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SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS.

ESTABLISHED 1871.

SESSION 1872-78.

PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY
THOMAS SMITH & CO., 257 ARGYLE STREET, GLASGOW.

MDCCCLXXIII.

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Tur Guiascow Society or Fretp Natvratists was established in May
1871, for the advancement and cultivation of the study of the various
branches of Natural History ; for furthering original biological research
among its members; for the elucidation of the Natural History of
Clydesdale, more especially of the obscurer branches of Botany and.
Zoology ; and for the spreading of a love for the study of Nature among
the community. The means adopted for the promotion of these objects
are (1), Meetings for the Exhibition of Specimens and the Reading of
Papers ; (2), Excursions to places of interest in the vicinity of Glasgow ;
and (3), by the formation of Typical Collections of the Smaller forms
of life.

OFFICE=-BEARERS:

FAL is Mian ei aca tes J. Stirton, M.D.
AMG-UUPRMENDG, <2. vccesauscaeede ove J. ALLAN and G. Horne,
APM Sse os, dsrshbvorien thas .<G Baruas.

BUNA, <6 secs oacde. Pane ene oe D. Grecorson.
Ouaatat, &veveceasns: P. Cameron, Jun.

Couil.

Orrice-Brarzrs, and J. Harvise and R. M‘Kay.

ae

ANNUAL REPORT

oF THE
GLASGOW

SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS.

Durine the past year, the work of the Society has been carried on with
vigour. The addition to the number of members has not been great ;.
but the prosperity of such a Society is rather to be measured by the cou
done, than by the increase of its members.

There have been twelve excursions to places in the sisi ieueR oe
the Society, and the results of nearly as many excursions by individual:
members have been recorded. The Society’s excursions were to the fol-
lowing places :—the Shores of the Gareloch ; the Banks of the Forth and
Clyde Canal; Bardowie; Cadder Wilderness; Old Water Works on the
Clyde; Devole’s Glen, near Port-Glasgow ; Possil Marsh and Bardowie;
Tolleross and Kenmuir; Kilmalcolm, by Kilellan and Barochan to:
Houston ; Calderwood. Glen ; Dunoon, for dredging ; and Callander..

As yet the excursions have been rather desultory, ie time devoted: to»
each of them being short; but they have been useful in preparing the way
for a more systematic survey of the district, a task to the performance of
which the members must look forward.

The places visited by individual members (the observations made
during these visits being recorded in the Society’s Minute-book and
Journals), were—Cumbraes, for dredging ; Bute, in the neighbourhood of

6

Ascog; West Coast of Inverness-shire; Ben Lawers, twice visited ;
Arran; Sunderland; Valleys of the Tweed—Kttrick, Teviot, Esk, and
Annan; Troon; and the Shore below Skelmorlie.

During the first few years of the existence of such a Society, the
excursions are necessarily more for the purpose of general observation
than for the purpose of making careful observations, so that at first great
results are not to be looked for. The following reports of the work done
during the year give a summary of the more interesting observations
made.

MARINE ZOOLOGY,
MR. J. HARVIE.

Two dredging excursions took place during the season—one to Cumbrae,
and one to Dunoon ; there was also one, for shore-collecting, to Troon,
At the excursion to Cumbrae several interesting animals were found ;
among others, several specimens of the Cloaklet Anemone, Adamsia
Palliata, attached to the shell inhabited by the Hermit Crab, Pagurus
Prideauxui. One of the largest of these was transferred to an aquarium
by one of the members ; and although the Adamsia did not long survive
the confinement, the Pagurus seemed not at all inconvenienced by the
loss of its companion. Several weeks after the death of the anemone,
a very small specimen of the Pagurus, with a correspondingly small
specimen of Adamsia Palliata attached, was introduced into the tank ;
and next morning, the small Pagwrus was found dead, while the Adamsia
was now seen to be attached to the large Pagurus. It seems generally
believed, that the strange partnership which exists between these two
animals is for the benefit of the anemone; but as in this case the small
erab was found torn in pieces, if was inferred that it had been killed by
the large one, in order to obtain possession of* the anemone which was
adhering to its shell.

tt was observed that the shells in which the largest Pagwri,
and on which the largest Adamsiw were found, were apparently
deprived of a great part of their lime, and had a similar appearance
to shells which had been foy some time in a strong acid, At the same

7

excursion several magnificent specimens of the Actinia Dianthus were
procured.

In a paper, read subsequently at one of the Society’s meetings, con-
siderable exception was taken to the statements so often made with
regard to the extreme voracity of the Actiniade, the writer quoting
several statements to this effect from various authors, and giving, at the
same time, an account of numerous experiments which he had performed
for the purpose of testing the truth of these statements,—all of which led
him to believe that the Actintade were neither so voracious nor so
powerful as was generally believed. He also stated that in no instance
could he discover that the Actintade possessed that power of paralysing
their prey which is so often attributed to them.

ENTOMOLOGY.
MR. P. CAMERON, JUN.

ENTOMOLOGICALLY speaking, 1872 was one of the worst seasons known
to the oldest collector of insects. It commenced bad, and ended worse,
and was discouraging alike to the veteran and the tyro. The spring was
very cold, the summer one continued drizzle ; and although the early
autumn was somewhat better, yet the number of insects did not increase,
and, latterly, some of our collectors became quite disheartened.

Such a season told especially upon a sun-loving order like the Hymen-
optera, which was extremely scarce.

The Humble-Bees were rare all the season. Hight species were cap-
tured :—Bombus lapidarius, seen near Dumbarton; 2. pratorwm, not
uncommon on the sallow catkins at Possil Marsh, in the spring, and,
later, at the flowers of Vacciniwm myrtillus, in Cadder Wilderness. Its
parasite, Apathus Barbutellus, was even more abundant in the same
localities, in the autumn. J. terrestris, one specimen at Tollcross; B.
lucorum, common everywhere; BL. hortorwm, not uncommon at Carmyle,
Tolleross, &c.; B. fragrans, two specimens taken at Possil Marsh—a
female and a worker. Its nest was found there on July 3, and consisted
of an egg-case and a honey-cap, covered over by a dome of dry hay. 3.
senilis, one specimen ; DL. muscorum, very abundant everywhere.

8

The Andrenide were very scarce, except perhaps during May, when
many of the commoner species might have been observed industricusly
providing for their young on the Tollcross Sandhills; and I was par-
ticularly interested in watching the habits of Specodes rufescens, which
constructs its nest in the same manner as its neighbour, Andrena
albicans ; but the genus to which it belongs had been formerly con-
sidered parasitic, through their want of pollenigerous organs.

One morning, in a place on the Sandhills where the bees’ nests are
very thick together, 1 was surprised to see a small Andrena going
bobbing about from nest to nest as if it did not know its own ; but it
discovered it at last, and popped inside. The sun at the time was very
bright.

The Ants did not appear to be one whit less numerous than on
previous years. I was not a little surprised to discover a nest of a
common species among the wet sphagnum in Pogsil Marsh, in a place
which certainly was never dry the whole season, and must occasionally
have been very wet indeed. The nest differed in nowise from those
found in the fields, containing galleries as well as larvee and pupz ; but
how they managed to come to maturity, or how these usually wise
insects could make their nest in such an uncongenial spot, is more than
I can understand. In the nest of another species I was much pleased
to find a colony of Aphides located: the Aphides belonged to a species
which I have found often sucking the roots of grasses.

Wasps were not abundant. Two or three nests of Vespa vulgaris
were noticed between Carmyle and Kenmuir. The other species found
were, V. rufa, at Possil and Tolleross; V. sylvestris, near Strathblane.
The Sand-wasps were nowhere.

The only representative of the Chryside captured, was Omalus ceruleus,
Dbm., which was taken near Paisley.

The Ichneuwmonide, Proctotrupide, and Chalcidide, were very feebly
represented. Regarding the transformations of the Chalcidide, I have
ohserved that they have two kinds of pup, which differ principally
in the manner in which they are enveloped when in that condition, The
one form I have only found in hard woody galls, which they do not
leave until the perfect state is reached, and are invested merely in a
thin transparent pellicle, which is almost invisible when cast off, like
the pupe of the Cynipide ; while the other is enclosed in a thick, hard,
black skin, like the obtected chrysalis of a moth, to which they have a
very close resemblance indeed ; and when the chalcis quits this case, it
remains hard and firm, and still retaining the shape of the limbs. This

9

appears to be the common manner of pupation with the species which
pass the period of repose in the ground unprotected.

I may also allude to a fact in the economy of a Callimone, which
may throw a little light on its relations towards other insects. In the
spring, I opened a pea-shaped gall found on the underside of an oak
leaf, and found therein a large Callimone, not long freed from the pupal
skin. Beside it was the dead pupa of one of the Cynipide, considerably
crushed and flattened, evidently by its larger companion pressing it
- against the side of the gall, which afforded little enough room for the
parasite itself. As many of the galls found on the same leaf were in-
habited by two larvee of an inquiline, it is probable that this was also
the case with the gall in question, and that the Callimone had devoured
one larva, besides killing the other in the way indicated. I have found
a chalcis and an inquiline together in one gall, and reared them success-
fully ; but in this case the parasite was smaller than the other, or at
least of equal size. Another matter which interested me, and which is
well worth further study, was the manner in which certain Chalcidide
were distributed through the gall-apples of Zeras terminals. Among
the hosts of parasites were four of these insects, which were distributed
in the galls—as might, indeed, be conjectured without actual observa-
tion—in relation to the length of their ovipositors. Thus, a species
without any visible ovipositor was found to inhabit the cells at the
surface, the others tenanting cells nearer the centre, according to the
length of theirs, and culminating in one with an ovipositor four lines in
length, or almost half the diameter of an ordinary gall.

The Cynipide occupied a good deal of my attention, but as they will
be fully discussed in next year’s “ Transactions ”—with, I hope, many
additions—I need not further refer to them here. It may be mentioned,
however, that twenty-five species of true gall makers were found in
the district in 1872. Mr. A. Miller gave, in the Lntomologist’s Annual
for 1872, thirty-two as the number known to inhabit Britain ; so that
our district possesses its fare share of these interesting insects. I can-
not, however, pass over the extraordinary advance Cynips lignicola has
made among us. It is now found almost everywhere, the latest locality
discovered for it being the South-side Park. In 1871, when I first
found it at Kenmuir Bank, many of the galls had the larve picked
out by some bird; but, latterly, I do not remember finding any in
that condition. The larve are said to have a bad odour (but, I
must confess, I never could feel any), which may account for their
preservation.

10

Regarding the writer’s own speciality, the Z’enthredinide, it is painful
to speak of ; a more disheartening task than hunting for saw-flies could
scarcely be imagined. From early spring to the beginning of June
scarcely half a dozen species were captured. On his return from a
Highland tour, things began to mend abit. Lyda pratensis, L., was
taken in the Paisley Moss-Wood, which is unfortunately being cut
down. TZenthredo zonata, Panz, was beaten out of an oak at Kenmuir ;
while Possil Marsh yielded Zenthredo obsoleta, Klug, which is not only
new to the district, but to Britain, In all probability it will be mixed
up, in collections, with the allied species, Z. viridis, L., to which it
has someresemblance. Leptocerca Alni, L., and Cresus septentrionalis, L.,
were taken at Cadder Wilderness. The other species taken need
scarcely be described, as they are generally distributed. Sirex gigas, L.,
was taken in a shipbuilding yard at Port-Glasgow, evidently imported
in timber.

I may here mention a curious incident. One day I beat a number
of Athalia rose, L., out of some bushes. On examining them at home,
I was surprised to find among them some dipterous insects, which bore
a remarkable resemblance to A. rosw, and had, in point of fact, been
bottled for that insect. The resemblance was not merely superficial ;
the two-winged fly had smoky wings, with black stigma, black thorax,
and reddish abdomen, short black antenne, all like the saw-fly ; the
tarsi were all black—not merely the half of the joints, as in rose ; but,
with this exception—and, of course, the difference in the number of
‘wings—the “mimicry ” was remarkably close ; and it would be easy to
pick out some of the Selandrias to which the likeness would be still
closer. Further, a number of rose were given me by a collector, and
among them was this Dipteron; so it is evident they have the same
haunts, but whether it is a true case of mimicry or of mere resemblance,
as is most likely, it is impossible to say, without some knowledge of their
respective life histories.

The abundance of saw-fly larve during August and the rest of the
autumn, made up somewhat for the paucity of the perfect insects during
the earlier part of the season. About sixty different kinds were found ;
but as the imagos have not yet made their appearance, an account will
be given of the rarer species in the next Report. One or two, however,
may be mentioned. The larve of one of the forms of Cimbew variabilis
of Klug occurred commonly at Kilmalcolm, on birch, in August. A
Nematus was found inhabiting beautiful pea-shaped galls on Salia pur-
purea, at the Clyde Iron Works, and it is well worth going a journey te

11

see them. Nematus Ribesit, Stph., the gooseberry saw-fly, was commoner
than was desirable on that plant in some of the gardens. A circumstance
well worth further investigation happened while breeding these destruc-
tive larve. About the end of July, all my larve buried themselves in
the earth. A month later, five or six of the imagos made their appear-
ance, and along with them were two specimens of another and quite
distinct species of Vematus, the name of which I cannot make out, and
they do not agree with the descriptions of the other saw-flies, whose larvee
are known to feed on gooseberry and currant bushes. It is, therefore,
evident that the two larve have the same dress, appearance, and habits,
while the perfect insects are totally different.

The most remarkable larve met with, however, was a curious flat
onisciform, greenish creature, found on some alders at Fruin Glen, Loch-
Lomond, late in August, which, on bringing home, I found had been
described first by Dohlbom, then by De Geer and Reaumur ; but neither
of these naturalists had been able: to rear the imago, which remained
unknown until Mr C. Healy traced its history, and it was described
by Mr Newman as Camponiscus Healen.

My experience with the Coleoptera consisted of such species as came
across my path while searching for Hymenoptera. A single damaged
specimen of Pterostichus lepidus was captured in its old haunts on the
Tolleross Sandhills, which, unfortunately for naturalists, are being exten-
sively dug out. Dytiscus punctulatus occurred at Possil Marsh ; Apho-
dius rufipes, abundantly in dung below Carmyle ;, Hypera pologoni, a
rare beetle in this quarter, was taken by sweeping in the Paisley Moss-
wood; Hylobius abietes, rare on firs at Lambhill, where its days. are
evidently numbered ; brachytarsus varius, one specimen beaten out of
hazel at Kenmuir. Four Longicornes occurred. Rhagium bifasciatum
was observed flying on the Tollcross Sandhills, evidently from some of
the coal pits ; Grammoptera ruficornis, very common in May at Kenmuir
Wood. Mr King found Pachyta octomaculatus at the Kelvin, near the
old bowling-green. It has not been, I think, recorded for Scotland ; but
it is extremely doubtful if it is a native, and was probably introduced in
some wood. Clytus arvetis was taken, by Mr Crawford, near Hamilton...
A visit was paid to Bardowie Loch, early in July, in-search of Donacia
erassipes, which was, found, as usual, on Vuphar pumila. In the vicinity
of Glasgow I eee Meides this, met with only two species of that genus,
D. sericea and D. bidens, and both were found at the quarry at Lamb-
hill, which, I am sorry to say, is destroyed, and with it, I am afraid, a
good many rareties.

12

A visit to Irvine and Troon, on the Queen’s Birthday, in company
with Mr Dunsmore, yielded some good beetles, but no Hymenoptera.
Dyschirius tmpunctipennis and Bembidium pallidipenne were found most
abundantly on the moist sand near the sea; Broscus cephalotes, of course
everywhere ; Onthophagus nuchicornis, rare in dung ; Agialia arenaria,
very common ; Phyllopertha horticola, rare ; Helioparthes gibbus, very
common in the pits.

Mr James King has furnished me with the following list of his best
captures among the Lepidoptera :—

Lupithecia Indigator, at Possil; Ypsipetes ruberata, Haglesham, but
getting exterminated ; * Cidaria populata, Cadder Wilderness; Jiana
arenosa, common on banks of Canal at Maryhill; Scoparia muralis,
Possil Marsh; Perenia schalleriana, St. Germans Loch; Letinia pini-
vorand, Possil ; Dicrorampha Herbosana, Possil ; Cochylis Smeath-
manniana, Possil; Argyresthia Gedertalla, Possil and Kelvin; A.
Brocheella, Possil; Gracilaria smederella, Possil ; Pterophori bipuncte-
dactylus, Possil Marsh.

Speaking generally, most of the other orders appeared in diminished
numbers, and this seemed to be more particularly the case with the
Diptera, except one blood-thirsty species which tormented my existence in
Cadder Wood.

Among the Meuroptera, the occurrence of @schna varia, which was
captured, far from its native element, in Buchanan Street, must not be
passed over.

Both Stalis lutaria and S. fuliginosa occur in the district.

While out in Bardowie Loch, in July, searching the water-lilies for D.
crassipes, | was covered with multitudes of a small pure white species of
Ephemera, or May-fly, which rose out of the water in shoals, and fell on
me like flakes of snow, while others alighted on the plants, stones, &c.,
on the side of the water, where they cast off their skins. This was about
five o'clock.

I do not recollect seeing any grasshoppers other than Tettia bipunctata,
which was taken abundantly on the Gareloch, at the beginning of April,
and, in July, near Milngavie.

* It is to be hoped, not by collectors.—P.C.

13

BOTANY.
MESSRS R. M‘KAY AND G. HORNE.

In the Botanical section, owing to the previous industry of many well-
known local botanists, little has been done by way of adding to the flora
of the district. Indeed, from the. alterations taking place by the exten-
sion of the city and other necessary causes, many of our favourite stations
are fast disappearing. Kelvin woods, Possil and Stonelaw quarries, are
among these. We are sorry at being able to add that other localities
have in recent years been closed against us, without, so far as we can
judge, any visible cause. During the past year, Bardowie Loch has thus
been closed.

Of native species not previously recorded, the following have been
authenticated :—Avena pratensis, L., found at Whiting and Machrie
Bays, Arran; Carex watsoni, Syme, near Hamilton and Kenmuir
bank; Mentha viridis, L., abundant near Hamilton; Claytonia
alsinoides, naturalized near Cloch; Astrantia maor, L., naturalized
on Possil Road; Hypochoeris glabra, Li, Whiting Bay, Arran;
and Elymus arenarius, Invercloy, Arran. The two last found by
Dr Syme.

New localities are recorded for the following :—Vvola odorata, L.,
Bothwell Bridge ; Lepidium smithit, Hook., Baldernock ; Gewm inter-
medium, Khr., Carmyle and Bothwell Bridge; Agrimonia Lupatorium,
L., near Hamilton; Arwm maculatum, L., Calderwood Glen; Sedum
villosum, Li., Loch Cochno, Kilpatrick Hills ; Cares laevigata, Sm., near
Shandon, Gareloch; Carew pendula, Huds., Banks of Clyde, opposite
Kenmuir, and near Cloch ; /soétes lacustris, L., Loch Cochno, Kilpatrick
Hills.

As many plants appear occasionally on rubbish-heaps and other doubt-
ful situations, it is thought it might be useful to keep a record of these
appearances, that the history of any which might afterwards become
naturalized could be ascertained. The following is given as a contribu-
tion to such a record:—Reseda lutea, L., Great Western Road, at
Hillhead ; Helleborus viridis, L., Bothwell Woods; Lepidium Draba,
L., near Renfrew; Erysimum orientale, Br., near Clyde Ironworks,
Possil Park, Possil Marsh, and Carmunnock Road ; Saponaria Vaccaria,
L., near Clyde Ironworks, and opposite Dalbeth ; Geranium nodosum, L.,
Bothwell Woods ; Medicago falcata, L., near Renfrew, opposite Dalbeth,

14

and Possil Marsh; Medicago denticulata, Willd., Lochburnie, Possil
Park, Great Western Road; Medicago apiculata, Willd., Possil Park
and Great Western Road; MMelilotus parviflora, Lam., Firhill, Possil
Park, Great Western Road; Melilotus arvensis, Wallr., Inchinnan ;
Trifolium resupinatum, L,, Possil Park ; Vicia lutea, L., near Renfrew ;
Potentilla intermedia, Bothwell Woods; Centaurea solstitialis, L., Loch-
burnie; Doronicum plantagineum, L., Bothwell Woods; Xanthiwm
spinosum, L., Helensburgh ; Campanula rapunculoides, L., near Lang-
side ; Mimulus luteus, L., Cathkin; Lchinospermum Lappula, Lehm.,
near Renfrew ; Lchinospermum deflecum, Lehm., Possil Marsh; Setaria
viridis, Beauv., near Renfrew. Setaria glauca, Beauv. ; Polypogon mons-
peliensis, Desf. ; Apera Spica-venti, Beauv. ; Alopecurus agrestis, L.; and
Phalaris paradoxa, L.,—Great Western Road.

The formation of the Typical Collections mentioned in the following
report by the Curator, will not only be the means of gathering together
the results of the observations made into a more permanent form, but
will also tend to make them more accurate, thus adding greatly to their
value.

CURATOR’S REPORT.

The Council, taking into consideration the great disadvantage under
which Entomologists and other workers at the smaller forms of
life lie in Glasgow, through the want of typical collections, and
seeing no prospect of this desideratum being otherwise supplied,
resolved to undertake this work. As the undertaking was only agreed
upon a few weeks ago, it is now only just begun. But the Curator has
much pleasure in reporting that, even as they are, the collections are of
considerable value. It is to be hoped that the members will further the
scheme as much as possible, and that in the course of time these collections
will be extensive enough to obviate the necessity of beginners sending
their specimens to England for names.

Through the generous and spontaneous gift from Mr John Dunsmore,
the well-known Paisley Entomologist, of 200 species of Tortrices, the
Lepidoptera is well begun. The Curator has presented between 500 and
600 Coleoptera, and an Herbarium of Cryptogamic plants is in course of
formation. In addition to this, the Botanical members of the Society

]

Or

have undertaken to present to the Kelvingrove Museum a collection of
the flowering plants of Clydesdale, and last season they were enabled
to hand over a large number of specimens.

The papers read during the year have been varied and interesting.
Although the work of the Summer Session chiefly consisted of the exhi-
bition of specimens and reports of excursions, yet time was found for
the reading of short papers on the following subjects :—“ The Order
Decapoda of the British Stalk-eyed Crustaceans,” “ How to begin a Salt-
water Aquarium,” ‘“ Explanation of the Principles of the Construction of
the Microscope,” “The Eye and its Modifications in Insects,” and
- When are Plants entitled to be called Indigenous?”

The reading of papers being the object to which the meetings of the
Winter Session are principally devoted, at the beginning of the Session
a syllabus was prepared, and from the success with which the arrange-
ments were carried out, evidence was given of the benefit arising from
having the subjects of the papers previously fixed.

During the Winter Session, papers were read.on the following sub-
jects :—“ On the Present Tendencies of Science;” ‘ On the Distribution
of Plants ;’ ‘‘ A Life History of Nematus Gallicola, with some Account
of its Parasites ;” ‘‘ On Spiders;” “On Zoophytes;” ‘‘On the Exotic
Plants of Clydesdale ;” “On the Definition of Species ;” “ Notes of Ob-
servations in Marine Zoology ;” ‘‘ Notes of Observations with the Micro-
scope ;” ‘“ Botanical Gleanings from the Rubbish-heaps of the City ;”
“ On the Cynipide of the Glasgow District.”

In addition to the ahove, a paper by Dr. Stirton was brought under
the notice of the Society, which the Council resolved on publishing, as it

and

contains an account -of a number of lichens found in New Zealand not
hitherto described.

ADDITIONS TO THE
LICHEN FLORA OF NEW ZEALAND.

DR. J. STIRTON.

Tue following are descriptions of lichens picked out of Several bundles
sent to me by Mr John Buchanan, of the Colonial Museum, Wellington,
New Zealand, to whose assiduity and enthusiasm I can bear ample
testimony.

16

There is every probability of my being able to supplement what is now
given, as Mr Buchanan is diligently prosecuting his researches towards
the interior of the country, where the chances of success are greater, and
where, too, disturbing causes are less at work.

Towards their determination and identification, I have had access to
various works, and, of these, Nylander’s Synopsis has proved most useful,
so far as it goes; but as the literature of the subject is scattered and im-
perfect, I have been thrown pretty much on my own resourses, aided, of
course, by an herbarium, which, although not very extensive, is yet ade-
quate enough to enable me to arrive at tolerably definite conclusions, at
least on the crustaceous lichens. It ought to be stated, also, that two or
three of the most characteristic species are in small quantity, as they
have, in fact, been detected on barks, &c., containing other lichens, for
which they were more immediately sent, and, as a consequence, are con-
fined to a few apothecia.

The botany of Australasia has peculiar attractions for a student in the
northern hemisphere, inasmuch as it may be said to belong to a preced-
ing geological epoch ; and it is curious to notice, that while the phanero-
gamic part of it diverges widely from that of countries in a corresponding
northern European latitude, its cryptogamic part shows closer analogies,
and the more so as we approach the lichens, whose powers of resisting
atmospheric changes and conditions are becoming a subject of closer
study, in proportion as our knowledge of their structure and internal
organization advances. If we are ever to arrive at anything like 2
general comprehension of the spread and distribution of vegetation over
the surface of the earth, I have little doubt that a thorough appreciation
of climacteric changes on the lower organisms will serve to indicate the
movements of the larger waves, so to speak ; and as these are the first
to reveal themselves, I hold that this part of the scale ought to have more
attention paid to it than has hitherto been the case.

The present attempt will have served its purpose, if it merely pro-
vokes discussion of this difficult, yet interesting, section of Botany.

Tt will be seen that no specified order of classification has been
followed ; it is merely that of detection and discrimination.

Lecidea campylospora (Sp. Nova).—Thallus, in one specimen, white
or greyish white, thin, continuous, almost papery (K— C—); in
another, of a darker dingier colour, rimulose areolate, areole flat or
convex, and somewhat granulate. Apothecia elevato-sessile ; concave
and contracted, in a young state, afterwards expanded and flat, or even
somewhat convex ; caesio-pruinose, border thick, rounded and inflexed.

17

Spores four, six, or eight, colourless, very large, bent at middle, one sep-
tate, with, in many instances, nuclei in the loculi, epispore crenulate ;
paraphyses dense, capillary ; hypothecium pale yellow, grumous,
subtended by the dense black receptacle-—This is evidently allied to
Lecidea marginifleca (Taylor), although quite distinct. On trees at an
elevation of 1000 feet.

Lecidea fuscolutea (Dicks.).—The chemical reactions are identical,
viz., K. thallus, yellow; apothecia, crimson. The hypothecium is darker
than specimens from Ben Lawers.—On trees, 1000 to 1500 feet.

Lecanora chrysosticta (Taylor) is mentioned for the purpose of re-
cording the fact of its growing along with the preceding on the bark of
the same tree. As regards their internal organization, the two lichens
are identical, and it is only when the thallus and thalline margin of the
latter are considered, that the question of generic difference is forced
upon the attention. The chemical reactions are algo identical, and, as
showing still further the close organic affinity between the two, there are
seen, scattered on the thallus of the former, spermogones without
the thalline margin, while on the latter are seen the same, with an
elevated thalline margin. I may have another opportunity of returning
to this subject, which is beginning to interest me, inasmuch as I can
point to other instances having a similar association.

Beomyces pertenuis (Sp. Nova).—Thallus scarcely discernible. Apo-
thecia pale buff, concave with a paler border, attached by a central axis ;
spores eight, exceedingly minute, elongato-elliptical, apparently simple,
although there are occasional indications of a septum which a } objective
cannot distinctly resolve, in nearly single file in asci, which scarcely
differ in size or thickness from the ordinary paraphyses. A section pre-
sents the characteristic appearance of lichens of this genus. In such an
extreme case as this, it is necessary to remark that I have carefully dis-
criminated between the oil globules that are seen in the paraphyses of
one or two of the species of this genus and these minute spores, which
still preserve their outline when free of the asci, and which, by the aid
of a better objective, I find now are nearly constantly three septate.—On
trunks of trees, apparently those of some species of tree fern.

Squamaria thawmasta (Sp. Nova).—Thallus greyish white, tesselato-
areolate, consisting of roundish wmbonate particles, closely set together,
and yet quite distinct ; cephalodia large, reddish brown, cracked in a
radiating manner, and roundly lobed at the circumference ; apothecia
small, elevato-sessile, concave, reddish brown, rugose, with an elevated,
smooth, inflexed border ; spores eight, colourless, broadly elliptical,

18

uniserial, one septate.—A beautiful lichen, and one that might constitute
the type of a new genus. On stones in dry creeks, 200 feet.

Lecidea Otagensis ? (Nyl.).—Thallus greyish white, smooth, thin and
nearly continuous ; apothecia black, sessile, slightly concave, margined,
afterwards slightly convex and immarginate, and somewhat rugose ;
spores eight, irregularly fusiform, thicker at one end, and shaped like an
italian f; septa varying from two to six; hypothecium pale ; paraphyses
not distinct, their apices black and closely matted together, as in many
others of the New Zealand lichens.

The shape of the spores as indicated above is constant throughout
several specimens examined, and it is noticeable that the curve at the
thicker end is invariably that of a shorter radius vector.

Until Isaw Dr Lauder Lindsay’s paper, in the Hdinburgh Philosophical
Transactions, On Lichens and Fungi of New Zealand, I felt satisfied in
identifying this lichen with LZ. Otagensis, from Dr. Nylander’s descrip-
tion; but the shape of the spores, as figured by Dr. Lindsay, is quite at
variance with what I have seen and described. The whole of a thin
section has a dingy aspect, and the hypothecium is not dingier than the
rest, perhaps more pellucid.—On trees, 1000 to 1500 feet.

Lecidea insidens (Sp. Nova).—Thallus white, smooth, investing the
leaves of Dicranum Menzies with a continuous layer, to which, also, the
apothecia are attached by a central point; apothecia reddish brown,
rugose, plane, surrounded by a smooth prominent border of the same
colour ; hypothecium pale red, grumous ; spores eight, colourless,
sphaerical, muralilocular; paraphyses discrete.

‘The spores are muralilocular, and not merely coarsely granular, while
their outline, when free, is, in the great majority of cases, circular,
although a few are to be seen somewhat oblong. The paraphyses are
thickened at their apices, where they are of a brown colour, and matted
together.

Lecidea kelica (Sp. Nova).—Thallus greyish white, thin, minutely
rimuloso-areolate; areola smooth, flat, or somewhat convex (K— C—);
apothecia bright yellow (K, red), convex, immarginate, generally clustered
and then deformed ; hypothecium pale; spores eight, straight or curved,
colourlesss, elongato-elliptical, almost sub-cylindrical, one septate ; para-
physes indistinct, with reddish brown apices,

This lichen is peculiar in having attached to the hypothecium, or
indeed forming part of it, little cushions composed of green granular
matter, not gonidiac cells, but rather as if their granular contents were
set free—granula gonima, in fact; so that a microscopic preparation

ab

eapable of showing the asci and spores, has, to the naked eye, a bright
lemon colour throughout. IJ cannot see the slightest trace of a margin
even in very young apothecia, and, as the reaction is always as indicated
above, I have no doubt this lichen is distinct, although it has certain
affinities to LZ. Ehrhartiana (Ach.). On trees.

Lecidea amphorodes (Sp. Nova).—Thallus dark ashy grey, rimulose,
thin. Apothecia small, black, prominent, flat in a young state, and
smooth, with a slight border; convex, immarginate and rugose, when
mature. Section of apothecium pale throughout, seated on a brownish
grumous stratum; paraphyses scattered, distinct, colourless, filiform,
densely matted together at their thickened apices; asci pyriform, lower
extremity attenuated and easily detached, walls composed of a double
hyaline membrane, with a broad intervening space resembling, in this
respect, the epispore in Lecidea sunguinaria ; spores large, four, six or
eight, in asci oblong-cylindrical, multiseptate, with longitudinal septa.

A remarkable phenomenon is seen in a microscopical preparation of
this lichen, of some months’ standing, viz., filaments are seen arising from
many detached spores—/irst, from the extremities; second, from the septa, |
or ina line with them. Whether this is the result of germination or not, I
cannot determine, as I have very few apothecia left, and do not care to
destroy more until I see whether it is possible to secure other specimens.
—A very distinct and curious lichen. On trees.

Lecidea maculosa (Sp. Nova).—Thallus whitish, thin, determinate,
continuous or slightly rimulose, somewhat ragulose (K y C y); hypo-
thallus black ; apothecia black, sessile, flat, moderate, separate or
conjoined, with a prominent black margin ; spores eight, colourless, the
great majority curved, ellipsoid, one septate ‘(016 < 007 m m.; para-
plyses slender, distinct, with black very much enlarged, club-shaped ex-
tremities, which are matted together ; thalamium pellucid; hypothecium
a beautiful reddish brown, subtended by a pale stratum, which rests on
the black entire exciple.—On bark, Wellington.

On the same piece of bark were detected a few apothecia of Lecidea
melanotropa (Nyl.), having their characteristic appearance. In all
specimens of the latter lichen that I have seen, the epithecium alone
turns livid, while the smooth margin ret:ins its pale colour.

Lecidea implicata (Sp. Nova).—Thallus white, smooth, thin, glaucous,
rimulose (K—- C—); apothecia large, sessile, flat or somewhat convex,
pale buff colour, pruinose, rugose, border smooth, somewhat inflexed ;
paraphyses distinct, filiform, densely matted together, and giving off
lateral laments; hypothecium yellowish brown; spores eight, colourless,

20

elliptical, large, simple, coarsely granular. Disk of apothecia ren-
dered slightly darker by K, but not red.

This lichen has a proper margin, and as the apothecium is attached by
a broad central basis, the thalline receptacle is seen covering it. and the
unattached portion, but ceases considerably below the proper margin.
Spores, ‘043 :021 m m.—On trees, 1000 to 1500 feet.

Verrucaria Wellingtonti (Sp. Nova).—Thallus a dirty brownish cream.
colour, thick, continuous, smooth; apothecia large, immersed ; peri-
thecium entire, globose ; epithecium depressed, dark brown, poriform ;
spores eight, colourless, very large, oblong, fusiform, acutely pointed,
muralireticulate, enveloped in a double hyaline membrane which is.
most perceptible in a young state, when, also, the contents are coarsely
granular ; paraphyses distinct, filiform, numerous.—A very remarkable
lichen. On trees.

Astrothelium prostratum (Sp. Nova).—Thallus well developed, con-
tinuous or rimulose, thin, yellowish white, merging into grey or
cinereous ; apothecia compound; receptacle black, large, broad (02 to
‘07 in.), shallow, scarcely raised above the general surface ; perithecia
entire, irregular in outline, and ail apparently opening into one ostiole
which shows on the surface; spores eight, uniserial, colourless at first,
when the contents are coarsely granular, becoming brown when mature,,
with six cross bars, which assume the appearance of oval coloured cells ;
paraphyses plentiful, filiform, simple.—On bark.

Squamaria gelida (.).—The apothecium of this lichen is differently
constituted from that in this country, inasmuch as the thalline exciple
resembles the cup of the acorn, while there is a proper border, smooth
and prominent, surrounding the epithecium, which is itself white, prui-
nose and rugose. I can see, however, little difference otherwise to
warrant a separation.

Parmelia impleca, (Sp. Nova).—Thallus yellowish brown, smooth
above, closely adherent, intricately divided into small lobes which are
roundly laciniated; under surface white, tomentose (much more so than
usual), attached to the bark by a dense mass of coarse, stiff, black,
branching rhizine, which extend considerably beyond the thallus ;
apothecia moderate, brown, surrounded by a deeply incised lobular
inflexed thalline margin, which, in a young state, almost conceals the
disk; spores eight, simple, elliptical, moderate; paraphyses not discrete,
agglutinate at their apices; hypothecium yellowish brown, grumous.

I have given a rather minute description of a lichen which has puzzled
me considerably, mainly for the purpose of calling attention to it, as I

21

cannot pretend to an intimate knowledge of this intricate and perplexing
genus. The chemical reactions of K and C on the upper surface and
medulla are (K— C—).

Thelotrema obovatum (Sp. Nova).—The spores of this lichen differ in
shape from those of 7h. lepadinum, and have altogether an appearance so
peculiar, that I have been tempted to elevate it into the rank of a species
under the name given above. Thallus yellow, rimulose, uneven, slightly
nodulated; apothecia hemispherical, crowded in some parts; ostiolum
rounded, open, margin even; disk urceolate, scutelliform, dark brown,
- proper margin inflexed ; spores eight, colourless, obovate, sharp pointed
at one end, rounded at the other, divided internally by numerous
cross bars which do not reach the margin; epispore beautifully crenu-
lated.

These characteristics are constant, at least in every specimen examined.
I have not seen 7’. subtile, but, judging from the description of it by
Leighton, in his Lichen Flora, I cannot reconcile myself to identifying
the present plant even with it.

Psoroma athroophyllum (Sp. Nova).—Thallus greyish brown, thick,
continuous, brownish black, and rough on the under surface, multifido-
laciniate above; laciniae closely imbricated, ascending, broad, margins
roundly crenate, their under surface somewhat paler; apothecia large,
rufous, rugose, margin elevated, granuloso-concrete; spores eight, colour-
less, sphaerical, crenulate, in nearly single file in asci; paraphyses in-
distinct.

This may be Psoroma euphyllum (Nyl.), of which no description is
given in the “Flora of New Zealand,” nor in any of the later papers to
which I have had access.

Lecidea contigua (Fr.).—A curious form growing on earth. The apo-
thecia are sessile, and arranged in beautiful concentric rings ; the border
sharply defined and flat, being set at an angle to the surface, a disposition
seen in a certain proportion of New Zealand crustaceous lichens. The
internal organization resembles exactly that so characteristic of this
lichen.

Lecidea enteroleuca (Ach.).—On earth. In this instance, also, there
are no elements of distinction of .sufficient importance to warrant a
separation.

Platysma dermatoides (Sp. Nova).—Thallus firm, large, from six to
eight inches in diameter, roundish, thick (°3 mm.), brownish yellow or
buff colour, under side concolorous, closely and roundly lobate ; laciniae
sinuato-pifinatifid, apices rounded and recurved, often subimbricate, and

2)

the whole surface much and irregularly corrugated; apothecia reddish
brown, turning brownish black, margin inflexed, deeply crenate; spores
eight, colourless, elliptical, beautifully crenulate, simple, moderate ;
medulla white (K—- C—), as well as upper surface.

A curious and somewhat anomalous lichen: the upper surface, under a
lens, is seen to be minutely rugose and almost farinose, while the under
presents a fibrous appearance, the fibres arranged nearly parallel, and
closely appressed ; spermogonia minute, papilliform, reddish, turning
bluish black, situate near the margins of the lobules. On trees,
Wellington.

Lecidea rivulosa (Ach.).—So far as I know, this is the first notice of
this common lichen having been found in New Zealand. It differs in no
essential from specimens found in Britain.

Trypethelium connivens (Nyl.).—The spores of the specimens sent,
instead of remaining colourless, as Nylander states, turn ultimately to a
brownish black, and the ostiolum shows a beautiful orange instead of
being nigrescent; differences which, although worthy of remark, scarcely
constitute a specific distinction —On bark, Wellington.

Verrucaria cyrtospora (Sp. Nova).—Thallus white, smooth, glabrous;
apothecia black, prominent, subglobose; perithecium entire; spores eight,
narrowly fusiform, curved, brown, with four to eight rectangular nuclei
(03 x ‘004 m m.); paraphyses long, filiform, occasionally branched.—On
bark, with Ver. glabrata.

Lecidea amaura (Sp. Nova).—Thallus cinereo-virescent, thin, scat-
tered, leprose or evanescent ; apothecia small, scattered or conglomerate,
subglobose, immarginate, obscure. within; spores eight, colourless,
fusiform, apices obtuse, mostly curved, one to three septate,

009 — 016 x -003 m m; paraphyses indistinct; hypothecium
‘nearly colourless.—On palings, Wellington. Allied to L. demgrata
(Nyl.).

Pannaria crustata (Sp. Nova).—Thallus dark greenish olive, squamu-
loso-crustaceous, areolato-diffract; squamules largish, rugose, round with
crenulate upturned margins; hypothallus black, evident ; apothecia
reddish brown, moderate, flat, or somewhat convex when matured, with
a proper margin of same colour, and an elevated crenated thallodal
margin, which is often separated from the former by a chink, pale
within ; bypothecium pale: brown; epithecium brownish; paraphyses
matted together at apices; spores eight, simple, ellipsoid—or, more
frequently, one or other, or both apices, acute—margins distinctly
crenulate, moderate (014 x -008 m m).—On stones, Wellington.

23

Sticta hirta (Sp. Nova).—Notwithstanding the varied forms assumed
by Sticta Urvillei, I am tempted to elevate into the rank of a species one
of the several specimens sent.

Thallus widely expanded, reticulato-foveolate, broadly and roundly
lobed, covered in many places with dense clusters of yellow isidiose
efflorescence, under surface dark brown, densely tomentose ; apothecia
reddish brown, merging into black, margin composed of a mass of radiat-
ing isidiose excrescence, which, in many instances, almost covers the
disk; spores as in the variety C'olensot.

NOTE.

Since the Report was arranged, Dr. Stirton exhibited two lichens
from Ben Lawers, collected by him in June 1871, each somewhat
anomalous in the section to which it belongs.

Ist. Solorina bispora, Nyl. (Syn., p. 331).—The spores, in size and
shape, are characteristic, as well as the peculiar granular or isidiose
appearance of the thallus in the neighbourhood of the apothecia. This
lichen is more allied to S. démbata than to S. Saccata. This is the first
intimation of its existence in any other locality than that on the
Pyrenees.

2nd. Lecidea didymospora (Sp. Nova).—Nearly allied to L. sanguinaria,
but differing in having two spores in each ascus, which are, besides, only
half the size of those of the latter, and oval in shape instead of oblong.
A section of an apothecium shows, also, a perfectly pellucid appearance,
instead of the greenish tinge which pervades the hymenium of ZL.
sangunaria, and the thallus is more continuous. The chemical reactions
of the hymenium, epispore, and thallus, are identical in both. The dis-
coverer remarked, besides, that this lichen is as much entitled to a
specific place as Lecidea geminata.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

GLASGOW SOCIETY

FIELD NATURALISTS.
EE STABULLS HED £871.
PARTY a:

Session 1873-74.

GLASGOW: PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY,
AT THEIR ROOMS, 187 GEORGE STREET.

187 4.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS.

SECOND ANNUAL MEETING.

187 GrorGe STREET, 18th March, 1873.

Tue Annual Meeting of the Society was held here this evening —
Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

The following office-bearers were elected for the ensuing year:—
JAMES Stirton, M.D., President; James ALLAN and GEORGE
Horn, Vice-Presidents; Davin GRrecorson, Secretary ; GEORGE
Barias, Treasurer; Peter CAMERON, Jun., Curator; RicHARD
M‘Kay and Joun Harviz, Members of Council.

Mr. Walter Galt was elected a resident member of the Society.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

Mr. G. Horn exhibited a specimen of Saxifraga rivularis, one
of the smaller saxifrages, from Lochnagar.

Ist ApriL, 1873.

The first meeting of the summer session was held this evening—
Dr. J. Stirton, President, in the chair.

Mr. P. Cameron laid before the members a beautiful typical
collection of Micro-Lepidoptera, numbering about 200 species,
which had been sent as a donation to the Society by Mr. John
Dunsmore, Paisley. The collection was much admired by the
members, and the Secretary was instructed to convey the thanks
of the Society to Mr. Dunsmore for his valuable gift.

26 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

Mr. Cameron exhibited two pine-feeding saw-flies, Lyda
erythrocephala, L., a rare and beautiful species from Rannoch;
Lyda nemosralis, L., from Paisley.

Mr. A. Watt exhibited a specimen of Pogenatum nanum, var.
longisetum, gathered at Old Meldrum.

15TH Aprit, 1873.
Dr. J. Stirton, President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

Mr. P. Cameron exhibited a number of Chalcidide bred from
the galls of Zeras terminalis, and made some remarks on their
habits and distribution through the galls; some Lepidopterous
pupe (those of Ypsipetes ruberata) which had been devoured by
larvee of Chalcidide, between thirty and forty having been bred
from a single pupa; and some dissected specimens of the common
Oil-beetle (Melée proscarabueus) and of the Humble-bee (Lombus
lucorwm), illustrating their internal anatomy.

PAPER READ.

Mr. D. Gregorson read a paper, in which he gave an outline of
the method that should be pursued by the student of Natural
History in investigating any branch of the science, taking for his
type Ranunculus ficaria, of which fresh specimens were exhibited.
He pointed out the importance of studying the life history of
particular plants or animals, and how very profitable this would
be, not only to the individual student, but to science. In the
conversation that followed it was stated that plants having
reservoirs of starch in tubers were particularly adapted for
growing under water, the extra quantity of starch affording an
extra amount of heat,

29TH APRIL, 1873.

Mr. J. Allan, Vice-President, in the chair,

The following gentlemen were elected resident members:—
Measrs. Atneas M‘Master, David Pearson, Richard K. Howie,
W. J. Milligan, and J. M‘Murtrie.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 27

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

Mr. J. Harvie exhibited, under the microscope, a number of
Diatoms collected at the last two excursions.

Mr. P. Cameron exhibited specimens of the following:—Lestes
sponsa, a dragon-fly taken at Possil Marsh; the somewhat rare bee,
Bombus scrimsheranus, from the same locality ; a saw-fly, Allantus
costalis; and a curiously-coloured specimen of Chrysis ignita.

Mr. A. Watt exhibited specimens of dried grasses, with beetles
fastened to them, among which were the common British species,
Gasterophysa raphani and Cetonia aurata, the majority, however,
being foreign Buprestidae. These were procured from a milliner’s
stock, and are specimens of what is at present fashionable for
ladies’ head-dvesses.

Mr. G. Horn exhibited Ophioglossum lusitanicwm from Jersey;
and Mr. R. M‘Kay, Geum urbanum in full flower, collected in the
neighbourhood on the 26th April, being a month earlier than its
usual time of flowering.

EXCURSIONS.

Whangie.—Mr. R. M‘Kay, conductor, stated that an unsuccess-
ful search had been made for Cryptogramme crispa, which at one
time grew on the Drymen Road. The two somewhat rare mosses,
Glyphomitrium Daviesti and Grimmia Doniana, were found at the
Whangie. Jsoétes lacustris was found abundantly in Cochno Loch.

Tolicross and Kenmuir.—My. P. Cameron, conductor, gave an
account of the excursion. The spring bees (Andrenidae), usually
abundant on the sand hills at this season of the year, were found
to be very scarce, owing to the prevalence of the east wind. The
common Oil-beetle (JMJelée proscarabaeus) was seen in greater
numbers and earlier than usual. Two other Coleopterous insects,
Amara fulva and Pleristichus lepidus, were also collected. Through
changes in the locality, the latter is being gradually exterminated.
The habits of a spider (Lycosa picta), which forms tunnels lined
with a web in the loose sand, were also noticed. At Kenmuir,
the galls of Andricus noduli were observed to be very abundant
on a small oak tree. This gall-fly has not previously been reported
for Scotland. - The fresh-water mussel, Unio margaritifer, was
found to have disappeared from most of its old stations.

Lo
g)

© TRANSACTIONS OF THE

13TH May, 1873.
Mr. J. Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.
SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

The Chairman showed to the members a collection of flowering
plants from the neighbourhood of Louisville, Kentucky, illustrat-
ing the general character of its botany, and which had been
forwarded by Mr. John Williamson, corresponding member.

Mr. Cameron exhibited the larvee, pupz, and imagos of the
Gooseberry Saw-fly, Vematus ribesit, and gave some account of its
transformations and habits, mentioning some of the most effectual
methods of destroying it. He also exhibited one of its parasites
in the larval condition. He then made some remarks on the
parasites of bees, noticing particularly the habits of the mites
(Acari), the Oil-beetle, Apathus, and Nomada.

Dr. Stirton exhibited two lichens new to Britain, Solorina
bispora, Nyl., and Lecidea didymospora, Stirton.

EXCURSION.

Cambuslang.—Mr. Allan M‘Aulay gave an account of this
_ excursion. In the course of his remarks, he said that plants
which formerly were abundant on the Kenmuir side of the river,
but were now getting scarce, are still found in abundance on the
south bank. For example, TZ’rollius europaeus and Cardamine

MMNara.
PAPER READ.

Notes on Plant Names.—The Chairman then read a paper on
plant names, in which the etymology of some of the commoner and
more favourite plants was traced, and some of the superstitions
and folk lore surrounding them were detailed. Among these were
the rose, lily, elder, skellochs, agrimony, ash, beech, and the banes
and worts. Some interesting facts were pointed out in the names
derived from Gaelic.

277TH May, 1873.
The President in the chair.
Mr. Malcolm Black, jun., was elected a resident member.
SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

Mr. Cameron exhibited a large number of Ichneumonidae taken
in the district iast season. There were about 200 species. He

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 29

made some remarks on their usefulness in destroying the cater-
pillars injurious to vegetation.

Mr. A. Watt exhibited Primula scotica from Stromness ; Gym-
nostomum tenue from Stonelaw; and Hquisetum hyemale from
Cartland Crags.

Mr. G, Barlas exhibited a fine specimen of the hedgehog from
Dumbarton, and made some remarks on its habits in confinement.

EXCURSION.

Campsie Gilen.—The President remarked, that in addition to a
number of the more common mosses, the following were found :—
Zygodon Stirtent, Schimper, being only the second or third time
this moss has been found in fruit ; Anomodon viticulosus, found in
fruit in two different parts of the glen; Zortula convoluta, var.
sardoa, this variety being comparatively rare, and differing so
much from 7’. convoluta that it might almost be reckoned a distinct
species. Gymnostomum rupestre was also found in fruit; and the
Chairman stated that he had formerly found in the glen Bartra-
mia Halleriana and B. calcarea. The lichens noticed were Lecidea
cupularis and Peltigera canina. Specimens of the beautiful little
shell, Clausilia rugosa, were collected fiom a wall on the road
leading up to the glen.

10tH June, 1873.
Mr. J. Allan, Vice-President, in the Chair.

EXHIBITION OF SPECIMENS,

Mr. R. M‘Kay exhibited Barbarea stricta, Fries., collected near
Balmore. He stated that from its abundance in that locality, and
the situation in which it was growing, he believed it to be
established there, if not indigenous. It is not mentioned in the
floras as being found in Scotland.

Mr. J. Allan exhibited a large collection of mosses, and made
some remarks regarding his method of mounting them.

Mr. J. Harvie exhibited specimens of the large Anemone,
Bunodes crassicornes, and of the Nudibranchiate Mollusk, Doris
tuberculata. He made some remarks on their structure, and on
the power of the Anemone to retain objects in its grasp. He also
showed by experiment that even a large Anemone like the one

30 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

exhibited had not any power to paralyze even a soft-skinned
animal like the Doris. Three times he placed the Doris among
the tentacles of the Anemone, and although it was grasped firmly
and held for a short time, yet on each occasion it succeeded in
making its escape without any apparent injury.

EXCURSION.

Wemyss Bay.—My. J. Harvie, in the course of his remarks,
mentioned that on the arrival of the excursion party at the sea-
side, the weather was found too rough for dredging operations to
be carried on with safety. The members then separated into two
divisions, one taking the shore and giving their attention to marine
zoology, the other attending to the botany of the district. Mr. A.
Watt found Hquisetum telmateia. Specimens of Asplenium marinum
were also found; and a search was made for Osmunda regalis,
which formerly grew near Skelmorlie, but it was found to be
rooted out.

PAPER READ.

Mr. 8. Macdonald read a paper on “ Home Entomology,” illus-
trated by drawings. He attempted to show that numerous objects
for microscopic study were to be found in our rooms and cellars,
and in the gardens and outhouses attached to our dwellings. The
drawings were principally in illustration of the parts of the com-
mon house-fly. After the reading of the paper, the history of this
insect gave rise to a lengthened discussion.

24TH JuNE, 1873.

Mr. J. Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

William Dickson, Esq., Underwood, Dunoon, was elected a
resident member.

