to be derived fram Uranium-1, but the
exact connection has not yet been traced. The atomic weights
in the actinium series have not been determined up to the
present.

64 ‘A. W. Stewart on

The actual positions of all these elements in the Periodic
System were established for the most part by the work of Dr.
Fleck, who carried out the most extensive investigation in this
difficult region of the subject. Some idea of the complexity of
the problem solved by him may be gained from the fact that
certain of the elements which he examined fall to half their
original quantity in an extremely short time. A gramme of
radium-A, for example, will leave only half a gramme unde-
composed after four minutes and twenty seconds. Thus Dr.
Fleck had not only to cope with the normal difficulties of
assigning to an element its proper position in the Table but in
addition he had to work with the greatest rapidity if any
measurable quantity of his material was to be left intact at the
end of his experiments.

On the basis of Dr. Fleck’s results, which were obtained in
Soddy’s laboratory, Prof. Soddy put forward the generalization
now known as Soddy’s Law ; but before the enunciation of this
is given it may be best to examine a simple case which is already
familiar to us.

Radium belongs to Group II of the Periodic Table. In
disintegrating, it ejects an alpha-particle and is converted into
niton, which occupies a position in the Zero Group of the Table.
Further, since the ejection of the helium atom entails the loss of
four units of atomic weight, niton is four units lighter than
radium. Thus in the case of what is called an “ alpha-ray
change” the descendant element occupies a position in the
column next-but-one to the left of the parent ; and the atom of
the clescendant is four units lighter than that of the parent
element.

On the other hand, when an element changes into another
by the ejection of an election (Beta-ray change), the descendant
occupies a position one column to the right of the parent.

The italicized text above gives the Soddy Law, which governs
the character of the relations between the parent element and its
descendant as far as the Periodic Table is concerned,

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. 65

Professor Soddy, however, was not content merely with the
enunciation of this Law. He proceeded, as Mendeléef had done,
to predict certain results which must follow if his views were
correct ; and the fulfilment of his prediction has marked almost
as great a stride forward in our knowledge of the atom as that
which the Russian chemist made in connection with the relations
between the elements.

The stable product which finally results from the radioactive
disintegration of uranium is a material having all the chemical
properties of lead. The end-product of the thorium series is also
chemically indistinguishable from lead. Now, in order to attain
the stage of lead, as Professor Soddy pointed out, uranium has to
eject eight alpha-particles ; whilst thorium yields lead by the
ejection of six alpha-particles. Since each alpha-particle is a
helium atom with an atomic weight of four, it is evident that the
lead from uranium will have an atomic weight thirty-two units
lower than that of uranium ; whilst the lead from thorium will
have an atomic weight twenty-four units less than that of thorium
itself :—

Atomic Weight Atomic Weight
238-2 URANIUM THORIUM 232-4
Loss of Loss of
—32 units eight atoms six atoms
of helium of helium — 24 units
| |
206:2 LEAD LEAD 208-4
oo

Chemically indistinguishable.

The Atomic Weight of natural Lead is 207-1.
Basing himself upon these facts, Professor Soddy predicted that
although the lead obtained from uranium and that produced by
the disintegration of thorium were chemically identical with each
other, their atomic weights would be different: that of the
uranium derivative being 206-2 ; whilst that of lead from thorium
would be 208-4. This prediction has been tested with every

66 A. W. Stewart on

refinement of experimental skill by numerous workers ; and it
has been proved to be correct.

It is evident that this work of Professor Soddy’s re-
volutionises our previous ideas of the elements. Hitherto it has
been assumed that all the atoms of an element were identical
with each other in every respect; but it is now conclusively
established that two atoms, each of which has all the chemical
properties of lead and each of which emits the same spectrum,
have weights differing from each other by about one per cent.
Since the two varieties of lead have identical chemical properties,
they must both be placed in the same square in the Periodic
Table ; and elements such as these are termed by Professor Soddy
“isotopic elements ” from isos= equal and topos =a place. The
two varieties of lead are said to be isotopes of each other. Thus
These isotopes, in some cases, are found to have different
radioactive properties, though chemically they are inseparable
from each other. Thus thorium is inseparable from uranium — X4
by any chemical means; but when the two are examined by
radioactivity tests it is found that uranium — X, loses half its
activity in thirty-five and a half days, whereas thorium requires
many millions of years to decay to the same extent.

The recent work of Dr. Aston has shown that isotopy is not
confined to the radioactive series of elements; for even such
common elements as chlorine are found to be made up of
mixtures of atoms of different weights though they are all
endowed with identical chemical properties.

Professor Soddy having thus established the existence of
isotopy, it was my good fortune to call attention to the second
half of the generalization upon which the modern classification of
atoms is based. When a radioactive element parts with an
electron in the beta-ray change, its atomic weight is unaltered,
since in comparison with atomic weights, the mass of an electron
is negligible. None the less, the loss of this electron produces a
complete change in the chemical properties of the material.
Evidently then, there may be two atoms of equal weights but

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. 67

with entirely different chemical properties. To such atoms, I
gave the name isobares, from isos = equal and baros = weight.
To illustrate the question of isobarism, the following data will be
sufficient :—

B-ray B-ray
Mesothorium-1 ——— Mesothorium-2 —— Radiothorium
Change Change

AtomicWeight = 228 AtomicWeight = 228 AtomicWeight = 228

Number of Hydrogen

atoms displaced by one Element

atom of element. resembles.
Mesothorium-1 2 Barium
Mesothorium-2 3 Lanthanum
Radiothorium 4 Cerium

From the foregoing, the following possibilities are evident :—
Two elements having identical chemical properties are zsotopiec.
Two elements having different chemical properties are heterotopic.
Two elements having identical atomic weights are zsobarie.

Two elements having different atomic weights are heterobaric.
By taking all the possible combinations of these in turn, the
Soddy-Stewart classification of atoms is obtained :-—

Atomic Weights Chemical Properties

Isobaric Isotopes Same Same
Isobaric Heterotopes Same Different
Heterobaric Isotopes Different Same
Heterobaric Heterotopes Different Different

Thus by means of this system we are able to define the relations
between any two atoms, whether they are of the same elemental
character or not and whether their weights are identical or
different.

Leaving the work of the laboratory, it may be well to turn
next to phenomena upon a far vaster scale. The resources of
energy which the chemist and physicist have at their disposal are
limited both in quantity and in intensity ; and it is necessary to
examine certain astronomical evidence in order to gain a further
knowledge of the behaviour of elementary matter under extreme

68 - A. W. Stewart on

conditions. The views which are about to be described are due
to Sir Norman Lockyer; and although they are not accepted
m toto by the scientific world, they probably contain more than
a grain of truth.

When investigating the emission spectra of metals, Lockyer
found that the character of the spectrum emitted by an element
depended to a large extent upon the temperature at which the
metal was examined. Thus in a gas-flame having a temperature
of a few hundred degrees, a certain metal gave a characteristic
spectrum; in the electric are, at a temperature of 3000°C, a
different spectrum was exhibited by the same metal; whilst,
finally, in the electric spark, which is supposed to have a
temperature of sume 12000°C., the metal shows yet another
type of spectrum.

Lockyer’s examination of star spectra suggested to him that
among the stars there are bodies at all sorts of different
temperatures ; and he began to classify the stellar species into
groups according to this property. At first sight it might appear
to be impossible to determine which of two stars was the hotter;
but the matter is not so difficult as it might seem at first sight.
A simple example will make the matter clearer. Suppose that
the complete spectrum were spread out by a prism as shown
below :—

Heat Rays—ReED—ORANGE— YELLOW—GREEN— BLUE—
InpIGOo —VIOLET—ULTRA-VIOLET. Now assume that a piece of
metal, such as a poker, is gradually heated. In the first place, it
begins to emit heat rays while still remaining black to our eye.
Next, it gradually turns red, showing that the red part of the
spectrum is being radiated from it. With a further increase of
temperature, its colour becomes lighter, because it is now
radiating orange as well as red rays. A higher temperature
makes it glow bright red, for at this stage it is throwing out every
variety of ray from the heat-rays down to yellow ; and the joint
action of all these produces on our eye the sensation of bright-red.
Finally, if we still further raise the poker’s temperature, it

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. 69

becomes white-hot, which implies that it is radiating all the
vibrations from the slow heat-rays up to the rapid waves of the
violet. Clearly from this example it is evident that the relative
temperatures of two pieces of heated iron can be gauged by the
length of continuous spectrum which they emit: the further this
spectrum extends towards the violet, the hotter the material
must be.

By an examination of the stellar spectra, Lockyer was thus
able to catalogue the stars into various groups, the members of
each group having approximately the same temperature.

Basing his views upon this experimental evidence, Lockyer
put forward what is known as his Meteoritic Hypothesis of
stellar evolution. He assumed as a beginning, a swarm of cold
meteorites travelling through empty space. As time passes,
gravitation will act upon this swarm, gradually drawing the
meteors nearer and nearer together; and the result of this process
will be a series of collisions between the flying bodies and the
consequent generation of heat. Imagine this process continued
for a considerable period, and it is obvious that in the next stage
of evolution we should find all the meteorites agglomerated
together into a loose mass with a moderately high temperature.
Still the force of gravity would act upon the material, tending to
condense the mass more and more; and with the increasing
condensation and consequent increase in the number of impacts
between the particles, the temperature would continue to increase
until finally the whole of the material would be a flaming mass
of gas. At this point, it has reached its highest temperature ;
and its subsequent history will be one of radiation and cooling.
Slowly it falls in temperature, passing successively but in the
inverse order through all the temperatures through which it
travelled on the up-grade ; until finally it is reduced to a cold
globe, a dead star.

After classifying the stars according to his results, Lockyer
found that in the dull, red stars, most of the ordinary metals
were present (as was proved by means of the spectroscope) in the

70 . A. W. Stewart on

same state as in the electric are and in addition there were signs
of the presence of carbon. In the next hotter stars, no carbon
was detected, but most of the metals were spectroscopically
recognisable as being in the same condition as in the electric
spark. In the next set, of still higher temperature, many of the
metals were absent and the two elements hydrogen and helium
appeared in considerable strength. Finally, im the hottest,
gaseous stars, no metallic traces are found ; hydrogen and helium
were strongly marked and in addition there were lines in the
spectra which correspond to no elements known upon the surface
of the earth. Lockyer symbolised this somewhat after the
following fashion :

i GASEOUS STARS.
(Eydrogen, helium and
unknown elements).

7 +
HIGH TEMPERATURE HIGH TEMPERATURE ze
o STARS STARS Z,
< (Few Metals present) (Few Metals present) :
oa IN V Fe
B MEDIUM TEMPERATURE MEDIUM TEMPERATURE fe
= STARS STARS 'S)
= (Metalsin “spark” state; (Metals in “spark” state; :
a No Carbon present) No Carbon present)
5 N\ V a
= LOW TEMPERATURE LOW TEMPERATURE SS
STARS STARS
(Metals in “are” state; (Metals in “arc” state:
Carbon present) ~ Carbon present)
IN — Y
COLD METKORS COLD STARS Y

Thus according to Lockyer’s hypothesis, the stars present us with
a picture of the evolution of the elements. At first there are
the cold meteors, having a composition very like that of the
Karth, ‘Then, with rise in temperature, due to inter-collisions

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. Aa

between the bodies, a star is formed which contains most of the
ordinary elements at a temperature somewhere between that of
the electric are and the electric spark. A further continuance of
the evolutionary process yields stars of a temperature at least as
high as that of the electric spark ; and in the hotter stars of this
group carbon apparently ceases to be capable of existence, since it
vanishes from the spectra. <A further step upward in temperature
results in the disappearance of many metals, so that the spectra
become simpler. Finally, when the stars are so heated that they
become “gaseous stars,” even the metals cease to be stable at
these tremendous temperatures and only the very simplest
elements of low atomic weight such as hydrogen and helium
(together, probably, with forms of matter even simpler than
helium) exist at all. Then, as the evolutionary process proceeds
and the flaming mass of gas cools down by radiating its heat into
the depths of space, the cycle is reversed. Gradually a few
metals appear in the stars; then more are generated as the bodies
cool down ; finally carbon comes into existence once more and
the stars disappear from our view into the dark state which
reveals nothing to our spectroscopes.

Let us now turn back to the laboratory and see if in recent
research anything can be traced which is comparable to this
process of evolution postulated by Lockyer among the stars.
Kvidently we must search for two phenomena: the simplification
of elements into atoms of smaller mass such as hydrogen; and
the building up of hydrogen into more complex materials.

In the problem of simplification the pioneer was Sir William
Ramsay. Recognizing the tremendous store of concentrated
energy which exists in the radio-elements, he endeavoured to
utilize it in order to break up “complex” materials into simpler
components. By allowing niton to act upon copper, he found
that lithium made its appearance. At the time, this result was
not received with any enthusiasm by some physicists, as they
contended that there were no grounds in theory for supposing

fe} A. W. Stewart on

that such a conversion of one element into another could be
produced by the action of the alpha-particle from niton.

Last year, however, Sir Ernest Rutherford, working in a
different field, was able to show that a collision between an alpha-
particle and a nitrogen atom gives rise to some particles which
have at most the mass of two hydrogen atoms. This evidence
seems to indicate that the nitrogen atom is disintegrated during
the collision and that some of its fragments are hydrogen atoms.”
It thus appears that in the laboratory it is possible to decompose
even one of the “ stable” clements into simpler materials.

The question of elemental synthesis seems also to have been
solved, though Professor Collie, who did the work, has never
claimed success in this direction, preferring to give his results
without hazarding any hypotheses as to their cause. He showed
that when electrical discharges are passed through hydrogen at
low pressure ina tube, much of the hydrogen vanishes and helium
makes its appearance in the vessel. [very test was applied which
would prove leakage in the apparatus. For example, the dis-
charge tube was surrounded by another tube and the space
between the two tubes was completely evacuated; yet the helium
still appeared in the inner tube when the discharge was passed
through the hydrogen. Other checks were applied which would
have established the existence of a leak even if the actual orifice
were too small to be detected. In view of these results, it seems
most probable that under the influence of the discharge some of
the hydrogen is built up into helium; for no other hypothesis
can account for the facts. If this be the correct explanation,
Collie’s results form a laboratory parallel to Lockyer’s “ down-
erade” process in stellar evolution ; for in the gaseous stars we
have vast masses of gas, much of which is hydrogen, under very
low pressures and subjected to violent electrical stresses—if the
electrical and magnetic conditions of the solar globe be assumed
in the stars.

* This result appears to confirm Prout’s view that atoms are built up
from hydrogen, :

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. 13

The development of radioactivity has thrown light upon
another science : geology ; and it is now possible to calculate the
minimum period during which certain geological strata have
remained undisturbed. How this is done can be made clear by a
simple example.

Suppose that into a sealed flask a quantity of pure uranium-1
be introduced. In the course of its disintegration, this element
will give rise on the one hand to helium and on the other to lead,
as the end product of its degeneration. Since the process goes
on at « mathematically calculable rate, it will be possible at any
moment to ascertain how long it was since the experiment started,
provided that we know (a) the quantity of uranium-1 left
unchanged ; (6) the amount of helium or of lead present. The
factor (b) tells how much uranium-1 has disintegrated ; and by
adding that to the value in (a) the total amount of uranium-1
originally present is found. Thus we know the amount of
uranium-! originally present and we know also the quantity
which has disintegrated during the period of confinement in the
flask : these data suffice for the calculation of the period which
has elapsed since the flask was closed.

Now in Nature, the flask is replaced by a mass of rock in
which some uranium is imbedded. We analyse this rock and
estimate in it the quantity of helium occluded in the pores of the
mineral and we also determine the amount of lead present. Our
analytical results give us all the data required for the calculation
of the period which has elapsed since the uranium became
enclosed in the stratum. It should be noted that since some of
the helium may have diffused through the material of the rock,
and thus become lost, the period calculated from the uranium-
helium ratio in the rock is a minimum value. On the other hand,
when the age of the rock is determined from the uranium-lead
ratio in the mineral, i¢ must be borne in mind that we are making
the assumption that all the lead present has been derived from
uranium ; whereas actually there may have been some ordinary
lead present along with the uranium at the start. In the case of

r¢ a | A. W. Stewart on

the uranium-lead ratio, therefore, the figures represent the
maximum time which can have lapsed since the stratum was iaid
down and are possibly an over-estimate of this period. The
results which have been obtained by the present.Lord Rayleigh
and others in this way may be given here :—

STRATA Age deduced from —— ratio From —
Miocene 6,300,000 years 30,000,000 years
Eocene 31,000,000 70,000,000
Carboniferous 146,000,000* 330,000,000
Devonian 145,000,000* 390,000,000
Archaean 405,000,000 940,000,000

In another field of geology, radioactivity has played its part.
The rate of cooling of the Earth and Sun presents peculiarities
which in the pre-radioactivity days could hardly be explained in
a satisfactory manner. We now know, however, that the
quantity of radium and other radioactive materials in the Earth
is sufficient to account for the maintenance of the terrestrial
globe’s temperature for a much longer period than could be
deduced from the ordinary physics of contraction and radiation ;
and thus a difficulty has been removed from the path of Science
in this region.

In closing an account of the progress of radioactivity, some
mention must be made of the ramifications which the subject has
produced. In physics, the radioactive properties of matter have
led to the development of new views of the constitution of matter
and have helped in the advance of our ideas of the atom.
Chemistry has been assisted in its definition of the chemical
elements and has seen its conceptions of the atoms revolutionized
from the radioactivity side. In medicine, radioactive elements
are now a recognized weapon in the cure of certain diseases; and

*Tt must be remembered that specimens from different localities are
likely to vary in age, which perhaps accounts for the inverted order of the
Carboniferous and Devonian results in the case of the uranium-helium ratio
of these two. Also, as already mentioned, leakage of helium may have
taken place in some of the specimens examined, j

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. 75

possibly even wider applications in this field are before us. In
geology, radioactivity has given us a new method of measuring
the duration of the periods of the Earth’s history; and in
Astronomy the radioactive phenomena have thrown fresh light
upon the problems of stellar and terrestrial heat. Finally,
aeronautics has profited with the rest; for the helium which
arises from radioactive materials buried deep in the Earth’s crust
is now being utilized for filling airships with a light and non-
inflammable gas. .

IV.—SOME PROBLEMS OF FOOD AND POWER.

[The reader is also referred to Dr. A. K. Macprtu, ‘‘ Catalysis,” p. 34,
Proceedings of Society, 1919-20 ; and to Professor W1LLIAM CALDWELL,
“* Fixation of Nitrogen,” p. 5, Proceedings of Society, 1917-18. ]

Our modern civilization depends for existence upon its
supplies of food and power. It is essential that our teeming
populations must be fed, while the mere distribution of food-
stuffs involves the expenditure of mechanical energy on a vast
scale; for this reason these subjects were selected as suitable for
this fourth lecture.

The question of food is the more important and may be
dealt with first. The main task in the future will be the
production of a greater yield of foodstuffs to provide for the
constantly increasing population. This object may be obtained in
two ways, either by an increased productivity of the soil, or by
the manufacture of artificial foodstuffs by chemical means.

Our daily food consists of two main groups of materials :
carbohydrates and proteins. Sugar, starch, &c., are carbohydrates,
while cereals and meat contain large proportions of proteins.
The carbohydrates contain only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen ;
while the proteins, in addition to these three, have nitrogen also
as one of their components.

76 A. W. Stewart on

The human body contains between fifteen and twenty per cent.
of nitrogen, and can neither be built up nor maintained in working
order by a pure carbohydrate diet. Proteins are essential to life
and nitrogen must be supplied to the animal frame if life is to be
kept in existence.

But our bodies can make no direct use of the nitrogen which
forms four-fifths of the air around us; we breathe it but expel
it again unchanged. Nor can we utilize the simple nitrogen
compounds. Nitrogen must be supplied in the form of the
proteins which make up a large part of both animal and vegetable
tissue. Our vital mechanism seems incapable of profiting by
nitrogen unless presented in the form of protoplasm, which is a
mass of extremely complicated chemical derivatives of nitrogen.

Human diet is partly vegetable and partly animal, but if the
animal part of it is traced back it will be found to depend
ultimately upon the vegetable kingdom. Thus the nitrogenous
compounds have been traced back to the plants; but where do
the plants themselves obtain the nitrogen for their tissues? In
the majority of cases plants are unable to tap the store of nitrogen
in the atmosphere. Some, like peas, beans, &e., are actually able
to utilise nitrogen drawn direct from the air, but as a whole the
nitrogenous supplies are derived by plants from the earth by means
of their roots. Vegetables are in this way able to assimilate the
simple compounds of nitrogen, such as ammonia, nitrites and
nitrates, and to build the nitrogen thus obtained into the complex
derivatives which the animals can utilise as food. The main
reservoir of nitrogen is the atmosphere, from which certain bacteria
and some plants are able to draw nitrogen which the plants
convert into the organic compounds from which vegetable tissue
is built up. When the plants die their protoplasm is broken up,
either spontaneously or by the act of digestion of some animal
which has swallowed the plant. The mitrogen then yields the
derivative ammonia, containing one nitrogen and three hydrogen
atoms.

If this ammonia is returned to the soil it is attacked by

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. Ch

certain © nitrifying bacteria,” which have the power of converting
the ammonia into nitrous acid, and thence again into nitric acid-
The salts of these acids, not the acids themselves, are found in
the soil.

In the form of a nitrate, nitrogen is easily assimilated by
plants, and begins again the cycle in which once more it can be
utilised by the animal. But in actual practice we find a different
state of affairs. Part of the nitrites and nitrates is attacked by
another class of bacteria, known as “‘denitrifying bacteria,” which
set. free elemental nitrogen, of no use for either animal life or
that of the majority of plants. ‘Then under our modern system
of sanitation, we discharge most of our sewage into the sea,
throwing away with it an enormous quantity of nitrogen com-
pounds, originally derived from the soil. It is evident that this
process of robbing the soil of its nitrogen will render it ultimately
incapable of supporting plant-life, and the food supply of humanity
will be diminished.

In the early years of the present century, great regions in
the American wheat area had become so exhausted that the
cultivators were forced to seek fresh lands in Canada, and
Mr. A. J. Balfour has suggested that the secret of the decline
and fall of the Roman Empire is to be found in the decreasing
productivity of the soil.

It is thus necessary to return to the soil the nitrogen of
which it has been robbed, and there are three main sources of
supply.