A copy of the “Transactions of the Berwickshire Naturalists’
Club” was presented to the Society by Mr. Dickson.

EXHIBITION OF SPECIMENS.

By Mr. J. Allan.—A number of mosses collected in Glen
Clova, among which was the rare and beautiful Z'etraplodon
angustatus, found growing in dense tufts alone, or intermingled
with 7. mnioides.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 31

By Mr. A. Watt.—A number of plants collected near Largs,
including the mosses Hypnum Schrebert, Mnium serratum, and
Bryum Ziervs, all in fruit; also the rare grass Avena pubescens.

By Mr. P. Cameron.—Hemichroa luridiventris, Fallén, a rare
saw-fly, captured in the larva state at Loch-Lomond, and bred last
month. This is the larve mentioned in last year’s “ Transactions,”
p. 11, under the name of Camponiscus Healaex, Newman. He also
gave an account of an entomological tour to Rannoch this month.
Whilst there, the weather was on the whole favourable, but unfor-
tunately insects of all orders were very scarce, and he had not been
able to make many additions to his collection. In particular, he
was disappointed in procuring only five specimens of Pine Saw-
flies (namely, three of Lophyrus pim, L., and one each of L. pallipes,
Fall., and LZ. virens, Klug), after exploring nearly the whole of the
Black Wood specially for them. ‘Two saw-flies new to Britain
were captured (probably more, as the whole of the captures had
not yet been examined). These are :—Poecilosoma pulverata, Retz,
one of the finest species of the genus, having the feet pale red, with
the abdominal segments faintly banded with white ; and Taxonus
coxalis, Klug, which has segments six to eight of the abdomen red.
The only other noteworthy saw-fly as yet named is Cresus varus,
Vill., which is, rightly or wrongly, described by Stephens (“ Ill.
Brit. Ent.,” vu, 39), but is omitted by Mr. F. Smith in his
“ Nomenclature of British Hymenoptera.” The discovery of the
species at Rannoch places the fact of its British nativity beyond
dispute.

On the male catkins of the oak were found, at Dall and
Kinloch-Rannoch, the galls of Andricus quadrilineatus, Hartig,
and A. amenti, Gir., neither of which have been recorded as
British.

He also exhibited the galls and insects of Andricus ranwli, L.,
which are known as the “cotton gall of the oak,” so called from
the long white fibres which are attached to the gall proper, giving
it the appearance of tufts of cotton. Another gall, also new to
the British list, had been found sticking out of the leaf buds, but
as only inquilines had been reared the species could not be properly
identified.

EXCURSION.

Gourock and Cloch.—Myr. Gregorson reported that the excur-

sionists had a pleasant ramble in the glens and on the hill-sides,

on TRANSACTIONS OF THE

noticing most of the plants for which the locality has long been
famed; but nothing was found of sufficient importance to merit
special remark, excepting that Claytonia alsinoides continues to
spread in its station there.

PAPER READ.

Dr. Stirton read a paper on “ Lichens, the Peculiarities of their
Structure and Development.” He traced their affinities on the
one hand to Algae and on the other to Fungi, and showed by a
series of specimens that although they constituted on the whole a
well-defined section of cryptogamic botany, yet on the extremes
they merged insensibly into the other two great divisions, more
especially the Fungi, several genera in each being up to the present
time subjects of dispute among authorities in cryptogamy. As an
instance of the enduring nature of some lichens, he mentioned that
one had been observed for nearly one hundred years, with little
apparent change. They do not thrive in the vicinity of Glasgow,
owing to the acids contained in the air. The various parts of
their structure were minutely described, thus giving a good intro-
duction to the study of this interesting part of the vegetable
kingdom. In illustration of the different parts of the paper, many
specimens were exhibited from several parts of the world, especially
Western Africa.

8TH Jury, 1873.

Mr. J. Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

It was announced by the Secretary that he had received from
the Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club a copy of their “ Transactions”
for the year 1872.

EXHIBITION OF SPECIMENS.

By Mr. P. Cameron.—Cenoneura Dahlbomi, a highly interest-
ing addition to the British list of Tenthredinidae, taken at Cadder
Wilderness last week, on birch. The genus consists of only one
species, which was described for the first time by Professor
Thomson, the Swedish entomologist, three years ago. The genus
comes between Fenella and Fenusa, from which it is distinguished
by the seven or eightjointed antennae and by the two marginal
and four submarginal cells in anterior wings. It is noteworthy

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 33

that the Cadder specimen is the variety described by Thomson,
and has the antennae seven-jointed, while the type has them
eight-jointed.

Phyllotoma nemorata, Fall., and P. microcephala, Klug, taken
along with the above.

A number of Cimbices. He remarked on the extreme variation
occurring in this group of saw-flies, and from his observations he
was led to the belief that the food-plant had a considerable
influence in causing this variation, as conjectured long ago by
Dahlbom.

And he also exhibited the larva of a saw-fly in the act of casting
its skin, which it was prevented from accomplishing from the want
of a suitable surface to rest upon, thus showing the necessity of
breeding them in vessels with rough surfaces. He also mentioned
that he had found the galls of Andricus quadrilineatus at Cadder
‘Wilderness.

By Mr. A. Watt—A specimen of Linnea borealis collected by
himself in Aberdeenshire.

EXCURSION,

Wemyss Bay.—Myr. J. Harvie reported, that from the very
unfavourable weather nothing could be done in dredging. He
stated that near Toward he had dredged a fine specimen of the
Sun-star, Solaster papposa; the Spider-crab, Hyas araneus, Leach;
and the Hermit-crab, Pagurus Prideauxti, associated with the
Anemone Adamsia palliata.

PAPER READ.

Mr. R. M‘Kay read a paper on the willows of the district. He
described their structure, and gave a minute description of the
characters by which they are separated into species and varieties ;
also mentioning the difficulties to be overcome in the study of
them. He exhibited a collection of those he had gathered, includ-
ing, besides those already recorded, Salia acuminata, S. lawrina,
S. nigricans, 8. phyllicifolia, and 8. triandra. He also exhibited a
branch of S. auwrita, bearing both male and female catkins, and a
eatkin with both male and female flowers. In the conversation
which followed, some remarks were made on the facilities offered
in this genus for cross fertilisation, and the difficulty of getting
perfectly distinct species.

34 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

29TH JULY, 1873.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.
Dr. George Watt, Lecturer on Botany, Calcutta, was elected a
corresponding member.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Dr. Stirton.—A peculiar form of Dicranum glaciale, Berge,
in fine fruit, from the summit of Lochnagar, collected this month,
by Mrs. W. R. Watson. This moss, in the few localities in which
it has been met with, is nearly always barren; but from the pre-
sent specimen it is now seen that the fruit is deeply sulcate
instead of smooth, and that the stems are characterised by a degree
of radiculosity which has not hitherto been described.

By Mr. G. Harper.—A. growing specimen of a dichotomous
variety of Asplenium jfilix-foemina found near Stewarton. This
variety has the fronds much branched, and differs much in appear-
ance from the usual form.

By Mr. A. Watt.—A specimen of Utricularia vulgaris collected
in Aberdeenshire.

By Mr. G. Horn.—Alliwm scorodoprasum, L., collected near
Bothwell. a

By Mr. D. Gregorson.—A living specimen of Zootoca vivipara,
found at the foot of Ben Voirlich.

EXCURSION.

Ben Voirlich, Loch Lomond.—Dr. Stirton gave an account of
this excursion. He mentioned that at the top of the mountain
the aneroid barometer indicated an altitude of 3,100 feet. The
following plants were found :—Thalictrum alpinum, Sibbaldia
procumbens, Epilobium alpinum, Gnaphalium supinum, Vaccinium
uliginosum, Juncus trifidus, Bartramia halleriana, B. calcarea,
Diphyscium foliosum, Dicranum circinatum, Physiotium cochleari-
forme, and Adelanthus Carringtonii.

127H August, 1873.

Mr. J. Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. James R. Watson and Mr. Francis G. Binnie were elected
resident members.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 3D

It was reported that the lizard exhibited at the last meeting
had since then given birth to four young ones, which seemed to
be born perfect, and to be quite independent of their parent,

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

The Chairman exhibited the mosses collected at the excursion
to Ben Voirlich—about sixty different species, mounted and named.

Mr. Cameron exhibited the galls of Cynips ferruginea, Htg.,
which are somewhat spindle-shaped and covered with brownish
hair. They were found on oak-buds at Kenmuir, and had not
been previously recorded as British.

EXCURSION,

Ben Lawers.—Dr. Stirton, conductor. It was reported that at
this excursion the following rare flowering plants and mosses were
found :—Gentiana nivalis, Saxifraga cernua, Draba rupestris,
Sesleria coerulea, Poa glauca, Carex atrata, Juncus biglumis,
Tortula fragilis, Timmia Norvegica, Weissia compacta, Anacalypta
latifolia, and Habrodon Notarisii.

PAPER READ.

Mr. Cameron read a paper on “Saw-fly Larve.” He pointed
out their distinctive characters, and showed by what means they
could be known from the larvee of the Lepidoptera, and mentioned
their relationship towards these, as well as to the larve of the
Trichoptera. He alluded to their habits, all being plant-eaters ;
some living solitary, others gregarious, as many as a dozen or more
on a single leaf. Others inhabit galls on willow-leaves or in
swellings on the petioles ; while others live beneath the epidermis,
or in leaves whose edges are folded down by the larve themselves.
He stated that those larvee which feed in an open and conspicuous
manner, had either an obnoxious smell, peculiar glands on the
under side of the abdomen, or had the power of ejecting, often to a
considerable distance, a fluid of a somewhat acid nature. Many
were injurious to the gardener and farmer; of which the best
known are the larvee of Vematus ribesti, on the gooseberry; Athalia
spinarum, commonly known as the Black-jack or Nigger, on the
turnip ; Blennocampa aethops, on the plum; and various species
of Cephus on the wheat; whilst the pine has a genus (Lophyrus)
attached exclusively to it. He remarked that these were not

36 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

regular in their depredations, but would appear in enormous num-
bers some years, whilst the next year scarcely a single specimen
would be seen. And in the conclusion of the paper the subject of
their parasites was touched upon ; and it was shown how very use-
ful they were in keeping down their numbers, Lophyrus pint, which
on the Continent frequently did great damage to the pine-trees,
having upwards of forty attached to it.

26TH Avecust, 1873.
Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. J. Allan.—A number of mosses collected during the
excursion to Ben Lawers.

By Mr. P. Cameron,—A number of insect remains dug out of a
peat-bog at Possil, from a depth of 10 feet. They consisted chiefly
of wing-cases and feet of beetles, but they were not sufficiently
complete to enable the species to be identified satisfactorily. Most
of them belonged to a species of Donacia, probably aquatica, an
insect which frequents such situations ; and it was noticeable that
the colour varied from green to blue, as in the perfect specimens.
For the examination of these he was indebted to Mr. Thomas
Naismith.

Also an acorn-gall found in the district. As the insect reared
from this was an inquiline, it could not be named with certainty ;
but it was probably the gall of Andricus glandium, Gir., which had
not been recorded as British.

EXCURSION,

Hills behind Greenock.—Mr. D. Gregorson gave an account of
this excursion, and stated that no rare plants had been found.
Mr. F. G. Binnie reported finding nine different species of shells,
among which was Zonites radvatulus, which he had not before seen
in this district.

9rH SEPTEMBER, 1873.
Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. A. Watt.—Suaeda fruticosa, Senebiera coronopus, Sene-
biera didyma, and Carduus tenuifolia. By Mr. R. M‘Kay.—

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 37

Mercwrialis annua and Brassica Monensis. All from Troon, and,
with the exception of Carduus tenuifolia, which is native, were all
found on the ballast heap.

EXCURSIONS.

Troon and Cloch.—Bowling was the locality entered in the
syllabus for the excursion on the 6th September ; but as it was
feared that at this season few objects of interest would be found
there, it was determined to substitute two excursions—one to
Troon and the other to Cloch.

At Troon, in addition to the specimens above mentioned, an
abundant supply of the common shore animals was found,

Mr. F. G. Binnie reported finding at Cloch fifteen different
species of land shells and one species of fresh-water shell, among
which were Zonites purus, var. margaritacea, Pupa Anglica, and
the variety pallida, and Helix fusca. Campanula hederacea and
Aspidium angulare were also found at this excursion, Mr. Cameron
mentioned having found the larvee of Zemichroa luridiventris at the
Cloch. ,

PAPER READ.

Gasteropoda.—Mr. John Harvie read a paper on this class of the
Mollusca, in which he said that their present classification was
merely provisional, until their physiology and development had
been more thoroughly examined. He confined his remarks prin-
cipally to experiments and observations of his own on this class,
few of which demonstrated anything new ; but he had made them
for the purpose of satisfying himself that many of the statements
made with regard to the habits of the Gasteropoda were correct.
He described the structure of their shells, and exhibited prepared
specimens in illustration of his remarks.

23RD SEPTEMBER, 1873.

Mr. Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

By Dr. Stirton.—A. lichen found on Ben Voirlich in July,
during the Society’s excursion, which he had submitted to Dr.
Nylander, of Paris, who pronounced it new, and named it Lecidea
botryiza. It is distinguished by the clustering of the apothecia,
the dark hypothecium, and the conglutinate paraphyses with

38 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

colourless apices, and small unilocular spores. Also, from the
same locality, a specimen of Verrucaria theleodes, another rare
lichen, hitherto found in this country only on Ben Lawers; the
only other known locality being the Dovrefield Mountains in
Norway.

Mr, Cameron exhibited the living larvee of Croesus septentrionalis,
pointing out the glands on the under side of the abdomen, and the
peculiar habit it has of protruding and retracting the glands, and
of throwing the body about, so as to deter the ichneumons from
attacking it. Also the larve of Hemichroa luridiventris, found at
St. German’s Loch on alders. At the same time the imagines
and larvee of Nematus virescens, found common at Possil Marsh,
and widely distributed throughout Scotland. He gave some details
of their life-history, and mentioned that sometimes they are so
abundant on a bush that they will strip it of its leaves.

By Mr. Binnie——A number of shells, among which were
Helix fusca, mentioned in former lists as rare in the district,
Helix hispida, and Zonites nitidulus ; all found at Kenmuir.

By Mr. Horn,—Lathyrus hirsutus, Hrysimum cheiranthoides,
and Linaria elatine, all found at Troon, and supposed to be intro-
duced by ballast; Zulipa sylvestris, from Bothwell Woods; and a
new juncus (Juncus pygmaeus), sent him from the south of England.

—

7TH Ocroper, 1873,

Mr. P. Cameron in the chair.

Messrs. Alexander Hill, Robert Brown, and Walter Smith
Middleton, were elected ordinary members.

Mr. D. Gregorson exhibited the leaves of the Prickly Comfrey
(Symphytum asperrmum), and stated that a gentleman in the
neighbourhood of the city was making an experiment in cultivating
it as a forage plant. It is easily cultivated, yields a large crop,
affords three cuttings during one season, and remains some years
in the soil.

PAPER READ,

Mr. W. D. Benson gave an account of a long series of interesting
experiments he had made during the summer months with infusions
of different vegetable substances, in order to make observations on
the development of Infusoria, The infusions were kept in test-
tubes, some hermetically sealed, others open; some kept in the

ith ose

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 39

dark, and others in different degrees of light. Life began to
appear in the open tubes exposed to the light in thirty-six to
forty hours. The development of life was slower and not so
abundant in those tubes kept in the dark ; and in those hermeti-
cally sealed no signs of life were seen till after six or seven days.
The first forms of life that began to appear were Bacteria and
Vibriones, then a little later Paramecia were seen. In making
some of his experiments in a room where some water containing
Rotifers was standing, he found Rotifers in great abundance in
all his open tubes, but none in those that were closed, so that it
seemed that the germs of the Rotifers had access to the open tubes
through the air. He also found that in open tubes connected by
a thread with the vessel containing the Rotifers, the diffusion took
place more rapidly than through the air. Tubes with the same
infusions, and placed in the same circumstances, were found to
contain quite different forms of life. Mr. Benson also described
the Sun Animalcule (Actinophrys sol), and its manner of feeding.

24TH OctoBER, 1873.
Mr. J. Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

Mr. Cameron exhibited two saw-flies new to Britain—Tenthredo
moniliata, K1., taken at Rannoch in June; and Nematus quercus,
Htg., of which several specimens have been taken at Cadder Wil-
derness during the summer ; also Lophyrus pallipes, a very rare
saw-fly, the male of which is remarkable for its beautiful pectinated
antennae.

PAPER READ.

The Chairman read a paper on the study of Natural History, in
which he insisted on the benefits to be derived from it in training
the mind to observe carefully, and classify accurately, and in fos-
tering a love of Nature which at once purifies and enlarges the
mind. The rest of the paper was taken up in discussing how
Natural History should be studied. Referring to Cuvier’s letters
to Pfaff on this subject, in one of which he says, “I think we
ought carefully to seek out the relation of all existences with the
rest of Nature, and to show their part in the economy of the great

40 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

All,” the essayist thought the work of the man of science or
observer was hardly begun, and when the storehouse of facts was
filled, the work of the philosopher would begin. He concluded by
adverting to the great advantages the naturalist received from some
attention to drawing and languages, and the necessity for some
enthusiasm in the work. 7

7TH NovemBer, 1873.
Mr, J. Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

PAPER READ.

Mr. D. Gregorson read a paper on “ The Development of Life.”
In his introductory remarks he stated, that although the principal
work of a naturalist should consist in conducting experiments and
making observations, yet it was often necessary that he should
quit the solid ground of facts, and attempt to penetrate into the
distant past or future, deducing his conclusion as far as possible
from the state of Nature as we find her at present; and the useful-
ness of the procedure was, in his opinion, borne out by the great
impulse the Darwinian hypothesis had given to the study of
biology. He then gave a sketch of the nebular hypothesis of
Laplace, the growth of inorganic matter being necessary before
organic life could flourish; then gave a resumé of the various
speculations of scientific men regarding the origin of life upon the
globe, mentioning the recent controversies upon the spontaneous
generation of life; and finally gave an outline of the various
phases and forms by which life is represented. .

21st NovemBer, 1873.

Mr. Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

The Chairman announced that the Secretary had given in his
resignation of the office on account of his leaving the city; and
moved that the thanks of the Society be given to Mr. Gregorson
for his services during the time he held that office. Mr. John
Harvie was afterwards elected his successor.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

Mr. Cameron exhibited an undescribed saw-fly, which he pro-
poses to name Nematus graminis, the larve of which feeds on

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. Al

short grasses at Tollcross. Also a specimen of Vematus Witewaalli,
Voll., a saw-fly not hitherto mentioned as a native of Britain. It
had been bred from larve found not uncommon at Cadder
Wilderness, feeding on willows; they emit a very offensive odour.

Mr. Middleton exhibited some beautiful small shells from the
West Indies.

Mr. Pearson exhibited a living specimen of the apple snail
(Helia pomatia), which he had brought from Germany, making
some remarks on its manner of feeding, and its habits while in a
state of confinement.

PAPER READ.

By Mr. F. G. Binnie.—‘‘On the Study of Land and Fresh-Water
Mollusks.” In introducing his subject, the author defined the
work and scope of all true scientific study to be a strict investiga-
tion— exhaustive in its character—of the particular objects chosen
by the student, having for its ultimate end the deduction of broad
generalisations from these data, and the acquisition of accurate
views of the origin, plan, and laws of nature. After describing
the zoological position of the group now under consideration, and
its leading divisions, the author proceeded to the more special
consideration of its study, and stated that of the three great
aspects into which all zoological study divides itself—Morphology,
Physiology, and Distribution—the first-named was that most
investigated in the group, and in the Mollusca generally ; Distribu-
tion coming next in order, Physiology being least studied. Glancing
at a few of the more salient features in the development, habits,
and distribution of Mollusks, he indicated the directions in
which investigation, by observation and by experiment, might be
made—dwelling chiefly on the egg; the more or less complex
metamorphosis gone through after leaving it; the growth of the
animal and its shell; maturity, its signs, and their value; the
senses of sight, hearing, etc.—specially-directed experiments being
here greatly needed ; food, hibernation, and exstivation; enemies,
with the means of defence and protection adopted; concluding
with some observations on distribution, mentioning the paucity
and incompleteness of our knowledge as to the influence of soil,
climate, moisture, &c., with relation to individual habit, and the
several stages of development, in facilitating or retarding growth
and numerical increase; also the various facilities and means of

49 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

migration from one place to another ; in all of which a thorough
investigation of our own inland molluscan fauna—the details and
limits of whose distribution even is by no means complete—will
undoubtedly give valuable results.

5TH DercEMBER, 1873.

Mr. J. Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

EXHIBITION OF SPECIMENS.

Mr. Binnie exhibited a specimen of Helix pyymaea, found near
Loch Lomond, which has not been recorded for the district.

PAPER READ.

The Chairman read a paper on “Centres of Creation,” in which
he defined the idea implied in this phrase, and objected to the
phrase as hardly correct, although it has obtained a footing from its
being concise. Centres of Distribution is probably more correct. He
also considered it in connection with Darwin’s theories. He
thought it impossible to mark the. centre of creation for any
species, the original being planted apparently all round the world
within a certain zone. He also thought that there was a great
want of a natural history census, both of distribution and propor-
tion. The ‘Cybele Britannica” supplied this want to some extent
in Botany, but it was only a census of distribution. There are,
however, wide areas in which the fauna and flora are quite distinct,
- as Madagascar, Brazil, Australia, where the term seems tolerably
accurate. The plants and animals are so distinct, that there seems
to have been a separate creation for each area. The subject,
which was treated at considerable length, was pointed out as
rather an important one in the great Darwinian dispute.

19TH DecempBer, 1873.
Mr. J. Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

EXHIBITION OF SPECIMENS.

Mr. Cameron exhibited specimens of Apanteles placidus, Hal.,
one of the parasitic Hymenoptera, which he had bred from spiders’

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 43

eggs, upon which they had lived in tke larval condition. The
spider’s ege-bag in which they were found must have contained
upwards of a hundred eggs, yet not one egg had escaped destruction.
He also read some notes on the transformations of Hypera
plantaginis. This weevil in the larval condition feeds on grasses,
and is found at Possil Marsh and Kenmuir during June and July.
The larve is a stout, green, somewhat hairy grub, with a fuscous
head, and a white sub-dorsal stripe; and spins an oval, white,
semi-transparent cocoon attached to the flower-heads of grasses.

PAPER READ.

Mr. 8. M‘Donald read a paper on “The habits of the Formi-
cide,” giving an account of a day spent at Tighnabruaich in
examining the nests and observing the habits of different species
of these insects. The paper was illustrated by coloured drawings.

97H JANUARY, 1874.

Mr. P. Cameron, jun., in the chair.

EXHIBITION OF SPECIMENS.

The Chairman exhibited four saw-flies which had not been
recorded as British :—Wematus pallipes, Fall., which had been
taken by him on a mountain at Rannoch in Perthshire, at an
elevation of 3000 feet, and near the spot where they were
captured some cocoons were found, evidently belonging to this
species ; and as the only vegetation near consisted of moss and
grass, the larve no doubt fed on the latter; Mematus mollis,
K1., taken by Dr. Buchanan White at Braemar, and by himself
at Rannoch ; Vematus obductus, K1., taken by sweeping grass in
Possil district ; Nematus croceus, Fall., taken at Cadder Wilderness
by beating willows, upon which the larve feed.

Mr. Binnie exhibited living specimens of a rare shell, Zonites
glaber, taken by him in Yorkshire.

The remainder of the evening was taken vp examining a large
and interesting collection of microscopic objects, and a collection
of enlarged drawings of some of the more remarkable forms of the
Diatomaceae, such as Z'owonidea gregoriana, Pinnularia major,
Triceratium striolatum, &c., exhibited by Mr. Barlas.

44 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

6TH Frepruary, 1874.
Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. J. Harvie.—A nest, apparently that of a robin or a
creeper, found imbedded in the centre of a tree from Ireland. As
the hole from which it was taken had no external aperture, and
as there were about six inches of wood on the side nearest the
surface, it was evidently of considerable age.

By Mr. Cameron—A large collection of Hymenoptera in iJlus-
tration of his paper.

PAPER READ.

“Contributions to a Knowledge of the Scotch Cynipide.” By
P. Cameron, jun.

During the last two years I have paid considerable attention to
Scotch Cynipide, especially to the gall-makers and inquilines ; and
having been able to identify as natives the greater part of the
recorded British species, it has occurred to me that it might be
useful to give, in a connected form, an account of our present
knowledge of the subject. With the exception of Mr. Traill’s
descriptions of galls in the “ Scottish Naturalist,” nothing has been
written upon the Scotch species; nor indeed can our knowledge of
those of Britain be regarded in any other light than as a beginning.
The number of true gall-makers reported for Britain is thirty-six ;
in this paper thirty are noted as natives of Scotland, besides one
doubtful species; but this is not by any means the real number,
for I possess many other galls and insects that cannot in the
meantime be identified.

My knowledge of their distribution is at present so scanty, that
I have omitted in most cases special reference to it; but to assist
the local student, I have given localities for those found within five
miles around Glasgow. As excellent descriptions of the galls
have appeared within the last few years, it is needless for me to
allude to them here, but I have added a few notes upon the habits
of the insects.

The study of galls and gall-insects is one of the most interesting
branches of Natural History, and is alike worthy of the attention
of the entomologist and botanist. The former will find that the
habits of the flies, their inquilines and parasites, will afford ample
opportunity for using his powers of observation, his. ingenuity,

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 45

and patience, while the latter will see how a tiny insect, by a
puncture, can give origin to forms so strange and anomalous that
he will hesitate to refer them to any of the plant organs. Yet it
is probable that, after all, these objects, which to our eyes may
seem so unnatural, are simply monstrous or aborted developments
of the ordinary organs. The long, white fibres of the cotton gall
of the oak, for instance, is no doubt a monstrous development of
the pubescence of the leaf. The entire absence of males among
the larger species, and in America the phenomenon of Dimorphism,
will give the philosophic student of biology food for speculation.

As many naturalists are prevented from working at little
studied branches of Entomology, like the Cynipide, from want of
instructions about the proper method of collecting, setting, books,
etc., it may be useful to give a few hints about these matters.
But before doing so it may beas well to state that all the Cynipidee
are not gall-makers. Speaking generally, the family is divided
into three divisions, each section having different habits. The
first section consists of the true gall-makers; the second of
inquilines, species closely allied to the gall-makers, and which
deposit their eggs, cuckoo fashion, in the galls while they are soft,
and, by monopolising the food and space, destroy the young of the
maker. The third division is composed of true parasites, which do
good work in destroying the plant lice, and, as if it were to counter-
balance this useful service, other species are parasitic upon the
enemies of the plant lice—the larve of the Syrphide. Of this
section I may mention that I have taken at Kenmuir Bank, in
May, Allotria halterata, Thoms, a minute species with abbreviated _
wings. Some of the first branch are, however, inquilines—e. g.,
Neuroterus parasiticus ; and the genus Aulax forms a transition
between the two groups.

As regards breeding: this is in most cases easy enough, provided
the galls are not plucked too soon, for the larve feed not on solid
matter, but on the juices that the gall contains when it is young ;
and when pulled in this condition, it is liable to dry up before
the creature inside has had time to become full fed. They are
most conveniently kept in glass bottles, tightly corked; but
care must be taken with the spring galls (those of Sp. baccarum,
catkin galls, etc.), that they do not become mouldy. The peculiar
development of the galls of MVewroterus requires that they should
be always kept moist. If we examine, for example, the “oak

46 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

spangles,” in summer, we will see that they are perfectly flat and
dry, without a vestige of the larvee discernible inside, and in this
condition they remain till February or March, when the galls swell
up to double their previous size, and the insects pass very rapidly
through their transformations, (May not this be a provision of
nature to protect the larve from the attacks of inquilines and
parasites? a supposition that seems to be justified by their com-
parative immunity from enemies. Out of several hundred flies
that I have reared from the spangles, not one was a parasite or
inquiline, and I may say also, not one a male.) With these 1
place the galls in a bottle, tie a piece of muslin over its’ mouth,
and then stick the bottle, mouth downwards, in a flower-pot full
of soil, and put the whole outside. Of course different galls must
be kept separate.

The dried galls I gum upon stiff card-board, and the flies must
also be set upon cards, and it is always as well to have a few
upside down.

The student must not, however, expect to be always successful
in rearing the makers out of all his galls ; flies in abundance he
will in most cases breed, but the chances are that they will be
Synergi and Chaleidide ; but do not let him throw these away as
useless, but rather set them out, and carefully note from what
galls they were reared ; for although he may not care about inves-
tigating them himself, still they might be extremely useful to some
specialist, and they will be doubly valuable if the latter hint be
followed.

The British galls are, as a rule, easily identified, but the insects,
from the unsatisfactory nature of the descriptions, are involved in
considerable perplexity ; and a proper monograph is much needed.
The inquilines cannot be identified at all from Hartig’s descriptions,
and that author, by treating the group in the way he did, has pro-
bably done more harm than good. The following are the works
and papers that the student will find of most use :—Marshall,
Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine, vol. iv. (good descriptions of
most of the British insects); Miiller, Entomologists’ Annual for
1872; Traill, ‘“‘ Scottish Naturalist,” vols. i. and ii. Continental
Works, are:—Hartig, Ueber die Familie der Gallwespen in
“Germar’s Zeitschrift fiir die Entomologie,” vol. ii., pp. 176-209 ;
vol. iii, pp. 322-358, and iv., pp. 395-423 ; Taschenberg, ‘“‘ Hymen-
opteren Deutschlands,” pp. 116-144 (an excellent and cheap work),

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 47

and Mayr on the “Mitteleuropiischen Hichengallen” (Vienna), in
which work figures of the galls are given.

Dryophanta folu, L.—Seems to be local, but widely distributed
throughout Scotland. I found it not uncommon in Perthshire.

D. longiventris, Hart.—I possess Scotch specimens of this insect,
but without note of the locality where they were taken. Galls
agreeing with the descriptions of those of this species are not
uncommon at St. German’s Loch and Cadder Wilderness.

D, dwvisa, Hart.—Abundant all over Scotland. Local stations
ave :—Kenmuir Bank, Cadder Wilderness, St. German’s Loch,
Langside Wood, etc. The galls appear in July, and the flies enter
the perfect state in August, and remain in the galls during the
autumn and winter. The ovaries, as I have observed by dissec-
tion, do not become developed till the time of oviposition is at
hand. In order to see the proportion of galls infested by inquilines,
etc., I set aside thirty galls, and out of the lot only seven gall-
makers came out, the remainder being inhabited by inquilines
or Chaleidide. A variety of the gall is found ; it differs in being
entirely white, without the usual red, the skin not smooth, but
very rugged, and beset with tubercles, which are often brownish.

Aphilothrix fecundatric, Hart.—A. common species met with in
most localities, Kenmuir, Cadder, St. German’s. The galls are
easily recognised from their resemblance to a miniature artichoke.
At Kenmuir I have found larve living in leaf-buds which were
not perceptibly enlarged or aborted, nor could a vestige of the acorn
be observed.

A. radicis, Fab.—This species does not seem to be common ; the
galls are found on the roots of oaks at Cadder and Kenmuir. I
have captured the flies in January. At Kenmuir Bank, I
discovered a gall with every cell, and they amounted to between
two and three hundred, occupied by a Synergus.

A, ferruginea, Hart (solitaria, Forsc?).—This is a very rare
Species, and has, as yet, been only reported from this locality,
where I took it for the first time at Cadder Wilderness, and
between Carmyle and Kenmuir. The spindle-shaped, wool-
covered galls stick out of the leaf buds.

Cynips lignicola, Hart.—Although so recently introduced
into Scotland, this is now one of our commonest gall-insects,
and in all probability it will, in a short time, be abundant all
over Scotland. Cadder, Kenmuir, Langside, St. German’s, are

48 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

a few of its local habitats. At present there does not appear
to be any material check upon its increase, for although birds
at first destroy the larve, yet, in course of time, leave them
alone, not finding them suitable food. Nevertheless I have
reared from one of the galls a large Synergus, evidently the
same species that was bred from the gall of A. radicis (vide supra),
and no doubt, as other inquilines and parasites will become aware of
its presence, their number will be kept within due limits. They
show a partiality for small shrubby oaks, but I have also noticed
the galls upon the topmost twigs of a tree about thirty feet high.

Biorhiza aptera, Fab.—For a gall of this species I am indebted
to Mr. Barlas, who picked it up at Dalreoch. It was of an oval
form, dark-coloured, and rough outside, white and smooth within;
a thin partition in the centre divided it into two cells, in each of
which was a specimen of the apterous maker. Usually the galls
are monothalamous, 2.¢., one-celled.

B. renum, Hart.—The minute, reniform, pale-green galls are
situated in clusters on the veins on the underside of oak leaves;
and late in autumn swell up to more than double their previous
size, and fall to the ground. The galls are common in the autumn
in Cadder and Kenmuir woods.

Neuroterus numismatis, Oliv.—The maker of the well-known
‘silky button galls,” which occur on the underside of oak leaves
nearly everywhere.

NV. lenticwlaris, Oliv.i—The equally well-known ‘oak spangle”
galls of this species are even commoner than the “button” galls,
and are frequently found on the same leaf with them. Kenmuir,
Cadder, Langside, etc., are good stations for both.

NV. fumipennis, Hart (?).—My. Traill describes the supposed galls
of WV. fumipennis (Scot. Nat., ii1., 127), and similar galls I have
noticed at Cadder and Kenmuir. The insects reared therefrom
(which I have received from Mr. Traill), however, appear to be
only WV. lenticularis ; at least I cannot distinguish any difference
between the two; and the Rev. T. A. Marshall also thinks that they
are the latter species. The galls certainly differ both in habit and
form from the common spangles.

NV. ostreus, Hart.—The galls are not unfrequent at Kenmuir and
Cadder during August and September.

Andricus curvator, Hart.—The galls are found in abundance at
Cadder, Langside, Kenmuir, etc., and are generally distributed

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 49

over Scotland. The leafy outer covering of the gall appears to be
merely protective, for it affords no sustenance to the larve. It
does not, however, give entire protection, as both inquilines and
parasites are often bred from the galls; and a Chalcis that I
observed filled, when a larva, the inner-gall so exactly, that it is a
wonder how it contrived to change.

A. inflator, Hart.—A much scarcer species than the last. I
have only found it at Cadder Wilderness.

A, noduli, Hart.—The larve live in swollen twigs of young
oaks, between twenty and forty inhabiting a small twig, each larva
residing in a separate cell. One small tree at Kenmuir (now cut
down) must have contained hundreds ; it is also found at Cadder
Wilderness.

A. ramuli, L.—Seems to be distributed all over Scotland. I
noticed the galls—which are easily recognised from the wool that
envelops them—very abundant at Blair-Athole ; and on one bunch
a Tortrix larva was feeding ; in the pill-box it spun a web, and
was about to change into a chrysalis ; but on looking at it next day,
it was non est, and instead, there remained a neat little cocoon of
an ichneumon.

A, quadrilineatus, Hart.—The galls of this species were very
common on the male catkins of the oak at Dall, Rannoch, in
June; and I have taken specimens of the leaf galls at Cadder
Wilderness.

A, amenti, Gir.—This species was also found at Rannoch, with
the last insect; the galls are on the catkins as well, but far less
frequent. From one of its galls was reared an Andricus, which I
have doubtfully named 4. albipes, Hart (Germ. Zeit., ii, p. 192).
Among the Rannoch catkin-galls were examples of what probably
pertained to another species, which was bred, but cannot be
identified.

Dryoteras terminale, Fab.—Undoubtedly our commonest gall-
ingect. The galls appear very early in the season ; are at first
white, with red cheeks, but soon change to a brown colour. They
are much frequented by all sorts of insects—beetles, moths, Diptera
as inquilines, and Chalcidide as parasites—about which I may have
something to say on another occasion. Local stations are :—-Car-
myle, Kenmuir, Kelvinside, Langside. I have found them in Skye.

Spathogaster baccarum, L.—The upheaver of the familiar “ cur-
rant” galls of the oak, which are found both on the male catkins

50 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

and on the young leaves. It is distributed all over Scotland, and
is exceedingly abundant in Cadder Wilderness. The flies emerge
in June and July. A Synergus tenants the galls toa great extent,
as well as numerous handsome Chaleidide.

S. tricolor, Hart.—I have bred this species from galls, which at
the time I took for those of S. baccarwm, and considered the
insect to be an inquiline. Continental authors, however, give it
as a true gall-maker, although their descriptions of the galls are
nearly applicable to those of baccarum. The fly came out in July,
and does not seem to be common.

S. vesicatrix, Sch.—(Trail]l., Ent. Mon. Mag., x., p. 85.) The
galls have been found near Aberdeen by Mr. Traill.

Diastrophus rubi, Hart.—Forms galls on the stems of Rubus
ceestus, and according to Mr. A. Miiller on the tops of Péerts. At
Cadder and Kenmuir the flies are found during May.

Rhodites rose, L.—The maker of the Bedeguar of the rose; it
is distributed all over Scotland, and is very common at Lambhill,
and along the banks of the Forth and Clyde canal.

R. eglanterie, Hart.— Evidently common throughout the
country ; at Lambhill, abundant. The green monothalamous
galls are found on Aosa canina.

&. spinosissime, Gir.—The bright red galls are found on Rosa
spinosissma wherever that plant occurs. On Rosa canina are
found galls which differ from these in being larger, and the colour
pale green; never red. They are clearly the same that Hartig
(Germ. Zeit., ii., 196) describes as those of Aulaw canine ; but
Taschenberg (Hymen, Deutsch., p. 135) refers them to spinosissime,
A. canine residing in the galls as an inquiline. I have collected
the galls at Lambhill for four years, and have never been able to
breed a Rhodites from them, but plenty of parasites have come
forth. At Lambhill, one evening at the beginning of August, I
was fortunate enough to witness an inquiline oviposit its eggs in a
gall. It held on to the side of the gall by its feet, and deposited
an egg at that point, then shifted its position to the other side,
and laid another, or perhaps more than one. On the same leaf
was another gall, which, on taking home and examining, I found to
be very soft and succulent, with the cells not properly formed, and
the progeny of the maker still in the egg state.

Trigonaspis megaptera, Panz.— Evidently a common early
summer species. The galls are very pretty objects of a shining

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 51

white colour, with reddish cheeks, and are situated on the trunks
of oaks at a distance of three or four feet from the ground, or on
very young shoots. I possess one shoot, three inches long, with
eight galls on it. They are not uncommon at Cadder and Kenmuir
during May and June, and I noticed that they were very abundant
in Glen Lyon, Perthshire. The flies emerge in June.

Aulax sabaudi, Hart.—A local, but not uncommon, species.
The galls are found on the stems of Hreraciwm boreale.

A. glechome, Hart.—The galls occur on the leaves of Nepeta
glechoma, and have been found in Perthshire. (Traill, Scot. Nat.,
ii., 253.)

A. rheadis, Kl., Hart.—The larve live in inflated capsules on
Papaver rheas and dubtum. (Hardy, Transactions Berwickshire
Naturalists’ Club, 1871, p. 263.) From the distribution of the
food plants the species is not likely to be met with in the West.
Hartig describes another species (Aulax minor) that should occur
in Scotland|; it also affects P. rhwas.

247TH Frepruary, 1874.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

This meeting was entirely occupied examining microscopic objects
exhibited by Mr. G, Barlas, Mr. W. D. Benson, and Mr. J. Harvie;
also some micro-photographs exhibited by Mr. Barlas.

6TH Marca, 1874.
Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By the Chairman.—A number of shells collected from gum
imported from Barbary. Mr. Binnie distinguished Helix lactea,
and two other species of that genus.

Mr. Cameron mentioned that on the 26th February he had, in
the Possil Road, discovered a nest of Formica nigra, in which not
only were the workers in a state of activity, but also a colony of
Aphis radicis; and the ants, on the nest being disturbed, had taken
the plant-lice carefully in their jaws, and carried them down into
the inner recesses of their habitation,

a2, TRANSACTIONS OF THE

NOTES OF AN EXCURSION TO BEN LAWERS.
(By Mr. JAMES ALLAN.)

The 9th August was put down in our syllabus for the Ben
Lawers excursion, and at seven o’clock on the morning of that day
the members intending to go met at the Buchanan Street Station
of the Caledonian Railway. They were five in number, the Presi-
dent being the conductor of the excursion. As this was a two
days’ excursion, more elaborate preparations than usual were
apparent. Hach excursionist carried the inevitable vasculum, a
small bag with some change of raiment, a good stout walking-
stick, a flask, and a good supply of sandwiches. All took the
precaution of having a top-coat, which should never be neglected
in mountain climbing. In due time the train started, and the
beauty of the morning raised the spirits of the party considerably,
in the expectation of a pleasant trip. On to Stirling and Callander
we were whirled, over ground well known to almost every one; but
after passing Callander the attention is rivetted on the surrounding
scenery, which is perhaps amongst the finest yet penetrated by the
railway. The Pass of Leny, the Braes of Balquhidder, Loch
Lubnaig, Loch Harn, and the sides of Ben An and Ben Ledi
present to the traveller scenes of beauty and grandeur rarely to be
seen, On arriving at Killin Station a change was made to the
coach, making a pleasant variety. The distance from Killin Station
to Killin Village is four miles. The drive is all downhill, and
the peeps at Ben Lawers, Ben More, and Loch Tay give interest
to every turn of the road. Arrived at Killin Hotel, a delay of
greater length than was at all necessary took place, which was
occupied primarily in obtaining some refreshments, and then in a
little desultory botanising. Within ten minutes’ walk of Killin
Hotel the extremely rare moss, Habrodon Notarisii, is to be
found; and learning that there was plenty of time, the members
visited the spot, which is extremely easily found, as all those in
the secret know, and were successful in obtaining specimens.
This moss was first discovered on the same tree by Sir Wm.
Hooker in 1830.

At Killin Hotel, by the way, a letter was received from Mr.
Anderson, the landlord of the Ben Lawers Inn, with the welcome
intelligence that he could put us up. This set our minds at ease,
as it is, even for the strongest, no joke to find at the end of a day’s

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 53

climbing that one must move on some twelve miles for a bed, or
sleep on the heather.

The drive from Killin to Ben Lawers is beautiful and varied—
first the woods surrounding the Lochy, then the sides of Loch
Tay, and the jagged slopes of the mountains. Craig Cailleach was
passed in a pour of rain, and things atmospherically began to look
bad. Still we were all well clothed, and never for a moment
dreamed of giving up our object, Craig Cailleach, as all botanists
know, is even a richer field than Ben Lawers, and not quite so
much hunted, and we hope it will long continue so; but our short
two days were promised to Ben Lawers, and we had to leave
Craig Cailleach for another year. We were very fortunate in
finding one of the servants of the Ben Lawers Inn on the top of
the coach ; so, consigning our impedimenta to her care, we came
off the coach about three miles on this side of the inn, and com-
menced the ascent. The first half-hour was through marshy,
sour-looking ground, at first flat and then gently-sloping, the
weather having cleared up beautifully. But with the first stiff
climb came a driving shower, and we were glad to push on for
shelter, although some good finds might have been got here.
However, after a little we were successful in finding a few mosses,
at about a thousand feet, where first the climber meets Alchemilla
alpina. Among these were Polytrichum strictum, Oligotrichum
hercynicum, Racomitrium sudeticum, ericoides, etc. However,
we could not waste much time on the low parts, and pushed on
for the valley or gully to the Craig Cailleach side of the top of
Ben Lawers, and, arrived there, we found ourselves in a very
garden of mosses. Every step brought us to something rare,
beautiful, and interesting. This small spot, probably about a mile
long, must be surely the richest in Scotland. The following is a
list of the rarest :—

Bryum nutans, cirrhatum, Zierii; Hypnum atrovirens, rivulare,
glareosum, denticulatum, umbratum, Starkii; Blindia acuta ;
Weissia crispula; Dicranum palustre, longifolium; Grimmia
patens, Tortula fragilis, Myurella julacea, Campylopus compactus,
Distichium capillaceum, Timmia norvegica, Pterogonium filiforme,
Meesia uliginosa, Leptostomum flexicaule, ete.

The little rare and beautiful flower, Gentiana nivalis, is found
on the rocks just at the saddle at the top of this valley, and some
went now to look for it, and the President to search another place

54 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

for mosses. Arrived at the rocks, the weather became simply
disgusting. Over the top of the saddle, and round the face of the
cliffs, the mist or clouds rolled in thick masses, cold as ice, and
every now and again discharging a drenching rain ; the wind blew
with a fury that rendered it necessary to hold on by the hands at
times. And yet when we got a glimpse of Loch Tay, and the
valley, 3,000 feet below us, the sun was shining, and it was a fine
autumn day apparently. We had simply got amongst the clouds,
which are always whirling “through other.” Two of the members,
despite the weather, determined to go to the top, which was still
nearly 1000 feet above us, and climbed up through a gap in the
rocks. After getting upa bit, coming back was almost impossible,
from the mist and the steepness, and perforce they had to go on.
After a long and dreary search, at last the gentian was found; a
gem which well repaid us. We counted seven plants only, and
refrained from taking more than three. This we were entitled to,
although it grieved us to make this plant, now very rare, still
rarer. However, as we afterwards found it in comparative plenty,
we all managed to get a specimen or two, and still leave some for
our successors. It was curious, in this desolate and bleak region,
to observe a mouse run from one hole to another, as frightened as
if it had seen an excursion of cats. The cold was now extreme,
we could not put our hands in our pockets, our whisky was about
finished, and the cold, pelting rain was pouring, so we began to
consider the expediency of making for the inn, where tea would
be waiting us. Five minutes behind a large stone, a shelter in a
weary land, for a smoke, and then we set out for the inn. It
took us about an hour and a half, and on arriving at the foot
the evening was calm and beautiful, but round the top we stil!
saw the clouds swirling as before. The mist appeared to be rest-
ing on the top, but our now experienced eyes saw what was still
going on. At the inn we met our friends who had gone to the
top, running races to see if they were still fresh. A thorough
wash and change of clothing made us comfortable, and we sat
down about nine o’clock to the finest tea, thanks to our hunger,
we had ever had. Tea over, the inevitable smoke and chat over
the incidents of the day pleasantly occupied half an hour, and
after a hot tumbler of toddy, to counteract the effects of the mist,
we retired to rest, the moon shining beautifully on the mountain
and the loch.

The following day we got up at six, so as to make an early

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 55

start, our first day being only half a one (we were not off the
coach till two o'clock). This morning promised well; the top
standing out clear against the blue sky, and in the soft morning
light looking beautiful. Not a cloud was in the sky, and we were
eager to be off. But it was first necessary to breakfast, and to
breakfast well, for except a slice of bread and cheese we should get
nothing till eight or nine o'clock at night. And we did breakfast
well, as might be expected. Another important matter had to be
attended to, filling our flasks, and then, after a preliminary nip,
although it was rather early for that sort of thing, we set off,
pipes all going briskly, for the same scene visited already. The
first stiff climb began to display the stiffness of limb brought on
by our previous exertion, and it was not till after a couple of hours’
clinbing that we began to feel fresh again. The first half of the
day was spent at the scene of the previous day’s labours, and we
were successful in getting some good mosses, but not any very
rare ones. ‘Then to the top, the climb being very steep, amongst
large boulders, which hid all view, save of the opposite hill. From
the cairn at the top a magnificent view is obtained of the sur-
rounding country for a great distance. To the north and west a
splendid bird’s-eye view of the various passes and glens— Glen
Lyon, &c., with the lochs and mountains in the distance, Ben
Wyvis in Ross-shire being quite discernible. At our feet, half-
way up the mountain, lay the little loch, ‘‘ Loch-na-Cat,” and
beyond it lay mountains piled on one another with infinite
grandeur. At the foot of the mountain, to the south-east, Loch
Tay was shining in the sun, and beyond it we were told we could
even see Edinburgh with a glass. At the head of Loch Tay
Killin could be discerned amidst the woods, with Ben Vorlich
and Ben More to form a background. Altogether the view is
nearly unequalled in Scotland, which is saying a great deal.
Although the day was clear and beautiful, still it was cold and
blowy, and we descended about a hundred yards to the Sappers’
gully, known to every botanist as the only spot in this country
for the Saxifraga cernua.

Here we lunched, but our more eager botanists soon commenced
a search for the Saxifraga, and before long the cry, “ Here it is!”
broke up our pic-nic, and a minute search was instituted over the
rocks. Although by no means plentiful, yet it was satisfactory to
see that there is no chance of its being exterminated for a year or
two yet. As every botanist who visits Ben Lawers must needs

56 GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS.

take one or two specimens, and as the total number of plants is
probably under a hundred, it is not unlikely that in a few years
it may be quite extinct. This Saxifraga is propagated by bulbs,
which lie in the axils of the leaves, and from their number and
colour make this plant when growing an object of great beauty.
In the dried state, in which condition most botanists have seen
it, it is far from beautiful. Here also was found the rare Draba
rupestris, in tolerable plenty.

From here we descended to the shores of “Loch-na-Cat,” pro-
bably 1,500 feet, down the almost precipitous sides. Around its
shores grow some rare plants, and we scattered all about to look
for them. This loch may be about a mile and a half in cireum-
ference, and is surrounded on three sides by Ben Lawers. At the
lower end it is drained by the Lawers Burn. It is a scene of
considerable beauty, and well worth a visit. Among the boulders
at the head of the loch, the Polystichum lonchitis is found in great
abundance. It would be almost impossible to eradicate it, as
every hole and dark corner round the boulders seems to grow one
or more specimens. Itis, in my opinion, the most beautiful of the
ferns, and grows well in a case. The Polypodium alpestre is
also common. The still rarer Woodsia grows in one or two spots
upon the rocks at the head of the loch, but is getting very difficult
to find. Here also were found Draba incana, Juncus biglumis,
and male and female plants of Carex dioica.

From the lower end of the loch there is a good road, although
somewhat of the steepest, and although not the most direct we
now took it, and in about two hours arrived at the inn, where the
same profusion awaited us, who were equally ready, On the
whole our second day was the most enjoyable, as the weather
allowed us to enjoy the view, but the first day was probably the
most successful. The second day also was so long, that we were
more fagged, having been upwards of twelve hours up the hill.
We did not get down till after nine o’clock, and as we had to
retire early, did not spend much time in examining our spoils, but
as speedily as possible retired to rest. Next morning we were up
by four o’clock, and drove. down the sides of Loch Tay to Killin,
which looked even more lovely in the morning mist than in the
noon-day sun. From Killin up to Killin station, where we got
the train at seven, and arrived in Glasgow at half-past ten, having
enjoyed this excursion extremely, and determined to return at
some time to repeat our adventures.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

GLASGOW-SOCLETY

OF

Pei NATURALISTS.

HESTABLISHED 1871.
Part III.

Session 1874-75.

GLASGOW: PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY,
AT THEIR ROOMS, 204 GEORGE STREET.

1875.

TRANSACTIONS

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS.

———$-0+o___—

THIRD ANNUAL MEETING.

187 GEORGE STREET, 20th M arch, 1874.

Tue Annual Meeting of the Society was held here this evening—
Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

The following office-bearers were elected for the ensuing year :—
JAmeEs Stirton, M.D., President; Ricoarp M‘Kay and PETER
CaMERON, jun., Vice-Presidents ; JoHN Harvir and F. G. BINNIE,
Secreturies ; GEORGE Bartas, Z'reasurer ; ALEX. Watt, Curator ;
James ALLAN and W. D. Benson, Members of Council.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Peter Cameron, jun._-Two saw-flies, new to Britain,
Blennocampa aterrima, Klug., a species distinguished from the
rest of the genus by its entirely deep black colour, and by the long
pilose antenne. Hoplocampa pectoralis, Thomson, the only
recorded locality for which is Gothland; its nearest British ally is
H. crataega. ‘The first of these was taken by Dr. Buchanan
White at Braemar, and the latter by the Rev. T. A. Marshall at
St. Albans. Also two new saw-flies described by him in the
“‘Entomologists’ Monthly Magazine”: Yaxonus glottianus, of
which a single specimen was taken at Kenmuir Bank; and
Nematus graminis, a not uncommon species in the district, the
larva of which feeds on grasses.