Ammonia is a by-product of gas manufacture. In 1913 the
United Kingdom produced in this way from its gas works, iron
works, coke ovens, &c., no less than 432,618 tons of ammonium
sulphate. Again, in Chili and Peru there are vast deposits of
naturally-formed nitrates which can be exported to countries in
need of combined nitrogen for their land. These have been
drawn upon very heavily. The figures during the war would be
misleading, but for the ten years 1904—1913 inclusive, the total
exports amounted to 20,850,000 tons. This demand is a steadily

78 A. W. Stewart on

increasing one, and it is evident that comparatively a short period
may be given as sufficient to exhaust the available supplies.

There remains one other source of nitrogen, the atmosphere,
and the chemical problem is how to convert this nitrogen into
compounds which the vegetable world can use as nourishment.
This is now actually being done on a very large scale. For the
“fixation of atmospheric nitrogen” it is essential to employ
energy in some form or other, and, since these compounds have
to compete in price with the Chili nitrates, the power must be
inexpensive. Water power, favourably situated, is the cheapest
form of energy, and thus Norway has many advantages.

This Norwegian industry was set on foot by Professors
Birkeland and Eyde, at Notodden, and in 1913 no less than
110,000 tons of nitrogenous material was synthesised by the
Birkeland-Eyde works.

If air be heated strongly some of the nitrogen becomes
combined with the oxygen present, the quantity depending upon
the temperature. Thus at 2,675° six times as high a proportion
is converted as at 1,811°, but to keep this proportion the mixture
must be very rapidly cooled. If allowed to cool slowly the
combination breaks up until the proportion present becomes only
that arising from the then temperature.

The higher the temperature and the quicker the cooling the
greater will be the percentage of combined nitrogen. In the
Birkeland-Eyde process the air is blown through an electric arc,
which is spread out by the aid of an electro-magnet into a disc of
flame about six feet in diameter, thus allowing the passage of
large quantities of air across the disc of flame to a cooling
arrangement in which it is very rapidly deprived of its heat.

In another process the electric furnace is used to produce
cyanamide, which is formed when lime and coke are heated in
the presence of a stream of nitrogen. This substance comes on
the market as a fertiliser under the name of nitrolim.

In a third process, described by A. K. Macbeth in the
paper already referred to and due to Haber and Le Rossignol,

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. 79

atmospheric nitrogen is combined with hydrogen to yield ammonia.
The difficulty arising in this process is due to the dual action of
heat upon the combination. At ordinary temperatures nitrogen
has no affinity for hydrogen, while if the temperature is too high
any ammonia formed is quickly decomposed. To meet this
difficulty the inventors used a catalyst, which allowed of com-
bination even at a comparatively low temperature under pressure.

By these various methods then the problem has been solved,
and the nitrogen supply of the world rendered secure.

During the war there was a great advance in the actual
production of nitrogen compounds by chemical methods. The
necessity of a large supply of nitrogen compounds for the manu-
facture of explosives caused the expansion of the plant in use,
and this will remain as a means of production for the manufacture
of fertilisers, now that the demand for explosives has so greatly
lessened.

With regard to the synthetic production of food materials
themselves, it must be admitted that such production has hardly
yet emerged from the experimental stage. The progress, however,
which has been made in synthesising extremely complicated
materials akin to the proteins has been very marked during the
last decade. Even greater progress has been made in the present
generation in the laboratory production of different sugars which
occur in nature, such as glucose, cane-sugar, milk-sugar and fruits-
sugar. The chemist is even synthesising certain sugars which do
not occur naturally at all, though the possibility of their occurrence
could be seen on theoretical grounds.

When we seek the origin of the power we use, we find that
the greater part comes to us from the sun. Our coal is yielding
up to us the heat stored up in it by the sun long ages ago. Our
water powers are due to the present action of the sun’s rays,
and the only fuel not certainly owing its energy to the sun is
mineral oil.

It seems possible that, during the volcanic age of the earth’s
history, certain carbides were produced by the combined heat

80 A. W. Stewart on

and pressure prevailing far below the surface level, and that, by
reaction with water percolating through the strata, petroleum was
formed, as acetylene is formed by the action of water on calcium
carbide.

With the discovery of radio-activity a new reservoir of energy
is opened, but at present we cannot direct or control the new
force. The energy existing in the atom is so great that it
represents a source of power, which if it could be tapped would
eliminate all others from competition, and it may be regarded as
probable that this will one day be accomplished. It is clear that
the actual breaking up of the atom is in progress in the radio-
active elements, but the process is extremely slow and at present
practically beyond our power of direction or government.

It may be of interest to give one or two examples of the
quantities of energy which are locked up in the radioactive ele-
ments. If we were able to obtain an ounce of radium in the
pure state, we should find, according to measurements made with
smaller quantities, that in the transformation described, it would
liberate in an hour an amount of heat sufficient to raise rather
more than an ounce of water from freezing-point to boiling-point,
and this radiation would continue in lessening amount for countless
years. Turning to uranium, it has beeu shown that in one pound
of this metal there is a store of energy equivalent to that which
is obtained from the combustion of rather over one hundred tons
of coal. Ag to niton, a single cubic inch of this gas, if we could
obtain it, would radiate energy equal to that emitted by a
powerful are lamp. To procure this cubic inch of niton,
however, we should require no less than fifty pounds of
radium ; and as at present the total quantity of the element
which has so far been extracted from its ores amounts certainly
to under an ounce, itis evident that we have still a long way to
go before we reach the stage of practical utilisation. In the case
of the slowly disintegrating elements like uranium, there is
another factor in the problem—time—for these materials decom-

The Groundwork of the Universe, &c. 81

pose very sluggishly, so that uranium in one year only yields us
1-10,000,000,000 part of the total energy of transformation.

It will be necessary, if this great store is to be opened, that
ordinary element some not (normally radioactive) should be used,
as the available quantity of the radioactive elements is so small.
If, or when, this power be placed in the hands of science its.
potentialities alike for good or evil will be quite unlimited. It is
impossible to forecast the effect of such a discovery upon national
or social existence.

It may be noted that radioactivity is almost entirely a
Franco-British science. First came the work of Sir William
Crookes, Sir J. J. Thomson, Becquerel, Debierne, and the Curies ;
then the great generalisations due to the labours of Sir Ernest
Rutherford, Sir William Ramsay, Fleck, Moseley and Soddy.
Germany has contributed nothing to this great advance in our
knowledge.

A full account of radioactivity, written for the non-expert, will
be found in Professor Soddy’s Interpretation of Radium. In ~
connection with problems of power the reader will find much of
interest in Matter and Energy, by the same author (in the Home
University Library). An account of the Periodic Law is to be
found in Professor Letts’ Chemistry Old and New.

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4th February, 1921.

In Puysics LECTURE THEATRE, QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY.

The President, PROFESSOR GREGG WILSON, in the Chair.

“THE PERCEPTION OF THE INVISIBLE.”

(Illustrated by numerous Experiments).
By R. T. Beatty, M.A., D.Sc.
Member of the Scientific Staft of the Admiralty. (by consent).

(Abstract).

The lecturer gave a brief review of the methods which men
had evolved for transporting themselves and their property over
the surface of the earth, and pointed out that while enormous
machines had been developed for rapid transport by land, sea,
and air, very little provision had been made for preventing
disastrous collisions in darkness or fog, for detecting the presence
of hostile war machines, or for communicating over distances
greater than the eye could reach.

Even in so recent a period as that of the South African
War, the horse and the heliograph (the latter requiring sunny
weather for operation) were the only means of communication
between rapidly moving troops when some miles apart. In
general terms, the great mechanical revolution of the 19th
century was not accompanied by a corresponding increase in the
safety of human life.

New problems arose in 1914. Communication by wireless
in many cases was found to be too public and too easily interfered
with. On sea it was often necessary to signal in such a way as
not to disclose the presence of the signalling. ship. Methods of
detection were required : detection of submarines, of approaching

84 R. T. Beatty on The Perception of the Invisible.

aeroplanes, of enemy guns, of men moving at night. The lecturer
next showed some remarkable experiments.

A method was shown of navigating a model ship so as to
follow the course of a cable laid along the bottom of the sea. In
this way a ship could safely make harbour in darkness or fog.
The transmission: of sound signals under water up to a distance
of 50 miles was described, and its application explained to
avoiding collisions at sea.

Other experiments demonstrated the presence of an invisible
beam of light both by the fluorescent effects produced and by the
production of a loud note in a telephone. The effect of inter-
rupting the beam by the passage of a material body across it was
strikingly shown. .

Morse signals from such a beam could also be recorded on a.
moving band of paper.

A model of a lighthouse was exhibited in which the light
was automatically switched on when darkness fell, and was
extinguished by the rays of the rising sun.

Landscape photographs were shown, taken from an aero-
plane, through clouds so thick as to prevent visual observations.

In conclusion, the lecturer remarked that work was going
on unceasingly to increase safety in navigation of sea and air.
The old enemies, darkness and fog, would always be with us, but.
their terrors were being rapidly diminished by scientific effort.

Proceedings of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, 1920-1921.

L4th and 28th January, 11th and 25th February, 1921.

The President, PRorEssor GREGG WILSON, in the Chair.

A Course or FouR LECTURES ON
SOME CHAPTERS IN MODERN BOTANY.
By JAMES SMALL, D.Sc., Pu.C., F.L.S.,
Professor of Botany, Queen’s University, Belfast.

In BroLoGicaAL LECTURE THEATRE, QUEEN’S UNIVERSITY.

I.—THE WANDERINGS OF THE GROUNDSEL.

The Groundsel, Senecio vulgaris, is commonly regarded as
only one species ; that single species, however, includes a miscel-
laneous group of about one hundred microspecies, and for the
purpose of this lecture the name “Groundsel” is extended
beyond that familiar canary food to all its relatives which are
included in the genus Senecio. Taking “Groundsel” as
synonymous with Senecio, we deal, not with one species, but
with about 2,500 species, ranging over all the habitable surface
of the earth, and with a type which may be regarded as older
than the Alps and Himalayas.

At a period which is variously estimated as from 4 millions
to 40 millions of years ago none of the existing high mountain
ranges were in existence. As the earth began to emerge from
what is known as the Cretaceous Period, the western parts of
South America were flat, and the region of the Amazons was
covered, as it is to-day, by a very mixed, dense forest. The few
herbaceous and semi-shrubby plants which grew in such forests
Were epiphytes or climbers, and amongst the semi-shrubby
climbers were the ancestors of the groundsel. This ancestral
type still lingers in the same region, as the genera Syphocampylus

6 James Small on

CO

and Centropogon, which are relatives of the little blue Lobelia
of herbaceous borders and window-boxes.

About this time a great uplifting movement began which
ultimately gave rise to the Andes and, later on, to the Rocky
Mountains. ‘This new range of mountains abutting on the
tropical forests of the Amazons presented an entirely new habitat,
which was open to colonisation by such of the forest species as
could survive the change from a rich, warm, moist environment
to the more or less arid conditions of the mountain side.

The Lobelioid climbers were amongst the early colonists ;
descending the trees, or rather failing to find trees upon which to
climb, they first became scramblers on the low bushes of the
forest edge. Then as they spread year by year up the hillside
beyond the tree-limit to beyond the limit for bushes, they became
eround-growing scramblers. The severe conditions reacted upon
these pioneers, producing stunted growth and general crowding
together of all parts of the plant. The stems being short, the
leaves were crowded ; the flower-stalks being short or altogether
absent the flowers became crowded. The general tendencies
towards the production of such characters as hairy appendages to
the style branches, tails and apical appendages to the anthers, a
few ovules or only one ovule in each ovary, etc., became expressed
more fully in the flowers, and since these were already grouped
in dense clusters, something very like the flower-head of a Com-
posite was the result.

The young flowers being protected by the green leaves
surrounding the flower-head, the calyx became useless, and
disappeared at an early stage. The windy arid conditions on the
hillside caused the development of hairs on most parts of the
plants, and the hairs on the top of the young fruits grew longer
than those lower down on the fruit. In this way there was
formed the pappus, which proved very useful. The hairs,
developed in response to the dry windy conditions, when organised
as a fringe on the top of the fruit, became more than protective.
They caught the wind, more or less like an expanded umbrella ;

The Wanderings of the Groundsel. 87

and because they did not form an unbroken surface they were
much more effective than a purely sail-like mechanism.’ These
hairs, now called the pappus, made it possible for even a shght
breeze to blow the light fruits to considerable distances.

The groundsel, therefore, may be said to have been originated
by the uplifting of the Andes, and it proved eminently suited for
the arid windy mountainous regions, where it still flourishes in
great profusion. Senecio was, in fact, developed by the
mountains with the mountains for the mountains. It arose by
the modification of certain Amazonian Lobelioids towards the
end of the Cretaceous Period, and started out on its many and
long wanderings with an equipment of structure and constitution
which was pre-eminently suited for mountaineering. As a
natural consequence it usually took the “high” road in its travels.

Being spread by the wind both up and down the mountain
slopes it reached to snow-level on the one hand and to the bush
country around the forests on the other, and it naturally under-
went corresponding changes. Near the snow-level it became even
more densely compact and much more hairy, giving rise to the
edelweiss and cudweed type. On the lower slopes, which were
both warmer and more moist, the hairs of the pappus ceased to
be developed as such and underwent various changes into awns
and barbs which proved to be advantageous for dispersal by forest
animals. Thus the groundsel gave rise to the bur-marigold and
sunflower type. With these two South American progeny it then
moved along the Andes southwards to Tierra del Fuego, and
northwards to where the Rockies were beginning to appear in
what are now the United States and Mexico.

On reaching the southern part of the Rockies Senecio
developed, in part, long appendages to the style branches and
became slightly moditied in other ways, giving rise to the golden-
rod and Michaelmas daisy type. By this time the Eocene Period

1¥or details of this point and the general proofs (including the geological evidence
and records of fossils), for the whole of this account see ‘The Origin and Develop-
ment of Compositive.” Wesley. London, 1919,

88 James Small on

was well-advanced and mountain ranges were beginning to appear
in Asia and around the Mediterranean end of the Great Central
Sea. The Yablonoi, Altai and Thian Shan ranges and the
mountains of Afghanistan, Persia :nd Asia Minor formed one
path stretching from close to the northern end of the Rockies to
the Mediterranean region. While the Yablonoi, Khin gan, Sin-
Ling and Himalayan ranges formed another similar path through
China and Northern India to Asia Minor. Spurs from the latter
path led through the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra to Australia,
and also via the Philippines and New Guinea to the island
continent.

Our wandering groundsel, showing its original liking for the
“high” road, took both the main Asiatic paths, after coming
north along the Rockies and crossing the Alaska-Siberian bridge.
The wide, wet or frozen plains in the north were not congenial
and these far-stretching paths were not colonized to any great
extent, but the routes taken can still be traced by certain species.
Senecio altaicus, for example, occurs along the first path from
Siberia to Turkestan; S. Ligularia occurs along the second path.

The Mediterranean region, the next halting place, formed at
this time the eastern end of the Great Central Sea which, by
gradual draining and drying up in succeeding ages, formed at one
end the semi-desert regions around Mesopotamia and Northern
Africa, and at the other end the similarly arid Mexican plains.
On reaching the warm woodlands, which at the end of the Eocene
covered the many eastern islands of this primeval sea, our
changeful groundsel in part again lost its pappus and by a
few other slight changes developed the corn marigold type
(Chrysanthemum and its allies chamomile and yarrow). | Other
colonies of groundsel in the same region about the same time
developed by mutation a split down the back of the corolla,
which with some slight accompanying changes gave rise to the:
lettuce and dandelion types.

The conditions in this early Mediterranean zone were s0

The Wanderings of the Groundsel. 8&9

different from those of the original home and of the paths of
migration of the groundsel that, within the next geological period
(Oligocene) still another set of changes took effect on the colonist
giving rise to the elecampane and golden samphire type. This
offshoot arose by an increase in the number of ray florets on
account of the rich soil and favourable conditions for luxuriant
growth ; but very soon, geologically speaking, this same type
developed into thistles by reason of the considerable drying up of
the eastern end of the Great Central Sea and the resulting hot
dry climate.

Meanwhile the descendants of the groundsel in its original
home, multiplying, spreading and undergoing various slight
changes in response to new and more favourable conditions, gave
rise to other new types such as Trixis and Gerbera in Brazil.
In the succeeding geological period (Miocene) the same Amazonian
region was the scene of the origin of several still newer types,
such as Liabum, Vernonia and hemp agrimony (Hupatorium).
About the same time in Mexico the Michaelmas daisy type gave
rise to the true daisy (Bellis) and some of the Mexican groundsels
developed into the French marigold type (Tagetes), mainly as the
result of the first stages in the drying-up of the western end of
the Great Central Sea.

Before the Pliocene period was well begun an extensive
migration took place southwards along the mountains of eastern
Africa; not only the groundsels but the golden samphire and
edelweiss types took part in this movement. South Africa was
at this date beginning to become largely a semi-desert region,
and such conditions had their inevitable effects on the last type,
which originally came from near the zones of eternal snow on the
Andes. In South Africa it gave rise to the “everlasting” type
(Helichrysum). <A little later on in the wooded regions which
still occurred along the rivers, some of the groundsels lost their
pappus and developed other means of dispersal, just as had
happened before under such conditions in Brazil, Mexico and the
Mediterranean. In South Africa this change was in some cases

90 James Small on

accompanied by the sterilisation of the ovaries of the central
florets of the flower-head ; and the products were first the South
African marigold (Usinia) and afterwards the ordinary marigold
(Calendula).

Towards the end of the Pliogene period the wet, cold
conditions obtaining on the northern plains of Asia yielded a
belated derivative of the groundsel, the butter-bur and coltsfoot
type, where the flowers are developed underground in the autumn
and emerge only at blooming time in the spring.

An interesting case of convergent evolution occurred quite
recently (Middle Pliocene, about a million years ago) in South
Africa. There the colonists descended from the “ everlasting ”
type on the one hand and from the golden samphire type on the
other became so extremely alike that their progeny are classed
together in the same small division of a tribe of the main
Compositae family.

Perhaps the most remarkable point of all is this—the original
groundsel type was equipped with such an adaptable constitution,
such an efficient dispersal mechauism and such a strong vitality
that it survives to the present day in all the regions to which it
wandered. It flourishes amongst its numerous progeny, sparsely
along some of the northern paths of migration, abundantly
wherever conditions have been sufficiently favourable to allow of
the development of that great number of individuals which often
accompanies the origin of new types. Its 2,500 species exhibit
every variety of herbaceous, shrubby and arboreal growth, but
with this amazing range of vegetative form the structure of the
flower-head and of the individual flowers remains constant even
in microscopic details.

Such is the story of how the Groundsel wandered from its
Andine home all over the surface of the earth, giving rise to
numerous colonies, each of which developed its own peculiar
characteristics, so that in time the highest and largest family of
flowering plants, the Compositae with its 2,500 species, came
into being. The story, here told very briefly and imperfectly,

The Evectness of Plants. 9]

is as worthy of an epic as the wanderings of Ulysses or the
travels of Marco Polo; in fact, all the wanderings of primeval
men are dwarfed into hurried events of recent and local interest
in comparison with these journeys of the Groundsel in which
about sixty million square miles were traversed in some forty
million years.

Lantern slides were shown to illustrate climatic and topographical
conditions, types of Compositae, details of structure and existing geo-
graphical distribution.

IJl.—THE ERECTNESS OF PLANTS.

The reader could scarcely follow the theories and experi-
ments concerning the erectness of plants, which are expounded
below, without some preliminary explanation of what protoplasm
is conceived to be. Apart from the nucleus of each cell, the
protoplast may be regarded as an emulsion consisting chiefly of :—
1. carbohydrates, such as sugars, starches, gums, mucilages, ete. ;
2. proteins, which are nitrogenous compounds with some peculiar
properties ; 3. enzymes, which can be extracted from the cell,
then dried and preserved as non-living substances for an_in-
definitely long time. The chemical composition and the physical
structure of the third group of substances are still unknown, but
it is known that they are closely associated in the cell with
protein matter, and that they are not “alive.”

Disregarding entirely the almost infinite variety of possible
different combinations of nuclear material as chromosomes, and
taking of the numerous kinds of carbohydrates, proteins and
enzymes only two dozen of each group, the number of possible
combinations of these three classes of substances with 24 varieties
of each, is very much larger than the total number of species of
living organisms that exist or have existed on the earth. With
this suggested comparatively simple chemieal composition for
cytoplasm we can, therefore, consider that each species may have

992 James Small on

its own peculiar protoplasm or cytoplasm, quite independent of
the undoubted nuclear differences.

In connection with the erectness of plants, our attention
must be directed more towards the proteins than towards the
other classes. Proteins have the peculiar property of acting as
bases or alkalies in an acidic medium and as acids in an alkaline
medium. It is scarcely necessary to go into further detail as to
how this occurs,’ but this chemical behaviour of the proteins has
important results. When a protein is dispersed in a fluid as
emulsified particles, such particles carry an electric charge, which
is positive in relatively acidic media and negative in relatively
alkaline media. The proteins themselves are slightly acidic, and
the medium need only be less acidic than the protein concerned
to be relatively alkaline ; while the medium must be more acidic
than the protein itself to be relatwely acidic. When the
medium has an acidity about the same as that inherent in the
protein, the protein particles act neither as a base nor as an acid,
and they do not carry any electrical charge. This point or
“zone ” of acidity is called the isoelectric point of the protein.

The cytoplasm of the plant cell contains such protein”
particles, which are lighter than the rest of the fluid. If these
particles are large enough, e.g. 0-0002 mm. to 0:0008 mm. in
radius, they will be acted upon by gravity to such an extent that
they will “cream” upwards fairly. rapidly, just as fat globules
cream to the surface of milk. As calculated from Stokes’ formula,
the rate of creaming would be about 0:002mm. to 0-028 mm. in
seven minutes, which is the time taken in the case of a bean root
for the action of gravity to develop its proper effect.

How THE Roor GROWS Downy.

In the tip of every root there is a small group of cells which
are full of protoplasm and are undergoing active cell-division.

1The reader will find this point anda number of related matters developed in
my “Text Book of Botany.” Churchill, London. 1921.
2 Or more probably protein in loose combination with certain fatty substances such as
lecithin. ;

The Erectness of Plants. 93

Such a group of cells is called a meristem. Each cell in this
group contains, according to this theory, protein particles which
carry electro-positive charges because the rest of the cytoplasm in
the root cells is relatively acidic. When the root is placed
horizontally the particles, which are more or less uniformly
distributed in the outer zones of cytoplasm, start to cream
upwards. As these particles move upwards, and because they
are positively charged, they develop a potential difference between
the upper and the under sides of each cell. The greater number
of positive charges proceed upwards, therefore the current, which
is developed as a result of the potential difference, passes
downwards.

Now each cell of the meristem is connected to its neighbours
by very fine protoplasmic threads, and it is quite probable that
the cells are by this means connected electrically in parallel and
in series to form a battery. This battery, when the root is
placed horizontally, gives quite a recognisable electric current,
which passes downwards and along the cortex of the under side
of the root (fig. 1). Then it passes around the root and returns

Bey

MBAAGAAOBs

MOTOR REGION PERCEPTIVE G) REGION

Fic. 1—Diagram of root apex to illustrate the Hydrion Differentiation Theory of
geotropism. The ‘‘creaming” is indicated in the apical meristem
(perceptive region). The arrows indicate the path of the “‘action current.”
A.B. Two electrodes used in measuring the changes in conductivity under
geotropic stimulation.

along the upper side. The tissue has a very high electrical
resistance ; for this reason and because there are numerous
possibilities of leakage in the circuit, the current is stronger in

94 James Small on

the under side than in the upper side of the root. The effect of
the passage of an electric current through the normal plant cell
is an increase of what is called permeability ; this results in a
decrease of turgor and a decrease in the rate of growth. The
ultimate result in the root is that both the under and the upper
sides grow at a slower rate than before, but the under side, being
affected more, grows slower than the upper side, with the natural
result that the root curves downwards.

The relationships between permeability, turgor and growth
require to be clearly understood. The sap in the cavity within
the cytoplasm of a mature plant cell acts like the gas in a
balloon, and the cytoplasmic membrane acts like the skin or
fabric of a balloon. If the balloon be well blown up it is more
or less rigid or “turgid”; similarly with the cell. The sap or
gas may be considered as always eflicient in itself, but if the
membrane be leaky ( = permeable) then no amount of ‘blowing up”
will make the cell or the balloon turgid. When the membrane
in the cell is so altered that the molecules in solution in the sap
can pass through (=permeate or leak) more easily than before,
the cell loses a certain amount of its turgidity or turgor. The cell
grows because its wall is always being stretched by the internal
pressure (=osmotic pressure) of the sap. If the cytoplasmic
membrane be leaky, the sap exerts less pressure, therefore each
cell grows at a slower rate and the tissue, which is built up of
many such cells, elongates less rapidly ; it grows more slowly.

How THE STEM GROWS UP.

The events which result in the turning-up of a stem, when
it is placed horizontally, are very similar in kind to those
previously described for the root. In the stem, however, the
protein particles carry an electro-negative charge, because the rest
of the cytoplasm is relatively alkaline. This difference has a very
important effect on the direction of growth. ‘The particles cream
upwards as before, when the stem is placed horizontally, but since
they are negatively charged the current which is developed flows

The Erectness of Plants. 95

in the opposite direction to that which it takes in the root. The
current flows from less negative to more negative points, and
therefore flows upwards. It then passes along the upper side of
the stem and returns along the under side (fig. 2), causing similar
differences in permeability, turgor and rate of growth, but it is
the wpper side which is affected more. The under side, therefore,
grows more rapidly than the upper side, and the stem curves
upwards.

mamonsnsacnas
{Sa@e8 aaa
AQAA hAe ws

MOTOR REGION PERCEPTIVE © REGION

Fic. 2—Diagram of stem apex to illustrate the Hydrion Differentiation Theory of
geotropism. The ‘“‘creaming” is indicated in the apical meristem
(perceptive region). The arrows indicate the path of the ‘‘action current.”

Using this theory’ as a working hypothesis, bean seedlings
were grown under bell-jars in an atmosphere rendered slightly
alkaline with ammonia vapour, with the result that the tips of
the main roots turned slightly upwards, while the secondary roots
or rootlets all grew upwards. Maize seedlings were treated in
the same way and the young rootlets in that case also turned
upwards.

The response of the stem was then tested by growing
seedlings of Maize under bell-jars in an atmosphere rendered
slightly acidic with the vapour of acetic acid, with the result that
in almost every case the young shoot (enclosed in the epicotyl)
turned downwards. In one experiment, a shoot which had
curved downwards was taken out and grown in fresh air; then it
recovered and slowly turned upwards. The experiment of reversal

1 Published at some length in the New Phytologist, Vol. XIX., p. 49, 1920, and given
briefly in my Textbook of Botany.

96 James Smali on

with acid was also done with sunflower seedlings, and markcil
downward curvatures were obtained with these also’.

THE BREATHING OF PLANTS AS THE CAUSE OF THEIR
JERECTNESS.

In the first lecture on the erectness of plants we considered
how the root grows downwards because it is relatively acid, while
the stem grows upwards because it is relatively alkaline. If this
difference in the reaction of the two main parts of the plant is a
fact, we should be able to find some general explanation of such
a fundamental phenomenon.

The most generally occurring acidic substance in plants,
which might vary in quantity, is carbon dioxide. All protoplasm
in breathing gives off that gas, so that we have in respiration a
process which yields sufficient carbon dioxide to make the cyto-
plasm relatively acidic. On the other hand the green parts of
the plant, leaves and stems, in the presence of light use carbon
dioxide in the building up of sugars and starches by the process
called photosynthesis. This, of course, does not take place in
roots. Stems, however, turn upwards in darkness, as well as in
the presence of light, so there must be some other relevant
difference between stem and root. If we examine the leaf or
stem we find numerous large air-spaces amongst the cells, and
these spaces communicate with the outer air through numerous
small pores (stomata). If we examine the tip of the root, we
find very much smaller air spaces amongst the cells, and these
spaces do not communicate with the outer air directly but are
connected with the comparatively distant air-spaces of the stem.
Although the pores in the skin of the stem ave small, they have
been shown to be so efficient as gas-passages that 1-4 per cent. of
the total surface in the form of numerous small openings lets
through as much gas as would pass through half of the total
surface in the form of one pore.

1 photographic lantern slides of these results were shown.

The Evrectness of Plants. 97

The carbon dioxide of respiration, therefore, accumulates in
the root apex, because in that region there is no photosynthesis
and stomata (pores) do not occur in its outer layer. This acidic
respiratory gas, on the other hand, does not accumulate in the
stem and leaves because in these organs it is either used up in
photosynthesis or it diffuses through the stomata into the outer
air. It is now clear that the carbon dioxide of respiration may
be the substance which differentiates the root from the stem in
so far as the relatively acidic or relatively alkaline reaction is

concerned.

Using this extension of the theory as a working hypothesis,
the stems of seedlings or young plants of many different species
were induced to curve downwards. In the first experiments
carried out by Miss M. W. Rea and the writer! the carbon
dioxide was caused to accumulate in the stems and leaves by
coating the whole of the green surface with vaseline and placing
the plants in a dark box. ‘The stomata were thus rendered use-
less and photosynthesis was stopped. The plants which showed
downward curvature of the stem in these experiments included
maize, garden geranium (Pelargonium), mouse-ear chickweed
(Cerastiun.), sycamore seedlings, inflorescence of forget-me-not
(Myosotis), seedlings of snapdragon (Antirrhinum), young plants
of groundsel (Senecio vulyaris), and both flowering stems and
leafy stems of marguerite (Anthemis).”

The effect of carbon dioxide has been further investigated by
Miss M. J. Lynn, who finds that in an atmosphere containing
about 30 per cent. of carbon dioxide reversal of the geotropic
curvature of the stem invariably takes place within about one
hour in the case of sunflower seedlings. This rapid curvature is
probably due directly to turgor changes, not to actual growth
changes which usually take much longer to appear.

At the beginning of this lecture your attention was directed
to the two sets of sunflower seedlings in 30 per cent. carbon

1 See ‘The New Phytologist,” Vol. XIX., p. 208. 1920.
2 Photographic lantern slides of these results were shown,

98 James Small on

dioxide and to the control set of seedlings in fresh air. All were
placed horizontally ; and now you can see for yourselves that in
the control set all have turned upwards, while all the seedlings
of both sets in carbon dioxide have turned downwards. These
demonstration experiments were set up by Miss Lynn, and form
conclusive proof of the reversing action of excess of carbon
dioxide on geotropic curvature of the stem.?

It is interesting to note that the seedlings are able to
recover when brought into fresh air, or when the carbon dioxide
is removed. This occurs on practically every occasion when the
seedlings are removed from the bell-jars at the conclusion of the
reversing experiment.

ANOTHER CAUSE OF ERECTNESS IN PLANTS.

Hitherto we have considered only gravity and its effects
upon the plant whereby normally the root grows downwards and
the stem upwards; but there is another stimulus which acts in
nature. Roots turn away from light and stems turn towards
light; so that the sunlight normally causes the stem to grow in
an upward direction. It seemed probable that excess of carbon
dioxide would also reverse this light-curvature in the stem? ; and
this phenomenon is being investigated by Miss I. Finnegan. The
first experiments with sunflower seedlings yielded remarkable
results. Miss Finnegan found that the stems not only curved
away from the light, but they also curved downwards ; so that
both heliotropic and geotropic responses were reversed in the
same plants. Further, these plants when removed to fresh air
recovered first their normal geotropic response and then their
normal heliotropic response, with the result that they formed a
complete S curve, as shown on the screen.®

1 Further details are given in a forthcoming communication by Miss M. J. Lynn on this
subject, which will probably appear in the New Phytologist, Vol. XX, No. 3, 1921.

2 The theory of phototropism involved has been published in a brief form in the New
Phytologist, Vol. XIX, p. 275, 1920 ; see also below p. 105.

%A4 series of photographic lantern slides of this experiment was shown,

The Erectness of Plants. 99

How LEAVES AND BRANCHES ARE SPREAD OUT.

Everyone knows that in addition to the more or less erect
main axis, stem and root, the plant also possesses stem-branches,
leaves and rootlets, all of which project at various angles from
the main axis.

Taking the root-system first, we have the meristem in the
apex of the main root, the particles in some of the cells of which
may be considered as always in the process of “creaming.” This,
in the vertical root (fig. 3, A), gives rise to what we may call a
“normal polarity current,” (that is a current produced by the
apical meristem, which flows along the cortex, but being sym
metrically arranged it produces no curvature). Inthe lateral root
(fig. 3, B) a similar but smaller apical meristem produces an

Fic. 3—Diagram of root system to illustrate the orientation of the
secondary root, B, by the balancing effect on the action current, 2, 1, 1, 0,
in it by the leak of normal polarity current from the main root, A, at the
poiut 1, :

100 James Small on

“action current,” because it is at an angle to the vertical. This
action current flows upwards along the under side of the rootlet
and back along the upper side. At the point where the rootlet,
B, jos the main axis, A, we have therefore the possibility of a
leakage of the current from the main root into the rootlet,
towards the apex of the latter. This leaking current would tend
to flow against the action current in the under side of the rootlet,
and in the same direction as the action current in the upper side
of the rootlet. ‘The leaking current would, therefore, tend to
augment the effects of the action current in the upper side and to
diminish the effects in the under side of the rootlet, thus
neutralising the unequal effects of the action current and prevent-
ing curvature.

The strength of the “action current” is known to vary
directly as the sine of the angle with the vertical ; its strength at
the point of junction would obviously decrease the longer the
rootlet (¢.e., the more distant the battery or apical meristem).
The strength of the leak from the main root would vary similarly
with the distance of the junction from the tip of the main root.
The angle at which the leak just balances the unequal effects of
the action current will be the only stable position for the lateral
rootlet. This “angle of balance” will increase with any increase
in length of the rootlet, because a stronger “ action current ”
from the meristem, involving a larger angle will be required to
give the same strength of current at the gunction of root and
rootlet. This angle will in the same way decrease with any
increase in the distance of the junction from the main root apex,
because the leaking current will then be weaker and the unequal
effects of the action current in the rootlet will cause downward
growth until the “leak” is again strong enough to neutralise the
effect of the action current. In other words, the angle varies
directly as L (=length of lateral rootlet) and inversely as D
(=distance of junction from main apex). Since the strength of
the action current varies directly as the sine of the angle, the

A > :
fraction —— should vary as the sine of the angle, unless other.

D

The Evectness of Plants. 101

factors are also acting. The same explanation may be applied to
the angles of stem-branches and of leaves.

This extension of the theory was taken up by Miss Lynn and
the writer’. The angles, lengths and distances were measured in
various plants. The results for root branches of the pea, and for
the stem branches of privet, cherry laurel, dock, yellow cress and
horse-tails were found to be in accordance with the theory, when
an allowance of 10° on either side of the theoretical angle was
made. Considering that many other as yet unanalysed factors
may act in the growth of such branches, a deviation of ten
degrees in either direction is quite a moderate ‘experimental error”
on the part of the geotropic orientating mechanism. ‘The data
for leaves were not so satisfactory, and the regular action of other
factors was indicated. This was explained when Dr. Harold
Wager informed us that from some unknown cause” young leaves
grow more on their under sides and old leaves grow more on
their upper sides. When these interfering effects are eliminated
by taking the angle as 90° less the angle of the leaf with the
vertical, the data for leaves are in as complete accord with the
theory of the angle of balance as are those for stem and root-
branches.

Leaves and the branches of stems and roots may, therefore,
be said to be spread out primarily by the balancing action which
the leakage from the main stem has upon the effects of the action
currents in the lateral organs.

How LEAVES ORIGINATE.

Up to the present there has been no detailed theory for the
origin of leaves but, with the new insight into what is occurring
in the stem apex, it should be possible to obtain some idea of how
leaves happen to develop at the apex of the stem. The following

1 See the “‘ New Phytologist,” Vol. XIX, p. 209. 1920.
2 This cause very probably is the effect of light on photosynthesis and the carbon
dioxide balance in upper and lower sides of the leaf.

102 - James Small on

suggestions have been put forward tentatively’, as a working
hypothesis which may open up this particular field to experimental
investigations.

Any apical meristem is considered as generating an electric
current. The apical meristem of the stem produces a sym-
metrically flowing “normal polarity current” as previously
described. The primordial knob which develops into a leaf starts
as a slight more or less hemispherical swelling near the stem
apex ; then it develops a meristematic region and grows out to
form a leaf. ‘The young leaves developed in this way overlap the
comparatively small apex of the main axis of the stem.

The electric fields of the currents produced by the growing
points (meristems) of the leaves and of the stem may be compared
with the magnetic fields of magnets. The electric field of the
stem current is small, compared with that of the larger leaf
current. The stem is represented by a small cylindrical magnet
placed vertically, and the leaf is represented by the opposite pole
of a large bar magnet placed horizontally. If the combined
magnetic fields are investigated by means of iron filings, when
the large magnet is set close to the top (opposite pole) of the
smaller magnet, a small neutral area will be found to be induced
on the side of the “axis” opposite to the large magnet.

Now, if normal polarity of growth is due to the normal
polarity current, the cells in this neutral area will be freed from
that influence and will grow in all directions. Such growth would
give rise to the first stage of the leaf as a primordial knob.
When growth advanced further and a meristem developed, an
electric current and its electric field would result. Meanwhile
the first leaf would be carried away from the stem apex by the
elongation of the stem, and the new leaf (originated by the effect
of the electric field of the first leaf on the normal polarity current
at the stem apex) would be left to help in the development of
the primordial knob of a third leaf, and so on. .

1 New Phytologist. Vol. XIX, p. 210. 1920.

The Erectness of Plants. 103

An interesting case is that of opposite pairs of leaves, which
may be imitated with two large horizontal bar magnets placed very
close to the top of a small vertical cylindrical magnet, as shown
in the demonstration experiment on the table. In this case the
mutual effect of the two equal large fields and the smaller field is
the production of two equal small neutral areas at right angles to
the bar magnets. These areas in the plant would become prim-
ordial knobs at the stem apex, and a pair of leaves at right angles
to the first pair would result. This is a very common case in the
Dicotyledons, but very rare amongst the Monocotyledons, and
the first pair of leaves may be taken as the seed-leaves or
cotyledons.

SoME PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS.

The great outstanding practical application of these purely
scientific facts and theories occurs in the “ earthing-up” of
potatoes. ‘The potato tuber is a stem structure, a swelling at
the end of a lateral branch which is induced to grow downwards
in the soil by covering the main stem with earth above the level
of the buds in the axils of the lower leaves. When the stem is
covered with earth the stomata cannot act efficiently as passages
for the respiratory carbon dioxide, and that gas is not used up in
photosynthesis because of the absence of light. The farmer and
the gardener, therefore, have been carrying on this particular
experimental reversal of geotropic curvature in the stem every
year in the “ earthing-up” of their potatoes.

A minority opinion in the past has been expressed against
“earthing-up ” as a method of increasing the production of
tubers, but with the new scientific basis for this process there can
be no doubt that, within certain limits, more earthing-up means
more potatoes. Enough green foliage must be left above ground
to produce the starch for filling the tubers ; but in Forfarshire,
at any rate, those farmers who earth-up their potatoes, not only
once but twice or more, get the heavier crops. A comparatively
small amount of foliage seems to be sufficient to produce all the
starch that is required.

104 James Small on

Apart from this very extensive and important economic:
application of the effect of carbon dioxide on the direction of
growth, there are numerous other lines of scientific and economic
investigation in which the fact that the root is relatively acid
while the stem is relatively alkaline, has been overlooked. The:
new evidence for the verity of this phenomena may prove of great.
value in directing the attention of investigators to its obvious.
results in experimental and observational work.

For example, it is well known that only a few plants are
able to grow in distinctly acid media, such as sphagnum bogs and
sphagnum peat; similarly a few other plants show a very decided
preference for chalky soils. The continued existence of both
classes obviously depends upon special relations between the
reaction of the soil and the reaction of the roots of the plants.

Two interesting cases of the influence of “ reaction” on the:
growth of the plant occur in the maize and the bean. The
ordinary maize is yellow, but varieties are sold which are white,.
e.g., Sutton’s White Horse-tooth Maize. The colour is due to a
substance which becomes intensely yellow with ammonia vapour
and is changed to a colourless product by acids. The yellow
maize is yellow because it is, as a whole, relatively alkaline ;
while the white maize is white because it is in the same way
relatively acid. Keeping in mind that the root is acid, it is
interesting to note that, while in yellow maize the main root
aborts when it is not more than two millimetres long, the white
(acidic) maize produces a main root several inches long.

A similar phenomen occurs in the bean. Broad beans with
green seed-coats give straighter longer main roots on first ger-
minating than do those with brown seed-coats. Such seedlings.
as the former naturally stand a better chance of successful growth
into mature plants. Now, the green bean is acid and the brown
bean is relatively alkaline. The colouring matter can be ex-
tracted ; it is green in acids but turns brown in alkaline media.

The Erectness of Plants. 105

A FURTHER EXTENSION OF THE THEORY.

An obvious corollary to the theory as outlined above is that
the sign of the electric charge on the particles which form the
outermost layer of the cytoplasm depends upon the concentration
of acids near that membrane. Not only the sign but also the
density’ of the charge (7.e., the degree of polarisation or electrifi-
cation) will be affected by the varying amounts of acid or alkali
present. This corollary forms the basis of the theory of heliotropism
outlined above (p. 98). Since the density of the charge on the
membrane largely governs the degree of permeability and, there-
fore, of turgor and growth, it has very important bearings also
upon the influence of the acidity or alkalinity of the medium
upon disinfection, plant diseases, infection of plants or animals by
fungi or bacteria, the cultivation of bacteria, the long recognised
effects of acids and alkalies upon both plants and animals and
upon protoplasm in general. The concentration of carbon dioxide
governs not only the erectness of plants but also very probably
their resistance or susceptibility to disease, their rate of growth,
their storage of starch and a multitude of other phenomena in the
details of the “living” of these organisms.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE I.
V.—Coated with vaseline. UV.—Unvaselined.

Fic. 1.—Bean seedling showing retardation of growth in the dark with
seedlings vaselined (V.) as compared with others left unvaselined
(UFW.).

Fia. 2.—Maize seedlings showing reversal of gravity curvature in one (V.),
and recovery from this effect in another (V!.), after being vaselined
and kept in the dark for several days.

Fic. 3.—Vaselined maize seedlings several days after being placed
horizontally in the dark. Three show downward curvature,
three are erect, and four or five are nearly horizontal.

Fic. 4.—Vaselined maize seedlings after similar treatment ; the one-which
is curved down recovered on being placed in sunlight.

1See my ‘Text Book of Botany,” foot-note, pp. 353-4,

106 Explanation of Plates.

Fic. 5.—Antirrhinum seedlings after treatment. The control (U.V.)
curved up. The lowest vaselined plant turned up at first and

then curved downwards.

Fic. 6.—Ivy-leaved Pelargonium after treatment. In the control (U.V.)
the stem and young leaves curved up. In one of the vaselined
piants (V!.) both young leaves and the stem curved downwards.

Fic. 7.—Two stems of the same species showing downward curves after

_ treatment.

Fic, 8.—Stem apex of the plant in figure 6 (V.!"). Experiments by Miss

M. W. Rea.

PLATE II.

Fic. 9.—Seedling of Cerastium after treatment. The control (U.V.) was

an older plant. The lower two vaselined plants show downward
curves. Photographed in the erect position in order to show the
turgidity of the curves.

Fra. 10.—A similar plant after treatment. Photographed erect.

Fras, 11-14,—Reversal of gravity-curvature in sunflower seedlings placed
in 13 to 16 per cent. carbon dioxide and recovery of normal cur-
vature. Hxperiments by Miss M. J. Lynn.

Fie. 11.—Reversed curvature of six seedling stems in carbon dioxide,

Fic. 12.—Recovered normal curvature in the same seedlings after the
carbon dioxide had been removed.

Reversed curvature in eight out of nine seedling stems in carbon
dioxide.

Fic. 13.

Fie. 14.—Recovered normal curvature in the same seedlings after removal
from the jar into fresh air.

PLAT: Ut.

Fie. 15.—One plant of Anthemis sp. with one branch vaselined and show-
ing reversed curvature, the other unvaselined showing normal
curvature and elongation. Experiment by Miss M. W. Rea.

Fics. 16-20.—Reversal of gravity curves and light curves in carbon dioxide,
and recovery of both normal curvatures. Experiment by Miss
I. Finnegan.

Fic, 16.—Sunflower seedlings in carbon dioxide growing away from light
and downwards.

Fic, 17.—The same plants after removal to fresh air, showing recovery of
normal response to gravity in one seedling. :

Fira. 18.—The same a day later, showing recovery of normal gravity-
curvature in both seedlings.

Fir. 19.—The same a few more days later, showing recovery of normal
light-curvature in both seedlings.