Mr. James Allan communicated an extract from a letter which
he had received from Mr. Williamson, corresponding member,
mentioning the occurrence of Zrichomanes radicans, near Louis-

ville, Kentucky.
H.

58 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

7tH Aprit, 1874.

The first meeting of the summer session was held this evening—
Mr, Peter Cameron, jun., Vice-President, in the chair,

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. David Pearson.—Living specimens of several species of
Helices, imported into this country amongst Esparto grass.

By Mr. Alex. Watt.—Several mosses collected at the Society’s
excursion to Corrie Glen. Amongst others, Orthotrichum rupestre,
Tortula ruralis, and Dicranum heteromallum.

By Mr. F. G. Binnie.—Living specimens of Limax brunneus
and other land molluscs, collected at the same excursion. He
also stated that he had found Z. brunneus last month at Robroyston,
which, taken in connection with its occurrence near Possil Marsh,
would indicate that though local, it is generally distributed through-
out the Glasgow district, and that probably further research would
find it so throughout Clydesdale. It is probably only a persistent
variety of the abundant JL. agrestis, characterised by its smaller
size, uniform brown colour, and limpid mucus, and differing slightly
in habit, being seemingly restricted more to moist situations than
the type.

By Mr. Peter Cameron, jun.—Two saw-flies not hitherto reported
as having been found in Britain :—Strongylogaster mixtus, Klug.,
taken in the neighbourhood of Paisley ; Pacilosoma obtusa from
Rannoch. He remarked that it was doubtful if the Scottish
specimens of the latter insect were the same as the P. obtusa of
Klug. which was found in Hungary, but they were undoubtedly
identical with those described under that name by Thomsom from
Sweden. It was quite possible that the species was a variable one.
Also Phyllotoma tenella, Zaddach, in its various stages of larva,
pupa, and imago. He said that the eggs were laid on the leaves of
the birch, and that the larva bores its way between the folds of the
epidermis, and by its continual feeding makes the leaf a mere
bladder, inside of which the larva can be easily observed by
holding the leaf between the observer and the light. The larve
open the sides of the leaf to expel the frass. Two broods occur,
the first in the early summer, the second in the autumn. The
larvee of the second brood remain unchanged till the following
spring, passing the winter in a cocoon of very thin silk, which is

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 59

spun between the epidermal folds of the leaf. Generally only one
larva inhabits each leaf, but sometimes two or three do so.

EXCURSION.

Kilsyth and Corrie Glen.—An account was given of this excur-
sion. Several of the spring plants were noticed in flower, and
some of the more frequent mosses of the district were collected.
A single plant of Cardamine pratensis was noticed in flower. This
was early, as it does nob usually flower till May. Sisymbriwm
thalianum was also found. A number of species of land molluscs
were observed, including Limax brunneus, of which a single
individual was found on the Castle Hill. It was also observed to
be rather numerous at the Corrie on a limited piece of ground on
the margin of the burn. The early date, undoubtedly, prevented
much of unusual interest being found, but the excursion was
intended principally for the purpose of examining the character of
the district. All who were at the excursion were of the opinion
that the district promised to be well worthy of careful investiga-
tion farther on in the year.

21st Apri, 1874.

Mr. Peter Cameron, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. Alexander Macindoe, Kelvinbank Terrace, Maryhill, was
elected a resident member.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Alexander Watt.—Growing specimens of Chara flewilis
and C. fragilis, from Possil Marsh. He stated that he had found
three species in the district—the two exhibited, and C. vulgaris.
The last was found at Millport, and seemed to be chiefly found
near the coast. C. flexilis is the commonest species in the district,

By Mr. Alex. Macindoe.— Very luxuriant specimens of Asplenium
ruta-muraria from a wall near the Maryhill Road.

_ By Mr. Thomas King.—A case of insects from Chili, belonging
chiefly to the orders Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera,
and Hemiptera. Among them was Ophion luteus, an ichneumon
very common in Britain.

By Mr. J. R. Watson.—A living female of Vespa sylvestris
captured on the Drymen Road, about nine miles from Glasgow.

60 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

By Mr. Peter Cameron, jun.—A collection of the social wasps
found within ten miles round Glasgow. They are :—Vespa vul-
garis, the commonest species in the district, found nearly every-
where ; Vespa rufa, common at Carmyle and Possil ; V. Germanica
from Possil, not so common as the previous species; V. sylvestris,
a tree wasp from Milngavie, rare; V. Morwegica from Paisley
Moss Wood. The only other British wasps are V. arborea and
V. Crabro. The former has been recorded from Scotland, but not
the latter.

He also exhibited Allotria halterata, Thomson, the smallest
species of the Cynipide, from Kenmuir Bank ; also the dried body
of an Aphis, the interior of which had been devoured by an
Allotria, or by some species of an allied genus.

EXCURSIONS.

Fintry.—My. Richard M‘Kay gave an account of this excursion.
He said the district between Fintry and Killearn was likely to
repay more searching investigation than the present excursion
permitted, both as regards its Fauna and Flora. Mr. Peter
Cameron, jun, reported finding the following Cynipide in the
neighbourhood of Fintry :—Cynips lignicola, very abundant in all
the woods; Dryophanta divisa, Dryophanta fecundatrix, Dryoteras
terminale, Neuroterus numismatis, N. lenticularis, Rhodites rose,
all common ; Andricus noduli, apparently rare. He also found a
small Aphilothrix which is apparently new to the British list, as
it cannot be satisfactorily identified with any of those already
described.

Possil Marsh.—Mr. Alex. Watt gave an account of this excur-
sion. Many of the more frequent species of the aquatic fauna were
collected, including Coleoptera and Hemiptera of several species, also
the larvee of several species of Coleoptera, Neuroptera, Trichoptera,
and Diptera, among which was the very interesting larva of a
small gnat, Corethra plumicornis, often termed the glass cr phantom
larva, on account of its extreme transparency, which permits of a
clear view of the internal organs and their action. Amongst the
Mollusca Lymncea stagnalis was found. This species was intro-
duced into the marsh some years ago. Numbers of empty shells
of Dreissena polymorpha were noticed amongst the mud and debris
thrown out of the adjoining canal.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 61
5TH May, 1874.

Mr. Peter Cameron, jun., Vice-President, in the chair. Mr.
Thomas King, 110 Hill Street, was elected a resident member.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Richd, M‘Kay.—Fertile stems of Hquisetwum umbrosum.

By Mr. Peter Cameron, jun.—Two species of saw-flies, taken
at the excursion to Cambuslang and the south bank of the Clyde,
Dolerus vestigalis and Nematus Kirbyi.

By Mz. F. G. Binnie.—Three species of caddis-flies, taken at the
same excursion, Brachycentrus subnubilis, Rhyacophila dorsalis,
and Glossosoma Bolton.

By Mr. W. D. Benson.—-Specimens of Unio margaritifer, and
a collection of pearls secreted by this mollusc.

EXCURSION.

Cambuslang and the South Bank of the Clyde.—Myr. Richard
M‘Kay gave an account of this excursion. The more characteristic
plants of the district were found in their usual haunts; the
Lquisetum umbrosum was observed still growing at the locality
where it was found at the Society’s excursion last year. It was
rather stunted, and did not fruit so readily, as only one fertile
plant was found. With regard to this station for it Mr. M‘Kay,
in allusion to some newspaper correspondence, said it was found
by Mr. George Ross, a former member of the Society, and himself,
in 1872, but had been omitted to be reported at the time.
Anacharis alsinastrum grows abundantly in a pool in a disused
quarry. A search was made for the Pearl Mussel (Unio mar-
garitifer), which was found still living in some numbers in the
bed of the Clyde opposite Carmyle and Kenmuir Bank. The
other Mollusca noticed in the Clyde were Lymnea peregra and
Ancylus fluviatilis.

Two species of humble-bees were observed—Bombus lucorum
and &. terrestris. Andrena albicans was also captured.

PAPER READ.

By Mr. Malcolm Black, on the Anatomy of the Haddock,
illustrated by dissected specimens. He described the internal

62 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

anatomy very minutely, and showed its relationship with that of
other members of the class.

The attention of the Society was called to a communication from
Mr. Darwin, which appeared in a recent number of ‘“ Nature,”
in which he writes that near Beckenham, Kent, he had observed,
for above twenty years, that every spring the flowers of the prim-
rose, and sometimes also of allied species, were cut off and strewn
about—presumably by birds—and that this year the destruction
has been greater than ever. He asks whether this fact has been
noticed in other parts of Britain, as having a bearing on the ques-
tion of its being a new habit or instinct of birds. Several letters,
chiefly affirmative, appeared in “ Nature.”

Mr. Thomas King stated that he had observed it, for the first
time, this spring at Innellan, with respect to both primroses and
cowslips—the former in the woods and in the garden, the latter in
the garden only. In most instances he did not observe the cut-off
portions ; they had either been eaten or carried away. He never
saw the birds at work, and could not therefore say what species
committed the depredations.

Mr. Allan M‘Aulay said he had been intormed that bullfinches
destroyed the blossom of the peach for the sake of the nectar.

19TH May, 1874.

Mr. Peter Cameron, jun., Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. George Horn.—Two rare plants ; Hwonymus Huropeeus
from Bothwell woods, and Paris quadrifolia from Kilsyth.

By Mr. Alexander Watt.—The following mosses from the
Whangie :—Blindia acuta, khabdoweissia denticulata, and Fyp-
num denticulatum ; Aspidium filix-mas, var. paleacea, from the
neighbourhood of the Whangie; and Peplis portula from Craigton
Dam and the reservoir in the Kilpatrick Hills.

By Mr. J. R. Watson.—Specimens of the Parsley Fern
(Cryptoyramme crispa), from a new locality in the Kilpatrick

Hills, where it occurs in some abundance, and very luxuriant in
growth.

By Mr. James Allan—(For Mr. Turner of Stirling). The very
curious eggs of the earth-worm (Lumbricus terrestris), Hach

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 63

egg is seated on a pedicel, and has at the top a peculiar valvular
opening to facilitate the egress of the mature embryo.

By Mr. F. G. Binnie.—Specimens of Balia perversa from
Campsie Glen.

By Mr. Peter Cameron, jun.—Vematus histrio, LePel = rufescens,
Hartig, a saw-fly new to the British list. It was bred from
larvee found on the west coast of Inverness-shire. The larva, which
fed on Salix wurita, was of a pale green colour, dotted over with
small black points, and with a dark green stripe bordered on each
side with a narrower white one; the cocoon was long, scarcely
cylindrical, composed of a brown-coloured silk. He also exhibited
the saw-fly described by De Geer as Tenthredo salicis, Linn, which
is, however, quite different from the true Nematus salicis of Linn
(of which specimens were exhibited), which is a much larger insect,
and instead of having the head and thorax black, as in De Geer’s
species, has only a square black spot on the top of the head and
another on the mesonotum and breast.

EXCURSION. |

Calderwood Glen.—Mr. Richard M‘Kay gave an account of this
excursion. There was a good turn-out of members. Numerous
objects of interest were seen, but the only things worthy of special
mention were the three uncommon mosses—TZortula insulana,
Gymnostomum rupestre, var. stelligerum, and Bryum pallescens—

collected by Mr. Alexander Watt.

2nD JUNE, 1874.
Mr. Peter Cameron, jun., Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. James Kirkland was elected a resident member.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Richard M‘Kay.—Arabis hirsuta, Cnicus heterephyllus,
and Asplenium viride, all from the neighbourhood of Kilsyth.

By Mr. Peter Cameron, jun.—A saw-fly, Selandria grandis,
Zaddach—S. interstitialis, Thomson, similar in coloration to the
common 8S. serva, but is much larger, and the second recurrent
nervure is received into the second submarginal nervure, which is
not the case with S. serva. This species was also taken in the
district.

By Dr. James Stirton.—A number of cryptogamic plants, chiefly

64 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

lichens, from the “Challenger” expedition, and made some remarks
on their distribution. Especially noteworthy among them, from its
bearing on questions of plant-distribution, was a moss, Myuwrium
Hebridarum, from Furnas in the Azores. This species was known
only from some of the Western Isles of Scotland until found by
the present expedition in the Canaries and the Azores; at the
latter station a specimen with seta attached was found, showing
that it had fruited. Among the lichens from Furnas, one Séicta
Damecornis, var. Cunariensis, occurs also in Skye. The Azores
being true oceanic islands, renders the question of the connection
between these isolated stations one of extreme difficulty ; but the
materials now being collected by the expedition respecting the
vegetation of such islands may throw some light upon it, as may,
perhaps, the fact that the Azores are culminating points of a
submarine ridge, the southward extension into the basin of the
North Atlantic of the plateau from which rise the Hebrides along
with the Faroe and other islands.

EXCURSION.

Strathblane.—Mr. F. G. Binnie gave an account of this excur-
sion, Viola flavicornis was found generally distributed along the
hill slopes there; and the Arwm maculatum was observed (evi-
dently a garden escape) in the grounds of Carbeth Guthrie, adjoin-
ing the Colt’s Lane.

The larvee of Hupithecita sobrinata were taken on a juniper near
the Deil’s Craig Dam, and were exhibited at the present meeting
chiefly to show the protective coloration of the insect at this stage
of its existence.

PAPER READ.

Dr. Stirton read a paper in continuation of a former one on the
peculiarities and organization of Lichens. On the present occasion
he dwelt chiefly upon the more recent contributions to our know-
ledge of the physiology and reproduction of this class, and
discussed, in the light of these fresh facts, the theories which had
been advanced to explain certain functions and products that are
still veiled in some obscurity. The paper was illustrated by
diagrams.

In connection with remarks made on the advantages of taking

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 65

up special branches of study, Dr. Stirton and others stated that
they would be happy to give every help and assistance, with regard
to their own special branches, to any of the members who wished
to take up such special study.

Mr. Cameron remarked on the value of attending to varieties
in making up lists of species for a district, and adverted to
Staudinger’s nomenclature and division into species, Darwinian
species (=sub-species), varieties, and aberrations, as a good working
one.

16TH Jung, 1874.

Mr. Richard M‘Kay, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr, J. C. Hutcheson was elected a resident member.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Alexander Watt.—The four British species of Lemna,
all from the Forth and Clyde Canal. He made some remarks on
their structure, growth, and distribution ; one species only, ZL.
mimor, is generally distributed through the district, the others
being very rare, although LZ. triswlca is plentiful in its localities.

By Mr. Alexander M‘Indoe.—Rubus chamemorus from the
Karl’s Seat; Trollius Huropeus and Habenaria viridis from Oraig-
allian Loch.

By Mr. F. G. Binnie.—A fresh-water mollusc, Planorbis nitidus,
Miller, from the Forth and Clyde Canal at Firhill. Also the
apparently rare caddis-fly Limnophilus luridus—new to the dis-
trict—from the Kilpatrick Hills and Caplaw Dam. Only five
localities are given for this species in M‘Lachlan’s “ Monograph of
the British Trichoptera,” Rannoch being the only Scottish station.

EXCURSION.

Neilston and Gleniffer.—Mr. J. R. Watson gave an account of
this excursion. A number of interesting plants were found, in-
cluding Sedum villosum, collected on the Gleniffer Braes. im-
nophilus luridus was captured near Caplaw Dam.

At an excursion to Eaglesham and Ballagioch, on the 6th
instant, besides observing Lamium album, Hmpetrum nigrum, and
other unfrequent plants, a station was found for Peucedanum

Ostruthium. My. Alexander Watt found Chara flexilis and C.
I

66 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

fragilis growing in the Eaglesham reservoirs ; and Mr. F. G.
Binnie observed here the small slug Limax brunneus.

It was stated to the meeting that at a recent visit to Kilpatrick
Hills, Tsoetes lacustris was found in the Lily Loch. It was pre-
viously found and recorded for Loch Cochno by the Society, thus
making two localities among these hills for this species. Sedum
villosum and Vacciniwm Vitis-[dea were also mentioned as having
been observed, and likewise the fresh-water shell Ancylus
fluviatilis,

30TH JuNE, 1874.

Mr. Peter Cameron, jun., Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Richard M‘Kay.—A number of uncommon plants from
the Mill Burn, near Kilmalcolm, including Mewm athamanticum,
Sedum villosum, Myosotis repens, Habenaria albida, and Carex
pallescens.

By Mr. Peter Cameron, jun.—The larve of Mematus histrio,
Le Pel., a specimen recently added by him to the British list.
The perfect insect was exhibited at the meeting held on 19th May,
and an account given of its metamorphosis at that time.

A letter was read from Mr. David Gregorson, containing obser-
vations on the more noteworthy plants of the Kilsyth district, and
a list given. Among those enumerated special mention may be —
made of Ophioglossum vulgatum and Lotrychium lunaria.

EXCURSION.

Meikle Bin.—An account was given of the excursion to the
Meikle Bin above Kilsyth, on the 27th. The members succeeded
in finding many of the less frequent hill plants of the district ;
also the rare Sambucus Hbulus, near Milton, at a station long
known by local botanists.

PAPER READ.

Mr. F. G. Binnie read a paper on “The Aquatic Fauna of
Possil Marsh.” Taking the various zoological sections in their
order, he indicated the species that occur in the Marsh, pointing
out the sections with regard to which our knowledge was still
deficient. The sub-kingdom Vermes (Rolleston) was requiring
investigation, also the sub-kingdom Protozoa; and several classes

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 667

of the other sub-kingdoms, especially the class Insecta, where full
lists of the Coleoptera, Neuroptera, Trichoptera, Lepidoptera,
Hemiptera, and Diptera are wanted. Of the Trichoptera a partial
list was given in the present paper, which he hoped largely to
increase and to complete during the present year. Of the Lepi-
doptera the only truly aquatic representatives found so far all
belong to one family, the Hydrocampide. Out of the six British
representatives of the aquatic family, there have occurred in the
Marsh Cataclysta Lemnalis, Hydrocampa Nymphealis, and H.
stagnalis.

Of the Mollusca a full list was given (with the exception of the
Polyzoa, and the genus Pisidium of the Lamellibranchiata; one or
two species of the latter occur, but are not yet named). The
species are as follows :—Succinea putris, Planorbis albus, Physa fon-
tinalis, Lymneea peregra, L. stagnalis, L. palustris, L. truncatula,
Bythinia tentaculata and var. decollata, Valvata piscinalis, V.
cristata, Dreissena polymorpha, Cyclas cornea, and C. lacustris—
thirteen species, of which three may be considered as introduced :
Lymnea stagnalis and Dreissena polymorpha certainly, and Cyclas
lacustris probably. D. polymorpha is introduced into the list of
species for Possil Marsh proper from a single living specimen
having been found within its limits, an escape from the adjoining
canal, where it has long been known to occur in great numbers.
It may be mentioned that no species of mollusc is known to be
found in the canal here which has not also occurred in the Marsh.
In conclusion, the compilation and completion of a full account of
the Fauna and Flora of the Marsh was advocated, and if possible
to appear in next year’s Transactions. A number of living
Mollusca and aquatic insects in various stages of development were
exhibited in illustration of the paper; also collections of the
Mollusca and Trichoptera (partial) of the Marsh.

14tH Juty, 1874.
Mr. Peter Cameron, jun., Vice-President, in the chair,
Mr. D. S. Carson was elected a resident member.
SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. F. G. Binnie.—Trochilium crabroniforme, Lewin, from
Possil Marsh.
By Mr. Peter Cameron, Jun.—The fossorial wasp Pompzilus

68 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

niger from Loch Duich. - Also the following saw-flies :—_Both sexes
of Cenoneura Dahlbomi, taken in Cadder Wilderness ; the male of
this species has hitherto been undescribed. A species new to
science, which he has named Nematus Vollenhoveni after the
talented Dutch entomologist, to whom we owe much of our present
knowledge of the life-histories of saw-flies, more particularly those
of Holland. A full description, together with an account of its
habits and metamorphoses, appears in the “Scottish Naturalist.”
(vol. IL., p. 296 et seg.) A number of the galls and living larvee
were also exhibited. Dr. Stirton pronounced the small tubercular
elevations, which often broke up the surface of the galls, to be
the work of a minute fungus.

EXCURSIONS,

Spout of Ballagan.—Owing to the unfavourable character of the
day, very little of interest was done. The members, after leaving
the glen, visited the Blairquosh oak and measured it. The
minimum girth was found to be 16 feet 84 inches. Ina list of
remarkable trees which appeared in an old volume of the “Citizen”
newspaper, the girth of this tree was stated to have been 15 feet in
wi9G.

Fin Glen, and the Earl’s Seat.—In the Fin Glen a number of
interesting plants were observed, from which the following may
be selected for mention:—Arabis hirsuta, Rubus chamemorus,
Cnicus heterophyllus, Campanula latifolia, Saxifraga aizordes and
hypnoides, Sedum villosum, Arctium Lappa, Empetrum nigrum,
Calamintha Clinopodium, Rumex sanguineus, var. viridis, Carea
sylvatica, remota, and pallescens, Asplenium viride, and Lycopodiwm
sclaginoides.

Mr. Alexander Watt reported the occurrence of Jasione montana
in the railway cutting at Kirkintilloch.

287TH Juty, 1874.
Mr. Peter Cameron, jun., Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.
By Mr. James Allan.—Sphagnum compactum, S. contortum, and
Hypnum stellatum, from Goatfell, Arran.
By Mr. Peter Cameron, jun.—Dineura stilata, a saw-fly new to
the British list; taken in the end of June on Pyrus aucuparia in
Cadder Wilderness.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 69

EXCURSION.

Dunoon (dredging ).— Mr. John Harvie gave an account of this
excursion, which was a very successful one, a number of very
interesting marine animals (chiefly Mollusca and Crustacea) being
taken. Many of these were exhibited at the present meeting.
Among the Mollusca may be mentioned Fusus propinquus and
Lima hians. Several examples of the latter very beautiful species
were taken—all inside the tubular conglomeration of marine débris
bound together by byssal threads which zoologists term its nest.
This habitation is probably intended as a protection from the
rapacity of its carnivorous neighbours because it is unable to with-
draw itself completely into its shell, which itself is not very strong,
and the magnificent carmine tint of the tentacular fringes of the
mantle must make it very conspicuous.

PAPER READ,

By Mr. John Harvie, entitled “Observations on the Nudi-
branchiata.” He gave some very interesting facts with regard to
the habits and food of this class, and a summary (with a list of
species) of what he had done in the investigation of the Clyde
fauna.

Mr. Alexander Watt gave a list of the more noteworthy plants
observed by him on Ben Voirlich during a recent visit; they were as
follows :—Thalictrum alpinum, Stlene acaulis, Alchemilla alpina,
Epilobium alpinum, Sedum Rhodiola, Saxifraga stellaris, aizovdes,
oppositifolia, and hypnoides, Cochlearia officinalis, var. alpina,
Gnaphalium supinum, Carduus heterophyllus, Armeria maritima,
Polygonum viviparum, Oxyria reniformis, Salix herbacea, Juncus
triglumis, Scirpus cceespitosus var. viviparus, and Carex rigida.

Mr. Richard M‘Kay gave a sketch of the botany of Ben
Cruachan from recent observations. The following is a list of
the more interesting plants noticed :—Thalictrum alpinum, Alche-
milla alpina, Sedum Rhodiola, Sauifraga stellaris and aizordes,
Gnaphalium supinum, Carduus heterophyllus, Oxyria reniformis,
Juncus triglumis, Scirpus ccespitosus, Sibbaldia procumbens, and
Polypodium alpestre. He remarked that the mountain did not
seem one likely to produce many rarities.

70 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

1ltH Aveust, 1874.
Mr. Richard M‘Kay, Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. F. G. Binnie.—Hydroptila tineoides from the south
bank of the Clyde above Cambuslang.

EXCURSION.

Troon.—Nothing of unusual interest was found. Mr. Richard
M‘Kay observed Poa rigida, and Mr. Alexander Watt noticed
Lepidium Draba, both seemingly well established, although there
is little doubt they are introduced.

25TH Aveust, 1874.
Mr. Richard M‘Kay, Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. John Renwick.—ZJnula dysenterica from Whiting Bay,
Arran.

By Mr. George Horn.—Lpilobiwm roseum from a rubbish heap,
Great Western Road; Primula Scotica and Oxytropis Uralensis
from Orkney; Carex teretwuscula, var. Khrhartiana from Bothwell
woods ; Carex levigata from Innellan.

EXCURSIONS.

Roseneath.—Mr. Richard M‘Kay gave an account of this ex-
cursion. No rare plants or animals were found. The large silver-
fir trees in the Duke of Argyll’s grounds were measured. The
eastermost was found to be 21 feet 8 inches in circumference, and
the westermost, 21 feet 10 inches.

Ben Lawers.—Dr. James Stirton gave an account of this ex-
cursion, He had found there five lichens new to Britain :—
Lecidea scutulata, Stirton, from Ben Lawers; L. lyperiza, Stirton,
from Killin; Verrucaria peltophora, Stirton, from Ben Lawers ;
V. Colleta, Stirton, and Lecidea alpicola, Schaer, also from Ben
Lawers. He mentioned that he had found lichens growing on the
decayed stumps of the elder near Grantown, a situation in which
they had never been found before, and in this case they seemed to
occupy the place of the fungi. There was considerable difference
this year in the abundance of some of the rarer plants on Ben

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 71

Lawers. Some of them had increased considerably, and others—
the rare Gentiana nivalis for instance—seemed to be getting rapidly
exterminated. Mr. J. R. Watson succeeded in getting Saxifraga
cernua in flower—a very unusual occurrence with the species in
this country.

td

PAPER READ.
By Mr. Stewart Macdonald on “ Mistakes in Natural History,”
in which he instanced many curious and absurd mistakes into
which even great naturalists had fallen, in striving to interpret
biological phenomena,

8TH SEPTEMBER, 1874,

Mr. Peter Cameron, jun., Vice-President, in the chair.
Messrs. Matthew J. Algie and John Renwick were elected
- resident members.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. George Horn.—A number of plants collected on rubbish
heaps, Great Western Road; among them were :—Veronica
Buxbaumii, Coriandrum sativum (in fruit), Thlaspi arvense,and a
young plant of the Date Palm (Phenix dactylifera).

By Mr. Alexander Macindoe.—Various species of Ferns from
New Zealand.

By Mr. Peter Cameron, jun.—The undescribed Nematus alnivorus
of Hartig, a saw-fly not previously reported as a native of Britain.
It agrees very closely in size and colour with Hemichroa luridiventris,
but it wants the white line on the pronotum. It seems to bea
common species in Scotland, having been taken in the Possil
district and in several localities in Inverness-shire. Nothing is
known regarding its larva, but from the fact of the imago being
always captured in the vicinity of willows, it is presumed that it
feeds on these plants. He also exhibited the larva of Abia nitens
from Possil Marsh, where it is now found feeding on Scabiosa
succisa. When disturbed it ejects a watery fluid from pores in the
body and rolls itself up into a ball.

Mr. Cameron also exhibited the female of the rare bee Vomada
mistura, Smith. The male only has been described or known
until the capture of this specimen, which was taken in Cadder
Wilderness in August, on the Ragwort; another example was

72 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

likewise captured at Strathblane. Only four other specimens have
been reported from Britain, and these were taken in Yorkshire
and near Carlisle.

EXCURSIONS.

Ben Voirlich, Loch Lomond.—In addition to getting most of the
plants already recorded in the minutes of the Society, the Parsley
Fern (Cryptogamme crispa) was observed.

Auld Wives’ Lifts.—Nothing of exceptional interest was found.

Mr. James Allan made some interesting remarks on Vallisneria
spiralis, in which was mentioned the rapidity of its growth; from
a recent observation of his own he had found it to be as much as
30 inches in five days.

22ND SEPTEMBER, 1874.

Mr. Richard M‘Kay, Vice-President, in the chair.
Messrs. Alexander Noble and H. G. Gillum were elected resi-
dent members.
SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Somerville.—A large wood-boring larva (coleopterous)
found in a log of Maho from Cuba. It seemed in a perfectly
healthy condition.

By Mr. James Allan.—The stem of the Vallisneria spiralis
remarked upon at the previous meeting. Also a large number of
mosses from Devonshire ; and the rest of the evening was occupied
in their examination under the microscope.

6TH OcToBER, 1874.

Mr. Peter Cameron, jun., Vice-President, in the chair.

It was intimated that during the winter months the meetings
would be held on Fridays instead of Tuesdays. The Syllabus for
the winter session was laid on the table.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Dr. Stirton.—Parmelia Millaniana, a lichen new to science,
from Glen Croe, where it was found in July last, by the Rev. Dr.
Hugh M‘Millan, of Glasgow, and he had great pleasure in naming
it after its discoverer. The following is a diagnosis of this lichen.
Thallus thin, albido-glaucescent (K yellow, C yellow), laciniato-

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. (es

lobate, laciniz sinuato-incised, often imbricated, smooth, laxly
affixed ; medulla pale yellow, thin (C yellow) ; under surface black,
towards the margin brown, with black branching radicles;
apothecia unknown. Intermingled with it were specimens of
P. physodes, Ach. Pa Up

Dr. Stirton also exhibited the Lichen Lecanora Breadalbanensis
new to science, found by him on Ben Lawers; he also laid on the

table a large tuft of the moss Myurium Hebridarum, which he had
received from T. J. Bulkeley, Esq., Procurator Fiscal, Lochmaddy,
and referred to the observations on this species which he made
at a previous meeting when discussing some of the ‘ Challenger”
specimens.

By Mr. Cameron—A variety of Zaxonus bicolor, Kl. ; inter-
mediate between the type and 7. coxalis, K1., showing that the
latter must necessarily be a variety of 7’. bicolor. He also exhibited
a new species of Hriocampa taken by him near Beauly, and which
he has named £. testaceipes. It is nearly related to H. cinaxia (as
shown by the similarity in the structure of the posterior wings)
but is at once distinguished by having the feet nearly all of a
testaceous colour.

23RD OcToBER, 1874.

Mr, Peter Cameron, jun., Vice-President, in the chair.

Mr. David R. Clark, M.A., was elected a resident member.

The Chairman gave notice that at next meeting he would move,
“That this society be amalgamated, on suitable terms, with the
Natural History Society of Glasgow.”

PAPER READ.

Dr. Stirton gave an introductory address to the winter session.
He prefaced his remarks with some observations on the progress
made in the study of nature. Mental philosophy, despite the
numerous and great advances made, was as yet without a firm
and solid basis. Far different results have we in the study of
external nature, where order may be said to have set in; minute,
prolonged, and exhaustive observation have given us glimpses of
the first links of the vast chain of law which unites all nature in
one. The schoolman, with his dream of intuitive knowledge to be
attained by the mind purified by severe privation, has vanished,

and in his place we have got the healthy, vigorous naturalist, and
K

74. TRANSACTIONS OF THE

inductive philosopher, whose only idea of privation is that involved
in incessant work. Referring to the extent of the field of study,
and the absolute necessity for division of labour he insisted that
advancement can only come from special study of special branches.
Loss can be the only result of talent dissipated over the whole
realm of nature. He concluded with a notice of a few of the
primary advantages attending the study of nature, in preserving
our higher nature pure amid the various adverse elements of a busy
life, in elevating the mind by the contemplation of the grand
harmony and unity of nature, and in training and improving the
mental faculty itself.

6TH Novemper, 1874.
Mr. Richard M‘Kay, Vice-President, in the chair.

Mr. Peter Cameron, jun., instead of previous motion, moved,
“That this Society enters into negotiations with the Natural
History Society of Glasgow, for the purpose of amalgamating with
it on suitable terms.”

Mr. Harvie moved as an amendment, “That this Society, whilst
favourable to amalgamation, take no steps in the matter till the
Natural History Society make a proposal stating terms of proposed
union.” After a discussion, the amendment was carried on a vote
being taken. The votes were: for amendment, 10; for Mr.
Cameron’s motion, 9.

PAPER READ.

Mr. Gregorson read a paper entitled ‘Notes on the Natural
History of Kilsyth.” After explaining its position and leading
physical features, and sketching the principal points and facts
in its antiquities, history, and geology, he referred at more length
to the botany of the district. Up to this date, his list of observed
plants comprises 350 species, which, considering the limited time
he has been enabled to devote to their investigation, he thought,
showed that the district was a tolerably rich one. The carices,
grasses, mosses, lichens, and fungi, he had scarcely touched.
Twenty species of ferns have been observed, including amongst
others, Aspleniwm viride, Cryptogramme crispa, Aspidium angulare,
Ophioglossum vulgatum, and Botrychium lunaria. ‘There is an
absence of vegetation in the standing waters as compared with the
immediate neighbourhood of Glasgow. He then enumerated in

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 75

their order of flowering the more characteristic plants, and after a
reference to the zoology concluded by asking the assistance of the
Society in working out its complete Natural History.

20TH NovemBeER, 1874.

Mr. Richard M‘Kay, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. P. Cunningham, Maryhill, and Mr. J. Thomson, Glasgow,
were elected resident members.

PAPER READ.

Mr. James Allan made some remarks on the arrangement of the
genus Hypnum, in which he commented on the present unsatis-
factory and unwieldy character of the genus, which greatly requires
sub-division. The objections to the present division rest mainly
on its not being founded on field characters, and so not a natural
one. But as it has been arranged by the greatest living biologist,
it must be accepted as a correct one. He exhibited a large number
of mosses in illustration.

A discussion followed on the great variation exhibited by the
common moss Hypnum cupressiforme, a series of which were
exhibited by Mr. Allan. The extremes of these, in the absence of
intermediate forms, might easily pass for distinct species. The
similar variability of the genera Rosa, and Hieracium, and the
fruticose Rubi, amongst plants and various species of Mollusca,
were adverted to, and Mr. Darwin’s observations on the subject
were discussed.

4tH DeEcempeER, 1874.

Mr. James Allan in the chair.
Mr. Fawcett, Crosshill, was elected a resident member.

PAPER READ.

Dr. Mathie read a paper on “The Leaf-beds of Ardtun.” After
describing the geographical position of the headland of Ardtun
and the leading physical features of the surrounding district, he
proceeded to explain the order and characters of the various strata
of the sea cliff of Ardtun. Commencing at the top, there is first
a bed of basalt; 2nd, a thin seam of shale with impressions of
leaves and stems of plants; 3rd, a bed of volcanic ash; 4th, a

76 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

second leaf-bed; 5th, a second bed of volcanic ash; 6th, a bed of
shale or consolidated mud with few leaf impressions ; 7th, a seam
of dark amorphous basalt; 8th, a base of columnar basalt.

As to the origin of these beds, Dr. Mathie thought that the
theory advanced by the Duke of Argyll was the correct one.
In a paper read before the Geological Society the Duke of Argyll
said that alternations of quiet autumnal sheddings of leaves into
the smooth, still waters of a shallow lake, with periods of volcanic
eruption and activity, are the most probable causes of the Ardtun
beds. Autumn after autumn the leaves are accumulated, till a
period of volcanic eruption arrived when a stream of liquid mud
was poured over them, insinuating itself between the upper and
looser layers of the leaf-bed; upon this a strata of other volcanic
matter was deposited ; and thereafter came a period of rest and
deposition of leaves, which in turn was followed by another
volcanic eruption. He concluded by a description of the chief
vegetable remains found in the beds.

The paper was illustrated by diagrams showing the geological
arrangement of the beds, and by numerous specimens.

18TH DecemBeER, 1874.
Mr. Richard M‘Kay, Vice-President, in the chair.
PAPER READ. |
Mr. Stuart M‘Donald read a paper on the common gnat, in

which he gave some interesting details of the development and life

history of this insect.
An interesting discussion followed, in which some account of

the flight of insects was given by several members.

8TH January, 1875.

Mr. Richard M‘Kay, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. W. C. Crawford, Kelvinside Terrace, was elected a resident
member, and Mr. James G. Scott, Rangoon, as a corresponding

meiber.
SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Allan.—An interesting series of mosses from Devon.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 77

PAPER READ.

Mr. Milligan read a paper on the Foraminifera in which he re-
marked on the antiquity and importance of this class, the Hozoon
Canadense being probably a foraminiferous animal, He gave an
account of the leading features and physiology of the group, illus-
trating his remarks with pencil sketches of a few of the principal
forms. He concluded with some observations on the recent
researches of the “‘ Challenger” expedition, and the extensive red
clay deposits of the sea bottom.

22nD January, 1875.

Mr. Richard M‘Kay, Vice-President, in the chair.

The Chairman intimated that this would be the last meeting at
this place, as owing to building operations they must leave. It
was moved that the cordial thanks of the Society be transmitted
to Mr. Cousin, through whose kindness the Society’s meetings had
been held in this place at an outlay far below the value of the
place of meeting, and that same be expressed in minutes. This
was unanimously agreed to, and the Council was requested to take
immediate steps as to a new place of meeting.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Allan.—A collection of mosses from New Granada.
The most of these were from the mountainous region of the Mag-
dalena and Pacho, and a few were identical with British species.
Many were quite new, and some of great beauty. The various
species of Pelopagon, Prianodon, and Meteoreum attracted attention.

PAPER READ.

Mr. F. G. Binnie read a paper on “ Caddis-flies,” in which he
gave a resumé of the characters of the group, its position and status
in systems of classification. Prefacing his subject with a brief
sketch of the distinctive peculiarities of the Insecta, and with an
exposition of the doctrine of “‘Somites,” he proceeded to a more
elaborate account of the external configuration of the Trichoptera,
and pointed out the various points in which they agreed with the
several orders of insects, together with those in which they differed.
Their affinities with the Neuroptera and Lepidoptera were chiefly
dwelt upon. He was inclined to think that their affinities with the

78 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Neuroptera were real, whilst the points of agreement between the
Caddis-flies and the Lepidoptera were merely adaptive and not indi-
cative of any close genetic relationship; but further research was
needed before decisive affirmations could be made. By most British
entomologists, and by a recent continental student—Kolenati—
this group was given the status of a distinct order, a view favoured
in the present paper: most continental entomologists, however,
consider the group merely a sub-order of the Neuroptera. The
current opinion of entomologists as to the rudimentary nature of
the mouth organs of these insects was adverted to and doubted,
at least as to its universality in the group. Recent study of a
large number of individuals led to a different conclusion, but
examination of living specimens was needed before this view could
be considered fully established.

57TH Frpruary, 1875.
Mr. Richard M‘Kay, Vice-President, in the chair.

PAPER READ.

By Mr. Thomas King.—Remarks on the Botany of Chile.
He gave a prefatory sketch of the physical geography of Chile,
as helping to elucidate its botanical features. Describing the
situation and extent of Chile, he next contrasted North Chile—
a desert, some years without a single shower—with the forest-
clad and very rainy character of the south. Central Chile is
intermediate in climate and has alternate rainy and dry seasons.
Chile is mountainous, intersected by spurs from the Andes with
flat-bottomed valleys between. Most of it has been elevated in
the present epoch, the present state of South Chile being typical
of the past condition of the whole of Chile. He described the
order in which the vegetation appears. First the red, bare
earth becomes green with the Hrodiwm moschatum and cicutarium
(Alferillo), considered introduced species by Professor Philippi ;
then the Ozalis lobata (Flor de perdiz) makes the fields gay
with its golden blossom, occupying a similar position there to
our wild gowans here, and as abundant. There is an absence in
Chile of the luxuriant tropical vegetation one would naturally
expect—owing to the fact that where the sun is powerful water is
scarce, and where rain is abundant the heat is little.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 79

The features that would strike a visitor from this country most
upon landing (say at Valparaiso) would be the absence of sward,
the abundance of bushes, and the presence of canes and palms.
There was forest once (as at present in South Chile), but owing to
the great destruction of wood, chiefly the Espino, for charcoal—
the discovery and use of coal being of comparatively recent date
there—trees are scarce, indeed absent, in North Chile, and the in-
habitants have to grub up the roots of once-existing trees for fuel ;
even bushes disappear near towns. Before the Spanish Conquest
the whole country is said to have been a forest. Another feature,
not so evident, however, at the first glance, is that all the woody
plants are evergreen, yet one of the most characteristic trees of
Central Chile, the Espino, is deciduous. The fig tree and the vine,
both thoroughly naturalized, are of course deciduous. Noticed
that the imported elm gets its leaves sooner and keeps them longer
than in Scotland.

Mr. King then particularized the leading and characteristic
trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants of the country, from which the
following are selected :—

Litre (Litrea venenosa) tree and shrub, common. Reputed to
possess poisonous properties, but could not verify.

Winter’s Bark-tree (Drymis Wintert and Chilensis), common.
Named after Dr. Winter, who sailed in Drake’s expedition, 1577,
and introduced the bark, for medicinal purposes, into Europe. It
is the sacred tree of the Araucanian Indians.

Antarctic Beeches (agus obliqua, &e.), Roble.

Carbon (Cordia decandra), a tree once, a shrub now. Found in
the deserts of the north. It is the most ornamental wood of Chile.

Espino (Acacia cavenia) ; which will be the hedge of the future,
at present cut branches are set face to face. It grows in arid
places away from streams.

Avellano (Guevina avellana). The finest shrub of Chile;
Habitat—South Chile. It might be acclimatized here like the
Fuchsia. .

Peumo (Cryptocaria pewmos ) comes second in order of beauty as
an evergreen shrub. It is common, and the bark is used for
tanning.

Copigue (Lepageria rosea), common in the south, is the most
beautiful flowering plant of Chile. It is an evergreen, woody
climber, with thick, fleshy, scarlet, bell-shaped flowers, 3 inches long.

80 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Algarrobillo (Balsamocarpon brevifolium), a common shrub of
the deserts of N. Chile, produces a pod which contains much
tannin, and is used in preparing ink and leather.

Adesmia.—A. characteristic genus of Chile. Leguminous shrubs
of some 60 species.

Churco (Oxalis gigantea)—a deciduous shrub of the deserts of
North Chile. It is the largest Oxalis known, and is used in
house-building. There are at least 40 species of this genus in
Chile.

Fuchsias, tropeolums, Bambusz, palms, and the Myrtacez
may be mentioned, also the Mano de leon (Leontocheir ovallet), the
rarest of flowers, confined to a limited district in lat. 28° 8S. It has
roots like those of the dahlia and large red flowers resembling
those of the peony.

The potato is a native of Chile, and there are several species of
this section of the genus Solanum—some, as Solanwm etuberosum,
without tubers. Suggested that fresh tubers might be imported
into this country from Chile to test the opinion of those who argue
that the potato disease has greater facilities owing to our stock
being weakened by repeated cutting of the tubers.

A large number of plants are common to Chile and this country,
some being cosmopolitan and native to both, others introduced
there, as the violet (Viola odorata), now common on the banks of
streams. The dandelion (Z'araxacum officinale) was discovered in
1871. The foxglove is making way in South Chile. Mymeno-
phyllum Tunbridgense occurs in South Chile.

Mr. King exhibited a very large number of plants, fruits, woods,
&c., in illustration of his paper. Among them were many species
which he had added to the Chilean Flora and to Science; and
which have been fully described by his friend Professor Philippi,
of the University of Chili, such as :—&rrazurisia glandulifera,
Ph.; Adesmia Kingi, Ph.; Valeriana Senecioides, Ph.; Gymnophyton
Kingi, Ph.; Crukshankia (a genus peculiar to North Chile), several
species ; Argylia villosa, Ph., &e., &e.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 81

19TH FreBruary, 1875.

Mr. Richard M‘Kay, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. James Taylor, 129 High John Street, was elected a resident

member.
PAPER READ.

By Mr. A. Wart on the Comparative Longevity of Plants.

In the discussion which followed, the desirability of having
recorded in the minutes of the Society, any information and statis-
tics with reference to ancient or remarkable trees in Scotland, was
suggested, and met with unanimous approval.

5TH Marcu, 1875.
Mr. Richard M‘Kay, Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Richard M‘Kay.—A large number of plants and
varieties which he had recently received through the London
Botanical Exchange Club. Among them were Caltha palustris
var. Guerangeru, Ranunculus Ophioglossifolium, R. arvensis, Arabis
Turrita (from St. John’s College, Cambridge), Helianthemum Breweri
(Holyhead), Viola Curtis: (Anglesea), Stellaria wmbrosa, &e.

By Mr. J. M. Campbell.—A_ specimen of the Glass-rope sponge
(Hyalonema mirabilis, Gray), taken 30 miles north of Yokohama,
Japan: also a beautiful example of Venus’ Flower-basket (Zuplec
tella) from the Philippine Islands.

By Mr. John Harvie.—Under the microscope—the cell-circula-
tion in Vallisneria, its peculiar phenomena being very clearly
shown.

OFFICH-BEARERS, 1875-76.

President.

JAMES STIRTON, M.D.

Bice-Presidents.

RICHARD M‘KAY anp JAMES ALLAN.

Secretaries.

JOHN HARVIE axp W. J. MILLIGAN.

Creaxsurer.

GEORGE BARLAS.

Curator.

ALEXANDER WATT.

Other Members of Council.
W. D. BENSON anp A. NOBLE.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

GLASGOW. SOCIETY

or

PIED NATURALISTS,

ESTABLISHED 1871.
Part IV.

Session 1875-76.

GLASGOW: PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY,
AT THEIR ROOMS, ANDERSONIAN UNIVERSITY.
1876. ;

“GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 85

GLAsSGow, ANDERSON’S UNIVERSITY,
28th Sept., 1876.
LICHENS, BRITISH AND FOREIGN.
By Dr. J. STIRTON.

(ee

PHYSCIA RETROGRESSA, Sp. nov.
Sat similis Ph. Stellari sed medulla (K—) et sporis nonnihil
parvioribus, ‘013 — -018 x :007 — ‘009 mm.
Ad cortices prope Altnaharra, in Comitatu Sutherland.

PHYSCIA TENELLA, var. fimbriatula.

Similis Ph. tenelle sed laciniis longioribus angustioribus (latit.
‘2 — ‘4 mm.) et plerumque extremitatibus albo-sorediatis, margine
fibrilloso-ciliatis, ciliis longis et seepissime extremitatibus digitato-
divisis.

Ad saxa, Ben Lawers.

LECANORA ATRA.
* — sub-byssoidea.
Thallus nigro-cinereus vel fere niger granulosus, effiguratus,
hypothallo albo sub-byssoideo.
Ad saxa prope Blair-Athole.

LECANORA MAMMILLIFERA.

Thallus obscure cinereus vel fusco-cinereus, minute areolato-
diffractus, areolis planis (K—- C—); apothecia nigra vel fusco-
nigra parva (latit. ‘2 — -3 mm.), prominula convexa, intus
pallide cinerascentia, margine obtuso demum depresso cincta ;
spore 8nz incolores ellipsoideze simplices, ‘008 — ‘01 x ‘007
— ‘0085 mm.; paraphyses parce distinctz crassiusculz (crass.
circa ‘0025 mm.), apicibus crasse clavatis conglutinatis fuscis,
hypothecium incolor, Jodo gel. hym. ccerulescens dein fulvescens,
presertim ea thecarum.

Ad saxa, socia L. Kochianz, apud Ben-y-gloe.

LECIDEA ANIPTIZA.
Thallus nigro-cinereus vel nigro-virescens granulosus tenuis ;
apothecia nigra parva prominula convexa immarginata, papillosa
(quasi glomerata) intus tota cinerascentia ; spore 8nz incolores

8&6 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

oblong vel oblongo-cylindracez simplices, 0075 — 011 x -0025
— ‘003 mm., paraphyses irregulares non distincte. Jodo gel.
hym. bene ccerulescens. Thalamium K, leviter sed distincte
purpurascens.

Ad ligna decorticata prope Killiecrankie.

The paraphyses are rendered distinct by K. when they are seen,
as slender, irregular, and occasionally branching filaments. Gonidia
often conglomerate.

LECIDEA CONFERTULA, Sp. nov.

Thallus pallide cinereus squamuloso-crustaceus, squamulis parvis
contiguis vel dispersis (K—- C—); apothecia fusca planiuscula
minuta (latit -2— -25 mm.) numerosissima, szepe contigua, obtuse
marginata, intus pallida; sporze 8nze incolores ellipsoidez simplices,
01 — :013 x :0055 — :007 mm., paraphyses non bene distinctz
fere conglutinatze fusco-clavate ; hypothecium incolor. Jodo gel.
hym. ceerulescens dein mox vinose violacea, preesertim thecee.

Ad saxa, prope Killiecrankie.

LECIDEA PHYLLODISCA.

Thallus niger minute granulosus vel furfurellus, tenuis spe vix
ullus visibilis; apothecia nigra mediocria (latit. ‘8 — 1:4 mm.)
saepe 2 - 3-aggregata et tunc undulata, interdum conglome-
rata, margine nitido tenui fluxuoso vel sinuoso, intus pallide cine-
rascentia vel ccerulee cinerascentia [K. purpurascenti—(vel potius
roseo—) dissoluta]; sporze 8nze simplices ellipsoidese incolores,
007 — 009 x :0045 — ‘0055 mm., paraphyses satis bene dis-
tinctee nigro-clavate vel ccerulee nigro-clavate ; hypothecium
concolor vei interdum obscurius (1 — 4)-zonatum. [odo gel.
hym. cerulescens (saltem leviter) dein mox vinose fulvescens vel
interdum vinose violacea. Hymenium (cum hypothecio) acido
nitrico purpurascens.

Ad saxa, prope Killiecrankie.

Affinis L. phylliscocarpz (Nyl.)

Beneath the apothecia are often seen curious cushions composed
of yellowish granular matter.

A description of this curious lichen is recorded here, rather for
the purpose of directing attention to a peculiar group of the
Lecidez to which it belongs, than with any well-founded hope

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS, 87

that it will ultimately prove distinct from LZ. Phylliscocarpa, and
one or two others. The study of lichenology is passing through
a transitionary stage, but the field of observation is still so scattered,
especially as regards the crustaceous lichens, that generalization is
difficult and even impossible. A record meanwhile of the minuter
differences will evidently tend towards the elucidation of general
affinities, the study of which ought to be the main object of every
botanist.

LECIDEA ASPERELLA (Sp. Nov.)

Thallus crassiusculus niger granuloso-furfuraceus, diffracto-areo-
latus determinatus: apothecia parva (latit. -2 — -4 min.) adnata nigra
nitida plana, margine tenui nitido, hymenium, lamina tenui visum,
omnino cceruleo-virescens: spore 8nz incolores simplices ellip-
soldee vel oblongo-ellipsoidee, -0075—-01x-004-—:005 mm.,
paraphyses non bene distinctae, apicibus clavatis ccerulescentibus
(acido-nitrico violaceo- purpurascentibus) ; hypothecium incolor,
receptaculo fusco-nigro subtensum, lodo gel. hym. intense et per-
sistenter ccerulescens.

Ad saxa, apud Ben-y-gloe.

Arete affinis (forte nimium) L. Furvelle.

The stratum beneath the pale hypothecium is composed of large
cells intermingled with branching fibres (which, however, prevail
more in the lower portion), and is, accordingly, quite unlike the
usual exciple. |

LecipEA BRAEDALBANENSIS (Sp. Vov.)

Thallus niger vel fusco-niger tenuis nonnihil rugulosus; apo-
thecia nigra vel fusco-nigra parva (latit. :3 — -4 mm.) convexa
rugosa immarginata, seepe conglomerata, intus pallida- vel potius
pallide rufescentia; spore (4 — 8)nz incolores ellipsoidez
simplices (episporio duplici), ‘016 — -022 (raro 025) x ‘011 —
‘014 mm., paraphyses haud distincte conglutinate apicibus rufo-
fuscescentibus: hypothecium pallidum vel lamina tenui, sub lente
visum, rufum, Jodo gel. hym. intense ccerulescens.

Supra muscos et jungermannias, Ben Lawers.

Affinis L. Tornéensi (Nyl.)

K. reveals the paraphyses as slender, somewhat irregular,
threads.

88 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

LECIDEA COROLLIDIA.