The same still later. ato b reversed heliotropism ; b to c re-

versed geotrepism ; c to d recovered normal geotropism ; d to e

recovered normal heliotropism. In one seedling the recovered

light-curve is in the new growth (d to e); in the other it is in the

older part of the stem (d! to e!),

Bre. 20;

FIG.

!

Pate I.

FIG,

a

NATURAL
| HISTORY.

PLATE II.

TS sh

NATURAL
HISTORY. |

Pate Iii

Lariat earls

fo EES 25

NATURAL |
{ HISTORY. j

SION 1920-1921.

cae

DR. THOMAS ANDREWS:

E GREAT CHEMIST AND PHYSICIST.

BY HENRY RIDDELL, M.E., M.LMxcw.E.

—s B.A nee: ra 4 o-
ie LTD, 2C ORPOR ATION STR

oe

ea

* : “ee
ie } E* oe
: & a
\ -

THOMAS ANDREWS, M.D., M.R.I.A.

rom a Photograph presented to the Society by Mrs. Andrews in 1888,

Proceedings of Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, 1920-1921

8th March, 1921.

In CuemicaL Lecture THEATRE, QUEEN’S UNIVERSITY.

The President, PRorESSoR GREGG WILSON, in the Chair.

Dr. THOMAS ANDREWS: THE GREAT CHEMIST AND
PHYSICIST,
By Henry Rippeii, M.E., M.I.M.E
Hon. Treasurer of Society.

(Abstract. )

[Some apparatus used by Dr. Andrews for his famous experiments were
on exhibition in the lecture room. ]

It is right at times for the people of a nation, the citizens of
any town, and the members of a Society like ours, to look back
_ upon their history and bethink themselves of the men who have
gone before them, to use as the text for their meditations those
words from Kcclesiasticus, “ Let us praise famous men and the
fathers who begot us.” And there is no time more suitable to
us for such a purpose than this, the Centenary Year of our Society,
and so the Council have arranged to publish a memorial volume,
in which will be found complete lists of our members, with short
biographies of the best known men, and a statement of the great
work they have done for their generation and for the world.
And we have a right to be proud of such men, for example, as
John Templeton, William Thomson, Robert Patterson, Wyville
Thomson, R. O. Cunningham and others in the study of Natural
History, John Purser, Peter Guthrie Tait, James Thomson and
Joseph D. Everett, in the realms of Physical and Mathematical
Science, while the name of Thomas Andrews stands out upon
our roll, the great investigator in Chemical Physics.

108 Henry Riddell on

It is therefore at the request of the Council of the Society
that I have this evening to give you an account, necessarily
imperfect, of Dr. Andrews and his work. There are many reasons
for our interest in Andrews. He was a fellow townsman, a
prominent and greatly respected member of our Society, of which
he was President 1854—1856, and a scientific investigator whose
name and work are known wherever Science is esteemed. ‘To
me he was the valued and venerated teacher for whom I had
unbounded admiration and affection. And not least upon our
list, by his kind and generous heart, his care for the feelings and
interest of others, and his sincere and upright life, he earned the
grand title of an honourable and Christian gentleman.

Thomas Andrews was born on 19th December, 1813, at
3 Donegall Square South, and lived there as a boy and as a man
until his transfer to the building erected for him in this College
grounds in 1845. In those days the square around the Old Linen
Hall was almost wholly residential. Next door to the Andrews
family for years dwelt Mr. Bristow, a well-known solicitor of the
town, the Bristow name being still familiar in Belfast and on the
roll of our Society. Other residents there were Charles Lanyon,
the Architect of this College, and a member of our Society,
John Workman, whose descendants to the third and fourth
generation are now among our members, and John Sinclair, of
the firm of J. & T. Sinclair, a name best remembered among us
in the person of the late Right Hon. Thomas Sinclair, a dis-
tinguished Graduate of this College and a man much loved and
respected in the City of Belfast.

The Andrews family, then as now, were closely connected
with the mercantile life of the town, and are to-day represented
by the Flax Spinners of Comber and the Flour Millers of Belfast,
while the name of Michael Andrews, of Ardoyne, ‘is ever famous
in the history of the Linen Trade, in which the family is still
concerned. Thomas Andrews’ grandfather, Michael Andrews,
was the eldest son of John Andrews of Comber, and his father,
also Thomas, was in business in Belfast as a linen merchant,

Dr. Thomas Andrews: The Great Chemist 109

having his office in Thompson’s Court, off Donegall Street, while
Michael Andrews, of Ardoyne, had his residence at 72 Donegall
Street and his office in York Lane. The boy Thomas was sent
to school first to the old Belfast Academy in Donegall Street, but
was soon transferred to the Academical Institution, in which
from 1835 to 1845 he was to be the Professor of Chemistry in
its Collegiate department. He did much of his important work
while in this post, and before he left it in 1845 to join the
organizing staff of the projected Queen’s College, or rather the
Northern College as it was first called, his name was known over
all Kurope. He wasa diligent pupil, paying especial attention to
French and having a liking for Chemistry. He left school before
he was fifteen to join his father’s business, but his heart was not
in the work and discussions took place regarding his future. A
family friend at that time was Doctor James McDonnell, who was
a man of mark and influence in Belfast. He belonged to the
famous Antrim family, and was educated by that remarkable
teacher David Manson, graduated in Edinburgh in 1784 at the age
of twenty-two, and started practice in Belfast, where he soon became
one of the leading Physicians. He was the originator of the old
Belfast Literary Society and one of the founders of the Linen
Hall Library. He was greatly esteemed by our Society, and
belonging to it there is a fine bust of the Doctor, still among our
collection of pictures, books and manuscripts, a collection which is
exceedingly valuable and ought to be available for study in any
New Museum to be erected by the City. His graduation thesis
was on the treatment of those apparently drowned and he was
bold enough to suggest the transfusion of blood as a last resort.
Between this man and the school-boy fifty years younger a curious
companionship arose more like that between equals in age and
acquirements than between persons so different in years. He
advised that the youth should be educated for the medical pro-
fession, taking care in the course of this education that the subjects
studied should be such as would be of service to him, if later on
his duty or inclination should call him to commercial life,

110 Henry Riddell on

Andrews then was sent to Glasgow to study Chemistry undér
Dr. Thomas Thomson, who had established there the first school
of Practical Chemistry in Great Britain. In Glasgow Andrews
worked hard, and received at the end of the session certificates of
diligence and ability in both Chemistry and Natural Philosophy.
It was this year that was published his first scientific paper,
from.a boy of fifteen, in the Phil. Magazine, the subject being
certain peculiarities of the blow-pipe flame.

~ He did not seem satisfied with his outlook at Glasgow and
it was later arranged that next year he should go to Paris to try
entering one of the laboratories there, to get a wider view of his
favourite study. It was in this year, 1830, that appeared his
first paper on a truly Chemical Subject, “The Separation of
Baryta or Strontia when in Union with Lime,” a paper which
gave promise of the care for detail and accuracy which was always
characteristic of his work. In the Autumn of 1830 Andrews
sailed from Dublin for Bordeaux with some letters of introduction,
intending to make a somewhat extended tour before reaching
Paris, where he had determined to study. It was a bold step
for a boy not yet seventeen. Trance was just emerging from the
revolution which had placed Louis Phillippe on the throne as a
constitutional Monarch, and the effects were so feared that
travellers were few, there being only twelve on the boat in which
he sailed. By a singular piece of good fortune his diary of this
trip has survived the ninety years, and you will forgive me, I
hope, if I quote some passages to show the power of thought and
expression rare in a boy so young. He describes his journey up
the river to Bordeaux— On leaving Poliae (where the Customs
Officers had boarded the ship), the banks of the river present a
lively and picturesque appearance. Vines, with occasional meadows
are the only crops cultivated. Approaching Bordeaux the view
gains in richness and variety. Country villas surrounded by
clusters of trees appear, and on passing the mound, the shipping
and the town burst suddenly into view. ‘The appearance of the
town is rather engaging. It is built of a coarse siliceous sandstone

Dr. Thomas Andrews: The Great Chemist 111

which is obtained from the right bank of the river. Some of the
buildings, such as the Theatre, are in the highest state of external
beauty, and there is a very extensive Place in which some rows
of trees are planted.” He describes the company in his hotel,
“where politics were discussed with the utmost eagerness.”
‘“ At the table d’hote where I dined was a lady who had arrived
from Paris wearing a tri-coloured ribbon. She took the lead in
every conversation, was, in fact, the orator of the party. Nothing
ean exceed the interest the French have taken in their Revolution.
They can speak of nothing else. If the conversation passes for a
moment to any other subject of local or personal interest, it soon
returns to the detail of the events in Paris. The same actions
are related over and over again, and followed by the same
exclamations of wonder and delight. Every article in the
constitution is received with a unanimous and cordial assent.
C'est bien cela! C’est bien cela! is repeated after every clause
and re-echoed by every voice. There is no diversity of opinion
on any point. Had each individual framed a code himself he
could not have been better satisfied with it. Such are the French
people. Scarce half a century ago they submitted without a
murmur to the most despotic of governments and tyrannical of
priesthoods. They admired their Government; they adored
their King; they loved their Church. Suddenly a wonderful
revolution took place in their government and in their religion,
and they regarded with equal veneration the new idol they had
set up. It, in turn, soon passed away—a reign of confusion and
terror succeeded, till a military despot seized the reins of the
Kingdom. The nation bowed before his feet, and, dazzled by
the splendour of his victories, regarded him in the light of a God.
A foreign force drove the usurper from the external throne in
France, but he still retained his dominion over their hearts.
This dynasty has now been expelled—for ever? The nation has
had its own election and what has been its choice? Not its
much vaunted Republic, nor still less its military despotism. It
has formed a limited Monarchy such as that of England, but

112 _ Henry Riddell on

it has abolished an established Church and retained the Monarch
in faster bonds. Its new Constitution is looked upon as a
chef douvre of perfection, as forming a guarantee against
every danger, as ensuring to them an ever during liberty. May
they enjoy it as they deserve it. Their laws are good but will
they be fulfilled? Were a second Buonaparte to arrive, could he
not, taking advantage of the natural vivacity of the nation,
trample on their newly acquired rights and set up a new subject
for their admiration?” I am inclined to think you will agree
that a boy of sixteen shows here a graphic power of expression
and an insight far beyond his years. Continuing his tour he
passed through the mountainous Auvergne region, giving close
study to the geological formations and collecting specimens which
he catalogues and names. As showing the terms of the friendship
between him and Dr. McDonnell I shall quote one or two letters
of the Doctor’s which have survived till to-day. The good Doctor
had been studying many subjects in which he was interested and
refers to experiments in which Andrews had shared. He had
been investigating the proportion of CO, in atmospheric air, and
had been taking samples upon the hills round Belfast. He had
been studying the geology of County Antrim and County Down,
and experimenting on the effect of altitude on the pulse and
respiration. We find him putting a number of geological questions
to Andrews on his journey through Auvergne, and he goes on—
“IT much wish to know whether Chemistry furnishes any plain
or simple criterion by which to distinguish Trapps from all other
rocks except Lava, and again another difference between Lava
and Trapp? Is there any chalk or Lias or Mulatto in Auvergne ?
and, if dykes cutting them, change the lime into marble or render
it phosphorescent? Any red flints or gypsum? and how situated
with regard to the Trapp? Whether the Trapp lies horizontal
or vertical ?—Is the outline of the mountains like or unlike ours?”
In another letter, sent by the hand of a friend, he opens very
characteristically “My dear Thomas, finding that this costs me
nothing I must write, though I have nothing of moment to say.”

Dr. Thomas Andrews : The Great Chemist 113

He repeats his question as to the chemical distinction between
Trapp and other rocks, making the interesting point, that, for
want of such a criterion he finds Playfair and Allan placing the
Portrush Ammonites as being found in Siliceous slates while
Dr. Richardson and hundreds of others called it Siliceous Trapp
or Basalt. He gives him numerous commissions to haunt the
bookstalls looking for volumes which are wanting in certain series
in the Doctor’s library, and we form an idea of the amazing
variety of the literary and scientific interests of McDonnell.
He finishes by discoursing upon the effect of altitude on the heart
and the rate of respiration and urges Andrews if ever he should
gain access to Gay Lussac, to ask him to describe his sensations
during his famous balloon ascent of 22,000 feet. I cannot take
time to quote further from this most interesting correspondence,
but we must wonder greatly when we think it is addressed to a
boy wanting some months of seventeen.

After his arrival in Paris Andrews presented his letters, and
was very kindly received by some of the great scientists then in
the city. It was vacation time and none of the regular schools
were open, but he entered some classes specially intended for
students remaining in Paris at such a season, and congratulated
himself that he was using his time to so much advantage. He
ultimately succeeded in gaining admission to the laboratory of
M. Dumas, and ever after retained the friendship of this great
man. Unfortunately a severe illness compelled him to leave
France earlier than he had intended, and on his return to Ireland
he entered Dublin as a medical student. While there he con-
tinued his great interest in Chemistry and laboured diligently in
his preparation for his profession. During his student days he
published a remarkable paper on the “ Chemical Changes in the
blood of Cholera patients,” gaining his material during the great
epidemic which broke over Belfast in 1832. He completed his
medical course in Edinburgh where he took his-degree, obtaining
the diploma of the Royal College of Surgeons in April, 1835, and
his M.D. in the August of the same year. It was immediately

114 Henry Riddell on

after obtaining his degree that he joined our society, on the register
of which for 1835 he appears as Thomas Andrews, M.D. He was
not yet twenty-two years old, but had been already offered the
position of Chemistry professor by both the great Dublin schools of
medicine. He was not long in Belfast before he was appointed the
first professor of Chemistry in the newly established Medical
College in the Academical Institution, which teaching he combined
with a growing private practice, and in spite of the claims of both
upon his time, managed, as I have already said, to do much
splendid work. It is almost forgotten now that there ever was
such a collegiate department in the Institution, as it was closed
when the Queen’s College was opened in 1849. The year after his
appointment in Belfast he spent a vacation in Paris, renewing his
acquaintance with M. Dumas, and making that of M. Chevreul,
M. Berthier, and M. Gay Lussac. In this visit he had much
pleasure in the company of the great physicist Thomas Graham,
and the latter was the means of introducing Andrews to the
notice of many of the men who made Paris of the day so famous.
To Graham he owed also his introduction to Faraday, beginning
a very close friendship which ended only with Faraday’s death.
Andrews had even thus early begun his series of experiments on
the electrical relations of elementseand compounds, and took the
opportunity of this visit to purchase some of the latest and most
accurate instruments. Reeognition soon came to him. In 1839
he was elected « Member of the Royal Irish Academy, and he
was one of the original members of the Chemical Society in 1841.
It was in 1842 that he married, his wife being a grand-daughter
of Adam Johnston of Glynn, who was Andrews’ own great grand-
father. I am glad to remind you that among our members the
family of my old master is still well represented, and we all know
Miss E. Andrews as an active investigator into the antiquities
and folk lore of our Province.

Andrews received the Royal Medal in 1844 for one of his
investigations upon the heat developed in chemical combination.
In 1845 he was invited to offer himself for the vacant chair of

Dr. Thomas Andrews: The Great Chemist 115

Chemistry in King’s College, London, but declined. The new
Colleges in Ireland were about to be launched, and it was clear
that Andrews was the man marked out as necessary, and this
same year he was appointed Vice-President in order that by his
knowledge and common sense he should help to direct the course
and arrange the details of the new scheme. When the time
arrived for the appointment to the professorships, Andrews
naturally received that of Chemistry. In 1849, the birth year of
the University, he was elected to a Fellowship of the Royal Society,
and it was in this year began that period of earnest and inspiring
teaching which so many of his old pupils remember with gratitude
and admiration. From this time his life flowed on, devoted to
his students and his researches. I need offer no proofs of the
estimation in which Andrews was held all over the world. Many
degrees and honours were showered upon him; the thirty years
passed rapidly by and the burden of approaching old age began
to be felt, so that in 1879 he resigned and for six years lived in
retirement in Fortwilliam Park until his death in 1885. Perhaps
this is the time to say something of my own memories of the
great teacher. I was much past ordinary student age when I
entered the Engineering School, having already completed two
technical apprenticeships. Before I entered Queen’s College I
had twice listened to Andrews lecturing to the members of this
society. The first lecture was fifty-one years ago upon his own great
work on the continuity of the liquid and gaseous state, and was
a revelation of the extreme clearness of expression and power of
forcing an audience to be interested and eager to hear what he
was saying. I remember a remark made by the then President
of the society, Joseph John Murphy, of which I shall speak
when explaining this great research. The second lecture was a
beautifully illustrated and clear discourse on the then recently
invented Gramme ring, and its uses in electro-generating
machinery. It drove me to study Faraday, for which I am for
ever grateful. It followed therefore that I had some idea of the
man I was going to learn from, but I had not formed the full

116 Henry Riddell on

knowledge of his kind heart or of his eagerness to help a willing
student. It was his habit, after every lecture, to remain for a
short time at the table to auswer any questions students might
come to ask him, and I always took advantage of this opportunity.
In my time his lectures were models of what was needed.
Thorough, in that they dealt with every essential, but not
redundant, beautifully clear and illustrated with well chosen
experiments always thoroughly prepared and always successful.
' He suffered somewhat from the kindness of his heart in that he
was never able to show that outward sternness which is so
needful to keep discipline in a class of youths. There was in
my time no general teaching of Practical Chemistry. The
accommodation for laboratory work was so scanty that it was
necessary to select the few pupils by examination, there being
also a possibility of obtaining admission by payment of a heavy
fee, which I do not remember to have been much availed of. In
this laboratory work I learned to know Andrews thoroughly and
to have a great regard and affection for him. He never spent
more than a few minutes at a time in our laboratory, but it was
the frequent visits which I was allowed to make to his own room
in which lay the charm and the delight of my time there. He
used often to call me up to help him to set up some piece of
apparatus, and I have always been sure he never needed the
assistance he called for, that it was his plan to help a man he
knew to be anxious to learn. I had many interesting and
enlightening conversations with him. I remember on one occasion
a whole morning spent in his room discussing his work and some
chemical problems. I asked him if he accepted the idea that all
elements had atomic weights with simple numerical relation to
that of Hydrogen. He said that this could not be unreservedly
accepted, as accurate determinations did not support it. At the
same time he thought there was evidence that some intimate
connection existed. ‘‘ We physicists,” he said, I quote the word
as illustrating his position, “ We physicists look to the future to
show that all the elements are built up from the same primordial

OO ——— a

Mi taifor ve ee ev at

ae hs

Dr. Thomas Andrews: The Great Chemist Diy

substance, matter or otherwise.” He thought that the atomic
weights might not represent an exact measure of this primordial
substance, but only some ratio to it, constant for each element.
That they might be affected by the interference of some form of
energy. ‘These were only speculations and must be left to the
future to prove or disprove. He thought it possible that all
chemical action was dependent on electrical forces, but in what
way he saw no method of discovering. Of course all his answers
were coloured by the nature of my questions, and he smilingly
assured me that these odd speculations did not form any hypothesis
which he could use in lecturing. JI sometimes wonder what the
Doctor would have thought of the modern theories which have
been so rapidly developed in Physical Chemistry, the present
conception of the atom and the molecule, the almost certain
knowledge that several editions of the same element may be
found, alike in chemical actions but differing in atomic weights,
and the suggestion that the known figures are but means between
these differing varieties.

_ Dr. Andrews told me that, from his point of view, he saw no
reason to say that transmutation of the elements was impossible ; ~
its difficulty must be measured by. the constant failure of all
attempts. If ever it be found possible to realize the aim of the
old alchemists by manufacturing gold he had the idea that it
would be too costly for use. I should like to have him watch
the transformation of the Radium relatives and to see his own
researches followed up, to the extent they have reached to-day.
We ought not to forget that Pneumatic Chemistry had its origin
in Britain and that the greatest advances had been made there.
Faraday began an enquiry which Andrews continued, and in
which he may be said to have determined the laws. In later
years Rayleigh, Ramsey and others have made advances almost
incredible in amount in the discovery of new gaseous elements, and
_we are proud to remember that the main work in this branch of
Physical Chemistry has been done by our fellow countrymen.

On Andrews’ retirement in 1879, his fellow townsmen

118 Henry Riddell on

honoured him by instituting the Andrews Studentship in
Chemistry, and by presenting his portrait to the University,
where it hangs in the Examination Hall. At his death he was
mourned as a great teacher and asa good and kindly man, for
whose life his country was grateful, and for his death sorrowed
deeply.

It is impossible to deal at all fully with his many investigations
and I shall only mention a few.

In 1841 he began to publish a great series of researches on
the heat developed in chemical combination, and it may be
remembered that in 1840 Hess published the results of a number
of experiments on the same subject. It is singular how often we
find a series of investigations proceeding in one country, and at
the same time, quite independently, somewhere far away another
man has chosen to follow the same research, and publication is
almost simultaneous. Andrews’ experiments were perhaps more
accurate in results and more numerous than those of Hess, but
both deserve honour for their work. It was a favourite subject
with Andrews, and he continued to work occasionally on it for
many years, while for the time between 1841 and 1849 it formed
almost his only research. It is characteristic of the man that he
best loved to seek the inner secrets of a chemical law from the
point of view of energy, and it is interesting to note that all
through the great series of experiments he seems to take for
granted the law of conservation of energy, not definitely framed
for some years later. He looked upon it as self-evident that a
compound which gave out heat during combination, should take
up precisely the same amount when its bonds were released, and
that the thermal properties of a body were not dependent upon
its history, but that the energy of combination in a compound
was the same no matter how many transformations it had passed
through or what path these followed. He was the author of the
report on this subject to the British Association of 1849, in which
a comprehensive survey was made of the then state of our
knowledge. ‘Towards the end of this period belongs a research on

Dr. Thomas Andrews : The Great Chemist 119

the question of latent heat in many substances. Joseph Black
first brought this doctrine into use, and it must be remembered
that it is very closely connected with the ideas raised by the
investigations into heat of chemical combination. It differs by
being concerned only with the physical change of a substance.
Black showed for example, that it required a large quantity of
the entity called heat to cause the melting of ice, but this heat
could not be perceived by the thermometer, as it had disappeared
in the change of physical state. In like manner heat was required
to convert the water into steam, and again the thermometer gave
no indication of its presence, as the steam was at precisely the
same temperature as the water from which it was being formed.
In all such changes of state heat is either absorbed or given out ;
the quantities are perfectly measurable and are fixed, being always
the same for the same change of condition. “It is also the fact
that the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
substance, water for example, through some range between fixed
limits, is always the same for the same substance under the same
conditions and is proportional of course to the mass of substance
dealt with. This is the specific heat of the substance, and the
unit used is generally the quantity of heat required to raise one
gramme through one degree C, from a fixed temperature. For
fifty years it was believed that Regnault was right in his hypothesis
that the specific heat of water was almost constant between
0° and 100°C, between freezing and boiling point, and all Andrews’
experiments were made with this idea in view. In 1879 Rowland
discovered the most unexpected fact that, instead of a constant,
or a very slight but steady increase in the specific heat, the
measure at.35° was almost one per cent. less than at 5°C. In
the light of these results all Andrews’ determinations need to be
recalculated, as his values are given in terms of the mean between
0° and 100°, while his measurements were made at temperatures
at which the specific heat is now known to be above the mean.
I may illustrate this by his figures for water vapour.