Thallus pallidus vel pallide cinereus crassiusculus, diffracto-areo-
latus, areolis planiusculis (K e flavente rubens); apothecia nigra
adnata majuscula (latit. 1 — 2 mm.) planiuscula rugosa, interdum
cesio-pruinosa, margine obtuso flexuoso vel sinuoso; spore 8nz
incolores simplices ellipsoidee, :015 — 02 x :008 — -011 mm.,
paraphyses pellucidz non bene discrete, apicibus fuscescentibus ;
hypothecium crassum -fusco-nigrum. Todo gel. hym. intense coeru-
lescens.

Ad saxa, Thurso.

Beautiful acicular erystals, (018—:024 x ‘002 mm., are formed
by the action of K on thallus and subhymenial spaces. At first a
- clear solution of a yellow colour appears, and thereafter stellate
groups of these reddish crystals.

LecipEA CaLpopsEs, Sp. nov.

Thallus obscure cinereus areolato-diffractus, areolis convexius-
culis contiguis vel dispersis; apothecia minuta (latit. -15—25
mm.) numerosissima innato-sessilia nigra concava (suburceolata),
acute marginata demum nonnihil explanata, intus pallida vel
pallide fuscescentia ; spore Snz incolores simplices ellipsoidez,
fere spherice, ‘007—-0085 x -006—007 mm., paraphyses
irregulares non bene distinctee apicibus fuscescentibus ; hypothecium
fuscum vel pallide fuscescens tenue. Jodo gel. hym. leviter vel
vix ceerulescens dein vinose rubens.

Ad saxa, Killicrankie. -K renders the paraphyses as distinct,
filiform, irregular branching fibres.

LecipEa Restrricta, Sp. nov.

Thallus nigro-cinereus rugosus tenuis; apothecia adnata nigra
parva (latit. -3—°4 mm.) plana obtuse marginata; spore 8 ne
simplices, in thecis saccatis, incolores ellipsoidez (bi-nucleatee),
°013—-017 x -008—-01 mm.; paraphyses distincte filiformes
crasse (crass. ‘0025-—:003 mm.), epithecio fuscescente, acido’
nitrico roseo-purpurascente ; hypothecium incolor. Todo gel. hym.
ccerulescens dein fulvescens preesertim thecarum.

Ad saxa, Blair Athole.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 89

Lecipea Reticta, Sp. nov.

Thallus nigro-cinereus rugosus fere granulosus ; apothecia adnata
nigra parva plana, obtuse marginata, de¢mum convexa immarginata
et rugosa ; spore Sn incolores simplices oblonge, -009—-013 x
?005—:006 mm., paraphyses parce graciles satis bene discrete
pellucide, apicibus clavatis fuscis; hypothecium fusco-nigrum.
Todo gel. hym. leviter ccerulescens dein vinose rubens.

Ad saxa, Blair Athole.

LecipeEA HeEmipouenna. (Nyl.)
* semialbula.

Thallo bene evoluto, albido vel lividescenti-albido tenui, leviter
rimuloso-areolato.

Ad ligna decorticata prope Altnaharra.

The spores are very frequently (2—4) nucleated, and the septa
are frequently indiscernible except under the action of K.

Lecipga Puicatinis (Leight).

Ben Lawers.

OPEGRAPHA ATRICOLOR, Sp. nov.

Thallus albidus tenuissimus, indeterminatus; apothecia nigra
innato-sessilia angusta (latit. vix ‘1 mm.) plerumque simplicia
acutiuscula, intus cinerascentia vel pallide fuscescentia (K purpura-
scenti-dissoluta, presertim stratum subhymeniale), epithecium
primum rimiforme dein concaviusculum vel etiam explanatum,
rugulosum ; spore (4-8)nz oblongo-ovoidee incolores 3-sep-
tate, -015---021 x :004 — -0055 mm., paraphyses indistincte
irregulares, apicibus fuscis ; hypothecium fusco-nigrum. Todo pars
supera hymenii persistenter ccerulescens, infera, e flavente vinose
rubescens dein vinose rubens.

Ad ligna decorticata prope Altnaharra.

Affinis O. atre.

ARTHONIA INSINUATA, Sp. nov.

Thallus albidus vel pallidus subsquamulosus tenuissimus ;
apothecia adnata fusca, vel fusco-nigra, rotunda vel oblonga vel
nonnihil irregularia (primum velata) plerumque margine thallino
squamulosulo cincta, intus pallida; spore (4-8)nze incolores inter-

90 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

dum leviter fuscescentes oblong, margine crenulate, 4-septatze
vel potius 5-loculares,loculis equalibus, 014 — :021 x -006 -—
008 mm. Todo gel. hym. bene cceerulescens.

Ad cortices prope Killiecrankie.

I cannot reconcile myself to identifying this lichen with A.
cinnabarina var: anerythrea. (Nyl.) ‘The loculi of the spores
are nearly of the same size, and certainly not larger at either
extremity. No septa properly so called have been detected,
although the loculi are at times in close apposition, &e.

The next two are descriptions of lichens picked out of a smail
parcel sent by Mr. D. A. P. Watt, who secured them in the

neighbourhood of Montreal, Canada.

LECANORA PROTERVULA, Sp. nov.
Thallus pallidus vel pallide virescens subgranulosus, nounihil
rimuloso-areolatus (K e flavente rubens); apothecia adnata medi-
ocria plana, pallide fuscescentia levigata, margine albido integro

nitido cincta; sporz incolores simplices ellipsoidese, ‘01 — -013
x 006 — :008 mm., paraphyses conglutinate pellucide, apicibus

citrinis parce granuloso-inspersis, Jodo gel. hym. ccerulescens
(saltem leviter) dein sordide flavescens, ea thecarum vinose
violacea.

Ad cortices prope Montreal.

PERTUSARIA CANADENSIS, Sp. nov.

Thallus pallidus tenuis rimoso-areolatus passim ruguloso-inzequalis
(K —, dein C addito, flavens, sed C separatim —); apothecia in
verrucis convexiusculis vel convexis leviusculis inclusa, epitheciis
fusco-nigris irregulariter lecanorinis (latit. -2 — -4 mm.) planius-
culis; thece bispore interdum monospore, spore incolores sim-
plices oblongze, (054 — ‘077 x -02 — 03 mm., paraphyses parce.
Todo gel. hym. intense ccerulescens preesertim apices thecarum.

Ad cortices arborum prope Montreal.

GRAPHIS INUSTULA, Sp. nov.

Thallus albidus tenuis rimuloso-areolatus (K— C—); apothecia
nigra innata rotundata oblonga vel irregularia, epithecio concavius-
culo lato (latit. -2 — 3 mm.), perithecio laterali; spore (2-8)nz
incolores demum fuscescentes, oblong vel fusformi - oblongz

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 91

5 —10-loculares, ‘018 — -045 x -006 — -008 mm.; paraphyses
crass (crassit. ‘0025 — -0033 mm.), creberriter articulate, iodo
flavescentes, apicibus fuscis clavatis ; hypothecium incolor. Sporee
iodo violacee tinct.

Ad cortices prope Montreal (Dr. M. Black).

Forte nimium arcte affinis Gr. inuste. (Ach.)

CALIDIA RHIZOPHORA, gen. nov.

Thallus pallide cinerascens tenuis farinaceus ; apothecia adnata
fusca parva (latit. -2 — -4 mm.) plana vel convexiuscula, intus
obscura, albo-marginata, margine e fibrillis (latit. circiter -0035
mm.) irregularibus ramosis non-septatis, omnino composito; spore
8nz incolores simplices vel 1—3-septate obovate, utrove apice
attenuate, -01 — ‘014 x -0035 — :0045 mm.; paraphyses valde
indistinct, apicibus incoloribus non-clavatis ; hypothecium fuscum
vel nigricanti-fuscum. Todo gel. hym. ccerulescens preesertim the-
carum, dein fulvescens.

Ad cortices prope Funchal in Madeira, lecta a Joseph Payne.
The thece are not arthonioid, but are (as well as the spores)
obovate and sharp-pointed at the lower end. The parapbyses are’

rendered tolerably distinct by means of K.

This lichen holds a somewhat anomalous position. On the one
hand it presents considerable affinity to a section of the Arthoniz
in which A. subvarians (Nyl.) may be taken as the type, and on
the other, it plays between the Lecidez and Lecanore, although
more nearly allied to the former. The hymenium is that of an
Arthonia (although firmer), but the thece which constitute the
main element of distinction in this genus are not arthonioid; and,
although the shape, &c., of the spores might lead us in the same
direction, yet there are similar instances amongst the Lecidez.
The structure of the margine which is extended beneath the apo-
thecia is, so far as my knowledge goes, unique, more especially as
it presents the same characters in old and young apothecia and
cannot, accordingly, be reckoned as a degeneration from a known
type. The gonidia are of average size, and often irregular in
outline.

The specimen is small, comprising only 6 Apothecia, and I dare
not, meanwhile, make further investigations as to internal structure.

92 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

PERTUSARIA INTRANIDULANS.

Thallus albidus tenuis levigatus (K—- C—): apothecia in
verrucis thallinis parvis inclusa, ostiolis nigrescentibus cesio-
pruinosis dein explanatis et lecanorinis farinosis: thece mono-
Spore, spore incolores simplices oblonge, ‘075 -—-09 x -028 mm.,
paraphyses distinctee irregulares ramosee, thecas instar retis inclu-
dentes, iodo flaventes. Jodo gelatina thecas ambiens ccerulescens
(saltem leviter) dein intense fulvescens.

Ad cortices prope “Lake Superior” in Canada, lecta a Cel. J.
Richardson,

Affinis, ut videtur, P. ophthalmize (Nyl.)

PYRENOPSIS AGNASCENS, Sp. nov.

Thallus tenuis fuscescens, vix ullus visibilis et tantum apotheciis
vicinus: apothecia fusca parva (latit. -1-—-2 mm.) convexa;
spore (4—8)nz incolores oblonge vel fusiformi-oblonge 3-sep-
tatee vel 4-loculares, ‘011—-015 x 0035--00t5 mm.; paraphyses
graciles pellucide parce irregulares, apicibus incoloribus non-cla-
vatis; hypothecium cceruleo-nigrum. Jodo gel. hym. ccerulescens
dein sordida vel obscurata. Gonimia parva ceerulescentia vel rubes-
centia, in glomerulis majusculis contenta.

Ad culmum graminis cujusdam, verisimiliter in Africa occid.
meridionali; ex hb. Cel. T. Chapman.

GRAPHIS IMPEXELLA.

Thallus pallide cervinus tenuis nonnihil pulverulentus (K— E—
flavo rubens) ; apothecia nigra innata tortuosa et ramosa, conferta
apice obtusa, margine thallino prominulo crassiusculo cincta,
epithecio concaviusculo vel etiam planiusculo (latit. -1— °3 mm.);
spore plerumque 4nz interdum 8nzx, fusce oblong vel ellip-
soideze, 4-loculares vel potius 3-septate, ‘009 — ‘014 x :0035 —
0045 mm.; paraphyses pares distincte filiformes non clavate ;
hypothecium pallidum. Jodo gel. hym. haud tincta.

Ad ramos arborum vetustos vel emortuos, prope Victoriam in
Africa, lecta a Cel. G. Thomson.

The next nine form part of a collection by Mr. Hugh Paton of
this city while on a tour through Australia.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 93

PERTUSARIA PERTRACTATA (Sp. nov.)

Thallus albidus levigatus nonnihil ruguloso-inequalis (K—
C—); apothecia in verrucis thallinis prominulis, supra planius-
culis majusculis sparsis, plura sepius in singulis inclusa, ostiolis
sepissime . papillatis, pallidis vel pallide fuscescentibus; spore
8nz uniseriate parvee, (026 — :038 x ‘013 — -018 mm., interdum
haloniate ; paraphyses parce. Jodo thecz ccerulescentes, gel.
hym. ceeteroquin vix tincta.

Ad ligna decorticata in Tasmania, lecta a H. Paton.

This is closely alied to P. leioplaca var. minor, but the spores
are much smaller, &c.

LECIDEA SUBTECTA, Sp. nov.

Thallus albidus vix ullus (C. aurantiacus?); apothecia fusca vel
fuscescentia parva (latit. -2— °4 mm.) plana vix marginata, in
textura ligni insculpta (C. rubricosa); sporze Snze incolores ellip-
solide simplices ‘01 — -014 x 006 — :0075 mm., paraphyses
mediocres distincte, apicibus fuscis magno-clavatis ramosis et
interdum articulatis ; hypothecium incolor. Todo gel. hym. cceru-
lescens dein sordide violacea vel fulvescens.

Ad ligna decorticata in Tasmania.

LECIDEA LAMPRA, Sp, nov.

Thallus albidus tenuissimus; apothecia adnata nigra nitida
mediocria (latit. circiter 1 mm.) plana vel convexiuscula, vix
marginata, intus fuscescentia; spore 8ne incolores simplices
oblonge, ‘008 — ‘011 x :0025 — -003 mm., paraphyses non
discretze vel indistincts, apicibus fuscis; hypothecium incolor
vel concolor. Iodo gel. hym. intense ccerulescens, ea strati
subhymenialis violacea. Thalamium K haud tinctum vel absolete
purpurascens (preesertim epithecium).

Ad ligna decorticata in Tasmania. A/ffinis L. euphoroidi (Nyl).

There is present a white stratum subjacent to the hypothecium.

This and the following are closely allied in several particulars,
and grow associated. The thalamia are almost identical in ana-
tomical characters, and present, especially under the action of K,
abundance of large granular cells, in size ‘003 — ‘004 x -002
—0025 mm. The paraphyses are indistinct even under action of
the same reagent, and merely show as vague, straight threads

94 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

somewhat interrupted and imbedded in a firm gelatine, while the
theces are seen as having, at the apex, thickish, pellucid walls—
i.€., in a certain degree arthonioid.

I have meanwhile classified them with the Lecidez.

LEcIDEA SUBNEXA, Sp. nov.

Thallus flavescens tenuis nonnihil rugulosus (K flav. C flav.) ;
apothecia adnata nigra nitida plana majuscula (latit. -6—1°5 mm.),
margine pallidiore vel pallido undulato tenui cincta ; thalamium
ut in priori, sed K flavo-dissolutum (presertim ejus pars supera).
Todo gel. hym. bene ccerulescens.

The paraphyses are rendered tolerably distinct by K, and are
seen as irregular, somewhat branching threads.

Ad ligna decorticata.

LEcIDEA ANIPTIZA.

* intersociella, Sp. nov.

thallo albido et apotheciis nitidis.
Ad ligna decorticata, socia L. lampre.

LeciDEA HYPERSPORELLA, Sp. nov.

Thallus albidus, vix ullus visibilis; apothecia fusca vel fusco-
nigra mediocria (latit. circiter 1 mm.) convexa et immarginata ;
spore (12—24) nz incolores simplices ellipsoideze, ‘006 — -008 x
004—005 mm., paraphyses incolores parc indistincte (fere
diffluentes) molliuscule, apicibus incoloribus non clavatis ; hypo-
thecium crassum fusco-nigrum. Todo gel. hym. cerulescens dein
obscurata.

Ad ligna decorticata in Tasmania.

LEcIDEA DISSA, Sp. nov.

Thallus albus vel albidus tenuis (K pallide flavescens vel —,
C—); apothecia nigra mediocria plana obtuse marginata dein
convexa et immarginata, intus pallide cinerascentia. Spore 2 ne
fuscee ellipsoidez 1 - septate, (022 — 034 x ‘011 — ‘014 mn.;
paraphyses graciles distinct filiformes, apicibus ramosis fusco.
clavatis et interdum articulatis granuloso-inspersis: hypothecium
fuscescens vel obscuratum. Jodo gel. hym. intense ccerulescens.

Ad ligna decorticata in Tasmaia. .

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 95

GRAPHIS MUCRONATA, Sp. nov.

Thallus albus tenuissimus nonnihil farinosus (K—): apothecia
nigra sub-sessilia hemisphzerica (in sectione transversa) elongata
flexuosa et interdum ramulos emittentia, epithecio rimiformi,
perithecio laterali; spore (4—8) nz incolores demum fuscescentes
fusiformi-oblongee utroque apice mucronate vel apiculatee (sicut in
Phlyctide agelza), 7 — 10-loculares, 03 — :045 x :007 — -009
min. (iodo cceruleo-infuscate presertim juniores); paraphyses
destinctz crassiuscule apicibus fuscis: hypothecium incolor.

Todo gel. hym. haud tincta nisi flavescens.

Ad cortices arborum, prope Riverinam in Australia.

VERRUCARIA ANALTIZA, Sp. nov.

Thallus albus vix ullus: apothecia nigra prominula fere hemi-
spherica majuscula (latit. +5 — -9 mm.), perithecio dimidiato,
epithecio poriformi; spore 8nz in thecis cylindricis, uniseriate
ellipsoideze fuscee 1—septate, -008 — ‘011 x -004 — 005 mm. ;
paraphyses gracillime (latit. vix ‘001 mm.) irregulares nonnihil
ramose. Jodo gel. hym. haud tincta nisi flavescens.

Ad cortices prope Riverinam in Australia.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS.

FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING.

ATHEN#vM, IncRAm STREET,
16th March, 1875.
Tue Annual Business Meeting of the Society was held here this
evening—Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair,

The Secretary read a summary of the work done by the Society
during the past year, from which it was evident that a considerable
amount of work had been done, and that the number of members
had largely increased. The following gentlemen were then elected
to office:—JamEs Stirton, M.D., President; Ricuarp M‘Kay
and JAMES ALLAN, Vice-Presidents; JoHN Harvig£ and WiLLIAM
J. Minuican, Secretaries; GrorceE Baruas, Treasurer; ALEX.
Wart, Curator; W. D. Benson and Auex. Nosiz, Members of
Counedl.

30TH Marcu, 1875.

The first meeting of the summer session was held this evening
—Mr. Richard M‘Kay, Vice-President, in the chair,

The members were recommended to give as much attention as
they could to the time of re-appearance of well-known migratory
birds, and to the apparent influence of the weather in retarding or
hastening their visits, and it was urged that all well authenticated
instances of unusually early or late arrivals should be recorded for
future reference.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. James Allan.—Two mosses from Possil Marsh, Clima-
cium dendroides and Hypnum giganteum.
)

98 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

PAPER READ.

By Mr. James Allan, on “The Tendencies of Science.” He
glanced at the growth of the Natural History Sciences particularly,
and traced their development from the simple observation of the
habits of animals and plants to the elaborate classification and
closer investigation of their reproduction and life history prevalent
in modern times. He advocated the desirability of carrying on
direct experiments such as those made by Mr. Darwin and Sir
John Lubbock, side by side with attentive observation of the
usual habits of animals and plants.

137TH Aprit, 1875.

Mr. Richard M‘Kay, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. John Armstrong, 14 Kinning Street, was elected a resident

member.
EXCURSION.

Craigen Glen.—Mr. W. J. Milligan reported that at this excur-
sion many common fossils and several of those peculiar to this
locality had been found. They had yet to be arranged, and would
be exhibited at a future meeting. It was remarked that neither
in this district nor at the Loup of Fintry, which had been recently
visited by several members of the Society, had any primroses been
found bitten through in the manner described by Mr. Darwin in
a recent number of Natwre, and which he supposed had been
done by birds for the sake of the nectar of the flowers. It was
remarked in connection with the eagerness of some insects and
birds for nectar, that in some cases it has inebriating properties.
Moths get intoxicated by sipping it from the Sallow-blossoms, a
fact well-known to Lepidopterists.

Some discussion followed the reading of an extract from the
Herald, in which it was asserted that the cuckoo was never heard
or seen in Scotland after the 25th of June at the latest. One
member said that in the previous year he had both seen and heard
this bird near Garelochhead early in July.

PAPERS READ.

By Mr. James Allan, “‘Some Notes on the Arrival of Migratory

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 99

Birds,” which tended to show that they all arrive first in the
south of England and go north gradually.

By Mr. 8. Macdonald, on “ Antenne.” He referred to the
wonderful variety in the shape of these organs, and to the doubts
which still existed as to their use. The question whether they
were organs of feeling, tasting, smelling, or hearing, was carefully
discussed. The latest suggestion, he said, was that they were the
organs of an unknown sense, but there did not seem to be sufi-
cient evidence to prove this. In some species of insects the
antenne are more highly developed in the males than in the
females, and it has been observed that those males are able from
a great distance to discover the presence of the females.

27TH Aprit, 1875.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. M‘Ewan, 18 Edmond St., was elected a resident member.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Thomas King.—A collection of plants from Southern
Patagonia.

EXCURSION.

Finn Glen.—Mr. Allan said that at this excursion the usual
spring flowers had been found, but none of them were rare enough
to be worth recording. The cuckoo was heard near Strathblane.
Another member reported that he had heard it near Kirn on
April 11.

PAPER READ.

Mr. John M. Campbell then read a paper entitled “ Notes on
Patagonia,” being extracts from a journal he had kept during a
visit to that country. He described the physical features of the
country, and gave details of the habits of the more common ani-
mals. The natives, he said, were above the average Huropean
height, but not so tall as some travellers have stated they are.
He gave some account of their habits, their mode of hunting, and
their religion.

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lita May. 1875.

Mr. Richard M‘Kay, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. Thomas Shand, 132 Renfrew Street, was elected a resident
member.
EXCURSION.

Possil Marsh.—Mr. W. D. Benson said that nothing worth
reporting had been found at this excursion.

PAPER READ.

Mr. James Allan read some notes regarding the arrival of migra-
tory birds. He said he had noted the dates of the arrival of most
of them for ten years. He found that over the whole country the
cuckoo had appeared about seven days earlier than its usual this
year, while the swallow was on an average three or four days

later.

25TH May, 1875.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

Mr. F. G. Binnie, on behalf of Mr. Alex. Watt, reported that
the rare grass Melica nutans, L., had been found in a new locality,
viz., the Kilpatrick Hills.

EXCURSION.

Bowling.—Mr. Alex. Noble related the chief incidents of this
excursion. Nothing worth reporting had been found till they
came to Dumbarton Castle, where several interesting plants had
been found—among them the wild wall-flower (Chetranthus Cheirt).

PAPER READ.

Mr. James Allan then read a paper entitled “Strictures on
some Geological Theories,” in which he chiefly dealt with the
theory of the uniformity of action of geological agents, and con-
tended that sufficient prominence was not usually given to the
action of catastrophes. Mr. Allan’s paper gave rise to a lengthened
discussion.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. OT

8tH JuNE, 1875.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. David Gregorson reported that he had found the somewhat
rare Valertana Pyrenaica at Kilsyth.

EXCURSION. *

Blairmore.—Mr. J. C. Hutcheson reported that owing to the
stormy nature of the day this dredging excursion had not been a
great success.

PAPER READ.

Mr. David Gregorson then read a paper which he had called in
the syllabus “ Plant Life,” but which he said should rather have
been called ‘“‘ Notes of some Analogies between Plants and Ani-
mals, made for the purpose of determining more exactly the Posi-
tion of the various Classes of the Vegetable Kingdom as to the
order of their development.”

ANDERSONIAN UNIVERSITY, 22ND JuNzE, 1875.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

Mr. W. D. Benson described and showed a sketch of an Angel
Fish which had been caught in a fisherman’s net off the Ayrshire
coast and which he had secured. The fish is preserved in the
Kelvingrove Museum.

Mr. George Horn exhibited a common primrose with both
stalked and sessile umbels on the same plant gathered in Bothwell
Woods.

PAPER READ.

Mr. Thomas King read a paper called ‘Remarks on the
Natural History of Chili.” He first gave an account of the principal
writers on the Natural History of the country, including Molina,
Darwin, Gay, the U.S. Expedition of 1849, Phillipi, Reid, and
Cunningham, and the results of their work. From this he passed
on to a description of the various animals, the vampire, chinchilla,
puma, Canis Magellanicus, guanaco, and huemal. He also described
many of the birds, and exhibited preserved specimens of them.

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6TH Juty, 1875.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

The Chairman remarked that the lapwing was a migratory bird
in the north of Scotland, but that he had observed it on Mugdock
Moor in mid-winter. Some of these birds remain the whole
year in districts in the south of Scotland, and they are not migra-
tory in England. A ‘member stated that in Sutherlandshire they
are absent about three months in mid-winter.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. George Horn.—Carex ornithopoda, Wills, from Miller’s
Dale, Derbyshire, a plant recently discovered in Britain.

By Mr. Malcolm Black.—A collection of lichens which he had
brought from Canada.

PAPER READ.

Dr. Stirton, the President of the Society, then read a paper on
“‘ Cosmopolitan Lichens.” He said that lichens depended for their
support on the atmosphere and the moisture contained in it.
They will not flourish in an atmosphere in any degree vitiated,
and so they are a good test of the purity of the atmosphere of any
district. They are not to be found in fruit within a radius of six
miles from the centre of Glasgow. On the other hand, there is no
place in Scotland where they are found in greater abundance than
on Loch Tay side, and other facts tend to show that this district
is blessed with a pure and healthful atmosphere. But there are
some lichens which seem to flourish in a greater variety of condi-
tions than others, and these he called Cosmopolitan. He selected
as examples of these Urceolaria scruposa, Lecanora subfusca, L.
atra, and Leptogium tremelloides, which are found in nearly every
climate, in a strange variety of positions, and at almost every alti-
tude. He also exhibited the Reindeer Moss, which is of universal
distribution. Lichens being so easily affected by any change in
the atmosphere, it follows that during the long period in which
they have flourished on the earth the atmosphere must have
remained practically unchanged in its constitution. He also
adverted to the genera Graphis and Arthonia, and described the
curious phenomena of their fructification.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 103

20ta Jury, 1875.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

Messrs. James Galbraith, M.A., LL.B., Bath Street; A. F.
Woodbridge, 18 Albert Drive, Crosshill; and R. H. Paterson,
6 Windsor Place, Sauchiehall Street, were elected resident members.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. John Renwick.—Lepidiwm Smith’ from the neighbour-
hood of Milngavie; Centaurea cyanus from Maryhill; and Senecio
saracenicus from near Kilwinning.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—Lpilobium alpinum, Sibbaldia procum-
bens, Cerastium alpinum, C. latifohum, and Arenaria verna from
Ben Lomond. This was the first time that this last-named plant
had been found in the West of Scotland. He also said that he
had found the Holly Fern (Aspidium lonchitis) in great abundance
on a part of the same hill. He also exhibited the rare fungi
Phallus impudicus and Agaricus sqwuamosus from Cadder Wilderness.

By Mr. W. D. Benson.—A large collection of zoophytes mounted
for the microscope.

Mr. W. D. Benson stated that a few days ago he had observed
diatoms in great abundance in the river Girvan. The day after
he had observed them there were heavy rains, and when on the
day following he had tried to collect some more he could not find
one. They had evidently been carried into the sea by the floods.
This would seem to show that many of the diatoms which are
found in strata of undoubted marine origin may themselves not
have lived in the sea, but may have been carried into it in the
same manner as sand or other inorganic matter.

3RD Avaust, 1875.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMEN EXHIBITED.
By Mr. Richard M‘Kay.— Avena flavescens from Johnstone.
EXCURSION.

Lochwinnoch.—Mr. Thomas King gave an account of this excur-
sion, which had been a very enjoyable one although nothing worth

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recording was discovered with the exception of Meum athamanti-
cum, which was found in considerable abundance.

PAPER READ.

Mr. Richard M‘Kay then gave a résumé of Mr. Darwin’s new
work on “‘ Insectivorous Plants,” confining himself chiefly to that
part of the book which treats of Drosera rotundifolia. He
described the various experiments which Mr. Darwin had made
for the purpose of determining whether the insects which are
found adhering to the leaves of this plant are really digested by
it, and also the numerous bodies which he had placed on the leaves
and had found were digested in the same manner as the insects.

17ta Avcust, 1875.
Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.
SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr, Alex. Noble.—A collection of shells from Moreton Bay,
Queensland.

By Mr. Thomas King.—A. collection of marine shells from Rio
de Janeiro ; also a collection of butterflies and beetles from Chili.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—The rare Bird’s-nest Fungus (Clathrus
cancellatus) from the south of Ireland ; also some rare plants from
the Gareloch, among which may be named Lathrwa squamaria.

By Mr. John Renwick.—WMalaxis paludosa, from Lochwinnoch.
It has not previously been reported from this district.

By Mr. Richard M‘Kay.—A series of rare British plants.

EXCURSION.

Ben Voirlich.—Dr. Stirton gave an account of this excursion,
which had been tolerably successful. He had found a lichen
apparently new to science which he had not yet named. The
following plants had been found :—Sibbaldia procumbens, Luzula
spicata, Cerastuum alpinum, Lycopodium annotinum, the Holly
Fern (Aspidium lonchitis), previously recorded but very rare, the
moss Campylopus Schwarz, first found here, and Didymodon
daldeanea. Glacial markings were very plainly seen on the sides
of the hill, especially on the side next Loch Sloy.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 105

3lst Avaust, 1875.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—The rare fungus Coprinus Hendersonit,
and a collection of fac-similes of ferns and club-mosses printed
from the plants themselves. He also mentioned that he had found
the fungus Saprolequia ferax growing on a fresh-water snail,
Limnea peregra. This is a curious example of what may be called
an amphibious fungus, as it is quite indistinguishable from Sporen-
donema musce, the fungus which grows on and is supposed to
cause the death of the common house-fly.

By Mr. Alex. Macindoe.—The following plants from the neigh-
bourhood of Maryhill: —Lychnis githago, Linum usitatissimum,
Cichorium intybus, and Sisymbrium sophia.

EXCURSION.

Kilsyth Glen.—In the absence of Mr. D. Gregorson, the chair-
man gave an account of this excursion. The Green Spleenwort
(Aspleniwm viride), had been found in considerable abundance ; also
all the plants peculiar to the district.

PAPER READ.

By Mr. W. J. Milligan on “ The theory of Spontaneous Genera-
tion.” After reviewing various analogies which might lead us to
look favourably on the theory, he went on to look at the subject
in its chemical aspect, and to point out that many organic sub-
stances had been formed synthetically from the simple elements,
and that thus there could be no break between organic and inor-
ganic chemistry. He then gave an account of the latest experi-
ments of Bastian and others, and said that it had been undeniably
proved that organisms had appeared in sealed flasks which had
been exposed to a temperature of 230 deg. Fahrenheit. Those
who deny that life can originate de novo, at one time asserted that
a temperature of about 140 deg. Fahrenheit was sufficient to
destroy all animal or vegetable life; but they now content them-
selves with affirming that the germs must be able to resist a tem-

perature of 230 deg., whereas all the experiments of Dr. Child
B

106 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

seemed to prove that 140 deg. was the greatest heat which any
germs could withstand. Pasteur’s infusions had been examined
with too Jow microscopic power, and other observers had, with
higher magnifying powers, found life in infusions in which Pasteur
had failed to detect any.

Considerable discussion followed the reading of this paper, and
one member said that a new observer, Dr. Drysdale, stated that
germs were not all killed by a temperature of 250 deg. Fahr.

147TH SepremBer, 1875.
Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.
SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—An erratic form of Chrysanthemum
leucanthemum, having the outer florets tubular and barren instead
of being ligulate and female; also two specimens of Scabiosa suc-
cisa having two of the florets enlarged into secondary heads like
the Hen-and-chicken Daisy. This might be accounted for either
by supposing that the central footstalk had become contracted or
that two florets had become enlarged. This interesting subject
deserves attention. Mr. Paterson also exhibited a specimen of
the fungus Hypochinus plumosa from Victoria, presented by Mr.
George Thompson.

By Mr. George Horn.—A specimen of the hop in flower got
near Uddingston; also some rare plants from Sutherland and
Caithness. Among these were Primula Scotica (both forms),
Saussurea alpina Decandolle, Hippophaé rhamnoides, Carex
aquatilis, var. watsoni, Elymus arenareus, Menztesia cerulea,
Lycopodium annotinum, the last two from the Sow of Athol.

EXCURSION,

Mr. M‘Kay gave an account of the excursion to Stevenston on
the 11th. Nothing of interest was got, and the district seemed to
be barren in all branches.

PAPER READ,

Mr. George Horn read an interesting account of the Society’s
excursion to Sutherland. They had gone over a large tract of

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 107

country and were delighted with the scenery and the beauty of
the country, more especially during the long drives they had taken
at night when it was scarcely ever dark. Ben Hope had been
visited but not thoroughly examined, but would well repay minute
examination.

Dr. Stirton made some remarks on the character of the vegeta-
tion observed during the excursion.

Mr. Harvie placed on the table the very handsome “Guide to
Belfast,” published by the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club for the
British Association meeting, and which had been presented by
them. The thanks of the Society were accorded to the Belfast
Club, and a hope was expressed that something of the same kind
would be got up before the British Association came here.

28TH SEPTEMBER, 1875.

Mr. J ames Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED,

By Mr. W. R. M‘Lean.—Some interesting birds’ nests and
stuffed birds, and a specimen of the edible bird’s nest from India.
By Mr. Allan.—Five species of lady-birds.
By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—A fine collection of fungi from Cadder
Wilderness.
EXCURSION.

Campsie Glen.—Mr. Taylor reported that the final excursion of
the summer session took place on Saturday, 25th instant, when
the members went to Campsie Glen. All the plants common to
the district were found, but nothing was observed worthy of record.
The members took tea together in the Clachan Inn, and spent an
agreeable afternoon.

PAPER READ.

By Mr. Noble.—On the “Butterflies of Arran.” He said that
of the sixty-five species common to Britain twenty were found in
Arran. He had captured the Red Admiral (Vanessa Atalanta)
there, which had not been previously reported. He iliustrated
his observations by a classified collection in which all the Arran
Species were represented, some of them being beautifully coloured.
Among them was Colias edusa, rare in Scotland.

108 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

12TH Octopsr, 1875.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. Alex. Watt and Mr. James R. Watson, both of whom
were about to leave for India, were elected corresponding members.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. W. R. M‘Lean.—Mounted specimens of the Common
Heron and Red-throated Diver, with their eggs.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—Splachnum rubrum and S. luteum
from Sweden; and Zayloria serrata and Buxbaumia aphylla from
Campsie Glen; also, Yelephora versicolor from Bowling. This
fungus is rather rare.

By Mr. M‘Indoe.—A collection of shells from New Zealand.

PAPER READ.

Dr, Stirton announced three lichens new to science collected by
a member of the Society, Dr. Malcolm Black, near Montreal.
They have been named, Lecanora protervula, Pertusaria canadensis,
and Graphis mustula.

26TH OctoBER, 1875.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.
Messrs. Adolf Schulze, George Street, and J. S. Nairne, Winton
Terrace, were elected members of the Society.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—Specimens of Dionea muscipula, one
of the insectivorous plants, sent by an American botanist. One of
the specimens had a fly inclosed in the shut leaf.

PAPER READ.

Dr. Stirton gave the introductory address of the winter session.
He congratulated the Society on its continued progress and
increasing influence, and dwelt on the pleasure to be derived from
an intimate knowledge of nature. He urged students not to flag
in their endeavours, not to rest satisfied with mere surface know-
ledge, but to advance steadily to a minute acquaintance with that

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 109

branch of natural history which they may have chosen for their
study. Such a careful investigating of nature will infallibly bring
a rich reward. He paid a warm tribute to the memory of the late
Mr. M‘Kinlay, whose studies and investigations in Botany had
made the West of Scotland famous, and had attracted the most
learned botanists of the Continent. He then, for the purpose of
attracting members to the study of mosses, gave a clear account of
their growth and mode of development.

9TH NovemsBer, 1875.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

Mr. George Russell, Auchentiber, Neilston, and Mr. James
Thomson, Crossford Mills, Paisley, were elected members of the
Society.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Alex. M‘Indoe.—The fungus Torrubia militaris, a para-
site on the pupa of a moth, collected at Dalsholm, Maryhill.

PAPER READ.

On the Prevention of Self-fertilisation in Plants. By Mr. R. H.
PATERSON.

In a typical flower there are two sets of floral envelopes—the
outer one, usually of a green colour, is called the calyx ; the inner
one, usually highly coloured, is called the corolla. The male and
female organs are termed respectively stamens and pistils, The
- stamen or male organ consists of two parts—an elongated portion
termed the filament, and a terminal expanded portion called the
anther. The female organ or pistil consists of three parts—a
large hollow chamber called the ovary, from which there springs a
- more or less slender portion called the style, and this again is
terminated by a more or less viscid knob called the stigma. In
the interior of the anther of the stamen there are developed little
cells, to which the name of pollen granules has been applied; and
it is these pollen granules that, when applied to the surface of the
viscid stigma, fertilise the plant. If then it is necessary that the
pollen be applied to the surface of the stigma in order to fertilise
the plant, how is the pollen conveyed to the stigma? Before

110 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

answering this question, I may state my firm belief that all organic
beings, whether belonging to the animal or vegetable kingdom,
require an occasional cross with another individual; or, what is
the same thing, no hermaphrodite can fertilise itself for a perpetuity
of generations. It is well known to most people that flowers are
of the greatest necessity for the existence of insects; but it is
little known, on the other hand, how necessary insects are for the
existence of flowers. Many flowers in fact are entirely dependent
on insects for the safe carriage of the pollen of one flower to the
pistil of another, while in others which could fertilise themselves
it is of the greatest importance that we occasionally get a crossing
from one individual to another. Every person who has paid the
least attention to the breeding of animals knows the importance of
this fact. Well, it is of no less advantage to plants that the pistil
of one flower be fertilised by the pollen of another than it is to
animals that one animal should be fertilised by another animal
not closely related to it. |

If then it is advantageous to flowers that they should be visited
by insects, it will be evident to every one that those flowers which,
either by larger size, brighter colour, sweeter scent, or greater
richness of honey, were most attractive to insects, would, ceteris
paribus, have the best chance of living in the struggle for existence
that is going on among all members of the vegetable world. Sup-
pose a flower were to fertilise itself for any length of time, it would
become so weak that it would not be able to survive owing to this
continual war. It is a well-known fact that stock deteriorates
where the young are produced from parents of near kinship.
Similarly in the human family, intermarriage of near relationship,
2.e., when the degree of consanguinity is close, appears to exaggerate
in their offspring any diseases, whether nervous or otherwise, under
which their parents may have been labouring.

Let it then be assumed that cross-fertilisation is advantageous,
and that ‘‘in and in” breeding does the greatest harm; and of this
I think there is very little doubt. How then is the propagation
of plants insured ?

For this, nature employs various means.

First, she may develope the male and female organs on entirely
different flowers of the same plant, and to this the term monecious
is applied. Again, she may develope the male organs on the flowers
of one plant and the female organs on the flowers of another plant,

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. Ha be |

and to this the term dicecious is applied. She may cause the organs
of reproduction to reach their maturity at different times, and to
this the term dichogamy is applied. The term protandrous dicho-
gamy is applied to those cases in which the stamen is the first to
mature, and the term protogynous dichogamy to those cases in
which the female is the first to reach maturity.

Again, we may have the male and female organs of different
lengths. The term dimorphous is applied to those cases where
we have two different lengths, as in the primrose. In the one
form of the primrose (Fig. 2) the pistil is short and situated about
the middle of the corolla tube, while the stamens are long and lie in
the throat of the corolla. In the other form (Fig. 1) the positions
are reversed, the stamens are short and situated in the middle of
the corolla tube, while the pistil is long and occupies the throat of
the corolla, The term trimorphous is applied to those cases where
we have three different lengths, as in Lythrum and Oxalis.

Again, we may have the stamens developed in such a manner
that itis quite impossible that they can fertilise the plant unless
removed by insects. We have good examples of this in the various
species of Orchidaceous plants.

Or lastly, nature may develope pollen that has no effect on the
pistil of the same plant, or even on the flowers of the same plant
on which it is situated.

Until very lately it was supposed that male and female organs
were developed on the same plant in order that the plant might
the more easily be fertilised ; but I am sure that if the fertilisation
of the various flowers be carefully examined, it will be found that
self-fertilisation is the exception, and not the rule as was formerly
supposed.

Among the various flowers we will find contrivances for the fertili-
sation of one flower by the pollen of another as perfect and varied
as the most beautiful adaptation found in the animal kingdom.

For the sake of convenience, I have divided flowers into two
great classes, according as they are fertilised by the wind, or by
means of insects.

Plants that are fertilised by the wind have, as a rule, no proper
floral envelopes, no development of nectar, and very loose pollen
granules. Plants fertilised by means of insects have conspicuous

floral envelopes, a development of nectar, and more or less coherent
pollen.

ily TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Of those plants that are fertilised by the wind, the best example
I can give is what is found in the various grasses (Fig. 4). The
pollen in them is very loose and easily wafted about by the wind,
so that when they grow together, as in a field of corn, there is
every chance of the plant being fertilised. The pistils are more or
less feathery (Fig. 5), and present a very large surface, so that
they will be sure to catch some of the pollen as it flies about. In
the alder, hazel, and willows we have very good examples of wind-
fertilised plants. In these the stamens are in one set of flowers
and the pistils are in another, either on the same plant, as in the
alder and hazel, or on different plants, as in some willows. Now,
in these plants, as the leaves might interfere with the application
of pollen to the stigma, it is found that they are not developed
till after the plant has been fertilised.

Let us take the case of the hazel, in which the stamens are
matured first.

Here, as in grasses, we have loose pollen, easily carried about by
the wind, and if the trees are in close proximity, there is every
reason to believe that pollen will be blown from one plant to
another. Whether or not, shortly after the stamens (a) are
matured, the female flowers (b) begin to send out their pistils,
and the slightest breath of wind is sufficient to send a shower of
pollen about the female flower.

Again, to take the case of the willows. Most of them are fertil-
ised in the same manner as the hazel; but there are some willows,
e.g., Salix pentandra, which cannot be fertilised in this way.
Curiously enough, here we have the leaves developed before either
the male or female flowers; and as the pollen is not loose, as in
other willows, and besides, the male and female flowers are on
different plants, fertilisation would be absolutely impossible with-
out the agency of insects. Consequently we have the development
of a kind of nectar. The whole plant has a sweet smell; hence
the name of Sweet-bay Willow. And in spring, when standing
under one of these trees, we can hear the perpetual hum of the
bees as they fly from flower to flower. In another group of plants,
fertilised by the agency of the wind, viz., the great group of cone-
bearing plants, Conifere, we have the evergreen leaves very
narrow, and besides, we have a peculiar structure developed in
connection with the pollen grain, which serves in a great measure
to enable the pollen to reach the female flower.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 113

The outer coat of the pollen granule is dilated into two large
hollow chambers, which are filled with air. ‘This serves to render
the pollen easily carried about by the wind from one plant to
another. In the pines there is a very large quantity of pollen
developed, and it has been stated that, in America, the pollen
from the pine forests is sometimes carried to a great distance by the
wind and falls like showers of sulphur.

So much for the first group which shows no special adaptation
for the prevention of self-fertilisation. Let us now pass on to
the second, and by far the most interesting group, which shows
such varied and beautiful adaptation for the prevention of self-
fertilisation.

Let us first take some simple case of protandrous dichogamy as
illustrated by the order Malvacee. In this order the stamens are
united so as to form a tube, in the interior of which the pistils are
situated. In the male stage the stamens shed their pollen while
the pistils are in the centre; in the female stage the anthers drop
off and the pistils appear, and the stigmas separating from each
other, curve around till they occupy the same position as the
stamens formerly did, so that an insect visiting the flower in the
first stage would get dusted over with pollen, and then, on visiting
a flgwer in the second stage, would touch the stigmas with the
same part of its body as had formerly touched the stamens, and so
pollen would be deposited on the stigma and the plant fertilised.

In Lamium album (White Dead Nettle) we have a bilabiate
corolla (Fig. 11).

The honey is at the bottom of the tube, and is protected from
rain by the arched upper lip and by hairs. The lower lip projects
considerably, and forms an admirable landing place for insects.
The length of the corolla tube and certain hairs in the throat of
the corolla prevent the access of small insects, which would remove
the source of attraction for bees without effecting the grand object
for which it was designed. ‘The arched upper lip, in its form, size,
and position is admirably adapted as a protection against rain, as
well as to prevent the anthers and pistil from yielding too easily
to the pressure of the insect, and thus to ensure that it should press
the pollen which it has brought from other flowers against the
pistil, The stamens do not form a ring round the pistil as in the
last case. On the contrary, one stamen is absent, while the other
four lie along the outer arch of the corolla on either side of the

Q

114 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

pistil. These four stamens are not of equal length, two being
shorter than the other two. The reason of this is because, if the
stamens had lain side by side, the pollen would have adhered to
parts of the insect’s head which do not come in contact with the
pistil, and would therefore have been wasted. Besides, it might
have been deposited on the eyes of the insect so as to blind it, and
consequently would have deterred the bee from ever visiting the
flower again. This idea is strengthened by the fact that in some
flowers, e. g. Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), the anthers are trans-
verse when immature, but become longitudinal as they ripen. From
the position of the stigma which hangs down below the anthers
the bee comes in contact with the former before it touches the
latter, and consequently fertilises the stigma with pollen from
another flower.

In Salvia officinalis, Figs. 7 to 10 (from Lubbock), the anthers,
as they shed their pollen, shrivel up, and on the other hand, the
pistil increases in length, and curves downwards till it comes into
the position shown in the diagram (Fig. 9). The stamens here
are reduced to two, and of these two only one half developes
pollen. The barren half is widely separated from the fertile one by
what is termed a distractile connective (Fig. 8). This connective
rotates upon its axis upon the filament of the stamen, as showp at
Fig 10. The lower lip forms a good landing place for insects and
the barren parts of the anthers block up the entrance to the
corolla tube. Now, to explain the manner of fertilisation here, let
us suppose that an insect visits the flower in the male stage, it will
in pushing its head down the corolla tube, as at Fig. 7, come in
contact with the barren anther lobe, which, revolving on its axis,
will get pushed back into the back part of the corolla (marked 2),
and the fertile anther will be at the same time brought down upon
the back of the insect, and brush its pollen on to the back of the
insect. Now, suppose that the insect were now to visit a flower in
the female stage where the pistil had elongated and curved round
so as to block up the entrance to the corolla tube, the first thing
that it would come in contact with would be the elongated pistil,
and as its back and sides were dusted over with pollen, some of
that pollen would be sure to be dusted into the stigma and so the
plant would be fertilised. The foregoing is certainly the most
wonderful arrangement for the prevention of self-fertilisation that
is to be found in the vegetable kingdom.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 115

In Viola tricolor (Fig. 12, 13), or Common Violet, the corolla is
irregular and composed of five petals. Upon each petal we see
certain lines directed to the more or less conspicuous centre of the
flower which contains the organs of reproduction, The anthers of
the stamens are all united together, but if separated or disturbed
immediately discharge a shower of pollen. The lower petal is
spurred, and contains two tail-like processes (a). These processes
are the prolonged connectives of the two lower stamens, which secrete
nectar for the purpose of attracting insects. The pistil has a two-
lipped hooded stigma (6), the upper surface of which is viscid for the
application of pollen. By referring to Fig. 12 the mechanism will
be better understood. Suppose an insect were to alight upon the
lower petal (c) it would be guided to the entrance to the reproduc-
tive organs by the streaks upon the corolla. Inserting its proboscis
down the spur upon the lower petal in search of honey, it would
disturb the anthers, upon sucking the nectar from the connectives
a shower of pollen would then fall upon the proboscis of the insect.
The insect, on withdrawing its proboscis, will come in contact
with the stigma, but as the viscid surface is uppermost, and as
there is a protecting lip, the pollen will not be deposited upon the
stigma of that flower. Suppose it were now to visit another flower,
guided as before to the centre, it would leave some of the pollen
upon the viscid stigma, because, in inserting its proboscis into the
spur of the corolla it would brush the proper viscid surface of the
stigma, there being no valve to hinder it in its entrance, as there
is upon its exit from the flower.

In Kalmia, sp. (Fig. 15 and 17), the corolla is large, and has a
number of pouches, into which the stamens are inserted by their
anthers. As the flower opens, the filaments of the stamens are put
in great tension, and whenever an insect lands upcen the flower,
the corolla is violently depressed. The stamens are at the same
time dislodged from their pouches, springing forward with great
force, scattering their pollen upon the insect as well as on the
neighbouring flowers.

In Parietaria officinalis, or Wall Pellitory (Fig. 14), we have
protogynous dichogamy. Before the flower opens, the little red
stigmas appear at the mouth of the flower (Fig. 14), and are ready
to receive any pollen that may be brought into contact with them.
In the male stage the stigmas drop off. The anthers are lodged in
little pouches at the base of the ovary, and the filaments are very

116 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

elastic. As the flower opens these filaments are put into the
utmost tension, and are gradually dislodged from the pouches in
the ovary, when they spring back with great force, bursting their
anthers, and scattering their pollen all over the neighbouring
plants (Fig. 16), Here, although we have not an insect-fertilised
plant, it is wholly impossible that self-fertilisation can take place
owing to the stigmas falling off before the flower opens.

In Streptocarpus sp. the filaments of the stamens are so situated
that when any object enters the tube of the corolla it is sure to
separate them. The pollen is contained in little boxes, and when
the filaments are separated this box is sure to be opened, and a
shower of pollen falls out. In the male stage the pistil is very
short, but after the maturity of the stamens is over it elongates,
and comes to occupy the same position as was formerly held by
the stamens. To explain the manner of fertilisation here let us
suppose that an insect in search of honey visits this flower: on
inserting its head down the tube of the corolla it will come in con-
tact with the filaments of the stamen. On doing this the pollen
box is opened, a shower of pollen is let fall upon the head and
back of the insect. The insect then flies away to a flower in the
female stage, and on inserting its head down the corolla tube as
before the first object that it comes in contact with is the elongated
pistil. Then as its head was dusted over with pollen gathered
from another flower, some of the pollen will be sure to be left on
the pistil, and so the plant will be fertilised.

23RD NovemBer, 1875.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

Mr. Andrew A. Hogarth, 465 St. Vincent Street, and Mr. J.
Haddow, 292 St. George’s Road, were elected members of the
Society.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Schulze.—Two beautiful microscopes, and a large collec-
tion of microscopic apparatus and slides. His instruments were
by Ross, of London, and Whyte, Glasgow, and he had also micro-
scopes on the table by Smith and Beck, Hartnack, &ce. He
exhibited several objects under 1-50th object-glass of Powell and
Lealand.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 117

PAPER READ,

On the Microscope and Microscopic Illumination. By Mr. ADoLF
SCHULZE.

I purpose speaking this evening on the Microscope, making
special reference to the most recent improvements on it, and to
the best modes of microscopic illumination. My remarks will be
principally addressed to those gentlemen among you who are not
or only little acquainted with the microscope, in the hope that
they may incite them to engage in one of the most fascinating and
useful of studies, and that they may assist them in the selection
and proper use of a microscope.

Of all the instruments with which the scientific observer of
nature can arm himself, there is none which holds a higher place,
with regard to general utility, than the microscope, which is now
produced in such a state of perfection, yielding so excellent results,
that it seems almost impossible to improve on it. I need hardly
remind you of what the microscope has done for Science—the
Botanist, the Chemist, the Geologist, the Physiologist, the Pathol-
ogist, and all those engaged in the examination of minute objects
and structures, can no longer be without it. It has even created
a new Science, I refer to Histology, or the science of the animal
and vegetable tissues, and it has become an inexhaustible source
of the purest intellectual enjoyment and of interesting information,
even to the non-scientific enquirer. The extremes of minuteness
are as wonderful as the extremes of vastness, although the tendency
is generally to estimate things by their material grandeur alone.
It would be impossible to enumerate all the advantages derived
by microscopic observations, and any microscopist, with even less
eloquence than I am possessed of, might spend a great deal of
time to vent his enthusiasm on this subject. Those persons who
pass their lives content with seeing only what they can see with
their unarmed eyes, deserve really our sympathy, for to them half
of the beauties and wonders of nature remain ever a book with
seven seals, which they might easily break open, to feast their eyes
and their minds by the perusal of this instructive and edifying
volume.

Gentlemen, the Microscope, as you are aware, is an optical con-
trivance which enables the observer to see minute objects, or their
details of form and structure, magnified, if brought within its reach

118 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

or focus, which in most cases would not be visible to the unarmed
eye. Magnifying power has to do with size only, and refers to the
angle subtended by the enlarged image at the eye, as compared
with the angle subtended by the object itself under the circum-
stances of ordinary vision, which is about 10 inches from the eye.
The nearer an object is approached to our eyes, the larger it
appears ; and if our eyes could accommodate themselves to the
shortest distances, we would have no necessity for microscopes or
magnifying glasses.