He published in 1847 a series of eight experiments on water

120 Henry Riddell on

vapour, One succession of three by a method which he believed
would give values too high in amount, and five by another method
which he was equally certain would give a figure too low. If we
take the mean of those due to the first method and also of the
five in the second series and use half the sum of these as the most
probable value due to his experiments we find the resulting figure
to be 537°, which means that the amount of heat required to
convert say one pound of water at 100° into steam also at 100°
is the same as would suffice to raise 5-37 pounds of water through
the whole range between 0° and 100°C. But these figures are
calculated on the understanding that the mean specific heat was
constant. When they are recalculated in the light of modern
knowledge, and of the most accurate experiments now on record,
the figure of 537° becomes 538:3°, and we note also that the most
modern value chosen for this quantity is 539-3°, arising out of
experiments conducted with all the refinements of electric methods
by which temperature can be measured to about one-thousandth
of a degree. When Dr. Andrews made his experiments it was
necessary to read the mercury thermometer to less than one
one-hundredth of a degree to measure the variation between
538°- and 539:3°.

I should next mention the series of experiments on Ozone,
and here a short introduction is necessary. It had been noticed
that a body having peculiar odour was formed under the following
different circumstances, and that in each case its properties
appeared to be similar :—

1. Passing electric sparks through air.

2. When water is decomposed by the electric current this —
substance appears at the positive pole along with oxygen.

3. By the slow oxidation of Phosphorous in air at ordinary
temperatures.

For a long time the composition was uncertain, and it required
experiment to determine if the same substance was formed in
each of these cases.

It was believed by many chemists that the substance obtained

Dr. Thomas Andrews : The Great Chemist On!

from the electrolysis of water contained hydrogen. Other scientists
believed it to be composed wholly of oxygen. It was soon shown,
however, that pure and dry oxygen could be partially converted
into ozone by passing through it an electric spark.

It was also noticed that in the formation of ozone in oxygen
the volume was reduced, and it was argued that ozone was an
altered or allotropic form of oxygen, having a density greater than
the parent gas. Andrews’ experiments were undertaken to settle
this question and he succeeded in proving that, no matter in what
way Ozone was prepared, it was always the same body, with the
same properties, and that that obtained from the electrolysis of
water did not contain Hydrogen as had been supposed. It was
found that Oxygen could only be partiaily changed into Ozone by
the action of the spark, but it was also discovered that certain
reagents seemed to absorb the Ozone when the combination took
place, and that by continuing the process and absorbing the Ozone
as formed, the whole of the Oxygen could thus be ultimately
transformed. It was soon apparent that the amount: of Ozone
destroyed, as was supposed, by the chemical reagent used, and
accounted for by its increase in weight corresponded approximately
to the reduction in volume of the oxygen when the spark was
passed through it. It was then necessary to investigate the
matter further and discover the density of the allotropic modi-
fication of oxygen which he had proved to be formed. In 1857
the first account of the experiments undertaken in conjunction
with P. G. Tait, then Professor of Mathematics in Belfast and a
member of our society, appeared, and was followed by publication
of a further series in 1859 and 1860.

Never was Andrews’ unrivalled accuracy in experiment better
shown than in this series, which ran up against a stone wall by
suggesting an infinite density for Ozone. It is true that the two
experimenters saw another solution to the difficulty, which was
really the true solution, but which was named only to be rejected
as too improbable. Soret later proved that the density of Ozone
was one and a half times that of Oxygen, and that the solution
rejected by Andrews and Tait was the true one,

122 Henry Riddell on

The experimenters attempted to discover the density of Ozone
when mixed with Oxygen on the assumption that the molecule
was completely broken up and the resulting oxygen combined
with the reagent employed. They weighed the reagent and found
the volume of oxygen it had seized and then found that no volume
whatever had been lost from the gas under consideration. Of
course if a definite weight of any substance has no volume
whatever its density must be infinite, yet the very accuracy of
the experiment is seen in the fact that absolutely no change in
the volume could be discovered.

If we represent Ozone by the formula ane which is possible

since the discovery of quadrivalency in Oxygen, we see at once
what occurs. When the outer atom is removed from the molecule
it will of course be in a very active condition and will be totally
absorbed, while the remaining two atoms keep the molecular form,
becoming bivalent. As the molecule in both cases has the volume
of two atoms of Oxygen there will be no change whatever due to
the tearing away of the loosely bound atom.

A rather interesting memory is connected with these Ozone
investigations. When the paper was submitted for the Royal
Society in 1860 it was handed to two referees for report. The

curious result of the calculations seems to have raised doubt
as to the accuracy of the experiments, but it is rather odd that I

have found in Sir George Stokes’ correspondence with Andrews,
the statement that one of the referees still clung to the view that
Ozone was a compound of Oxygen and Hydrogen, though all who
read Andrews’ first paper with attention will admit that he
completely disproves this idea. Stokes was a firm and good
friend to Ur. Andrews, and of course well known as a scientific
investigator himself, but perhaps even better in his official position
in regard to the Royal Society, of which he was secretary for so
many years, and afterwards president. George Gabriel- Stokes
was a Sligo man, and was senior wrangler and first Smith’s
Prizeman in 1841, He was one of our really great mathematical

Dr. Thomas Andrews: The Great Chemist 128

physicists and deserves to be remembered on the roll of our
countrymen.

The only other research of Professor Andrews’ which I shall
mention is his great investigation which resulted in the Bakerian
lectures of 1869 and 1876, on the “Continuity of the Liquid and
Gaseous States.”

A hundred years ago Caignard de La Tour heated a number
of volatile liquids in sealed tubes, and noticed that, at a temperature
which seemed fixed for each liquid, the meniscus of the surface
gradually flattened out, and then, somewhat suddenly, the tube
became filled with homogeneous matter. In 1826 Faraday
succeeded in liquifying Chlorine, rather unexpectedly it must
be admitted. He was then assistant to Davy, and was ex-
perimenting at his desire on several substances. He had sealed
into a bent glass tube a small quantity of Hydrate of Chlorine
Crystals, which are formed by exposing moist Chlorine gas to
a temperature of 0°C. You will remember that it was Davy
who proved that Chlorine was an element. When Faraday gently
heated the crystals in one end of the bent tube some drops
of an oily looking yellow liquid condensed in the other, the cool
end. Of course the generation of the chlorine had greatly
increased the pressure in the tube and caused partial liquefaction.
There is a pleasant story to the effect that Dr. Paris entered the
laboratory while this experiment was in progress, and after seeing
the yellow drops scolded the worker for his carelessness in allowing
the materials to be contaminated. Faraday answered nothing at
the time, but the next morning Dr. Paris received a short letter
reading —

“Your oily drops were nothing but Liquid Chlorine.”

MICHAEL FARADAY.

In these experiments Faraday succeeded in liquefying a
number of gases. He returned to the subject in 1845, when,
by the joint application of pressure and cold he effected the
liquefaction of a further number. He published the opinion that

124 Henry Riddell on

the liquefaction of any gas was only a question of sufficient
pressure and sufficient cold, and that there existed for each gas
a temperature above which pressure alone, no matter how great,
would not produce liquefaction. Faraday was one of the most
intimate friends Andrews possessed. He was the son of a black-
smith and was both a scholar and a gentleman, though there
is rather a malicious story as to Lady Davy and him. He
accompanied Davy to Paris as his assistant, and in an emergency
undertook to act as his valet. The French scientists were not
long in discovering the nature of the young man they met, and
placed him at dinner with Sir Humphry and his wife. It is said
that Lady Davy was highly indignant that a servant should have
such a position, and other arrangements had to be made for the
rest of the visit.

It was about 1860 that Dr. Andrews began the experiments,
which first took the form of an inquiry into the effect on various
gases of combined pressure and cold. In this inquiry he used
pressures as great as 500 atmospheres and a degree of cold
approaching — 110°C. Later on he devoted himself to an investi-
gation of Carbon Dioxide, Carbonic Acid as it was then always
called, with the view of discovering some law which might be
connected with liquefaction generally, and in this he was
eminently successful.

The apparatus used is shown in the engraving, fig. I. It con-
sists essentially of two metallic tubes, to the upper flanges of which
elass tubes can be connected. The two metallic tubes are in full
communication at the bottom and are filled with water, so that
the pressure in both will be alike, whatever its value. The tubes
are of cold drawn copper, and the general arrangement is easily
understood from the drawing. In my day at Queen’s, Andrews
was engaged in repeating and varying the experiments described
in his Bakerian lecture of 1876, and at this time had improved
the apparatus, by somewhat increasing the diameter of the metal
tubes, and inserting the lower ends of the glass tubes into small
glass reservoirs of mercury resting on ledges within the metallic

igi:

Dr. Thomas Andrews: The Great Chemist 125

portions. The glass tubes were mounted in an ingenious way.
An enlarged conical portion was formed near the junction of the
two diameters, the lower ends of the tubes being comparatively
large in diameter while the upper portions were of capillary
dimensions. The lower mouth of the metallic flange was cone

SRE

a

Fig. I.—Apparatus arranged for compression of COz.

shaped, fitting pretty well the cone on the glass tube. About the
conical part of the glass tube and a short distance below it was
wrapped a fine thread coated with shoemaker’s wax. When the
joint was to be made the metallic portion was warmed and the
glass tubes pressed firmly into place and held until cool, This
joint stood quite perfectly and gave no trouble,

126 Henry Riddell on

The screws shown on the lower part were passed through
leather washers steeped in vacno in melted lard, and they also
acted so perfectly that I have known the apparatus undisturbed
under pressure for weeks and at the end reading identically as
before the stoppage, when reduced for temperature and barometer.
Of course the forcing in of the screws raised the pressure, two
being used to increase the range. A stream of puritied Carbonic
Acid was passed through the tube for some hours and the capillary
end sealed by heat while the lower ‘portion was in the small
reservoir approaching the surface of the mercury. A stream of
the gas was continued past the open end for some time after
sealing and then the tube was passed beneath the surface of the
mercury, enclosing a measured volume of the gas, under barometer
pressure and temperature carefully recorded. ‘The volume of the
tubes and the variations of internal diameter were very carefully
measured by weighing mercury contents and by the usual
calibrating method of passing a known quantity of mercury along
tho tube and noting the variation in the length oceupied. The
result could be relied upon to about one part ina million. The
volume of the gas was so calculated that the mercury began to
show in the capillary part of the tube at a pressure of about forty
atmospheres. Arrangements are shown in the drawing by which
the required temperature could be maintained surrounding the
tube with the Carbon Dioxide, while the air-tube, well screened
from the heat of its neighbour, could be kept at the temperature
chosen as the standard for the manometer.

The results of the experiments are shown in the diagram
(fig. II), and can only be described briefly.

It was found that, below a certain temperature, the carbonic
acid behaved as a partially saturated vapour, and that on adding
pressure the compression at first proceeded in a way somewhat
resembling that in a perfect gas, in which, so long as the tem-
perature remains unchanged, the product of pressure by volume
is constant, and a curve corresponding thereto would be an
hyperbola. In the figure the curves show the actual relations

Dr. Thomas Andrews: The Great Chemist Oe

discovered between volume and pressure, the gas being compressed
at a constant temperature in each case.

It is seen that within certain limits of pressure the curve in
each case resembles an hyperbola, but that below the curve of

Pressures in Atmospheres

i Zero Line for volumes

2.40 220 200 1a0 160 140 120 100 80 690 40 20 2
Scale of Volumes
iow lilt

The undulating dotted lines show Jamies Thomson’s theoretical
isothermals for 13°°] and 21°'5,

128 Henry Riddell on

about 30°C, there is in each case a point at which the volume
lessens as the screws are forced into the liquid in the reservoir
tubes, while the pressure does not increase until a certain volume
is reached at which this action ceases, and the pressure abruptly
starts again to rise. ‘The first point marks the beginning of the

change into the liquid condition, while the second marks the
completion of the change, when the gas is all liquefied, and the

increasing pressure is only accompanied by such reduction of
volume as corresponds with the gradual compression of the liquid
‘thus formed. If the CO, were quite pure the line showing the
process of liquefaction would be truly horizontal, but it proved
to be impossible to remove the last vestige of air from the tubes,
and it was found that from one five-hundredth to one thousandth
part of the volume consisted of air, which is not liquefied under
the conditions of the experiment, so that the line has a slight
upward tendency corresponding to the increased pressure required
to reduce the volnme of the air itself.

It will be noticed that, as’ the temperature is greater, this
horizontal line in the isothermal curve becomes shorter, so that
at a temperature approximative to 30°C., it becomes infinitely
short : and at this point the curve has a point of inflexion. This
is a critical point of liquefaction, and the particular temperature
belonging to this isothermal line is called the critical tempera-
ture. It was defined by Andrews as that temperature below
which liquefaction visibly oecurs, and above which no pressure,
however great, will cause a partial liquefaction, or at which the
liquid can exist in presence of the gas He pointed out that the
passage from the gaseous to the liquid condition may be made
absolutely continuous, and for this reason chose as a title for his
statement of results “The Continuity of the Liquid and Gaseous
States.”

eae . ee

The critical temperature is often defined as that tem-
perature above which no pressure, however great, will cause
liquefaction to take place.”

Dr. Thomas Andrews ; The Great Chemist 129

It does not seem that this is a logical statement, nor did
Dr. Andrews ever teach in this form. It does not seem possible
to show that liquefaction has not taken place when the gas has
been sufficiently compressed above the critical temperature. It
seems better to define the critical temperature as that above
which any conversion of gas to liquid takes place with perfect
continuity.

We may, however, frame a definition for “ point of lique-
faction” by referring to the isothermal curves. In every
isothermal below the critical temperature there is a point of the
curve in which the diagram shows a break in the nature of the
line. This corresponds to the point at which liquefaction is
taking place, at which the pressure remains constant while the
volume decreases rapidly. If we accept the theoretical curves due
to James Thomson—explained before our Society fifty years
ago, and shown in figure I[—there are two points on each of these
curves at which the tangents are horizontal. These are points of
liquefaction or the converse action. Between these points the
substance is unstable. It may exist in either state, but tends
very strongly to the condition usually apparent at the corres-
ponding pressure. On the isothermal belonging to the critical
temperature there is a point at which the two tangents coincide,
and this becomes a point of inflexion and the critical points, the
tangent becoming horizontal and also cutting the curve.

To put:the result into mathematical language any tangent to

Seay hg ‘ ‘ ;
the curve at which Ste: marks a point of liquefaction, while

dv

2
at a critical point we have also = ==)

The isothermal curve is therefore one of the third degree,
and many equations have been framed to express this, some of
which will be referred to later. *

These experiments and conclusions of Professor Andrews
form a great part of the foundation of the art of refrigeration,

130 Henry Riddell on

One of the greatest of the French inventors in this development
of industry says—‘“This remarkable scientific man very wisely
turned his attention to a simpler problem, that of the liquefaction
of Carbonic Acid. with a view to investigating its characteristics.
From this investigation. was destined to be born the general
theory of liquefaction and the ideas, more than ever prevalent at
the present time, on the Continuity of the Liquid and Gaseous
States.”

On hearing Andrews’ paper shortly after the delivery of the
Bakerian lecture of 1869, the then President of our Society,
Joseph John Murphy, offered a suggestion for the calculation of
the critical temperature of water, rather interesting under the
circumstances. He argued that clearly the critical temperature was
that at which the latent heat of conversion to vapour vanished.
“if, then, we accept Reynault’s equation,” said Mr. Murphy,
“throwing it into the form—Latent Heat = 606-5 — -695t, when the
latent heat vanishes we have -695t=606-5, or t=873°C.” Of
course this temperature is far too high, but the error was in the
equation and not in the method suggested. Reynault’s equation
gave fair values at moderate temperatures between 100° and 200°,

but the equation representing the facts has a factor € = -) where

v=volume in liquid form and V volume of same quantity in
vapour, both taken at the temperature ¢ At 100° the term
v

v has a value of about 0:0006, so that G = =) is very nearly

unity. At 200° the value of = is roughly 0-009, so that it is

rapidly increasing yet still nearly negligible. Ata temperature
v
V
about 374° v becomes equal to V, and the Latent Heat becomes
zero. Thanks to the introduction of quartz tubes the critical
point of water is measured fairly easily.

In 1876 Dr. Andrews, in his second Bakerian lecture, gave

of about 250° the value of has risen to about 0-025, while

Dr. Thomas Andrews: The Great Chemist 131

an account of many experiments, the bearing of which was not
immediately perceived. In comparing the behaviour of CO, at
various temperatures and pressures, he deduced several laws
connecting the different isothermals, but it is impossible to give
any detailed account of the investigations. It is of interest,
however, to consider one of the suggested laws and to connect it
with some others offered by such men as Rankine and Van der
Waal. His experiments showed that, for a great part of the
range, the isothermal curves of the vapour approximately answered
the equation C=V(1-—Vp), where V is the volume, p the
pressure, and Ca constant. A perfect gas being represented by
Vp =constant, this equation of Andrews showed the departure
of the vapour from the ideal. If two such equations on the same

isothermal curve, in the form eee 1— V, P, and Bes =1-V,P,,

Vy V,
Pee Oa at 2
be subtracted, the result is —--~~=V,P.—V,P,. If the
alge fe

equation be assumed true for the gas from a very low to a
moderate pressure, then we may take P, as very low, and

C :
consequently 7, may be supposed to vanish as P. becomes
2

4 A : (Cs ;

indefinitely small, leaving the form pr — VP, where R is the
ideal VP when P becomes very small. This then appears to be
the true form of Andrews’ equation, and if the proper corrections
are made for the presence of air, &c., it represents the true facts
within reasonable limits of pressure. It may obviously be thrown

2 C : my?
into the form R= V (P +72) For very high pressures this is

obviously untrue. It becomes necessary to have a factor which
vanishes when FP is infinite, and this is found by writing (V — a)
instead of V as the factor outside the bracket, when a must be
the limit of volume of the gas as P becomes very great, This

then gives Van der Waals’ equation (V-—a) (P+) With

132 Henry Riddell on

proper values for a and C this equation gives a very good
approximation to the experimental results, as long as the gaseous
condition is plainly present, but at very high pressures a small
error in a or V introduces so great a change in the results that it
is useless under such circumstances.

mai
van

the relation between two points on the same isothermal, if P, is

- Again, in the equation - = V, P.— V, P,, representing

unity, and by the conditions of the experiments V, also unity,

mY

the equation becomes 7 1+C—VP, but comparing this with

previous results it is plain that 1+ C is sensibly equal to R, as
already defined, and an equation resembling Rankine’s simple
aC
‘ =P.

form appears poe

Again, this represeuts the results better if the first term be

aoa where a has the value already mentioned.
-Thus Rankine’s, Van der Waals’, and also Clausius’ equations are
very closely related to this simple approximation due to Andrews.
The connection between different temperatures was also investi-
gated, and valuable results obtained. In his later experiments
upon the behaviour of mixed gases under changes of temperature

assumed as

and pressure, some results were obtained, the value of which was
not apparent until the liquefaction of air became an economic
SUCCESS.

It is impossible to follow Andrews’ work further in such a
sketch as this. It is well, however, to remind the reader of the
very remarkable anticipation of the results of the experiment on
the critical condition, which is found in the hypothesis framed by
Mendeleéff at the very time Andrews was completing his experi-
mental work. He predicates a condition in which, by combination
of temperature and pressure, a vapour becomes of the same
density as its liquid under the same circumstances, and concludes

Dr. Thomas Andrews: The Great Chemist Les

that, at this point, which he calls the absolute boiling point, the
latent heat becomes zero.

I should like to say a few words about the services of
Dr. Andrews in another than the scientific side of his work.
He was the leading spirit in the foundation of the Queen’s
University of Ireland. It is not generally understood that the
first idea of the Government was to establish three Colleges in
Ireland for the general education in Arts of the middle classes,
without the purpose of forming them into a University. There
was not, apparently, any intention of providing professional edu-
cation in such subjects as Medicine and Engineering. Dr. Kane
in his report seems to have taken this for granted, but Dr.
Andrews vigorously combated this view. I have the rough draft
of a memorandum in his hand-writing, in which he urges that the
Government must take up the work of framing a University, as
the Colleges could never be maintained in a working condition
unless this were done. He also argues that the neglect of the
special education required for those proceeding to qualify for the
professions will drive large numbers of the possible students to
other centres of learning, and that it will be impossible to fill the
class-rooms with those anxious only to obtain an education in
the usual Arts courses. He sketches an arrangement for a
Medical School, almost completely agreeing with that provided
later when the College was opened, and suggests that, on the
provision of such facilities, the Medical School then in operation
in the Royal Academical Institution should be discontinued, and
the Institution should completely revert to its original purpose of
providing a first-rate secondary education for the youth of the
middle class inhabitants.

Dr. Andrews always remained greatly interested in educational
schemes, and published a most interesting and powerful pamphlet,
entitled “Studium Generale,” explaining his views, which have
since come to fruition, at least to a large extent, in the Queen’s
University of Belfast.

134 : Henry Riddell on

The following is a list of the papers contributed to our
Society by Dr. Andrews, and will be interesting to our members :—

6th April, 1836.—Construction of electro magnets.

4th October, 1837.—HElectrical conduction. ‘

17th January, 1838.—llame and the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe.

6th February, 1840.—-Some recent applications of galvanism to the arts.

' 3ist March, 1841.—Radiant heat.

10th March, 1842.—On the subject of heat.

15th February, 1848.—On the heat of combination.

3lst January, 1844.

23rd April, 1845.—Some recent discoveries in organic chemistry.

13th May, 1846.—An account of Dr. Faraday’s recent discoveries in
magnetism.

4th November, 1846.—The heat developed in combustion and other
cases of chemical action.