There are microscopes and microscopes, an infinite variety of
models, many of them constructed for special purposes. They are
all divided into two classes, namely, simple and compound micro-
scopes. The simple microscope may consist of one, two, or.
three lenses, but these latter are so arranged as to have only the
effect of a single lens, z.¢., they show the object itself magnified.
In the compound microscope not less than two lenses must be
employed, one to form an inverted image of the object, which
being nearest to it is called the object-glass, and the other to
magnify this image, and which is called the eye-glass, because it
is nearest to the eye of the observer. Both object-glass and
eye-glass, eye-piece or ocular, as it is commonly called, may be,
and in good microscopes always are, composed of a number of
lenses,

Like most other inventions, the microscope has its history, but
time will only allow me to glance briefly over it. Simple micro-
scopes seem to have been in use thousands of years ago, as we
have not only ancient records of microscopic work having been
done, such as minute engravings, minute writings, and minute
mechanical contrivances, many of them contained in a nutshell—
hence the common expression, “ in a nutshell,”’—which could not
have been made with the unassisted eyes, unless the visual powers
of former generations had been immensely superior to our own,
which was not the case; but lenses of rock crystal, many of them
of short focus, have also been found, which were clearly intended
for optical purposes, and not as ornaments, as some have sought
to maintain.

Zacharias Jansens and ‘his son are said to have made microscopes
before the year 1590, one of which was at that time brought to
England. Fontana, in a work published in 1646, maintains
having made microscopes as early as 1618. It was with such

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 119

imperfect instruments that Leuwenhoek, Swammerdam, and others,
examined the minute forms of nature, and afterwards described
them so correctly that we cannot help wondering how it was pos-
sible for them to do so. Robert Hooke published in 1667 his
Micrographia, a wonderful production for those times, which was,
however, soon eclipsed by the researches of Leuwenhoek, which
were first published in the transactions of the Philosophical Society
in 1673, as well as by those of Grew and Malpighi, the former of
whom laid the foundation for our knowledge of the vegetable
tissues, and the latter of the tissues of the animal body. Small
glass globules, by the application of which to the simple microscope,
instead of convex lenses, an enormous magnification was obtained,

were first used by Dr. Hooke and Hartsoeker. Stephen Gray dis-
' covered in 1696 that drops of water, containing animalcules, if
hung to the end of a wire and held close to the eye, showed these
animalcules enormously magnified. Whilst many observers of
those times added discovery to discovery, little improvement was
effected in the simple microscope until the celebrated Dr. Nathaniel
Lieberkuhn of Berlin, about the year 1740, brought out his im-
proved instrument, which consists of a short tube of about 1 inch
diameter, in one end of which is a bi-convex lens for collecting the
rays and throwing them on a concave silver speculum near to the
other end, the latter having a round aperture in the centre. The
rays are reflected by this speculum to its focus, about one-half inch
distance, in which is placed the opaque object glued to a, little disc
adjustable by a wire in the side of the instrument. The object
brilliantly lit up is viewed by a small lens of half-inch focus through
the circular opening of the speculum. This instrument, which
was only adapted for viewing opaque objects, was held by a handle.
Leuwenhoek’s microscopes were nearly all single lenses fitted in a
tube having a slide holder. He had hundreds of such microscopes,
one-each for one or two objects.

The first three compound microscopes worthy of notice are
those of Dr. Hooke, Eustachio Divini, and Philip Bonnani. Dr.
Hooke describes his instrument in the Micrographia, in 1667, as
being 3 inches diameter, 7 inches long, and having four draws.
It had three glasses, a small object-glass, a middle glass, and a
deep eye-piece. Divini’s microscope was described, in 1668, as
having an object-glass, a middle glass, and two eye-glasses, which
were plano-convex, touching each other in the centre of their

120 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

convex surfaces. The tube in which the lenses were inclosed was
as large as a man’s leg, and the eye-glass as broad as the palm of
the hand. It had four draws magnifying from 41 to 143
diameters, and must have been an instrument looking more like
a cannon than one of our present microscopes. Philip Bonnani’s
was similar, but was placed horizontally and had beneath its stage
a convex lens which condensed the light on the object. This was
the first microscope with a condenser, and the account of it was
published in 1698.

In 1738 Lieberkuhn gave his solar microscope to the world,
which, owing to its enormous magnifying power and to the ease
with which it exhibited the minute wonders of nature to a large
audience, drew universal attention to the microscope. In 1742
Henry Baker, F.R.S., published an admirable treatise on the
microscope, which was soon followed by others. In 1811
Frauenhofer, a celebrated optician of Munich, constructed the
jirst achromatic object-glasses for the microscope, in which the two
glasses, although in juxtaposition, were not cemented together.
Although considerable improvements in the making of achromatic
object-glasses had taken place since their first discovery by Huler
a German mathematician, in 1776, opticians at that time enter-
tained the opinion that it would be impossible to make a good
achromatic microscope. Dr. Wollaston, the inventor of the
celebrated doublet named after him, also thought that the com-
pound microscope would never rival the single. Further experi-
ments conducted by Selligues, Frauenhofer, Professor Amici of
Modena, Chevalier in Paris, and Dr. Goring in London, resulted
in Selligues making the first compound object-glass composed of
four achromatic compound lenses each consisting of two lenses
which could be used combinedly or separately. In 1824 Mr.
Tulley, at the suggestion of Dr. Goring, constructed an achromatic
object-glass for a compound microscope of 9-10ths of an inch focal
length, composed of three lenses transmitting a pencil of 18
degrees, the first achromatic object-glass ever made in England.
In 1825 Chevalier made an achromatic objective of four lines
focus, and in 1827 Amici brought to England a horizontal
microscope the object-glass of which consisted of three superposed,
achromatic lenses of large aperture. In 1829 Mr. Jackson Lister
proposed a combination of lenses upon the theories of achromatism
propounded by Sir John Herschel, Professors Sir George Airy,

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 121

Barlow, and Mr. Coddington; he joined a plano-concave flint
lens and a convex crown glass lens together by means of the
transparent medium Canada balsam, which may be taken as the
basis of our present excellent object-glasses, as by the cementing
of the lenses together nearly half of the loss of light from
reflection is prevented, which is very considerable in consequence
of the numerous surfaces in a compound achromatic object-glass.
Since that time the late Mr. A. Ross, in London, was constantly
employed in bringing object-glasses to greater perfection by
applying Mr. Lister’s principle of cementing the lenses together
with Canada balsam, and he succeeded in balancing the errors of
chromatic and spheric aberration so well that the circumstance of
covering the object with the thinnest glass disturbed its correction.
This unsuspected difficulty was finally overcome in 1837, when
Mr. Ross was able to announce to the Society of Arts that he had
succeeded in doing so by making the distance of the anterior
lenses of the object-glass to the middle combination adjustable by
means of a screw-collar. Other makers followed soon, among
whom notably Smith and Beck, Powell and Lealand in London ;
Hartnack, the successor of Oberhauser, and Nachet in Paris;
Gundlach in Berlin ; Zeiss in Jena ; Schiek, Merz; and in America
R. Tolles and Zentmayer. ‘The latest and greatest improvements
in object-glasses have been effected by Mr. F. H. Wenham, in
1873, who reduced the number of surfaces by six, thus securing a
great increase of brilliancy and definition.

At the beginning of the present century the microscope had
fallen rather into discredit, and began to be neglécted, but since the
introduction of achromatic object-glasses it has been improved, not
by steps, but by leaps and bounds. I must not forget to mention
that prince of microscopists, the great Professor Hhrenberg, of
Berlin, who astonished the world by his wonderful researches and
discoveries, and who was principally instrumental in restoring the
credit to the microscope, which it seemed to have lost for a while.
In 1846, Mohl, an eminent German savant and microscopist,
stated that the limit of the best microscope at that time was a mag-
nification of 300 to 400 diameters, or 90,000 to 160,000 times,
superficially, and that any further magnification would only result
in loss of light and definition. In 1840, however, Powell and
Lealand made their first celebrated object-glass of one-sixteenth of

an inch focus, magnifying nearly 1000 diameters, and in 1860 they
be oR

L222 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

made a twenty-sixth, magnifying nearly 1800 diameters, and this
was generally considered, for some time, the utmost magnification
attainable. Not satisfied, Powell and Lealand have made since
then several object-glasses of only 1-50th inch nominal focus,
magnifying with the lowest eye-piece 2500 diameters, and with the
highest eye-piece 20,000 diameters, or from 64 to 400,000 million
times, superficially. These glasses are indeed optical marvels;
they are excellent, but their use is limited to the smallest trans-
parent objects, as their actual working distance is only 0-003 of an
inch. Powell and Lealand have even made a 1-80th inch object-
glass, but I am not able to speak of its optical performance. I
presume, however, that it is inferior to their celebrated 1-50th, or
we would have heard more of it.

It appears just now that the utmost, as regards both magnifica-
tion and definition, has been reached for the present, and until
the chemist will have supplied the optician with a denser trans-
parent medium of higher refractive power than any we can use
just now. Certain it is that microscopists and opticians will not
rest satisfied with the wonderful progress made lately, and that
the powers of microscopic definition and magnification will advance
more and more. The ne plus ultra of a microscope would be
an instrument with which we could see the ultimate particles of
matter, enabling us to verify, by ocular demonstration, our already
sufficiently proven theories of the co-relation of the great forces of
nature—heat, magnetism, electricity, and chemical] affinity—and
how they affect the molecules, whose shape would no longer
remain a hypothesis ; but so powerful a microscope will never be
constructed by human hands.

T will now proceed to explain the construction of the compound
mucroscope, and of the various pieces of apparatus pertaining to it.

The principal parts of a compound microscope are the object-
glass and the eye-piece, which are placed at the extreme ends of a
tube called the “ body.”

In order to explain the principle upon which the performance of
object-glass and eye-piece is based, I must interpolate in this place
a few remarks about light, which is not matter, but motion, and
consists of the undulations of a highly elastic fluid called the
luminiferous ether, which fills all space and matter.in the uni-
verse. These undulations are extremely small, measuring from

the 1-30,000th to the 1-60,000th of an inch, according to the

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 123

colour and composition of the light. The undulations of the rays
of light exciting vision vary between 1-481st and 1-764th of a
billionth of a second of time, and they take place in two planes
perpendicular to the direction cf the ray. The light, or the undu-
lations of the luminiferous ether, emitted from a luminous body,
travel in straight lines, but when they pass through a medium
falling upon its surface not perpendicularly they are deviated from
their course or refracted. ‘They are always refracted when passing,
at an angle of less than 90 deg., from one medium into another
of more or less density. The amount of refraction is dependent
upon the relative densities of the media, and is further conditioned
by their form, in a microscope by the shape and the material of
the various lenses. In optical instruments the curvature of the
lenses is spherical, being the only form that can be given by grind-
ing with the requisite amount of truth. Unfortunately, spherical
convergent lenses do not bring all the rays of light which pass
through them to one and the same focus. The peripheral rays
have a shorter focus than the central rays, and the extreme
distance between the various foci of a lens is called spherical
aberration. The consequence is, that an object-glass whose
spherical aberration is not corrected will not show the various
portions of the surface of a plane object to be in focus at the same
time ; it will either only show the central portion defined or the
peripheral portion alone, and this fault in an object-glass is called
want of flatness of field.

In the best objectives of j-inch focus the spherical aberration is
computed to be still the 1-50,000th of an inch, a small fault, it
is true, but sufficient to prevent the resolution of markings several
times closer than 1-50,000th inch.

The second difficulty is the chromatic aberration, which results
from the unequal refrangibility of the different colours of which
the white light is composed, so that they are not all brought to
the same focus, even by a lens free from spherical aberration. If
you look through a microscope in which the chromatic aberration
of the lenses is not corrected, you will find that the image has an
iridescent border of red, yellow, and blue. In fact, you see one
image for each of the colours of the spectrum, but as all these
images overlap in the centre, they produce white light. Not so at
the outlines. The correction of this chromatic aberration is
effected by combining in the construction of lenses two media of

124 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

opposite form and different material, and differing from each other
in the proportion in which they respectively refract and disperse
the light so that the one medium may by equal and contrary
dispersion counteract the dispersion caused by the other, without,
at the same time, wholly neutralising its refractions. The media
most suitable for this purpose are the crown glass and the denser
flint glass. As previously stated, Frauenhofer made, in 1811, the
first achromatic object-glasses for the microscope, by combining
lenses of crown and flint glass, and Mr. Jackson Lister was the
first to cement concave and convex lenses of crown and flint glass
together by means of Canada balsam. <A lens so achromatized looks
as if made of one piece. Sometimes the balsam becomes cloudy
between the surfaces, which destroys the optical properties of the
lens.

I will now explain the construction of the object-glasses, the
number and quality of which constitute the true value of a
microscope. Object-glasses in England are designated by their
focal lengths, thus we have a 3-in., 2-in., l-in., 2-in., }-in., fin.,
¢-in,, }in., 75-in., jL-in., j7,-in., j-in., j-in., Jin, but these
designations do not represent the actual focal lengths of compound
objectives, which are far shorter, but they represent the focal
lengths of single lenses of equivalent magnifying power. The
angular aperture of an object-glass is that angle formed by the
extreme rays of light entering the glass from the focus. Large
angled object-glasses are dearer than low angled ones. The former
show surface markings best, owing to the greater number of
oblique rays which pass through them, whilst glasses with smaller
angular aperture show various planes of the object to be at the
same time in focus. Object-glasses of moderate angular aperture
are preferable, unless the microscopist be engaged in special studies
requiring a large angled glass, but such may be provided with
stops to reduce the angle in order to increase the penetration.
Wide angled glasses give more light than narrow angled ones,
but the latter have a greater working distance.

Low powers are all glasses from the 5-in to the 2-in.; medium
powers from the $-in., to the 1-in.; and all object-glasses of shorter
focus are called high powers.

The simplest object-glasses are single bi-convex (PL ITI. fig. 1) or
plano-convex lenses; if achromatic, they consist of a bi-convex and a
plano-concave lens (fig. 3). In low compound objectives there are

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GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 125

two systems of lenses, the anterior, consisting of a plano-convex
front lens and a concavo-convex lens cemented together; the
posterior combination consists of a plano-concave and bi-convex,
(fig. 4) or of a bi-concave lens with a bi-convex lens above and
below (fig. 5). In higher powers these lenses become more
numerous, consisting of a triple anterior and posterior and a
double middle combination as shown in diagram No. 8. Mr. F.
H. Wenham has proved that a pencil of rays exceeding an angle
of 40° from a luminous point, cannot be secured with less than
three superposed lenses of increasing focus and diameter, but by
the use of such a triple combination rays beyond this angle can
be transmitted with successive reflections in their course towards
the posterior conjugate focus. The first object-glass made by
Mr. Ross in 1831, consisted of three bi-convex lenses of crown
glass, each of which was achromatized by its own plano-concave
lens of flint glass (fig. 6). It was in one of these glasses that
Mr. Ross made the anterior combination adjustable in order to
correct the errors of spherical aberration consequent upon using
covered or uncovered objects. In 1837, Mr. Lister gave Mr. Ross
a diagram for a 4-in., having a triple front lens to facilitate the
passages of the extreme rays. In 1850, the same gentleman
communicated to Mr. Wenham his invention of the triple back
combination (fig. 8), which was a considerable improvement on the
double one. Mr. Wenham, in the course of his trials, invented
the single front of crown glass, the front part being cylindrical
and the back convex. The height of the cylindrical part is one of
the most essential parts of corrections, as for instance, in a 7; a
difference of thickness of only -002 inch determines the quality
between a good and an indifferent glass. This single front devised
by Mr. Wenham has, after much hesitation on the part of other
makers, been adopted by them all. Mr. Wenham constructed an
excellent object-glass of five lenses only, and since then he has
devised object-glasses of only four lenses as shown in the diagram,
fig. 9, thus dispensing with six surfaces as formerly used. It is
obvious that these objectives, if properly corrected, must give an
increase of brilliancy and definition. Another advantage is, that
high powers constructed on this plan can be used both as dry and
as wet or immersion lenses, by simply adjusting the screw collar.
The system of immersion lenses is due to Professor Amici, who
discovered that by placing a small drop of water on the front lens

126 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

which will unite with the covering glays, an increase of light and
definition is obtained, as the most divergent rays are by. their
passage through water, instead of through air, so refracted that
they enter the object-glass.

The object-glasses last described have been patented by Mr.
Wenham, and they are made by the celebrated firm of Ross & Co.
in London, at prices considerably below those of their great
rival object-glassmakers, Powell & Lealand, whose } and ;,-in.
immersion lenses have for a considerable time been regarded as
the most perfect glasses made. The latter firm has just brought
out a + and a 4 constructed on a new formula, which they say are
superior to their former glasses of the same focal length. These
new glasses cost, with immersion arrangements, eleven guineas
a-plece.

The qualities a first-rate object-glass should possess are,

1. Defining power, which depends upon the completeness of its
corrections.

2. Penetrating power, or focal depth, which depends upon the
degree of distinctness with which part of the objects that are a
little out of focus may be seen.

3. Lesolving power, by which minute surface markings are
seen and clearly separated from each other.

4, Flatness of field, which depends on the distinctness with
which both the central and peripheral portions of an object are seen.

An object-glass combining all the preceding attributes in the
highest degree in which they are compatible with each other may
be pronounced perfect.

The optical qualities of an object-glass are examined by means
of tests or test-objects, such as sections of spines of echinus, of
deal, proboscis of fly, pygideum of flea, muscular fibres, finely
marked valves of diatoms, scales of insects, especially the Podura
scales, and Nobert’s test-plate having as many as 200,000 parallel
lines to the inch ruled on a piece of glass with a diamond. I
cannot refrain from mentioning here the marvellous Micro-engray-
ings of Mr. W. Webb, whose finest engraving of the Lord’s Prayer
is on a scale equal to that of writing the whole Bible fifty times
in the space of only one square inch.*

* These engravings, Nobert’s test-lines, Modller’s typenplatten and test-
objects, are supplied by Mr. Edmund Wheeler, 48 Tollington Road,
Holloway, London, N.

EE SVASAAA RQ

W\ J

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. Tae

The magnified image produced by the rays of light after having
passed the object-glass and crossed in the focus of the back
combination, are viewed by a simple microscope at the upper end
of the body called the Hye-piece.

The Huyghenian eye-piece (fig. 10), commonly used, consists of
two plano-convex lenses with their convex sides directed towards
the object-glass. The lower larger one is called the field-glass, the
upper one the eye-glass. These eye-pieces give a field of from 4
to 6 inches diameter. The Huyghenian eye-piece is not achromatic,
being under corrected for colour, and to secure achromatism of the
microscope all good object-glasses are so constructed that they are
over corrected for colour.

The Kellner or orthoscopic eye-piece (fig. 11) has a double convex
lens placed in the focus of the achromatic eye-glass without the
interposition of a diaphragm. It does not give quite as good
definition as the ordinary eye-piece, but it yields a large, flat, well-
lit-uwp field of from 12 to 14 inches diameter. I can confidently
recommend the Kellner eye-piece No. C, as made by Ross, but
these Kellner eye-pieces should not be bought in pairs.

To every first-class microscope there belong a number of eye-
pieces of various powers, which English makers commonly designate
by A, B, C, D, E, and F; A being the shallowest and least power-
ful, F the deepest and most powerful, magnifying diametrically
about eight times as much as A. Although a great increase of
magnification is obtained by the use of high eye-pieces, these
magnifications are not of great value, as the brilliancy with which
an object appears illuminated is reduced in inverse ratio to the
superficial magnifying power ; thus by the use of eye-piece F, the
object appears only 1-64th as brightly Jit up as under A. In
addition to the loss of light, the errors of the object-glass are
magnified without gaining any compensation in focal depth. More-
over, high eye-pieces, owing to their short foci, are very trying to
the eyes. In fact the use of high eye-pieces recommends itself,
only when without the trouble of changing the object-glass a
large magnification has to be obtained, good definition being only
a matter of secondary importance. The magnification of a micro-
scope may also be increased without impairing the definition per-
ceptibly, especially when shallow eye-pieces are used, by increasing
the distance between the object-glass and the eye-piece by means
of a draw-tube, which is generally graduated.

128 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

A microscope having only one body, and which can only be
used with one eye at a time, is called monocular ; a microscope
having two tubes and eye-pieces, allowing an object to be viewed
simultaneously with both eyes, is called binocular. The advan-
tages of a binocular microscope over a monocular one are the
following :—

1. It is pleasanter and less trying to the eyes, permitting con-

sequently a far more prolonged use.
2. Much greater focal depth is gained.

3. A stereoscopic effect is obtained, giving the observer a more

correct idea of the shape of the object under observation; and

4. By its use the mind is relieved of the constructive effort

which it has to make in order to realize the shape of the

object or its details, when viewed only with one eye.
Altogether, I cannot sufficiently advocate the use of the binocular
microscope; every one who values his eyesight, and has to make
prolonged microscopical observations, should use a binocular. An
observer using a monocular microscope can form no better idea of
the object he views than a man using one eye alone can judge of
distance and form in a strange place. J am aware that many
scientific men, especially some old microscopists, still deprecate the
use of the binocular, but this arises either simply from prejudice,
or because they have only seen instruments with faulty binocular
arrangements, or because their eyes have different foci.

The best binocular arrangement is undoubtedly that invented
by Ur. F. H. Wenham in 1860, and consists of a very small prism
of peculiar form (Fig. 12), which is placed in a small frame in the
nose-piece or the lower end of the body of the microscope. The
lower surface of this prism intercepts exactly half of the cone
of light coming from the object-glass, and reflects them up the
slanting tube, whilst the other half of the rays passes through the
reflected bundle of rays straight in the eye-piece above the object-
glass. By the withdrawal of the prism the binocular microscope
is instantly converted into a monocular one. The effect of this
splendid arrangement is truly stereoscopic ; unfortunately it can
ouly be used with low powers, namely, up to the one half-inch
object-glass inclusive, and only then when the latter has not more
than 40° aperture.

For high powers one of these small Wenham prisms would require
to be fitted immediately behind the posterior combination of lenses of

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS, 129

each object-glass, which is both expensive and not very practicable.
Various methods for obtaining stereoscopic binocular vision under
high and the highest powers have been devised, and the best and
the one most in use seems to be the one invented by Mr. Stephen-
son. In his apparatus the rays on emerging from the object-glass
pass through two small prisms, but owing to their considerable
length a great deal of light is abstracted. These binocular arrange-
ments for bringing into each eye only one-half of the bundle or
cone of rays which have passed through the objective, act stereo-
scopically. Other methods of enabling the observer to use both
eyes have been devised, as for instance Powell and Lealand’s
patent, but as they reflect identical wmages into the two eye-pieces
their effect is non- or pseudo-stereoscopic.

The stand of the compound microscope consists of the support
for the body, the focal adjustment, the stage to carry the object,
a mirror for illuminating the latter, and which is attached to the
so-called tail-piece, and a diaphragm beneath the stage to regulate
the quantity of light reflected from the mirror. The most com-
plete microscope stands have an additional sub-stage for holding
the various pieces of illumination apparatus, which in second or
third-class instruments have to be placed into a short tube-fitting
attached to the stage. The stand must be heavy, in order to be
quite steady and free from tremor. There is a great variety of
models of stands, but I shall only mention a few of the principal
ones. There is first a draw-tube stand, which we find in all old
microscopes, and which is still retained by most German and
French makers, notably in the excellent microscopes of Hartnacks
and Nachet, which I cannot sufficiently recommend on account of
their portability, cheapness, excellence of workmanship, and high
quality of object-glasses. Then there is the so-called Ross model,
in which the body is supported by a rectangular arm ; and there
is the Jackson model, the steadiest of all, in which the body is
supported along the greatest part of its length. Even the great
house of Ross & Co, has, at the suggestion of Mr. Wenham, adopted
the Jackson model in 1874, and their new stand I consider to be
the handsomest and best of all.

The coarse adjustment consists in simple microscopes of a draw-
tube, and in the better English models of a rack and pinion move-
ment by means of large milled heads. The fine adjustment which

in Ross’ new model is placed behind the body to protect it from
S

130 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

injury, consists of a fine micrometer screw, having in good micro-
scopes from 100 to 200 turns to the inch. This screw acts by
means of a lever upon the so-called nogse-piece in the lower end of
the body into which the object-glass screws, and which is pressed
downwards by means of a spring. I must not forget to state that
the Royal Microscopical Society in London has introduced a stand-
ard gauge of screw, with which the nose-pieces of all good English
microscopes and all good English object-glasses are now-a-days
provided. By means of one of the best fine adjustments we can
easily focus through a distance of only the one five-thousandth part
of an inch, and it serves at the same time to measure roughly the
height or depth of small objects.

The stage may either be plain or mechanical, and a good plain
stage is infinitely preferable to a bad mechanical one. The stage
should be large, have a large opening in the centre, and ought to
be as thin as possible, to allow of the most oblique illumination.
There are various contrivances in use to assist In moving the slide,
but the ordinary mechanical stage consists of rectangular rack and
pinion and screw movements. In addition to these rectangular
movements there is a circular movement which is seldom mechani-
cal. The latest perfection of the stage is the concentric rotating
movement, which allows of an object being kept in the field of
view when the stage is rotated. In order to obtain this concentric
rotating movement, the rectangular movements are placed on the
rotating movement, and not the rotating stage on the rectangular
movement, as in the ordinary mechanical stage. To some simple
instrument without rectangular movements a concentric stage is
sometimes added, which is generally made of glass. In the larger
instruments the concentric rotating stage is graduated into 360°.

The diaphragm is placed under the stage or in the sub-stage.
It consists in its simplest form of a disc of metal having various
sized apertures for admitting more or less light on the object.
The graduating diaphragm is a superior contrivance for gradually
reducing or increasing the aperture of the diaphragm, which is of
great importance for obtaining the best effects.

The sub-stage is only added to first-class and to some of the
second-class microscopes. It has generally a rotating movement by
means of a wheel and pinion and two centring screws. A rack
and pinion raises or lowers the sub-stage, which is also generally
graduated into 360°. Ordinary microscopes have, as mentioned

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 131

already, a tube-fitting attached to the stage into which the sub-stage
illumination apparatus is fixed by means of a bayonet catch, but
the length of this tube prevents oblique illumination by means of
the mirror or prisms. On the tail-piece of the microscope a large
murror held by a jointed, often doubly jointed, arm can be made
to slide up and down. One side of the mirror is generally plane
and the other concave.

Having described the essential parts of the microscope itself,
I will now enumerate and explain those accessories which the
microscopist will find useful and often indispensable.

1. The stage or mineral forceps for holding unmounted objects,
such as insects, parts of plants, minerals, ce.

2. The stage plate, which is made of glass and has a glass ledge,
serves for unmounted objects, especially fluids, which might
injure the stage if they came in contact with it.

3. The Polyp or Zoophyte trough of ground glass, for viewing
Polyps, &c., in water.

4, The live-box, of which it is well to have various sizes. It
consists of a circular box fixed on a plate ail of brass and having
a glass bottom and a thin glass cap to slide over it. A convenient
form for condenser illumination is the live-box with flush glass
bottom. ‘These live-boxes are used for the examination of live
objects such as insects, but especially for Infusorie.

5. The compresser is an instrument consisting of two plane
parallel glass surfaces, which, by means of levers, screws, or wedges,
may be more or less approached to each other. These compressers
serve to apply a gradual pressure to objects whose structure can
be better, or can only then be, seen when they are flattened out.
Such pressure may be applied to crush small shells, to flatten a
cuticle, to hold larger animalcules in the same place so that they
are unable to move out of the field of vision, &c. Strict parallel-
ism of the surfaces is most essential, especially for the examination
of fluids, which otherwise would be at once squeezed out in one
direction instead of being spread out.

6. The frog and fish plate for examining the circulation of the
blood in the web of a frog’s foot, or in the tail or fins of a fish, the
animal being wrapped in a little piece of wetted linen and tied by
means of threads to the plate which is then fixed on the stage.

7. The double, triple, or quadruple object-glass carrier, or Brooke's
arm or double nose-piece, which screws into the nose-piece of the

132 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

microscope body and can be swung round for the purpose of bring-
ing rapidly another object-glass in position. The double nose-piece
is handier than the triple or quadruple one, but only the bent
form as devised by Powell and Lealand should be bought, as it is
the safest, carrying the objectives which are not in use entirely off
the stage.

8. The camera lucida, a small instrument fitting over the eye-
piece and reflecting the image on a sheet of paper on the table
when the microscope is placed horizontally, so that the outlines of
an image can easily be traced and measured. The observer must
look with the upper half of the pupil of one of his eyes on the
prism or on the steel or glass disc, and with the lower half of the
pupil he requires to follow the pencil point. The illumination
must not be too bright, else the pencil point is hardly seen. The
best form is Wollaston’s prism camera-lucida. To measure the
magnification a micrometer, 7.e., a slip of glass, divided into hun-
dredths, thousandths, or ten-thousandths of an inch, must be
placed on the stage and focussed, and the magnified image of these
divisions traced by means of the camera and measured.

9. The eye-piece micrometer for measuring objects in the micre-
scope consists of a micrometer either permanently or temporarily
fixed between the field and the eye-glass of the eye-piece, and after
the value of its divisions has been ascertained by means of a stage
micrometer, the sizes of objects under observation may easily be
read off. Jackson’s micrometer is a scale on glass in a brass frame
which can be inserted into the eye-piece, and which is further
adjustable by means of a very finely divided screw. Aamsden’s
screw micrometer is the most perfect apparatus for measuring the
size of objects in the microscope, and consists of an eye-piece
containing two parallel thin wires which can be separated or
approached by means of a screw. Up to the 1-75,000th of an
inch can be measured by means of this instrument.

The simplest way of measuring roughly the size of the magnified
image is to look down the microscope with one eye and with the
other eye to look on a scale held close to the body of the instru-
ment at a distance of 10 inches from the eye. In this position the
observer sees both object and scale simultaneously, and can read
off the size with tolerable accuracy.

10. The eye-piece goniometer serves for measuring the angles of
crystals, &e., by means of a scale in the eye-piece, which can be

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. eve

made to revolve with it if a milled head is turned. The size of
the angle is read off on a brass plate which is divided into 360°.

11. The erector or erecting glass, for showing the inverted image
in the same position as the object, is useful when a dissection is to
be made under the microscope. It consists of a tube carrying
three lenses, which is fixed into the lower end of the draw-tube,
and by its means the image can be more or less magnified.

12. The centring glass, fitting over the eye-piece, serves for
testing the centricity of the illuminating apparatus and of the
sub-stage. It has a minute aperture, and by looking through it
both the diaphragms of the object-glass and of the condenser are
seen, which must appear concentric if the sub-stage is properly
centred.

13. The object-finder, for finding objects on slides previously
seen, and the position of which has been registered. I will only
explain Mr. Maltwood’s finder, which consists of a small plate of
glass on which a field of one square inch is photographed. This
field is divided by horizontal and vertical lines into 2500 small
squares, each of which bears a different number. Jf the position
of an object under the microscope is to be registered, the Maltwood
finder is placed in exactly the same position as the slide, which is
resting against the ledge of the stage, and against a pin fixed on
it. The number of the corresponding field is then read off and
either marked on the label of the slide-or in the catalogue. By
reversing this proceeding the registered object is easily found again.

I have now arrived at the last chapter of my lecture, in which
I shall speak of mucroscopic ilunuination and wdluminating
apparatus.

Illumination in microscopy is the principal thing, and successful
observation, especially under high powers, is mainly dependent
upon proper illumination, for by its means inferior object-glasses
may be made to show more than the best objectives will show if
the object under examination is not properly illumined. The first
thing requisite is good light, and the light best suited for magnifi-
cation, up to 2000 diameters, is daylight reflected by a white cloud,
against which the sun shines. Such light is, at the same time,
least detrimental to the eye-sight. For the highest powers, and for
the resolution of the most difficult tests, sunlight may be employed,
but, owing to its great brilliancy, it should be modified by the
interpolation of a light modifier of roughly ground white glass, or it

134 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

should not be used from the mirror, but should be reflected from
a piece of plate glass, under which fine black silk velvet has been
laid. As the ordinary white light is often dispersed into prismatic
colours by the nature and form of the objects themselves, resulting in
impaired definition and resolution, this difficulty may be overcome
by the use of monochromatic light or light of one colour. Such light
may be obtained from the spectrum, or by passing the white light
through coloured glass or through a flat glass cell containing an
ammoniacal solution of sulphate of copper, the blue and violet
rays being the most suitable owing to the greater length of their
waves. Such coloured glasses or cells containing coloured solutions
are called light modifiers. As daylight, and especially sunlight,
are scarce commodities in this country, at least in our large cities,
and as the amateur microscopist has generally to pursue his
observations in the evening after his day’s work is done, recourse
must be had to artificial light, which indeed, especially for high
powers, is the handiest, and suffices for all but the resolution of a
few of the most difficult tests. Gaslight is not very suitable
owing to the ever varying pressure in the main, in consequence of
which the flame does not burn steadily enough. An ordinary
paraffin or camphine lamp for one shilling will do very well as far
as light is concerned, but I recommend to you How's Microscope
Lamp and also the so-called Bocket Lamp. How’s lamp consists
of a glass reservoir holding sufficient oil to last for four to five
hours, and is adjustable on a brass rod fixed in a large circular
foot. A ring of stout wire holds one of Hale’s porcelain shades,
which has only one opening in front to allow of the passage of
the rays; this shade keeps in the heat, protects the eyes from the
glare, and reflects a white light. Every one using a microscope
regularly, even if it be only a small student’s microscope, should
provide himself with one of these lamps; he will find that the few
shillings it costs are well invested. A handsomer lamp is Swift's,
which packs in little space and has an additional reflector and
bull’s-eye condenser with blue light modifier turning on the same
arm. ‘The glass stopper in the reservoir for introducing a further
supply of oil when necessary is, in my opinion, no great improve-
ment, as the oil oozes out when the lamp gets hot. Middzan’s
Microscope Lamp has a metallic chimney which is internally coated
with plaster of Paris, and has a white cloud reflector, neutral
tint-shade, &c. It is the most complete and best lamp made, but

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 135

costs about six pounds. A microscope lamp must have its burner
adjustable in vertical directions and allow of its being revolved,
or it does not deserve the name, although various patterns not
having these properties are made and sold as microscope lamps.
For bringing out markings and for obtaining very intense illumin-
ation the narrow side of the wick should be used : indeed, various
sides of the flame should always be tried, as by this means the
best intensity of light can easily be ascertained.

In the illumination of objects the rays ought to be parallel in
nearly all cases. By paying attention to this, most structures of
transparent objects can be made out by the mirror or rectangular
prism alone. The angle of illumination should not be excessive,
and should not exceed 90 degs. Objects are either opaque or
transparent, and the latter may be viewed by transmitted or by
reflected light.

The simplest means of eluminating opaque objects is by means of
the so-called bull’s-eye condenser, which is a plano-convex lens
mounted on a separate stand, or fitting into the stage or the stand
of the microscope ; the latter form is called a stage condenser, and
isnot very useful. The convex side should always be turned towards
the source of light in order to obtain parallel rays, else by the
crossing and recrossing of an infinite number of rays all the
shadows will be destroyed which are absolutely requisite to bring
out the shape and nature of the surface of the object under
examination. Greater brilliancy is obtained by passing the rays
first through a bull’s-eye condenser on to a silvered side reflector of
parabolic surface, often called a speculum, which in its turn
reflects the rays on the object. Objects which are mounted on an
opaque ground, about 2-inch or less diameter, may be illuminated
by means of the Lreberkuhn (figure 13), which resembles the
mouth-piece of a wind instrument, and is silvered on its hollow
parabolic surface. It is slid over the object-glass, and the rays are
reflected on it from the plane mirror. The Lieberkuhn’s parabolic
surface reflects in its turn the light on the object, which is placed
in its focus. A separate Lieberkuhn is required for each object-
glass, and the highest power under which an opaque object can be
illuminated with a Lieberkuhn, a parabolic side reflector, or
the bull’s-eye condenser, is the }-inch, or a very narrow-angled
finch glass, provided they have a long working distance. Many
microscopists condemn the Lieberkuhn as throwing light from all

136 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

sides on the object, thus allowing of no shadows; but this holds
only good so long as the mirror throws up rays parallel to the axis
of the microscope. Altogether, I consider the Lieberkuhn the
easiest, and an excellent piece of apparatus for the illumination of
opaque objects. Lister's dark wells are little blackened cups
supported at the end of wires, and if one is placed by means of an
adapter in the sub-stage, it intercepts the central rays from the
mirror, and the transparent object having now a dark ground, may
be viewed by means of the Lieberkuhn.

The apparatus for viewing opaque objects, especially covered
ones under high powers, are not very satisfactory. 2. & J. Beck's
patent illuminator is one of the best, and consists in an adapter
which has to be screwed between the nose-piece and the object-
glass. It has a circular aperture, and a disc of very thin glass placed
under an angle of 45 degs. By its means the object-glass is made
its own illuminator, the light being reflected through the aperture
on the glass disc and from thence on the uncovered object, which
in its turn reflects the light back again through the object-glass in
the eye-piece.

Transparent objects may be viewed either by transimitted or by
reflected light; the latter is called dark ground illumination. The
simplest way of viewing transparent objects is by means of the
plane mirror, on which parallel rays are thrown by the bull’s-eye
condenser. For thick objects direct rays are necessary, but for
thin and lined objects oblique rays are essential ; they are easily
obtained by throwing the mirror out of the axis of the microscope.
When the mirror is so much out of the centre that the parallel
rays reflected from it pass so obliquely over the object that they do
not enter the object-glass, we gain dark ground wdlumination, the
object then appearing self-luminous and brilliantly lit up on a
black ground. As the mirror gives a double reflection, namely,
one from the outer surface, and one from the inner or silvered
side, and as these two sets of rays are not parallel, those having
passed through the glass being refracted, a rectangular prism is often
substituted for the mirror. Such a prism reflects the light totally,
and gives therefore more, and only parallel, rays; it is generally
fitted to the tail-piece of the microscope, but it may also be
mounted on a stand similar to that of the bull’s-eye condenser.
Two such prisms enable the microscopist, who has good object-
glasses but only a small and simple stand, to resolve the most

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 137

difficult lined tests, provided the stage be very thin to allow of very
oblique illumination. This arrangement is also cheaper than an
expensive condenser, but two lamps are required for it.
Modifications of the rectangular prism are the Nachet and the
Amici Prism (Fig. 14), which serve both to reflect and to condense
the light. I can highly recommend the Amici prism as an excel-
lent piece of apparatus for the resolution of lined objects, as it
gives rays of great obliquity if thrown out of the axis, or intense
direct light if placed in the axis, of the microscope. This prism,
although small, gives sufficient light for magnifications of thousands
of diameters, and is very easily used, but it is not achromatic.
The best appliances for obtaining various quantities and qualities
of light for the illumination of transparent objects are the achro-
matic condensers. Any achromatic object-glass of medium power
placed under the stage with its anterior lens nearest the object,
will act as a good condenser. Opticians supply special achromatic
combinations for this purpose, having close to the lower lens one
or two diaphragms with various apertures and stops to regulate
both the quantity and quality of light. The stops are generally
six in number, namely, three central dark ground spots of various
sizes for excluding the central rays, one lateral stop, one having
two slots forming a right angle, and one stop having two slots
forming an obtuse angle. In Ross’ condenser the pencil of light
may be reduced from 110° to 20° by the circular holes in the
upper diaphragm. It is considered the most useful condenser, and
suffices for the resolution of the most difficult tests. Powell and
Lealand’s condenser is similar, but has 170° angular aperture,
and consequently a shorter working distance, but it is the best for
the highest powers. Guillet’s condenser has the diaphragm in the
shape of a flat ring which stands nearly perpendicular, and
whose various apertures can be brought successively under the
field lens. If parallel markings are to be resolved, it is evident
that the unilateral stop has to be used, and that the condenser
has to be rotated until the light falls perpendicularly against the
markings or ribs; for cross markings the right or obtuse angle
stops have to be used, for obtaining dark ground illumination
under low powers or for great obliquity of light under high powers
the central dark ground spots have to be employed. Mr. Reade’s
hemispherical condenser consists of two plano-convex lenses with

the plane surfaces directed upwards, and yields very oblique and
i

138 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

even monochromatic light. The Kellner eye-piece C, if placed in
the sub-stage and provided with a number of stops fitting over the
eye-lens instead of the cap, makes a very good condenser and
yields abundant light up to 10,000 diameter magnification.

The Webster and Swift condensers are each of them a multum in
parvo, wniting in an efficient and not expensive way all the various
pieces of sub-stage illumination apparatus, and will be found quite
satisfactory in nearly all cases. I have obtained excellent results
with the paraboloid for light ground illumination under the highest
powers, as it gives plenty of oblique and white light. In fact I
have, by its aid, resolved certain markings which some first-class
achromatic condensers refused to bring out.

The diffusion condenser, invented by Mr. Wenham, gives
splendid effects on transparent objects viewed under the stereoscopic
binocular microscope. It consists of an achromatic combination of
170°, having a white cloud cap, 2.¢, a cap of two thin glass discs
between which some powdered glass is placed, which breaks up the
pencils of light in all directions; it yields a soft white light, and
by its means the two fields of the binocular are easily illuminated.
This is sometimes a difficulty under medium powers, which may
be overcome by placing a piece of roughened glass under the
object. The object should be well lit up, but not too much so, else
the binocular effect will be destroyed. Beginners generally think
that the best effects are obtained by flooding the field with light,
which is a very great mistake.

The next class of condensers are those for dark ground wlumin-
ation of transparent objects, the simplest is the spot-lens. This is
a large plano-convex or bi-convex lens, the upper and lower surfaces
of which with the exception of a narrow border are ground flat
and blackened, so that if the light from the mirror is thrown on
it, the marginal rays alone pass through it, and these being much
refracted pass over the object without entering the object-glass ;
the result is brilliant illumination of the objects on a black ground.
The spot-lens is suitable for object-glasses up to half-inch focus.
A more perfect instrument for the same purpose is the Paraboloid
(Fig. 15) of Mr. Wenham. A parabola is a curve produced by
the section of a cone and of a plane under certain conditions, and
it has the property of reflecting all rays, which fall on it parallel
to its axis, to one point in the same, called the focus. By rotating
the parabola round its axis, we get a paraboloid which has the

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identical property with the parabola. Mr. Wenham’s paraboloid
has its apex ground off down to }-inch below the focus, and a dark-
ground stop in the centre. If the light is reflected from the plane
mirror or rectangular prism on the paraboloid, an object placed in
its focus will appear brilliantly lit up on dark ground. The para-
boloid yields a blacker ground than the spot-lens, and the rays
passing out of it in a more horizontal direction, it can be employed
with the 1-5th object-glass.

Wenham’s Reflex Illuminator (Fig. 16) is another most ingenious
contrivance for obtaining oblique dark-ground illumination under
the highest powers, provided the objects to be examined by its aid
are suitable ones, attached to the slide and not to the cover, and
mounted dry, that is, not in balsam or any other medium. This
reflex illuminator is composed of a glass cylinder half-an-inch long
and 4-10ths inch diameter, the lower convex surface of which is
polished to a radius of 4-10ths inch. The top is flat. Starting
from the bottom edge the cylinder is worked off to a polished face
at an angle of 64°. Close beneath the cylinder is set a plain con-
vex lens of 1}-inch focus. Parallel rays thrown up through the
apparatus are reflected from the polished off plane of the cylinder
on to the glass-slide, at an angle of total reflection; but if a suit-
able object adheres to the surface of the slide, the light reaches it
on an angle that admits of its passage. In order to ensure the
continuous passage of the rays to the object, the top of the glass
cylinder and the lower surface of the slide must be united by a
film of water. The object appears then brilliantly lit up upon a
dark ground, and when the apparatus is rotated splendid effects
and an exquisite unfolding of structure is obtained.

Nothing remains now but to speak of microscopical illumination
with polarized light. I mentioned at the outset that light consists
of the undulations of the luminiferous ether, and that these undu-
lations take place in two planes at right angles to the ray. The
object of the polarization is to bring these two sets of undulations
into one plane, and this is effected by double reflection. An
apparatus which polarizes light is called a Polariscope, and the
phenomenon of polarization is one of the most gorgeous in
nature, and serves at the same time the practical purpose or
enabling the microscopist to form conclusions as to the nature of
the object under observation by polarized light. The dfcro-
polariscope consists of two prisms made of Iceland spar, or

140 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

carbonate of lime, which crystallizes in rhombs and gives a double
reflection. Mr. Nicol first succeeded in making single image
prisms of Iceland spar, which reflect only the ordinary or the
extraordinary ray at the time. A polariscope consists of two
such prisms, one of which is placed under the stage below the
object and is called the Polarizer, and the other is either placed
behind the object-glass or above the eye-piece and is called the
Analyzer ; both Polarizer and Analyzer are made to turn, If then
an object such as doubly refractive crystals are placed on the
stage, and either of the prisms is turned, they will exhibit the
polarization of light in gorgeous colours. If objects are only
simply refractive they require the interposition of a film of.
selenite, which according to its thickness will exhibit two com-
plementary colours such as red and green, blue and yellow, &c.
By combining several selenites a large variety of colours and tints
may be obtained during half a revolution. Selenite is the native
crystallized hydrated sulphate of lime. The best arrangement of
selenites is Darker’s, who places three selenite films of various
thicknesses in a box in which they can be rotated both singly and
in combination with each other. The variety of tints of a selenite
may be greatly increased by interpolating a rotating film of nuca,
and if one such mica film is combined with two selenites, the one
blue and yellow and the other red and green, the entire series of
tints which are produced by any number of selenites combined can
be obtained. ‘The polariscope may be combined with the spot-lens
or paraboloid for a dark-ground polariscope. If the analyzer consists
of a double image prism or an original rhomb of Iceland spar, and if
a brass plate with a small hole be placed on the stage, two magni-
fied images of the latter will be seen which exhibit complementary
colours, and if the hole be large enough the two images will partly
overlap each other, and that portion where they overlap will look
white, thus proving that the complementary colours produce white
light. The objects especially suited for the polariscope are
chemical crystals, hairs, fish scales, sections of horns and hoof, starch
grains, vegetable and muscular fibres, the palates or lingual bands
of molluscs, &c. Crystals are thus seen as they cannot be seen
otherwise, and the chemically distinct constituents of vegetable
and animal tissues become apparent in a way which no mere
magnifying power could resolve. By the addition of a polariscope
a great increase of power is thus gained.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 141

In conclusion I will only mention that the spectroscope has also
been combined with the microscope, and that such a combination
is termed a Micro-spectroscope.

7tH DrcEeMBER, 1875.

Mr. Alex. Noble in the chair.
Mr. John M‘Glashan, 114 Candleriggs, and Mr. George Sturrock,
were elected members of the Society.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—Specimens of various edible fungi
from Cadder Wilderness. Among them were fine specimens of
the “ Chantarelle” of the French (Cantharellus cibarius); two of
the Milky Fungi (Lactarius piperatus and L. insulsus); the Hedge-
hog Mushroom (Hydnum repandum); Clavaria flava, and C. ame-
thystina,—the latter rare in Scotland. He also exhibited three of
the British sponges from the Dornoch Frith, and a specimen of
Lycopodium squamatum. This plant grows in the arid deserts of
Central South America, and is possessed of remarkable hygro-
metric properties. In the dry season it curls up its leaves and
contracts its roots so as to form a ball, which lies on the surface of
the sand and is blown about from place to place. As soon how-
ever as it meets with wet ground, or on return of wet weather, it
sends its roots down into the sand and unfolds its leaves, thus
exchanging death for life.

PAPER READ.

By Mr. Thomas King.—On the “ Classification of the Mam-
malia.” Beginning with the highest order, Bimana, in which we
had man, he went over the lower orders, describing the distin-
guishing characteristics of each, making some important remarks
on the habits and distribution of the more important animals
included under each order. Next to the Bimana we have the
Quadrumana, which includes the monkeys of the Old and New
Worlds. Some of the monkeys of the Old World had no tail, and
none of them had a prehensile one; whereas all those of the New
World had a long tail, generally prehensile. In the former we had
the Orang-outang and Blue-faced Baboon, and in the latter such

142 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

animals as the Spider-monkeys and the Howlers. In the Jnsectivora
we had no very marked characters. It includes such animals as the
mole, shrew, and hedgehog. To this group belongs the smallest
of ali mammals, Sorex Htruscus, which is only two and a half
inches in length including the tail. Passing on we come to the
Chetroptera or bats. In this order the bones of the hands are
greatly elongated, and have a membrane stretched between the
separate fingers which is attached to the sides of the anima] and
to the feet. It is this large membrane which gives to the animals
their power of flight. In Britain there are several distinct species
of bats, all of them being very small compared with those of other
countries. The Rodentia, or gnawing animals, are characterized
by the possession of two long incisor teeth in each jaw separated
by a gap from the molars. These teeth are continually growing,
and if from any cause one be broken the corresponding one in the
other jaw elongates to a great extent. To this group belong such
animals as the rat, hare, and beaver. The Carnivora are divided
into three groups—the Digitigrada, or animals that walk on their
toes, such as the lion and cat; the Plantigrada, animals that walk
on the soles of their feet, as in the bears ; the Pinnigrada, in which
the legs form paddles, like what we find in the seals of our shores,
The Proboscidea are characterised by the absence of canine teeth; the
incisor teeth are enormously developed and are termed tusks, as
in the elephant and mammoth. The Ungulata include the Rumin-
antia, such as the oxen, sheep, and deer; the Pachydermata, or
thick-skinned animals; and the Solidungula, where the foot is
terminated by a single toe, as in the horse. The next group,
Cetacea, includes those animals which have a more or less fish-like
body, as in the whales and porpoises. The order Marsupiala
includes such animals as the kangaroo, and is characterised by the
possession of a pouch in which the young are reared. The animals
are chiefly inhabitants of Australia. In the last and lowest group,
Monotremata, the jaws are destitute of teeth, and present the char-
acters of the bills of birds. It includes the duck-billed animal and
the echidna. The paper was illustrated with numerous diagrams
and specimens.

21st Drecemper, 1875.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 143

Mr. Robert Walker, 6 Nelson Terrace, Hillhead, was elected a
member of the Society.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—A collection of lichens: Scyphophorus
alicornis, S. bellidiflora, S. deformis, S. fimbriatus, S. coccifera, S.
gracilis, Cenomyce pigridate. Also the fungus Polyporus gigan-
teus. The last from the Cameroons, Africa.

PAPER READ.

Mr. J. Galbraith, M.A., read a paper on “ Volcanism,” or, as
he said he would prefer to have it called, “‘ Vulcanology ”—the
science which treats of voleanoes and earthquakes, and the causes
which produce them. After reviewing the various theories of Sir
Humphry Davy, Mallet, Hopkins, and others, he went on to pro-
pound a theory which might, to some extent at least, harmonize
the whole ofthem. He afterwards gave an account of the various
manners in which changes of igneous origin are produced on the
earth’s crust, of the best known volcanic eruptions which had
occurred, and of the active volcanoes which are best known to
science.

lltH January, 1876.
Mr. Richard M‘Kay, Vice-President, in the chair.

PAPERS READ.

Mr. James Allan read a paper on the “ Migration of Birds.”
He began by noticing the wonder excited by the disappearance of
birds, and the legends connected therewith, and the omens drawn
from their flight by the ancients. Partial migration occurred in
the case of the lapwing, which leaves the bare moorlands in
winter and proceeds to the sheltered valleys. He laid before the
meeting the following series of tables, in which the arrivals and
departures of various birds were registered, extending over a series
of years. He found that the corncrake seemed to be the most
regular in its return, and the swallow the most irregular. But
taking the average of any one year, it cannot be said that in such
a season all birds appeared later or earlier. The chiff-chaff is

144

generally the first to arrive.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

He considered that the return of

birds was not connected so much with the state of weather of the
country to which they come, as with the meteorological conditions

of the country which

they leave. He

proposes to continue his

registry of bird migrations over a wider area and embracing a
longer period, and hopes to obtain more reliable results therefrom.

In the following tables the double figures indicate the day and
month, as 25/4, the twenty-fifth of April or 4th month.

Lanpraliu (Gallinula Crea),

1864/1865

Bradford-on-
Avon, .
Uttoxeter, .
Barnsleyee.ce sx
Mansfield, bes
Masham, York-
shire,

Oe cer ecenee

Fochabers, .......
Kent,
Middlesex, .

Somerset, ........
INIOHUSM aes seneaees
Derby,
Cumberland, .

) 10/5

6/5
12/5

eee eee tonnes

1866

1867/1868

27/4| 26/4) 28/4| 26/4

6/5 | 5/5 | 9/5 | 5/5

2/5 |3/5 | 1/5 | 6/5

10/5] 11/5] 11/5]...
oleae... 12a

180911870 1871)1872|1873|1874/1875

23/4
Bee i es 15/4
29/4| 30/4) 26/4 2/4 26/4| 2/5
Pata lies il sate . | 6/5
* és 15
2/5 27/4 r
|. [2/5 19/5 | 6/5 | 2/5
27/4| 3/5 | 1/5 | 5/5 | 2/5 | 3/5
14/5 2 “6
me . 11/5
PAYED le ae

... | 12/5) 5/5

Waite TuHroat (Curruca cinerea).

1865

Mansfield,
Masham, York,
Ipswich,
Barnsley, sas
Bromley, 14/4 in 1846] ...
Corwen, . ;

Fochabers,
Kent,

Oe sewer eee
Owe ee ree tweens

ee a

|
1866|1867

25/4] 25/4| 25/4) 25/4

Middlesex,
Somerset, ...........
Notts,
Derbyshire,
Westmoreland, ....
Cumberland,

Bee eee wer ee

Peewee ewe ree tweens

7a
.. |16/4 ... | 21/4
nga aud QUAL

1868|1869)

23/4) 16/4] ...

1870|1871)1872|1873)1874)1875

| ——_$f << — ]———_—_| ————. ]

24/4
25/4 25/4 25/4| 25/4] 25/4| 25/4

26/4| 10/5] 26/4) 29/4
3/5 | 4/5 | 5/5 | 4/5
29/4| 15/4| 24/4] 21/4
19/4 18/4 ‘ o

a ea 22/4

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS.

NIGHTINGALE (Philomela luscinia).

145

1864|1865}1866|1867|1868/1869|1870|1871)1872|1873)1874)1875
Ipswich,.. SE a lees ae Pree een See 19/4.
Bromiley, ......... iy! ae sea get es | acc Plates | gece to cehee I Goan Neccmen inact 20)
Barnsley, ......... w. |... | 29/4! 28/4) 30/4) 26/4) 1/5 | 27/4] 26/4| 29/4) 1/5 | 9/5
Bradford-on-Avon! ... | . Arca Ges leet atoeee lohaiaat iI cera Seana IPE Sta lear AO
Bagshot, .......... | a. |... | 20/4} 18/4] 13/4] 15/4| 15/4! 15/4] 17/4] 17/4] 19/4
Kent, . |... | 20/4] 18/4] 17/4] 23/41 14/4] ....| ... | 12/4] 15/4] 24/4) 21/4
Middlesex, . Bede 20/4 18/4| 21/4) ... saab tevaiafmadeleties
BuackeaP (Curruea atricapilla).
1865|1866|1867/1868|1869|1870)1871)1872 1873|1874)1875
Miamsfield,. ....2:0.0.00 sie sis 6/5
Masham,"......... .. AS Se Al eee etl aden 2/5
IBEUSIEY © las ccen<ccecns oe nh Fen NWVAr lace! Pgenenahiece
Corwen, N. Wales,..| ... | ... | ... we | ae [7/5 | 7/5 | 8/5 | 4/5
Kent, . |... [19/4]... (27/4) 10/4)... | 0. | 5/4 | 11/4) 16/4! 8/5
Middlesex, .. Becks actids ... | 8/4 | 23/4) . resi rsc spill, wees locate ean geass
Somerset, ... ch Nh 17/4 13/4} 6/4 cn eee
TARE i wc cvecameds : A RN ae .. | 27/4
ICED YAU EC, ec msicarean) ne os 1/5 Hae etd
Westmoreland,,........| .. oes 24/4) ..
Rep Backep Sarixe (Lanius collurio).
1862 | 1863 | 1866 | 1867 | 1868 | 1869 | 1870 | 1872
See 65 | Lee ae) Wee ce Vs PES
IMAG GICSEX, .cccccecos| soe 1/6 10/5 | 2/5 a bee athe a
BOmerset, ........... ae =e an 27/5 | 16/5
Repstart (Phoenicura rutrcilla).
1864|1865|1866/1867|1868]1869|1870|1871)1872|1873|1874)1875
~ e 20/4| 14/4) 29/4) 26/4| 20/4 15/4) 15/4) 17/4
Middlesex, .... Aes eae NBL OIA eealer rs Nee cell sas all (kat fe kas IP Guia
Somerset, ......... 14/4) 13/4) 14/4) ... | ...
Derbyshire, ...... ces | BORA Neral 5): re ae
G1 rn QO IAL soscil one
Westmoreland, . | 21/4) ...
2 Oi ee ... | 19/4

146

Aldershot, .......
Bradford-on-
Avon,

Penshurst, Kent,| ...
Morebattle, Devon] ...

Stowmarket, .....
AG oe ae Pen
Hovingham, York,| ...
Great Messenden| ...
Breesber,.. ..cc..<.-
Llanderfell, Wls.
Kirn, Clyde,
Tynehead,
Lothians, ......
Balgonie, Fife, ..
Mansfield, Notts,
Uttoxeter, ........
Masham, York,.| ...
Toswachys arr a.ce. lise
Barnsley, .........
Burnley, Kent...
Bagshot, ..........
. Strathblane,......
Corwen, Wales,
Fochabers,..... ..
Roscommon,

BO ree eer tcone

Middlesex, ....
Somerset,
Dethys te cece:
Westmoreland...
Cumberland, .
Worcester, .

_ | 22/4] 14/4
PI hae Ik

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus).

21/4
24/4)...
26/4

9/4
26/4

27/4| 25/4
4) 26/4| 26/4

14/4) 14/4| 14/4) 14/4
Tal eas Ree
g/4 | 12/4| ... | 18/4

——e 8

29/4| 29
1/5

17/4
Q7/4) ...

29/4
1/5

4) 29/4] 29/4
15 |1
20/4|

SEE!
rs

€

NBNWEeN. .
> .

21/4| 16/4) 15

WHINCHAT (Saxicola rubetra).

|
1863

Middlesex,
IKenbaetec vucvetce
Somerset, ..
INObtS hate vena
Derbyshire,
Wales, .
Westmoreland,..
Cumberland, .

|

2/4) 16/4

22/4

26/4)

aja Se

1864|1865|1866)1867|1868|1869|1870|1871/1872|1873|1874| 1875

18/4
ba. 17/4
‘a 15/4
24/4) 21/4| 21/4 iad
un 31/3
26/4| 26/4| 26/4) 19/4
.. |26/4| 19/4
pee le Dep
24/4| 23/4] 25/4| 19/4
= 11/4
ae 17/4
ek 14/4
Es 30/4
a 14/4
i 2/5
5 27/4
14/4] 14/4] 14/4) 19/4
44) 23/4 19/4
a 28/4
26/4| 28/4] 25/4| 23/4
29/4) 29/4| 29/4| 29/4
1 |1/5 |1/5 | 26/4
4) 25/4) 26/4).
". (27/4
5/5 |2/5 |...
ee 21/4

1864|1866|1867|1868|1869|1870 187 1|1872'1873|1874|1875

27/4 ie
a. 20/4) .

23/4
+ 2/4 n/a

| 29/4
25/4) ...
| 25/4]

23/4| ... | 21/4
Soh.
DjAlicaeh as
3/5 | 23/4) ...
3/5 | 4/5

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS.

147

WiLLtow WReEN (Sylvia trochilus).

1866|1867|1868|1869| 1870 1871|1872)1873|1874|1875
Bromley, Kent, .............. Ee DEE AG Meets opts ares A512 as
Mansfield, Notts,............ PAM aah face heat [age MAREN aA tare all com stuf LO]
Ci Soe een vee | vee | cee Vane [eee | 28/4] 4/5 | 26/4) 2/5
Fochabers, ...........00.0-.-. ... |... | 25/4) 25/4| 25/4| 25/4] 25/4) 25/4] 25/4.
LUISE Rear Ane nae Bed ute al lee ee Nii beae We .. | 19/4
OS ee eee eee ee 12/4) 9/4 | 16/4) 11/4) ... 5/4 1/4 a 21/4
BMAGHOROX, 05nd eccene accsie- BAG) OM NERY be lea ap ae Proc lie
POMICESCD, Vas se.es...ceeeceoces a 11/4) 12/4 12/4 3
Derby, ae Nae 3/4 Me:
ero) ss< Swedes col vas eee ted Beat ie cal ee LC
Cumberland, .... 5.000. ss00- ; 23/4) 11/4) ...

Curr Cuarr (Sylvia rufa).

1869|1870}1871)1872)1873 18741875

1864/1865)1866|1867/1868
PMeMOU VIMO | ccc. Bes | aa, | voor Loe ... | 20/3
Barnsley, ........ 2/4 | 2/4 | 2/4 | 2/4 2/4 2/4 a4 2/4 zt 2/4. | 15/4
Worcestershire, meal |Meat »| a. [31/3
Mansfield, Notts,| ... nae Hasse diode He
CS 9/4 | ... | 31/3) 30/3) 10/4} ... 27/3] 1 5/3
Hovingham, ..... 30/3) 30/3] 30/3] 30/3 30/8 ee le 30/3 30/3 30/3 fd
Mocham,:..:...... Boulter y| | eacalieres Icey 19/4
Corwen... ae 9/4 13/4 16/4 te
Somerset, . hs 7/4 2/4 23/3 ine
Bromley, 27/3/62 si sae Mg bs
an | 7/4 25/3| 8/4 | ... | 11/4] ... |23/3 188 21/8 25/8 20/3
Middlesex, antes ey eel dye Ala see Wo aoe ;
BEANUS,(. soccee sense |S/4 |... Lys ia ase foe
BERD) once. snscs “a 9/4 Roatan
TRG, is cis ac as as aaa ... | 6/4
Cumberland,..... ae 11/4) ...
SEDGE WARBLER (Salicaria phragmitis).

1865] 1866|1867|1868/1869|1870) 1871|1872|1873|1874,1875
BARNSLEY... .ci.c ss ens 24/4) 24/4) 24/4) 24/4) 24/4) 24/4) 24/4) 24/4| 24/4 22/4
WEMSteld,. c..c.sevecres See leet Ret | os CEN ct av I Pactra eect lees roel DH
MESA, Salssasce cases arene bial licts cree RP nal ete |
a ae 26/4| 17/4] ... | ... | 19/4 10/5] 10/5] ... |...
Middlesex, ............. BE Ne sR Ud A cere biicioe an nee ses
PIS oles oc vce cigdsoce ever | 23/4 vs
ERCIDES) Vales sos<seueie «3 AS Bee ulie as 19/4
eLNVSHICe, ......-.6008 oxen fe sangeet
Westmoreland, ....... co. lhe caisihl, eee, OPE ass
Wumiberland, .....0<.00| ««< 8/5 | 4/5

148

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Wryneck (Yuna torquilla).

1866/1867 1868 1869/1870) 1871)1872|1873)1874|1875
BLOTS isc neds doneninoneaae Se ene sas | oh 14/4
AD SWACH Shieh sine sobs tome racie ee leer bate. eink an 2/4
IBPOMUOY py) can-cenlecs don oascyens seine iimee Bee Later. tHE lien, oa | Se
BA GSH Obs scone ceased astie tiers Ses Vili Maen ese Ms, is 2/4 | 2/4 | 15/4} 10/4
pan oct aa nde nica) auras ees 5/4 | 31/3) 5/4 | 10/4 10/4) 4/4 | 10/4) 14/4
Mid GTeS@x, 4 csascantess nace os een FPA OPA | sacl laws, | veel fprses: deere ee mae
NOMERSCUS.s Soon scsi » | vee | oe | 22/4) 16/4) 12/4) ...

WHEATEAR (Saxicola oenanthe).

1864/1865/1866|1867|1868|1869 18701871 1872 1873/1874|1875
Middlesex, ....... Ae eer Werte ero gl te te ae isl:
Kent, ..............| ... | 18/4! 12/4! 23/3] 23/4 a Me We |...
Somerset, ......... shal eee sl heen ies 11/4 ae ey AN a
Derbys tence ae ee bd 24/3 Sbalieere
INObGS, 3.5 snes Eg we | 1/5
Whales soacnese ae 21/3 Bista|| sec
Westmoreland... ba 28/4] ...
Swirt (Hirundo apus).
1866)1867/1868|1869 1870 1871}1872)1873|1874/1875
Bradford-on-Avon, ......... i Lad Re .. | 3/5
Masham, York ~.....)./.222. re Be se AOD
Mansfield, Notts,...........- ae ua cae ... | 6/5
SWC s.-exeantuneneneddache ot Sete dca nade nal visio Phe cecil lacus’, Wwe Lege aaa Bae
Barna ley sve ce vse. eeataa ee 8/5 | 8/5 | 8/5 | 8/5 | 8/5 | 8/5 | 8/5 | 8/5 | 8/5 | 8/5
Bromiley ts oncs cl eee MERE sec blow Dale Sy Sell? soe | licen eee a eo
Worwien, cite atcdotvetenaese a vee tee ycome | set b/ ENF fone oO tes ios
BGreg. cis Wie aes oe .. | 8/5 | 9/5 |'7/5 | 14/5] 8/5 | 17/5) 7/5
Hochaberts):. i1-ss.0.0asaeeen see ee aie hve 28/4) 28/4) 28/4| 28/4
Risntisns Bawls tanec 28/4| ... BIB |... 4/5 | ... | 23/5] ...
Middlesex, ... se ATO Opa ses Wrens wat snellvee
Elaine, 6,ctek hastiede Boner ae ; . [4/5 ne ia Wee eee
Cumberland oi: iin essen asene ; “7 a 14/5) 16/5) ...
MO GES): Sotvane Mees catiase datseenaee : I, aks | sss | oreo leech ee
Somerset, Wrasse asec | 9/5 | 10/5) . allies

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS.

Swattow (Htrundo rusticus).

149

1864|1865) 1866 |1867|1868)1869)1870)1871)1872 1873/1874) 1875
PPAUNGON, cccnnocise.| 00 maiel et 6/4
South Devon, ...| ... aoa teene 4/4.
Penshurst, ....... td zi leialbelas 20/4
Morebattle, ...... devil gon 9/4
Mansfield, ... ... tay lige 17/4
Bradford-on-Avon| ... dae \| eeeute need LOA:
pSwieh,.%.....- + mbar Neat cyl saasos lyn ih wat lbe Seo eS
Bagshob,.. ....0..+ vee | cee | eee | 19/4) 9/4 | 6/4 | 8/4 | 2/4 | 18/4) 21/4) 17/4
Hovingham,...... 14/4] 14/4 | 14/4] 14/4! 14/4] 14/4] 14/4) 14/4] 14/4) 14/4] 19/4
2 on a ee 9/4 | 23/4 25/4) 12/4) 21/4) 16/4) 18/4) ... |... |...
EDAM, .<.c.acecs| aes ie Gan ceo Misco dh osees lh aasealfh sein faeces da
Dalmarnock, ...| ... Saer eeeseial aaa
DRAG Nes saceeeeres|) vse 11/4
GIES TOW «1000065501 oss foe ls cate Se LTO
Corwen, .......... 2 2/5 | 22/4| 27/4) 23/4
Calder Vale, .....| ... deevjerose ulate Nae
Dpemeverkenire,| co. | ..2 | wn. [ieee | ane | eee | one very |) can [ana Oy
Kent, .cecccceseee-| - 18/4) {72/4 | 13/4] 10/4) 10/4) . 29/3] 15/4) 18/4] 12/4
Middlesex, .......| 7/4 13/4) 6/4 on
SSUBNOW, ces scc-o0 ae ee eae 18/4
ENGUES ecson ven se sess oe. opel pee 6/4
WEED Ysncrccenceees|) sas DS/A fone al use Meee
Westmoreland,.. wide. jf atee PATA, &
Cumberland,.....| ... Beal eee eer 6/5 | 21/4! ...
Somerset, .........| .- 8/4 |11/4) 9/4 oer Dead ata
House Marten (Hirundo urbiea).
1866|1867|1868)1869| 1870187 1)1872|1873]1874/1875
Bradford-on-Avon,......... a ec 18/4
LSC ee Berit LSet lines eters hdc weal, Weebrl aaa th sees DID
PUPEISIOG |. ceecesc sede denen 14/5) 14/5) 14/5) 14/5) 14/5) 14/5) 14/5) 14/5} 14/5) 18/5
RARER g vnroca decneoideasinvash sect eanl Seee tll dercics MWeceie wilh 5,1 (VLSI wath | sskied if eae
Masham, York, ......5...+: ; cusblbiueenl eed Glo
Corwen, N. Wales, ........ w. |. | 18/5) 7/5 | 21/4) 4/5
ALS eee eee eet a on - (2/9 |G | 23/4 7/5 |... |...
SDS, Cee 27/4) .. | 26/4) 28/4) ... | ... |3/5 | 5/5 21/4
PEIIGLESOX, 6 .i0ce0ceesscceenas 7) gee he ee site Se
Hants, a. | 20/41 ... Sosiliesiea lace
UES Se ee 4/5 |... gal aaelee
_ SES eee re sea aad Pe sedi LAE
ee sons tininslcaincca ell. nn Ca ee (yaaa ape |! bi
Westmoreland, ............. Ry ee
Cumberland, ............ xe age all caecalh seer 8/5 | ...
PRI CESO Pras hdancinceicnwcinasincnall <2 30/4) 25/4) 4/5 seam [eee

150 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Sanp Marten (Hirundo riparia).

1866/1867|1868|1869)1870 1871)1872)1873)1874/1875
Bradford-on-Avon,......... See. |, eae PMocas hele s|[t- em: lb aes ol pee eet meta emeteee ae
Mamstlel di)... sccpiontwheetcaae Seep ile omc |ceste twee oT Cater ll Yar “ihe cee nee ami eee
Barnsley, sv sss cheaanonnceee 9/4 | 9/4 | 9/4 | 9/4 | 9/4 | 9/4 | 9/4 | 9/4 | 9/4 | 17/4
WOrWODy i.,.cctinsactsasticacavea wee | oven [aan | vee | eee] cee [DBA IA QUAN Sig
WGEres 4th crac meem acute 28/4| 22/4) 17/4| 18/4) 15/4; 22/4) 19/4) 20/4) ... | ...
Bochaborsc she vee | ace | eae | ose | L5/Al 15/4] 15/4] 15/4] 15/4) 15/4
Mad IleSexX5 wiecwsse <ncvs seuis' ce | LOMA eat Wate Siew MAieeneilh catia Ree Pe
Keak eyo inte taelonte 13/4] ... | 10/4] 19/4] ... |... [17/4] ... | 23/4)...
SOMPCHSCE os ccc recieeviae cans Sew "] ceva | cen «| WAIA) 24/4) G/4 | eal emeaial ere lien.
INOGES)). oi scccceusnvesecicewnatinss ve RN as lcs Sf owed ote 0] Meares ee nme OEE
IBUCK Sie ainne soeeievenesmocees 18/4

Prep FrycatcHEr (Muscicapa atricapilla).

1866/1867|1868 186911870 1871)1872)1873)1874)1875
lami sti elts s.r peal cthon crate vlan. [rem ell’ seeni| Cane Wve ge cece ||) cea ean ema ek
US Siwaicli, coy alu Mae ives on eee mises Meteagurt | ice ie [tatatwoaall io cigteenl fsa oes ll pete ee [eer
AIMBSLON Sj sea secace ute secu toate 4/5) 14/5| 14/5) 14/5) 14/5) 14/5) 14/5) 14/5) 14/5) 9/5
Bromiley, jsi.u(cejue Miges'sdcaisioal! Gaus Iteaves, |! eante[ tess 1] Mees 4) aren | coe fee ea
Or wens vane svewnl hoee tee neon dae Vee) | wets [omen [owee [ices [S/F MER Tg eae a aes

ARRIVAL OF BIRDS.

TABLE OF AVERAGES.

1864/1865|1866|1867)1868|1869] 1870 1871) 1872)1873)1874|1875
Swallow, ........ 9/4 | 18/4] 14/4| 14/4| 19/4! 19/4! 14/4) 13/4! 16/4] 16/4] 21/4) 16/4
SWiELbs sap reanseeke ... |... | 8/5 | 8/5 | 8/5 | 8/5 | 8/5 | 7/5 | 29/4/5/5 | 5/5 | 6/5
House Marten,.| ... | ... | 14/5| 14/5) 14/5) 14/5] 10/5| 10/5. 4/5 | 9/5 | 4/5 | 26/4
Sand Marten,...| ... | .. | 14/4] 16/4] 13/4! 14/4) 13/4! 15/4! 14/4] 14/4] 15/4| 17/4
Cuckoo, ......-... 23/4| 24/4| 20/4) 23/4| 25/4| 21/4, 21/4) 24/4) 24/4] 24/4| 25/4] 20/4
Landrail, ......... 4/5 | ... [2/5 |1/5 | 3/5 | 2/5 | 29/4) 2/5 | 29/41 4/5 | 1/5 | 29/4
Nightingale, .:..| ... |... |29/4| 19/4] 24/4] 19/4] 23/4| 21/4) 20/4| 23/4! 24/4] 20/4
Chiff Chaff,...... 9/4 | 31/3) 31/3) 31/3] 4/4 | 31/3) 30/3) 25/3) 3/4 | 4/4 | 5/4 | 7/4
Hedge Warbler,| ... | ... | 24/4) 24/4| 24/4| 24/4] 24/4) 24/4| 24/4) 24/4] 24/4] 29/4
Willow Wren,..| ... |... |... | ... | ... | 25/4) 25/4] 25/4! 20/4] 30/4| 25/4] 27/4
White Throat, .| ... | ... | 25/4) 25/4) 25/4) 25/4) 25/4) 25/4| 28/4) 3/5 | 29/4) 29/4
Black Cap, ...... Ayal cone CPR vee Wacaw A cele miyn S| Steam 222] ARI Oy Oo est ean etre
Fly Catcher,....} ... | .. | 14/5) 14/5] 14/5) 14/5) 14/5) 14/5) 22/4) 9/5 | 8/5 | 13/5
Wryneck........ cate woe Cl abr: UP Mteta ages |) Gera dle~ esi» comes allay 42 22s Aa ah ee

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 151

TABLE OF AVERAGES,

Showing how many days earlier or later than their average date the arrival of each
bird is in each year. The letter ‘‘e” indicates that the bird arrived earlier, and
the letter ‘‘/” that it arrived later.

Average

Lae 1864/1865|1866|1867 |1868|1869|1870|1871)1872)1873)1874)1875
Swallow, ........ 15/4 Gel3lile|le|4l|38el/lej2ej12/12)\62)\11
RWG, cacccee enc 7/5 set cee A ALE IE ALG a OS OA 2a |b 2
House Marten, 9/5 see | ee SIE Eh ss AE AR TA Nyaa Coy i 3) Gil) GIB
Sand Marten,.. 14/4 a abo | OWA Ee |) ONE ONL ae say Obie (ehl/
Cuckoo,.......... 23/4 On NT Calon ilenen arena Walk sleds cal Qndaleave
Landrail, ....... 1/5 SRT ea MOM eneal lta one |My bene once |) Ommeone
Nightingale, ...) 22/4 cco) Aceall Ce e461) ie NTA eee EE hal Basco
Chiff Chaff,....) 2/4 TE|Zel|2e|A%elAeciZeise\8ejil1l) 27132 \ 5d
Sedge Warbler,| 24/4 re! OVO |) O | Ol OO NWO WO no sae
Willow Wren,. 25/4 on ooo Af feo LP Sooc]| ccc || | a OA GEN A
White Throat, 27/4 wee! |n res | ANCE atennenen lezen Qe kane. WG Gell Que ane
Black Cap,.....| 1/5 een peaceu latent ineee aoe acee Die 60 2 none
Fly Catcher,...} 12/5 oe | (20/20 )20/22)/ 20120 | Wel 5de\4e/170
Wryneck,....... 7/4 sca. |f cco lf cos") eae He 6e|5e|81l/270

Mr. John Harvie next read a paper on “The Alternation of
Generations.” He confined his remarks to his own observations
on the Celenterata, particularly to the common Medusa or Jelly-
fish, Aurea aurita. After describing the Medusa he traced the
development of the little active ciliated organisms produced by it,
which after a time affix themselves by the proximal end to some
object. This plant-like rooted Zoophyte becomes indented at the
free end, and four tentacles are developed. These tentacles split
up, and at length a large number are produced. The body
becomes ringed, and gradually these rings break off one by one in
cup-shaped forms, and rapidly enlarging develop into Meduse
similar to the parent organism. This phenomenon had been termed
by Steenstrup the alternation of generations, but there were good
reasons for rejecting the phrase as not being one which accurately
described what took place. Most observers were now of the
opinion that the Medusa was not entitled to be called an animal, but
was simply an organ of one, and they called it a generative bud or
gonophore. The whole question turned on the meaning of the
word individual. If an individual be defined to be an animal
form that has an independent existence, has the power of assimi-
lating food and of reproducing itself, then alternation of genera-
tions seemed to be quite an admissible term ; but if an individual
be defined, as it had been, as the sum of the contents of a single

152 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ovum, it would at once be seen that the Medusa could not be con-
sidered a perfect animal, However, if this definition were accepted,
we were compelled to consider that animals which had originated
by budding were not separate individuals even although in every
particular they were the same as the animals they had sprung
from. In the course of his paper Mr. Harvie referred to the bene-
ficial effects of syringing the water of an aquarium, and suggested
that storms might have a similar effect on the ocean by oxygenat-
ing its waters. The paper was illustrated by carefully executed
drawings.

At its close an interesting discussion on the various definitions
of the term “individual ” took place.

25TH January, 1876.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.
Messrs. John M‘Intyre, 52 Weaver Street, and T. B. Birchall,
46 Shamrock Street, were elected members of the Society.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—Specimens of the Cape Pigeon, the
Stormy Petrel, and the Sooty Albatross, from the neighbourhood
of Cape Horn. Also the skin of a Pelican from the Australian

bush.
PAPER READ.

Mr. David Gregorson read a paper entitled “ Marks of Biologi-
cal Progress,” in which he gave the outlines of what he supposed
might have been the sequence of organic development, and
instanced various supposed analogies between different branches of
the animal and vegetable kingdoms. A lengthened discussion
followed the reading of Mr. Gregorson’s paper.

8TH Frsruary, 1876.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President. in the chair.
Mr. Robert Kidston, 97 Kent Road, was elected a member of
the Society.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 153

EXCURSION.

Mr. Allan gave a short account of an excursion to Bowling, in
which all the mosses of the district were found. He mentioned
the occurrence of one of the Alpine mosses (Andrecea crassinerva) on
the hills there. This moss had never been found so low down
before.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—Specimens of some of the underground
fungi: Octaviania Stephens and Rhizopogon rubescens from Helens-
burgh, and Hydnangiwm carneum from the Botanic Gardens—the
last named being new to Britain. Also specimens of Clavaria
acuta from Helensburgh ; Polyporus brumalis, Tremella lutescens,
and 7’. frondosa from Cadder Wilderness, all rather rare fungi.

By Mr. Allan.—A collection of uncommon mosses collected in
the neighbourhood of Glasgow, among which were Glyphomitrium
Daviesii, Andreea Roth, A. alpina, Grimmia unicolor, &. torta,
and Campylopus torfaceus.

PAPER READ.

Mr. Alexander Macindoe read a paper on “Fungi.” After a
short introduction, he mentioned some of the properties of fungi,
entering pretty fully into their useful and destructive characters.
Besides the great number of those used as food we have some used
for making ornaments—e.g., the Green Oak of commerce, used for
making Tunbridge ware. A species of Coprinus produces a good
ink. The Fly Agaric, which possesses narcotic properties, is used
in some countries for the purpose of intoxicating. Passing on to
the destructive properties, we have the dry rot produced by the
spawn of the fungus Merulius lacrymans. Next, we have the
moulds of our food and clothes—the fungi which are supposed to
be the cause of various infectious diseases, as cholera and thrush ;
the ergot of rye, caused by the fungus Claviceps purpurea, which
produces such distressing symptoms on the person who by chance
has taken it. And lastly, and perhaps most important of all, we
have the potato disease produced by the fungus Peronospora
infestans. The spores of this fungus at a certain season pass into
the stomata of the leaves ; it then sends its spawn down the stem

into the tubers, producing that disease which has nearly ruined
x

154 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

our potito crop. Fungi have been found in very peculiar situa-
tions, such as in the eggs of birds, the seeds of plants, and the
brains of animals. He then gave a short description of the more
important and conspicuous groups—Agaricini, Polyporit, Hydnet,
Auricularini, Clavarici, and T'remellini. The paper was illustrated
throughout with numerous diagrams and specimens. Among the
specimens was a very large plant of Polyporus betulina. It may
be mentioned here that Dr. Cooke, a great authority on the sub-
ject, says that fungi do not grow in winter. This cannot be the
case, aS most of the specimens exhibited were gathered in Feb-
ruary, and were growing in profusion in Cadder Wilderness.

22np FrBruary, 1876.
Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.
SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—Some splendid specimens of corals,
sponges, and Sertularide from New Zealand.

PAPER READ.
On Dipterous Gall-makers and their Galls. By Mr. F. G. BInniz.

Plants and animals, in addition to the ordinary and normal
features of their growth, exhibit, not unfrequently, diseased
enlargements and out-growths. These irregular and superinduced
formations, according to the particular characters which they
assume, are known as warts, excrescences, tumours, galls, and so
on. That change of structure which is brought about by the
puncture or irritation of some animal, usually an insect, is specifi-
cally known as a “gall.” )

I need scarcely remark that animals as well as plants are sub-
ject to galls; I will only instance the tumours produced beneath
the skin of our domestic ox by the bots or larve of Wstrus Bovis,
De Geer. These abnormal swellings have, however, in animals a
very uniform character, and are generally included under the term
“tumour;” the designation “gall” being more particularly and
usually applied to the diseased structures produced on plants. In
such restricted sense I use it in this paper.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 155

Taking a general survey of the animal kingdom, we find gall-
makers are confined to the sub-kingdom Arthropoda, and, with the
exception of certain mites (Acaride), belonging to the class Arach-
nida (spiders), to the Insecta. Most of the orders of insects pos-
sess gall-makers, but it is in the Hymenoptera and Diptera that
we get the gall-makers par excellence. In the rest, gall-making
exists only as an accidental feature found solitarily here and
there throughout the orders; the Homoptera (which includes the
Plant-lice) showing perhaps, like the Acaridw, a tendency to
aggregation. ,

Each of the two orders just cited possesses a group or family in
which gall-making forms a prominent and characteristic feature,
and is the mode of life of the majority of its component species.
These two families are the Cynipide among the Hymenoptera,
and the Cecidomyidz among the Diptera. For an account of the
former I cannot do better than refer you to the paper on the
Scottish species by Mr. P. Cameron, junr., published in the second
part of our “Transactions” (Session 1873-74). The Cecidomyide
I propose to consider in this paper.

It may be well to preface my observations with a few very brief
remarks on the position of our group.

The Diptera are known at once from all other insects by having
two wings instead of four, the posterior pair being represented by
peculiar clubbed appendages termed haltéres or balancers.

The larvee of Diptera may be broadly arranged into two groups
by the mode of pupating. In the one the larva changes to a pupa
mside the larval skin, which hardens and becomes a compact and
more or less sculptured case, protecting the pupa which lies free
inside; this case receives the name puparium. In the other group
the larval skin is cast off, and does not become a pupariwm, the
pupa being completely swathed in a thin horny envelope, as we
see in the pupa of most insects, for example that of any moth.
Upon the manner in which the perfect insect emerges from the
pupa are founded the two sub-orders into which the Diptera are
divided.

The Orthorhapha split the encasing membrane in the form of a
longitudinal or T-shaped dorsal fissure. The Cyclorhapha emerge
by pushing out the end of the puparvwm as a round lid-like valve.

The larvze of the sub-order Cyclorhapha do not possess a differen-
tiated head, and the mouth organs are represented by a pair of

156 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

hooked mandibles. The maggot of the common Blue-bottle or
Blow-flies (Musca erythrocephala and vomitoria) may be taken as
good examples of this type. In the Orthorhapha, on the contrary,
we have a larva with a more or less well differentiated head, often
bearing antenne ; a good example is that pest of pasture-land—
the “grub” of the farmer, the larva of the Crane-fly, for an
account of whose ravages I will refer you to Kirby and Spence’s
“ Introduction,” a book which ought to be in the hands of every one
who desires to know something about our common insects.

In the perfect or imago state the two sub-orders possess good
characters, but these are of too technical a nature to interest any
but the specialist.

The Orthorhapha are subdivided into two groups, the Nematocera
and the Brachycera. The first is distinguished from all other
Diptera by having antenne with at least six joints—generally
many jointed. Other Diptera possess only three-jointed antenne,
in some the terminal joint is subsegmented so as to give apparently
six or more joints. The Mematocera includes, besides the Cecido-
myide or gall-midges, the gnats, crane-flies, and many others.

The more salient characters upon which the family Cecidomyidz
is founded are: wings without alulw, with one transverse and three
to five longitudinal nervures; margin of wing fringed, and the
surface hairy. Alula is that false winglet which is found at the
base of the wing of the common house-fly and others.

To Meigen is due the credit of bringing order into the chaos of
scattered observations on gall-midges. In the first volume of his
“‘ Diptera of Europe,” published in 1818, he formulated the charac-
ters of the group, which he divided into three genera—Cecidomyita,
Lasioptera, and Campylomyza. Several genera have been added
since, and Meigen’s Cecidomyia, the principal genus, is now split up
into a number of genera.

The gall-making larva of a Cecidomy:a has a very characteristic
and constant shape, sharply tapering to the head and truncately
rounded behind. It is divided into fourteen segments; the head
is small, bearing a pair of antenne; eyes on the third segment;
and has nine pairs of spiracles, one on prothoracic segment or
that next to the head,.and a pair on each of the first eight abdo-
minal segments.

Not all the larve of the Cecidomyide are gall-makers. Some
live free under the bark of trees, among rotten wood, or as inqui-

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 17

lines in galls formed by other animals. But all, so far as is known,
feed on vegetable matter, and there are no examples of species
which feed upon the substance of other insects, as we find in the
Hymenopterous Cynipide, species of which are parasitic upon
the true gall-makers of their own group and in some instances
upon other insects. Certainly we find Cecidomyious larve inhabit-
ing galls not formed by them, but by mites, as, for example, the
larve of C. peregrina, Winn., found in the woolly mite-galls on
Thymus serpyllum; these have been observed to lick eagerly tle
secretions or excretions of their hosts, but no evidence has been
found—the dried skins of mites, for instance—to show that they
ever devoured their hosts.

I cannot leave this part of my subject without referring to a
remarkable discovery made in the summer of 1861 by Professor
Wagner of Kasan, that of the asexual reproduction of the larvee
of a Cecidomyid which lived gregariously beneath the bark of a
tree. Inside certain of these larve germ-cells were formed, from
which larve were developed—a number in each parent larva.
These lived upon the tissues of their host and in due time emerged
from what had at last become an empty skin, giving birth in
their turn to other larve ; until the cycle was completed by the
larvee becoming pupz and producing the perfect insect, which laid
properly fertilized eggs, the larve from which would in their turn
reproduce in this asexual way for a period. Pagenstecher, Meinert,
Ganine, and Von Baer have confirmed it. For details I would
refer you to the abstracts which appeared (with illustrations) in the
“ Annales des Sciences Naturelles” for 1865. Grimm has recorded
similar facts in the pupa of a gnat, Chironomus sp. We have here
an example of what has been termed by Steenstrup “ Alternation
of Generations ”—a form sexually producing an unlike form, which
reproduces: itself asexually, ultimately completing the cycle by
assuming the first form. This reproduction in the preparatory
stages of development has received from Von Baer the designation
of “* Peedogenesis.”

It may be interesting to mention here that the once dreaded
Hessian-fly is a Cecidomyid, very aptly named by the American
entomologist Say, C. destructor. For an account of its habits I
must again refer you to the pages of Kirby and Spence.

The larva of the Cecidomyide assumes the pupa state sometimes
within the gall, but often leaving it and entering the ground ; and

158 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

with or without spinning a cocoon. The pupe of those species
which pass that state inside hard galls, for example C. Salicis, are
provided with a tooth-like process at the root of each antenna by
means of which they force their way out, when about to assume
the perfect state.

Having treated of the Insect—the gall-maker—I now turn to
its production the Gall. This I described as that change of struc-
ture brought about by the puncture or irritation of the gall-maker.

The Cynipide and Cecidomyide seem broadly and markedly
contrasted in the making of the gall. In the Cynipide the gall is
formed—often fully developed—hbefore the egg is hatched. In
the Cecidomyidee it is very different. The eggs are deposited deep
down in the interstice between leaf-stalk and stem, or other
sheltered nook ; here it is hatched and sometimes has to travel to
the seat of its operations, but no gall is formed by the parent-fly ;
it is due to the irritation of the larva itself, which thus builds its
own dwelling.

The irritation of the larva takes effect in one or both of two
ways. It excites abnormal activity in the formative powers of
the plant at the place affected, resulting in a thickening or
enlargement of the parenchyma, an increased fleshiness ; or in the
excessive development of such epidermal appendages as hairs ; or
in regular outgrowths. Secondly, it causes an arrestment of growth
in certain directions.

We may classify galls according to the part of the plant upon
which they are found; upon the root, stem, bud, or leaf. Bud
galls we may divide into terminal, axillary, and flower-bud galls.
Leaf galls we may divide into leaf-rollers, leaf-folders, and leaf
galls proper.

I have paid some attention to the dipterous gall-makers of the
Glasgow district, but as in many cases I have not been able to
rear the maker of many galls I have met with, I have thought it
better to give here a list of the galls only, taking the plants in
their botanical order, and leaving any detailed account of the
makers till a future occasion when my material is more complete.
This list will serve another purpose, in drawing the attention of
the botanical member's of our Society to the subject. I shall be
only too glad to receive any galls they may meet with in their
searches for plants, especially any found upon the Carices and
Grasses and also upon the Cruciferze and Umbelliferz.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 159

Viola canina, L.—Margin of leaf towards base involutely rolled,
and becomes fleshy and purplish-red in colour. Near Milngavie,
in September, empty. Mr. Traill (Se. Nat., I. 124) found dipterous
larve inhabiting the rolls. Perfect insect unknown.

Lychnis diurna, Sibth.—Calyx slightly inflated at base. A
number of larvee live at base of corolla between it and the calyx.
Kenmuir Bank, September. Perfect insect unknown,

Cerastium viscosum, L.—Terminal internodes not developed and
leaves become fleshy at base; each gall contains a number of larvee.
Possil Marsh. Perfect insect unknown. Mr. Traill describes
similar galls on C. glomeratum.

Olea Ewropeus, L.—Gall formed of the two sepals of flower-bud,
inner whorls having disappeared. It becomes very noticeable
when the period of flowering has passed, from still retaining the
appearance of an unopened flower bud. Lach gall contains one
larva of Asphondylia Ulicis, Verrall, which passes through its trans-
formations within the gall. I have found it commonly at Miln-
gavie and on the Kilpatrick Hills.

Sarothamnus scoparius, Winn.—Axillary, being altered leaf-bud,
elongate with toothed apex, throat leading to cell lined with dense
white interlocking pubescence. The cell at base thin-walled, and
containing one larva of Asphondylia Sarothamni, Loew., which leaves
the gall to undergo its transformations. I have found this gall on
the broom wherever I have looked for it, Tollcross, Milngavie, &c.

Trifolium repens, L.—Folded leaflet ; one, two, or all of leaflets
may be affected. Hach leaflet is inhabited by one larva—the part
adjoining mid-rib becoming swollen and fleshy, often tinged with
reddish outside. Common at Possil Marsh, New Kilpatrick, &e.
Perfect insect unknown.

Lotus corniculatus, L.—Terminal aborted shoot, forming tuft of
leaves, inhabited by a number of larve. Near Lambhill in
August.

Vieta Cracca, L.—Folded leaflet which becomes fleshy and in
time turns reddish in colour. Generally most or all of the leaflets
of a leaf are affected, the whole forming a cluster not unlike that
of a mass of flower buds. Near Milngavie, &c., common. It is
the work of C. Onobrychidis, Bremi. Mr. Traill describes also
similar galls on V. seprwm and sylvatica, Lathyrus pratensis, and
Astragalus hypoglottis, all probably produced by the same species.

Spirea ulmaria, L.—Leaf gall, several on each leaf, hemi-

160 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

spherical on upper surface, produced into a cone on under surface
of leaf. Each gall contains one larva of C. Ulmarie, Bremi. Near
Milngavie and other jocalities.

Rosa canina, L.—Fclded leaflet, generally a number in same
leaf affected; each leaflet adjacent to mid-rib becomes inflated,
forming one, two, or a series of partial cells, each containing one
larva of C. Rose, Bremi. Mr. Traill has observed similar folded
leaflets formed by the same insect on F#. villosa. It is common at
Possil Marsh, Milngavie, &e.

Crategus Oxyacantha, L.—Galls terminal, consisting of a tuft of
leaves twisted and curled up with strong green hairs, having red-
dish rounded or slightly bulbous tips, developed on both surfaces.
Each gall contains a number of larvee of C. Crategi, Winn. Com-
mon everywhere.

Galium verum, Li.—I have observed five distinct forms of galls
on this plant, all possibly the work of one species, the difference
being due to its situation on the plant: (1) Situated in axil of
whorl, as they enlarge bending down the leaflets, varying in form
and figure from a small globular mass situated in axil of one of
leaflets, or two placed opposite to each other, to three or more
completely encompassing stem, divisions being indicated by more
or less distinct grooves; in some a flattened globular mass without
any trace of grooves. Several narrow slit-like depressions become
visible as the gall matures, which open for escape of larvee when
full grown. Colour pale green with reddish brown cheeks, and
surface granular, shining, slightly pubescent, especially in vicinity
of clefts. (2) Terminal; a compact mass of overlapping, more or
less fleshy leaves, reddish in colour. (3) A terminal spirally
twisted tuft of leaves, (4) A projection from the stem—some-
times two opposite—generally immediately above a whorl, conical,
laterally flattened, with apex flexed sometimes upwards, at others
downwards. ‘They are monothalamous ; all those I have seen were
empty, but Mr. Traill has found a Cecidomyious larva in them.
(5) A flower bud becomes swollen and fleshy, conspicuously larger
than the rest in the panicle. Internally it is monothalamous, with-
out a trace of corolla, stamens, &c. It is not described by Mr. Traill.
I have taken all these galls in one bed of the plant near Craig-
maddie. No. 1 is formed by C. Galw, Winn.

Galium palustre, L.—A terminal, occasionally axillary, compact
globular mass of altered leaves, not unlike, in external appearance,

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 161

the fruit of a Stellaria or other Caryophyllaceous plant. Each
gall contains one or more larve. At Possil Marsh. Perfect
insect unknown.

Scabiosa succisa, L.—Mr. Cameron informs me that he has
observed, on this species at Cadder, an axillary gall very similar to
that found on Achillea Millefoliwm. I have not seen it.

Hieracium Piloselia, L.—Margin of leaf involutely rolled, and
on its inner face the usual long hairs of upper surface are, by
irritation of larva, modified into a more or less dense pale white
pubescence about one-sixteenth of an inch long. Perfect insect
unknown, I have only observed this gall near Craigmaddie.

Achillea Ptarmica, L.—(1) A compact, terminal, globular, or
oval mass of swollen, often fleshy, imbricated leaves, and of a
more or less pink or red colour. ach gall contains a number of
larve of C. floricola, Winn, (2) Axillary, an altered leaf-bud
similar to that on the broom, more or less reddish in colour when
mature; monothalamous, containing a single larva of probably the
same species as No. 1. Both forms are common at Possil
Marsh.

Achillea Millefolium, L.—Generally situated low on stem, but in
one case a group of them occurred just below flower heads. Axil-
lary, sessile; irregularly rounded or egg-shaped ; smooth, glossy,
green, brown, or purplish red; and splits open at apex into several
blunt points which curve outwards for escape of insect; the
exposed surface green, tomentose with white hairs down to throat.
Monothalamous, walls fleshy, containing one larva of C. Millefolii,
Loew. Possil Marsh and Milngavie.

Campanula rotundifolia, L.—Terminal cluster of leaves whose
bases have become fleshy; colour green. Produced by C. Cam-
panule, Miiller (?). Near Craigmaddie.

Veronica Chamedrys, L.—Terminal, globular or egg-shaped mass
of imbricated leaves, swollen out and covered with a dense woolly
pubescence. In the axils of each leaf live a number of larve of
C. Veronice, Bremi. This is a common and very generally distri-
buted gall,

Nepeta Glechoma, Benth.—Leaf gall, a number on the upper
surface of each leaf; oblong, cylindric, and green, covered with a
hoary pubescence. The gall is monothalamous, thin walled, con-
taining each a single larva of C. bwrsaria, Bremi. At Kenmuir

Bank and the banks of the Kelvin.
Y

162 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Polygonum Persicaria, L.—Mr, Cameron has observed, by the
banks of the Kelvin, the rolled and swollen margins of the leaves
of this plant produced by C. Persicariw, L. I have not met with
it myself.

Urtica dioica, L.—The galls of C. Urticw, Perris, are very com-
mon at Carmyle, Milngavie, and other localities. They are leaf
galls, appearing as irregular swellings of mid-rib and principal
veins of leaf, mainly on under side of leaf showing but little above
upper surface,

Saliz« Caprea, L., and cinerea, L.—(1) Leaf galls, occurring a
number on each leaf on mid-rib and principal veins, separate or
often more or less coalescent. Hach gall is monothalamous, woody,
hemispherical above and conical beneath ; the larva emerging when
mature by apex of cone. These galls are produced by C. Capree,
Winn. Common in Cadder Wilderness. (2) Swelling of the
stem, generally more or less globular, each gall being inhabited by
a number of larve of C. Salicis, Schrank. Possil Marsh, Carmyle,
&e. (3) Rosette galls or Willow-roses. A terminal compact
cluster of leaves, imbricated, and leaving a central cell inhabited
by a single larva of C. rosaria, Loew. Cadder Wilderness and the
Kilpatrick Hills.

Salia viminalis, L.—Folded margin of leaf, the work of C. mar-
ginemtorquens, Bremi. Found at Carmyle.

Fagus sylvatica, L.—Leaf galls, a number on the upper surface
of each leaf. Cylindrico-conic, pubescent, showing on under sur-
face only as a slight arching of the epidermis. Monothalamous,
thin walled, each containing one larva of Hormomyia piligera, Loew.
Common in Cadder Wilderness.

Pteris aquilina, L.— Rolled margin of leaflets, which changes from
green through brown to black, inhabited by the larvee of C. Pteridis,
Miiller. Very common on the moors in the neighbourhood of
Milngavie, and probably wherever looked for.

This completes the list of galls formed by Cecidomyide which,
up to the present time, I have found in the Glasgow district. It
is small, but I hope considerably to increase the number during
present and coming seasons.

Outside the Cecidomyide the only Dipterous gall-maker which
I have noticed in this district is the larva of cne of the Muscide
which lives in gall-like, curled-up, and distorted tips of the fronds
of Aspidium Filix-mas and Aspleniwm Filiafoeemina. Tt is not

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 163

uncommon in Cadder Wilderness during June and July, but I have
not been able to rear the perfect insect.

I would like to offer one remark upon such galls as those just
mentioned, and all cases of rolled and folded leaves or their mar-
gins, and the superficial resemblances which they bear to similar
rollings and foldings formed by Lepidopterous insects like the
Tortricide ; for I believe them to be formed in completely differ-
ent ways. With the Lepidoptera the leaf is rolled or drawn, and
held together by silken threads spun by the larva. With the
Cecidomyide it is, I think, due to an arrestment, partial or com-
plete, of the unfolding of the young leaf, brought about in some
way by the larva. Certainly, so far as my observations go, they
do not draw together the parts of the leaf with threads of sill like
the Lepidoptera. All the galls which I have examined bear out
the supposition, and are plainly the retention, more or less, of the
foldings they had in the bud or when unfolding. Take the rolled
margins of the leaves of the Viola canina and Hieraciwm Pilosella :
in the unfolding bud they are naturally rolled involutely ; and the
leaf of Salix viminalis has a folded margin when young. Again,
all examples of folded leaflets as the clover, wild rose, &c., are so
folded in the bud. I think it right to mention that Mr. Miiller
(‘‘ Ent. Mo. Mag.” VII. 88) states that he found eggs in certain folds
of oak leaves. This seemingly militates against the supposition
that the Jarva causes the arrestment. I therefore at present merely
throw it out asa suggestion. Possibly also the Lepidopterous larva
may have the faculty of arresting the unfolding in addition to its
usual methods.

As to the rearing of the insect from the gall and its preserva-
tion for the cabinet, the suggestions given by Mr. Cameron in his
paper on the Cynipide apply equally to the Cecidomyide. The
perfect insects, however, appear sorry objects in the cabinet, their
bodies shrivelled up, often with their colours gone or changed into
uniform browns or blacks—mere shadows of their former beauty.
This necessitates descriptions of the midge to be made while in a
fresh state, those taken from the dried insect being almost, if not
altogether, valueless. To the intending student of the Ceci-
domyidz the following works are indispensable :—Bremi, “ Bei-
trage zu einer Monographie der Gallmiicken,” 1847; Loew, “‘ Die
Gallmiicken,” 1850; and Winnertz, “ Beitriige zu einer Monogra-
phie der Gallmiicken,” 1853.

164 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

English writers are few and their observations scattered. There
is a list of British gall insects (of all orders) by Mr. Miller in the
“ Hntomologist’s Annual” for 1872, and also an admirable series
of papers on Scottish galls which appeared in volumes I. and II.
of the ‘“‘ Scottish Naturalist,” from the pen of Mr. J. W. H. Traill,
M.A., to which I have more than once referred in the course of
my paper. Scattered notes, principally by Mr. Miiller, are to be
found in the ‘“ Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine,” and also some
observations by Mr. Inchbald in the extinct “ Entomologist’s
Weekly Intelligencer.”

7TH Marcu, 1876.

Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Adolf Schulze.—A portion of a log of Wainut in which
some large larvee had been found,and also the larve themselves.

Mr. R. H. Paterson explained by a diagram the arrangement of
the organs of a plant, Aristolochia Thwaitesti, which were formed
for the prevention of self-fertilisation.

PAPERS READ.

Mr. W. J. Milligan read a paper on “Some of the Flowers
mentioned by Shakspeare.” The object of the paper was to point
out that scientific workers generally, in their papers read before
mixed audiences, are apt to be too technical, and to appeal only to
the colder intellectual faculties. The essayist pled for a more
enlightened and a broader method of treating scientific subjects ;
that scientific writers in their popular papers should try to edu-
cate the imaginations of their hearers and so attract them to a
study of nature. He asked men of science not to be content with
an isolated description of a bare fact, but to place it before his
audience in its relations with other things. As an illustration of
the poetical method of treating botanical facts, he selected pas-
sages from Shakspeare, and entered upon the legendary plant lore.
He also pointed out the desirability of at least indicating the mean-
ing of technical terms with which only a specialist may be supposed
to be acquainted, and the pleasure to be derived from tracing the

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 165

etymology of the names of plants. By the introduction of similar
methods into scientific papers they might be made more pleasant
to the reader and far more profitable to his audience.