On animal heat.

30th December, 1846.—The construction and method of using certain
meteorological instruments.

16th April, 1851.—(1) On certain applications of polarised light to
chemical analysis; (2) on the presence of magnesia in
magnetic iron Ore.

17th December, 1851.—On the spheroidal condition of bodies.

9th March, 1853.—Communication on the construetion and use of
certain meteorological instruments and results obtained during
the previous two years at Queen’s College.

8th March, 1854.—Composition and properties of ozone.

15th November, 1854.—Photography.

18th March, 1857.—Preparation and properties of aluminium.

4th November, 1857.—The manufacture of stearic acid and other
analogous bodies employed for illuminating purposes.

19th January, 1859.—The metals of the alkalies and alkaline earth.

7th March, 1860.—Recent researches regarding the properties of some
of the chemical elements.

2nd May, 1866.—Spectrum analysis.

8th April, 1868.—Atmospheric ozone. |

17th February, 1869.—The mechanical analysis of rocks.

23rd February, 1870.—The continuity of the liquid and gaseous states
of matter.

3rd March, 1875.—The analysis of the Ballynahinch water.

17th March, 1875.—EHlectro-magnetic machines and the recent im-
provements on them by M. Gramme.

Dr. Thomas Andrews: The Great Chemist 135

It is interesting to note, that in 1902, thirty-two years after Dr.
Andrews’ paper in 1870 ‘‘ The liquefication of gases and the continuity of
state,” was the subject of an address at the Belfast meeting of the British
Association by the then President, Sir James Dewar.

As an appendix to one of his lectures before the Royal Society, Dr.
Andrews printed for the first, and possibly the only time, several letters
from M. Lavoisier to Dr. Joseph Black. To render these letters more
generally accessible they are reprinted here. The reader is referred to
p. 49, Proceedings of Society, 1919-20; for some account of Black and his
Belfast connections.

LETTERS FROM M. LAVOISIER TO DR. BLACK.
Paris le 19 Septembre, 1789.

MonsiEuR,—C’est un membre de lacadémie Royale des Sciences de
Paris qui vous écrit a titre de Confrere: c’est un des plus zélés admirateurs
de la profondeur de votre génie et des importantes révolutions que vos
découvertes ont occasionées dans les Sciences, qui profite, pour avoir
Vhonneur de vous écrire, de l’oceasion de M. de Boullogne qui va finir son
éducation 4 Edimbourg. Permettez-moi de vous le recommander. I] joint
4 @heureuses dispositions un grand désir de s’instruire et il regarde comme
un grand bonheur pour lui d’avoir une occasion pour se présenter & vous.
Il a bien voulu, Monsieur, se charger de vous remettre un exemplaire d’un
ouvrage que je viens de publier: vous y trouverez une partie des idées
dont vous avez jetté le premier germe: si vous avez la bonté de donner
quelques instants a sa lecture, vous y trouverez le développement d’une
Doctrine nouvelle que je crois plus simple et plus d’accord avec les faits
que celle du Phlogistique. Ce n’est au surplus qu’en tremblant que je le
soumets au premier de mes juges et a celui dont j’ambitionnerais le plus le
suffrage.

J’ai Vhonneur d’étre trés-respectueusement,

Monsieur,

Votre trés-humble et trés-obéissant Serviteur,

136 Henry Riddell on

Paris, 24 Juillet, 1790.

MownstEvuR,—J’apprends avec une joye inexprimable que vous voulez
bien attacher quelque mérite aux idées que j'ai professé le premier contre
la doctrine du phlogistique. Plus confiant dans vos idées que dans les
miennes propres, accoutumé d vous regarder comme mon maitre, j’étois en
défiance contre moi-méme tant que je me suis écarté sans votre aveu de la
route que vous avez si glorieusement suivie. Votre approbation, Monsieur,
dissipe mes inquictudes et me donne un nouveau courage.

Cette Lettre, Monsieur, vous sera remise par M. Terray intendant de
Lyon neveu du Ministre des finances de ce méme nom et mon parent; il
conduit 4. Kdimbourg son fils, jeune homme d’espérance et destiné a posséder
une grande fortune, pour y finir son éducation et suivre les leeons des
professeurs célébres de Vuniversité d’Edimbourg. Permettez-moi, Monsieur,
de vous le recommander. L’intérét que vous voudrez bien prendre ad lui
sera un premier titre qui lannoncera d’une manicre avantageuse et j’ai
lieu de croire qu il ne se rendra pas indigne de vos bontés.

Je ne serai pas content jusqu’a ce que les circonstances me permettent
de vous aller porter moi-méme le témoignage de mon admiration et de me
ranger au nombre de vos disciples. La révolution qui sopere en France
devant naturellement rendre inutile une partie de ceux attachés 4 Vancienne
administration, il est possible que je jouisse de plus de liberté; et le
premier usage que j’en ferai sera de voyager ev de voyager surtout en
Angleterre et & Edimbourg pour vous y voir, pour vous y entendre et
profiter de vos lumiéres et de vos conseils.

J’ai commencé un grand nombre d’ouvrages et de travaux et j/aspire
dun Etat de tranquillité qui me permette d’y mettre la derniére main.

Jai Vhonneur d’étre trés-respectueusement.

Monsieur,
Votre trés-humble et trés-

obéissant serviteur.

AW v

:

M. Black, de Vacadémie des sciences,

Dr. Thomas Andrews : The Great Chemist 13%

Paris, le 19 Novembre, 1790.

M. Terray, Monsieur, m’a remis, en arrivant a Paris la lettre que vous
m’avez fait Vhonneur de nvécrire le 24 Octobre ; il ne pouvait me faire un
présent qui me fit plus agréable. J’ai cru que vous ne désapprouveriez
pas que je la communiquasse 4 l’ Académie des Sciences ; elle n’a pas moins
admire l’élégance du style que la profondeur de philosophie et la candeur
qui regne dans votre lettre, et elle a méme désiré qu'elle fit déposée dans
ses registres ; mais je n’y ai consenti, qu’a condition qu'il m’en serait remis
une copie certifi¢e du secrétaire. J’ai une autre grace 4 vous demander,
mais sur laquelle je dois attendre votre aveu; c’est de vouloir bien me
permettre d’en publier la traduction dans les Annales de Chimie.

M. Gillan a été témoin, depuis son séjour 4a Paris, de quelques
expériences que j’ai faites sur la respiration et il a bien voulu y concourir.
Nous nous sommes assurés des faits suivans :

1°. La quantité @air vital ou gaz oxigéne qu’un homme en repos et
jeun consomme, ou plutot convertit en air fixe ou acide carbonique, pendant
une heure est de 1200 pouces cubiques de France environ, quand il est
placé dans une température de 26 degrés.

2°. Cette quantité s’éleve 4 1400 pouces, dans les mémes circonstances,
si la personne est placée dans une température de 12 degrés seulement.

3°. La quantité de gaz oxigéne consommée, ou convertie en acide
carbonique, augmente pendant le tems de la digestion et s’éléve A 1800 ou
1900 pouces.

4°. Par le mouvement et l’exercice on la porte jusqu’’A 4000 pouces
par heure et méme davantage.

5°. La chaleur animale est constaniment la méme, dans tous ces cas.

6°. Les animaux peuvent vivre dans ce lair vital ou gaz oxigéne, qui
ne se renouvelle pas, aussi longtems que l’on le juge 4 propos, pourvu qu’on
ait soin d’absorber, par de Valcali caustique en liqueur, le gaz acide
earbonique, & mesure qwil se forme; en sorte que ce gaz n’a pas besoin,
comme on le croyait, pour ¢tre salubre et propre a la respiration d’étre
mélangé avec une certaine portion de gaz azote ou Mophete.

7. Les animaux ne paroissent pas souffrir dans un mélange de 15
parties de gaz azote et d’une partie de gaz oxigéne, pourvu qu’on ait de
méme la précaution d’absorber le gaz acide carbonique, par le moyen de
Valeali caustique, 4 mesure qu'il est formé.

8°. La consommation du gaz oxigéne et sa conversion en acide carbonique
est la méme dans le gaz oxigéne pur et dans le gaz oxigéne mélé de gaz
azote, en sorte que la respiration n’est nullement accélérée en raison de la
pureté de Vair.

138 Henry Riddell on Dr. T. Andrews: The Great Chemist

9°. Les animaux vivent assez longtems dans un mélange de deux
parties de gaz inflammable et d’une de gaz oxigene.

10°. Le gaz azote ne sert absolument a rien dans l’acte de la respiration
et il ressort du poumon en méme quantité et qualité qwil y est entré.

11°. Lorsque par l’exercice et le mouvement on augmente la con-
sommation de gaz oxigéne dans le poumon, la circulation s’accélére ; ce
dont il est facile de s’assurer par le battement du poulx: et en général
lorsque la personne respire sans se géner, la quantité de gaz oxigéne con-
sommée est proportionnelle a augmentation du nombre des pulsations
multiplié par le nombre des inspirations.

Tl est bien juste, Monsieur, que vous soyez un des premiers informés
des progrés qui se font dans une carriére que vous avez ouverte, et dans
laquelle nous nous regardons tous comme vos disciples. Nous suivons les
mémes expériences, et j’aurai lhonneur de vous faire part de mes découvertes
ultérieures.

J’ai VPhonneur d’étre avec un respectueux attachement, Monsieur,

Votre trés-humble et trés-obéissant Serviteur,

OW

’
BELFAST ;
NATURAL HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

PROCEEDINGS,

SESSION 1920-1921.
No. 4.

ABSTRACTS OF LECTURES,
ANNUAL REPORTS. coe
LIST OF MEMBERS, &c.

BELFAST :
MAYNE, BOYD & SON, LTD., 2CORPORATION STREET
(PRINTERS TO THE QUEEN’S UNIVERSITY).

& : : 1922.

Proceedings of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, 1920-1921.

11th January, 1921.

Professor GREGG WILSON, President of the Society, in the Chair.

Pueiic LECTURE IN ASSEMBLY MINoR HALL,
entitled :
THE WONDERLAND OF THE WASPS.
By Joun J. Warp, F.E.S.

(Abstract.)

In introducing his subject the lecturer referred to certain
wasp mimics, insects masquerading as wasps, and deriving pro-
tection from their black and yellow covering and wasp-like
appearance ; and in this connection showed slides of the wasp
beetle, hover fly, and the lunar hornet moth. The life story of
the latter insect was told in detail and illustrated by means of
wonderful photographs, and incidentally introduced a parasitic
enemy—the long-tailed ichneumon wasp.

The wasps were divided into two great classes, namely, the
Solitary and the Social species. Then came _ astonishing
revelations of the life histories of various solitary species, almost
unbelievable wonders observed by the lecturer were demonstrated
on the screen by means of his instructive photographs. The life
story of the Mud Wasp (Odynerus antilope), Mr. Ward stated,
had taken him seven years to work out in detail. The little
wasp appeared for only about three weeks during the month of
June, building its nesting cells on a flat brick wall, preferably
that of a newly-built house. The cells were constructed with a
kind of cement, which the wasp manufactured by scraping a
piece of sandstone with its mandibles and then mixing the sand
grains so obtained with saliva. When a cell was made the wasp
then stored it with live caterpillars, which it captured, and, with

140 John J. Ward on

the skill of an experienced surgeon, stung so as to paralyze, but
not to kill. After each caterpillar was in this manner placed
under an anesthetic, it was then carried by the wasp to the cell
and there stored, from eight to sixteen of them, packed like
sardines ina box. ‘The wasp then deposited an egg in the cell
and. sealed it up. In that way it provided its offspring with fresh
meat. The whole development of the wasp grub was shown
from the egg stage until it completed its metamorphoses and
appeared as a fully-developed wasp.

Details were also revealed of the natural enemies of the
mud wasp, one of which was the common blue tit, and
particularly interesting were the gorgeously-coloured cuckoo
wasps, which came and deposited their eggs in the cells of the
mud wasp before they were sealed up. .

Leaving the solitary species, the lecturer then dealt with the
social species, which included the common wasp. These con-
sisted of tree wasps and ground wasps. The former built their
nests in trees in the open sunlight, and the latter below ground
in darkness. After describing the anatomy of the mouth parts
of the common wasp, and also that of its stinging organs, the
nests of tree wasps were described. The final part of the lecture
was devoted to the complete story of the building of the nest of
the common ground wasp, from the time when the queen leaves
her hibernating place at the beginning of May and commences to
build a new wasp city at the end of a mouse run of the previous
summer. ‘The queen wasp was shown with the little nest she
had constructed quite unaided. It was no larger than a five-
shilling piece, but after her first offspring appeared it soon grew
apace, and eventually became as big as a four-pound loaf.

Mr. Ward displayed astonishing photographs showing the
combs of the nest with their hosts of worker wasps carrying on
their functions. At this stage the queen wasp had nothing todo
but deposit eggs in the thousands of cells being made by the
workers. The latter carry on all the work of the nest, building,
feeding and tending the young wasp grubs, excavating the soil,

The Wonderland of the Wasps 141

etc. Eventually the queen wasp became the mother of from
20,000 to 60,000 wasps. As autumn approached, dome-shaped
cells appeared, and from these emerged the young queens and
their suitors, the males, to carry on the generations for the next
year. Photographs showed the wasps biting their way out of
the cells as they matured, and the cells being cleaned and pre-
pared almost immediately for another egg to be placed in them
by the queen, for they could be used three times during one
summer. One slide displayed a comb containing over 4,000
cells, which used three times would represent 12,000 wasps, and
the nest often contained ten combs, although not all so large as
that one. At the first signs of wintry weather the worker wasps
quickly perished, and the nest soon became a complete ruin, only
the young queens could live through the winter, each surviving
one would then become the mother of a new wasp colony the
following year.

At the conclusion of the lecture the Chairman said while
there would be no formal vote of thanks, he would ask the
audience to express their appreciation of the brilliant and most
fascinating lecture they had just listened to. He thought the
interest with which the lecture had been followed had been felt
by the lecturer throughout the evening, and that was the best
thanks they could give to him.

142

25th January, 1921.

Professor GREGG WILSON, President of the Society, in the Chair.

IN Museum, CoLLEGE SQuARE NORTH.

“ART AND WORKMANSHIP.”

By Ivor Beaumont, A.R.C.A., M.S.A., F.RS.A., F.I.B.D.
Head Master, School of Art, Municipal College of
Technology, Belfast.

(Abstract.)

Mr. Beaumont said, broadly speaking, art was connected
with all the works of man which were primarily meant to satisfy
the aesthetic instinct. The craving for beauty and harmony was
inherent in all human beings. By Works of Art he did not
mean only those things which appeal to the eye and touch ; in
the term “ Art” he included all manifestations which arose out
of and tended towards the satisfying of man’s desire for beauty
and harmony. Art was therefore rarely divorced from industry ;
art was indispensable in life, and it should have an important
place in the course of general education. In conclusion, Mr.
Beaumont said it should never be forgotten that Schools of Art
were provided for the industries and not the industries for the
Schools of Art. Once they got that fact fixed in their minds,
they would take care that the training given in the Schools of
Art was thoroughly practical, and that students were properly
itted to take their place in the industries which they intended
to enter.

The lecture was illustrated with a beautiful series of lantern

slides, and at the close a hearty vote of thanks was passed to the
lecturer,

143

8th February, 19217.

The President, Professor GREGG WILSON, in the Chair.

In Musrum, CoLLeEGE SQuARE Nortu.

THE DECORTICATION OF FIBROUS PLANTS,
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
FLAX RETTING AND SCUTCHING.
By H.R. CARTER:

(Abstract. )

Mr. Carter, in the course of his remarks, said that it has
been aptly stated that “the Great War was won by Belfast
wings,’ the Ulster capital providing the bulk of the aeroplane
linen. The cultivation, retting, scutching, and spinning of flax
was one of Ulster’s greatest industries.

Mr. Carter divided vegetable fibres into three classes
namely, those obtained from the bark of the plants, such as flax,
true hemp, jute and ramie ; those derived from the more or less
fleshy leaves, or from the part of the plant enclosed by the bark,
including Sisal, New Zealand hemp, and other hard cordage
fibres ; and thirdly, fibres derived from the seed pods of which
the principal are cotton and coir.

Of these three classes, only the first two require processes of
decortication, and of course the treatment of the flax plant is that
of special interest in Ireland.

The lecturer displayed excellent lantern illustrations of the
various processes in connection with the treatment of this fibre,
laying special stress upon the highly scientific methods of growing
and preparation of the fibre in vogue in the valley of the river
Lys in Belgium. From this district is derived the best and
finest quality of flax fibre in the world, and he emphasised the

‘

144 H.R. Carter on The Decortication of Fibrous Plants

importance to Ireland of these methods being more fully adopted
in this country. Irish flax, if properly treated agriculturally, is
quite equal to that grown in Belgium or Holland; lax and
unscientific methods of growing, retting, scutching and general
handling, however, reduce its market value considerably as com-
pared with the product of Belgium and Holland.

A vote of thanks to the lecturer brought an interesting
address to a conclusion.

ANNUAL MEETING.

VOC Se SSlON,, Toe2Ore

The Annual Meeting of the Shareholders and Members was
held in the Museum, College Square North, on the 21st
November, 1921. Professor Gregg Wilson, O.B.E., M.A., D.Sc.,
Ph.D., President, occupied the Chair, and among those present
were :—Sir Charles Brett, LL.D.; Alderman S. T. Mercier,
J.P.; Messrs. H. C. Lawlor, M.R.I.A.; William Faren, Godfrey
Ferguson, J.P.; W. B. Burroughs, T. Edens-Osborne, W. M.
Crawford, Victor Salter, and Arthur Deane, Hon. Secretary.
Apologies for absence were announced from Sir Frederick
Moneypenny, C.B.E., C.V.O.; Dr. S.. W. Allworthy, M.A.,
F.G.S.; Dr. Gawin Orr, Councillor E. J. Elliott, Mr. R. M.
Young, M.A., M.R.I.A.; Mr. Henry Riddell, M.E., M.I.Mech.E. ;
Mr. J. M. Finnegan, B.A., B.Sc., and Mr. Alexander Milligan.

The Chairman called upon the Hon. Secretary to read the
notice convening the meeting, and also the Annual Report of the
Council, which was as follows :—

The Council has pleasure in presenting to Shareholders and
Members of the Society the Annual Report and Statement of
Receipts and Expenditure for the 100th Session of the Society.

OBITUARY.

It is with deep regret the Council records the loss by death
of Mr. Burton Sefton, Mr. James Moore, and the Rev. Canon
H. W. Lett, M.R.I.A. Mr. James Moore was. a member of an
old merchant family in Belfast. Every one knows the old-
fashioned front of the warehouse in Donegall Place, about the

146 Annual Meeting

only one in that thoroughfare which has remained unchanged for
more than sixty years. Mr. Moore was a member of our Society
for many years He was a kindly-hearted and courteous gentle-
man, and his loss will be greatly felt. Canon Lett’s death leaves
a gap inthe ranks of Northern Naturalists. He devoted con-
siderable time to the study of the lower Irish Cryptogams and to
Irish Archaeology, both prehistoric and ecclesiastical. He was
born at Hillsborough on the 4th December, 1836, and died at
Aghaderg on the 26th December, 1920, at the age of 84.

Mr. Burton Sefton was one of the members who joined the
Society through the new scheme of membership. He took a
great interest in our proceedings, and died in August last.

MEMBERSHIP.

The total number of Shareholders and Members at the end
of session was 291. Your Council has had under consideration
the propriety of creating life members on the basis of one pay-
ment, but it was decided to postpone further consideration of this
proposal for one year.

Your Council has observed with great satisfaction that our
oldest member, namely, Sir Charles Brett, has had conferred upon
him the LL.D. degree, Honoris Causd, of the Queen’s Uni-
versity, Belfast, and that the Vice-Chancellor of the University
(The Right Hon. the Rev. Thomas Hamilton, M.A., D.D., LL.D.),
another old member of the Society, has been appointed a member
of His Majesty’s Privy Council in Ireland.

LECTU RES.

Your Council records with pleasure that the Programme of
Lectures arranged for the 100th Session was the best in the
history of the Society. The Council feels that the Society is
worthily fulfilling the wishes of the early members in the efforts.

Annual Meeting 147

made to-day to diffuse useful knowledge among the citizens by
means of popular addresses and short courses of lectures. It is
interesting to note that arrangements for short courses were com-
menced as early as 1837, when Dr. James Drummond Marshall
delivered a course of twelve lectures on “ Birds: their classifica-
tion, geographical distribution, and habits.”

A good deal of original work was brought before the Society
by some of the lecturers. The Council would like to point out
that the publication of a programme does not in any sense
preclude the reading of original papers, which may be submitted
to the Council during the session.

A list of the lectures delivered during the period covered by
this report will be found in Appendix, p. 158.

COUNCIL'S THANKS.

The Council is again indebted to the Vice-Chancellor of
Queen’s University (The Right Hon. the Rev. Thomas Hamilton)
for granting your Society accommodation in the University.
On this occasion two courses were delivered by two
University Professors, namely, Professor A. W. Stewart and
Professor James Small. To these gentlemen the Council tenders,
on behalf of the Society, its sincere thanks for the continued
co-operation between the University and our Society. As far
back as 1858 Dr. Thomas Andrews, F.R.S., M.R.I.A., Professor
of Chemistry, and Vice-President of Queen’s College, delivered a
course of six lectures on Chemistry in the Chemical Lecture
Theatre at Queen’s College, under the auspices of the Society.

- The Council also desires to express its best thanks for the
assistance rendered by the other lecturers during the session, and
to the local Press for the full reports of the various meetings.

148 Annual Meeting

CENTENARY VOLUME.
Your Council has had under consideration the compilation
of a Centenary Volume, giving a history of the Society, with a
series of memoirs of the distinguished men connected with the
Society in the past. This work is well in hand, and the Council
hopes to publish this volume during the present session.

EXCHANGES.

Your Council continues to receive in exchange various
publications, both home and foreign, from kindred societies, many
of which are of great importance. The Council regrets, how-
ever, to report that the American Geographical Society has
intimated that it proposes to limit its exchange list to those
publications which are distinctly geographical in character.
Application for back numbers of our Proceedings have been
received from the following :—

The Brooklyn Museum.

New York Public Library.

New York Academy of Science.

Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.

United States Department of Agriculture.

Department of Agriculture, Canada.

The Patent Office Library, London.

A number of publications were also received from the Com-

mittee of the Ulster Fisheries and Biology Association on the
winding-up of the Association.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SECTION.