Foreign Lichens. By Dr. James Stirton.

Schistophoron tenue; Gen. novum.

Thallus pallide cinereus pulverulentus tenuis; apothecia in
verrucis firmulis convexis rotundatis, oblongis interdum curvulis,
extus albido-farinaceis inclusa (longit. °3-—1:6 mm., latit. circiter
‘3 mm., altit. -3 mm), epithecio a massa sporali substituto, extus
lineari nigro (longit. -25 —1:4 mm., latit. circiter (03 mm.) ; spore
8nze primo incolores dein fusce et nude, 4-loculares (loculis
mediis seepius semel divisis), ‘012--018 x -008-—-01 mm.; para-
physes graciles parce. Gel. hym. (sin ulla) iodo haud tincta.

Ad corticem levem prope Bonny River in Africa occid., lectum
a Mr. Grant.

This genus is allied to Z'ylophoron but is distinct in the elon-
gated thread-like apothecia, and in the constitution of the spores.
It bears nearly the same relation to Chiodecton as the sessile forms
of Tylophoron to Thelotrema.

The following lichens are due to the kindness of the late Rev.
G. Brodie, of the Port of Spain, Trinidad, who, amidst the multi-
farious duties of his profession often diverged from his route to
spots where such minute plants were likely to grow. Had he
been spared it is more than probable that I should have been
favoured with many such packages of the crustaceous lichens, for,
without any discriminative knowledge of the subject, he yet had a
natural aptitude and love for studies of a kindred nature.

Lecidea gerontoides, sp. nov.

Thallus cinereo-virescens vel cinerascens, minute rimuloso-areo-
latus vel nonnihil granulatus, tenuis nigro-limitatus (C flavens, vel
K—C flavens) ; apothecia sessilia sepe aggregata, parva vel medi-
ocria (latit. -3—-8 mm.), epithecio plano cesio-pruinoso (pruina C
flavente), margine nigro prominulo sepe undulato; spore 8nz
fuscee oblong 1-septate, 014-017 x :0045 -—-006 mm.; para-
physes pellucide graciles satis bene distinct, apicibus fusco —

166 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

nigris (K flavo-dissolutis) ; hypothecium fusco-nigrum. Jodo gel.
hym. intense ccerulescens,

Ad cortices prope Port of Spain.
Lecidea remensa, sp. nov.

Thallus glaucus vel glauco-virescens crassiusculus, rugulosus vel
potiis squamuloso-concretus nigro-limitatus (K— C—), medulla
alba (K fl. dein rubente); apothecia adnata nigra parva (latit.
°3—-4 mm.) marginata dein convexula et immarginata; spore
Snee fuscee ellipsoideze 1-septatee, -012-—-015 x :006-—-007 mm;
paraphyses graciles non bene discrete pellucide vel pallid fusco-
clavate ; hypothecium fuscum. Jodo gel. hym. intense ccerulescens
fere nigra.

Ad cortices.
This lichen presents, on the one hand, affinities to Z. glauco-

migella, and, on the other, to the genus Pywxine, the barren thallus
of a species of which is often seen contiguous to it.

Platygrapha psaroleucoides, sp. nov.

Thallus albido-glaucescens vel pallidus, crassiusculus, rimuloso-
areolatus nonnihil rugulosus et farinaceus nigro-limitatus (K—,
C erythrinosus); apothecia lecanorina albido-suffusa, prominula,
plana, rotundata vel nonnihil irregularia, margine distincto discisso
levigato cincta (latit. ‘5—1:0 mm.); spore 8nz in thecis pyri-
formibus arthonioideis, incolores obtuse fusiformes seepe curvule
3-septatee, 024 — :032 x -005— -007 mm.; paraphyses distinctee
filiformes divaricato-ramose nonnihil irregulares, apicibus inco-
loribus non-clavatis : hypothecium crassum fusco-nigrum (in lamina
tenui visum). Jodo gel. hym. vinose rubescens.

Ad cortices leeves.

This curious lichen has a close affinity to Pl. psaroleuca, but
differs, inter alia, in the much shorter and thicker spores.

Platygrapha punctella, sp. nov.

Thallus chrysogonidicus albidus tenuis nonnihil rimuloso-areo-
latus, sepius interruptus aut dispersus; apothecia in verrucis
depressiusculis immersa, nigra punctiformia, seepius seriatim dis-
posita vel collabentes; sporze incolores fusiformes seepe curvule
3-5-septate (septulis valde indistinctis), -028—-04 x :0035 —
0045 mm.; paraphyses satis bene distincte irregulares, apicibus

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 167

incoloribus ; hypothecium rufo-fuscum vel pallide fuscescens. Jodo

gel. hym. leviter ccerulescens (preesertim partis inferioris hymenii)
dein vinose rubens. Corticola.

Arthonia neuridella sp. nov.

Thallus pallidus tenuis (K fl. dein lente fulvescenti-rufus) : apo-
thecia sessilia fusca concava oblongo-linearia, recta vel undulata
(longit. usque 1:5 mm., latit. circiter “2 mm.), margine thallino
inflexo crassiusculo levigato cincta et margine proprio tenui later-
ali; spore incolores oblong vel fere cylindraceze spe curvule
simplices, ‘008 —-01 xX 0025 mm.; paraphyses graciles indis-
tincte, apicibus fuscescentibus ; hypothecium incolor. [Todo gel.
hym. ceerulescens (saltem leviter) dein bene vinose rubens. Corti-
cola.

The generic place of this lichen is doubtful, inasmuch as the
spores are not matured. It may be referable to the genus Lecan-
actis, but.as the latter is very vaguely defined I prefer classifying
the lichen as above, more especially as the thece are arthonioid.
The paraphyses are rendered distinct by K when they are seen as
closely set anastomosing slender fibres.

Parathelium Brodiei sp. nov.

Thallus hypophlceodes vel macula pallescente vel pallide rufes-
cente indicatus: apothecia hypophleodea demum subnuda et pro-
minula (vel partim pellicula epidermidis obtecta), perithecio in-
tegre nigro, papilla ostiolari laterali thallodea pallida aut fusces-
cente: spore (4—8)nz incolores demum fuscescentes oblonge
vel oblongo-ellipsoidez, murali-divise aut 7-9-loculares (loculis
2-3 divisis), ‘03 — 042 x -OLI —-018 mm.: paraphyses distinct
filiformes. Corticolum.

Parathelium nidificans, sp. nov.

Simile precedenti sed thallo nonnihil pallidiore et sporis incolo-
ribus dein fuscescentibus 4-locularibus (sicut in V. nitida), °014 —
021 x -008—-011 mm. Iodo gel. hym. interdum hinc inde
obsolete ccerulescens dein flavescens. Corticolum.

Affine P. induto (Nyl.) sed sporis multo minoribus, &ec,

168 TRANS. OF THE GLASGOW SOC, OF FIELD NATURALISTS.

The following curious lichen was communicated by Mr. Paterson
of this city, to whom it was sent by Mr. A. Raff, of Brisbane,
Queensland.

Lecidea Raffi sp. nov.

Thallus pallide cervinus vel pallide rufescens, rugulosus nonnihil
granulatus, tenuis indeterminatus (K flavens dein aurantiaco —
rufus, demum rufus) ; apothecia innata nigra plana, rotunda vel
oblonga, interdum nonnihil irregularia, immarginata, intus pallide
fuscescentia; sporee 8nze incolores aciculares 7-17-septate (et
ultra), -045—-08 x :003— +0045 mm.; paraphyses mediocres,
haud distincte apicibus fuscescentibus ; hypothecium fusco-nigrum
vel rufo-nigrum, crassiusculum. Jodo gel. hym. ccerulescens
(saltem leviter), thecee interdum fulvescentes. Corticola.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

GLASGOW SOCIETY

- Xn

a

f /<

OF

FIELD NATURALIST:

ESTABLISHED 1871.

Part V.

Session 1877-78.

GLASGOW: PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY,
AT THEIR ROOMS, ANDERSON’S COLLEGE.

1877.

OFFICE-BEARERS—1877- 78.

PRESIDENT,
JAMES STIRTON, M.D, F.LS.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.
W. J. MILLIGAN awv Pror, R. H. PATERSON.

SECRETARIES.
- - JOHN RENWICK,

Mary Puacz, MARYHILL,

JAMES ALLAN,
98 West GEORGE STREET.

Minuting Secretary, -

Corresponding Secretary, - -

TREASURER.
GEORGE BARLAS, 169 BucHanan STREET.

CURATOR.
J. J. KING.

MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.

ADOLF SCHULZE. A. 8. WILSON, M.A.
THOMAS KING. ALEX. NOBLE. —
RICHARD M‘KAY. ARCHD. FAWCETT.

F. G. BINNIE.

i
.
.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS.

ANDERSONIAN UNIVERSITY.

21st Marcu, 1876.

Tue Annual Business Meeting of the Society was held here this
evening—Mr. James Allan, Vice-President, in the chair. A copy
of the Transactions of the Dresden Naturalists’ Club was laid on the
table.

The Secretary read a summary of the work done by the Society
during the past year, from which it was evident that the members
took a considerable amount of interest in their different depart-
ments, and that the number of members had largely increased,
no fewer than eighteen gentlemen having been added to the roll.
Regret was expressed at the absence of two valuable members,
Messrs. Watt and Watson, who had left this country for India,
but it was hoped that records of their work in their new sphere
would yet be received. The following gentlemen were then elected
to office:—JameEs Stirton, M.D., F.LS., President; J. Harvie
and W. J. Mituican, Vice-Presidenis; R. H. Paterson, F.C.8.S8.,
and J. Renwick, Secreéaries; Grorck Bartas, Treasurer; W.
-D. Benson, Curator ; Atex. Nopie and Arcu. Fawcett, Members
of Council.

4TH Aprit, 1876.

The first meeting of the Summer Session was held this evening
—Mr John Harvie, Vice-President, in the chair.

EXCURSION,
High Blantyre.—Mr. W. J. Milligan reported that most of the
A

170 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

commoner fossils and several of those peculiar to the district had
been found.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. W. J. Milligan.—Specimens of Productus spiriferus and P.
longispinus, the latter showing the spines very well.
By Mr. F. G. Binnie.—A large collection of insects.

PAPER READ.

Mr. James Allan gave a sketch of the life of Karl Linnaeus, the
Swedish botanist, and read some extracts from his works. Linnaeus
was born on the twenty-fourth of May, 1707, his father being a
clergyman in Smalund. From his father he received a taste for the
study of Natural History. So backward was he at school that his
father was advised to make him a shoemaker. Notice was taken of
his early struggles with poverty, often mending his boots with
brown paper; his travels in Germany, Holland, France, and England,
and his meeting with Dillenius in England. After his return home
his life was a continual series of successes. He was made a
Professor, then a Knight of the Polar Star, then a Baron, enjoying
an intimate friendship with the king and queen, and was so admired
by the people that when he and his students were returning from
Botanical excursions they were met by the citizens of Upsala with
bands of music, as if they had been conquerors.

He found Natural Science in great confusion, without arrangement
or system, and left order and system in every branch. Besides
Botany, he made Conchology a science, and it has remained till now
almost as he left it. He was assisted by his students, who travelled
all over the world, and sent him reports. He was much beloved for
his amiability of character, and acted up to his motto, “Famam
extendere factis.” He died in 1778, aged 71.

18tuH Apriz, 1876.

Mr. W. J. Milligan, Vice-President, in the chair.

Messrs. David Wood Inglis, M.A., Biggar; John Harrison,
Lesmahagow; and Robert M. Cairney, 47 Scott Street, were elected
members of the Society.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 171

At this meeting it was resolved that the Society get up lists of
the Botany, and as far as possible of the Zoology of the West of
Scotland, in view of the approaching meeting of the British
Association to the city.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

. By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—Several very rare Lepidoptera from
Australia, which had been sent by Mr. Alexander Raff, of Brisbane,
Queensland, among which were four specimens of Heteronympha
mirifica, one of the rarest insects found in Australia. There is only
half a specimen of this species in the British Museum. There were
also specimens of Papilio Ulysses, Mynes Geoffroyr, and Delias musus.

By Mr. Thomas King.—The beautiful fungus Peziza coccinea, from
Innellan.

By Mr. James Allan.—Claytonia virginica and KHugenia bulbosa
from Kentucky, sent by Mr. Williamson, a corresponding member.

EXCURSION.

Kenmuir and Carnyie.—Mr. Allan reported that at this excursion
the usual spring flowers had been found, but none of them were
rare enough to be worth recording.

PAPER READ.

Mr. KR. H. Paterson read a paper “On the prevention of self-
fertilisation of plants.”

He drew attention to the fact that similar arrangements were
found among plants that were not otherwise closely related. Thus,
in the Primula vulgaris and Linum grandiflorum, we had what was
termed a dimorphic arrangement of the male and female organs. In
the natural orders, Orchidaceae and Asclepiadaceae, we had the
pollen in masses, springing from a more or less viscid disc, which
adhered to the bodies of insects when they visited the flowers. In
Erica and Streptocarpus we had the pollen contained in little boxes,
which opened and let fall a shower of pollen when certain parts of
the flower were touched. In Aristolochia Braziliense, Ceropegia
elegans, and Arum maculatum, we had what might be called a mouse-
trap arrangement for the prevention of self-fertilisation. In Ceropegia
elegans we had the floral envelopes united to form a tube-like corolla.
This tube is narrow in the middle, and presents a large trumpet-
shaped expansion at its upper end, while below it is dilated into a

172 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

little chamber, which contains the reproductive organs. The narrow
part of the tube is beset with long stiff hairs, which point down like
the wires of a mouse-trap, and give ready access to insects, but pre-
vents their escape. Soon after this the hairs shrivel up and allow
the insect toescape. The insect then flies to another flower with the
pollen masses attached to its body, passes down the narrow tube as
before, deposits some pollen on the stigma, and fertilises the plant.
In order to prevent the same flower being visited twice, it is seen
that after the pollen is shed the flower that was previously erect
falls over and withers. In order to prevent large insects from
alighting on the flower, the trumpet-shaped end is provided with
long stiff hairs pointing out in all directions. In Salvia pratensis,
the anthers, as they shed their pollen, shrivel up ; and, on the other
hand, the pistil increases in length, till it comes to block up
the entrance to the corolla. The stamens here are reduced
to two, and of those two only one half develops pollen. The
barren half is widely separated from the fertile one by the
connective. ‘This connective rotates upon its axis upon the filament
of the stamen. The lower lip of the corolla forms a good landing-
place for insects, and the barren parts of the anthers block up the
entrance to the corolla tube. To explain the fertilisation here,
suppose an insect were to visit the flower in the male stage, it will,
in pushing its head down the corolla tube, come in contact with
the barren part of the anther, which, revolving upon its axis, will
get pushed into the back part of the corolla, and the fertile half will
at the same time be brought down upon the back of the insect, and
brush its pollen on to the back of the insect. Now, suppose that
the insect were to visit a flower in the female stage, where the pistil
had elongated and curved round so as to block up the entrance to
the corolla tube, the first thing that it would come in contact with
would be the elongated pistil, and as its back and sides were dusted
over with pollen, some of that pollen would be sure to be dusted on
to the stigma, and so the plant would be fertilised. This last
example is certainly the most wonderful arrangement for the pre-
vention of self-fertilisation that is to be found in the vegetable
kingdom. The paper was illustrated throughout by carefully-
executed diagrams.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 173

2nD May, 1876.

Mr. John Harvie, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. Hugh Reid was elected a member of the Society.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. James Allan.—-A stuffed: specimen of the Water Rail
(Rallus aquaticus), which had been sent to the Society by a game-
keeper.

By Mr. John Harvie-—A new Geological Map of the Campsie
district, which he described very minutely.

By Dr. Stirton, F.L.S.—Some new lichens which he received from
Mr. R. H. Paterson. Lecidea Raffa (Strn.) new to science, called
after Mr. Alexander Raff of Brisbane; and Caenogoniwm implexum,
found for the first time in fruit. This lichen was at one time
supposed to belong to the Algae, but now that the fruit had been
found it had been classified among the Lichens.

Mr. W. D. Benson exhibited a number of butterflies from various
parts of England, among which were specimens of Colias edusa,
Gonepteryx Rhamn, Apatura Iris, Papilio Machaon, Hipparchia
Sewell, and Erebia cassiope.

By Mr. Andrew A. Hogarth, M.A.—A number of spikes of Typha
latifolia, gathered in a loch near Crieff. One of the specimens was
converted into a double spike.

‘Mr. R. H. Paterson gave an account of an excursion to Ardrossan.
On visiting the remains of the “Chusan,” he had found two species
of the barnacle clinging to the wreck, Balanus Scoticus and
Pentalasmis anatifera. Five different species of star-fish were found,
one being rather rare. Several species of Sertularians were gathered
(including some extremely rare forms), also fine specimens of the
cow’s-pap, Alcyonium digitatum ; and the sponges, Halichondrica
panicea and H. incrustans. Large quantities of the spawn of a species
of Doris were found hanging from the under surface of the rocks on
the Horse Island.

By Mr. Taylor.—Fossil teeth and vertebrae of Lhizodus
Hibbertit.

By Mr. Thomas King.—Hypnum Schreberi in fruit from Innellan.
This moss was very rarely gathered in fruit till within the last few
years, ach year it is becoming more plentiful, however.

By Mr. Richard M‘Kay.—A fine skeletonised specimen of the

174 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

common cucumber (Cucumis sativus), which showed the fibro-
vascular bundles.

By Mr. J. Renwick.—A number of fossils from High Blantyre,
among which were specimens of Stenopora tumida, Archeopora neailis,
Edmondia rudis, Productus longispinus, Athyris ambigqua, Macrocheilus
acutus, and the vertebrae of Palaconiscus.

EXCURSION.

Brother Loch.—Mr. James Allan stated that nothing of interest
was found except the somewhat rare plant Chrysosplenium altermfolium.
Great numbers of the eggs of the common lapwing (Vanellus cristatus)
were found on the moors near the loch.

16TH May, 1876.
Mr. W. J. Milligan, Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Richard M‘Kay.—A number of fine plants of the Blae-
berry (Vaccinium Myrtillus) gathered at the excursion to Loch-
winnoch, which had nearly all their flowers bitten by insects, to
enable them to get access to the nectar.

By Mr. J. Harrison.—A number of uncommon Hepaticae from the
neighbourhood of Lesmahagow, including Lepidozea reptans, Fegatella
conica, Sphagnaecetis communis, Scapama planifolia, and Pellia
calycma ; also some species of the very rare fungus Polysaccum
olivaceum from the Roman Bridge near Bothwell.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—A curious variety of the Fern Pieris
aquilina, which he had named variety gracile. This fern was
found two years ago near the foot of Glen Rosa, Arran. He also
exhibited a number of nature-printed ferns, mosses, and liverworts
which had been done by himself. One specimen of Aspleniwm
bulbiferum, bringing out the remarkable characters of the plant very
well.

By Mr. Alexander Noble.—Several rare butterflies gathered by
himself in Arran, among which were Vanessa Io, Vanessa cardui,
and Chortobius davus.

By Mr. James Allan.—The spawn of the fresh-water mollusc
Limnaea peregra.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD. NATURALISTS. Ifa

A copy of the “Transactions of the Norwich Field Naturalists’
Club” was laid upon the table.

EXCURSION.

Lochwinnoch.—Mr. Thomas King mentioned that besides the
commoner spring flowers there were found a few more rare ones, such
as Prunus Padus, Valeriana Pyrenaica, Chrysosplenium alternifolium,
Trollius Europeaus, and the fern Cystopteris fragilis.

Fin Glen —Mr. W. J. Milligan said that at an excursion to
Fin Glen he had found large quantities of Wilson’s Filmy Fern,
Hymenophyllum Wilson.

PAPER READ.

Mr. D. Gregorson read an interesting paper on a Ramble in the
Kilsyth District. After discussing the general appearance of the
country round about, he gave a short account of its history, with the
various legends attached to some of the places. From the top of
one of the hills in the district a very extensive view was got, parts
of no fewer than sixteen counties being seen. Numerous plants of
interest were to be found, such as Paris quadrifolia and Cnicus
heterophyllus. The Carron Glen, in the neighbourhood, was said to
be one of the best botanical stations in Britain, and would well
repay a careful visit.

30TH May, 1876.

Dr. James Stirton, F.L.S., President of the Society, in the chair.
Messrs. Lawrence Waddell, William Partington, John S. Jack,
Alexander Hogg, George G. Gillon, Alexander Raff, Angus Campbell,
Charles M‘Kerrow, Donald M‘Phail, and Alexander Kyle were elected
ordinary members; and Mr. John Ross, Cape of Good Hope, the Rev.
John Stewart, Ardrossan, and Dr. Watkins, Plymouth, were elected
corresponding members.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED,

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—The moss Leucobryum glaucum in fruit
from Ben Lomond, also several very rare fungi, among them being
Galera sparteus, Hydnum zonatum, and Cynophallus caninus. He
also exhibited several fungi new to Scotland, among them being

176 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Dothidea sambuci, Labreila Ptarmica, Peziza palustris, P. rubella,
Torula pinophila, Sphaeria fuliginosa, S. dryina, and Macrospora scirpi.

EXCURSION.

Finnich Glen.—Mr. M‘Kay mentioned that nothing of interest
was found at this excursion, with the exception of Saxifraga granulata
and Juniperus communis.

Ben Lomond.—Mr. R. H. Paterson gave an account of an excursion
to Ben Lomond, where he had found the moss Leucobryum glaucum
in fruit. This is the first time it has been found in fruit in Scotland.
He also found several rare fungi in the woods at the foot of the hills,
such as Polyporus perennis, P. variegatus, Hydnum niveum, Merulius
aurantiacus, Tremella frondosa, Hymenochaete tabacina, Mitrula alba,
M. cuculata, M. paludosa, Torula splendens, and Ascobolus subhirtus.

PAPERS READ.

Mr. James Allan gave a short account of the arrival of some of
our commoner birds for the last ten years, showing that although
the seasons varied greatly the birds arrived about their usual time
each year.

Dr. James Stivton, F.L.S., gave an account of some lichens which
had been gathered by Mr. R. H. Paterson in Kilfinan last year.
Among them he had found six species new to science, but which had
yet to be named. There were also three species found for the first
time in Britain, viz., Squamaria chrysoleuca, S. lentigera, and Pertusaria
velata, also the rare lichens Physcia chrysophthalma, Lecanora rubra,
Placodium fulgens, Parmelia aleurites, Lecidea Hookerti, Verrucaria
glabrata, and Dacampia Hookerii.

Mr. W. D. Benson gave an explanation of a new method of
mounting objects for the miscroscope. In illustration of his PERILS
he exhibited some beautifully prepared specimens.

Dr. Cunningham read a paper on the “ Nervous System of the
Cetacea.” This class of animals belongs to the great order
Mammalia, although believed by those who are uneducated to
belong to the fishes from the general appearance of the body.
Schwann first discovered that they were lung-breathing animals which
suckle their young. He then gave a general sketch of the nervous
system, reserving the peculiar distribution of the nerves of the tail
till the end of his paper. The skin of most of the class is glistening
and tough, and is wholly destitute of hairs. Hair in the form of

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 177

bristles on the lips is found on some. He then went on to describe
the general anatomy, showing how well adapted the animals were for
rapid motion in the water. The class is divided into two great
groups, viz., the Whalebone Whales and the Toothed Whales.
Examples of the first are found in the Greenland Whale and the
Rorquals, and of the second in the Spermaceti Whale and the Dolphin.
The spinal nervous system consists of a large cord contained in the
canal formed by the vertebral column. It is protected from external
injury by the neural arches and bodies of the vertebrae. The cord
is bound in and supported in this canal. From the canal formed by the
bones in this way we have a number of intervertebral foramina or holes
for the transmission of the spinal nerves to the anterior and posterior
surface of the body. The cord is surrounded by a peculiar tissue called
the rete mirabile, consisting of a great number of minute anastomosing
blood vessels. This peculiar tissue also partially surrounds the brain
and medulla oblongata. The function of this membrane is to keep
the parts of a uniform temperature, as it is a warm-blooded animal.
There are two swellings at the parts of the cord which go to supply
the caudal extremity and flippers or cervical and lumbar regions.
The origin of these ganglia from the cord is by two roots, a superior
and inferior, which pass out and enter the foramina. Then the
superior swells out into a ganglion, and is then joined by the inferior.
It then branches into two divisions, the one passing up, the other
down. In the cervical region they are placed close together, the
upper branches supplying the skin and muscles above, while the lower
branches form the cervical and brachial plexuses. The dorsal nerves
also branch into two, the superior supplying the skin and back, while
the inferior supplies the ribs and abdomen, thus resembling other mam-
mals. He then drew special attention to the peculiar provision for the
supply of the four great caudal muscles. In the caudal region the
_ superior division of the spinal nerves becomes united on each side
into one great trunk for the supply of the superior caudal muscles,
while the inferior divisions were similarly fused into two main nerves,
which went to supply the inferior caudal muscles.

13TH June, 1876.

Mr. W. J. Milligan, Vice-President, in the chair.

Dr. Cunningham, Edinburgh, was elected a corresponding member.
B

178 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Andrew A. Hogarth.—Paris quadrifolia from Lennox
Castle woods, where it grows in thousands, also the very rare alga
Chaetophora elegans from pools on the hills above Innellan.

By Mr. F. G. Binnie.—One of the land molluses, Vertigo edentula
(Drap.), which he had found near Milngavie. This is the first in-
timation of its existence in the district.

By Mr. J. Renwick.—Linaria Cymbalaria, Brassica monensis, and
Corydalis claviculata, from Brodick, Arran.

By Mr. J. Harvie.—A number of interesting objects from Wemyss
Bay, among which were Alcyoniwm digitatum and Lima hyans.

Mr. Adolf Schulze described a species of Polypus found at the
excursion to Wemyss Bay. He exhibited a number of drawings in
illustration of his remarks.

EXCURSION.

Wemyss Bay (Dredging).—-Mr. Harvie said that owing to the large
number of members who had turned out at this excursion they
were divided into two parties, the one party dredging the ground
below and the other the ground above Skelmorlie Buoy. Several
interesting objects were found ; for instance, some very large specimens
of Alcyoniwm digitatum, popularly called Dead men’s fingers, from its
resemblance to the human hand, also several specimens of the
Cloaklet anemone, Adamsia palliata, attached to the shell inhabited
by the Hermit Crab, Pagurus Prideauxti. Large quantities of the
nests of Lima hyans, with the mollusc inside, with several
species of star-fish, were found.

PAPERS READ.

Mr. R. H. Paterson read a short paper on the “ Metamorphosis
of Plants.” He divided metamorphosis into two classes, viz.,
Regular and Irregular. Regular or progressive metamorphosis is
that which is observed constantly and gradually at work, from the
development of the first seed leaves to the formation of the fruit,
reaching higher and higher like the steps of a ladder through a
series of changes to that crowning aim of nature, the propagation of
plants by means of male and female organs. Irregular or retro-
gressive metamorphosis, on the other hand, is growing in a backward
direction, for example, in the metamorphosis of a stamen into a
petal. Here nature seems to relax and to leave her work in an

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 179

unfinished weakly condition, pleasing often to the eye, but intrinsically
powerless and inactive, He then gave a short sketch of the
development of our higher plants from the simple seed till it had
developed into seed again, drawing particular attention to those
cases where we had one organ forming another, for instance, a
stamen forming a petal. In some plants we have the first seed-
leaves simple and undivided; as we ascend in the development of
the plant, the leaves gradually show a tendency to divide, till we get
the perfect form of the leaf of that plant; as we ascend higher, these
perfect leaves again turn to the simple undivided form, as in the
bracts, and ultimately form a whorl of leaves outside the flower, as
in the calyx, showing that all the various organs of plants are
modifications of one and the same organ. ‘This last transformation
takes place sometimes very slowly, but at other times the stem at
once shoots up from the node at which the perfect leaf was developed,
terminating in a whorl of leaves collected round an axis. That
these calyx leaves are in reality modified stem leaves, is proved by
the occurrence of a number of leaves on some stems being found
without the development of the nodes and forming a whorl round
the stem. He next treated of the development of the corolla or
inner whorl of floral envelopes. Here we have an expansion of the
previously contracted whorl. Then we get the corolla gradually
passing into the outer whorl of the reproductive organs or stamens;
and lastly we have the pistils or inner whorl of reproductive organs
formed from the stamens. In illustration of his remarks Mr.
Paterson exhibited specimens of a Caltha palustris, where the
leaves were transformed in two instances into yellow petals; the
Wallflower, where the corolla was transformed into stamens and
the stamens were transformed into pistils ; a species of Sarracenia,
where the umbrella-shaped pistil was transformed into a pure white
petal ; a species of Primrose, where the calyx was transformed into a
corolla ; the cotyledons of the Beech and Elm, where there were
three cotyledons, each with a bud in its axil; a specimen of
Ranunculus, with the pistil formed into a petal; and also several
flowers illustrating intermediate transformations, such as Canna
Indica, and a species of Campanula.

Mr. John Harvie then read some interesting notes on Marine
Zoology. He first of all drew attention to the stinging properties of
the sea-anemone and the common jelly-fish of the sea shore, remark-
ing that although many observers found these animals had the

180 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

power of paralyzing their prey, he had as yet failed to notice any
such power. He next explained what was termed the Alternation
of Generations. He then described some of the objects to be met with
by any person who visits the coast in the summer, for instance,
[ima hyans, a molluse allied to the oyster or scallop shell, in which
the mantle was so large, that the shell did not protect or cover it.
In consequence of this it has to build a house at the bottom of the
sea, So as to enable it to escape from its enemies. The house is
composed of a series of shells, sea-weeds, stones, and sand, grouped
and held together by the byssus. It obtains its food by means of a
ciliary motion of its tentacles. He mentioned some of the chief
peculiarities of the Sand Goby (Gobius minutus); and lastly, he
described the water vascular system of the star-fish. A good deal
of discussion followed the reading of Mr. Harvie’s paper, one
member stating that while bathing at Ardrossan he had come in
contact with a jelly-fish, and was so severely stung by it that he
was overpowered for some time after.

27TH JuNE, 1876.

Mr. J. Harvie, Vice-President, in the chair.

Messrs. James Anderson and Robert M‘Pherson were elected
ordinary members, and Mr. D. Blair, Campsie, as a corresponding
member of the Society.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Andrew A. Hogarth, M.A.—The great Bladderwort,
Utricularia vulgaris, a plant that is exceedingly rare. He had
gathered it in Loch Jeorgan, near Ardrossan. This remarkable
plant is usually found in ditches containing putrid matter. It floats
on or near the surface of the water, and at no time does it possess
roots in order to attach it to the ground. The leaves are all
submerged, hence they are very finely cut or divided, and destitute
of stomata. They are covered with a great number of small
bladders (hence the popular name of the plant). These bladders
were at one time supposed to be of use in floating the plant, as air
was sometimes found in their interior, but as the plant floats quite as
well without them, this was found to be a wrong idea. Recent

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 181

researches have proved that their chief use is to capture and absorb
the smaller animals that frequent the ditches in which they grow.
The bladders are about 4 of an inch in length. They are trans-
parent, and of a light green colour. Each bladder is attached to
the leaf by a short footstalk, which possesses a peculiar power of
movement. They are furnished with a number of cellular prolonga-
tions called antennae, which gives them the appearance of some of
the lower crustaceans. Below the antennae is the opening to the
bladder, which has on either side of it a number of bristles. The
entrance to the bladder is closed by a valve which only opens
inwards, ‘This valve is covered with a number of glands containing
a fluid which holds a large quantity of matter in solution. The
interior of the bladder is covered with a number of processes occurring
in groups of four, hence the name of quadrifid processes applied to
them. The use of the bladders is to capture small aquatic animals,
principally entomostracan crustaceans and insect larvae, as it
was found that the plants when examined generally contained great
quantities of these animals. These animals die, and at length decay,
when the plants absorb the product of the decay. They do not
possess the power of digesting the animal matter like such plants as
Venus’ fly-trap, Dionwa muscipula. The animals enter the
bladders by bending inwards the posterior free edge of the valve,
which, from being very elastic, at once closes upon its victim. As
this edge is extremely thin and fits very closely, it is evident that it
will be difficult for an animal to get out when once imprisoned.
The use of the antennae is to guide small animals to the entrance to
the bladder, as well as to prevent large animals from trying to pass
in, a8 in doing so they would rupture the entrance, and so destroy
the bladder. It is not known what attracts the insects to enter the
bladders, unless it be that these small animals are habitually trying
to enter every small crevice.

By Mr. David Wood Inglis, M.A.—Primula farinosa, from bogs
in Peebleshire. This most beautiful Primrose is pretty rare in
Scotland and England. The leaves, which are all radical, are
smooth above, while below they are covered with a dense mass of
white or orange-yellow meal, hence the name of the plant. It bears
a close resemblance to large specimens of P. Scotica, but the
dimorphic condition of the reproductive organs will at once dis-
tinguish it.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—The very rare fungi Agaricus asper,

182 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

A. ramentaceus, A. candicans, A. fimbriatus, A. tremulus, Hebeloma
Hookerii, H. sindonius, Coprigvus picaceus, C. aratus, Gomphidius
gracilis, Hygrophorus obrusseus, Xerotus degener, Lentinus vulpinus,
Boletus sanguineus, B. satanus, Oraterellus crispus, Cypliella Curreyi,
and Sparassis crispa, preserved in a strong solution of salt and alum.

By Mr. Adolf Schulze—A number of beautiful butterflies from

China, the scales of which form admirable test objects for the
microscope.

EXCURSION.

Kilmalcolm.—Mr. Richard M‘Kay gave an account of this
excursion. The usual spring flowers were gathered, none, however,
of sufficient rarity 'to require recording.

PAPER READ.

Mr. James Allan read a number of communications which he had
received from the various game-keepers of the district in reply to the
Society’s circular, showing that considerable interest was taken in
the work of the Society.

lita Jury, 1876.

Mr. W. J. Milligan, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. James A. Mahony, Ramilton, County Donegal, Ireland, was
elected a member of the Society.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—A large collection of rare plants from
Arran, among them being specimens of Epipactis latifolia, Alisma
ranunculoides, Rumex pratensis, Centunculus minimus, Atriplex laciniata,
Convolvulus arvensis, Hieracium Gothicum, Thrincia hirta, and Rosa
Sabint. He also exhibited some rare insects from Australia, among
which were Hyphantidium sericarium, the larva of which manu-
factures a beautiful silken web, forming by the united labour of
myriads sheets of delicate webbing, some of which extend between
70 and 80 square feet. The silken web is so remarkable for its vast
superficial extent, its extreme evenness of structure, and the fineness,
delicacy, and beauty of its texture, as to make it worthy of the
attention of European entomologists. Puropsis variolosa, the

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 183

larva of which feeds on the leaves of the Lemon-scented gum-tree,
Eucalyptus citriodora. These larva bury themselves underground
in October, forming very strong cocoons, The perfect insect appears
in the following March. ‘The wings are of a brownish bronze colour.
The head and thorax have a metallic, dark greenish-red lustre.
Abdomen bright shining green, three large orange yellow patches on
the upper side, one at base of wings and one over the junction of
the thorax and abdomen underneath, similar patches immediately
below and between the legs.

By Mr. James Allan.—Living specimens of the stag beetle
(Lucanus cervus) from England. These beetles, of which there were
both male and female, had been sent by Dr. Paxton, Sutton, Surrey.
They had been carefully watched, in order to see their interesting
habits. The larva of this beetle feeds on rotten wood and mould,
preferring the wood of the oak to any other. Although pretty
frequent in the south of England, it is exceedingly rare in Scotland,
or even the northern counties of England.

By Mr. J. Renwick.—Stlene inflata var. puberula, a very rare plant,
from near Milngavie. The occurrence of this plant in a new locality
is very interesting, as there is a chance of the plant being found in
a number of localities. The close resemblance which it has to
Selene inflata may account for the plant not being oftener met with.
He had also a number of specimens of Sedum villoswum and Peplis
portula from the same locality.

EXCURSION.
Blairmore (Dredging).—It was announced that owing to the
stormy nature of the day the dredging excursion did not take place.

PAPER READ.

Mr. James Allan read a communication which he had received
from Mr, Williamson, a corresponding member of the Society, giving
an interesting description of the Botany around Louisville.

25TH Jury, 1876.

Mr. John Harvie, Vice-President, in the chair.
The Secretary read a letter stating that the Committee of the

184 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

British Association had given this Society a grant of £50 to enable
them to bring out their lists of Fauna and Flora.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. James Allan.—Helianthemum vulgare from near Tummel
Bridge.

By Mr. Richard M‘Kay.—Crambe maritima from Imacher Point.
This plant is supposed to be the origin of all our forms of garden
cabbage.

By Mr. Adolf Schulze.—The large moths Attaccus luna from
India, and A. cecropia from North America.

EXCURSION.

Ben Lawers.—Mr. James Allan gave an account of the excur-
sion to Ben Lawers. After arriving at Killin, the members
drove to the foot of Ben Lawers, where they stayed for several
days. The weather was exceedingly fine, but hot. On be-
ginning to ascend the hill numbers of rare plants were met
with, such as Polytrichum strictum, Blindia acuta, and Meesia
uliginosa. Among the rarer plants found near the top were
Saxifraga cernua, which appears to be increasing, several specimens
being found in flower ; Arenaria rubella, found on the western side of
the mountain; Aspidiwm Lonchitis, or Holly Fern, very abundant both —
among the rocks above Loch-na-Cat and on the western slope; Cystop-
teris montana, Saxifraga nivalis, and Sagina nivalis. Search was made
for Gentiana nivalis and Woodsia hyperborea, but neither was found.
Among the rare mosses gathered were, Habrodon Notarisii on trees
at the foot of the mountain, where it was first found by Sir William
Hooker in 1830, Bryum cirrhatum, B. Zierii, Tortula fragilis,
Grimmia patens, Campylopus compactus, Dicranum palustre,
D. longifolium, Hypnum Starkii, H. wmbratum, and Pterogonium
filiforme. Of rare lichens the following are almost all confined to
Ben Lawers: Pyrenopsis homocopsis, Collemopsis fururella, Cladonia
sylvatica, Lecidea fusca, L. didymospora, L. Hookerui, L. arctica,
L. Breadalbanensis, L. scabrosa, L. Templeton, Endocarpon rufescens,
and Verrucaria mgritella. Mr. Allan stated that after leaving
Ben Lawers he went round by Bridge of Tummel and Killiecrankie,
where he observed several plants that are not common in the
Clyde Valley, among which the rock-rose, Helianthemum vulgare, in
great profusion.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS, 185

PAPER READ.

Mr. W. D. Benson read a few notes on the “ Fresh-water Hydra.”
After giving an outline of their discovery and the various
experiments made with them by Trembley in 1743, he proceeded to
show their place in Nature—their habits, and where found.
Remarking that while Hydra viridis and Hydra vulgaris were
common he had never met with Hydra fusca in this district. These
Hydrae possess extraordinary power of resisting mutilation, and of
multiplying artificially when mechanically divided. No matter how
many pieces we cut one into, each and all will be developed into a
perfect hydra. Reproduction is effected sexually and asexually. In
the sexual mode of reproduction the spermatozoa are developed in
little conical elevations, while the ova are enclosed in sacs situated
near the base of the attached end. Usually there is only one sac
containing a single ovum, but occasionally there are two. When
mature the ovum is expelled, and is at the same time fecundated by
spermatozoa. The embryo is a minute free-swimming animal
possessed with cilia. The asexual mode is a process of reproduction
by gemmation, a new individual being gradually produced like a bud
from a plant. Mr. W. D. Benson then read from a number of notes
he had made when observing Hydrae and their parasite “T'richodina
pediculus” in his aquarium, where he had them constantly under
microscopic observation for some months.

8tH Auaust, 1876.

Mr. W. J. Milligan, Vice-President, in the chair.

Mr. Thomas Boyle, 4 Montrose Street, was elected a member of
the Society.

The Chairman stated that it was expected that the lists of the
Fauna and Flora of the West of Scotland would soon be out. It
was also stated that entrance to the Queen’s Rooms, for the purpose
of putting in order the Botanical exhibition for the meeting of the
British Association, would be obtained on the 29th inst.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. James Allan.—A cockchafer, Melolontha vulgaris, from Dr.

Paxton, Sutton, Surrey.
C

186 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

By Mr. Alexander Noble.—Sazifraga cernua, Aspidium Lonchitis,
Cystopteris montana, and Alchemilla alpina from Ben Lawers.

EXCURSION.

Craignethan.—Mr. Thomas King stated that at this excursion the
following plants were found, viz., Hypericum pulchrum, H. hirsutum,
H. quadrangulum, H. perforatum, Campanula latifolia, Calamintha
Clinopodium, Origanum vulgare, Arum maculatum, and Ophioglossum
vulgatum. Few ferns and no mosses were observed.

PAPER READ.

Mr. 8S. Macdonald read an interesting paper on Grasshoppers,
describing their external form, anatomical peculiarities, and
destructive habits. They belong to the class Orthoptera, which also
includes the Crickets and Locusts, the whole order being very
voracious. The female lays about one hundred and fifty eggs,
depositing them in chinks, such as the cracks formed in a sun-dried
clayey soil. The young may be seen about the beginning of May,
hopping about very actively, having as yet no visible wings, the
larva differing from the perfect state or imago only in this respect,
and in point of size. In about twenty days it goes through the
incomplete metamorphosis by which they are released from their
sheaths. The anterior pair of wings are leathery, and form cases
(elytra) for the posterior flying wings. The legs are formed for
leaping, the hind pair being much longer than the others. On the
back, front, and sides the insect is effectually covered with a thick
shell-skin binding it round in the form of plates, strong and flexible,
and well suited for its active life. The mouth is furnished with a
set of “incisors,” by which it crops its vegetable food. The gizzard,
or second cavity of the stomach, is adapted for crushing the food,
having horny plates developed in its walls. The digestive fluids are
of a green colour. ‘The paper was illustrated with numerous
drawings of the stomach, nervous system, and digestive canal.

22p AucustT, 1876.

Mr. John Harvie, Vice-President, in the chair.
It was announced that the local Financial Committee of the British

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 187

Association had agreed to pay all the expense of publishing the
Fauna and Flora of the West of Scotland, on condition that they
should get all the copies, with the exception of one hundred and
fifty, which will be handed at once to the Society. A copy of the
Transactions of the “ Dresden Field Naturalists’ Club” was laid upon
the table, being the second number presented by that Society.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. W. J. Milligan.—The mosses, Blindia acuta, Bryum Zierii,
and Meesia uliginosa, from Ben Vhorlich.

By Mr. James Allan.—A large collection of mosses gathered at
the excursion to Ben Vhorlich, among which were the following :—
Sphagnum teres, Rhabdoweissia denticulata, Dicranum circinnatum,
Campylopus compactus, Grimmia spiralis, Grimmia torta, and Brywm
crudum. He also exhibited specimens of mica from Ben Lawers.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—The very rare fresh-water alga Ba-
trachospermum atrum, from hills at the head of Loch Striven.
This is the second station for this rare plant that is known in the
West of Scotland, the only other place being in Glen Rosa, Arran.
He also exhibited a very large collection of beetles, ants, moths, and
butterflies from Australia, among which were specimens of the
kangaroo beetle and Goliath beetle, this latter being one of the
largest insects of its tribe. Among the butterflies there were several
very rare species. He also exhibited nature prints of the following
plants, Aspidium Lonchitis, var. bifida, Polystichum vestitum, Aneimia
hirta, Mrium undulatum, Plagiochila arbuscula, P. gigantea, Gottschia
_ appendiculata, Trifolium pratense, and Lastrea dilitata. These were
all done by himself, by a secret method.

By Mr. J. M‘Intyre.—A series of beautifully photographed plants

done by himself.

EXCURSION,

Mr. R. H. Paterson gave an account of the excursion to Ben
Vhorlich. There was a large turn out of members, The holly
fern was again found in abundance on the same spot as it
was found last year. When near the summit, one of the party
came across a specimen of the golden eagle. A number of rare
mosses and lichens were found, and about one hundred and fifty
species of the larger fungi, among which was a specimen of
Schizophyllum commune.

188 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

5TH SEPTEMBER, 1876.

Mr. W. J. Milligan, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. F. M. Bailey, Curator of the Queensland Museum, was elected
a corresponding member of the Society.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—A specimen of the Rose of Jericho
(Anastatica hiero chuntina). This remarkable plant is the true
“Resurrection Plant.” It is an annual belonging to the Nat. Ord.
Cruciferae, and a native of the Egyptian deserts and the dry wastes
of Arabia, Barbary, and the Holy Land. Its generic name is
derived from anastasis, “resurrection,” in reference to the property
it possesses of recovering its original form and green healthy
appearance if immersed in ‘water, no matter how dry it may be.
It is a dwarf-growing, bushy-habited plant, resembling, when in the
fresh green state, a large tuft or patch of green moss; but when
deprived of moisture it curls up, then resembling a bunch of dried
cedar twigs about four or five inches in diameter. In its native
habitat this singular plant grows with remarkable vigour during the
rainy season, but as soon as the dry weather sets in, and the heat of
the sun begins to dry up the supply of moisture, the plant dries up
too, the roots detach themselves from the earth, and the plant is then
blown about at the mercy of the wind until the return of a few
congenial showers. Immediately the roots receive a little moisture
they suck it up, the plants unfold in a few hours, and spread out in
flat tufts of the most emerald brightness, and grow away again with
renewed vigour. With the return of dry weather the plants again
dry up as before, unless they have had time to flower and perfect
their seed; of course, when this happens, they die like all other
plants of an annual duration.

PAPER READ.

Mr. Alexander Noble postponed the reading of his paper on
the “Ferns of Arran,” as the work in the Queen’s Rooms had

to be finished that night.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 189

19TH SEPTEMBER, 1876.

Mr. John Harvie, Vice-President, in the chair.

The Rev. John Stevenson, Glammis, Forfarshire, was elected a
corresponding member of the Society.

The Secretary intimated that he had received copies of the
“Transactions of the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club” and ‘ Leeds
Naturalists’ Field Club” from the respective Societies.

Dr. Stirton submitted a request on behalf of Dr. C. E. Lichke,
Bonn, Rhine, Germany, for dried specimens of Scotch Ferns correctly
named. It was agreed to help him as far as possible with this.
He also read a circular from M. Richter Lajos of Budapest,
announcing the formation of a Botanical Exchange Club there for
plants of the Austrian provinces.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. W. J. Milligan.—A number of mosses gathered at the
Strathblane excursion.

By Mr. J. Harvie.—A number of star-fishes and crabs gathered at
a dredging excursion of the British Association.

EXCURSION.

_ The excursion to Kilsyth was reported as being most enjoyable.

The spot visited was the Hermitage, a most romantic building in the
middle of the Carron river, where the surroundings are well suited for
botanists, and many good things were got. In the evening the
party were hospitably entertained by Mr. Gregorson.

The excursion to Strathblane, being the last of the season, was
devoted to sociality more than work, and most agreeably wound up
an agreeable series of excursions, in which some good work has been
done.

PAPERS READ.

By Mr. James Allan.—Mr. Allan read a paper on ‘The Habits of
the Common Rat.” This animal does not appear to be mentioned in
Scripture, although the mouse and the weasel are both named, and
in Asop there is no mention of the rat, although almost every common
animal is mentioned by him. The origin of the word is evidently
Gothic, and may be either from roth, red, or rathe, meaning wisdom,

190 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

or cunning. After giving the distinctive characters, which are
principally taken from the teeth, claws, and hair, and the rings of
the tail, he gave a sketch of its history. The Mus decuwmanus arrived
in this country in 1736, and was called the Hanover or Norwegian
rat, because it was said by some to have come with George I., and
by others from Norway. But in Norway it was certainly an invader,
as Linnaeus says it came from Scythia or India, from whence it
seems to have come in vast hordes. It soon exterminated the black
rat, Mus rattus. The latter was tolerably plentiful in Kincardine-
shire thirty years ago, but is now extinct. The rats are grain eaters,
but will eat almost anything, even taking eggs from under fowls. It
has been said by a good authority that the rats destroy the value of
one million sterling annually, and that if it were exterminated the
saving would keep all the paupers in Scotland.

By Mr. Alex. Noble-——Mr. Noble read a paper “On the Ferns
found in Arran,” and exhibited a mounted series of those he had
obtained there. The Ceterach and holly ferns are not found there,
but nearly all the others are.

The lists of the Fauna and Flora published by the Society for
the British Association were laid on the table.

SRD OcToBER, 1876.

Mr. W. J. Milligan, Vice-President, in the chair.

Messrs. Alex. 8. Wilson, M.A., B.Sc., and James Lochhead, were
elected members of the Society.

A vote of thanks was given to those gentlemen, members of the
Society, who had brought forward such a magnificent collection of
flowering plants, ferns, mosses, hepatic, fungi, lichens, and insects,
as was exhibited in the Queen’s Rooms on the occasion of the visit
of the British Association to this city. If it had not been for the
zeal and energy displayed by them, Glasgow would have fallen
considerably in the estimation of most of the visitors to the city, and
of the public in general. The exhibition was the largest and finest
ever brought forward in Glasgow. Nearly every plant, flowering or
non-flowering, that has been found in the West of Scotland was to be
seen on the various screens placed in the two large halls of the
Queen’s Rooms.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 191

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED,

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—Six different species of Brittleworts,
found in the Clyde Valley, viz, Chara vulgaris from Bute, Chara
fragilis and C. flexilis from Possil Marsh, Chara aspera from Loch
Eil, Chara translucens and C. hispida from Bowling Moor. These
curious plants were at one time included among the Algz. They
are now, however, placed in a class by themselves — Characee,
intermediate between lichens and mosses. Some, however, are in-
clined to rank them as high in the scale as ferns. He also exhibited
specimens of parts of the rare Spindle Tree, Huonymus Huropacus
and Pyrus aria, var. fennica, from Innellan. Also the Algz,
Melobesia calcarea, M. fascicularis, M. verrucata, and M. pustulata,
all dredged at Innellan in twenty fathoms of water, and Melobesia
agariciformis, a very rare and beautiful form, dredged in Roundstone
Bay, on the west coast of Ireland, in from eight to ten fathoms of
water. He also exhibited some very large specimens of the opercula
of a species of mollusc from the Cape of Good Hope, one specimen
being several ounces in weight, the operculum of British mollusca
seldom weighing more than one or two grains. There was also a
fine specimen of the brain coral from the same locality. These were
sent by Dr. Watkins, a corresponding member.

By Mr. Richard M‘Kay.—Specimens of the plant Good King
Henry, Chenopodium Bonus Henricus, from the Carron Glen, near
Kilsyth,

PAPER READ.

Mr. Taylor then read an interesting paper ‘“‘On the Vegetable
Cell.” After defining what was understood by the term “cell” in
science, he went on to show how the normal round cell, by pressure
in various directions, comes to assume the different shapes found in
each kind of tissue. The vegetable cell is a mass of protoplasm
surrounded by a cell wall, called the cellulose coat. Various changes
take place in this cell, the protoplasm gets replaced by cell sap
(vacuolation), air replaces this sap, when the cell is virtually dead.
Again we have the deposit of cellulose inside the cell wall, producing
a striated appearance like bone cells, or it may be in the forms of
rings (annular) or like the steps of a ladder (scalariform), etc. He
then pointed out how the various theorists accounted for this
striated appearance of cells. At the conclusion, he gave a short

192 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

account of the different ways in which cells multiply. The
paper was illustrated throughout by a series of carefully executed
diagrams.

20TH OctToBER, 1876.

Mr. J. Harvie, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. J. J. King was elected a member of the Society.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.
By Mr. J. Renwick.—Specimens of the Hop and Toad-flax from
Loch Lomond.
By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—Twenty-six species of star-fish dredged
by himself in the Firth of Clyde.

PAPER READ.

“On some Remains of Pre-Historic Man.” By Mr. W. J. Milligan.

In this paper it was maintained that all the remains of pre-historic
man support the theory of the progressive development of the race ;
and that the theory of the degeneracy of man is not supported by
any of these remains. It was pointed out that traces of primitive
man and his flint implements have been discovered in such positions
that it may be held as proven that he existed at a very remote
period—a period far before the eras of our chronological tables.
Then it was shown that if it be true that man’s first estate was one
of advanced civilization, then it must have taken long ages for his
becoming reduced to the level of cave dwellings and flint implements.
So that upholders of the degeneracy theory will be forced at last, in
support of that theory, to give man even a greater antiquity than
the evolutionists will be inclined to allow him! The wonderful
remains of cyclopean architecture and vast sculptures found in various
parts of the world, and particularly those of Easter Island and
Central America, were described at length. These great ruins show
that the builders were partially civilized, but it was pointed out, that
this kind of architecture, in which great blocks of stones were used,
was a primitive one ; and that-these huge useless monuments could
only be raised by the wasted labour of a large population in a lowly
grade of civilization. The building of the Pyramids and of the

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS, 193

palaces of Mexico were taken as examples. The profligate waste of
labour expended on the Pyramids may be imagined, when we read
in Herodotus that 2000 men were employed three years in carrying
a single stone from Elephantine to Sais! The people who raised
the monuments of Easter Island have degenerated or disappeared.
' But the theory of progressive development takes into account partial
degeneracy ; just as the theory of the evolution of animals or plants
takes into account the extinction of races unfitted, perhaps, by
altered external conditions or modifications of structure, for the
battle of life. If a perfect civilization existed at one time, where
are the remains of its activity, of instruments more wonderful than
our degenerate ones, for piercing space, analysing light, measuring
time, or showing the constitution of cosmic gases ?

3RD NovemesER, 1876.

Mr. W. J. Milligan, Vice-President, in the chair.

It was agreed that a memorial should be drawn up regarding the
death of Professor R. Hennedy, who was at one time President
of the Society. In him many of the members miss not only an
accomplished guide in their studies, but a warm personal friend.
He was always ready to assist, advise, and encourage those who
applied to him. Mr. Hennedy did more than any other lecturer to
spread the knowledge of botanical science in the district ; and let it
be said to his honour that he worked without expectation of
monetary reward. He worked because of a very love of his labour,
and he strove by every means in his power to attract others to the
same fields of study and research. His enthusiasm stimulated every
one who came into contact with him, and some of the best botanists
of the district were educated under his eye.

It was decided that an abstract of the minute and an expression
of deep sympathy should be forwarded to his son, Mr. David
Hennedy.

PAPER READ.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson. “On the three kingdoms of Nature.”
D

194 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

17taH NovemsBer, 1876.

Mr. W. J. Milligan, Vice-President, in the chair.

Messrs. Thomas Todd, Peter Mackellar, Thomas Scott, and Charles
Pennell, all of Greenock, were elected members of the Society.

The Secretary presented to the Society a copy of the “ Cyclopedia
of Botany,” a book now very old.

PAPER READ.

The meeting was devoted to a microscopical demonstration by
Mr. A. Schulze. There were six microscopes on the table—
viz., one large binocular of Ross & Co., with low and high power
prisms, complete illuminating, drawing, and measuring apparatus,
and with Ross’ and Powell’s object glasses; one fine binocular
of James White’s,, one binocular of James Swift’s, and three
monoculars on the Hartnack model. Three of the instruments
on the table were kindly lent by Mr. James Brown, St. Vincent
Street. There were five of How’s, and one of Swift’s microscope
lamps on the table, as well as a splendid Dallinger lamp having a
wick an inch and a-half broad, copper chimney, large bull’s-eye
condenser and universal motions. Among the objects exhibited in
the course of the evening were the following :—The circulation of the
blood in the web of a frog’s foot, under a power of 330 diameters ;
the rotation of the chlorophyll in the cells of Anacharis Canadensis,
under a power of 800 diameters ; the yeast plant 900 diameters ;
human blood, 1200 diameters; living infusoriz, animal parasites, and
a number of beautifully injected preparations of human kidney,
spleen, and lung. Among the more remarkable preparations
exhibited were the following :—Mbller’s Typenplatte, containing 160
diatoms, the name of each species being photographed on the slide ;
several beautiful slides of diatoms, arranged by Arthur C. Cole, of
Liverpool; a splendid cornucopia and flowers, arranged from the
scales and hairs of butterflies and from diatoms. There were also a
splendid set of botanical and entymological preparations exhibited.

A vote of thanks was given to the gentlemen who had brought
forward such a fine series of microscopes and slides.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 195

9TH DECEMBER, 1876.

Mr. J. Harvie, Vice-President, in the chair. '

Messrs. Fred. Grierson, Peter Grant, Arch. Grant, and Dr. John
Glaister were elected ordinary members of the Society. Prof.
Dittmar was elected an honorary member.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. James Allan.—A curious variety of the common oak fern
(Polypodiwm dryopteris), an abnormal specimen of the moss (Hypnum
triquetrum), and a peculiar fungus from the hills above Campsie.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—Five eggs, and a cabinet specimen of
the Emew (Dromanius Novae Hollandiae), from Australia, This
peculiar bird belongs to the class Cursores or runners, a wingless
tribe of birds, in which we have also the Ostrich and Apteryx. The
far interior of Australia must be visited in order to see this bird in
its wild state, and unless attention is paid in rearing them, the time
is not far distant when this noble bird will have met the fate of so
many of the wingless tribe, and become extinct. The natives call
the Emew “Gorin” and “Berberine.” It is valued by them for
its oil, which is of a clear bright golden yellow colour. The bird
possesses great keenness of vision. It crops the grass like a cow,
and also feeds on various fruits, preferring the quandong or native
peach (f'usanus acuwminatus) to that of all other fruits. The settlers
hunt them with dogs, going out early in the morning, when they
can be surprised while feeding. They are exceedingly swift of foot,
and as soon as the dogs reach them, they turn round and strike out
with their legs, trying to disable their enemies. The usual result,
however, is, that they are overpowered and killed. The entire
plumage of the bird is of a dark brown mottled with a dirty grey.
The female lays from nine to eleven eggs, which are of a beautiful
bluish green colour. They are hatched by incubation. Their nest
is of the most simple character, and is usually built on the edge of
some dark wood. He also exhibited specimens of the rare Australian
Jabiru (Mycteria australis) and the brush turkey (Tallegalla, sp.)
The brush turkey possesses very extraordinary habits. Instead of
hatching its young by the warmth of its body, as is the ordinary
method of incubation, it constructs a natural eccalcobion, by heaping
together a mound of vegetable matter, in which it deposits its eggs,

196 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

waiting patiently for the fermentive process to hatch them. The
mound is scraped up by the male bird to a height of five or six feet ;
and the eggs are placed among the heated mass in a ring at regular
intervals, with their smaller ends pointing downwards, at least
eighteen inches below the surface. Lest the temperature of the
mass become too great, the male bird is constantly giving them air
during the day, and keeping an aperture open in the middle to
prevent any increase of heat. The eggs of the brush turkey cannot
be hatched by the warmth of other birds, neither can they be
hatched by the artificial method which is so successful with nearly
all other birds. These facts go to prove that there is some condition
of heat which the fermentive process is alone capable of producing.

Mr. J. Harvie mentioned that the Leipoa and the Megapode
(Megapodius tumulus), also natives of Australia, deposit their eggs in
similar mounds; but instead of placing them at intervals in the
mound, they make deep holes, from five to six feet, at the bottom of
which the eggs are deposited. The mounds are enormously large,
the height of one being fifteen feet, and its circumference at the base
about sixty feet.

PAPER READ.

Mr. Thos. King then read a paper on “ Early botanists before the
time of Reay.” The first whose name is known in the history of
botany is Hippocrates, who described two hundred and forty plants.
Then came Theophrastes and Dioscorides, who described six hundred
plants. These three men are the authorities for all the Greek names
up to the Christian era, (¢.g.), Anchusa, Orchis, and Aconitum. The
first century of the Christian era is especially memorable, for it was
then that the great Pliny arose. Galen was the only botanist of note
in the second century. His teaching ruled for one thousand years.
After Galen’s time there was no one of note till the beginning of the
eighth century, when arose the celebrated Arab Physicians, so called,
not because they were all Arabians, but because they wrote in the
Arabian language. After this there is a total blank in the history of
botany, but after the invention of printing and the subsequent
discovery of America, it revived. The first to come into note was
Brunsfels, who wrote a book on botany with plates. Next comes
Brock, who wrote a history of plants. Then came such illustrious
men as Cordus, Fuchs, Gesner, Mathiola, Lonicer, and Lobel,
whose names appear in the names of our common plants—

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 197

fuchsia, and lonicera, the honey-suckle. The names then become so
numerous that Mr. King only gave an outline of all their work.
Botany was first studied in Britain in the 16th century—the father
of British botany being Turner, a clergyman, who wrote the first
good English Herbal. Gerard, who was born in 1545, wrote an
herbal containing the properties of all the known plants of his day.
Then arose Johnson, who wrote the first local Flora; Parkinson, who
wrote the first book on gardening ; and Evelyn, who wrote on forest
trees. Caesalpino was the first to try and classify plants. In the
early part of the seventeenth century, arose the great Reay, whose
system of classification forms the basis of that adopted at the present
day. Mr. King closed his paper by giving a short sketch of the
classifications of Caesalpino and Reay.

15TH DEcEMBER, 1876.

Mr. W. J. Milligan, Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

Mr. R. H. Paterson, F.C.S.8., reported the discovery of a moss
new to science. It was found growing on rocks in Argyllshire in the
summer of 1875. It has been called Stereophyllum Patersoni by the
Rev. John Fergusson, of Brechin, in honour of Mr. Paterson. It is
the only British representative of the genus Sfercophyllum. He also
exhibited the following new species of fungi :—Septoria Patersont,
Ustilago Candollea, Tympanis pinasirt, Uredo alchemille, Trichobasis
rumicum, and Atcidiwm phaseli. All these fungi were gathered in
woods near Ballimore, Argyllshire.

By Dr. Nairne.—The dental arch of the white shark, also
specimens of fossil wood, from Carmyle, and a number of fossil
shells, etc., from the London clay. He also exhibited a number of
specimens of fossil teeth, and a small specimen of a stalactite.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—Five species of fungi new to Britain,
which he had gathered in the Glasgow Botanic Gardens. (See
“Scottish Naturalist,” January, 1877).

PAPER READ.
Dr. Nairne then read an interesting paper on Infusoria and

198 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

the life problem, which caused a good deal of discussion, in which
nearly all present took part.

5TH JANUARY, 1877.

Mr. J. Harvie, Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—Three states of the alga, called the
Trish Moss, Chondrus crispus, from Innellan. One from deep water,
where the plants were long and very delicate ; one from shallow
water, where the fronds were very broad and coarse ; and one, from
rocks about mid-tide. This latter is the ordinary state of the alga.
The dried plant, when mixed with milk and boiled, forms admirable
food for infants. He also exhibited a number of fungi, mosses, and
liverworts, from the hills about Innellan, some of them being rare.

By Mr. James Allan.—A number of specimens of fungi and
products derived from Cryptogams in illustration of his paper on
Economic Cryptogamy.

PAPER READ.

“On Economic Cryptogamy,” by Mr. James Allan. In this
paper he treated of the uses of Cryptogams in nature, and of
the products derived from them in commerce. He noticed the fact
that diatoms secreted silica, and have probably been the first cause
of the great beds of silica frequently found; as foramenifera have
perhaps been of lime. He stated that the great beds of nitrate of
soda in South America, nitrate of potass in India, and muriate
of potass in Germany, have probably been derived from algae. He
also noticed the quantities of soil laid down by lichens decaying,
forming a suitable pabulum for higher races of plants, the uses of
fungi as scavengers, the beds of soil and peat formed by mosses,
and the small effect ferns have had in moulding the world into its
present shape, although the spores may sometimes form the inflammable
part of coal. He described the inflammable clay of the Island of
Réunion, which had been found to consist altogether of the spores of
ferns. Hethen noticed the products useful to man derived from crypto-
gams, and exhibited specimens of potasses, iodine, bromine, kelp, crotal,

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. no9

litmus, Amanita muscaria, ergot of rye, dry rot, the morell, and
chantarelle, and briefly noticed a few of the edible fungi. It is
strange that although tons of good meat lie rotting in our woods, the
poorer classes will rather feed on garbage than eat either Agaricus,
Lycoperdon, or Boleto fungi. He drew attention to the strange fact
that some fungi are poisonous in one country and edible in others,
of which our common mushroom is an example, in Italy being
regarded as a poison. He stated that up to the present time no
useful product had been derived from mosses, ferns, or jungermanniae,
which seem intended to beautify the world.

19TH JANUARY, 1877.
Mr. W. J. Milligan, Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. Arch. Fawcett.—A very large collection of ferns from
St. Helena, among which were the following:—Hymenophyllum
capillaceum, Polypodium Helene, P. marginellum, P. rugosum,
Dicksonia arborea, Pieris paleacea, Asplenium gemmiferum, A.
erectum, Acrostichum furcatum, and A. subdiaphanum.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—The following species of British fungi—
Agaricus subcavus, A. maritimus, Polyporus. sanguineus, P.
carnosus, and Greaster cryptorrhynchus. He also reported the
discovery of Lycopodium inundatum and Potentilla Salisburgense on
Benlomond. This is the first time that these plants have been
found in the West of Scotland.

PAPER READ.

“On the probable reasons why certain plants occur most
frequently in the vicinity of human dwellings,” by Mr A. 8.
Wilson, M.A., B.Sc. It is a’ fact worthy of remark that in nature
we often find the most dissimilar organisms mutually dependent
oneach other. The curious phenomena of animal commensalism, as
seen in the pilot-fish, the buffalo guardian bird, or the honey guide,
are not without a parallel in the vegetable kingdom. The nettle,
pellitory, dock, borage, and henbane exhibit markedly a predilec-
tion for the abodes of man; and the same tendency is shown by

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a large number of plants, as their botanical or even popular
names indicate. For example, agrestis, muralis, tectorum, urbica,
murinum, parietaria, wallflower, etc., are terms significant of this
peculiarity. The same thing is seen, although in a less degree, in
the case of those species whose habitat is a stony or dry waste
place. The number of such in the British flora is very great; our
common thistles, whins, brambles, and scraggy hedge plants
generally, belong to this class. The explanation usually given, is,
that in the neighbourhood of towns, nitrogenous and calcareous
matters abound. ‘To this it may be objected that these materials
are useful to vegetation generally, and it is not at the spots where
such matters are accumulated that these plants occur in greatest
numbers. It is questionable, moreover, whether plants have
such a range of choice in the matter of location, since owing to
natural competition, it is only fair to suppose that each species
has some peculiar adaptation for its usual abode.

A close study of the more important examples of plants showing
this peculiarity, reveals the fact that they usually possess one or
more of the following provisions, the aggregate character of which
proves unmistakably, that, viewed as a class, such plants bear the
impress of a desert flora.

Table of Provisions enabling a plant to withstand

1. Drought.

(a) Succulent leaves; sempervivum, sedum.

(b) Succulent tap-roots or tubers; dock.

(c) Hairs; borago, lamium.
2. Attacks of animals.

(a) Stings; nettle.

(6) Prickles; brier, bramble, thistle.

(c) Thorns and spines; whin, hawthorn, wild pear tree.
3. Nocturnal cold.

Aromatic leaf-glands; sweet brier.

4, Sea water.
Scales, scurf, and bloom; chenopodium, silene.

In addition to the foregoing, it is not improbable that incon-
spicuous flowers may be advantageous to plants growing near
houses, while others may have their chances of cross-fertilisation

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 201

favourably affected by man’s influence directly, or through his
domestic animals indirectly, as in the case of Trifolium pratense.

I, Under the first heading in the table, we may take the well-
known instance of the house-leek (Sempervivum tectorum), so
called from its growing almost exclusively on thatched roofs.
This plant has thick succulent leaves, and such leaves have com-
paratively few stomata on their surface, so that their power of
exhaling watery vapour is limited. For this reason many
succulent leaved plants succumb to a damp climate (‘ Origin of
Species”), but are specially fitted for a dry one. Dr. Livingstone
has recorded that the Kalahari desert, when first taken possession
of by the Boers, was covered with a coating of grass, but that
subsequent droughts, proving too much for this form of vegetation,
it has disappeared, and its place has been taken by a crop of
Mesembryanthemums, and that these are now cultivated largely
by the Boers, as fodder for their sheep and goats, in place of grass.
These Mesembryanthemums or ice-plants resemble the house-leek
in possessing thick succulent leaves and few stomata. On a thatched
roof the latter probably finds the conditions of its primitive home
pretty closely imitated: thus, it is exposed to the full force of
the sun’s rays, and excess of rain is rapidly drained off. For this
reason the house-leek flourishes, whilst the grass upon the house-
top, to quote the Psalmist, “ withereth afore it groweth up.”

II. Tap-roots and stem-tubers, there can be little doubt, are
organs, the primary intention of which is to contain a supply of
water to enable the plant to live through a long rainless period.
That this is so, is shown by the large proportion of plants which
bear such roots and tubers, occurring in the periodically parched
districts of Africa visited by Livingstone and Schweinfurth, as
well as by the great size attained by such structures in these
regions of periodic drought (“Heart of Africa”). Many shore
plants possess roots capable of succulent development under the
influence of stimuli; indeed, our carrots, turnips, beets, and even
the potato itself, were originally shore plants. The possession of
these roots would enable the plant to take a supply of water, when
that was to be had, before the rain had all filtered off through the
gravel. Under cultivation, from the large percentage of water
these roots contain (turnips 91 °/,), and from the great perfection

E

202 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

attained in light soils, we have a confirmation of the views here
advanced. The tap-root of the dock constitutes its title to a place
in this division.

III. Speaking generally, plants growing in dry situations are
more freely supplied with hairs than those which frequent wet
places. According to Haeckel, if a plant be removed from moist
to dry soil, it becomes more hairy ; the end gained by these hairs
being to obtain a supply of moisture from the atmosphere, for
which there is greater need in a dry locality. The dead-nettle,
borage, mint, and rock-rose are familiar examples of this. Some
species of poppy, too, become covered with stiff hairs, particularly
on the seed vessel, and their leaves become cut up into segments
in a pinnatifid manner, simulating thistle leaves, if grown in dry
soil. Papaver hybridum and P. argemone exhibit this markedly ;
the setose character of the seed vessel coming of use also to help
in disseminating the seed, by catching the fur of passing animals,
so that the seeds are shaken out of their capsule. Similar hairs,
correlated to a liking for dry situations, are observed in many
species of Fumariaceae, Cruciferae, Boraginaceae, Solanaceae,
Caryophyllaceae, and Malvaceae. Many of the last named order
are remarkable for their curiously forked hairs. They grow in
dry soil. To this order the cotton plant belongs, and it is not
improbable, in view of such facts as we have been considering,
that the hairs on the seed of this plant, and the hairy pappus on
the fruit of many compositae (down of thistle, seed of dandelion,
etc.), may have been acquired during long habituation to arid
conditions, although in the present condition of the plants, these
processes of hairs are directly related to disseminating the seed.
The fact that the cotton plant is not now confined to hot, dry
regions, the wet habitat of the cotton-grass, and a few other facts,
would appear, however, to render this theory doubtful.

In the second class are placed those plants which, from being
provided with formidable weapons of defence, are best capable of
maintaining their ground against man; thorny, prickly, and
stinging plants, abounding near the haunts of mankind in spite of
man’s enmity; probably doing so in virtue of those qualities which
recommend the thistle as the national emblem of Scotland, viz.,
that no one touches them with impunity. But there is a reason
why plants in poor soil should be of this jaggy character.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 203

Passages might be quoted from the works of Livingstone, Wallace,
and Darwin, to prove that thorns are characteristic of dry, stony
soils, whilst well watered districts are remarkable for the almost
total absence of such defensive weapons. The common pear tree,
if allowed to grow wild, exhibits many branches which ordinarily
bear leaves aborting into spines. The little Scotch rose (Rosa
spinosissima,), which grows in dry sandy places, becomes much less
prickly if grown in moist garden soil. The common bramble,
when grown on stony waste places, possesses prickles both on its
stem and leaves, but when growing high up on moist mountain
sides is entirely devoid of them. The inability of the wild pear
tree to produce leafy branches is to be explained by the difficulties
the roots experience in obtaining a sufficient supply of mineral
matter from the stony soil; for, since a much larger amount of
inorganic matter is required for leaf-formation than for the pro-
duction of wood, we should expect that poor soil would have the
effect of diminishing the number of leaves. Possibly this may
also be the reason for leaves splitting up in dry soil.

IV. In his address to the Biological section of the British
Association in 1876, Mr Wallace, when discussing the distribution
of plants and animals in oceanic islands, was led to speculate on the
object attained by the presence of aromatic leaf glands in plants,
in connection with the observed absence of conspicuously coloured
and scented flowers from insular floras, as determined by the
paucity of insect life. He cited Mr. Darwin’s opinion, that leaf
glands bearing essential oils are a protection against the attacks of
insects where these abound, and would thus not be required in
countries where insects were scarce, but took exception to this
view on the ground that highly aromatic plants are characteristic
of deserts all over the world. He also gave numerous examples
and quoted many authorities proving aromatic plants to enjoy no
immunity from insect attacks; neither did Mr. Wallace consider
that scented leaves could be much in the way of attraction,
supplementary to that of a scented corolla, so he leaves us in
doubt as to the original office of these aromatic leaf glands.

It is to the physicist rather than the biologist we must turn
for a solution of this difficulty. Professor Tyndall has made an
important series of experiments on the absorptive power of
different gases for radiant heat, from which it appears that under

204 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

given conditions carbonic acid absorbs 972 times, and ammonia
5460 times as much heat as air or oxygen. Similar experiments
with perfumes show that these possess the power of arresting the
passage of calorific rays to a remarkable extent. Thus, air scented
with thyme arrested 33 times, with peppermint 34, spearmint 38,
lavender 32, wormwood 41, cinnamon 53 times as much heat as
air did. The temperature of dry air is not affected by the passage
of the sun’s rays through it. It is transparent and diathermous.
The capacity of the atmosphere for heat is therefore in proportion
to the aqueous vapour it contains. In a region subjected to the
rays of a hot sun through the day, the heated soil would at night
speedily cool down by rapid radiation through the dry atmosphere,
which would not itself be sensibly affected by this heat, the
result being a great fall of temperature, such as would doubtless
be injurious to”plant life. The perfume shed by aromatic glands
may, by supplying the deficiency of aqueous vapour, present a
curtain, so to speak, which would obviate the injurious loss of
heat, on the principle that a clear night is colder than a cloudy
one. Asa matter of fact, we know that the flow of sap from the
Maple is much larger on a cloudy evening than on a clear one,
and the flow of sap is an important factor in vegetable growth.
Confirmatory too, of this view, aromatic plants are most odori-
ferous at night or before dawn, the coldest period. Such, then,
would appear to be the original intention of odours like that of
the Sweet-brier, and we have already seen the probability that its
thorns should be traced to a similar origin, viz., a dry hot climate
and poor stony soil.

V. This class should perhaps have been included in the second,
as the epidermal scales on shore plants, (Chenopodium, Eringo,
Silene, etc.) are the representatives of hairs, on the sea margin
hairs being objectionable, on account of their collecting salt from
the sea water ; scales, scurf, or bloom, serving to run it off, as the
oil on the feathers of aquatic birds does.

From these and similar reasons we have been led to ascribe the
remarkable liking for human abodes which many species of plants
possess, to man’s influence on the soil and climate, who, by cutting
woods, draining, etc., renders these drier and so more suited to
members of a flora—settlers which came originally from a less
moist country than our own, and which may possibly have formed

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 205

part of the miocene flora, during which age, according to Wallace,
the climatal conditions of Europe simulated that of Central Africa
at the present day.

The Curator of the Society, Mr. W. D. Benson, intimated that
he had to resign his office, as he required to leave Glasgow, having
to remove to Richmond, Yorkshire. After a hearty vote of
thanks had been awarded to Mr. Benson for the admirable
manner in which he had filled the office, Mr. J. J. King was
unanimously appointed to fill the vacant Curatorship.

2nD Fepruary, 1877.

Mr. J. Harvie, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. W. D. Benson was elected a corresponding member.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—Two abnormal specimens of the sweet
scented violet, which he had gathered at Helensburgh. Also speci-
mens of a number of fungi from Cadder Wilderness, some of which
were very rare.

PAPER READ.

Mr. F. G. Binnie read an interesting paper ‘On Dipterous
Gallmakers and their Galls,” in continuation of one previously
given before the Society. In the present paper he treated of the
collecting, rearing, and preserving of the galls and their workers
(the Cecidomydac), giving the results of his own experience with the
group. He stated that in so far as collecting in the fields was
concerned, the perfect insect was of secondary consideration, and
attention had mostly to be directed to the gall. The apparatus
required, and the best times, localities, and situations were indicated.
He advised collecting the galls as near their maturity as possible,
mentioning the danger of collecting them immediately after rain
when still covered with moisture, with other suggestions for the
guidance of the student. The rearing of the maker from these galls
was fully treated, and the methods which he had found most

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successful were given. He then passed on to consider the prepara-
tion of the perfect insect and its gall for the cabinet. In conclusion,
he enumerated the principal points which require to be noted in a
perfect and complete description of the development and economy of
the species, dwelling on the importance of the last or anal segment
of the larva, from the tubercular prominences often found upon it, a
character often overlooked by previous students. In the imago he
pointed out the extreme value of the characters of the antenne, not
only from their importance in fixing the genus, but also because a
good specific character existed in them. He urged upon the students
the necessity of descriptions of the imago being taken from the
living insects, and that those made from dead and dried examples
were valueless. The paper was illustrated with diagrams and draw-
ings of the principal forms of galls, and also of the larva, pupa, and
imago of the insect.

16TH Frsruary, 1877.

Mr. W. J. Milligan, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. George M‘Kinlay was elected a member of the Society.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

Mr, Allan exhibited a collection of mosses from Brazil, made by
Mr. John Weir, formerly of the Glasgow Botanic Gardens. A few
of the species are identical with British mosses, but the great
majority are not only specifically but generically distinct.

PAPER READ.

Mr. James J. King read a paper entitled, ‘“‘ Notes on the Micro-
Lepidoptera,” in which he brought before the Society several of the
most interesting species that occur near Glasgow, and announced
the addition of three genera, and twenty-three species to his list in
the “Fauna and Flora of Clydesdale.” The new species are as
follows :—

Paedisca profunda, 8. V. Barrochan Moss.
Pacdisca sordidana, Hub. Near Milngavie. By beating Alder.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 207

Eupoecilia maculosana, Hw. Clober Moor.

Tinea ganomella, Tr. Barrochan Moss.

Swammerdamia comptella, Hub. Common near Hamilton. Mr. Lang.

Depressaria arenella, S. V. Mugdock Woods. Larva feeds on leaves of
knapweeds and thistles.

Depressaria angelicella, Hub. Mugdock Woods. Larva feeds on leaves
of angelica sylvestris.

Depressaria pulcherrimella, Stn. Mugdock Woods.

Gelechia acuminatella, Si. Mugdock Woods and Barrochan Moss.

Ocecophora fuscescentella, Hev. South side of Clyde, opposite Kenmuir
Bank.

Argyresthia nitidella, F. Very common. Almost in every hedge-row.

Argyresthia arcevthinella, Z. Clober Moor. By beating Juniper.

Cedestis farinatella, D. Barrochan Moss. By beating Scotch Fir.
New genus.

Coleophora caespititiella, Z. Mugdock and Barrochan.

Coleophora laricella, Hub. Barrochan Moss.

Laverna helerella, Dup., var. atra HH. W. Clober. Beaten out of Hawthorn.

Elachista biatomella, Stn. Barrochan Moss,

Elachista subochreella, Db. Clober.

Inthocolletis caledoniella, Stn. Near Glasgow.

Inthocolletis klemunnella, Fab. Clober Moor.

Opostega crepusculella, Fisch. Barrochan Moss. New genus.

Bucculatiix crataegifolrella, Dbl. Barrochan Moss. New genus.

Nepticula tityrella, Dg. Cadder Wilderness and Clober.

He also recorded new localities for the following :—

Phoopteryx biarcuna, 8. A few specimens at Clober.
Argyresthia semitestacella, Curt. Cadder Wilderness.
Chrysoclista flavicapitella, Hev. Milngavie.
Inthocolletis trradiella, Cadder Wilderness.

Mr. King exhibited specimens of all the species he mentioned.

208 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

2np Marcu, 1877.

Mr. J. Harvie, Vice-President, in the chair.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.
By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—The jaw of a shark from the South Seas.

é

PAPER READ.

Mr. W. C. Crawford read the first of two papers on the ‘“ Spectro-
scope in Biology.” The author gave an account of the general
principles of spectroscopy as applied to the examination of absorption
bands produced by coloured liquids. He mentioned the instruments
generally employed for obtaining both prismatic and diffraction
spectra. The changes on the appearance of radiation spectra from
variations in pressure and density were then noticed, aud similarly
the effect of the thickness of a coloured solution in modifying the
amount of absorption, as well as alterations that arise from
temperature, was shown by means of graphic curves. Investigations
of this kind seem surrounded by peculiar difficulties, and the results
obtained from them are at present rather unsatisfactory.

After the paper was read a number of characteristic spectra were
shown under the micro-spectroscope.

16TH Marcu, 1877.

Mr. W. J. Milligan, Vice-President, in the chair.
It was agreed that the Society should give a contribution to the
Hennedy Memorial.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—A number of rare mosses collected by
himself, among which there were two new to science, which had been
called by the Rev. John Fergusson of Brechin, Coscinodon Patersoni
and Hypnum Scoticum. Both of these were gathered in the summer
of 1875. There were also specimens of the following mosses from
Kilfinan, Argyleshire: Neckera pennata, Hypnum pulchellum, H.
trifarium and H. Halleri. See “Scottish Naturalist,” April, 1877.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS, 209

He also exhibited a number of rare fungi, ¢.9., Sphaeria pardalota,
S. strigosa, S. aquila, Lactarius acris, L. rufus, Cantharellus lobatus,
C. tbeformis, and Russula sardonia, which he had gathered in the
Botanic Gardens, and an immense specimen of Polyporus giganteus
from India.

PAPER READ.

Mr. Adolph Schulze read a paper on the resolution of test objects
for the highest power of the microscope, and stated at the outset
that test objects for the microscope were such microscopical objects
which require for the revelation of their outlines, their surface-
markings, or their internal structure, objectives which possess either
or all the essential good qualities of a high class lens. After
explaining that for different purposes object glasses of different
capacities, and generally of different angles of aperture are required,
he noticed the limit of microscopical vision, which according to
Hemholtz and Abbe was at half a wave length of that light used for
the illumination of the object, so that for violet light, the limit of
microscopical vision with perfect glasses would be 115,000 lines per
inch. It appeared, however, that in these theories certain properties
of light had not been taken sufficiently into account, as it had been
demonstrated that lines far closer than the ;55'559 of an inch had
been seen by several of our best observers. The physiological limit
of microscopical vision is fortunately wide enough to allow of the
complete exhaustion of the optical limit.

The value and use of monochromatic, especially of blue and
violet light, for the resolution of the closest lines, was next referred to,
as well as microphotography as the greatest aid for demonstrating
the markings on the most difficult tests. The importance of a
careful correction of the object glass for different thicknesses of
covering glass and different mounting media was next insisted upon.
The second part of the paper treated of microscopical illumination,
and the various methods to obtain such under the highest powers of
the microscope. After the lecture he exhibited a number of
beautiful objects under one of the highest object glasses yet
manufactured, namely, one fiftieth of an inch.

210 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

30TH MARcH, 1877.

Mr. W. J. Milligan, Vice-President, in the chair.
Mr. W. C. C. M‘Donald, Mary’s Place, Maryhill, was elected a
member of the Society.

SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

By Mr. R. H. Paterson.—Some beautiful specimens of corals
from Brisbane, and a number of insects collected in Northern Queens-
land ; some of the latter were very rare. He also exhibited a
number of beautiful sections of fossil wood from America,

The Secretary having read the Annual Report, which showed an
increase of forty members to the Society, Dr. Stirton, F.L.S., pro-
ceeded to give his Annual Address.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 211

ADDITIONS TO THE LICHEN FLORA oF SouTH AFRICA.
By JAMeEs Stirton, M.D., F.LS.

The materials from which this paper has been elaborated have
been lying beside me for some time, but want of leisure, and,
more especially, want of authentic allied specimens with which
to compare some of the more critical species, have had mainly to
do in delaying my decision. As it is, I am still in doubt in one
or two instances, as the desiderata have not been secured.

To Professor P. MacOwan of Gill College, South Africa, I am
chiefly indebted for the supply of specimens, generally in fine
condition, and, for the most part, in fruit. Dr. John Shaw, now
of Cape Town, and Mr. J. H. M‘Lea, have also contributed from
other districts of South Africa, the former from the region of
the diamond fields, the latter from the neighbourhood of Port
Elizabeth. In addition, I have inserted the diagnosis of a curious
and unique species of Pannaria from the Bonny River, in Western
tropical Africa, gathered by Mr. Grant, to whom, also, I am
indebted for many other species, several of which are new to
science.

With three exceptions, all the new species are from Professor
MacOwan, the others are in common, unless where mention is
made to the contrary.

Leptogium tremelloides (L.)

Leptogium Hildenbrandii (Ny]l.)

Forma thallo subtus hine inde rhizinoso, alibi nudo et ruguloso.
Corticola. .

Leptogium Menziesii (Mnt.)

Two forms. The one minutely rugulose above, the other
smooth, and, in part, glistening.

Leptogium bullatum (Ach.)

var. dactylinoideum (Nyl.)

212 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Leptogium phyllocarpum (Pers.)
and var. isidiosum (Nyl.)
», macrocarpum (Ny]l.)
» dedaleum (F lot.)
Leptogium adpressum (Nyl.)

Cladonia fimbriata, var. tubeeformis.

Usnea articulata (Ach.)
ceratina (Schaer.)
This lichen seems to grow in great luxuriance. I have certainly
never seen finer specimens.

Ramalina Yemensis (Ach.)
Stictina fuliginosa (Dicks.), c. fr.

Sticta damzcornis (Ach.). Dr. J. Shaw.
Sticta aurata, var. pallens (Nyl.)

Ricasolia Ravenelii (Tuck.)

Parmelia caperata (Ach.)

Parmelia Texana (Tuck.)

Parmelia amplexa (Stn.), sp. nov.

Thallus flavescenti-virescens, centro rugulosus, ambitu planus
lobatulus vel breviter laciniatus, parvus, arcte adpressus (K vi-
rescenti-flavens), medulla alba (K— C—), subtus nigricans;
apothecia carneo-pailida vel pallide flavescentia mediocria (latit.
2-6 mm.), receptaculo levi plerumque incurvo; spore 8ne,
012—:016 x :006---008 mm. Corticola.

This may be P. adpressa (Krph.), but the latter has only been
found in a barren state, and I have not seen specimens of it.

Parmelia perforata (Ach.), c. fr.

Parmelia revoluta (Flk.)

Parmelia austro-africana (Stn.), sp. nov.

Similis P. hypoclyste (Nyl.), sed medulla (supra), K—, dein
C. addito, leviter et sordide erythrinosa, at C. seorsum —. Thallus
pallide flavescens vel pallide flavescenti-virescens, subtus totus

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 213

pallidus vel versus ambitum obscurior aut etiam nigricans, pavr-
cissime albido-rhizinosus et hinc inde rugulosus.

Prope “Diamond fields,” Dr. Shaw et saxicola prope Kyln
Vischrivier (P. MacOwan).

It is rather remarkable that the reactions of the lower surface
of the medulla are indicated by (K— C—). Those of the upper
surface are characteristic and constant throughout a large series of
examples. In my specimens of P. hypoclysta from near Rome, as
well as in the present lichen, K has little or no reaction on the
upper surface of thallus.

This is evidently distinct from P. mutabilis (Tayl.), in the
colour of the thallus, etc.

Parmelia subzequans (Nyl.)

Parmelia laceratula (Nyl.)

* phricodes.

Similis P. laceratule sed thallo densissime coralloideo-isidiato
et apotheciis majoribus (latit. 13 - 20 mm.)

Iodo gel. hym. non tincta, sed ea thecarum (presertim apicium
incrassatorum) ccerulescens.

Ad truncos arborum Montis Boschberg, prope ‘“ Somerset
East,” legerunt MacOwan et Tuckerman.

Parmelia Owaniana (Stn.), sp. nov.

Thallus pallidus, flavescenti-pallidus vel etiam nonnihil pallido-
cervinus, tenuis, leviusculus hinc inde reticulatim rimulosus
(sicut in P. perforata), lobato-laciniatus, ambitu crenatus vel
plerumque anguste crenato-incisus et nigro-ciliatus (K e flavo
intense rubens fere sanguineus), subtus niger, rhizinosus ambitu
spadiceus ; apothecia fusco-rufa (latit. 3-9 mm.), receptaculo
elevato ruguloso vel foveolato-impresso; spore 8nee, ellipsoides,
012-014 x 008--01 mm.; paraphyses graciles in -gelatina
firma involutz ut in P. laceratula.

Spermogonia extus nigra plana; spermatia recta exacte cylin-
drica, ‘01 --013 x (vix) ‘001 mm.

It is difficult to guess what is the colour of this lichen in a
living state, but if one may judge by analogy, it should present
much the same appearance as P. perforata. Ina dry state the
colour may be said to be a pale fawn, such as P. perforata, at
times, assumes.

Parmelia thamnidiella (Stn.), sp. nov.

Thallus pallide flavescens vel flavido-virescens (K flavens)

214 TRANSACTIONS OF THE »

nitidiusculus, fruticulose divaricato-multifidus, laciniis teretibus vel
tereti-compressis, dichotome cervicorni-divisis (latit. °2--4 mm.),
subtus concolor vel interdum (basi) pallidor; medulla alba (K
flavens dein interdum et serius aurantiaco-rubens). Sterilis.
Terricola, ?

The laciniz are very rarely seen in an expanded condition.
The apices of the laciniz, where they fasten to small pebbles,
are the only points expanded, and the under surface is then seen
pale or occasionally brown and radiculose, the radicles being
generally concolorous. The length of a stem with its branches
is half an inch or less, at least in the specimens seen. This
lichen seems closely allied to P. molliuscula.

Parmelia synestia (Stn.), sp. nov.

Another lichen very similar to the preceding has been sent
by Mr. J. H. M‘Lea from “Cave Mountain,” and detected on
“‘ Mossy Stones.”

Thallus pallide flavescens stenophyllus, multifido- et divaricato-
laciniatus, laciniis convexis vel incurvis et etiam convolutis
angustis (latit. °3-1:2 mm.), subtus nigris vel nigricantibus et
nigro-rhizinosis, apice obtusis bi- vel trifidis; apothecia fusca
mediocria; spore 8ne, ‘007—-01 x :0055—:0065 mm., Medulla
K flavens dein cito intense rubens vel sanguinea.

As the spores are those of P. conspersa, this lichen is excluded
from association with P. sinwosa: its colour beneath, as well as
the radicles and narrower laciniz, forbid identification with P.
congruens, The smallest laciniz are never terete nor concolorous
beneath.

It may be a form of P. constrictans (Nyl.), but the description
of this given in Journ. of Botany, No. 157, p. 19, is quite in-
adequate for purposes of discrimination.

The species of the Parmelia of the stirps, P. conspersa, are very
plentiful in South Africa, and they shade off almost indefinitely
into one another. How far lichenologists are warranted in split-
ting up forms and elevating them into the rank of species, is a
question for future consideration. Meanwhile a record of such
forms may prove useful.

Parmelia phzophana (Stn.), sp. nov.

Thallus pallide ochro-leucus vel albido-flavescens vel pallide
virescens (K flavescens dein fuscescens), levis, nitidiusculus (latit.
3-5-pollicaris), laciniato-divisus, laciniis planis marginibus sinuatis,

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS, 215

subtus pallidus vel versus ambitum obscurior, fuscescens vel etiam
nigricans, parce pallido rhizinosus et rugulosus; apothecia fusca
(latit. 3-7 mm.) ; receptaculo levi margine fere integro ; spore
8nee, ‘008—:01 x :005—:006 mm. Terricola?, frequens.

The reactions, as stated above, are constant throughout a large
series of examples, and are very characteristic.

This lichen has evident affinities to P. limbata (Laur.), but the
peculiarities enumerated under the latter are entirely absent in
this, while the chemical reactions of the two differ to a slight
extent.

Parmelia pheophana (Stn.)

var. stenotera;
laciniis angustioribus et szepissime tenuiter nigro-marginatis.

Besides these two Parmeliz so nearly related, I possess speci-
mens of P. molliuscula in fine fruit, with the same thick stock-like
pale rhizinz, but in which the reactions of K on the medulla are
yellow, then a deep red.

Parmelia hottentotta (Ach.)

et var. pachythalla (Spr.)

etiam var. diachrosta (Stn.),
thallo plerumque pallide rufescente et medulla nonnihil rufes-
centi-colorata.

Physcia chrysophthalma (DC.)
var. capensis (Ach.)
Physcia fibrosa (Fr.)
Physcia leucomela (Mich.)
Supra terram muscosam in Cave Mountain (J. H. M‘Lea).
Physcia speciosa (F'r.)
var. hypoleuca (Ach.)
var. granulifera (Ach.)
Physcia czsia (Fr.)
Physcia parietina (DN.)

Pannaria phlceodes (Stn.), sp. nov.

Thallus albidus vel pallidus vel pallide cervinus, minute rugu-
losus quasi leprosus, adpresso-stellaris, laciniato-lobatus, lobis
contiguis interdum imbricatis et margine undulatis, subtus
pallidus rhizinosus passim nudus, rhizinis breviusculis pallidis
vel nigricantibus vel nigris; apothecia rufa conferta mediocria

216 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

(latit. circ. 1 mm.), margine thallino tenui crenulato cincta ;
spore 8ne incolores simplices ellipsoideze -012—-:016 x -007—-01
mm.; paraphyses satis bene distincte. Jodo gel. hym. ccerules-
cens dein sordida. Gonimia mediocria plerumgue oblonga ccerules-
centia in glomerulis majusculis contenta. Ad cortices vetustiores
vel emortuos in Boschberg.

This lichen is one of a group having close affinities, and is
nearly allied to P. sublurida (Nyl.)

Pannaria pityrella (Stn.), sp. nov.

Thallus pallide plumbeus vel glaucescens squamulosus, squa-
mulis tenuibus adscendentibus imbricatis parvis (longit. *3—°6
mm.), hirsutulis quasi tomentellis cuneatis radiato-dissectis
et leviter vel obsolete radiato-striatulis, subtus concoloribus ;
apothecia carnea vel carneo-pallescentia biatorina, parva (latit.
‘2--4 mm.) plana, tenuiter vel (interdum) vix marginata,
conceptaculo subtus plerumque pallido-ciliato; spore 8nze incolores
globose, simplices seepe nucleate, diam. ‘004—-0055- mm.;
paraphyses parce pellucidee fere conglutinatz apice fere incolores ;
hypothecium incolor. Iodo gel. hym. ccerulescens dein fulvescens.
Gonimia plerumque sirosiphoidea cceruleo-virescentia latit. circ.
008 mm. Corticola, prope Bonny River in Africa occid.
(A. Grant). Affinis, ut videtur, P. asterelle (Nyl.)

Occasionally the squamze become decolorized to a pale or pale
yellow colour.

Lecanora Domingensis (Ach.)

Lecanora aureola (Tuck.)

Lecanora punicea (Ach.)

* collata (Stn.)

Thallus albidus vel partim pallide virescens vel pallide flaves-
cens rugulosus; apothecia coccinea (thalamii parte supera cum ~
epithecio K persistenter violaceo-tincta) ; spore 8nz bacillares,
9-16-septate, °054—-08 x 0045—-006 mm. Corticola.

This is evidently an intermediate link between L. punicea and
L. hematomma (Ach.). I have not been successful in detecting
spermogonia in the only specimen in possession, and so far there
remains a doubt as to the side towards which the cape plant
tends.

Pertusaria elatior (Stn.), sp. nov.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS, vould

Thallus pallidus vel pallide cinerascens crassiusculus, rimoso-
areolatus, creberriter papillato-rugosus, late expansus (K flavens
dein intense rubens); apothecia in verrucis thallinis albidis,
truncato-prominulis majusculis (latit. usque 1°8 mm.) inclusa,
lecanorina (1—5 in quavis verruca) carnea, albido-pruinosa
(latit. -3--6 mm.); spore 8ne plerumque uniseriatz, incolores
ellipsoideze, simplices, ‘02—:032 x 01—:014 mm.; paraphyses
distinctz graciles undulatz apicibus incoloribus. lIodo gel. hym.
coerulescens dein intense vinose fulvescens. Corticola.

Arcte affinis P. ambigenti (Nyl.) sed notis allat:. satis distincta.

Phylctis Boliviensis (Nyl.)
Corticola.

Phlyctis capillaris (Stn.)

Similis Ph. Andensi sed thallo pallide olivaceo, ambitu albo
et fibrillose byssino-radiante (K—); spore 8nz_ incolores
erescenticz vel nonnihil spiraliter contort, 7-septate, -034—
05 x 005—-0065 mm. lIodo gel. hym. non tincta, sed gel.
sub-hym. ceerulescens. Corticola.

Lecidea parvifolia, var. fibrillifera (Nyl.)

Lecidea thaleriza (Stn.), sp. nov.

Thallus cinereus vel lurido-cinerascens vel cinereo-virescens
rugulosus, concreto-squamulosus crassiusculus late expansus,
ambitu pallidus fibrillose byssino-radiatus (K— C—) ; apothecia
intus pallida vel in sectione crassiuscula fulvescentia, sessilia
conferta rufo-fuscescentia vel fusco-rufa, mediocria plana, margine
pallidiori vel pallido obtuso cincta, demum convexa et fere
immarginata ; spore 8nz incolores simplices cylindracez, -°01—
016 x cire. ‘003 mm.; paraphyses crassiuscule non bene dis-
tinctz conglutinatz apicibus concoloribus non clavatis ; hypothe-
cium lutescens vel lamina crassiuscula pallide rufescens. Iodo gel.
hym. ccerulescens dein vinose fulvescens. Corticola. Affinis L.
mauritiane (Tayl.)

Lecidea styloumena (Stn.), sp. nov.

Thallus albidus vel pallidus vel pallide cervinus (K fl. C fl.)
levigatus, glomerato-congestus aut cerebriformi-convolutus, a
columellis vel stipitibus extus hirsutulis confertis (alt. 4-12 mm.)
sustentatus; apothecia nigra primum innata demum sessilia,

G

218 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

mediocria convexa et immarginata intus obscura; spore 8ne
incolores oblong simplices vel seepe 1-septatz vel spurie 1-septate,
‘012—-018 x :0045—-0055 mm.; paraphyses distincte crass
(crassit. ‘003—-004 mm.) apicibus cceruleis clavatis interdum
ramosis; hypothecium incolor. Jodo gel. hym. ccerulescens
(saltem leviter) dein obscurata vel obscure violacea preesertim
thecee.

The stipites are composed entirely of fibres closely compacted,
and arranged generally in a direction parallel to the length of the
stipites. There is no outer gonidiac layer nor cortex.

Concerning this plant Mr. MacOwan remarks :—Curiosissima.
In rimis rupium brecciatarum ad ripas aridas K1. Visehrivier.

Lecidea peltasta (Stn.), sp. nov.

Sat similis L. decipienti sed thallo K sordide purpurarcenti.
Squame rotundats umbilicato-adfixe (latit. 1-5-4 mm.) margine
plane, subtus pallid; sporze oblongs, -01—-014 x :0045—-:006
mm.; paraphyses haud distinct apicibus late fuscescentibus ;
hypothecium incolor. Iodo gel. hym. ccerulescens dein obscure
et intense vinose violacea. Terricola.

As I cannot lay hands on my specimens of L. decipiens from
Ben Lawers, I depend on Mr. Leighton’s decision with reference
to the chemical reactions of the thallus in British specimens,
viz.. K— C—.

Lecidea stictella (Stn.), sp. nov.

Thallus vix ullus visibilis; apothecia nigra plana rugosula
marginata minuta (latit. -1--2 mm.); spore 8nez incolores
oblonge vel fusiformi-oblongz, 1-septatz, ‘008—-01 x :003—
‘0035 mm.; paraphyses graciles distinctz apicibus sordide viola-
ceis crasse clavatis (clave latit. -003-:005 mm.); hypothecium
incolor. Jodo gel. hym. ccerulescens dein sordide violacea.
Corticola, cum Physcia fibrosa immixta.

Forte affinis L. lenticulari (Ach.)

_ Lecidea luteola (Ach.)
var. conspondens (Nyl.)
var. chlorotica (Ach.)

Corticola.

The latter may be L. chloropheata (Nyl.), as the apothecia are
often conglomerate. —

Lecidea millegrana (‘Tayl.)

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 219

Thallus ambitu nonnihil byssinus. In this respect it approaches
L. subluteola (Nyl.)
Lecidea proposita (Nyl.)

Arthonia hormidiella (Stn.), sp. nov.

Thallus pallidus tenuis hinc inde rimulosus ; apothecia fusca vel
fusco-nigra, innato-sessilia convexula parva (latit. circ. ‘2 mm.)
segregata vel conjuncta vel moniliata et tune linearia flexuosa vel
ramosula, seepe margine thallino circumscisso cincta; sporee (4 —8) nz
incolores dein fusce, oblongee vel fusiformi-oblonge nonnihil
ovoides 3-septate interdum l-septatz et e regione septorum sxpe
constrictule, ‘02—:‘029 x ‘008—:01 mm., epithecium fuscescens ;
hypothecium incolor. Iodo gel. hym. vinose rubens, gel. sub-hym.
ccerulescens. Corticola. Gonidia oblonga mediocria chroolepidea,
Le., extus hirsutula, virescentia.

No other gonidia than those described have been detected, and
they are often seen invading the hymenium. The thallus is
nevertheless crustaceous, and none of the chroolepoid threads can
be detected on the surface by means of a Codington lens. The
spores recall those of some of the Stictz.

Arthonia melanopsis (Stn.), sp. nov.

Thallus fusco-niger rugulosus ; apothecia fusco-nigra vel nigra
(latit. °3-°7 mm.) sessilia vel elevato-sessilia rugosa convexa et
immarginata, sparsa vel sxpius aggregata vel fere conglomerata,
intus obscura; spore (4-—8)nz in thecis ellipticis, incolores
oblongo-ovate, medio spius constrictule, .nebulose murali-
divisze vel (5—8 x 2—3)-loculares, (024—-035 x °009—-013 mm. ;
paraphyses nulle. Jodo protoplasma thecarum juvenilium
vinose rubescens, ea maturatarum vinose rubens, czeteroquin
hymenium non reagens. Corticola.

A very curious lichen, if indeed it is such. The thece are
imbedded in a dark coloured stroma, composed of largish cells
mixed with granules. There is, otherwise, no appearance of a
hymenium, properly so called. At times, indeed, a few large
green coloured gonidia are seen in connection with the apothecia,
and as there is no other lichen visible on the bark, the presump-
tion is they belong to this. This fact, along with the reactions
by Iodine on the thece, which in a young state, especially, have
thick pellucid walls, is in favour of classification with the
Arthonie.

220 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Forsan affinis A. Huegelii (Krph.)

Verrucaria leucanthes (Stn.), sp. nov.

Thallus albus vel albidus tenuis; apothecia tota pallida
prominula mediocria, epithecio minuto poriformi vel papillato ;
spore 8nz uniseriate incolores ellipsoidex, 1-septate, -013—
017 x :0075—-009 mm., paraphyses confertz graciles filiformes.
Iodo protoplasma thecarum rubescens. Corticola.

Owing to the pale colour, it cannot be well determined whether
the perithecium is entire or dimidiate, probably the latter.

GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. oA

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CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

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GLASGOW SOCIETY OF FIELD NATURALISTS. 223

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