A separate report of the Archaeological Section will be
submitted to the members by. its Hon. Secretary, Mr. H. C.
Lawlor, M.R.I.A., at the Annual Meeting of the Section, which
is to be held on Monday, the 28th instant.

Annual Meeting - 2a

ELECTION OF COUNCIL.

In accordance with the constitution of the Society, the
five following members retire by rotation from the Council :—
Mr. J. M. Finnegan, Mr. Henry Riddell, Mr. R. M. Young, Pro-
fessor Lindsay, and Professor Symmers. The two last named are
ineligible for re-election. °

HON. TREASURER’S STATEMENT.

The Hon. Treasurer (Mr. Henry Riddell) is unable to be
with us this afternoon owing to an unfortunate accident which
occurred to him some weeks ago, and which necessitated an
operation.. The Council is glad to report that he has made
satisfactory progress, and hopes to be among us again soon. He
has laid upon the table the Statement of Accounts which has
been passed by the Local Government Board Auditor, and which
will appear on p. 160 of the. printed report, and submits a report
which will be read to the meeting.

: LOYAL ADDRESS.

Your Council, on behalf of the Society, submitted a loyal
and dutiful address on the occasion of the visit of Their Most
Gracious Majesties King George V. and Queen Mary, to open the
Parliament of Northern Ireland, on the 22nd June, 1921. The
time at the disposal of their Majesties, however, was not
sufficient to allow of a personal presentation of the address, but
it was duly acknowledged later by Lord Stamfordham, Private
Secretary to His Majesty.

HON. TREASURER’S REPORT
For YEAR ENDING JUNE 30TH, 1921.

Both the Society and the Section for Archaeological Study
are to be congratulated on a year of considerable progress.

150 Annual Meeting

The joint subscriptions for the year amount to One Hundred
and Fifty-Four Pounds Seventeen Shillings, being an increase
upon the previous year of almost thirty-five per cent. It will be
seen, when the Balance Sheet is sent out to the Members, that
the expenditure during the past year exceeded the income by
over. One Hundred Pounds, and the Local Government Board
Auditor, in his report, calls attention to this fact.

It will be remembered, however, that attention was called

last year to the fact that the balance-sheet then presented gave
- too favourable an impression of the finances, owing to the fact
that the printers had not furnished their accounts for a great
part of the Session, and that the Archaeological Section had on
deposit with the parent Society a sum of Ninety-three Pounds.

The printed accounts appear in the present statement, and
the balance of the Archaeological Section is now reduced to about
Seventy Pounds. Every care and foresight is exercised with
regard to the finances, and the members may be assured that
nothing is spent which cannot be afforded. The cost of printing
has been exceedingly heavy, but of course may be expected to
fall with the decreasing cost of production. It is felt that
neither the Council nor the members of the Society would urge
any curtailment of the reports of proceedings, unless such were
absolutely necessary.

Very many of our members cannot attend the meetings, and
the Proceedings form the only connection they can have with
the Society. It is evident also, from the frequent demands from
outside bodies, that they arouse much interest. They are also
the source of exchanges of the most extraordinary value, which
will in the future form an important library.

ADOPTION OF REPORTS.

The Chairman, in moving the adoption of the Reports, said
the Society had had a very busy year, and had very large
audiences at all their meetings, some of which were as interesting

Annual Meeting 151

as any he had ever attended in Belfast. He hoped in the future
they would manage to keep the Society as active as it had been
recently. In regard to finances, while they were not in funds,
they were rapidly coming to the day when they would have a little
money to spare as they used to have. They were much indebted
to their Hon. Treasurer (Mr. Henry Riddell) for the care he had
taken to keep them as far as possible in good financial position,
which was a very important matter in these days. In conclusion,
the Chairman spoke of the valuable work of Mr. Riddell and the
Hon. Secretary on behalf of the Society, and especially in con-
nection with the Centenary Volume

Alderman S. T. Mercier, in seconding the resolution, said
he had the pleasure of attending many of the lectures, and had
found them most helpful and beneficial. If they found the
Society was getting into financial difficulties, he suggested that a
small fee should be charged for admission to the lectures, which
at present were free.

VOTE OF THANKS TO PRESIDENT.

Mr. H. C. Lawlor, M.R.LA., moved a vote of thanks to
the outgoing President (Professor Gregg Wilson) for his valuable
services during the past two years. The Society, he said, would
always remember with pleasure Professor Wilson’s term of office.
This was seconded by Sir Charles Brett, IL.D., who also spoke
in appreciative terms of Professor Wilson’s services, and this was
very heartily adopted.

On the motion of Mr. T. Edens Osborne, seconded by Mr.
Godfrey Ferguson, it was unanimously agreed that the Hon.
Secretary should convey to Mr. Henry Riddell the feelings of the
members present in that they were gratified to know that he was
recovering from his recent accident, and that they express to him
the hope that he would soon be among them again,

152 Annual Meeting

ELECTION OF COUNCIL MEMBERS.

Messrs. J. M. Finnegan, Henry Riddell, and R. M. Young
were re-elected Members of the Council for three years. retiring
in 1924; together with Professor Morton and Professor A. W.
Stewart.

The new Council held a meeting after the conclusion of the
Annual Meeting, when the office-bearers were elected for the
Session 1921-22. These, together with the Council of Manage-
ment, will be found on page 162.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SECTION.

ANNUAL MEETING.

The Fifth Annual Meeting of the Section was held in the
Old Museum on Monday, the 28th November, at 3-45 p.m., Sir
Charles Brett, LL.D., in the chair.

The minutes of the previous Annual Meeting were read and
confirmed. In the unavoidable absence of the Hon. Treasurer,
Mr. Henry Riddell, through indisposition, the financial report
was read by the Hon. Secretary of the Section. The balance-
sheet, made up to June 30th, is given on page 161, showing a
balance to credit of the Section at that date of £70 lls. 4d. To
this must be added a little over £30 arising from current year’s
subscriptions and subsidy from the parent Society, less a few
outstanding accounts, leaving slightly over £100 in hand, avail-
for the work of the coming season.

The Hon. Secretary of the Section read a report on the work
of the Section during the past year. In the early part of the
season he had issued to all the members and some others likely
to be interested, invitations to suggest subjects for investigation,
under the auspices of the Section. The replies to this circular
were gratifying, and were laid before a meeting of the Executive

Annual Meeting Be

Committee on June 16th—Sir Charles Brett presiding. Sixteen
monuments of archaeological interest were .recommended for
investigation by the Section, mostly by members, and a few by
non-members. These were carefully considered, and all recorded
in the minutes for future reference. Out of the sixteen the
following were selected as being of most importance :—-

1. The ecclesiastical remains on Mahee Island, anciently
Nendrum, in Strangford Lough.

Further excavations in Rathkeltchar in the field north
and north-east of the Cathedral.

The Castle and Abbey site of Portmuck, Islandmagee.

The Stone circle at Kilmakee, Templepatrick.

The Cromlec at Shieve na Griddle in Lecale.

Harryville Moat, Ballymena.

Lo

eee

The Committee considered that the proper execution of the
investigation and preservation of the remains at Mahee Island
would entail greater expenditure of money than the funds at
their disposal permitted, and this work was deferred.

With regard to Rathkeltchar, it was considered by a
majority that further investigation would fortify the conclusions
arrived at from last year’s investigations, and a grant of £30 was
voted towards the object, the Hon. Secretary being instructed to
communicate with the Downpatrick members who had helped in
this work last year, and to arrange, if possible, for this work to
be carried out in the July holidays. It was considered that this
grant depleted the sum at the disposal of the Section sufficiently
for the time, and that the remaining selected subjects for
investigation be let lie in abeyance for future consideration.

A further meeting of the Executive Committee was held on
the 27th July,—Sir Charles Brett presiding. The Hon. Secre-
tary stated that arrangements had been practically completed for
the work at Rathkeltchar to be carried out during the July
holidays, when owing to the drought then prevailing, and the
consequent shortage of grass, the tenant of the grazing, at the

154 Annual Meeting

last moment, withheld his permission to carry out the work,
which had therefore been abandoned for the present. The
Executive Committee then allotted the following grants for three
of the other objects considered at the meeting in June 16th :-—
To Major Thompson, D.S.O., for the investigation of the
Castle and Abbey Site of Portmuck, Islandmagee—
oF
To the Rev. William Adams, M.A., for the investigation
of Kilmakee Stone Circle—£15.
To Colonel Berry, M.R.I.A., for the investigation of the
Cromlec at Slieve na Griddle—£5.
Owing to various unforseen circumstances, none of these grants
had been taken advantage of, and while it was to be regretted
that no actual excavation work had been carried out during the
year, it was satisfactory that consequently the funds available for
future work were so much greater.

ANCIENT GRAVE AT CREA, KILLYLEAGH.—In April the
Hon. Secretary received a communication from Mr. James Heron,
D.L., of Tullyverey, Killyleagh, to the effect that a remarkable
prehistoric grave had been discovered in a rath in the townland
of Crea, on the farm of Mr. Boyd, and requesting him to inspect
the same, and record the find in the Society’s reports. He
accordingly visited the site in company with Mr. Heron and Mr.
Boyd.

The rath, if it is one, is of somewhat unusual formation. It
is situated on the summit of a small hill in the middle of a field.
It is from 8’ to 12’ high above the somewhat uneven contour of
the ground ; it is flat on top with no rampart, and no surround-
ing trench or vallum : the diameter measured (on the top) about
27 paces.

Mr. Boyd, to cover a bare spot in his field, had removed a
few cart loads of soil from the side of the rath or mound. In
doing so, he removed a flat stone which had been placed on its
edge. The removal of this stone disclosed the end of a stone-
lined grave, measuring 5’ 8” long, by 14” wide, and 11” high,

Annual Meeting 155

internal measurement. The grave lay due East and West;
lying within were the remains of a skeleton, which he raked out
and buried a few feet from the grave. No relics of any kind®
were found with the remains.

The grave was of a class exactly similar to those so fre-
quently found in the Abbey field at Portmuck, and at Gransha,
Islandmagee, in which coins of the first Edwards were found,
that it is possible that it dates as late as between the 12th and
14th centuries ; it may be earlier, but from its orientation and
similarity to graves known to be mediaeval, it may be regarded
as certainly not pre-Christian. The flat top of the mound was
under cultivation, and a very careful search of the surface showed
no sign of pottery or charcoal remains. This tends to indicate
that the mound is not, correctly speaking, a rath, but a burial
monument in which most probably other graves still exist.

BALLYLOUGH CRANNOG.—As requested by the Committee,
the Hon. Secretary, by arrangement with, and by kind permission
of Colonel Traill, D.L., visited this site in August. The various
annals and other records make frequent mention of Ballylough,
otherwise Loughtown. During the Norman occupation it was
held under the Earldom of Ulster by the Savages, who with their
neighbours, the de Mandevilles, were the chief holders of land
in the Route. Ata later date the annais refer to these lands as
being in the possession of the family of McQuillan, which is
almost undoubtedly a corruption of the Irish MacUghlin (son of
little Hugh) derived from a Hugh de Mandeville. It is probable
that the de Mandevilles combined the Savage estate with their
own by intermarriage, but no positive evidence is as yet forth-
coming.

Several mentions occur showing that in the 16th century
the McQuillans lived in a crannog at Ballylough, where also a
castle of apparently this period was built, the piel tower of which
still remains. Early in the 17th century, some time after the
expulsion of the McQuillans by the McDonnells, this property
was held under the Earls of Antrim by a branch of the Stuarts

156 Annual Meeting

of Ballintoy, who in turn sold it to a cadet of the old Fifeshire
family of Traill of Blebo in Fife, the present owners. Colonel
Traill’s grandfather conceived the idea of draining the lake by
cutting a deep channel from it to the river Bush. In cutting
this trench a considerable number of relics were found, including
a large oak corracle, mediaeval pottery, a beautiful chain of silver
filagree beads, and near the castle a number of coins of the 15th
and 16th centuries. A few of these relics remain at Ballylough,
but the exact site of the crannog is uncertain. The site of the
old lake and its immediate surroundings are so overgrown with
trees and brambles that it is difficult to get any clear view of the
general contour. So far as tradition relates, the corracle and
pottery were found at a spot where there is no apparent evidence
of a crannog having existed, and so far as ean be seen, on what
was near the edge of the lake. There is a circular entrenched
group of trees known as “the decoy plantation,” which would
have been surrounded by the lake, and which has, taken in con-
junction with the surroundings, every appearance of a crannog,
and it is most probable that it is here that the crannog site
remains undisturbed. However, it is all so overgrown with trees
and undergrowth that its investigation seems practically im-
possible.

Sir Charles Brett referred in sympathetic terms to the
accident that had befallen the recently-appointed President of
the Society, Mr. Henry Riddell, M.I.Mech.E., but rejoiced to say
that he was rapidly returning to his normal health and vigour.
He regretted that circumstances over which the Section had no
control had prevented any important investigations being carried
out during the year, but referred with pleasure to the increase in
the membership of the Section, to within a very few of 100
members, and of the satisfactory state of the funds. He hoped
that during the coming year the Archaeological Section would
continue to give a good account of itself.

Canon Carmody made an eloquent appeal to the meeting on
behalf of the investigation and preservation of the Celtic

Annual Meeting ayy)

ecclesiastical remains on Mahee Island, upon the history of which
the late Bishop Reeves had thrown so much light. He admitted
that to carry out the work in a proper manner a considerable sum
of money would be necessary, but he thought that the funds at
the disposal of the Section could not be better spent.

Mr. W. B. Burrowes heartily supported Canon Carmody’s
appeal. He said that if more money were required than the
Section could afford, he was certain that the amount could easily
be raised by subscription, and on his suggestion, the question was
referred to the Executive Committee for consideration.

The election of office-bearers for the year was proceeded
with, with the following results :—

Chairman, Sir Charles Brett, LL.D.

Hon. Treasurer, Mr. Henry Riddell, M.E.
(President of the Soeiety).

Hon. Secretary, Mr. H. C. Lawlor, M.R.LA.

Executive Committee :—Sir Charles Brett, LL.D.; Mr.
Henry Riddell, M.E. (ex-officio); Mr. H. C. Lawlor, M.R.LA ;
Mr. Arthur Deane, M.R.LA. (ex-officio) ; Rev. Canon Carmody,
M.A. ; Mr. H. R. Lepper, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. ; Mr. Thomas Edens
Osborne, F.R.S.A.I.; Mr. W. B. Burrowes, F.R.S.A.I.; Mr.
Fergus Greeves, Rev. William Adams, M.A.; Mr. Alec Wilson,
J.P., M.R.I.A.; Mr. Godfrey Ferguson, J.P., C.E.

158

1920.
5th October.

9th November.

19th November.

26th November.

3rd December.

10th December.

14th December.

1921.
11th January.

14th January.

Last of Lectures

APPENDIX
LIST. OF LECTURES.

In Assembly Minor Hall.
“Many Inventions: a Study in Natural His-
tory,” by Professor J. Arthur Thomson,
M.A., LL.D., F.RB.S.E.

In Museum, College Square.

“The Trend of Evolutionary Thought,” by
Professor Gregg Wilson, O.B.E., M.A,
D.Se., Ph.D., M.R.LA.

In Queen’s University.

‘The Foundation Stones of Matter,” by

Professor A. W. Stewart, M.A., D.Se.
In Queen's Unwwersity.

“The Rise of Radioactivity,” by Professor

A. W. Stewart, M.A., D.Se.

In Queen's Umversity.

“The Transmutation of the Elements and
Kindred Problems,” by Professor A. W.
Stewart, M.A., D.Sc.

In Queen's University.

“Some Problems of Food and Power,” by

Professor A. W. Stewart, M.A., D.Sc.

In Museum, College Square.
“The Birds of Hillsborough,” by Mr. Nevin
EL-Foster, F.L:S., V.R.1.A.. MBO,

In Assembly Minor Hall.
“The Wonderland of the Wasps,” by Mr.
John J. Ward, F.E.S.
In Queen's University.
“The Wanderings of the Groundsel,” by
Professor James Small, D.Sc., Ph.C., F.L.S,

25th January.

28th January.

4th February.

8th February.

llth and 25th
February.

8th March.

List of Lectures 159

In Museum, College Square.
“Art and Workmanship,’ by Mr. Ivor
Beaumont, A.R.C.A., M.S.A.

In Queen’s University.

“The Erectness of Plants,’ by Professor
James Small.

In Queen’s University.

“The Perception of the Invisible.” by Mr.
R. T. Beatty, M.A., D Se.

In Museum, College Square.

“The Decortication of Fibrous Plants, with
special reference to Flax Retting and
Scutching,’” by Mr. H. R. Carter.

In Queen’s University.
“The Erectness of Plants” (continued).
By Professor James Small.
In Queen’s University.

“Dr. Thomas Andrews, the great Chemist
and Physicist,’ by Mr. Henry Riddell,
M.E., M.I.Mech.E.

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162
BELFAST NATURAL HISPOR®
AND PHILOSOPHICAL S@Cinay.

Officers and Council of Management for 1921-22.

President :
HENRY RIDDELL, m.«&., M.1.Mech.x.
Vice=Presidents :
Sir CHARLES BRETT, ix.p.
S. W. ALLWORTHY, m.A., M.D., F.C.S.
Pror. GREGG WILSON, 0o.8.8., M.A., D.SC., PH.D., M.R.I.A.
ROBERT M. YOUNG, M.A., M.R.1.A., J.P.
J. M. FINNEGAN, B.a., B.SC.
WILLIAM SWANSTON, F.«.s. /

fbon. CTreasuret :
HENRY RIDDELL, m.z., M.1.Mech.x.

fbon. Librarian.
ROBERT M. YOUNG, M.A., M.R.IL.A., J.P.

thon. Secretary: |
ARTHUR DEANE, m.R.1.A..

Council :
Sir CHARLES BRETT, .t1.p.
T. EDENS OSBORNE, F.R.5. 4.1.
S. W. ALLWORTHY, .A., M.D., F.C.S.
WILLIAM FAREN, F.R.5. 4.1.
ARTHUR DEANE, m.R.1.A.
W. B. BURROWS, F.R.S. A.1.
CouncriLLor E. J. ELLIOTT.
H. C. LAWLOR, M.R.1.A.
WILLIAM SWANSTON, F.c.s.
Proressorn GREGG WILSON, p.sc., M.R.1.A.
JOHN M. FINNEGAN, B.A., B.Sc
_ Prorrssor W. B. MORTON, m.a.
HENRY RIDDELL, m.»., m.1.mMech.5.
ROBERT M. YOUNG, m.A., M-R.1.A.
Prorsessor A. W. STEWART, .A., D.SO.

Retire
1922.

Reture
1924.

——$5] —_———$— Se ————_
i
Se
ao
a

163

EXCHANGES.

Azso—Acta Academial Aboensis.

BASEL (Switzerland)—Verhandlungen der Naturforchenden Ge-
sellschaft in Basel, 1919-20.

BreL_Fast—Proceedings of the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club,
1920-21.

Bercen (Norway)—Publications of the Bergen Museum
BIRMINGHAM—Proceedings of the Birmingham Natural History
and Philosophical Society.
BoLoGna—Publications of the Science Academy of the Institute

of Bologna.
BrRiGHToN—Annual Report and Proceedings of the Brighton and
; Hove Natural History Society, 1920.
BrRookLYN—Bulletins of the Brooklyn Museum.
BrusseELs— Annalsdela Societe Royale Zoologique et Malacologique
de Belgique, 1914-1920.
an Bulletin de la Societé Royale de Botanique de
Belgique.
BurEnos AtrRES—Anales del Museo Nacional del Historia Natural.
BuFFALO—Bulletins of the Buftalo Society of Natural Sciences.
CALIFORNIA—Publications of the University of California.
CaLcuTTA—Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. —
=A Records of the Geological Survey of India.
CAMBRIDGE (U.s.A.)—Bulletins of the Cambridge Museum of
Comparative Zoology.
CAMBRIDGE—Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.
CARDIFF—Transactions of the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society,
1917-18.
_ CarDovA—Boletin de la Academia National de Ciencias.
CuicaGo—Publications of the Field Museum of Natural History.
CHRISTIANA—Forhandlinger Vidrskapssilskapet I Kristianna.
CincinNATI—Publications of the Lloyd Library.

164 Exchanges.

CoLorapbs Sprincs—Publications of the Colorado College.

DuBLIn— Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society.

EDINBURGH—Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society.

Me Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,
1918-19.
ie Transactions and Proceedings of the Botanica]
Society, Edinburgh.
EssEx—The Essex Naturalist. Vol. XIX, Part 4.

~ InDIANA—Proceedings of the Indiana Society of Sciences, 1918.

LAWRENCE— Bulletins of the University of Kansas.

Lima (Peru)—Boletin del Cuerpo de de Ingenieros de Minas
del Peru

LIVERPOOL—Proceedings of the Liverpool Botanical Society,
1916-18.

Lonpon—Quarterly Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society,

i Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society.
is Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society.

LOUSANNE—Bulletin de la Societe Vaudoise des Sciences
Naturelles.

Mapison—Bulletins of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural
History Survey.

MapbrAs—Report of the Government Museum of Madras, 1919-20.

MELBOURNE— Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria.

Mexico—<Anales del Instituto Geologico de Mexico.

MicHigAN—Report of the Michigan Academy of Science.

NEw HAVEN

Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Art
and Sciences, 1921.
New York-—Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.
‘5 The Geographical Review (Monthly).
NictHEROY—<Achivos de escola Superior de Agricultura e Medica
Veterinaria, 1920.
Ouio—The Ohio Journal of Science.

Exchanges, 165

OrrawA—Memoirs of the Canadian Geological Survey.

, Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Canada, Depart-

ment of Mines.
+ Publications of the Canadian Department of Agriculture.
Papova (Italy)—Atti della Accademia Scientifica.
PHILADELPHIA—Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia.
ns Proceedings of the American Philosophical

Society.

Pisa—(Italy;—Atti della Societa Tescana di Scienze Naturali.

Pusa—Reports of the Agricultural Research Institute, 1919-20.

RENNES—Bulletin de la Societe Geologique.

Rio DE JANEIRO—Report of the National Museum of Brazil.

ROCHESTER (N.Y.)—Proceedings of the Rochester Academy of
Science.

San FRAaNctisco—Proceedings of the California Academy of
Science.

St. LEonaRDS—Report of the Hastings and St. Leonards’ Natural
History Society, 1919-20.

Str. Lours—Bulletins of the Missouri Botanical Garden.

“4 Public Library Monthly Bulletin and Annual Report.
TacuBAyA—Anuario del Observatorio Astronomico Nacional de
Tacubaya.

Torquay—Journal of Torquay Natural History Society.
ToronTo—Transactions of the Royal Canadian Institute.
ViENNA—Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich-koniglichen Geologischen
Reichsanstalt, 1914-1918.
“6 Verhandlungen der Geologischen Staatsanstalt, 1920.
W ASHINGTON—Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution.
i Annual Report of the United States National
Museum. -
a Bulletins of the Bureau of American Ethnology.
ee Bulletins of the Smithsonian Institution.

166 Bxchanges.

Contributions from the United States National
Herbarium.

a Proceedings of the United States National
Museum.

Srhithsonian Institution, Miscellaneous Collections.

Year Book of the United States Department of
Agriculture, 1920.

Smithsonian Physical Tables, 7th Edition.

‘ Publications of the United States Geological
Survey.
YorK—Annual Report of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society,
1920.

ZuricH (Switzerland)—Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforchenden
Gesellachaft in Zurich.

W ASHINGTON

167

_ SHAREHOLDERS AND MEMBERS.

[* Denotes Holders of three or more Shares. |

la # Members of Archaeological Section. |
aAcheson, F. W., Cloneevin, Dundalk
aAdams, Rev. Wm., M.A., The Manse, ; Antrim
* Alexander, Francis, B.E., Belfast
Alderdice, Richard Sinclaire, 124 Linenhall Street, do.
Allworthy, S. W., m.p., Mnaor House, Antrim Road, do,

* Anderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. (Representative of),
Holywood, Co. Down

aAnderson, Frank, M.B.8., Willoughby Terrace, Portadown
aAndrews, Michael C., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.G.S., Orsett,
Derryvolgie Avenue, Belfast

Andrew, John J., L.D.S., R.C.S.ENG., 23 University Square, do.
aAndrews, Miss Elizabeth, 10 Park Crescent, Tonbridge, Kent

Armstrong, Hamilton, Corlea, Ashley Park Belfast
aAtkinson, Arthur 8., Dromana, Knockdene Park, do

- Baird, Major William, Royal Avenue, do.
Beaumont, Ivor, A.R.C.A., School of Art, do.
aBennett, S.A., B.A., B.SC., Campbell College, do.
aBerry, Colonel, M.R.1.A., Ardluin, Newcastle
Bigger, Francis J,. M.R.1.4., Ardrigh, Antrim Road, Belfast
Bingham, John A., m.P.S.1., 43 Donegall Place, do.
aBlackwood, W. B., Ebony Grange, Deramore Park S., do.
aBlake, R. F., F.1.c., 4 Knock Road, do.
Boyd, Thornton, Blackstaff Spinning Company, do
*Boyd, J, St. Clair, m.p. (Representatives of), do.
Boyd, John, San Remo, Holland Park, Neill’s Hull, do.
Brandon, H. B., T.P., Rosemount House, Antrim Road, do.

aBrett, Sir Charles H., Lu.p., Gretton Villa, South, Malone Road,
| Belfast

168 Shareholders and Members.

aBrett, The Venerable Archdeacon, M.A., Montrose,

Fortwilliam Park, Belfast
aBristow, James R., M.A., Woodville Malone Park, do.
Bristow, John, 4 College Square North, do.
*Brown, George B., Lisnamaul, Ormeau Road, do.
Brown, J., M.A., B.SC., 33 Marlborough Park (centre), do.
Burden, S. Hall, 8 Alfred Street, do.
aBurrowes, W. B., Ballynafeigh House, Ravenhill Road, — do.
aByrne, J. Edwards, 37 Royal Avenue, do.
Calwell, R. I., 0.B.E., B.E., M.1.C.E., Carninard, Annadale

Avenue, do.
Campbell, A. A., Drumnaferrie, Rosetta Park, dn.
*Campbell, Miss Anna (Representatives of), do.
Campbell, John, Innishowen, Donegall Park, do.
aCarmody, Rev. Canon, M.A., The Rectory, Lisburn
Carr, A. H. R., 224 Donegall Place, Belfast
aCarter, C. S., 7 Knockbreda Road, do.
aCarter, H. R. 28 Waring Streot, do.
*Charley, Phineas H., Coolbeg, Cultra, Co. Down
*Christen, Mrs. Rodolphe, St. Imier, Brig of Cairn, Ballater, N.B.
Clark, Sir George 8., Bart., D.L., Dunlambert, Belfast
Clarke, E. H., 69 Marlborough Park S., do.
aCleland, A. McI., Macedon, Green Road, Knock, do.
Crawford, Sir William, J.p., Mount Randal, do.
aCrawford, W. M., Orissa, Marlborough Park, do.
Corbett, Miss K. M., Ardsallagh, Derryvolgie Avenue, do.
Combe, Barbour & Co,, Ltd., do.
Craig, Humbert J., 5 Wellington Place, do.
aCromie, Thomas, M.D., Clough, Co. Down
Crymble, H., 40 Wellington Place, Belfast
aCunningham, Right Hon. S., Fern Hill, Ballygo-

martin Road, do.

Dalzell, James, 4 Tokio Gardens, Chichester Park, do,

_ Shareholders and Members. 169

Davies, A. C., Lenaderg House, Banbridge, Co. Down
aDavis, Colonel, 21 Malone Park, Belfast
Davison, A. H., F.A.1., 32 Wellington Place, do.
aDeane, Arthur, Municipal Art Gallery and Musem,

Royal Avenue, do
*Deramore, Lord, D.L.
Despard, V. D., 10 Academy Street, do.
Devoto. V. A., Kilmorna, Glastonbury Avenue, do.
Dickson, S. E., 9 Donegall Square West, do.
Dixon, Professor, M.A., SC.D, F.R.S., St. Ives, Bladon Drive, do.
*Donegall, Marquis of (Representatives of), do.
Doran, Councillor J. A., J.p., Ardavon, Antrim Road, do.
*Downshire, Marquis of, The Castle, Hillsborough, Co. Down
Duffin, Adam. LL.D., J.P., Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast
Dunleath, Lord, Ballywalter Park, Ballywalter, Co. Down
Dwerryhouse, Dr., University College, Reading

Karls, Professor J., B.A., Municipal College of Technology, Belfast

Elliott, A., Englewood, Marlborough Park S., do.
Ewart, G. Herbert, M.A, J.P., Firmount, Antrim Road, do.
Ewart, Fred W., M.A., B.L., Derryvolgie, Lisburn
Ewart, Sir Robert, Bart., Glenmachan House, Belfast
Elliott, E. J., The Towers, Donegall Park Avenue, do.
aFaren, William, F.R.S.A.1., 454 Waring Street, do.
Fee, David A., J.p., Baythorpe, Holywood
*Fenton, Francis G., Paris
aFerguson, G. W., C.E., J.P., Carnamenagh, Antrim Road, Belfast
Finlay, Archibald, H Willesden, Holywood
Finlay, Mrs. Fred W., Wolfhill House, Ligoniel, Belfast
Finlay, Robert H. F., Victoria Square, Belfast
Finlay, W. J., 10 High Street, do.
Finnegan, John M., B.A., BS.C., 23 Botanic Avenue, do.
Fitzsimons, N., 92 Myrtlefield Park, do.

Forsythe, J., Lisadell, Cliftonville Road, do,

170 Shareholders and Members.

aFrazer, Kenneth J., Hillmount, Cullybackey
Fry, W. Arthur, High Street, Holywood
Fulton, G. F., Arlington, Windsor Avenue, Belfast

Gamble, James, Broadway Damask Co., Ltd. (Reps. of), do.

Geale, R. G., 40 Wellington Park, do.
*Getty, Edmund (Representative of), do.
Gibson, Andrew, F.R.S.A.I., Fairfield, Lansdowne Road, do,
Gibson, S., J.P., Summerhill, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
Gibson W.. Hy, O,BsE DiS, H.C. E.INST.P., York

Street Flax Spinning Co., Belfast
Gibson, W. K., 16 Chichester Street, do.
Gilmore, William E., 114 Somertou Road, do.
Goldsbrough, J. B., Central Public Library, do.
Gordon, Malcolm, Dunarnon, University Road, do.
Gourlay, R. J., Central Publie Library, do.
Green, H. Percy, Limehurst, Holland Park, Knock
aGreen, W. A., 4 Salisbury Avenue, Belfast
aGreeves, F. M., Garranard, Strandtown, do.
aGrecves, Joseph M., Bernagh, Circular Road, do.
aGreeves, Arthur, Altona, do.
aGreeves, John Theo., Nendrum, Knockdene Park, do.
aGreeves, W. Leopold, Rockfleld, Dundonald
Grogan, James, 2 Orient Gardens, Belfast
Grogan, J., junior, do. do

Gullan, H. F., M.1.c.£., Mount Pleasant, Stranmillis Road, do.

Hale, W. Barcroft, 6 Salisbury Gardens, do.
*Hall, Frederick H., Waterford
Hamilton, Rt. Hon. and Rev. Thomas, M.A., D.D., LL.D.,
Vice-Chancellor Queen’s University, Belfast
*Hamilton, Hill, s.p. (Representatives of), do.
Hanson, W. M., St. John’s Villa, Holland Park, do.
Harland, Capt. W., 4 Psalter Lane. Sherfield

aHarrison, W. J., Waringfield, Moira, Co, Down

Shareholders and Members. leva

aHastings, S. R., 3,p., Church Street, Downpatrick
Hastings, Archibald, 7 Cavehill Road, Belfast
Hawthorne, John, B.A., PH.D., F.1.0., 16 Donegall SquareS., do.
Hayward, Harold R., Hopefield House, Antrim Road, do.
Henderson, J. W., m.A., Methodist College, do.
aHenry, Professor R. M., M.A., M.R.1I.A., Crosshill,

Windsor Avenue North, do.
aHenry, T. W., F.s.ARCH., Greenbank, Mountpleasant, do.
Herdman, E. C., Carricklee House, Strabane
*Herdman, Robert Ernest, J.p., Merronhurst, Craigavad, Co. Down
aHeron, F. Adens, Maryfield, Holywood
aHewton, John, M.P.s.1., Ava Pharmacy, 315 Ormeau Rd., Belfast
Heyn, James A. M., Head Line Buildings, Belfast
Higginson, R. E., 20 Waring Street, do.
aHill, Dr. S. W., 46 Pound Street, Larne
Hind, John, 22 Cliftonville Road, Belfast
aHogg, A. R., 10 Thorndale Avenue, do.
Hodges, Miss, Old Spout Farm, Rotherfield, Sussex
aHolness, John J., 26 Ava Street, Belfast
Honneyman, — 18 Halstein Drive, Ballyhackamore, do.
Hoskins, A. Percy, F.1.C., F.C.S.. 14 Rosetta Park, do.

Houston, John Blakiston, D.L., J.P. (Representatives of),
Orangefield, do.

*Hughes, Edwin (Representatives of), Craigavad, Co. Down
Hummel, Professor, Queen’s University, Belfast
Hunter, Dr. J. A., 6 Stranmillis Road, do.
Hunter, William, J.p., Fortwilliam Villas, do.
Treland, J. Herbert, 107 South Parade, do.
Irwin, A., Cripples’ Institute, Donegall Road, do.
Jaffé, Sir Otto, J.P., LL.D., 10 Donegall Square S., do.
aJaffé, W. 10 Donegall Square South, : do.

Jamieson, Andrew (Andrew Jamieson, Ltd.), Sandy Row, do.
Jenkins, J. C., 86 University Road, do,

172 Shareholders and Members.

Johnston, Samuel A., J.pP., Dalraida, Whiteabbey, Co. Antrim

Jones, E. Stanley, 4 Donegall Square North, Belfast
Jones, H. H., 2 Wilmont Terrace, do.
aJury, P. M., Brooklands, Dunmurry
Kennedy, W. Charles, Plasmerdyn, Holywood
aKendall, S. O., 47 Adelaide Park, Belfast
*Kinghan, John R., Windsor Avenue (Representatives. of), do.
Kinkead, G. W., Chellowdene, Jordanstown, do.
Kyle, Robert Alexander, 15 Wellington Park, do.
Laird, Professor J., M.A.. 4 Cranmore Gardens, do.
Larmor, Sir Joseph, M.A., D.SC., LL.D., F.R.A.S., Sec. RB.S.,

St. John’s College, Cambridge
aLawlor, H. C., M.R.1.4., 8 Windsor Avenue, Belfast
aLepper, R. S., M.A.. F.R.HIST.S., Elsinore, Crawfordsburn,

Co. Down
Lewars, 1). B., 17 Dundela Gardens, Bloomfield, Belfast
Lindsay, Professor J. A., M.A., M.D., Queen’s Elms, do.
aLindsay, W. A., M.P., Lindsay, Bros., Donegall Place, do.
aLoewenthal, John, Lennoxvale, Malone Road, do.
Loughridge, James, 173 Cliftonville Road do.
Lowry, David E., Oakley, Strandtown
*Maerory, A. J., (Representatives of), Belfast
Magill, John E., Eversley, Whitehead
aMackie, James, J.P., Albert Foundry, Belfast
Malcolm, Bowman, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., Inver, Ashley Park,

Antrim Road, ‘do.
Malcomson, Herbert, Rivers'de, Holywood
Matthew, J. A., 204 Upper Newtownards Road, Belfast
Maxton, James, M.I.N.A., M.I.MAR.E., 49 Victoria Street, do.
aMayes, William, Kenmuir, 12 Deramore Park South, do.
Mayne, H. Horner, 24 Elmwood Avenue, do

aMercier, Ald. S. T., 3.p., 2 Mount Clifton, Cliftonville Rd., do

. Shareholders and Members. 173

aMerrick, A. S., 18 Wellington Park, Belfast
Metcalfe, A. W., Hawthornden House, Hawthornden Road, do.
Milligan, A., 4 Cooke Street, do.
Mitchell, Robert A., LL.B., T.c.D., Marmount. Strandtown, do.
Moffett, Joseph, 32 Great Victoria Street, do.
Moneypenny, Sir Frederick. c.B.E., C.v.0., City Hall, do.
aMontgomery, Miss E. S., 26 College Green, do.
aMontgomery, H. C., 40 Rosemary Street, do.
aMontgomery, H. H., |7 Malone Park, do.
Moore, Harold M., 26 Wellington Place, do.
aMorton, Professor W. B., M.A., Glencarse, Nottinghill, do.
Muir, A. H., 7 Donegall Square West, do.
Mullan, William, Lindisfarne, Marlborough Park, do.
*Murphy, Isaac James (Representatives of), Armagh
*Murphy, Joseph John (Representatives of), Belfast
*Musgrave, Henry, D.L., Drumglass, Malone, do.
aMacalister, Professor, R.A.S., D.LITT., M.A., 18 Mount

Eden Road, Donnybrook, Dublin
McBride, A. H., Ormeau Avenue, Belfast
*McCalmont, Robert (Representatives of), London

*McCammon, Thos. P. (Representatives of), Plaisted,
Woodvale, Holywood, Co. Down

McCance, Captain Stouppe, 4 Markham Square, London, 8.W.3
McClintock, Major S. A., M.D., D.A.D.H., R.A.MC.,

Castle Quarter, Inch Island, Co. Donegal
aMcCoy, B., 84 Smithfield, Belfast
McCoy, W. RB. S., 27 Damascus Street, do.
*McCracken, Francis (Representatives of),
aMacready, H. L., M.A., 104 Myrtlefield Park, Belfast
aMcGowan, Thomas R., 73 Ann Street, do.
Macllwaine, Dr. John E., 26 College Gardens, do.
MacKenzie, W. G., A.R.H.A., The Studio, Clarence

Place Hall, ‘ do.
aMcKisack, H. L., M.p., Chlorine Place, do.

MacLaine, Alexander, J.P., Queen's Elms
(Representatives of), do,

174 Shareholders and Members.

aMcMeekin, Adan, J.P., Cogry House, Doagh
MacMillen, Rev. J., M.A., D.D., 151 Ravenhill Road, Belfast
McMullan, P. J., J.p., Churchfield, Holywood
McNeill, George, 12 Deramore Park, Belfast
Napier, N. J. F., M.1.c.E., City Hall, + sO:
Nelson, Captain G. M., 2 Howard Street, do.
Newel, J., F., 25 Lombard Street, do.
Nicholl, J. W., 25 High Street, do.
Nicholl, William, 10 St. James’ Street do.
aNolan, Dr. M. J., Asylum, Downpatrick
O'Neill, J. B., 26 Cromwell Road, Belfast
Orr, Dr. Gawin, Ballylesson, do.
Orr, James, 17 Garfield Street, do.
aOsborne, T. Edens, F.R.S.A.1., 4 College Square N., do.
Owen, D. J., Harbour Office, do.
Patterson, Mrs. Isabella, Glenard, Holywood, Co. Down
Patterson, John F., 2 Mountcharles, Belfast

Patterson, Robert, M.R.LA., F.Z.S., M.B.0.U., Glenbank, Holywood
Patterson, William H. F., Auburn, Warren Road, Donaghadee

aPercival, R. D., 3.p., Karyhill, Downpatrick
Pomeroy, A. G., M.A., Arnside, Dundonald
Porter, J. W., 35 Templemore Avenue, Belfast
aPringle, A., P. K. Arm, Ltd., Bedford Street, do.
aRiddell, Alexander, 12, Lower Crescent, do.
aRiddell, Henry, M.£., M.1.Mech.&., 64 Great Victoria St., do.
Roberts, J. R., 43 Fitzwilliam Street, ~ do.
Robertson, G. S., D.Sc., Queen’s University, do.

Robinson, E. G., 1 Ashville, Inver Avenue, Antrim Road, do.
aRoden, Countess of, Tullymore Park, Newcastle, County Down’
Rutherford, Rev. J. C., B.A., 18 Lisburn Road, Belfast

Salter, Victor, 6 Pickie Terrace, Bangor

. Shareholders and Members. 175

Savage, Arthur, Westhorpe, Cherryvalley, Belfast
Scott, James, B.E., Craigtara, Annadale Avenue, do.

aSearle, G. O., B.sc., Research Institute, Glenmore House, Lambeg
Sinclair, Prof. Thomas, M.D., F.R.C.S., Eng., University Sq., Belfast

aSinclair, Thomas, J.P., Lisburn
Sinclair, John, Mount Donard, Windsor Park, Belfast
aSkillen, Joseph, The Lisnagarvey Linen Co., Lisburn
Small, Professor James, D.SC., Queen’s University, Belfast
Stanley, Major Rupert, Municipal College of Technology, do.
Steen, William, B.L., Roseberry, Marlborough Park, do.
aStephens, Captain J. K., 13 Donegall Square N.., do.
aStevenson, John, Coolavin, Malone Road, do.
Stirling James H., Ardenreagh, Windsor Avenue, do.
aStendall, Sidney, Museum, College Square North, do.
Stelfox, Arthur W., A.R.1.B.A., 14 Clareville Rd., Rathgar, Dublin
Stewart, A. W., Seaforde, Park Road, Belfast
Stewart, Prof. A. W., M.A., D.SC., Queen’s University, do.
Swanston, William, F.G.s., Farm Hill, Dunmurry

aSymmers, Professor W. St. C., 23 Windsor Avenue, Belfast

aTate, L. M., M.p., Infirmary House, Downpatrick
aTate, Dr. W. P., ue do.
Taylor, A. E., 20 Cranmore Gardens, Lisburn Road, Belfast
aTaylor, James, 6 Royal Avenue, Belfast
*Tennent, Robert (Representative of), Rushpark, do.
*Tennent, Robert James (Representative of), Rushpark, do
Thomas, S. L., 3.P., 4 Downshire Park, Bangor
aThompson, Edward, Prospect Mills, Belfast
Thompson, John, J.p., Mountcollyer, Malone Road, do.
aThompson, Joseph Altorf, Holywood Road, do.
Thompson, J. M., 4 Milton Terrace, Wolsley Street, do.
Thompson, S. B., J.p., Piney Ridge, Malone Road, do.
Thomas, Trevor C., 6 Chichester Street, zs do.
Totten, J. H., B.A., B.SC., F.1.C., 16 Donegall Square S., do.

Torrens, T. H., 10 College Square N., do,

176 Shareholders and Members.

Trimble, Dr. A., J.p., Tyn Owen, Downview Avenue. Belfast
Todd, Robert G., 1 Mount Easton, Cliftonville, do:
aTurner, S., junior, 142 Cliftonpark Avenue, do.
Turnley, Francis, Drumnasole, Carnlough
aWalker, Franklin M., Mount Royal, ‘Whitehead
Ward, William C., Seafield, Raglan Road, Bangor
aWallace, Colonel, Myra Castle, : Downpatrick
*Webb, Richard (Representative of), Knock, Belfast
White, Charles E., 10 Donegall Square West, do.
White, G. W., Chatsworth; Balmoral Avenue, do.
aWhite, J. C., Right Hon., J.P., Craigavad

Whitla, Prof. Sir William, M.p., M.D., J.p., Lennoxvale, ‘Belfast
aWilson, Prof. Gregg, 0.B.K., M.A., PH.D., D.:SC., M.R.I.A.,

Queen’s University, do.
aWilson, George. 17 Bedford Street, do.
Wilson, W., J.p., Chamber of Commerce, do.
*Wilson, W. Percival (Representative of), do.
*Wolff, G. W. (Representatives of), do.
Woodhouse, William, 24 Evelyn Gardens, Cavehill Road, do.
Workman, Francis, The Moat, Strandtown, do.
Workman, John, J.P., Lismore, Windsor Avenue, do.
*Workman, T. (Representative of),

Workman, W., 8 Corporation Street, do.
Wren, Prof. H., M.A., D.SC., PH.D., Municipal College of

Technology, do.

Wright, W.S., 71 Marlborough Park, do.

a*Young, Robert Magill, M.A., J.P., M.R.1.A., Rathvarna, do.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Foster, Nevin H., M.R.1A., F.L.s., M.B.0.U., Hillsborough, Co. Down
Swanston, William F.c.s., Farm Hill, Dunmurry
Wright, Joseph, F:G.s., May Street, Belfast
Stendall, J. A. S., M.B.0.U., Museum, College Square, do.

Shareholders and Members Le

ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF TWO GUINEAS.

Belfast Banking Company, Ltd., Belfast
Northern Banking Company, Ltd., do.
Ulster Bank, Ltd., do.

[The Hon. Secretary will be obliged by shareholders and
members notifying him in the event of change of address, or those
whose names are incorrectly set out. Address :—The Museum,
College Square North, Belfast. |

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